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GUL 68.18

OUTLINES

OP THE

VETERINARY ART;

OR,

A TREATISE

ON

THE ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND CURATIVE TREATMENT

OP THE

DISEASES OF THE HORSE,

AND, SUBORDTNATELY, OP THOSE OF

NEAT CATTLE AND SHEEP.

ILLUSTRATED BY SURGICAL AND ANATOMICAL PLATES.

BY

DELABERE BLAINE.

THE FIFTH EDITION,

REVISED THKOUGHOUT; AND CONSIDERABLY IMPROVED AND ENLARGED BY THE
INTRODUCTION OP MANY NEW AND IMPORTANT SUBJECTS, BOTH IN THE
FOREIGN AND BRITISH PRACTICE OF THE ART.

LONDON:

LONGMAN, ORME, AND CO; HAMILTON AND CO.; WHITTAKER AND CO.;
SHERWOOD AND CO.; S. HKiHLEY; DUNCAN AND MALCOLM;
SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO.; H. RENSHAW;
AND J. CHURCHILL.

1841.

t

INTRODUCTION.

IF the animals domesticated by man be essentially necessary to his com-
fort and convenience, no apology need be offered for attempting to reduce
into a system the arts of preserving them in health and of removing their
diseases ; both of which must be founded on an intimate acquaintance with
the structure, functions, and economy of the bodies of these animals : and
which acquirements, therefore, form the groundwork of what is called the
Veterinary Art.

The deplorable state of this art in Great Britain has, until lately, been
animadverted upon by every one who has written on the subject ; the prin-
cipal cause of which appears to have been its total abandonment among per-
sons of proverbial ignorance. The value of the animals in question, and
particularly that of the horse, is a theme that has exercised, in every age,
the pen of thousands ; yet the knowledge of the means of preserving him in
health has long been consigned to the groom, as that of treating his diseases
devolved on the maker of his shoes. The whole study was regarded as
beneath the dignity of a man of education, and the practice as derogatory
to the character of a gentleman.

But, at length, mankind becoming wiser were disposed to receive this
among the liberal arts, and to regard the profession and practice of it as no
longer incompatible with the pretensions of the scholar or the rank of a
gentleman. The establishment of a Veterinary College has tended much to
this; and the subsequent benefits derived from the excellent practitioners
who- have emanated from it, have still further added to the dignity and ac-
knowledged importance of the art. There are, however, persons desirous
to obtain infomation on the subject who cannot apply to this source ; and
there also are others, who, having had its advantaged, still wish a condensed
form to revive in their memories the fleeting images of former instruction.
Among the first are such farriers as are sensible of their own defects, and
anxious to repair them, but who cannot leave their Jmmes : for tliese, the
former writings have few of them been direction-posts to much improvement,
by teacliiiig its principles, but have centered their benefits in their recipes.
'J'oo many of the class called farriers, however, even yet are not willing

A

2 INTRODUCTION.

to be put to the trouble of learning, nor to the mortification of owning that
they need it ; hence they obstinately maintain, that nothing is necessary but
what is already known ; and that theirs is purely a mechanical art, learned
by imitation, and that it even descends in perpetuity from father to son.
We find one of their body boldly combatting against improvement in the
following terms : — ' Whatever may be written by those new-fangled farriers
of the advantages resulting from a minute knowledge of anatomy, nothing
in their practice has proved its utility.' Fortunately, however, for the horse
and his owners, the well-informed part of mankind now think very dif-
ferently ; and are fully aware that to the study of anatomy and physiology
we are indebted for our pi-esent knowledge of his diseases, and our improved
methods of treating them. By our dissections of moi'bid subjects many very
important errors have been detected. We now are aware that the gran-
grenous state of the lungs, which the older farriers attributed to chronic dis-
ease, is the simple effect of active inflammation : and, instead of a stimulat-
ing treatment by cordials as formerly, which almost invariably proved fatal,
we bleed, blister, and nauseate ; and, if timely called in, we usually save
our patient in a disease which heretofore destroyed three-fourths of those it
attacked. The different diseases of the bowels, notwithstanding their ano-
malous symptoms, are likewise illustrated by morbid anatomy; and we have
thereby been enabled to make the important distinction between inflamma-
tory and flatulent colic, and to treat the case according to the distinctions
made between them. It is from the same sources, that we have been taught
also that many colics are the effect of strangulation, intussusception, and
hernial displacements of these organs ; diseases hardly thought of before.
From these, likewise, we now know the disease called molten grease to be
no mechanical melting of the animal fat, but a dysenteric attack on the
mucous surface of the large intestines.

To what but anatomy and physiology do we owe our present acquaintance
with the diseases of the feet ? And if the services we require of the animal
are such as to prevent our conquering the whole of them, we yet have
greatly mitigated his sufferings. In the first place, we now avoid torturing
the shoulders (as heretofore), as the seat of almost all the lamenesses which
occurred ; and, secondly, we are now enabled to relieve him from pain con-
sequent to foot affections by neurotomy. To an acquaintance with the ana-
tomy of the eye it is that we no longer attribute ophthalmia to an enlarge-
ment of the haw : it has also prevented us from cruelly depriving the horse
of a necessary organ, as a mistaken cure for the disease. Have anatomy
and physiology, therefore, taught us nothing?

INTRODUCTION. 3

The subject-matter of the VETERINARY OUTLINES I have divided into
Four Parts. The first of these comprises what may be termed the col-
latei'al branches of the art, as the natural history of the horse — A gene-
ral view of veterinary medicine from its origin to the present time — A short
detail of the proper means to be pursued for the attainment of the art —
A minute examination of the exterior confonnation of the horse — A phi-
losophical and mechanical inquiry into the operations of progression —
A treatise on condition ; and, lastly, we have glanced at the principles and
practice of stable management, with its components, dieting, grooming, and
exercise.

The second division of the Work is occupied by an anatomical descrip-
tion of the several parts of the body, blended throughout with a physiolo-
gical account of the functions and economy of the parts, and of the morbid
states into which they are liable to fall. As an intimate acquaintance wifh
the structure of the extremities is most essential to the veterinarian, they
are described separately, that the practical remarks on them might come
into one point of view. The anatomical part of the Work has been illus-
trated by plates, as I deem them of the greatest possible assistance to the
learner, particularly where he cannot have recourse to the subject itself;
and, as the original drawings were all made by myself from my own dis-
sections, I may venture to answer for their correctness. In the parts repre-
sented, I have endeavoured to form such an arrangement as would prove
most important, either in elucidating the economy of the animal, or, as more
immediately concerned in the practice of the art, might be particularly
brought forward and represented : and throughout the whole detail it has
been less my study to dress its pages in classic attire, than to make it plain
and intelligible to all.

The third division of the Work is allotted wholly to the practical part of
the veterinary art, or to a description of the diseases of the horse, ox, sheep,
and dog, and the curative treatment of them. Fully aware of the value of
a systematic grouping of the diseases of the horse and other domestic ani-
mals, I have attempted a slight, and only a slight, arrangement of them ; for
as some remote parts of the body follow the same laws in structure and
economy, so they are liable to the same diseased affections. The inflam-
mation of mucous membranes produces similar appearances in many re-
spects, whatever part of the body it takes place in. The inflammation of
the cellular membrane, productive of phlegmon and abscess, is alike, whe-
ther it occurs on the cheek or on the buttock ; hence a knowledge of these
diseased affections can be rendered more comprehensive by their being

A 2

4 INTRODUCTION.

classed under one head, than when scattered, as they have hitherto been,
over the different parts affected. This classification forms twenty heads or
classes ; ten of which include the medical part of the art, and ten belong to
the surgical ; after which, the operations that occur in farriery are severally
treated on. It is with pleasure we are able to announce the aids now added
to our practice of medicine from a most excellent Manual of Veterinary
Pharmacy, by Mr. Morton, lecturer on that subject. This addition cannot
fail to assist in systematizing our formulae of agents to be used in the cura-
tive treatment of the ailments of our domestic animals.

The fourth division is dedicated to the Veterinary Materia Medica, or
• the chemical and pharmaceutical nature of drugs ; with the forms and doses
in which they are administered: and, with such important aids as are offered
to our notice in this Manual, we hope to present much instructive matter to
the veterinary student. To the whole is added a copious Index, by which
means subjects otherwise disjointed may be drawn together into one point
of view ; and by the introduction of a copious synonyma, the reader will be
readily enabled to find any subject he wishes under any term that is fami-
liar to him.

PREFACE.

In this fifth edition of the VETERINARY OUTLINES, I have endeavoured
to embody within its pages the various improvements in the art which have
taken place between the past and the present, to render each more worthy
of patronage and support than the other. Hitherto my encouragement
has been considerably greater than I had anticipated. It has indeed be-
come a text book, and been translated into most European languages. Nor
has it been less favourably received at home also, as the number of large
editions it has passed through testify. I have now only to regret, that
the state of the art, at its commencement, rendered the first editions less
worthy of the public, and of myself, than I could have wished. Such, how-
evei-, as it then was, its reception was gratifying, and marked with many
approbatory notices ; from among which the following may be selected : —

' Mr. B had previously published the Anatomy of the Horse, re-pub-

* lished in this Work, in which he professes the parts treated of have been
' most of them taken from his own dissections. So far he has a fair claim
' of originality.' — ' The drawings appear extremely correct ; are executed in

* the most handsome manner ; and the descriptive part is equally entitled to

* praise.' — London Medical Review.

The Medical and Chirurgical Review, after a full and favourable ana-
lysis of the Work, continues : — ' The classification adopted by the author
' will materially assist the student in this branch of medicine, who is too apt
' to be misled by the barbarous and unmeaning jargon adopted, in general,
' in books of farriery.'

' Mr. Blaine, we believe, is the first who has attempted, in the English
< language, a systematic view of the whole, founded upon scientific principles,
' in conformity with the modern discoveries in anatomy and physiology ; and
' with the modem theories, concerning the nature and causes of the different
' morbid changes which the living frame undergoes.' — ' In treating of each

* disease, he giyes a clear and accurate description of its symptoms ; points
' out its causes, states the degree of danger, and usual modes of termination ;
' and subjoins a simple, rational, and scientific plan of cure. What a pleas-

VI PREFACE.

* ing contrast this forms to the miserable productions entitled " Stable Direc-

* tories," " Complete Farriery," &c., every page of which is crammed with

* farragoes, called recipes ; certainly not inert, but often possessing a potency
' of the most dangerous sort !' — ' It appears to us that this Work is the best
' and most scientific system of the veterinary art that has hitherto appeared
' in this country; and we therefore recommend it to all who are desirous of
' acquiring a competent knowledge of the structure and diseases of the horse,

* and other domestic quadrupeds.' — British Critic.

The Moniteur of the 25th July, 1804', contained a very copious review
of this Work by M. Peuchet, the celebrated French Veterinary Professor,
which ended with the following summary : — ' Nous pensons a la maniere

* claire et simple dont I'auteur a traite chaque objet, qu'il a rempli son but;
« que cet ouvrage a le double merite d'etre a la portee de tous de tons les
' genres de lectures ; que les personnes dont la profession est de faire la
' medicine des animaux se priveraient d'un grand secours en negligeant
' de le consulter, et qu'il pent tres utilement servir a ceux qui se livrent a la
'plus importante branche de I'economie rurale, celle de I'education des
' bestiaux.'

This Fifth Edition of the VETERINARY OUTLINES is oflFered with a hojje
that it will be found to contain numerous and important additions. As
extended experience has brought us into acquaintance with many new dis-
eases, I have found it necessary to enlarge the nosological list, and conse-
quently the curative treatment of them also. Many improvements have
likewise been made in veterinary surgery, which have been noted. To
introduce the whole of these, it has been found necessary still further to
abbreviate the less important parts of the anatomical detail. The essential
and more useful subjects have been retained, and often enlarged on ; so
that I feel confident the student will hail the alteration, and gain by the
substitution. The whole has been carefully revised, and its matter has
received that correction throughout which the experience of others and my
own investigations have pointed out as necessary on the various subjects
of the Work.

CONTENTS.

SECTION I.

HISTOKY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

Was first sown in Greece ; next nurtured in Rome — Languished during the dark
ages — Revived in the sixteenth century — Aided by the writings of Vegetius —
The succeeding age still further cultivated it — The eighteenth century marked
by veterinary writings of acknowledged merit, and by the establishment of the
first public school of the art — Its subsequent march may be legibly traced in
the works of the many eminent authors who have since written on it, 5-8.

SECTION II.

HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE IN GREAT BRITAIN.

Our first improvements were coupled with the arts of the menage borrowed from
France and Germany — The early writings on the subject were mostly transla-
tions from the French — Stimulated by the works of SoUysel, towards the mid-
dle of the last century ; Great Britain also began to furnish native writers and
eminent practitioners borrowed from the parent art — History of the Veterinary
College — A short sketch of the more prominent English writers on the sub-
ject from that time to the present, 8-16.

SECTION III.

THE PROPER MEANS OF ATTAINING THE VETERINARY ART.

Persons eligible to become Students of it — A competent knowledge of Anatomy
and Physiology — A conversance with Disease and the Remedies to be employed,
as also a promptness in operative Surgery, are necessary to its acquirement —
These qualifications are at present best gained by a diligent attendance at the
Veterinary College, and by a sedulous attention to the instructions delivered
there — The works of Veterinary Writers of established credit greatly assistant
also to the end, 16-19.

SECTION IV.

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE.

His Zoological Characters, 19— His Origin and Diffusion, 20— His British His-
tory, 21 — His exterior Conformation, 22 — Indications of his Age by his
Teeth, 2Q— Indications of Age in other domestic Animals, 35— Exterior Con-
formation continued, 37— The Colours and Markings of Horses, 48— Variations
in Form applied to the different purposes for which Horses are used, 52.

SECTION V.

THE PACES OF THE HORSE.

The Walk, 57— The Trot, 58— TheGaUop, 61— The Gallop offuU Speed, ib.—
The Hand Gallop, ib. — The Canter, 63 — Leaping, ib.

SECTION VL

THE CONDITION OF HORSES.

The Conventional Term of Condition, its meaning, 63— Morbid Condition, its
causes, 65— Treatment of it, 68— System of getting a Horse into Condi-
tion, 71. ^ 6 &

SECTION vn.

STABLING OF H0R8KS AS CONNECTED WITH HEALTH.

The Stable itself, 72— Summering of Hunters, 76— Box Summering, 77— Food
of Horses, 77— Grooming, 83— Exercise, 86.

VUl

CONTENTS.

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.
SECTION VIII.

OSTEOLOGY.

'^^f. Composition and Parts of Bones, 91-Bones of the SkuU, 93-Of the Face
94-The Fostenor Jaw, 96-Anatomy of the Teeth, ei.-Economy of the
Teeth as Organs of Mastication, 101-Diseases of the Teeth and Irre/ularities
in their Appearance, &c. 102-Bones of the Trunk, 103-The Vertebrae^i -

S'lori; '"'-^7 ' ^T.'^'^" 'f^i' ''-^'^^^ ^'''^'^ Thorax Stt'or
Ribs 106 ; Sternum, zi.-Bones of the Anterior Extremities, 107-Scapula or
Shoulder-blade, zo.-Humerus or Real Arm, 108-Radius and Ulna, or Nomi-
nal Arm Bones, llO-Carpus or Knee, e7».— Metacarpus or Cannon, 112-
Small Metacarpals or Splint Bones, Suffragiiiis or Pastern, Lesser Pastern and
loot Bones, 112, 114— Bones of the Posterior Extremities, 115- The Femur
1' /*-Tr.r^^<^"^ °' Stifle, 116-Tibia or Leg Bone (nomi-
nally the Thigh) with Its Fibula, ib.— Tarsus or Hock Bones, -Mechanical
btructure of this latter assemblage, 118— Metacarpal, Coronary, and Coffin
liones, 1 19— I he Mechanism of the Skeleton considered, ib.

SECTION IX.

SYNDESMOLOGY.

The appendages to Bones as CartUages Articular, Non-articular, Attached and
Unattached 120— Periosteum, Medulla or Marrow, Ligaments, Connecting and
Capsular; Synovia, 122. °

SECTION X.

MYOLOGY.

Muscles, their Structure and Functions, 123— Are Voluntary and Involuntary,
124— Tendons, Aponeuroses, Fascias, Thecas, and Bursae Mucosa; as Ap-
pendages to Muscles, 125.

SECTION XL

BURSALOGY.

Organs of Anti-attrition, as Mucous Capsules and Mucous Sheaths to the Ex-
tensor and Flexor Tendons, 120.

SECTION XIL

ANQIOLOGY.

The Vessels of the Body, 127— Arteries, the Structure and Functions of, ib.—
fhe Pulse, and its various indications, 129— Its mean Pulsations per minute
in Domestic Animals, 129— Its variations in different Animals and under varied
circumstances, 130— Where most conveniently felt in the Horse, \ 31— Where
likewise in other Domestic Animals, zi.— Variations in its Number and Quality
a guide to our judgment in Disease, 132— Distribution of the Arteries, 134—
Anterior Aorta, 1 35— Its Axillary Branch, zi.— Furnishes the Fore Extremity,
136— Carotids, 137— The Posterior Aorta, 138— Distribution to the Trunk
and Hind Extremity, 140— Pulmonary Arteries, ib.

Veins, Structure and Functions of, 141— Divided into Superficial and
Deep-seated, The Anterior Cava, 142— The Posterior Cava, 144— The
Vena Portac, 145.

AnsoRBENTs, Structure and Functions of, generally, 146— The Lacteal
Absorbents, 147— The Lympliatic ditto, /Z».— Physiological detail of the pro-
cess of Lymphatic Absorption, 149.

CONTENTS.

ix.

SECTION XIII.

NEUROLOGY.

The Nervous System, 150 — The Cranial Brain, ib. — The Nervous Trunks gene-
rally, 132 — The Cerebral Nerves, ih. — The Spinal Brain or Spinal Marrow,
153 — Distribution of the Spinal Nerves into Cervical, Dorsal, Lumbar, Crural,
Sacral and Coccygeal branches, 157 — Nerves of the Fore Extremities, 159 —
Of the Hinder Extremities, 160 — Physiology of the Nervous System as exhi-
bited in its Structure, Sympathetic Connexions, and Functional Purposes, 161.

SECTION. XIV.

ADENOLOGY.

The Structure, Functions, and Distribution of the Glands, 165 — Their division
into Folliculose, Globate, Glomerate and Conglomerate Masses, ib.

SECTION XV.

SPLANCHNOLOGY.

Teaches the Knowledge of the Viscera of the Body and its Coverings, 167 — The
Common Integuments, ib. — The Hair, ib. — The Cuticle, Corpus Mucosuni,
and Cutis, 169 — Sense of Touch, 170 — Adipose Membrane and Fat, 171 —
Subcutaneous Muscles, 172 — Panniculus Camosus, 173.

Of the Head Structurally, 173— The Outer Ear, eS.— The Inner Ear, 175—
Sense of Hearing, zS. — The Eye, Anatomy of, 176, 177 — Physiology of Vision,
181— The Nose, 182— Physiology of Smelling, 184— The Cavity ofthe Mouth,
ib. — Its Muscles, Lips, Gums, Bars, Palate, Palatine Arch, and Tongue, 185 —
Physiology of Tasting, 188— The Cavities of the Pharynx and Larynx, ib.—
Functions of Mastication and Deglutition, 191— Glands ofthe Head: the
Parotid, Submaxillary and Sublingual, as Salivary Glands, 193— The Neck,
anatomically considered, 194 — Trachea and Esophagus, 196.

Anatomy of the Chest : Its Pleura:, costal, pulmonic, and mediastinal,
197— The Diaphragm, 198— The Heart: its Auricular and Ventricular Ca-
vities, and Valvular Apparatus ; Physiology of its Agency in the Circulation
of the Blood, 201— The Lungs; Physiology of Respiration, 203— Nature and
Properties of the Blood ; Aeration of It in the Lungs; becomes the source of
Animal He it, 202-211.

Anatomy ofthe Abdomen: Abdominal Regions, 214— The Stomach; Phy-
siology of Digestion, 212-223— The Intestines, 223— The Economy ofthe lu-
testmes in continuing the Digestive Process, 225— The Liver, 226— The Pan-
creas and Spleen, the Renal Capsulps and Kidneys, 229— Anatomy of the
Pelvis, 230— The Bladder, «6.— Physiology of the Urinary Secretion, 231— The
Male Organs of Generation, 233— The Female Organs, 236.

SECTION XVL

KEPRODUCTIVB SYSTEM.

Physiology of the Work of Generation, 239-CE8trum or Heat, Generative
Act, 240— Conception and Pregnancy, Gcstatory Period of the Mare, Parturi-
tion orl'oahng, 245— Lactation or Suckling, 246— Purity of Blood a term of
Lineage ; In-and-in System, or Consanguineous Breeding; the Fcetal Colt and
his Organization; the Foetal Circuhition ; Descent of his Testicles and Evolu-
tion of his Form to the adult Period, 251.

X CONTENTS.

SECTION XVII.

ANATOMY OF THE EXTREMITIJJS.

The Anterior or Fore Limb, Muscles of; Tendinous and LiRamentous Con-
nexions of, 259-The Posterior or Hinder Extremity, Muscles of; Tendinous
and Ligamentous Connexions of-The Foot, Structure and Economy ol- Ex-
ternal Parts— Internal Parts, 259-272. ^

SECTION XVIII.

HYGKOLOGY.

Hjgrology, or the Doctrine of the Fluids of the Body— most of them senarated
from the Blood by a Secreting Process-Specification of tlm Sdudlv
with their Nature and Properties, 272. i"ui>muaiiy.

THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE, Sfc. Sfc.
01 Disease generally, 277.

CLASS L

FEBRILE DISEASES IN QUADKUPBDS.

SimpLe Fever in Horses, 278-DifFused or General Infla.nmation in Horses ''80
-Epidemic Catarrhal Fever in the Horse, 28.5-The Malignant Epidemic
lype,289-Symptomatic Fever, 290-Fevers of Horned Cattle, Wl-Ty-
phoid Fever in Cattle, 295-Puerperal Fever in Cattle, 297-Dit o in Sheep
eA.-Mammit,s, or Inflammation of the Udder in Cows, ^i-Epidemic Catarrh
or Lifluenza in Cattle, 298 and 300-The Cattle Epidemic of late years, S! '

CLASS IL

INIXAMMATION OF ORGANS ESSENTIAL TO LIFE.

Acute Inflammation of the Brain caUed Staggers, 301-Symptomatic Phrenifis
or Secondary Staggers, 305-Pneumonia, or Acute Inflammation of the Lung
309-Pleuntis, or Pleurisy 319-Ditto in Neat Cattle, zh.-la Sheep, S-zl^
Chronic Inflammation of the Lungs, or Tubercular Consumption in the Horse,
nf?ir i °':/"fl^'"°^^t\on of the Heart, 321-Gastritis, or Inflammation

ot the btoinach, ^Z..— Enteritis, or Inflammation of the Peritoneal Coat of the

ooi^"5^'P.^~^^*'''^*'*''*' Inflammation of the Liver, ib.-In Neat Cal-
5r / u or Inflammation of tlie Kidneys, ih.—In Neat Cattle, 329
7 «f ^ ^30-Of the Neck of the Bladder, 'i^\-Cysiitis in

Cattle, 332— Hystentis, or Inflammation of the Womb, ib.—In Cattle, 333—
rentonitis, or Inflammation of the Peritoneum, ib.

CLASS m.

INFLAMMATION OF MUCOUS MEMHRANES AND THEIR SEQUELAE.

Catarrhal Affections generally, 333-Simple Catarrh, or Common Cold, 334-
Aiigina I haryngo-Laryngca, or Sore I'liroat, /^.-Angina Tnulu-alis, and

CONTENTS.

xi

Bronchitis, 335 — Chronic Affections of the Trachea, Bronchiae, and their
Ramifications, ii. — Roaring, zi.— Chronic Cough, 336 — Thick Wind, 338 —
Bronchial Lesion, or Broken Wind, ib. — Symptomatology of these Affections,
or the Methods of distinguishing Unsoundness in the Wind, 340 — Glanders,

341 Farcy, 351 — Dysenteria, or Dysentery, 355 — In Cattle, 356 — In Sheep,

357.

CLASS IV.

DISEASES OF THE BKAIN AND NEKVES.

General Considerations on Morbidity of the Nervous System, 359 — Phrenitis
(see Clu-is 2) — Apoplexia, or Apoplexy, 360— Epilepsy, 361 — Paralysis, or
Palsy, ib. — Kumree, an Indian Spinal Affection, 362 — Paralysis in. Horned
Cattle, 363 — Spasm, ib. — Tetanus, or Locked Jaw, 364 — Spasmodic Colic
(see Class 5)— Stringhalt, 368.

CLASS V.

DISEASES OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL.

Spasmodic Colic, 369 — Colic in Horned Cattle, 372 — Chronic Indigestion, 372
— Acute Indigestion, or Stomach Staggers, 373 — Ditto in Cattle called Hoven,
or Blown, 374 — Lampas, 375 — Intestinal Worms and other Parasitic Ani-
mals, 376 — Parasitic Animals in Cattle, 378 — Costiveness, 379 — Diarrhoea,
ib. — Ditto in Cattle, 381 — Ditto in Calves, 382 Dyspepsia Minor, or Crib-
biting, ib. — Morbid Displacements of the Intestines, 383 — Herniac, ib. — Ingui-
nal the most frequent in the Stallion, ib. — Bubonocele in the Gelding, ib. —
Operations for the Reduction of Strangulated Hernia, 384 — Hernia Congeni-
tal, 386 — Involutions, Strictures, and Invaginations of the Intestines, 387.

CLASS VL

DISEASES OF THE GLANDS.

Hepatitis (see Class 2) — Icterus or Jaundice, 387 — In Oxen and Sheep, 388 —
Splenitis, or Inflammation of the Spleen, ib. — Hematuria in Cattle, 389 — In
Horses, 390 — Diabetes, or Profuse Staling, ib. — Gravel (see Class 9) — Stone
in the Kidneys (see Class 9).

CLASS VIL

MOKBID COLLECTIONS OF FLUIDS WITHIN CIRCUMSCRIBED CAVITIES.

Hydrocephalus Internus, or Dropsy of the Head, 391 — Hydrothorax, or Dropsy
of the Chest, 392 — Operation of Paracentesis Thoracis, or Puncturing the
Thoracic Cavity, 393 — Hydrops Pericardii, or Dropsy of the Pericardium, 394
— Ascites, or Dropsy of the Belly, ib. — Hydrorachitis, or Dropsy of the Spine,
396 — Capsular Dropsy (see Class 15).

CLASS VIU.

DISEASED COLLECTIONS OF FLUID WITHIN THE CELLULAR MEMBRANE.

Anasarca and CEdema, 396 — (Edema of the Extremities, or Swelled Legs, 397

Ecchymosis, or Extravasation of Blood, 399 — Emphysema, or Extravasation
of Air, ib.

CLASS IX.

CALCULAR CONCRETIONS.

Intestinal Calculi, or Stone in the Intcslincn, 400 — In tiic Kidneys, 401 Uri-
nary Bladder, ib.

xil

CONTENTS.

CLASS X.

ANIMAL, VJSGJDTABLE, AND MlNiiRAX, POISONS.

Rabies or Madness in the Horse, 403— Lt Cattle and Swine, 404— The Bites of
Venenious Reptiles, Z^.— Vegetable Poisons, 405— Mineral Poisons ib

Pnnciples and Doctrine of Local Inflammation, 406— Characters oif Local
Inflammation, ei.— Adhesive Process, 407— Suppurative Process, 408-Mor-
tincation, to.

CLASS XL

OF WOUNDS.

Surgical Treatment of geiierally, 410-Particular Wounds, 413-Of the Head,
zb -Or the Neck ^i.-Of the Chest, ei.-Rupture of the Diaphragm, 414-
\J ounds of the Abdomen, ^^».-Wounds of Articular and Bursal Cavities, or
Wounds of the Joints generally, 415-Wound into the Knee Joint particu-
arly 420-Ivnees Brokeii without penetrating the Joint, 423-Wounds of
the Arteries, tb.-Of the Veins, 27;.-Morbid Consequences of Phlebotomy,
io. — Gunshot Wounds, 427.

CLASS XII.

PHLEGMON AND ACUTE ABSCESS.

Acute Abscess, 428— Strangles, 430— Warbles, 433.

CLASS XIII.

CHRONIC ABSCESS AND ULCERATION.

nhealthy Phlegmonous Inflammation generaUy, 433— Ulcerative Process of it
2/*.— Individual Ulcerations: Poll Evil, 434— Fistulous Withers, 437— Sali-
vary Fistulae, 438-Of the Parotid Gland, zi.— Of the Maxillary and Sub-
hngual Glands, 440— Fistulaj in and around the Anus, ib.— In the Pcri-
nasum, 441.

CLASS XIV.

INFLAMMATORY TUMOURS WITHOUT ULCERATION.

Membranous and Ligamentary Injuries caUed Strains or Sprains, considered
generally, 442 — Scapulo-hunieral or Shoulder Strain, 444 — Extension or
Strain of the Flexor Tendons, or their Ligamentous Connexions, 446—
Overreach or Foot-stroke, on them, 447— Rupture of the Suspensory Liga-
ments, 448— Rupture of the Flexor Tendon or Back Sinew, Rupture of
the Extensor Tendons, zi.— Strain of the Fetlock Joint, 449— Of the Coffin
Joint, 26.— Sprain of the Ligaments of the Head of the Femur or Round-
bone, 450 -Of the Patellae or Stifle, ib.— Of the Ligaments of the Hock or
Curb, Contusions or Bruises, 451— Rheumatism Acute and Chronic, ib.
—In Cattle, 453.

Sub- Class,
indurated tumours.
Polypus, 453— Sitfast, 454— Warts, zi.— Indurated Elbow-Point, ib.

CLASS XV.

ENCYSTED TUMOURS.

Aneurism, 454— Varix, or Blood Spavin, /i.— Bursal Disease, or Windgalls, 455
—Distended Bursac, called Bog Si)avin, 456— Or Thorough-Pin, ib.—Ov

CONTENTS.

XIU

Capulet or Capped Hock, 456— Or Capped Elbow, 457— Bursal Enlargements
of the Knee, ih.

CLASS XVI.

FRACTUR13S AND DISLOCATIONS.

Considerations of these Injuries generally, 457 — Particular Fractures: of t lie
Skull, 458— Of the Zygomatic Arch, 459— Of the Jaw Bones, ih. — Of the
Nasal Bones, 460— Of the Ribs, /&.— Of the Vertebrje, 461— Fractured Bones
of the Extremities, ih. — Of the Scapula, ih. — Of the Humerus, 462 — Of the
Cubitus, ih.—0{ the Femur, ib.—Ot the Tibia, ih.— Of the Olecranon, 463

Of the Metacarpus and Metatarsus, or Cannon before and behind, ih. — Of

the Pastern Bones, 464— Of the Coronary Bone, ib.—Oi the Coffin Bone, 465
—Of the Navicular Bone, ih. — Of the Ileum, ih.— Of the Patella, ih. — Dislo-
cations, 466 — Patella or Stifle Bone, ih.

CLASS XVII.

DISEASES OF THE BONES.

Caries of Bones, commences by Inflammation, 467 — Exfoliation follows, ib. —
Exostosis is sometimes employed to reproduce it, ib. — Particular Exostoses :
Splint, 469 — ^Spavin, 471 — Different Practices pursued in the Treatment of
it, 475 — Curb, 476 — Ringbone, ib, — Exostosis of the Coffin and Navicular
Bones, ih. — Anchylosis, 477.

CLASS XVIII.

DISEASES OF THE EYE.

Simple or Common Ophthalmia, or Inflammation of the Eye, 477 — Specific or
Periodical Ophthalmia, 479 — Cataract, 487 — Amaurosis, or Gutta Serena, ib.
— Filaria, or Worm in the Eye, 488 — jSxcrescences, &c. on the Eyes, 489.

CLASS XIX.

DISEASES OP THE SKIN.

Crease, 489 — Swelled Legs, with Discharge, 494 — Virulent Grease, 496 — Mal-
lenders and Sallenders, 497 — Warts, 498 — Mange, ih. — Hidebound, 501.

CLASS XX.

DISEASES OF THE FEET.

Founder or Inflammation of the Feet, 501 — Acute Founder, ih. — Clu-onic
Founder, 505— Morbid Contraction of the Feet, 506 — Causes of it, ih. — Tiie
Shoeing of Horses as a Cause, a Prevention and Remedy for Contraction, 508
— The Seated Shoe, Description of, 511 — Preparation of the Foot for it, 512
— Colt Shoeing, 513 — A Glance at the different Methods of Shoeing, 514 —
Treatment of Contraction, 516— Expanding Process, 518— The Pumiced Foot,
522 — Navicular Disease known as Groggy Lameness, 524 — Corns, 525 —
Thrush, 527— Sandcrack, 529— Nail Pricked Foot, 532— Tiead or Overreach,
534— Quittor, ti.— Treatment of it, 536— Canker, 539— False Quarter, 542.

CONTENTS,

OPERATIONS IN VETERINARY SURGERY.

Obstetncs, or the necIlS;;' ^siTtSr^rfndt'^^^^^^^^^

thod Sr^i '^^-^^ Cauteriration, SlVhe

thod, 553— By Ligature, &c. 554— Lithotomy, 555— Tracheotomy %^fi1^r

phago omy, 557-Neurotomy, 558-Mode^of operating it 564-Dlvi^^^^^^^

fer-Of'tL T -r^' 566-Am?utatioLr^i -Of t^e Penis
572ZrI tPr- f- ' li?.'^^'"?' 568-Amputation of the Ears, or CroppW
579 SeTnn J 7 Jr"?' Vesication, or Blistering, 577-RoweU nf '

PhlTotor'58r?h^ ''V^' ^^--^y the Veinr«r'

Sgati^e?585 sTs rft^^^^^^^^ V'Tn^' ^^^-^he Uses and Abused of

uigduves, JS5-588— Cathartic Formulae, 590— Diuretics, 592.

39a vt tl)c ffoiivtff.

THE VETERINARY MATEBIA MEDICA 597-632.

DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.

Plate I to face page 91

II 29

III 193

IV 197

V '. 223

VI 251

VII 254

VIII 259

IX 265

T H E

OUTLINES

OF

VETERINARY

ART.

SECT. I.

HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

MAN, ever ready to improve surrounding objects to his advantage, would
not be long without subjecting to his use such animals as his reason led him
to suppose would prove most useful, or his experience had proved were the
most tractable. It would appear that the Ass was first subjugated to the
use of inan ; nor was it until, as we learn from Genesis, chap, xlvii, that, with
the herds of asses, Horses also were sent to Pharaoh, which Sir Isaac Newton
computes to have been 1034 years before Christ, about which time also the
renowned Erictheusa ppears to have been employed in taming and breaking
the horse to the use of man. But animals, when domesticated and removed
from a state of nature, could not long continue in perfect health ; and hence
their owners were led to search for such remedies as their small stock of
information pointed out: thus veterinary medicine must, in some degree,
have been coeval with the domestication of the animals in question. The
early practice of it was, however, without doubt, mingled with their general
management, and what little was known existed in common among those
professing the arts of rural economy. When the early Egyptians had trained
the horse to the purposes of war, his health may be supposed to have become
an objecjt of much solicitude ; and his diseases were probably either attended
to by select individuals, or were otherwise pursued by the professors of hu-
man medicine of those days. From the Egyptians the Grecians received
the knowledge of the management of the horse ; and with them we know it
flourished. Chiron, sumamed the Centaur, pursued both human and brute
medicine. Homer, who flourished nine hundred years before Christ, cele-
brates the training of the horse in the Greek courses ; and Xenophon, their
most renowned warrior, poet, and philosopher, wrote a treatise on equitation
f De Re Equestri), which contains ample proof how much the study of the
treatment of this valuable animal was in repute among the most distin-
goiished characters of his day. Hippocrates, also, the most celebrated phy-
sician of early times, wrote a treatise on the curative treatment of horses ;
nor did he disdain, in common with the eminent human practitioners of those
times, to practise indiscriminately on the horse and his rider. ' On pent
aussi remarquer que ces deux m^decines des hommes & des brutes, etoient
autrefois exercees par une meme personno ; Apsyrtus nommc souvent un
medecin de chevaux, & quelquefois siniplcmcnt uu niedecin. Ansi, an com-
mencement du 1 livre, il y a pour inscription, Apsyrtus a Ihppocniios,
medecin de chevaux, salut ; & au chap. 22, Apsyrtus a sccuudus, incdeciu

6 HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

de chevaux salut ; au chap. 42, Apsyrtus a StatiUus Stephanus, medecin
salut ; & au chap. 69, Apsyrtus a Hegesugoras, tres bon medecin, salut.
Tous ces hommes la, pratiquant la medecine sur les chevaux, consultoient
Apsyrtus touchant leurs maladies les plus importantes.' — Diet. dHippia-
trique, torn, ii, p. 411.

When Rome had snatched from Greece her honours and her arts, the
horse became an object of attention ; and a host of Latin authors on sub-
jects connected with him sprung up, whose very names would swell our pages.
As a rustic writer. Columella deserves our mention ; the rest we pass over
to the time of Vegetius, the veterinary Hippocrates, who flourished about
300 years after the birth of Christ, and whose writings concentrated within
themselves all that had been collected by former veterinary authors of the
commonwealth. A long night of darkness succeeded the irruptions of the
barbarous nations, and foraied a melancholy break in the page of civilized
man. During this time, however, iron shoes, before but partially tried, be-
came more generally used ; and by an association only to be excused by the
state of the times, the treatment of the diseases of the horse became the
province of the maker of his shoes ; and the medical assistance required for
other beasts was gained from goatherds, shepherds, &c.

The ancient and honourable name of Veterinarius (whence veterina-
rian*), sanctioned by the classics of the Augustan age, became lost in the
more humble appellative oi farrier, derived solely from the metal on which
he worked ; and for a long period (happily now on the decline) the igno-
rance of the shoer and the meanness of his title remained indissolublef .

* Mr. Bracy Clark appears to consider the Latin word veterinarius as one of ' doubt-
ful etymology' (Farrier and Naturalist, No. 1) ; and it is certain that it has been the
subject of much discussion : nevertheless, we think that the knomi taste and learning of
the great Roman authorities by which it was used, are sufficient vouchers for the critical
propriety of its adoption. The French, from whom we borrowed it, appear to have been
always satisfied with its general correctness ; but they were somewhat divided about the
extent of its application. The more precise use Veterinaire for the science of animal
medicine in general, and Hippiatre for that which treats of horses only : ' Hippiatre, mi-
decin dii cheval; d'ippos, cheval, iatros, midecin.' Diet. d'Hippiatrique. — The curious on
this subject may consult with advantage M. Huzard's Notice sur les mots Hippiatre, Ve-
terinaire, et Marechal.—ILvxirel d'Arboval attempts to illuminate us on the same by the
following :— ' Hippiatrique. Medecine du cheval. Les Grecs comprenaient implicite-
ment, dans les mot iatrique, la medecine g6n6rale, et dans celui d'iatre, le m6decin.
Ansi la m6decine des animaux n'avait pas de nom particulier chez eux. II est pr6-
sumable que celle des chevaux fut pratiqu6e par cette nation beaucoup plus que celle des
autres animaux A I'usage de I'homme, et qu'elle fut la seule qui eut le nom special d'liip-
piatrique ; de 14 le nom d'hippiatre, donnfi k celui qui exergait I'hippiatrique. De nos
jours nous avons vu, pendant tres long-temps, la meddcine du cheval constituer a elle
seule toute la m^d6cine V(5t6rinaire.'— ' V6tdrinaire le nom derive de veterina, dont a
faire viieritiaria et veterinarius, termes que les Romains employaient souvent, le premier
A designer la medecine des betes de somme ; le second celui qui la pratiquait ; quelque-
fois ces deux expressions 6taient accompagn^es des epithfetes mcdicina et mediciis. — De-
puis les temps modernes, le mot veterinaire est generalement admis en France et dans
une grande partie de I'Europe; il est des deux genres et a une double acceptation ; il
signifie egalement la m6decine et le medecin des animaux. Comme, en Francais, c'est
Particle qui indique le genre, on doit dire la vitirinaire pour le miidecine des animaux, et
le veterinaire pour le medecin des animaux. On prend aussi le mot de veterinaire ad-
jectivement, comme plusieurs autres termes de notre langue, et Ton dit indistinctenient
la m«;d6cine ou I'art v^tfirinaire.'

f Mnreclial, MarechaUerie. On appelle marechal Partisan forge les fers pour les
pieds des chevaux, et qui ferre ces animaux. Le mot marechal, dont nous avons fait
marechallcrie, derive de marescalus, qui n'est point Latin, mais Celte ou Gaulois Latinis<5 ;
il dferive du mot Ccltique niarc'h, mark ou marh (cheval), et celui de schalk, qui signilie
servitcur. — Diet. Med. ei Chirurg. Viterinaircs.

HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. 7
The sixteenth century, famed for the revival of learning and its encou-
ragement of the arts, fostered also the subject of our present discourse :
among its patrons may be noted Francis the First, who ordered the Con-
stantino collection to be translated from the original Greek into Latin; from
which it was soon afterwards rendered into Italian, German, and French,
and thence became dispersed over Europe. About the same time, the works
of Vegetius were translated into the popular European languages ; and
from this period we may date the gradual improvement of the art, evinced
by the numerous writers who followed.

During the seventeenth century, the veterinary art continued to advance,
and numerous publications on the subject were elicited from various hands ;
among which we may notice Caesar Fiarchi's Italian treatise on horseman-
ship, in which is introduced the most rational mode of shoeing then prac-
tised. Neither should we omit to mention the Infermita, ^ suos remedii,
del Signor Carlo Ruini, published in Venice, 1618 ; from which Snape,
Gibson, and most of the early French authors, have copied their anatomical
plates. In 1654, the Grand Mare schal Francoii, a meritorious work, said
to be composed by many hands, appeared. In the latter end of this cen-
tury, the art received a very great addition from the elaborate work of
SoUysel, whose attention was drawn to the subject from his situation as
manege or riding master ; and as the practices of this school were at this
time in great repute, it followed that the treatment of the diseases of horses
became very much confined to the professors in this art. It will not, there-
fore, excite our wonder that almost all the treatises on veterinary medicine
of this time are found united with systematic equitation ; and although, as
regards Sollysel, the cause was not injured, but the contrary, yet generally
it may be considered, that to this union of arts, as practised by persons not
medically educated, we may attribute the small progress made by veterinary
medicine during this period, compared with the advance of human medicine
at the same time.

The eighteenth century produced numerous writers on the subject, and
was destined to witness important improvements in the art. My notice of
the works which appeared will be little more than nominal, and will embrace
those only which have operated the most in beneficial influence on it. In
1733, Garsault translated Snape into French ; and, about the same time. La
Guiriniere's Ecole de Cavalrie appeared, which contained much on the dis-
eases of horses. In 1746, Garsault published his Nouveau par fait Ma-
reschal; and, with small intervals between, the Amphitheatrum Zooticum
of Valenti, the Parfait Mareschal of De Saunier, and the Zooticum Demo-
crifoea, made their appearance. In 1761, France set the notable example
of establishing, under royal patronage, a public veterinary seminary at Lyons,
having the celebrated Bourgelat for its professor : his medical and anato-
mical works were numerous, and are well known. In 1766, a second public
school was opened at Alfort, near Charenton, in the neighbourhood of Paris,
and others subsequently at Strasburgh and Montpellier : establishments of
the same kind have likewise since been organized in almost every European
country, as Vienna, Berlin, Copenhagen, Dresden, Leipsic, Prague, Munich,
London, Hanover, Naples, &c. &c. In Russia, also, a veterinary school has
been founded, over which I was invited to preside.

As a cotemporary with Bourgelat lived the elder La Fosse, a name that
will ever be respected in the annals of veterinary medicine. La Fosse
made numerous improvements and discoveries, which he usually comniuni-

8 HISTORY OF VETERINARY MKDICINE.

cated in the form of memoirs to the Royal Acadpmv nf J - • t. .
In 175^, he had collected these into one volume 2eh i '"''V;' ^
lated into other languages, and diffused over Spe ' ^""'^'^

had"hel5'(^hat\?f:::L father
Guide d^Marechal, a work weUWnln c^^^^^^^
aware that it has ever been translated into English the' anato^^i/nl T
concise, and accompanied with some eood nlatef Rnf V ^"^^^^^^'^.^l P^-^t
tion was the Co. J ^^^....w.r/a^l t:^.^^:^:!^
mical plates, coloured after nature, with corresponding desSons in ktSr"

wascertainlythebestpracticalsystiSL^^^^^^^^^^^^

equal to the plan on which it was mtended to be formed, the work would

of luthoT ^V^r'"'"* ' P"°"I-^ --it cons sts n an LTs^^

minon^ There was also pubhshed in Spain, about this time, a very volu
mmous work on vetermary medicine, in nine volumes ; but of which I knot
no particulars. The French revolution for some tim; disturbld he coursi
of veterinary improvement; but the calm which succeeded employed the
ta ents of many emment veterinarians ; and the names of Chabertf p andri^.
Gilbert Vicq-D Azyr, and Hazard, stand conspicuous on this list Amoni

Seline'^Su?' '^T -^^ Rational Dictionary of

Medicine, Surgery, and Farriery, m 6 vol. anon. ; A Veterinary Dictionary

l,fb" v. P ^^^"^^ by Chaberl, as weH Ys

another on the Peripneumonia of Black Cattle. A work called Instruct ons
and Observations on Domestic Animals, with an analysis orprevioS authors
was the joint produce of Chabert, Flandrin, and Huzard.^ Thrsame ' en
tlemen also united in producing a Veterinary Almanack. Chabert Cd

From fh ""'^ P"bl''hed a Treatise on Glanders.

From th.s time to the present, the writings on the veterinary art have be-
come numerous in every country, but more particularly in France, and it
follows tbat ™ the y '

quoted as Hurtrel D'Arboval, Dupuy, also with Huzard (father and Ion)!
1 ; "'"^b °" tl^e anatomy of the horse, and his

ItXtiS^D^b'^l of the Alfort school, ke inquirer ;:y also
wo - <r f 1 D Arbovals Veterinary Dictionary with advantage. The

7ih f p' y'''''TlT\ be met with in thf French

I^ibraries of Pans and of London also.

SECT. II.

A CONCISE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE IN GREAT BRITAIN.

The healing art, as applied to a curative treatment of the diseases of our
domestic animals, ws, with us, even longer buried in gross ignorance than
with our French and German neighbours ; and when,\t length, emulation
had excited us, our eariy attempts were more the effects of an imitation of
our French and German neighbours, than native improvements of our own.
It, however, worked a favourable change among us, when manege riding
became prevalent ; for although the medical treatment of horses particu-
larly, had not yet emerged from the hands of those immediately coiiiiected

HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 9

with the persons of the animals, yet, as the teachers of equitation were much
more enlightened than either blacksmiths or grooms, the medical practice
required necessarily became conducted on better principles. The manege
gave place, towards the close of the seventeenth century, to horse-racing
and hunting, which again threw the care of the health of the horse back to
the currier of his hide and the shoer of his heels ; and this aera witnessed
only feeble and occasional efforts to rescue the valuable art of curing his
diseases from ignorance and barbarity.

Blundeville, who lived in the reign of Elizabeth, appears to have been
one of our earliest veterinary writers. His work, which was chiefly a com-
pilation from ancient authors (of which he translated several into English),
was fettered with his attachment to the manege. Subsequent to him ap-
peared Mascal, Martin, Clifford, and Burdon. About this time also lived
the celebrated Gervase Markhara, whose Treatise on Farriery, though empi-
rical and absurd, went through numerous editions, and became the guide
of the practitioners of that time. The reign of James the First produced
little original writing, but several translations from the Italian, Gei'mau,
and French. In the time of Charles the Second appeared The Anatomical
Treatise on the Horse, by Snape, farrier to his Majesty. The plates are
copies from Ruini and Saunier. His descriptions are likewise taken from
these authors ; and where he deviated from them, he made the human body
his guide. About this time, an epidemic contagion raging among the black
cattle of this country, produced many publications on the subject ; one of
which, by a Dr. Layard, was highly spoken of. In the reign of George I,
SoUysel's celebrated work was translated by Sir William Hope, from the
French, which tended to combat many of the errors at that time prevalent.
About the middle of the last century, the art experienced still further im-
provement by the labours of Mr. Gibson, who was originally a surgeon to
a regiment of cavalry ; from which situation it is probable he was first led
to turn his attention to the diseases of the horse, and by which he was, at
length, enabled to present the best treatise on farriery that had appeared in
the English language. It is said, he afterwards lived in Duke Street, Gros-
venor Square, where he practised with great reputation. He appears to
have written several books ; but his principal work is that before alluded to,
which was published in quarto, with anatomical plates copied from Snape or
Ruini, and called The Farrier's Guide : but, though his anatomy was
incorrect, and the functions and economy of the organs almost overlooked,
yet his treatment of diseases was generally judicious, and his accoxmt of
symptoms accurate and interesting ; and, as he was guided mostly by his
own observation, so he became the best writer and practitioner of his day.

Asa contemporary with him, lived the celebrated and eccentric physician
Dr. Bracken, a man of considerable erudition, a sportsman, and a wit of
a peculiar cast : his works have been as much admired and read for the
peculiar style in which they are written, as for the real information they
contain.

Bartlet, who was a successor to the two former, was likewise a surgeon :
he formed himself on the model of Gibson and Bracken, and he gave the
sura of their treatment in a much more compendious and practical fonn.
He likewise benefitted the art, by translating La Fosse's improvements and
discoveries : but Bartlet is to be noticed principally as a copyist and compi-
lator, for he brought forward little of his own, except a cruel and absurd
alteration in the mode of nicking.

10 THE HISTORY OF THE VETERINARY COLLEGE.

To him succeeded Osmer, who was also initi-^tcA o u
afterwards practised as a vetWinarian in f^lt ^"^
(he Lamenesses of Horses, with an improved mode of shoeing Treat^e on
servedly esteemed, and his practice wL adop^d vdth 10^^:1 W 1

method, and pointed out the excellence of his mode of treatiL the feet at
the same time shewmg that the short shoe was inadeauate to T '
and protection of the foot in the present improved a„dt^^
roads The practical part of this treatise on lamenesses is likewise excenont
and will hand his name down as one of the early contributors To the s^u^^^^^^^^^^^
VA u ""'t' 7^'. ^^"^^"^^"^^ the veterinary horizon was ClaX 5
Edinburgh, the king's farrier for Scotland, whole excellenrrrSo.
Shoemg and the D^eases of the Feet was afterwards followed Tone on
Prevention of the p^seases of the ^or.. generally ; these succeeded
the able dissections and engravings of the Myology of the Horse, by Mi
S ubbs, the professional horse painter, who, to high excellence ii hil ar '
added a very considerable knowledge of the general anatomj of the animS!

THE HISTORY OF THE VETERINAKY COLLEGE.

The period of the establishment of a National School will ever remain a
memorable epoch to the veterinary amateur, as being that from whirthe
pnncipa improvements in his art are to be dated. Charies Vial de St. Bel
fi St published proposals for founding a veterinary school in the year 1788
but the plan meeting with no support, he returned to France. This gentle-
man was professionally educated at the Royal Veterinary College of Lyons
and, as we are told, afterwards became junior assistant at Alfoil In 1790
he made a second visit to England, which proved more successful ; for, on
again renewing his proposals, they were noticed by the Agricultural Society
of Odiham, in Hampshire, the members of which, convinced of the utS
of uch a measure, proposed to form an institution, called The VeterinaZ
College of London, and to appoint St. Bel to the professorship ; the wS
of this account being engaged as his assistant. It was in Februar; 179rtha
the first oi-ganized meeting of the supporters of the society took place at the
Blenheim Coffee House, Bond Street, at which time many new subscribers
enrolled themselves His Gi-ace the Duke of Northumberland condescended
to become the president ; and such was the general opinion of the import-
nZlf T T ^''^'^ vice-pfesidents and directors

f d tit A r distinguished characters for rank

and alent. A house was next taken for the purposes in view at Pancras.
Pupils were received to board with the professor ; and the writer of these
pages was also located there as translator and anatomical demonstrator. To
me It has however, been a matter of surprise that the concern succeeded to
«ie extent it did; so totally madequate to such an undertaking was St. Bel.
That he was enterprising and ingenious no one will deny ; he was also indefa-
tigable m promoting the interest of the establishment, which indeed involved
all his future prospects ; but that by his knowledge of the anatomy, physio-
logy, and pathology of the horse he was fitted to become the veterinarypro-
fessor, no one of those who most strongly supported him can believe. His
writings and his practice bear me out in this opinion ; aud his election to
the chair could have alone arisen from a wish that such a school might be
established ; and it could only have occurred because no other person then

THE HISTORY OF THE VETERINARY COLLEGE. 11
in the kin«^doni was better able to undertake its management, that his ex-
amination, which took place in 1792, by the most eminent medical men of
the day, was passed over as satisfactory. Nevertheless, St. Bel was pos-
sessed of such good natural abilities, and had the welfare of the institution
so much at heart, that I make no doubt his deficiencies, had he lived, might
have been in a great measure made up by application.

In March 1792, it was resolved, that a temporary stabling for fifty horses,
and a forge for shoeing, should be built near the house taken for the col-
lege ; but° which the Professor was hardly peraiitted to witness, for he was
attacked with an illness in August 1793, which proved fatal in about a
fortnight.

St. Bel's works were, an Essay on the Geometrical Proportions of
Eclipse; Lectures on the Elements of Farriery; the Art of Horse Shoe-
ing, and Diseases of the Feet; and a volume of Posthumous Works, col-
lected for the benefit of Mad. St. Bel. The treatise on the Geometrical
Proportions of Eclipse, which gained its author many admirers, owed, much
to the embeUished style of the accompHshed Mr. Penn : the subject matter
itself may be seen, with little alteration, in the first volume of Bourgelat's
Elemens dC Hippiatrique, published at Lyons in 1750. Nor can his Lec-
tures on the Elements of Farriery claim any greater originaHty, they being
mostly servile copies of La Fosse's writings.

On the death of St. Bel, the public attention was of course engaged in
considering on whom the vacant professorship would devolve : some eyes
were directed to myself; many more to Mr. Clarke, of Edinburgh, who,
however, refused it. Mr. Morecroft, then in practice as a veterinary sur-
geon, was unquestionably the most eligible person, Mr. M. was originally
a student of human medicine ; but he had lately studied veterinary medicine
in the French schools, and was considered to possess extensive information
on the subject. Mr. Coleman, a medical pupil of the Borough hospitals,
who had much distinguished himself by some physiological inquiries, and by
some experiments on the diseases of the eyes of the horse, was brought for-
ward likewise, although his designs had never, I believe, reached further than
this, nor had his attention at that time ever been engaged beyond that point.
The fitness of Mr. Morecroft was, however, so nicely balanced by the in-
terest of Mr. Coleman, that it was determined to imite them in the profes-
sorship ; and, with the practical knowledge of the one, and the investigations
of the other, every thing was to be hoped from the association. Unfortu-
nately for the institution, Mr. Morecroft, finding that he had quitted a pro-
fitable concern for one which held out little prospect of gain, soon seceded ;
and Mr. Coleman, who now applied himself to fill up by his own talents the
loss of his colleague, was appointed sole professor. The general establish-
ment, also, at this time received some important alterations ; in proof, a
theatre for the delivery of lectures, with a dissecting room and museum, were
erected. A medical committee of assistance was also appointed, consisting of
the most distinguished medical practitioners in London, by whom the pupils
were to be examined, and, if found to have acquired a sufficient knowledge
of the art, certificates were to be granted them. Pupils were now admitted
to the practice of the institution, which, from the erection of a very exten-
sive infirmary, and the encouragement it had received from the subscribers,
had become a considerable field of medical practice.

A regular course of lectures was delivered throughout the season ; and
private dissections were also carried on, in which the pupils had the benefit

12 THE HIST0R5r OF THE VETERINARY COLLEGE,

ot the instruction of the professor or his assistnnf« Ti.. i .
recc ved for twenty gui,, paid by LT^ U„ I r:„i^^^^^^
should not be omitted in this place to' note, hat. by th7libeSr;f ,h„? "

remember with gratitude hoi ^th th^'w^Sebtld tThTT'
ous promotion of this establishment. tL countrfat i" ff^f f ' f"';

.t as a rising plant ; in proof of whieh, the BAtii^r^SSZ^'a^^^t
a sum for I S support : and, as an inducement to young men of educatL a^d
respectability to become students, George the Third irrampd i ,

Assistant Professor; and, subsequently Mr! V^es^ndMr Zr^^^^^^
been added to the list of active and use£l assistants. "

Mr Coleman s professional works, after succeeding to the college chair
were first, a pamphbt On theFormaHon and Uses of the Na^rlFr^Tlf
the Horse with a Description of a Patent ArtificL Frog. Thf irinJ-
ples on which this invention was founded was the necessity of extended pre
sure to the well-being of the foot ; but the appHcation of [he inft umenrwas"
found too inconvenient for general adoption! Mr. Coleman's second vete
nnary publication, whether we consider'the importance of the surect the"
ability displayed in the anatomical execution of it, or the splendid r^anner
m which It was got up reflected the greatest credit on him. It was Sled
Observations on the Structure, Economy, and Diseases of the FooTo f Te
Horse and on the Principles and Practice of Shoeing, in 2 vols qfr o
(See Shoeing, among the Operations.) It was likewS proposed That a
volume of Transactions should be pubHshed annually, the fi^rst of wh cl'
appeared in 180 , and was entitled « Observations on Wounds of Cira^.

tTe alor'""h \' If' '^^^ '^"^ ^^P^^*^'^ know/taientrof
the author, much valuable matter was contained in it; but. unfortunately,
the annual volume was not continued. tuuateiy.

As every thing human is imperfect, so there is no reason to doubt that
this establishment has its errors and defects also. But in allowing thil, we
must also admit that it has conferred incalculable benefits on the counirv
the proofs of which shme around us in the practice and writings of the
many eminent vetermarians who have emanated from it. One consumma
tion devoutly wished for has at length been obtained; which is, that the
teaching and the practice of the college should be extended also to the ana-
tomy, physiology, and pathology of the ox, the sheep, and the dog, as it is
in the continental colleges. In the outset, we think it was prudent to con-
hne the early attempts to the horse alone ; and we are also well aware that
even now, local difliculties exist to the desired end, which nothing but time'
perseverance, and adequate public support, can overcome : yet we do feel
assured that the importance of the subject, to the country at large, will in
the end, bring about this desired addition ; and then, and then only, the
veterinarian will shine in the full attributes of his comprehensive name.

I shall now retrace my steps, and give, in succession, a short account of
the principal veterinary authors who have appeared since a regular sciiool

THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY AUTHORS. 13

was founded among us. In 1790, Mr. Prosser, a surgeon, published a
Treatise on the Strangles and Fevers of Horses, which contained some
judicious remarks on other writers, but offered little original matter. The
year 1796 produced an elegant quarto from the pen of S. Freeman, Esq.,
an amateur of the arts of the manege, The Description of the Structure
and Economy of the Foot, which was accompanied with a set of highly-
finished engravings, by Skelton, of dissections made under the inspection of
Sir Everard Home. That well-known and voluminous writer, Mr. John
Lawrence, about the same time commenced his career in a small collection
of extracts from St. Bel, Osmer, Clarke, and Lord Pembroke, and 1798
brought out his Philosophical and Practical Treatise on Horses. That
portion of his work which embraced the general treatment of the horse was
judicious and interesting; but the parts dedicated to the description and cure
of his diseases, we think, were of the old school. Since that time, however,
Mr. L. has become a voluminous and useful writer, on subjects connected
with animals ; and in him the rights of brutes have met with a powerful
advocate.

In 1800, Mr. Morecroft published a small pamphlet, entitled a Cursory
Account of the various Methods of Shoeing Horses, with incidental Ob-
servations. The mode of shoeing recommended by this well-known and
highly respected author will- be noticed in the course of the work.

In 1801, Mr. White, a veterinary practitioner, of Exeter, gave to the
public a small Vade Mecum of Farriery. Such was the beginning of an
extensive work now comprised in four octavo volumes. It is to be regretted
that this work is so immethodical that half of its value is hidden or lost.
Subjects that ought to be brought into one point of view are scattered
through the various volumes in detached parts, and, at last, are finished in
an appendix. The diseases of oxen, sheep, and dogs, as treated on by
Mr. W., have not, in our opinion, increased his reputation : what he gave
on these subjects were principally compilations ; for, we believe, he was
little engaged in any but horse practice. In his fourth volume, some addi-
tional remarks on hydrophobia appeared in the appendix, extracted from
the pamphlet of Mr. Oilman. Mr. W., I make no doubt, was totally un-
aware from what source Mr. G. was enabled to give that minute account
with which he favoured the public ; but whoever will be at the trouble of
comparing it with the description of rabies published by me in the fourth
edition of the ' Domestic Treatise on Horses and Dogs,' three years before,
will readily detect the source so glaringly and uncandidly drawn from.

The year 1801, likewise, produced a work of much merit from the pen
and pencil of Mr. Richard Lawrence, of Birmingham, veterinary surgeon.
It is much to be regretted, that, with such talents, he should pass over his
subjects in so light and cursory a manner. The plates are elegant, and
extremely well designed, particularly those that regard the proportions and
paces of the horse ; the portions dedicated to the internal structure and dis-
eases are not quite so happy, but were sufficient to give a promise of future
excellence, which we regret was never fulfilled. The work has been since
re-edited, and published in an octavo volume, with some slight additions.

About this time, also, appeared Mr. Downing's Description and Treat-
ment of the Diseases of Cattle, much of which is borrowed from Topham.
This work is in considerable repute among farmers, graziers, and some far-
riers, and may be regarded as a pretty faithful, though melancholy, picture
of this part of the veterinary art, as practised among the farriers of the old

14 THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY AUTHORS,

school and the oowleeches of the present time. 1803, also', produced a
large quarto volume by Mr. John Feron, veterinary surgeon to the 1 3th
dragoons, entitled A New System of Farriery, Ac. &c - and about thp
"'Zn^^J' ""^'^"^'^ Veterinar/patholo/;Zs ptbllshTd ' '
1805.— This year brought forth the Veferinart, Dictionary of Mr
Thomas Boardman V.S. to the third regiment of dragoons, price £3 3s
1 his expensive and large work is a compilation from all the modem writers*
and, if our author had made his selection with as much judgment as indus-
try. It might have been considered as a very meritorious production As it
IS, It may prove an useful reference; particularly as it gives facsimiles of
most of the plates contamed m the various works of merit that have an-
peared. Mr John Lawrence gave also, this year, a very useful General
Treatise on Cattle, which was followed in the next season by the verv in
ferior produc^ons of Mr. Francis Clater's Every Man his own Farrier
and Every Man his own Cattle Doctor: and, with no better instructions
than these, it would be quite as well that every man should 'doctor' his

own.

In 1809, that very ingenious writer, Mr. Bracy Clark, of London, fa-
voured the public with the first part of his Dissertation on the Foot of the
Horse, wUh Experiments on Shoeing, which work has been since com-
pleted. Ihe object of this elaborate and elegant publication is Cbv accu-
rately describing the foot of the horse in its natural state, contrasted with
Its state after the animal has been some time worked in shoes), to enable
the reader to comprehend the hurtful effects that the present system of
shoeing, even under the best hands, has upon the foot. It is the author's
opinion, that the apphcation of an iron shoe by means of nails, as now prac-
tised, IS the principal cause of the alteration that is found to take place in
the feet of all horses after shoeing, and which alteration it has been usual
to attribute to other causes. To remedy this, Mr. C. proposes an invention
called the Paratnte, or shoe that may be applied without nails, having in-
stead an elastic steel band embracing the hoof as its means of attachnient •
the details and figures of which appear in the third part. Mr Clark's
other works are, A History of the Bots of Horses, a work of great re-
search, and one which has estabhshed the reputation of the writer amono-
naturalists ;^ Treatise on the Casting of Horses, with an improved appa°-
ratus ; A Description of the Section of the Horse (a very accurate fio-ure
accompanies this anatomical detail, and the philosophical examination of the
general form is highly interesting) ; An Essay on the Gripes of Horses,
m which Mr. C. introduces a more active treatment by means of an early
administration of pimento, or allspice and spirit ; A Reformed Pharma-
copeia, &c. The art must ever acknowledge Mr. Clark as one of its most
zealous advocates; but whether the classical dress into which he puts even
the most trivial subject does not rather tend to the advancement of his
own character as a scholar than to the display of his subject among the
plain unlettered men who form the majority of veterinary practitioners,
I leave others to decide. '

1814.— This year, Professor Peale, of the Royal Dublin Society, made
his debut as an author in a work which will long remain as a monument to
his industry, zeal, and ability. It is entitled. Observations, chiefly practi-
cal, on some of the mo7'e common Diseases of the Horse : together with
Remarks on the general Articles of Diet, arid the ordinary Stable Ma-
nagement of that Animal. Mr. P.'s work is, at once, intelligible to the

THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY AUTHORS. 15

meanest capacity, and yet worthy the full attention of the most philosophic.
In 1818, Mr. Wilkinson published A Treatise on the Tetanus and Epide-
mic Catarrh of Horses. If Mr. W. has not mistaken some other com-
plaints for tetanus, which his clear account of symptoms and references to
cases would seem to render unlikely, his treatment of this formidable dis-
ease has been very successful, and deserves general adoption. Such was
our first statement : we have subsequently learned that the experience of
other practitioners bears out the account of the excellence of the practice,
and entitle Mr. W. to the gratitude of the profession. On epidemic catarrh
nothing new appears. In 1820, A New System of Shoeing Horses, with
Accounts of the various Modes practised by different Nations ; Observa-
tions on Diseases of the Feet, 8fc. appeared from the pen of Mr. Goodwin,
late Veterinary Surgeon to his Majesty. This ingenious writer, to whom
the art is indebted for various improvements, has in this work, after inquiry
into the causes of lameness, added an interesting account of the horse-shoes
in use in other countries. His attempts appear to be directed to introduce
a modified system of French shoeing, but with shoes to be forged of patent
malleable cast iron. The system he advocates, to say the least of it, is in-
genious, and the work in general is highly creditable to the author's talents ;
but so many ditficulties stand in the way, that I question whether his plan
of shoeing, well devised as it appears to be, will not follow many others
that have preceded it.

1823. — This year stands recorded for ofi'ering the first volume of a Se-
ries of Elementary Lectures on the Veterinary Art, by Mr. W. Percivall,
now Veterinary Surgeon to the 1st Life Guards, which are calculated, in
an eminent degree, to advance the interests and the reputation of the vete-
rinary art, by blending with the anatomy and physiology of the animal a
faithful picture of his numerous diseases, and a plan of treatment for each,
usually well devised and practicable. This gentleman, as co-editor of The
Veterinarian, has also added much to the art we advocate, and much is
due to his acumen. Mr. Bracy Clark, has likewise supported a useful pe-
riodical, with his usual ability, and warmed with a little causticity, ' ' Tis
true 'tis pity, and pity 'tis 'tis true.' Mr. Cherry also has claims on our
gratitude, in common with each pei-iodical gatherer of the buds of science.
It ought never to be lost sight of, that a periodical journal of any art is an
encyclopaedia, which contains not the acquirements of one individual only,
however talented, but the knowledge and experience of the many ; and in
one important particular it is even superior: the Encpclopsedia rests as it is ;
the Journal marches with the art it commemorates. It is a register of facts
more than of opinions ; and, by its means, many a spark is fanned into a
brilliant flame, and many a talented but slothful genius is by such aid stirred
up to appear in a page, who would sicken at the prospect of a volume.
Neither is it one of the least of the benefits likely to accrue from it, that it
will prevent many of the more remote practitioners from falling into the
narrow and empirical practice of pretending to secrets and infallibles ; on
the contrary, we shall all take on a habit of preparing to give and receive,
and of looking forward to a professional pic nic, to which every one will be
happy to contribute his mite or his meal ; which, like the bread cast on the
waters, will eventually return enlarged tenfold. We regret that our limits,
already trespassed on, deny us the pleasure of further enlarging on the sub-
ject; but we would refer the reader to the introductory address of the First

MEANS FOR THE ATTAINMENT OF

Number of ^ The Veterinarian,' for a masterly summary of the prospec-
tive benefits of a Monthly Journal of the Art. ' ^

As authors of minor veterinary publications, we believe the names of
Orra, Denny, Pursglove, and probably some others, appear; as likewise a
Am System of Shoemg Horses, hy J. Hodgson, of which report speaks
well Mr. Frederick Cherry has also produced a small but pithy wo?k on
the Treatment of Horses' Feet. Mr. Vines, late of the Veterinary College
has also laid us under obligation by his valuable Treatise on Glanders; and
when Mr. V. s professional opportunities, and his known disposition to make
use oi them, are considered, we need not wonder that his work commanded
much attention.

We cannot conclude this sketch of the State of the Veterinary Art amon?
us, without adverting to the advantages likely to accrue to it from the esta-
blishment of a Veterinary School in Edinburgh, having at its head an able
and zealous teacher in the person of Mr. Dick. We heartily wish him all
the success which his apparently judicious methods of pursuing his course
of instructions merit. If Scotland be at all alive to her own interest, she
will foster this rising plant with energy and liberality. Mr. Stewart has
also distinguished himself in the same cause in Glasgow.

SECT. HI.

OF THE PROPER MEANS FOR THE ATTAINMENT OF THE VETERINARY ART.

The mode in which any art is attained must be, in a great measure, di-
rected by the future views of the learners. It appears to me, that there are
three distinct classes of persons who are likely to study this branch of use-
tul knowledge. The first is composed of persons of fortune, with enlarged
minds and a more than usual attachment to field sports, particularly those
in which horses and dogs of the best breeds are employed. A striking in-
stance of this presents itself in the mass of excellent observations on the
diseases of these animals. These breeds being naturally inclined to be-
come injured more than others, require vigilant care from their owners
particularly m arresting the progress of threatened ailments. A second
class may be formed from country and village surgeons, whose services may
render them highly useful upon occasions when no farrier is at hand, or in
cases m which farriers of the common class are unable to judge.

Gentlemen and amateurs, who wish to accumulate information on this
curious and interesting subject, within the reach of the Veterinary College,
will hnd their account m attending a course of lectures there : when this is
'"r"!^,?'^"*' ^i^^^^d Lawrence's work may be read with advantage.
Ihe following pages, we hope, will aflFord still further instruction in the
anatomy, physiology, and pathology of the horse; and the deficiencies left
by the above may be ably filled up by reference to Mr. Percivall's excellent
Ziectu7'es.

A good surgeon has travelled three-fourths of the road towards making
a good veterinarian ; but he must diligently travel the remainder to arrive
at excellence. He must by no means sit down contented with the analogy
between the human and brute subject, or he may be led into very great
error; for though this analogy is, in some cases, very striking; yet there
are others in which the similarity fails, and he is left to act upon otiier prin-
ciples. The digestive organs of man and the horse are anatomically so dif-

THE VETERINARY ART. 17
ferent, that their functional purpose cannot be altogether the same ; and
the peculiarity of the stomach of the horse renders the operations of medi-
cines very dififerent in him to what would be produced on the human
stomach. Four grains of tartarized antimony would excite vomiting in most
men. Four drachms would not even produce nausea in a horse. Many
similar instances might be adduced to shew the necessity for a conversance
with such anatomical variations from the human structure and functions, as
will naturally lead to variation in the medicinal practice also between them,
of which the feet form a notable instance. The specific diseases, as glanders^
farcy, strangles, grease, &c., must also occupy the human surgeon's°particu-
lar attention ; as here all analogy would fail. It has also happened, that
medical gentlemen have wholly abandoned the human for the brute practice,
and our art exhibits some bright examples of this conversion. Mr. Coleman'
we believe, was not friendly to this change; and if he meant that there was'
neither sufficient remuneration, nor a sufficient honourable consideration
held out by the world to warrant the step, we go with him in all ordinary
cases. But if, as we are informed, he was of opinion that the human surgeon
usually niakes a bad veterinary practitioner, then we are constrained to demur.
IJie Frofessor himself is a proof, as well of the qudifications being readily
transf errible, as that unmixed respect in the truly eminent may equally accom-
pany both characters,

pie third class of veterinary pupils is composed of farriers already prac-
tising or who mtend to practise, this art exclusively. To such persons it
must be evident, that entering themselves at the Veterinary College is almost
essential to their future success. It is there that they must pass their no-
viciate; It IS there that they will enter on their studies in company with
others who having been somewhat longer engaged in the same pursuit, will
pomt out the methods of applying successfully the opportunities that will
be presented to them ; and it is from thence, under the sanction of a diploma
there obtained, tnat they will enter on their professional practice with the
confidence of their employers. It is, however, to be recollected, that even
the Vetermary College possesses no royal road to learning. The professors
pretend not to this: they find the means; it is the studenf must apply them
He must havmg made himself familiar with the skeleton, diligently, care-
fully, and minutely, dissect every part of the body of the horse, the ox, sheep,
swine, and dog^^ -How will you,' asks the writer of an able article in The

i^fortrucSn?" Tb'"'"' T'^'i' '^"''^^ jou perfectly understand
3 construction ? There is scarcely a disease— there is certainly no opera-

Z::^^^t:^;T' '^""^^^^"^^ "-^"1. but

Physiological mquiry should accompany the study of anatomy • thev
ought ever to be nseparable : both are essential to successful pSce If
we are ignorant of the physiology of organs, our knowledge of tt r con-
struction will comparatively do us little good. « If, for instance we Te
|gnorant of the action of the diaphragm in the office ^f respiration' how can
we possibly have any conception of the symptoms attending'a wou^d of that

tiof rr'n """S^f ' P>-«^tising to the full extent of his designa-

tion as a veterinanan, which is on other domestic animals as well as the
horse. It will be requisite that he acquaint himself fully with comparat We
anatomy; such acquirement will assist him greatly, even as an hipEr ist
but as a veterinarian it is absolutely essentia? Th^most perfect anTom al

MEANS FOR THE ATTAINMENT OF
knowledge of the horse would not infonn him where to puncture the paunch
of the hoved ox. A consideration of the structural peculiarities of the same
organs in different animals, according to their several wants, and the difference
ot function occasioned by structural pecuUarity, are matters of philosophical
mterest to all; but it is imperatively necessary that the veterinarian be well
informed with regard to the variations of disease resulting from such sin-
gularities of structure and function.

The general observation of diseases may accompany the study of anatomy
and physiology ; but an undivided attention to them should be reserved until
some progress has been made in those studies which are to lay the foun-
dation for just principles, and just conceptions of the nature of disease
Merely to observe and note what medicines are given in different diseases
leads to an empirical practice, and utterly defeats correct and enlarged
views of the curative practice generally. A course of dissections being
finished, diligently attend the sick cases ; and never neglect accompanying
the professor m his rounds. Note down his remarks, minute the symptoms
as they occur, the changes which take place, and the effects produced by
the various medicaments which are applied. Carefully examine the pulse
m every sick case, many times in the day, and under every variety of cir-
cumstance ; acpustom yourself also to a frequent examination of the healthy
pulse m different horses ; by which anomalies will become familiar, and
^prevent error in applying your knowledge to disease.

It ought to be unnecessary to advise the pupil to a sedulous and regular
attendance on the lectures of the professors of his college, to whom a
marked respect on all occasions is both proper and prudent. It is equally
so, that, by obliging attentions, he should ensure the good offices of the in-
ferior officers of the establishment. As a secondary consideration, attend
the lectures also of those emhient teachers of human medicine, whose libe-
rality have opened their doors to your free admission ; but avoid doing this
until a complete course of the college lectures has been attended ; and do it
then only when no veterinary therapeutics can be interfered with. Of your
college lectures, never for any object of pleasure miss one ; and uniformly
apply what you hear to some practical purpose ; either real if it be present,
or imaginary if not : of all the modes of impressing what you hear on your
memories, this is the most infallible.

Chemistry and the materia medica should form a part of the collaterals
of your medical studies. A certain acquaintance with individual drugs is
acquired by use and observation ; but a knowledge of their products, when
in a state of combination, can only be gained by conversance with chemistry,
on which subject more will appear in the Materia Medica. The veteri-
nary student has now no excuse for a want of information on the elements
which enter the composition of medicinal agents, Mr. Morton's Manual of
Pharmacy having well filled up this hiatus. Every veterinary student
should immediately make himself master of the contents of this invaluable
vade mecum ; pages 27, 28, 29, and 30 particularly, are too impoi-tant not
to require much of his attention.

Form no theories; accumulate facts, and study them ; it is by obsert'ation
and experience that you are likely to become a successful practitioner.
During the latter periods of your novitiate, visit the knackers, examine
every diseased case : purchase the permission to operate, first on the dead
subject until you are au fait, and then finish with the living. Cultivate a
humane disposition towards animals generally : nothing disgraces the vete-

THE VETERINARY ART. 19

rinarian, or disgusts h\s employers, more than a seeming- indiiference to the

pain he is sometimes forced to inflict. Make experiments when necessary

never do it wantonly ; and when it is done, make no parade in announcing it :
on the contrary, the less is said about such matters, the better.

Remain at your studies as long as your finances will allow you. Solid
acquirement may be gained in two years, but no time must be wasted : four
years are thought necessary at the French colleges. Should your stay be
necessarily shorter, employ the time you have in such studies as cannot be
readily pursued hereafter. These are, the fundamental principles of ana-
tomy, the method of operating, the knowledge of disease, and the curative
practice, not only of your own school, but of the best veterinarians around
also. But when from circumstances, farriers, or other persons intending to
practise, cannot possibly attend the Veterinary College, still let them not
despair; improvement is yet within their reach ; and, provided they will be
content to enter on a systematic and regular plan of accumulating informa-
tion, the difficulties will give way. Here the principal dependence must be
placed on books, and particularly on such as have plates to guide the anato-
mical research, which here, as well as at the Veterinary College, must form
the foundation of the whole. On which subject we would refer the inquirer
to some excellent instructions contained in No. 4? of Tlie Veterinarian,
where, after recommending Mr. Percivall's Lectures and our Outlines as
anatomical guides, it adds, ' You may safely follow them both, and neither
can be spared. ^ Begin with the skeleton : the large plates published origi-
nally in Blame's Folio Anatomy, and similar ones published by Kirtland,
may be procured.' In addition to these, I would also recommend Board-
man's Veterinary Dictionary, as containing numerous anatomical plates,
copied from many sources. Much may be likewise gained from the excel-
lent Treatise on the Horse in the Farmer's Series of the Library of Useful
Knowledge. It is, or ought to be, in the hands of every admirer of this ani-
mal, and will be found to deserve the closest attention of the veterinary stu-
dent also. In prosecuting dissection, any small animal may be begun upon,
to accustom the learner to the necessary manipulations. General instruc-
tions m this art may be obtained by reference to the Dissectors Assistant
ot i-arkinson, which will open the way to pursuing the study on the body of
the horse itself. The anatomy of the various organs, and the surgical
operations required on them, may be gained by careful attention to these
pages, and to those of Mr. Percivall, as guides ; where, also, the theory and
practice of veterinary therapeutics throughout may be learned. We hardly
neefl remmd the veterinary student, that, independent of all well-known writ-
ings connected with his studies, he should particularly possess himself of
every monthly journal connected with his art. It is the especial province
ot each of them to register every improvement as it occurs. We hardly
neea to hint, that The Veterinarian stands pre-eminent among these.

SECT. IV.

THE NATURAL fflSTORY OF THE HORSE,

As a zoological member, the horse (Equus Caballus), although united by
Lmnjeus with the hippopotamus in the order bellua;, would be more justly
characterised as forming an isolated genus, totally unconnected with any
other group of mammalia than the members of his own family. These se-

B 2

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE,
veral family members, as E. Hemianus (the Dzij^^ai), E. Assinus (the
Ass), jb. Quagga (the Couagga), E. Zebra (the Zebra), and E. Monta-
nus (the Dauw), are all equally distmctly characterised by having the quad-
rupedal phalanges united into a single finger or toe, closelv enveloped within
a compact cylmdrical hoof* ; as well as by the peculiarity of their dental
organs, which m all present incisors f ; canines in the males \ : ^ molars f : f .

The specific characters of the horse place him in an eminent degree above
his congeners in dignity and beauty : these are, a long tail covered through-
out with hair of great length, and a flowing mane of considerable thickness.
We attach little speciahty to the absence of the humeral stripe, so common
to the other members of the genus, although it is much insisted on by na-
turalists. The longitudinal dorsal list is very common to many horses of
mixed colours ; and we have seen faint but evident traces of the shoulder
cross also.

The horse is considered to have been originally a native of what is called
the old world, and by the industry of man to have been planted in the newf .
It a-ppears from the sacred records, that his subjugation did not take place
until many years after that of the camel and the ass. It is said our earliest
accounts of horses relate to their being sent into Egypt by Jacob to bring
corn during the famine which raged in Canaan ; but still more certain proofs
exist, that, when the Israelites returned into Canaan, these animals had be-
come common ; for the Canaanites ' went out to fight against Israel with
horses and chariots very many J.' From Egypt the horse was carried into
Greece, and this at an early period ; for the Olympic games, where horses
and chariots are celebrated, existed 1450 years before Christ. The industry
of man devised means to spread them almost universally, at times verv re-
mote from the present ; for all our continents, New Holland excepted^ ex-
hibit horses with every appearance of having been long wild. In the plains
of Great Tartary, the droves of wild horses are immense ; and some eminent
naturalists favour the opinion that it was here the horse first appeared; while
others contend that the present races do not exhibit the original stamp. We
may fancifully imagine to ourselves an original stamp, and without doubt such
a stamp would be perfect for the situation it was placed in, and for its own

* This uniformity of structure throughout the genus completely excludes the attempts of
Molina, and some other naturalists, to class the Huemul of Chili with the horse, under the
name of E. Bisulcus, or cloven-footed horse. We might with equal, and even with more,
propriety, include the camel : both are equally niminants, and the camel has incisors,
whereas the Imemul has none. It is, therefore, a matter of surprise that these well-marked
characters of the genus should, instead of symplifying its systematic arrangement, "have
rather tended to confuse and mislead naturalists. Baron Cuvier first adopted the classifi-
cation of Storr, who formed a distinct order for it, under the term solipedes (by others
solidungula) ; but, finally, he classed it under the pachydermata. Linnaeus, as already
observed, had united it with the hippopotamus, and Erxleben placed it between the elephant
and dromedary.

f The original country of the horse is, however, disputed on many grounds : some na-
turalists favour an opinion that he is truly indigenous to most countries of the globe. Dr.
Fleming, on the British Animals, says, ' That the horse should be regarded as indigenous
need scarcely require proof It lives and propagates nearly in a state of nature in the
Highlands of Scotland and the Zetland Islands. The remains of the species occur asso-
ciated with those of the most ancient of our quadrupeds, as in the cave of Kirkdale'
( Burkland's Rel. Dil. p. 18). Fossil bones supposed to belong to the horse have likewise
been found at Hatfield, in Yorkshire, and in the Isle of Dogs, Middlesex (Parkinson's
Org. Rem. vol. i, p. 67-95). Cuvier, however, appears to doubt their characters being
genuine ( Ann. de Museum, torn, xiv, p. 33).

X 2 Chron. i, 17.

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 21

physical wants and necessities ; but it is evident that the wisdom of the Great
Creator, if he actually formed only one type, would have chosen a different
mould for him, in the arid sandy plains of the east, where vast distances
must be traversed in pursuit of food or in retreat from foes, to that which
would have been appropriate in more temperate climes, where a luxuriance
of herbage and never-faihng springs nourished the bulk, and rendered ex-
tensive travel unnecessary. And as the distance of only a few degrees ope-
rates much change in the form of the indigense, so, unless we could fix the
precise spot of the aequine Eden, we are yet unable to pourtray the original
type. We are equally at a loss with regard to the colour of the early breeds ;
for that also varies in indigenous animals, according to their residences.
Adapted to climate, we find the horses of different countries (and even such
as nearly, if not wholly, approach a state of nature) either slender as the
deer, or bulky as the ox ; and while the Shetlander is little more that three
feet in height, and occasionally even less, the lofty Norman overtops eighteen
hands frequently. In the east, the coat is glossy, short, and smooth ; in the
north, it is thick, curled, and of great length.

The Grecian arms spread her horses over Spain, Persia, Barbary, and
Arabia, from whence they became disseminated throughout the northern
and western parts of Europe, while the decline of the Grecian glory gave to
Rome, for a long succeeding period, the future culture of the animal, and
the fame of his glory.

At what precise time foreign horses were first brought into Britain is uncer-
tain ; but it is not improbable that it was at a very early one, since history in-
forms us they were sufficiently numerous, and their uses well known, when
Julius Caesar invaded the island. Whether these early horses were the
entire produce of Britain, or whether they had already been mixed*, it is
likely that their intercourse with the Roman cavalry would introduce new
races, as diversified as the countries from whence the Romans themselves
drew their own immense supplies. Freed from their conquerors, the English
cultivated the arts of peace, and were consequently not unmindful of the
horse, which was become, as early as A.D. 930, so valuable that Athelstan
prohibited their exportation.

WilUam the Conqueror brought with him the means, of greatly improving
the island horse ; and the barons who accompanied him, being spread over
the kingdom in their newly-acquired estates, rapidly diffused a valuable
mixture among the native breeds. One of these nobles; Roger de Belesme,
Earl of Shrewsbury, is particularly celebrated for introducing Spanish stallions
into his Welch possessionsf .

In 1121, the first Arabian horse on record was imported into England,
and the crusades, which soon succeeded, were the means of introducing a
large accession of eastern horses from the Levant. The traffic in horses
now began to assume much of its future character : Smithfield was esta-
• Our early records inform us, that, when .Julius CiE-sar landed in Britain, our scythe d
chariots, drawn by horses in the highest state of discipline, produced terror throughout
the proud legions of the conqueror ; and that, on his return to Rome, he look with him
some of these war-horses to improve the Roman breeds. It has, therefore, been ques-
tioned whether what may be called the indigence of Great Britain, as the ponies of Eng-
land and Wales, the sheltics of Scotland, or the hobbies of Ireland, could have furnished
them. From whence, then, did the ancient Britons derive tliis brood ? Had they al-
ready opened a communication with France or Germanv ? Or had they, by cultivation,
improved the size and strength of the parent breeds in tlieir lowlands

t Michael Drayton quotes the excellencies of this breed in the sixth t.art of his P„l„-

22 NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE.

Wished as a horse-market ; and the dealing in this animal was already become

a regular profession as well as already garnished with much of its trikery*.

To Edward the Second the breed of English horses owes much o/its
early improvement : he procured cavalry horses from Lombardy, Italy and
Spam and heavy draught horses from Flanders. From this tim^e the pubHc
attention appears to have been particularly directed to the necessity Jf im-
proving the breed of horses ; and many public ordinances were promulgated
o that effect. In the reigns of Henry VII and VIII, it became common
to import foreign stallions for this purpose from Barbary and Spain ; and, in
the two following reigns, others were imported from Belgium, Flanders, and
JJenmark ; aqd as the former were intended to improve the speed, spirit, and
beauty these latter added greatly to the size of the future breeds. As early
as the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, there were horse-races in England •
but these appear to have been principally confined to trials of speed and
continuance oyer uncertain grounds between native horses. In the reign of
Henry VIII, horses either procured from Barbary, or bred from such, were
expressly used for this purpose; and we- may date the systematic improve-
ment m the breed, by the admixture of what we call blood, to have its
origin about this time.

James the First pursued the same system, and imported from Barbary a
set of the finest mares, for purity of breed and excellence of form, which
could be procured : these, known significantly as the Royal Mares, greatly
assisted the general purpose. James also imported an Arabian, whose own
quahties, as well as those of his produce, not answering to the expecta-
tions raised, the breed for many years became in disrepute. Regular race-
courses were at length estabUshed, and racing was conducted on fixed prin-
ciples and confined within rules. Charles the First also encouraged the^e
sports, and to him we owe the establishment of the Newmarket course • and
in such estimation were they, as connected with the national good, that even
the fanaticism of Cromwell gave way to it, for he also had his stud of race-
liorses. ihe Restoration gave a new impulse to racing, and a new impetus
to the improvements meditated. The Arabian was again resorted to, and,
on the renewed trials, his proceeds justified the former expectations. From
that time to the present, by a judicious mixture of crossings of the native
and the eastern horses, in different degrees of consanguinity, according to
the different purposes for which they are required, we now stand unrivalled
among nations ; and we now send our breeds back to eastern countries, to
meliorate that blood which we originally borrowed from them.

THE EXTERIOR CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE.

The linear proportions of the horse form a branch of knowledge that very
properly precedes a consideration of his internal structure; and the animal,
considered generally, may be divided into head, neck, trunk, and extremi-

* As a guard against these deceptions, warranty was now established A buyer was
allowed three nights to ascertain whether his purchase was free from daggers - three
months to prove the soundness of his lungs, and a year was granted to try l^m Against
having received the infection of glanders. The well written account of the horse which
appears in the Farmer s Seru-s of the Library of Useful Knowledge, among other interest-
ing matter, furnishes the prices of horses in these early days. A foal under fourteen days
of age was valued at fourpence; at a year and a day, forty-eight pence; and at three
years, sixty-pence. A short period only increased the price to thirty-shillings , and a
century afterwards good horses fetched ten pounds : so rapidly did liie breed improve, and
the benefits derived become apparent.

THE EXTERIOR CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE. 23

ties : the different parts comprising each of which have various terms of art •
in general use appropriated to them ; and it has been found, from long ex-
perience, that there is a peculiar form for each of these that is best adapted
either to the general purposes of the animal, or to the uses we put him to.
Nevertheless, it is not possible to reduce any of these within a geometric
scale ; hence, limiting the figure to a square, and giving various standard
measurements for his separate parts, is not found by experience to assist the
judgment : on the conti-ary, it proves fallacious, and leads into erroneous
conclusions*. Nature will not be limited, and the perfection of her opera-
tions is not dependent on exterior symmetry only, but on a harmony and
accordance of the whole, internal as well as external. In considering a
horse exteriorly, his age, his condition, and other circumstances, should be
taken into the account ; and to determine, with precision, the present powers
or the future perfections, can only be acquired by an union of science and
experience. A horse of five years' old, though considered as full grown,
yet undergoes very considerable alterations in his form between this age
and seven or eight. At these latter periods he becomes what is termed
furnished ; his points all shew themselves ; that is, he is in fact more an-
gular, and, in a painter's eye, would be more picturesque, though as far as
round lines are concerned, might perhaps be considered as less beautiful.
A horse, likewise, very low in flesh and condition, is not the same animal
as one full of flesh and in condition ; and the sleek fatness of full and gross
feeding, where little exercise is used, will not beget the robust form acquired
from generous diet with corresponding exertion.

To give any determinate figure for the horse argues a confined mode of
reasoning. We may, it is true, fancy the first horse, which, though then
perfect, would not remain so long in the opinion of those who used him,
when they began to divide his powers and uses into heavy draught-horses,
light draught-horses, race-horses, hunters, hacknies, &c. &c.

The head is a very important part, considered with a view to the beauty
of the animal ; and in no part is an improvement in the breed so soon de-
tected as in this. Can any thing be conceived more dissimilar than the
small inexpressive features attached to the enormous head of a cart-horse,
compared with the bold striking lines which grace that of the blood-horse ?
The head, in the improved breeds, is small and angular, the eyes prominent,
the ears spirited;^ small, and pointed; the forehead wide, straight, and some-
times slightly curved inwards at the lower part ; in them the facial angle is
about 25°, whereas, in the heavy breed, it is more generally 23° : its junc-
tion with the neck also is less easy and elegant than in the improved kind.

A superficial observer might, perhaps, overlook the extreme beauty there
is in the head of the horse ; and particularly the great fire and expression of
his countenance when animated by any leading passion, which is to be the more *
admired, when it is considered how few aids this part has in the brute, com-
pared with the human. Man borrows much of his facial expression from
his eyebrows, and, when to these the varied action of the mouth is added,
it amounts to more than a half of the total expression. Upon studying the
Greek and Roman models, one is led to form but an unfavourable opinion

• Mr. Clark seems to be of a diflcrent opinion ; and, consequently, in his section of
the horse, he lays great stress on the unifonnity of these proportions, and the advantages
resulting from a knowledge of them. These adineasiirenicnts arc of French origin, and
Bourgehit carried the system to a great length. M. St. Bel l)roiight it to England ; and
his proportions of Eclipse were derived from this source.

24 THE EXTERIOK CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE

pictures; and if we were not aware tha^t the Greeks, at
he ii'Se? anS"' horses from Egypt, we might suppose that they dLpi'sel
heir a^ !t^ ton breeds. We are, certain, however, that

Ind hr I ? '"^^^•"^'•y heads, compounded from the human

and brute countenances, as is evident from the sunken eyes, overhanmncr
eyebrows, contracted nostrils, with lips thick and generally wide apart, as
observed in their statues and pictures. F .

T ^""l'! ^""^ "'"^"y supposed criterions of the spirit of the animal, and
1 have seldom seen a horse who carried one ear forward and the other
backward during his exercise, especially if on a journey, but what was last-
ing and good. The reason appears a plain one : a horse of spirit, strong,
and not easily fatigued, is attentive to every thing around him, and directs
one ear forward and one ear backward to collect sounds from every quar-
ter. I need not mention, that the ears are an indication of the temper of
the animal ; and that he is seldom either playful or vicious, but the ears are
laid flat on the neck. It was kind in Providence to give us such a warning
m an animal who does not want craft to surprise us, nor strength to render
his resentment terrible. Now the custom is extinct, we can ask ourselves.
From whence was cropping derived ? The French deny it altogether, and
say It was totally of English origin : whereever it originated, we can only
wonder it was so long practised.

The ej/es should be very particularly attended to in an exterior examina-
tion of a horse : the globe should be full and prominent, with a thin surface
of eyelid. When it is small, or sunk within an orbit surrounded by much
adipose or membranous substance, such eye is found more prone to inflam-
mation than the former. It is prudent, however, to guard against too great
a convexity of the globe, which now and then does actually exist, and pro-
bably renders the horse shortsighted. The eyes should always be examined
in the shade : no better situation can be chosen than that the head of the
horse be pointed outwards, but that his eyes remain half a foot within a
stable door : the light now falling directly on the eye, will enable every
defect to be readily seen. Viewed in front, the depths of the eye should be
first looked into : the position of the looker should be then changed, and it
should be viewed sideways, still from within the stable, which will much as-
sist to ascertain the critical clearness of the parts immediately on and within
the surface, and its freedom from central specks. See Eyes of the Horse in
Farmer's Series, Library of Useful Knowledge, p. 84.

The cornea, or transparent part of the eye, ought to be perfectly clear
throughout its whole extent of surface. Sometimes it will appear so on a
slight inspection, but, when more attentively examined, opaque milky lines
may be traced crossing its surface. In other cases nearly the whole may be
clear, except the extreme limits, which will be found surrounded by an
opaque line : when such an appearance exists, it bespeaks the remains of
former inflammation, and a great danger of recurrence. It might, however,
be proper to remark, that an accidental blow, as the stroke of a whip, may
leave an opaque speck or line without any liability of recurring inflamma-
tion ; but then very clear evidence ought to be obtained that an accident had
really occasioned the blemish, and which in such case will seldom be found
at the circumference. Not only must this exterior glassy covering of the
eye be exanuned, but the attention should be likewise directed to the deeper
parts within the pupil, the appearance of which, in a moderate light, should

THE EXTERIOR CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE. 25

be perfectly transparent. In a strong light it should exhibit a lively bluish-
ness ; but if, in a moderate light, it appears turbid or milky, there has been
inflammation, which will probably again recur ; but if a speck or line of
white more conspicuous than the rest should appear, in such case a cataract
has already begun to form (see Eyes in Splanchnology). In other in-
stances, again, though the internal eye should not appear opaque or milky,
yet it may exhibit a glassy greenishness, which also is a proof of the exist-
ence of a most destructive affection, called, by the farriers, glass eye : but,
properly, gutta serena. The existence of this may be proved by observing
whether the iris, or the curtain forming the pupil, contracts and dilates ;
that is, when the hand is placed over a sound eye for a little time, the iris
will dilate so as to increase the size of the pupil to admit more rays ; but,
on the removal of the hand, will again contract and lessen the pupil, to ex-
clude them. A blind horse likewise usually cari'ies his ears as though
alarmed, in quick changes of direction, and hangs back on his bridle or
halter, lifting his legs up very high ; in fact, he presents every indication
that a person blindfolded would do. When the iris, or moving curtain that
immediately surrounds the pupil or opening into the eye, is of a lighter
colour than brown, such horses are said to be wall-eyed ; but, however it
may detract from beauty, it no farther affects the eye. In some horses, the
transparent cornea is small in its circumference, in which case the opaque
cornea must necessarily be large, and shew much of the white of the eye.
It is of consequence to distinguish such instances from others, in which,
though the opaque or white coat may be of its natural dimensions, yet from
the greater contraction and dilatation of the eyelid, more of it is seen. In
the former, it is evident that the white of the eye shewing itself in a much
greater degree, merely from a small superfices of transparent cornea, is the
simple form of the organ, and can have nothing to do with the temper : but,
in the latter instance, a large appearance of white may be received as an in-
dication of a vicious disposition ; for extraordinary motions of either the
eyes or ears, and particularly where they act in unison, are consequences of
the wants and passions of the animal. If a horse be suspicious, he gene-
rally looks out for opportunities to revenge former injuries, or to repel new
ones ; and the retroverted direction of the eye, in which, of course, much of
the white is seen, is merely intended to guide the blow he meditates.

Thence comprehends the part between and below the eyes : a spot of
white or star in the forehead is deemed a beauty, but much white is a ble-
mish. If white extends down the face, it is termed a blaze ; and, when
continued into the muzzle, it is CdWedi hlaze and snip. If, with a star,
white begins below the place of the star, and is then carried downwards,
it is called a race. Thus, when a stolen horse is described, these distinc-
tions become useful ; and, in regimental accounts of the marks of horses,
they are particularly attended to. Such an advertised horse is said to have
star, race, and snip white, while another has a blaze only. All the lower
part of the head, including the nostrils and lips, is called the muzzle. The
darker the colour of this part, the more is the horse esteemed. Very dark
brown horses are, however, an exception to this, for, in them, the muzzle is
generally of a tan colour, which is also prized. The general contour of the
face in our best horses is either that of a plane, or very slightly curved
inward, but not equal to that of the native barb: our worst breeds arch out-
wards. The facial straight line is found on many, perhaps on most, of our
esteemed racers, and of our well-bred hunters.

'^^ OF THE TEETH.

The hps themselves should be thin and well supported ; when hanmna
loose and pendulous, they bespeak age, sluggishness, or debility ; andK
ot more consequence than is usually supposed, that their commissure, or the
opemng of the mouth, should be of sufficient extent. If too small, it is un-
tavourable to beauty ; but what is worse, it is inconvenient for .the well
placing the bridle. A wide open nostril is not only requisite to form beauty
in the lower part of the head, but it is certainly conducive to free respira-
tion or good wind. ^

OF THE TEETH, AS CHARACTERISING THE AGE ; WITH THE AUXILIARY

MARKS.

As it is necessary to obtain some marks whereby we can ascertain the
age of the horse, th« ingenuity of man has employed itself in noticing those
changes in the organs which are most readily observed, and the least hable
to variation. The teeth, as a part of the bony structure (which, being the
base of the whole, and known to be little liable to accidental mutation),
have been happily seized on for this purpose*. We shall here consider the
teeth as numeral indices of age only ; reserving a more general sketch of
their anatomy and physiology, as manducatory organs, for a future oppor-
tunity. It is well known that the usual indications of the age of the horse
among us are derived from certain marks in the incisor teeth, and princi-
pally from those of the lower or posterior jaw. These marks consist in a
Junnel-like cavity in each of these teeth ; each is also covered over with an
inteiisely hard coating of enamel. As this coating of the tooth reaches its
nipping edge, it passes over the plane surface, and then dips down to line
the funnel-like cavity in its centre. This central hollow thus formed, and
thus lined, becomes dark within by incrustation ; and therefore, as long as
this oval cavity remains, so long a striking mark continues : but when, by
constant attrition, the cavity has been worn away, such horse is said to have
' lost his mark.' In organs less durably formed than the teeth of the horse,
the degrees of attrition to which they are liable being diflFerent, would vary
their deterioration, or wearing out of this m^rk also. But their qualities
being such, that they are not materially affected by variations in food, &c.,
their wear is found to be nearly uniform, by which they present one general
indication in all horses, by the regularity of the periods at which these marks
disappear. To a further explanation of the other appearances, which these
surfaces of the teeth present, it is necessary to state, that the apex of the
angle formed by the doubling of the enamel over the edge of the tooth, one
limb of which embraces its surface, while the other enters the cavity, be-
coming abraded through its surface, leaves two distinct layers or portions ;
one which lines the cavity, and one which bounds the exterior surface of the
tooth, the common bony or rather horny matter of the tooth being inter-
posed between them. This latter substance being softer than the enamel,

• ' The knowledge of the age of the horse by an examination of his teeth goes back to
a very remote period, since the ancient writers speak of it as of a thing known long before
them even. Both the Greeks and the Romans knew perfectly well that the horse's teeth
were forty in number, and the mare's thirty-six ; that the incisors were temporary, and
replaced by others from thirty months to five years old ; that the tushes or angular teeth
appear between the ages of four and five ; that at eight years old the mark is obliterated
in all the incisors, that is to say, the horse has lost his marks. The ancients had also
remarked some of the changes tliat the teeth undergo after eight years old.' — Guiilci/'s
Translation of Girard on the Teeth, p. 8.

OF THE TEETH. 27

wears away faster, and thus leaves two ridges on the nipping surface,
one of which surrounds the central cavity [see plate 2], and the other
embraces the outer surface, but both serve to raise prominences for the
double purpose of cropping the food and holding it between the teeth when
necessary ; by which also the teeth become a more terrible weapon of
offence.

The horse, as is well known, has two sets of nipping and grinding teeth,
a temporary and a permanent set. In the outset we shall treat only of
what are called the nippers among horsemen, and incisors by naturalists.
About a week or ten days after birth, the foal puts out two front nippers
above and below, which seem to fill up almost the whole of the alveolary
border. The little jaw enlarges, however, so rapidly, that about the fourth
or fifth week the middle nippers also find room to appear, and, with this
complement of temporary or milk teeth, this sportive and interesting ani-
mal frolics around, until towards his sixth month, when he becomes fur-
nished with two corner nippers above and below. In very forward colts,
the dentition partakes also of the early evolution, and thus these corner
nippers, known among breeders as the shell teeth, will sometimes appear as
early as the fifth month ; but in cold situations, with a spare supply of ge-
nerous milk, they are occasionally kept back until two or even three months
later. The animal has now its full ^coUs moutK or nippers ; and the com-
pletion of the process occurs most opportunely at a time when its wants, from
increased growth, become greater, and its maternal suppUes less, the milk
, of the mare beginning about this time to decrease.

This early or temporary set of nippers, as might be expected, differ from
the permanent or horse teeth by being altogether smaller and whiter, and
also by having a well-marked neck to each, which ends in a more pointed
and slender fang ; neither have they grooves or furrows on their outer sur-
faces. They are slightly roimded in front, and hollowed towards the mouth
(see fig. of Colt's Teeth, plate 2) : the cutting surface of each of these also
rises into a sharp edge in front, which fits it for tearing up the grass ; the
outer edge slants over the inner, and affords another point of contact 'like-
wise. But these early teeth being less durably framed than those which
are to follow, soon shew the marks of even the early attrition they meet with.
Before twelve months the marks in the front nippers are worn down, or
filled up, as it is frequently called*. . The middle nippers lose their mark
soon after the first ; and by two years the cavity is nearly obliterated in all
of them, and they appear not unlike the horse nippers at eight years old
(see figures of 2, 3, and 4- years' old Teeth, in plate 2).

The molares, or grinders, although they do not yield such definite cha-
racters of the age, may be usefully employed as auxiharies. The foal is
usually bom with a certain number of grinders already protruded above and
below. Two always appear together, but we believe the third is not so {r%
quently synchronous with the two former, but usually is put out about a
week or two later. At a period varying between eleven and fourteen months
a fourth grmder is added, which is one of the permanents, and constitutes

• The mark however, can hardly be said to be filled np, although we have ourselves
heretofore used the term. The central enamel 1^ attrition wears away, and lessens the
cavi ty ; although it does not apparently diminish the volume of the tooth, for that extends
itse f i.pwards o meet the wear of its surface : but as the depth of the cavity is definite
while the growth of the body which contains it is indefinite ; so the hollow must be
jccted to complete obliteration, although the tooth remains of equal length. It, therefore
wears out, but never///., np. (See Teeth, in the Ox/euhgy.) "lereiorc .

OF THE TEETH.

the fourth of the horse row. It may, therefore, be considered, that a full
yeailmgcoltor filly will have six nippers and four grinders on each side,
above and below, fhe front nippers being nearly level on their nmvked
surfaces, and the others shewing the effects of wear also ; but the middle
much more than the corners {see Jigure of l-year Colt's Teeth). The
tourth grmder will display itself conspicuously likewise by its increase of
surface, and its prominent rugae, bnt unequally developed. Before the com-
pletion of the second year, the second permanent grinder is added, and forms
the fifth of the row. Between the second and third years, the first milk
grinder falls out, and is replaced by the first of the row of the permanent
grinders ; and between the third and fourth year, the second temporary
grinder gives place to the second permanent one, as in the following year-
the third and last of these milk teeth is succeeded by the sixth permanent
molar, which completes the grinding set.

To pursue our dental characters of the age, we must now take up the per-
manent or horse nippers, and which are those most important to the pur-
poses of the breeder, the seller, and the buyer. We must first observe, that,
although constitutional peculiarities will occasionally interfere with uniform
dentition, and although the evolution of the teeth may be hastened or re-
tarded by an early or a late foaling, yet, by common consent among us. May
IS presumed to be the birth-month of eyery horse; and notwithstanding these
circumstances, this understanding answers all the usual purposes of com-
merce. Far otherwise is it with the veterinarian, who must look much
closer, as on his judgment very weighty decisions will often depend.

The appearance of the permanent set of nippers may, in brevity, be thus
stated : — The front, at from two years and a half to three years. The
middle, or as sometimes called dividers, from three and a half to four years.
The corners from four and a half to five years ; during which period the
tushes or tusks in the horse also protrude. The colt now drops his name,
and assumes that of a horse ; the filly is also transformed into a mare : both
are now adults, and are, without hesitation, applied to the purposes intended
for them.

The horse's tusks, tushes, or canine teeth, are four, two in each jaw.
When the first is at its full growth (which is about an inch long in its free
portion, and takes place about the sixth year), it assumes a slightly incurved
cone-like form, having internally furrows (see fig. of 6-year old Teeth,
plate 2) ; which arising from the base, extend upwards and meet, leaving
a triangular eminence between. The tush is not unfrequently examined as
a criterion of the age ; and some persons place much dependence on the
presence or absence of its point, and the degree of its curvature, as well as
the distinctness of its furrows : and although these appearances are liable to
variation, yet the veterinarian would do well to accustom himself to a fre-
quent examination of the tushes, as it occasionally happens that he can only
take a very hasty glance at the mouth of some impatients ; but there are
few that will not allow the finger to be passed between the lips. In the
evening also, or in very dark stables, the tush will often afford a useful,
though not a positive indication. By seven years old, the pointed extremity
of the tushes becomes somewhat blunted (see plate 2) ; the inner ridge's
lose their prominence, and the whole tooth seems approaching a bulbous form.

At eight (see plate 2), these appearances are yet stronger, until, in some
instances, by twelve or fourteen years old, the tusk presents little more than
a button-like knob, the upper wearing faster than the lower. The French,

OF THE TEETH,

29

however, place so little dependence on their indications of age yielded by
the alterations in these teeth, that they are hardly mentioned as marks by
many of their writers.

Making, therefore, the nippers our principal guides, we proceed to. remark
that, during the period between the fifth and sixth years, the cavity in the
front nippers wears away ; and thus a horse is said to have lost his mark at
sia:. The close observer will, however, yet be able to discover a central dis-
coloured depression, and a prominent ridge of enamel around it, with an in-
tervening part occupied by what has been already called the horn of the tooth.

At seven, similar appearances have taken place in the middle nippers,
which have now lost their mark also.

At eight, the mark, or rather the cavity, is obliterated from the corner
teeth Ukewise, and in jockey language the horse is now aged. (See these
several periods figured in plate 2.)

It was usual with the horsemen of this country to pursue the criteria of
age by means of the teeth no further than eight years ; but the French, who
have preceded us in most matters connected with veterinary science, pretend
to be able to judge correctly by subsequent alterations in the form of the
body of the teeth much beyond this period; and if a critical judgment be not
thus gained, yet it is well worthy of attention. It must also be noticed, that
the structure of the upper nippers is not altogether the same with those of
the lower ; for their central cavity being deeper, takes longer to efface, and
thus yields a longer indication of age. M. St. Bel, our earliest college pro-
fessor, was the first who taught among us, that the cavities in the upper in-
cisor teeth had a gradual and equal wearing of two years between the se-
veral varieties of these nippers : thus, that at ten the front nippers, at twelve
the middle, and at fourteen the corners, presented plane surfaces, and had
lost their mark. But these periods of obliteration of the dental funnel or
mark of the upper nippers are not acknowledged by all contineivtal writers :
on the contrary, some of the most eminent, instead of two years as the
periods of planing between these several teeth, give one only. It is under this
view Mr, Percivall observes, that he also examines them as marking the age
from the ninth to the twelfth year ; and he informs us, that he finds his opi-
nion confirmed by observations. We were ourselves formerly much more
disposed to place reliance on these prolonged criteria of M. St, Bel than at
present ; it is unquestionable, however, that the markings of the anterior
nippers are seldom worn out by the twelfth year.

The successive changes wrought on the general substance, and the general
form of the lower or posterior nippers, after the central enamel has disap-
peared, have also been noted as characteristic of the age to a very prolonged
period. Lafosse many years ago described indications of age to be gained
by examining the figure of the nipping surface of the lower incisors long
after it has become plane. M. Pessina, Professor and Director of the Vete-
rinary Institution at Vienna, has carried a similar examination to an extraor-
dinary length, and his descriptions are given with nmch minuteness of detail.
' He explains the gradations of years, beyond the age of eight, uniformly
by the shapes that the incisors assume in consequence of their wear : he
has distinguished four successive periods ; the oval, the round, the triangu-
lar, and the biangular. After the disappearance of the central enamel the
table presents a coloured point, that appears before the wear of the funnel
is completed, and takes different shades and different shapes : it is not even
uncommon that, in very old teeth, this root gives place to a small black

30 OF THE TEETH.

infweu'ali tlflf^ ^' 2). I„ study-

ing well all that these marks present remarkable, produced by the funnel and
Its root, m noticing exactly the appearance and duration of each of these
Changes that it undergoes, we may distinguish old subjects by princinles
nearly as certain as those founded on their first appearance, and the obli-
teration of the mark in them.' ^ ^ ^ . «

According to Mr. Ganley's translation of M. Girard, that author's views
on this subject are as follow : ' At eight- years old, there is usually complete
obliteration of the mark in the lower jaw, the nippers, the dividers, and the
corner teeth ; the central enamel is triangular, and nearer the posterior than
the anterior edge of the tooth ; the termination of the cavity next the root
appears near the anterior edge in the form of a yellowish band, longish from
one side to the other. At nine years old, the nippers become rounded, the
dividers oval, and the corner teeth have become narrow; the central dimi-
nishes, and approaches the posterior edge. At ten years old, the dividers
are become rounded ; the central enamel is very near the posterior ed^e
and rounded. At eleven years old, the dividers have become rounded • the
central enamel is hardly any longer apparent in the teeth of the lower'jaw.
At twelve years old, the corner teeth are rounded ; the central enamel has
completely disappeared ; the yellowish band is of more extent, and occupies
the centre of the wearing surface ; the central enamel remains in the teeth
of the upper jaw. At thirteen years old, all the lower incisor teeth are
rounded; the sides of the nippers are becoming longish ; the central enamel
remains in the teeth of the upper jaw, but it is round, and approaching to
the posterior edge. At fourteen years old, the lower nippers have an appear-
ance of becoming triangular ; the dividers are becoming long at the sides ;
the central enamel of the upper teeth diminishes, but still remains. At
fifteen years old, the nippers are triangular, the dividers beginnina- to become
so ; the central enamel of the teeth of the upper jaw has not disappeared
as yet. At sixteen years of age, the dividers are triangular, the corner teeth
beginning to become so ; the central enamel of the teeth of the upper jaw
Mill, m many instances, be found to have disappeared. At seventeen years
of age, all the teeth of the lower jaw have become completely triangular ;
but, as we have before seen, the sides of the triangles are all of a length.'
At eighteen years of age, the lateral portions of the triangle lengthen in suc-
cession, first the nippers, then the dividers, and afterwards the corner teeth ;
so that, at nineteen years of age, the lower nippers are flatted from one side
to the other. At twenty years of age, the dividers are of the same shape.
Finally, at twenty-one years of age, this shape appears in the comer teeth
also.

We give this as the substance of the opinion -not only of M. Girard,
but of the veterinary professors of the French school generally ; and if the
various alterations in these organs, in the lapse of a long period, should be
diverted from their regular channel, and thus not offer all the certainty of
indication we wish, yet the veterinarian may receive great help from them :
they may serve to found an opinion upon, and, with collateral circumstances,
may swell suspicion into certainty. It must, however, never be lost sight of,
that the descriptions which have been given of dentition throughout are best
understood, and, indeed, can only be justly apprehended, by considering
that it is not by simple wearing away of the upper surface, and consequent
decrease of the column of the tooth altogether, that the indicatory changes
in their appearances take place, particularly in the protracted periods of life,

OF THE TEETH.

31

but by a disposition in the teeth to shoot upwards to meet the continual
deterioration going on; hy tvhich a gradual exposure oftheh' under sur-
faces is made far below the original depth of the central cavity producing
the mark. It must, also, not be forgotten, that as, on a view of the figure
of a tooth throughout its whole extent, the alveolary will be found to vary
much from the free portion, so it is readily explained why the figures of
these senile teeth are so unlike those of more early periods. It must like-
wise be taken into account, that, during the whole of a long life, a principle
of condensation is going on ; walls approximate to strengthen the decaying
mass, and much is absorbed to be deposited in other situations. Still, how-
ever, the results of this springing up from below are so in unison with the
appearances of the old teeth, figured in plate 2, that a good physiologist, d
priori, might have formed a similar sketch : and that these appearances
being dependent on organs originally framed after one pattern, give us much
dependence on their justness, and convince us of the propriety of the French
authors in setting a considerable value on them.

It will also strike the reflecting mind, that this study of later characters
will become even more important, as our yielding to vulgar prejudices, and to
old but erroneous impressions of age as it stands in the horseman's vocabu-
lary, give place to conviction from reason, analogy, and experience : that
what the jockey calls age, as connected with the natural powers and duration
of the animal, is antedated by at least another eight years.

To those, therefore, who are simply interested in horses on the score of
their utility, and are not called on to certify the exact age for transfer or
barter, a dependence on the usual indications of age drawn from the teeth
is little necessary. Impressed with a conviction resulting from experience,
that what is called age in the mouth is often combined with youth in the
limbs, the practical judge, instead of refusing such an ofi"er when it occurs,
hails it as a boon ; for the reputed age has produced only the best effects, by
condensing the soUd parts of the frame, and rendering them capable of con-
tinued exertion; such age is also usually accompanied by a steadiness of
temper and disposition that teaches him to employ his powers judiciously.

The exterior indications of approaching age are not equivocal ; they are
often very striking, always interesting, and sometimes picturesque in the ex-
treme. It is not too much to say, that the points of a horse, as all those
external characters on which his qualifications depend, never shew them-
selves until he is nominally unfit to look at. Regard the well marked head
of the horse at ten or twelve— how angular! His fine eyes, divested of
much cellular matter, now stands out without a foil ; his thin and thinly clad
crest carries itself into withers which seem to rise to receive it. His circular
carcass, trussed up by exercise, unites with hind quarters, square and mus-
cular, supported on limbs equally well furnished. Would you refuse such
a- one because he had lost a mark from his teeth, when he had gained so
many superior marks all over ?

The tmly senile horse will be seen with eyes sunken, sometimes dim,
and eyepits hollow ; the lips will be thin and pendulous, the under or pos-
terior often extremely so. The anus, not wedged up by interstitial matter as
heretofore, and not sufficiently retracted by its muscles, projects much. The
grey horse becomes white, and the darker colours become intermixed with
grey, particularly about the head. The bony processes in every part of the
body stare out, and give a rigidity of appearance which well accords with the
actual state of the body. So much greater is the absorption of parts now

OF THE TKETir.

!l! wi*!;'''ir"'!fr' ^'^^ ''''"^^^^ ^«P°«i^« of "^ore youthful times

a w udgalls and bony exostoses, are lessened or disappear altogether*. The

Tcounts Th ^PP-^--« beyond th^se noted by the FrenS^

accounts. The incisor teeth assume a more horizontal direction, and pro-
ject forward ; and the upper corner one is frequently sawed, as it were nto
two parts by the action of the lower, which in turn loses its outer ed^^e also
in the wear. The whole of them become yellow, are covered with "tartar,
and stand wide apart from condensation and approximation to their roots

1 he cautious veterinarian, when called on to give a professional opinion
must however forni his judgment principally on the appearances afforded
by the teeth. Under this view, it is imperatively necessaiy for him to take
into his account all such circumstances as are likely to mislead the jude
ment: the principal of these are, the irregularities of dentition, and the arts
ot breeders, dealers, &c. Although, as already observed, the affe of all
horses IS dated from the 1st of May, yet we know that they are occasion-
ally dropped in December even, and we have seen others which were said
to be foaled m July. These differences must, of course, influence the den-
tition much, and an early foal will thus ha»;« what is called a forward
mouth; and when such a one is either reared 'by an expert breeder, or falls
into the hands of a professed jockey, he takes care to make this circumstance
turn to account, by converting these few months of difference into a year
Neither IS the time of birth the only means of early or protracted dentition.
Warm sheltered situations, with a liberal supply of generous milk, and a
pasturage so luxuriant as to allow early browsing in the foal, will hasten
the evolution of the teeth, as the absence of these will retard it. In some
instances, constitutional anomalies present themselves: the middle and
corner nippers have been delayed two, three, and even four months beyond
the usual time ; in which, and similar cases, the judgment can only be di-
rected by an inspection of the grinders, which seldom participate in the
irregularity.

The front nippers usually fall at two years old; and the veterinarian, in
examining a colt in May, which had been foaled the previous December or
January twelvemonths, and finding that the subject of his examination had
already two permanent nippers in front tolerably well up, without examining
further, might state the age as rising three, instead of two ; which would
be the real age in horse reckoning. Such a circumstance would be parti-
cularly likely to occur, if the colt happened to belong to a professed breeder-
for he, seeing the forward state of the animal, would in all probability, the
October or November preceding, have extracted the colt front nippers,
which would hasten the appearance of the horse or permanent pair. It is
evident, however, that a closer examination would detect this ; for if the colt
were really three years old, the age the breeder intended to make him
appear, the middle nippers would have nearly lost their mark, and that in
the corner would also shew the effects of wear ; but neither of which appear-
ances could, in the present instance, occur. Further examination into the
mouth, in such case, will likewise shew, that although the colt or filly has
already five grinders, yet that the first of them are of the milk set, and the
two posterior only belong to the permanent or horse set, and which latter

• Splents are often wholly absorbed, and ring-bones become very much lessened ; but
bone-spavin seldom alters to any considerable degree : neither do the exostoses which
unite and encrust the dorsal processes ever become absorbed ; and thus the stiffness in
the back, so common in old horses, always increases with age.

OF THE TEETH. 33

are readily known from each other by the dilference of their size and mark-
ings. But, on the contrary, had the colt really reached his third year, then
the first grinder would be one of the horse set, and it would be evidently
but newly put out likewise.

These fi-auds, therefore, can only pass current in general cases on the
inexperienced, and where the animal, by its being the produce of a very
early foaling, may have actually attained marks of majority in its general
appearance also ; when, indeed, it really may require the discriminating eye
of one very well versed in all the dental characteristics to decide. Another
fraud much more common than this is that of passing off a four-year old
for one of five years, particularly where the colt is a promising and some-
what early one. This is done by punching out the corner nippers, by which
the horse corner nippers will appear sufliciently early to make an early
four-j'ear old pass for a late five-year old. To assist the deception, also,
the gums opposed to the tushes are frequently lanced, which is supposed to
bring them forward. From what has been so circumstantially stated with
regard to the true appearances of the teeth generally, from year to year,
the veterinarian will, howe -er, as readily detect this fraud as the former :
which will farther shew itsG^ " in the horse-form of the body being so little
developed in the four-year old, who, in the horseman's language, is raw
both in figure and manner. The four-year old colt is but little furnished,
his forehand is thick and low, his feet round and expanded at the bottom,
his legs long, his muzzle round ; neither has his mouth ■ the depth usual in
the five-year old horse.

The deceptions practised on the teeth do not stop here, but pursue the
horse much later : thus, when a dealer becomes possessed of a horse whose
teeth bear more actual marks of age than either his limbs or spirit, it is an
object worthy his attention to give such teeth a more youthful appearance.
The prmcipal part of this art consists in the operation called hishopping
(as supposed from a man of that name, one of its earliest or most expert
practitioners), which consists in the making an artificial cavity in the upper
surface of the nippers, by means of a sharp hard tool, and rendering the
cavity permanently black with a heated pointed instrument : but the strokes
of the graver detect the imposition, and the two inner grooves of the
tushes cannot be restored by similar means ; nor can its blunt point be
again made sharp and prominent.

The judgment foi-med from the teeth, though generally to be depended
on when these frauds have not been practised, is yet liable to some error
trom other causes than these. Some horses living wholly on grain, and
very early worked, will occasionally be found to have gained on others
which have fed principally on succulent matter. In cribbiters, and those
which champ much on the bit, this variation may be very considerable, and
make a full years difference between them and others.' It remains again
to remark, that a too strict adherence to the teeth-marks very frequently
leads those who are only moderate judges into very great error in another
way; which is that of frequently causing them to reject the most useful
and valuab e horses without these marks, as being supposed past their
work. Nothing is more fallacious than this: the commonly received in-
dices of the age grant a criterion of not a third of the natural life of the
animal; nor of one half of the time in which he is perfectly useful, and
tuily capable of answering all the purposes for which he was intended-
ana It IS only in a country like our own, where these generous animals are

'^^^ OF THIi TEETH.

so early put to labour, and so unremittingly forced to pursue it, that this
mark is so much attended to. A subordinate attention only should be paid
to the appearance of the teeth, if a horse appear what is termed fresh and
sound ; that is, if all his organs be capable of their several functions, the
limbs being firm, and exhibiting no appearance of too early, too great, or
too long continued exertion. The early ruin of English horses is not only
to be attributed to the excellence of the roads and the calls of business',
which urge our horses onward, but it is equally to be laid to the account of
their being too soon worked, before the maturity of the system is perfect,
or the motive organs completely evolved. The premature exertion forces
nature into artificial means of strengthening the debilitated organs ; hence
the cavities between the tendons and their sheaths are destroyed'; parts
take on a bony structure, whose original formation was cartilaginous, as
the lateral cartilages of the feet, and the articular processes of the ver-
tebrae ; a greater quantity of ossific matter is deposited on the surface of
some bones than is natural, forming splints, spavins, ringbones, &c. : and
to counteract the unnatural waste, other secretions are likewise preterna-
turally augmented, producing, in the mucous capsules windgalls, and blood-
spavins in the obstructed veins, &c. But where horses are sufiered to
attain their full growth, and the complete evolution of their stamina, if
they are afterwards put to full exercise, not altogether inordinate, they be-
come competent to the exertions expected of them, and reach old age sound
and vigorous. Many good judges will not purchase a horse for hunting
earlier than eight years old, and regard him only in his prime at ten or
twelve. It is too little considered, that the period of a horse's life, with
moderate care and good usage, is protracted to twenty- five, thirty-five, and
forty-five years ; and an instance lately occurred of a horse dying at fifty.
The accounts of their being vigorous 'and strong at thirty, and thirty-five,
are very numerous ; and nearly as frequent as activity in men of eighty and
ninety. A gentleman at Dulwich, near London, has three monuments of
three horses, who severally died in his possession at the ages of thirty-five,
thirty-seven, and thirty-nine. The oldest, it is to be remarked, was in a
carriage the very day he died, strong and vigorous ; but was carried off in a
few hours by spasmodic colic, to which he was subject. At Chesham, in
Buckinghamshire, there was a horse of thirty-six years old, who exhibited
no symptoms of debility, nor any external signs of 'age, but by being nearly
covered with warts. It was remarkable, with regard to this four-footed
Nestor, that when an unusual hard day's work was required, he was always
chosen, as never failing in what was expected from him. A horse named
Wonder, belonging to the riding-school at Woolwich, may be quoted as
living to forty years.

Mr. CuUey, in his Observations on Live Stock, mentions a horse he
knew, which lived to the age of forty-seven years, having during that time a
ball in his neck, received in the battle of Preston, in the rebellion of 1715,
and which was extracted at his death, which happened in 1758: and,
judging him at four years at the time he received the wound (and it is pro-
bable he was more), he must, at his death, have been forty-seven. But
even these vencrables were mere babies to the barge-horse of the Mersey
and Irwell Navigation, who was well known to have been in his sixty-second
year when he died.

It is true, that these are not very common instances ; j'et it is not the
natural economy of the animal which makes them so, but his early applica-

OF THE TEETH. 35

tion to full exertion, and the uni'emitting continuance of it, whereby his race
is begun frequently before he is three, in the break, lunge, or riding-house ;
before five, his utmost speed is exerted after the hounds in winter, and as a
hackney against time in the summer ; at seven, blind, foundered, and spa-
vined, he gallantly shines in the mail or stage ; at eight, he falters in the
fish cart ; and, before ten, worn out with disease and inanition, his reputed
old age gains him an honourable exit at the slaughter-house.

Hence it must be at once evident how small a proportion of a horse's
natural life is eight years ; and yet this past, the majority of persons begin
to consider him as aged, and unfit for service. The more we see and ob-
serve of horses, the more we shall be astonished at the want of attention
and consideration this evinces. A long acquaintance with these animals
has induced me to draw the following comparisons between their ages and
that of man ; that is, at these several periods of comparison, the constitu-
. tion of horses and man may be considered as in an equal degree of perfec-
tion and capability for exertion, or of debility and decay, according as youth
or age preponderate. Thus, the first five years of a horse may be consi-
dered as equivalent to the first twenty years of a man ; or thus, that a horse
of five years may be comparatively considered as old as a man of twenty ;
a horse of ten years, as a man of forty ; a horse of fifteen, as a man of fifty ;
a horse of twenty, as a man of sixty ; of twenty-five, as a man of seventy ;
of thirty, as a man of eighty ; and of thirty-five, as a man of ninety. So
far from this comparison being too much in favour of the horse, I am dis-
posed to think it too little. Horses of thirty-five years of age are as common
as men of ninety, provided it be taken into the account that there are twenty
human subjects for every horse ; and, unquestionably, a horse of forty-five
is less rare than a man of a hundred and ten.

Of the Age of Horned Cattle.

In the ox and sheep, the age is most frequently judged of by the horns,
as offering a more convenient point of observation than the teeth. But as
the horns are the subject of much trickery, and as some breeds of both are
now hornless, it is important that we should be justly informed of the indi-
cations of age by them. The detitition of horned cattle has been more neg-
lected than that of the horse; and the scientific breeders, who have learned
to mould the form of these animals at their will, have failed to inform them-
selves on so simple a matter as the successional changes in the bovine
teeth: on the contrary, they have copied each other's errors from Buffon
downward ; until, in the present day, some of our highest authorities are
not withm twelve months of the correct periods of the displacement of the
-one set and the appearance of the other. Mr. Boardman, V.S,, informs
us, that the permanent incisors begin to take place .of the milk set at ten
months, and that by three years they are all renewed. Mr. Parkinson er-
roneously states, that cattle are full-mouthed at four years old ; while Culley
and Dickson, better informed, have justly stated the period of the full-mouth
to be five years. Mr. Youatt, who has entered more into detail on it than
any previous writer among us, observes, that a calf either at birth, or very
soon after, is found to have two middle incisors in the lower or posterior
jaw; neat cattle having, as is well known, none above. In a fortnight, two
others appear alongside of the first. The third week usually produces two
more; and by the fourth or fifth week from birth, the addition of two others

c 2

36 OF THE TEETH.

makes the complement of milk incisors (eight) complete. ' These teeth,' says
Mr. Youatt, ' will present a surface convex externally, and somewhat con-
cave within ; the portion above the gum will be covered with enamel, and
which will slant upward from the internal to the external surface of the
tooth, forming an ed^e of considerable sharpness. The only indication of
advancing age will be the wearing down of these sharp edges, and the ap-
pearance of the bony substance of the tooth beneath. Even at a month the
centre teeth are a little worn. At two months the enamel will have been
somewhat worn off the edge of the four centre teeth. At three months,
from the six centre ; and at four months, the corner teeth will likewise be
considerably worn.' From this period these teeth decrease in size in the
order of their appearance, until two years old, when the two middle ones are
pushed out by those of the permanent set ; and thus a two-year old steer
or heifer will have two large middle incisors pushing up, and six dwindled
ones remaining. At three years old there are four of the old and four of
the new set ; but the older will be seen to be almost hidden by the others.
When the beast is four years old, there will be found six permanent broad
incisors, and two shrunken ones of the milk set, which Idlter sometimes do
not displace themselves so readily, but, on the contrary, form a species of
wolves-teeth, and annoy the animal much, unless they are extracted. It is
at five years old that the animal may be said to be full-mouthed ; for at this
period, whether it be steer or heifer, the eight incisors will be all up, though
they will not appear equally grown until six years old. 'After this period
the edges of the incisor teeth rapidly wear down. Even at three years, the
edge of the central incisors is taken off. At four years, a dark waving line,
shewing the bone beneath, begins to appear. At five, it is seen in the four
central ones ; and at six it has extended over the whole set. At seven it
is becoming broader and more irregular in them all, exhibiting a second
wider and more circular mark within the former one, which, at eight, has
extended over the six middle teeth. At nine, the process of diminution
which was observed in the milk teeth is beginning to appear in the per-
manent ones, and the two central teeth are evidently smaller than their
neighbours ; and the two dark marks in all except the corner teeth are
ground into one of a triangular shape. At ten, the four central incisors are
diminished, and the mark is becoming smaUer and fainter. At eleven, it is
so with the six central ones ; and at twelve, all are much diminished, but
not to the extent to which the diminution of the milk teeth was carried ; and
therefore these teeth are much closer together than the milk teeth of the
eighteen month steer were. The mark is now very faint, or nearly obli-
terated, except in the corner teeth, and the inner edge is worn down to the
gum.' — Veterinarian, No. 28.

The horns of cattle also yield indications of age thus : — At three years
the temporaneous set falls, and by the fourth, two small horns, terminating
in a button-like extremity, appear. The growth of the horn impels this
button forward, and another horny cylinder, similarly terminated, appears
annually as long as the animal lives. The horny accretion converts these
bulbous extremities into annular joints or horny rings ; and thus, by allow-
ing three years for the point of the horn, and an additional year for each
ring, the age is obtained. To frustrate this judgment, it is not uncommon
to shave or ras]) the horns : but the month, by the foregoing rules, will
yield a just indication.

In shee/i, also, the age is judged of by the teeth and horns. The second

EXTERIOR CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE.

37

dentition commences between the first and second year, but by the second
year, the middle permanent incisors of the under or posterior jaw (for they
also have none above) are up. At three years they have four of these
broad teeth, as they are called ; at four, six of them are fully evolved ; and
at five years, the two others are up, which makes them full-mouthed. The
sheep teeth, as the animal advances in years, becoming divested of its
enamel, blacken, shrink in volume, and, where circumstances occasion these
animals to be allowed to become very old, they loosen, and prove almost
useless. The teeth of goats follow similar laws, and their age is indicated
by the same appearances.

The ho7-ns of sheep and of goats are not changed, but appear the first
year ; and as they also gain a horny ring every year, so, by adding one
year for the end and one for each ring, the age is indicated in the horned
breeds.

EXTERIOR CONPORMATION OP THE HORSE.
[Continued from p. 2ti.']

The channel, among horsemen, is the hollow that is formed between the
two branches of the posterior jaw ; internally it lodges the tongue ; more
exteriorly are placed glands, vessels, and fat. It should not be too wide,
or the head will appear clumsy ; but on the contrary, if it be too narrow, it
becomes a still greater defect, both in the riding and the carriage horse ;
for in this case it will prove painful for the horse to bend his head inwards,
or to rein in to the bridle, either in riding or driving.

The neck should form from the head to the withers an elegant but
moderate curve, with which it should unite with a very moderate depression
only ; while its under surface ought to be but very slightly incurvated, and
should enter the chest rather above the point of the shoulders. In point
of length, it is of consequence that the neck be duly proportioned : a long
neck, when thin withal, seldom presents a firm or proper resistance against
the pressure of the bit. When, on the contrary, the neck is too short, the
head is frequently ill placed, and the lever in the hand of the rider will be
also too short. Such necks are often likewise weighty, and overloaded with
flesh. It is evident, also, that such cannot be reined up without danger of
sufi'ocation ; and it is seldom that a short-necked horse is speedy. When
the upper surface of the neck is thick and heavy, it is a very strong pre-
sumption of a sluggish disposition, particularly in geldings and mares. In
stallions it is a distinctive sexual mark, and hence less to be depended on.
Now and then the neck is arched downwards, which is called ewe-necked.
When the deformity is considerable, it prevents the head from being carried
in its true angle; instead of which, the nose, from being projected upwards
and forwards, has occasioned such horses to be called star-gazers; to remedy
which, it is usual to draw down the head by a martingale. In the horse, as
well as in all the grazing tribes, the length of the well-proportioned neck is
such that, added to the angle resulting from the head, the length of both is
equal to the height of the shoulders from the ground. It may not be amiss
to mention, that, in the purchase of a horse, it is prudent to observe whether
the upper part of the neck bears any marks of a tight collar having been
worn : when such an appearance does exist, it commonly arises either from
a strap worn to prevent the action of cribbiting, or such a horse is apt to

38 EXTERIOK CONFORMATION OF THE IIORSK.

unloose himself, which is almost an equal defect. A large prominent wind-
pipe IS considered desirable.

The mane crowns the neck throughout its whole extent: in front of the
head It IS called the foretop. Nature appears to have designed this part
simply for beauty to the animal : had it been for a guard to the neck, it would
have grown on both sides ; whereas, when not altered by art, as in dratrooii
horses, It hangs naturally to one only. In stallions, the mane is generally
thick and long : a white one, exhibited some years ago, was several feet
long, and was carried in a bag. It is usual, when it is wished to thin the
mane and tail, to wrap a tuft of the hair around the fingers, and pull it out
by the roots; but this mode prevents its laying well, and disposes some
horses to resist. In my own stable, I have found that the frequent use of a
three-pronged angular iron was the best means of keeping the hair thin,
and assisting it to lay well. See Veterinary Instruments, at the end.

THE BODY AND LIMBS.

In proceeding to a description of the external confomation of the trunk
and members of the horse, are we to consider the matter philosophically, and
regard him as the type of an important genus ? or are we to examine his
frame and organology with a view to his application to some one of the nu-
merous purposes to which mankind apply him ? It is in this latter way that
the purchaser of a horse would most likely proceed ; but it is by general
principles that the teacher can best accomplish his purpose, being well aware
that it is by an extended view of the whole that the individual purposes can
be best exemplified in the summary. Whatever may be the services re-
quired of the horse, strength, action, and safety, are indispensables :' the de-
grees of these q^ialities may relatively vary, according to the work he is em-
ployed in, but each of them is, in every instance, a requisite. Poiver is the
result of muscular contractions acting on organs adapted for motion. Action,
in its degrees, as operating locomotion of the machine, depends principally
on the length and direction of the various parts of the bony fabric as opposed
to each other. The safety of the action, generally, is connected with the
degree of perfection in the fom and direction of the limbs, united with a
just proportion of their lengths.

The withers are formed from the long spinous processes of the dorsal
vertebrae ; and as, when operated on by the powerful lumbar muscles, they
act as levers in elevating the trunk, and with the trunk the fore parts ge-
nerally, it is evident that any increase of their length is an addition to their
power. It is thus that horses with high withers usually elevate their legs
considerably in action, which is unquestionably favourable to the safety ot
their progression : this form is also considered as an agent in the quickness
of progression ; for, as we usually raise every body we wish to throw forward,
so the elevation of the fore quarters allows the hinder (in which lie the great
propelling power) to act to greater advantage, and thus elevating the fore
parts accelerates the general motion of the whole. It is, however, evident,
that to a just appreciation of the form of the withers we should consider the
immediate services of the horse. In the hackney, the lightness of his car-
riage, the safety of his footing, and the readiness with which his saddle re-
mains in its proper situation, render their height invaluable. To the hunter,
in addition to the above, we may add the advantages which ivcsult from these
lengthened levers in the action of leaping. The racer, on the contrary, is

BODY AND LIMBS OF THE HORSli.

39

found to perform his wonderful exertions without any remarkable height in
his withers : in Eclipse they were very low, and they are so in the majority
of our racing fillies and mares. Reasoning on general principles, which sel-
dom lead us into error, we should not, a priori, consider great height in these
parts as essentials in the speed of the racer. The gallop of full speed is but
a succession of leaps, and all animals remarkable for their rapidity in this
motion are found low before and high behind ; that is, they are furnished
with long muscular hinder extremities exhibiting angular proportions acting
on fore extremities, which are comparatively inert as to the propelling power.
To the draught horse, low withers are peculiarly advantageous, and he can
better apply his powers by approximating his fore quarters to the ground ;
for as all drawing is but throwing the weight of the body beyond its centre,
which, requiring extraordinary exertions to counteract the tendency to fall,
brings with it the load, so, the greater the weight the animal carries before,
and the nearer he approximates this centre, the more advantageously he
acts*. It is, however, to be observed, that what has been advanced with re-
gard to this view of the withers, must not be understood to detract at all from
the importance of the extent, just placing, and mechanical action of the
shoulders ; on which, as I shall attempt to shew, so much depends.

The shoulders extend obliquely forward, from a Uttle below the withers
to what are called among horsemen the points of the shoulders ; but which
point is formed by the articulation of the shoulder-blade with the true arm-
bone, anatomically speaking (see plate of skeleton). The shoulders are apt
to be confounded with the withers, which often leads to much error in justly
appreciating the power and operation of the fore quarters. The withers may
be high, at the same time that the shoulders may be narrow, straight, and
altogether badly formed. The shoulders, to be perfect, should be muscular,
but by no means heavy with extraneous cellular matter, for it is by the
muscles of the shoulder that the action of the fore limbs is principally ef-
fected : it is, therefore, of much consequence that the muscular markings and
prominences should be strong. Immense muscular power is also necessary
for the suspension and connexion of these parts, as well as to operate their
motion; the shoulders in the horse not being connected with the body by
any bony articulation, but wholly by a muscular union. Large fleshy masses
unite the broad expansive shoulder-blade by its upper and inner surface (see
a, I, k, fig. 2, p. 6) to tke chest, while other powerful muscles below suspend,
as it were, the machine between them ; by which admirable contrivance per-
fect elasticity is preserved. The uneasy seat we experience when riding on
or near the croup of the horse, where the hinder limbs are connected with
the body wholly by a bony union, will illustrate the difference between the
elasticities of the one connexion and the other. When the body is propelled
forward, its tendency to the centre of gravity is counteracted by the fore ex-
'tremities, which then receive the mass : had the shoulders, therefore, been
articulated like the thighs, the machine at every motion would have experi-
enced a powerful and hurtful shock ; but, formed as they are, the strong
muscles of these parts receive and sustain what the hind quarters have thrown
on them during progression. This connexion, it may likewise be observed,
is not rendered strong by the power of these muscular masses alone, but also
by the geometrical situation of the scapulae or shoulder-blades themselves,

• This is familiarly exemplified liy the well-known fact, that when a horse in draught is
laden a little beyond his powers, if a heavy man mount on his shoulders, the horse then
moves his load with ease, by the increase of weight on his fore parts.

AND LIMBS OF THE HOUSE.

trunk wSr^'^r'"''^ ^ ^^'"^ «f P^'-^i^l -'-^h' ''^'^eiving the

aont7!>l K consequently the greater the force

lit- T ^ ^'■^^''^f ^pulsion, the nearer will these segmental

portions be approximated, and the more will their capability of supporting the
weight thrown on them be increased.

The centres of action in the shoulders are within their common centre,
and the extent of action of a part moving on its centre is in the ratio of its
lengtti. _ Ihe motion the shoulder enjoys is confined by the nature of its
articulation to the perpendicular backwards, and to as great an elevation as
the muscles will admit of forwards ; and these extensions being commonly
uniform, it will be at once evident that the more oblique its situation, the
greater number of degrees it will be able to run through: and further, when
It IS long and deep, as well as oblique, that this extent will be much in-
creased. It IS therefore easy to comprehend why breadth and length, but
particularly obliquity of shoulders, are favourable to the safety of action by
elevating the limb, to the elasticity of it by increasing the spring, and to the
celerity of it by enlarging the angle. To the safety of progression this
f orm of shoulder is peculiarly favourable ; for as the angles formed between
the shoulder, the arm, and the fore arm, are consentaneous, and make a kind
of bony arch when in action, so an oblique and deep shoulder is generally
accompanied with a full bending of the knee. The knee being thus elevated,
IS the occasion of a perpendicular replacement of the remainder of the
column ; whereas with a shoulder less elevated and more confined, the foot
seldom sets itself on the ground flatly, but first reaches it with the tofe, from
which such horses are said to dig the ground, and are usually stumblers.
Mares have very commonly low forehands, both as regards the heia-ht of
their withers and the extent and obliquity of their shoulders : to counteract
this, and to regulate the angles, an increased obliquity is very commonly
observed in the- whole limb downwards ; and, as is familiarly expressed, they
stand with their legs under them. This apparent defect is, however, given
for wise purposes; for by such a position of their fore extremities the pelvis
IS raised higher, and the foal thereby becomes more conveniently placed,
and less likely^to be>jected. Few rules can be laid down for observance in
the exterior conformation of the horse that are of so general application, as
that a short and upright shoulder, particularly if united, as is usually the case,
with an inclined direction of the whole limb backward, is a sure mark of an
unsafe pacer, and commonly, though not so universally, of a slow one also.
For it is to be considered, that much of the mechanism of motion depends
on the muscular power being exerted in the ratio of the angular, and not of
the vertical placing of the separate portions of the limbs it operates on.
Thus, by a flexed position of the shoulder-blade in one direction, and of the
true arm-bone in the other, both elasticity and speed are gained; while the
true perpendicularity of the parts below, as the arm, usually so 'called, and"
the canon, give columnar support. The importance of a just form and
position of the shoulders must, therefore, be apparent in progression, and
more particularly in the walk and trot. The part between the points of the
arms or shoulders is called the breast or counter ; and our judtmient of its
form must be regulated by the variety in the animal. In the saddle horse,
it should be only moderately wide and extended : when very confined, the
lungs have not suflicient room for expansion, or otherwise they must press
backwards and interfere with the stomach ; and we do actually find that
•larrow-chested horses have seldom a good digestion, and consequently arc

BODY AND LIMBS OF THE HORSE. 41
seldom durable. The shoulders likewise in such cases are usually not suf-
ficiently muscular, and the approximation of the limbs proves unfavourable
to stability. On the contrary, when the breast is too wide, particularly
when it projects and hangs over, the fore legs are apt to incline backwards:
such a horse must be weighty, and consequently unsafe in his mode of
going. This form, however, is peculiarly favourable to the draught horse,
particularly for those employed to move heavy loads, for reasons lately stated.

The elboiv of the horse, like that of man, is formed of the olecranon {see
skeleton), but in the animal is applied to the chest ; consequently the true
arm of the horse, speaking comparatively with the human anatomy, is con-
tained in the space between this point and the breast points. The elbow
should by no means incline inwards, or it will confine the action, force the
toe outwards, and sometimes occasion cutting. If it incline outward, which
is less common, it is unsightly, and gives the toes an inward determination,
and a rolling gait in the trot. It should, therefore, stand on a level with the
arm laterally ; and as its inclination backward is usually regulated by the
degree of inclination of the scapula or shoulder-blade forward, so the more
acute the angle between these parts the better, for the more advantageously
will the muscles act. The length also of the process which forms the
elbow, or, in other words, the greater extent there exists between the elbow
and shoulder-points, the more will progression be benefitted ; for as both of
the bones constituting this part act as levers for the extensor muscles of the
fore-arm, so the breadth and muscularity displayed between them are im-
portant considerations.

The fore-arm, usually called the arm of the borse, should be large, wide,
and muscular ; a small fore-arm is an indication of weakness. All animals
intended for rapid progression have this part long likewise: the knee of the
greyhound is but three or four inches from the ground; but though its
length is favourable to speed, it is not found to add to the ease of the rider ;
and thus horses for cantering, or for the paces of the riding-school generally,
are preferred with short fore-arms.

The knee of the horse corresponds with the human wrist. Like the
joints generally, it should be large, by which the surface of muscular and
ligamentous contact becomes increased, and the stability of the limb in pro-
portion augmented : by this form also the tendinous insertions are further
removed from the centre of motion, and thereby their power is increased.
The knee should be carefully examined, to see whether the skin has been
broken by falls ; and great caution is necessary in this, for the hair some-
times grows so well over the scar as to leave it hardly discernible. Horse
dealers likewise hide the blemish by blackening the part. It does not, how-
ever, follow that a mark or scar always indicates a stumbler ; and persons
are too apt to forget, that the safest horse may by an unavoidable accident
fall; but which circumstance will never influence his future manner of going,
unless the cicatrix should be of such extent as to interfere with the motion
of the joint: if, therefore, the arm and fore-arm be strong, the fore-hand
high, and the horse shew good action, he should not be rejected wholly for
an accidental blemish.

The canon or shank follows the knee, and the perfection of its form
throughout is important. As here are no fleshy masses, but purely tendi-
nous matter, and as the bone itself is sutficiently solid, so it is not the circum-
ference, but the breadth of the part, that is requisite to form a good shank.
An attention to the osteology will shew, that there is an especial contrivance

42 BODY AND LIMBS OF THE HORSE.

and "1? thi'''' ^^'^^^fSeons insertion to the flexing muscles •

and that this contrivance is equally favourable to the freedom of mo inn
of the great tendons which operate on the parts below. WlX thi bonl

ITf'nZh-'?^''''''^ ^^'-P^^ i° '^'^ Osteology) stands weH

out from the hmder part of the knee, these benefits are grf^tly incmtsld •
for not only do the muscles act mechanically to greater advantage; but the
flexor tendons likewise, being removed considerably from the centrL of their
motion, have their powers much increased, and which explains why a horse
tied m nn&ev the knee, as it is called, is never found to be able to bear ex-
ertion long ; on the contrary, he soon becomes strained, the legs get bowed
or arched, and totter on the slightest exertion. Dealers frequently assert
tha such a horse was foaled so ; and it may be true that the colt was born
badly formed, but the effects come on afterwards. It may be considered as
a rule admitting of few exceptions, that hardly one horse in fifty reaches
eight years old with straight legs and sound pasterns, with flexor tendons
confined and narrowmg this part. The tendons themselves, which are the
back smews of horsemen, should also, for the same reasons, be continued
downwards, so as to form a surface of great lateral width, but which should
be thm posteriorly: the mass of sinew itself should, however, be consider-
able, and very firm. In blood-horses this form is particularly observed ; on
the contrary m the cart-horse the back sinews are seldom proportionally
so large, and more seldom are they so well placed. These important ten-
dons should stand wholly distinct and clear from the knee to the fetlock •
when any thickening is observed in their course, some injury has been
i-eceived. If the swelling appear nearer to the bone than the tendon, par-
ticularly if It be on the inner side, it betokens a splint. When a splint is
situated not far fipm the knee, and evidently distinct from the tendons, it
trequently occasions no future incovenience ; but when it appears to extend
itselt invN-ards and backwards among the ligaments and tendons, it irritates
these parts, occasions inflammation, and ends in an enlarged callous swell-
ing. When the flexor tendons and their sheaths are swelled, and rounded
as It were, into one mass with the bone, leaving no distinctive marks be-
tween the one and the other, still greater mischief, probably, has at some
time happened. Either some of the ligaments have become ruptured, or
such a relaxation has taken place from strain and subsequent inflammation
as will always keep the limb weak. To detect lesser enlargements of the
tendons and ligaments, the eye alone should not be trusted, particularly in
hairy-legged horses; but the hand should be deliberately passed down the
shank before and behind. The inner and under surface of the knee should
also be examined in purchasing a horse ; when, if either an enlargement or
a scar appear, it arises from what is called the speedy cut, or blow given to
the part by the foot of the opposite side when it is elevated high in some
fast trotting horses. A sore scabby eruption within the bend of the knee
sometimes exists, particularly in cart or other low bred fleshy-legged horses.
These eruptive appearances are called mallenders, and render the horse ob-
jectionable, inasmuch as they prove frequently obstinate against healing.

The next part below the canon or shank is the pastern. Amono- horse-
men, the articulation between the pastern and shank is called the° fetlock
joint ; but, properly speaking, the fetlock is only the posterior part of the
joint of the pastern, from which grows the foot lock of hair. When the
pastern is very short and upright, the limb is deprived of much of its elasti-
city, and such horses prove uneasy movers : they are also unsafe, for the

BODY AND LIMBS OF THE HOKSE.

43

pastern being so nearly in an upright position, requires but a small resist-
ance, or slight shock, to bring it forwards beyond the perpendicular, in
which case the weight of the machine, uniting with the impetus, brings the
animal down. Nor are these the only attendant evils : this formation tends
also to an early deterioration of the parts ; for the ends of the bones being
opposed to each other in a more vertical direction, receive such a jar or
shock at each progressive movement, as gradually deranges the part, pro-
ducing an overshot joiYit, absorption of the cartilages, and thickening of the
ligaments. When, on the contrary, the pasterns are too long, they are fre-
quently too oblique likewise, and must then be also proportionally weak ;
though, from the increased elasticity occasioned by this formation, such
horses are commonly pleasant and easy in their paces ; and, by the exten-
sion given, they must also be more speedy, particularly in the gallop. The
enlargements at the bottom of the canon, called windgalls, need not here
occupy any farther notice than to remark, that although they bespeak undue
exertion, yet that, in themselves, unless they are so large as to prove inju-
rious by their pressure, they are not very important. Cutting of the pas-
tern joints, when dependent on a faulty formation of the fore limbs, as when
they naturally approximate too much inwards, or otherwise when the toes are
directed too much outwards, are either of them a serious evil. Cutting is,
however, frequently brought on by debility and emaciation ; hence lean,
jaded, and tired horses, will do it at times, that under other circumstances
will go free and not " interfere." For the same reasons, many horses cut
before they become strong and furnished that never do it afterwards.

The feet are next to be considered, and in the examination of a horse
too much attention cannot be paid to them. They are more liable to be
found too small than too large ; though in horses bred in low marshy situa-
tions, as Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire, the hoofs are often of a larger
size than ordinary ; and however convenient this may prove to the animal
while moving on the quaggy surface of these marshy districts, thej^ are very
unfit for speedy and light movements in more dry situations. Such horses
go heavily, and stumble ; and as the horn of which these enormous feet are
formed is always weak, so, by use on hard roads, the anterior or front part
falls in, and the sole, or mider surface, projects outward, reducing it, at last,
from a concave to a convex figure : such feet are then called pumiced.
Contraction is, however, the most general evil among the feet of our horses,
and some breeds appear more liable to it than others : it is peculiarly the
case with blood-horses. Colour also seems to have some influence in con-
tracting the feet ; hence I have observed dark chestnuts particularly prone
to it. Once on a time in my travels, being asked to dine at the mess of a
dragoon regiment, the subject of contracted feet in horses was started, when
I was surprised to find that doubts existed with regard to the increased pre-
valence to this defect in chestnut horses, and more particularly in dark chest-
nuts. The dinner over, it was proposed to adjourn to the stables, when the
majority of contracted feet among the dark chestnut horses was most striking.
A good foot should exhibit a proper line of obliquity : when the horn is
veiy upright, however wide and open the heels, such feet soon become de-
fective. This is but seldom attended to, even among those who esteem
themselves judges ; but no rule admits of fewer exceptions, than that such
a foot soon becomes faulty. There should also be a proper height of horn :
when there is too much, it disposes to contraction ; when too little, the

^ODY AND LIMBS OF THE HORSE.

heels, quarters, and soles must, of necessity, be weak, and tenderness in
gouig must be the consequence.

The heels should be particularly attended to ; they must be wide, and the
trog healthy, firm, yet pliable and elastic. Contraction of their cleft is
their most common defect, and is often also accompanied with a general
lessenuig of the circumference of the foot. Such a foot will probably feel
hotter than natural ; the frog also will [be compressed and small, and very
likely thrushy. Thrushes are always strong objections to a horse; for
when they exist in an open foot, that foot will not long remain so, if they
be not stopped ; and as some horses have a strong natural tendency to
thrushes, so their existence always deteriorates much from the value of the
animal. Nevertheless, when it can be ascertained with certainty that they
are not of long standing ; when the matter only exudes from the middle
cleft of the frog, and not from any lateral sinuses, neither the form nor firm-
ness of the frog being altered, they are less objectionable : and also when
circumstances can be learned that prove the horse has been placed in such
situations as favour the approach of thrushes, as moist litter or long con-
finement, then such a horse need not be rejected, for these thrushes may
be permanently healed. But when the complaint accompanies a foot
already smaller than natural, when the heels are, in the smith's language,
wired and drawn in, and the whole circumference of the hoof perhaps en-
circled with rings, reject such a horse, let him go as he will, for he cannot
long remain sound. When a horse's foot is held up, the sole should pre-
sent a concave surface : if it be less concave than natural, that sole is weak,
and will not bear much pressure ; and it is more than probable it will con-
tinue lessening in concavity until it becomes a plane, when every subsequent
shoeing will endanger the laming of the animal. WJiite feet are very ob-
jectionable on this account, for they are particularly liable to become flat
in the sole : their quarters, also, are commonly weak, and fall in ; and when
neither of these evils take place, they yet have seldom strength enough to
resist contraction : and when there are three dark and one white foot, in
nineteen instances out of twenty, the white foot becomes defective sooner
than the dark ones. Corns are another evil to which horses' feet are very
liable ; and, unless the shoes are removed during the examination of a
horse, it is not easy to detect them : though, when the foot is well picked
out, if a corn has been of long standing, some marks of former cuttings out
will probably appear under the heel of the shoe. Another very serious
complaint is a brittleness of hoof, which may be generally detected by
the marks of the fragile parts detaching themselves from every old nail-hole.
This kind of foot, particularly in hot weather, breaks away, till there is no
room for the nails to hold, when the horse, of course, becomes useless. In
an examination of the foot, the eye should also be directed to the wearing
of the shoe : if it be unequally worn, particularly if the toe be worn down,
such a horse is probably a stumbler, and does not set his foot evenly on the
ground, either from defective feet or natural gait.

On a review of the conformation of the fore extremities, it may be re-
marked, that, although the hinder limbs appear to be more particularly con-
cerned in the quickness of the progression, yet that upon a proper form
and a true direction of the various component parts of the fore limbs must
depend the elasticity, ease, and safety of the movements. Viewed anteriorly,
the legs should stand rather widest at the upper part, inclining a little inwards

BODY AND LIMBS OF THE HORSE.

45

as they proceed downwards. Viewed laterally, they should be seen to stand
in a direct line downwards, neither fowards nor backwards ; and the toe
should naturally place itself under the point of the arm or shoulder. If the
foot stands beyond this, but which is very seldom the case, the action will
he confined : such a horse, however, generally treads flat, even, and safe.
When the foot stands behind the vertical line, the defect is more consider-
able ; for as it removes the centre of gi-avity too forward, so it makes the
forehand heavy, and inclines the animal to fall ; and as, in general, the con-
sequence of such formation is a want of extent and obliquity in the shoulders,
so it tends to detract from the speed of progression altogether.

The carcass comprises the ribs, belly, and flank. The ribs form the
chest of the horse, which should be wide upwards, and as much deepened
below as possible, affording what is popularly termed great depth in the
girth*. The capacity of the chest is dependent on its form more than its
mere external measurement ; for two horses shall be measured, and shall yield
the same apparent dimensions, yet one shall have much larger lungs than the
other. It is, therefore, not depth alone in the chest that is required, but
sufficient breadth also. This form increases the surface of attachment of
muscles, and very materially assists respiration. Posteriorly, the ribs should
form the body as much as possible into a circular figure, that being of all
others the most extended, and the best surface for absorption : thus barrelled
horses, as they are called, are justly preferred ; for a circle contains much
more than an ellipsis of the same circumference. But when the chest is too
straight and flat, the belly is also small ; hence neither can the blood absorb
its vital principle from the air, nor the lacteals the chyliferous juices from
the intestines in sufficient quantities. Horses, therefore, with these defects
are neither long-winded nor lasting in their exertions. As less nutriment
is taken up by the constitution, so less is eaten ; thus also they seldom are
good feeders; and as the pressure on the intestines must be considerable
from the small containing surface, so are they usually what is termed washy,
that is, easily purged, whereby an additional cause of weakness exists, from
the too early passing off of the food. Nevertheless, it must be remarked, that
these sort of horses sometimes prove better workers than one would expect,
and are commonly spirited and Uvely. A knowledge of the advantages
gained by size in the belly is what constituted Mr. Bakewell's grand secret
in the breeding of cattle: he always bred from such as would be most Hkely to
produce this form, well knowing no other would fatten so advantageously.

The hack commences from the withers. It should not be too long, as
unfavourable to strength : long backed horses are, however, pleasant to the
rider, because the action and re-action are more considerable in a lono- than
a short back, and consequently the spring greater in the one than the other.
But what such horses gain in ease they lose in strength ; both the ligaments
and muscles being longer, must act to greater disadvantage. When the
back is too short, such horses, by having their extremities too much ap-
■ proximated, usually overreach. The back may be curved inwards or out-
wards ; when inwards, it is termed hollow, or saddle-hacked, and presents
a formation not favourable to strength ; but as the counterpoise is kept up
by other curves, so the crest is generally good : such horses ride pleasantly,
commonly carry considerable carcass, sometimes, indeed, too much.
When the curve is outwards, the horse is said to be roach-backed, which

* Sec Vetermariav, vol. v, p. /547.

'^^ BODY AND LIMBS OF THE HORSE,

form tends to prevent liberty in action, renders him uneasy in his paces
and, from the approximation of his hinder extremities, he will alsoE
overreach; and, as a counteraction to the curvilinear form of the spine, the
neck and head are sometimes carried low in these cases. A shorf-Wked
horse IS m considerable request with many persons; but when the back is
too short, there is seldom great speed, for the hind legs cannot be broueht
sufficiently under the body to propel the mass forwards: the points, like-
wise between the ilium and the lower angle of the femur approach too
much and m their flexion press too closely on the abdominal viscera to al-
low of great extent of motion.

The loins occupy the attention of all good judges in their consideration
ot a horse, and for the purposes of strength they can hardly be too broad-
the back extends to the posterior part of a common sized saddle, and where
the back ends, the loins begin. Sometimes, from a defect in the sacral
processes of the vertebrae, this junction of the back and loins presents an
indentation, as though the union was incomplete. This may be considered
m some degree, as a defect, inasmuch as it deprives the part of muscular
attachment, and such horses are said to be badly loined. The streno-th of
the loins depends on the length of the transverse processes of the lumbar
vertebrae, which should be long, that there may be an extensive surface for
the attachment of the muscles of the back : the muscles themselves should
also be powerful on each side, giving width to the loins, and seemino- by
their enlargement, as it were, to swallow the back bone. When the protu-
berances of the ilium are very prominent, the horse is called ragged hip-
ped, which IS injurious to the appearance only, except in cases where it
seems to arise from a paucity of muscle to fill up the intervening^ spaces,
l^ rom the loms to the setting on of the tail, the hue should be long and very
slightly rounded ; by which means, also, the distance between the hip and
the point of the buttock will be considerable. This formation is peculiar to
the improved or blood breed, and in every point of view appears the most
perfect ; for it affords a very increased surface for the insertion of the pow-
erful muscles of these parts. And though the large rounded buttocks of
the cart-hoi-se would at first sight bespeak superior strength ; yet, when he
comes to be viewed attentively, it will be found that the early roundino- of
the sacral line or croup, the low setting on of the tail, and the small space
between the hip and buttock, produce a decreased extent of surface, com-
pared with the broad croup, wide haunches, and deep-spread thighs of the
blood-horse.

The flank is the space between the ribs and the haunches, which part,
when too extensive, indicates weakness in the loins, and too great length
in the back. A hollow flank is the consequence of shortness in the trans-
verse processes of the lumbar vertebi-ae, which occasions a want of room for
the attachment of the large muscles of the loins. When the flank rises and
falls in respiration quicker than ordinary, particulariy if the horse be at rest,
it betokens either present fever or defective lungs. Should it arise from
present fever, other symptoms will also be apparent, as heat, dulhess, and
disinclination to feed : but when the horse appears otherwise in health, and
yet heaves at the flanks more than natural, particularly if the weather be
moderate, and the stable not hot, it is probable that such a h'bi'se is thick
winded. If the inspiration of the air appear to be performed readily, but
the expiration with diflSculty, and the flank, in expelling it, fall with double
quickness, and as it were at two efforts, such a horse is broken winded;

BODY AND LIMBS OF THE HORSE. 47

and his cough, which should then be tried, will be found hollow and sono-
rous. If no quickness in respiration appear, but on trotting- or gallopping a
wheezing noise be heard, it is called roaring; and though it constitute no pre-
sent disease, yet it is the remains of a former affection, and it even now inter-
feres with speedy action, and, in law, renders a horse unsound and returnable.

The tail, in the improved breeds of horses, is set on high, which is the
natural consequence of length in the hinder quarters. It should, however,
neither seem to be swallowed up by the buttocks, nor yet to start out im-
gracefully from the end of the back-bone, but should form a graceful curve
with the croup. As the fore extremities may be considered as especially
designed to receive and sustain the weight of the body, and to bear the mo-
mentum of progression thrown on them, so the hinder extremities may be
regarded as the essential propelling organs : having themselves less to sup-
port, they are flexed into considerable angles, and which angles are operated
on by masses of muscles of immense power. It is also a curious but wise
provision in the mechanism of the limbs, that their angles should be re-
versed; for, while the scapula, or shoulder-blade, inclines backward, the
ilium, or haunch-bone, is directed forward. The inclinations of the hu-
merus or arm, and of the femur or thigh, ai-e equally reversed ; and, in a
slighter degree, the same is observable in the corresponding bones imme-
diately below; by which arrangement the trank is suspended in equili-
brio, instead of falling backward or forward, as might have happened,
had all the angles been consentaneous. A view of the skeleton will more
clearly exemplify these counter-inclinations. That the hinder extremities
are principally concerned in progression, is again evident from the attention
that Nature pays to their formation and extreme strength in all cases where
great speed is required ; for let such an animal be ever so lightly framed in
other respects, yet great power will be always displayed in its hinder parts.
Thus, in blood-horses, which are derived from the eastern or most perfect
breed we are acquainted with, not only are the loins wide and the croup
long, but, viewed from behind, these horses will be found wider in the thighs
than even m the hips ; and of all the distinctive marks between the high and
the low-bred horse, this is the most striking and characteristic. A good
judge, under every disadvantage, immediately discovers a portion of breed-
ing by this appearance of extent and power in the muscles of the thigh alone.
Lhe greyhound offers us also a corroborative instance of similar form and
intention.

The real thigh of the horse, like the true arm, is so concealed by mus-
cles, as not generally to be known by that name ; but a view of the skeleton
will readily enable the reader to acknowledge its designation. It will be
tound, as has been noticed, reversed in its angle of inclination from the hu-
merus, or real arm, to which it corresponds, being articulated above at about
tne same level, but descending downward considerably lower, and with a
greater inchnation also, by which elasticity is gained, and the acuteness of
the angle resultmg therefrom is greatly favourable to the power of action.
I his bone bemg able to pass beyond the perpendicular backward, also assists

The whirl-bone, among jockies, is the articulation of the thigh-bone with
the pelvis : it is a very strong joint, and but rarely dislocated ; yet its liga-
ments are occasionally extended, when the horse is said to be lame in the
whirl-bone, or hip joint. .

48 THE COLOURS AND MARKINGS OF HORSES.

The corresponds to the knee of the human ; consequently the part
below It (with reference to human anatomy) ought to be called the leff, but
IS usually known by the name of the thigh, or gascoin. It might not be
amiss to call the bones concealed under the muscles of the croup and haunch
by the terms upper and lower thigh-bones, when treating of the general con-
formation of the horse. For the reasons beforementioned, the lower thigh
should be strong and muscular; it should likewise make a considerable
angle with the femur or upper thigh, forming a direct line under the hip or
haunch. Its length, as is seen in all animals destined for much speed,
should be considerable, and its supply of muscle great : whenever that por-
tion of limb between the stifle and hock is thin, and but indifferently fur-
nished with muscles, that limb cannot be strong.

The hock, or hough, as it is called by some horsemen, forms the joint be-
tween the thigh, commonly so called, and the canon, and may be considered
as one of the most complex and important joints of the body : its figure
should be broad and wide ; for, in proportion as the calcaneum, which (with
reference to human anatomy) is the bony process that forms the heel (but
called in the horse the point of the hock), extends itself beyond the other
bones, thereby increasing the breadth of the joint ; so the tendons inserted
into it act with a longer lever, and thus with a great increase of power. This
joint is subject to several diseases, which are prejudicial in different degrees,
and therefore require different degrees of attention. When, on examining
a horse, a soft puffy swelling is discovered within the ply or bend, it is termed
a blood spavin; but which is, in fact, nothing more than a windgall, or en-
largement of the mucous capsules of the joint which lie under the vein of
this part ; and what was said of windgalls in the fore legs applies also to
these. The mucous capsules on each side of the hock also, at times, be-
come enlarged, and are then called thoroughpin. At the back part, like-
wise, of the joint, the ligaments are liable to extension Or other violence,
when the shank, instead of exhibiting a straight line from the point of the
hock downwards, presents in this case a curved surface, accompanied with
heat and tenderness, which is then called a curb, and sometimes produces
slight lameness. The inner part of the joint at its bend or ply is subject
.also to a similar scabby eruption to that of the fore legs, called sellenders.
To detect the existence of bone spavin, the hocks should be attentivelv
viewed from behind, when any enlargement in the spavin place which ife with-
in, and slightly anteriorly of the general surface of the joint, may be easily
detected. From this enumeration, it will be evident that a strict examina-
tion of the whole joint is very necessary in the purchase of a horse. In the
consideration of the parts below, what has been said of the fore extremities
applies equally to the hinder.

THE COLOURS AND MARKINGS OF HORSES.
The colour of horses, being derived from their hairy covering, is necessarily
very varied. Numerous conjectures have been entertained as to what was
the original colour of this animal : but the inquiry has not been attended
with success ; for the horse is seen to perform all his functions under any
tint ; though fancy, and perhaps experience, has appropriated particular con-
stitutional properties and mental qualities to some hues more than others.
The various colours of horses would seem to be truly original and inherent ;
for such of them as have, from a state of domestication, been suffered again
to run wild, have retained the colour they carried with them, althou£rh (heir

COLOURS AND iMARKINGS OF HORSES. 49

form has altered, and submitted to the agencies of climate. Neither have
the original horses of different countries, according to the accounts of travel-
lers, exhibited any individual characteristic hue. The horses of the East are
not darker than those of the North; on the contrary, we have white Arabians,
and we procure the darkest breeds from the north of Europe; while in Russia
bright bay is as common a colour as any other. Geographical distribution
is not, however, wholly without its influence on the hair ; for our heavy
breeds, di-awn from the northern parts of Europe, are very frequently black ;
but a full blood black horse is very seldom met with. Age has likewise a
povvei-ful effect on the tinting of the hair; that of the colt alters many shades ;
in some cases it becomes much lighter, and in others altogether much darker,
as the adult period arrives. But the alteration in them which takes place
between the time of full growth and that of old age, is invariably from a
darker to a lighter hue.

The colours of the parents, among horses, appear to be nearly divided in
the offspring; to which adherence in the propagation of the external covering,
we are indebted for the endless variety of shades found am.ong them. It
was probably to add to the personal beauty of this animal, that in many the
mane and tail are either much lighter or much darker than the short hair
of the body ; which variation tends greatly, in the painter's language, to re-
lieve and throw up the body-hue. If nature, in these varied markings, had
personal beauty really in view, as from analogy we may suppose, it would
then be natural to conclude that the original horses all had it ; and as a con-
trasted tint of mane and tail is common to some colours more than to others,
as the sorrel, light chestnut, bays, &c., can any conjecture be thence drawn
as to the hue prevailing among the primogenitors of the genus ? Besides
these contrastings of colours, we may add those markings frequently met with,
such as the dark dorsal stripe of some breeds, as well as the bandings or strip-
ings common on the legs and arms of others, of the duns particularly. The
humeral cross stripe is principally found on the ass ; faint traces of it, how-
ever, are now and then seen on some horses, but which, like some other ano-
malies, may be rather considered as minute links of assimilation to other more
remote members of the genus. A still more usual contrasted marking is
found on the joints, which are in many horses several shades darker than
the rest of the body, and in some others altogether black. The dapphno- in
the grey, the bay, the brown, &c., may be regarded as original markfngs
also ; mtended, like the spots of the tiger and panther, to add to the beauty
of the animal, and cannot be considered as arbitrary deviations from nature,
gained by domestication or crossings in breed.

On this subject it may be observed, that there is a sensible difference be-
tween the markings imprinted by nature, and those which are either acci-
dental, or added by artificial agencies in operation since the subjugation of
this animal. The former please every eye ; we receive them instinctively
even as beauties, and they never offend: whereas most of the accidental
markings, and such also as appear to be the consequence of cross alliances,
or other ettects of domestication, however custom may have forced on us the
adoption, yet most of them are found to prove unpleasant to many eyes,
i^iebald horses are displeasing to some ; and others can never become recon-
ciled to the tiger-spotted. Extensive markings of white on black horses
ottend all, and hence, without doubt, were not original. Hair is also in-
fluenced m colour by the skin it adheres to; thus, thin-skinned horses have
light hair ; and where there is white hair, there are usually light eyes

•50 COLOURS AND MARKINGS OF HORSES.

The colours of horses have been divided into simple, compound, and ex-
traordmary ; and this division may be adopted for convenience, but is by no
means precise. Buffon calls the simple colours, white, dun, sorrel, bay, and
black ; to which ought to have been added, the chestnut likewise. White
and black are not unfrequently extended over the whole frame, but the dun
and sorrel are commonly found united with contrasted markings ; and the
bay usually presents the mane, tail, and joints, darker than the hair of the
rest of the body. The chestnut, in all its shadings, is found occasionally en-
tire ; but the dark tint of it is more frequently so than the horses of any
other tints, the white and black not excepted. Compounded colours are the
grey, the mouse, the roan, the red-roan, and the grey or flea-bitten roan ;
to which might be added, such bays as are dashed with black, and such bays'
and browns as become much lighter towards the bellies and flanks, and such
dark browns as have very bright tan muzzles, &c. The duns are also some-
what compounded when they are listed. Extraordinary colours are the tiger,
the piebald, the strawberry, and the flea-bitten.

Simple Colours.

The white is by some not considered a fixed colour with horses, as it is sup-
])osed to be always produced by age ; but this is erroneous, for we have had
many instances of pure white horses ; although it must be confessed that an
original white horse, compared with such as have become so by age, is as
1 to 100. The colt colour of the white horse is a light grey universally spread;
but in such white horses as have become so only by age, they were, as colts,
of a more shadowy grey ; and I believe in them it is always accompanied with
a much deeper tinting of the joints than of that of the body colour generally.

The dun has numerous degrees of intensity ; the lighter is fi-equently ac-
companied with a dorsal list : many are very favourable to this mark, and I
believe, with them, that it does not often accompany a very bad horse ; but,
ill a general point of view, experience has not stamped dun horses with de-
sirable qualities. The pure dun is of a simple lead hue, but there are other
shades which arise from an intermixture of other colours. The mouse-dun
is an instance wherein black hairs are united with the dun. Occasionally, dun
horses have white, or at least light, manes and tails, which relieve them much.

The sorrel has several degrees of shade; many of which might, perhaps,
with propriety, be considered rather as chestnuts, with a dash of light red.
The sorrel is very often foully marked with white, and is altogether not
esteemed, although it occasionally yields some good horses. Bay is a most
esteemed colour, so much so that the imaginative Bufibn conjectured it was the
original hue of the horse. There are various shades of it, as the bright, the
dark, the dappled, and the brown. The bright bay is a beautiful tint, and
is often accompanied with a black mane and tail; and occasionally the bright
bays have a dorsal listing : some are singularly glossy, and shine in the sun
with a sparkling gilded richness. The dark bays, in addition to black manes
and tails, have their joints, and often their legs from the knees and hocks,
black also. The dappling of bay horses, where it exists, adds much to their
beauty : in some it is faint, in others it is more conspicuous ; but in all it is
pleasing, and by many persons is greatly admired. The hroivn bay is in
very great estimation with many excellent judges, who aver that there are
more good horses of this shade than of any other : in some of them the muz-
zles, flanks, &c. are of a tan colour, and such marks, when lively, are consi-
dered as additions to the promise of excellence given by the colour generally.

i

COLOURS AND MARKINGS OP HORSES. 51
Cliestnut appears an original colour, for it is often without mixture; at the
same lime that the several hairs in many instances present, each, two or moi-e
varieties of tint : in the intermediate shade between the bright and the very
dark chestnut, the hairs are, as it were, gilded towards their points, which
gives them a lustrous brilliancy similar to that observed in some bays. Lio-ht
chestnut horses have frequently a large intermixture of white markings :°in
the coarse breeds the whole face is often white; and in all, the legs and feet
are apt to be so likewise, which, as regards the feet, renders such markings
peculiarly objectionable. The very light chestnuts, and the sorrel, have, how-
ever, often white manes and tails, which add much to their beauty, and some-
what compensates their other /ow^ marks. The lighter shades of chestnut
are supposed to characterize debihty of constitution ; and some facts seem to
bear out the opinion : yet the Suffolk punch, which is of this colour, presents
a most hardy, strong, and useful race of draught-horse. Dark chestnut horses,
as already noticed, are often of the same tint throughout the whole body : in
temperament they are also commonly considered hot and fiery ; and their feet
are certainly more subject to contraction than those of any other colour or
of any other variety of the chestnut colour. Black is not an esteemed colour,
although black horses present all varieties of character, from the most fiery
and impatient to the most sluggish and dull. Many persons affirm, that there
are more bad black horses than of any other colour; and I am very much
of the same opinion ; yet it must be allowed, that a shinino- glossy black
without an undue mixture of white, is very beautiful. It is, however, seldom
that they are wholly without. A white star in a black horse is, however a
great beauty, and a small race is not very displeasing ; but more than this
constitutes a blemish. Black horses which have brown muzzles and flanks
are not only greatly relieved by the mixture, but if markings go for any
thing, such usually prove here favourable omens. Many coarse cart-horses

S whTtek's'SSso!"' ""'^ ""'^ ""^^"^ accompanied

Compound Colours.

horses admit of several shades, or different proportions of white
and black, as dappled grey, silver grey, and iron grey. G.-ey horses are by
many valued on account of their beauty : sometimes a slight tint of ba/
mixed with the white and black, forms a pleasing variety in this colour'
Grey horses, like the black, admit of no settled chLcter, have I Z
extremes withm their range : the darker are considered the best. The dan!
pled grey is a general favourite for his beauty, and such a one retains iSs
oW the longest of any of the greys ; but, eventually, he also mu' t sulm
to the bleaching effect of time, and approach to a whiJe. The iron ffrev ha!
sometimes a mane and tail much lighter than the rest of the hoZ^'Z the

^^Z :^XT'''''X'''^^ i"termixtie of ed

on V the mntr '^r"'""'? ^'^^ ^^'T V^^^^^S- The mouse dun is
only the simple dun with a mixture of a darker hue. The roan which is

rrtti:it"of s^^^^ '^"^-^'^ ^-^^^^ - 1

Zl ^ ■ ^"'"'^^ characterizes : there are excellent roans

and there are many very indifferent ones. The coat of the common oan
IS occasional y intermixed with white in unequal degrees, and 'nTrreX
patch : such are called mealy roans, and hale ofteiT flesh-coloured S
and red eyes. The nutmeg roan, the red roan, and tlie dark, yield hand

52 VARIED I'OllM Ol' THE HORSE,

some and good horses frequently ; as well as the flea-bitten, which presents
itself on a light grey or white ground (commonly the former), where small
bay spots form the mixture. The strawberry roan diflfers from the flea-
bitten only in having the bay sprinkling more difinsed.

Extraordinary Colours. — Of these the principal are the tiger-spotted
and piebald : the subordinates are the strawberry, the flea-bitten, the mealy
white, and mealy roan. The tiger-spotted are not common as native horses
with us, but are much more so in some of the northern countries, as Ger-
many and Sweden. Mr. Karkeek speaks of them as frequent in Asiatic
Russia, among the Moguls. The tiger and leopard-spots in such horses
always exhibit two colours, independent of the prevaiUng tint of the horse :
the ground-spot is large, sometimes irregular, and may be black, white, bay,
or sorrel. The central-spot is sometimes darker and sometimes hghter than
the ground-spot, but is always contrasted : it may be yellow, chestnut, red,
dark bay, &c. : now and then it is white, but this is not common. In Eng-
land, the piebald is most frequently met with among those that may be
called extraordinary colours, and usually consists of white and some other
colour, placed in difi'erent parts distinct from each other, as white and bay,
white and chestnut, or white and black. With many, these horses are
favourites ; and the contrast, particularly between the bay and the white
variety, is pleasing: that between the chestnut and white is less so ; and least
of all, the white and black. The age of superstition is so much on the
wane among the inhabitants of cultivated nations, that we hear little now
among ourselves of unluckily-marked horses. But in most eastern coun-
tries, more particularly in Arabia and Persia, some markings are still consi-
dered as omens of ill-luck to the possessor, or of evil to the animal. The
placing of the colour of the stockinged horse, as such as shew much white
on the legs are called, must be critically drawn to certain lines of demarca-
tion to be fortunate. When it is otherwise, the animal is rejected : foals
born with some marks are immediately destroyed, however valuable the
breed. Experience has certainly taught us, that the ratio of qualities,
good or bad, are somewhat connected with particular tintings, and particular
placings of colour. Dark horses, of all hues except black, are esteemed the
best for durability of constitution, and aptitude for exertion. Light-haired
horses, on the contrary, like white-haired persons, are more irritable, and
weaker than those of darker tones ; the hair which appears on the skin after
a wound is white, because the part is in a state of debility. The white legs
of horses are more prone to grease than the black ; and white feet are much
weaker, and more disposed to disease, than those which are dark.

OF THE VARIED FORM OF THE HORSE, ACCORDING TO THE SEVERAL
USES TO WHICH HE IS APPLIED.

It is evident that, according to the several purposes to which we apply the
horse, so great variations in his bulk and proportions are necessary. The
fleetest racer that ever scoured the plain would cut a sorry figure in a Lon-
don coal-waggon ; and the most splendid among the stallions of Barclay's
brewing establishment would be ill- fitted for a breathing over the courses
of Newmarket or Doncastei*. Let us figure to ourselves four Shetlanders
in a Portsmouth drag, or Lord Sef ton's lofty buggy -horse in a gai-den chair
or pony-chaise, and we shall be at once convinced that, had not climate
operated in producing different races of horses, and with very difi'erent pro-
portions, the industry of man would still have enlisted the agencies of do-

VARIED FORM OK THE HOUSE. 53
tnestication to bend his frame, as well as those of horned cattle and of the
dog-, to his purpose.

The form of the racer at once points him- out as an animal intended for
great velocity of motion. His aboriginal outline, as derived from the east,
betrayed a similar intention ; and as his uses have been principally confined
to a display of these powers of locomotion, so it has been the endeavour of
the breeders of this variety, by the arts of domestication, to mould his form,
and fashion his organs, to a capability for velocity even greater than that
intended by nature ; which is evinced by the circumstance, that none of the
eastern horses can now compete with our race-horse. But to effect this
superiority in any great degree, some of those qualities which in most of
the other uses to which the horse is put are absolutely requisite, must, of
necessity, be sacrificed ; for nature, to keep up a true balance between her
creatures, never gives to any individual the united advantages of all. In
the race-horse, the sacrifices at the shrine of velocity are safety and ease, as
regards progression, and strength as regards the bearing of burdens or the
drawing of loads. In many other of the uses of the horse we require that
his fore extremities shall command a principal share of attention by their own
height, and by the elevation of the withers and crest they accompany. In the
racer, on the contraiy, as in other quadrupeds remarked for speed, we are more
attentive to the hinder extremities ; convinced, as we are by analogy and
experience, that they must be long, to maintain a preponderating influence
over the whole remaining portions of the machine, which they are the prin-
cipal agents in displacing and propelling forward. In the racer, we do not
endeavour to produce any other than a circular form of carcass, for none is
so good for all horses ; but we do endeavour to lessen its diameter gene-
rally. By every means in our power we therefore draw up the belly, as it
is called, that we may not only lighten the animal thereby, but also that we
may obtain more room for the operation of the true thigh of the horse,
which would be otherwise obstructed by the pressure of heavy viscera on a
full belly. But in the degree that we take liberties with the belly towards
the loins by drawing it up, we must enlarge the capacity of the trunk for-
wards. "We therefore not only prefer a deep chest, but one also of large
diameter. ' The capacity of the chest depends on its form more than on
the extent of its circumference ; for where the girth is equal in two animals,
one may have much larger lungs than the other. A deep chest, therefore,
is not capacious, unless it is proportionably broad. The external indicatfons
of the size of the lungs are the form and size of the chest, the form of which
should approach to the figure of a cone, having its apex situated between
the shoulders, and its base towards the loins.' — Cline on the Form of
Animals.

Such a form of chest is essential to the racer, and was found in his primo-
genitors. Its advantages are, first, that it receives the volume of digestive
organs somewhat displaced by the powerful action of the abdominal muscles
m trammg. Lodged here, the digestive functions can be carried on to the
proper nourishment of the animal. Secondly, by this form the lungs, which
are of the first importance to the racer, can expand to meet his exigencies.
*It is on their size and soundness that the strength and health of an animal
pnncipally depends. The power of converting food into nourishment is in
proportion to their size. An animal with large lungs is cai)able of converting
ik given quantity of food into more nourishment than one with smaller
ojies.' — Ih.

VARIED roilM OF. THE HORSE.

cheYplv"'".forhp ^^^^ "P"''^*'«" t'^'^ ^'^'-^ extremities too

The^^i;.c pal tilTTll" *° "'-^T^y P'^'-^^^'- their fomK
ine principal weight of the machine is borne by them- thev sustain tho

ate powei of the hinder extremities, but they also take a portion, thou^rh a
Wed one, of the progressive movements /for they draw the hinde^ex-
tiemities forward at the moment when these latter have expended their force,
by fl xion and extension, and thus place them in a situation for new action
wi T ?l t« the racer that the general fore-hand be equally

high with the hmder parts it is however so, that the shoulder be^eep
and oblique , and such form of it usually, but not always, accompanies a deep
and capacious chest The arms, under the above views, should be power-
tully formed throughout; and it is particularly necessary to their freedom
of action in the gallop, that they stand well out, and perpendicularly, as a
columnar support As a summary; the racer should exhibit the greatest
possible quantity of bone, muscle, and sinew, condensed into the smallest
possible bulk throughout the whole machine. The body also should be suf-
hciently long to allow of free flexion of the hinder extremities: it is an axiom
with the best judges of the racer, that 'there must be length somewhere
but the where has occasioned some difference of opinion, which arises from
not forming an opinion on just mechanical principles. It is aro-ued by
some, that long legs can propel a short body forward, and which is partiallV

n 1, i- T ™f * P'"^^'^ «f ^V^^^ the greyhound; and a veiT

short bodied greyhound is seldom seen, and still less seldom is such a one
seen to run well. It is evident that the hinder, extremities cannot be carried
beyond the extent of the angles allowed by the direction of the bones: if
carried further, they would endanger the safety of the articulation, or an in-
jurious pressure on the carcass they propelled. A short body, therefore is
mjurious to speed, both by mechanically preventing the full extent of the
action of the hinder extremities, and also by losing as much at each stroke
of the gallop as is the difference between its length and that of one differ-
ently formed; which, if it were only one inch, yet, when multiplied by a
number of strokes over the Beacon course, would amount to an important
distance in a closely contested race. Both length and breadth in the hinder
quarters have been already proved to be essential to the well-formed racer
It IS hardly necessary to add, that the thighs should be muscular in the ex-
treme, the hock broad, and that, like the knee, it be placed low down in the
hmb: the hinder pasterns, like those before, should be long and oblique
but with strength sufficient to combat the strain on them. The hunter of
the present day, be it observed, is totally a different animal to what he wa^
fifty years ago. To follow hounds of every kind, as they are now bred, the
hunter should be but one, or at the most two, removes from a full-bred horse •
some now in use are altogether full-bred. Consequently the selection of a
hunter, under the present system, combines the qualities of speed met with
in the racer with as much additional bone, muscle, and extended fomi alto-
gether, as will enable him to carry more weight, and support it durino- a
long course of fatigue and privation. Therefore with the following form,
the more of those qualities that usually accompany what is called fulf-blood,
the better : the breed yielding the speed and determination, and the form'
providing for the application of these qualities to the purposes of the rider.

The body of the hunter may, with propriety, be shorter than in the i-acer :
a short cylinder can sustain more than a long one ; and there is much dif-

VARIED FORM OF THE HORSE.

55

fereuce in weight between the jockey of eight or nine stone, and the sports-
man of twelve or fourteen ; as well as between the race of a few minutes
and the burst of an hour. The lengthened stride of the race-horse, allowed
by a long body and contracted belly, would exhaust the hunter, and would
sink him injuriously in deep soils. A shorter and quicker gallop, the con-
sequence of a shorter body, tends likewise, on most occasions, to husband his
resources. Moderate length of body only is also favourable in ascending
ground; and it is equally so in easing the concussion of descending the
same, by shortening the stroke. The hinder extremities, in the hunter, should
present all the principles of speed of the race-horse, with as much additional
bulk of muscle, and compactness of joint, as are consistent with the probable
velocity required, and the weight he is to carry ; for if it is essential that the
racer should be powerfully formed behind, to propel him forward in the
gallop, so it is equally necessary that the hunter should be well foraied in
his fore extremities, well formed in his loins, and well let down in his thighs,
that he may have not only speed in his gallop, but that he may have strength
to cover his leaps, particularly wheri they are extensive and numerous. As
regards the feet in the hunter, they had better be too strong than too weak :
a thin, weak, and shelly crust is a very bad property here, for a sudden mis-
placing of such a foot, on an uneven surface, will often bring him down as
though he was shot.

The hackney, more than any other variety of horse, adds to our health
and comfort; we ride him for amusement, and he transports us long distances
on our personal avocations. On some only of these occasions speed is de-
sirable; but on all safety is indispensable; and next to that, is the ease with
which his motions are performed. These requisites remove the hackney
still further than the hunter from that form which best suits the purposes
of the racer. In the hackney, therefore, we scrutinize his fore quarters
with the same attention that we pay to the hinder parts of the racer ; for,
as to the purposes of the latter, the fore parts are subordinate to the hinder,
so in the hackney, speed being infinitely less important than either ease or
safety, and particularly the latter, it is essential that his fore parts be so
formed as to ensure these properties. And here it may not be irrelevant to
inquire, on what does the safety of action mainly depend. Is it on any par-
ticular care of the animal himself in his progression ? or does it necessarily
arise out of certain peculiarities in his formation, dependent on such an eleva-
tion of his feet as will ensure his not stumbling by any erroneous placing of
them ? The close observer, I think, will answer, that both are concerned :
many horses go safely, and yet by no means elevate their legs high ; but
such are attentive to their steps ; and when they see stones or other risings
in their path, carefully avoid them. In my early practice I was called on to
examine ahorse intended for the French court, at the stables of that veteran
dea.ler Choppin. I objected to the horse that he went close to the ground,
which even his owner could not deny: but he still argued, that, although he
did appear to go near the ground, yet he was particularly safe in all his
paces ; and as a lure to the purchase, would have offered a bet, that on the
roughest ground he would not make one trip. As the animal in all other
respects was desirable, ground purposely. st^)ny in the extreme was chosen,
over which he was tried ; and it was singular to remark, that in every pace
he accommodated the elevation of his feet exactly to the. elevations of surface
they were to pass over; but it was with a kind of frightful nicety to the ob-
server. On the same ground, many high actioned horses, from inattention

VARIED FORM OF THE HORSE

plait "o^ofthe^f'T^'' ''n- -eetingany usual rising; or by

Ft is nft h.n^! t 7\ °" ^ ''T' ^^^'^ f'^"™ altogether. But

no n.f U 5^""' ^^^^ t^*^ careful hackney which does

not naturally elevate his feet is a desirable one. Horses, it is true are in a

Or event / 1 ^- ^u''"' ''f ^^""^ ^" •^"^^^^ i» ^ dark night?

usual caudon ? "^

The/ore-Zmn^; of the AacArner/, therefore should be elevated, and his
shoulder by all ineans must be obhque ; so that he may not only lift up his
feet, but also ride pleasantly and lightfy in hand, as it is termed by horse-
men. 1 o which latter valuable quality it is also essential that he have a neck
of just proportions, and that his head be particularly well placed on it, so as
to afford him room for flexing himself to the action of the bridle, which, in
the hands of a good rider, will sometimes constrain him to throw himself on
his haunches and at others to carry himself forward for more speedy pro-
gressioii The remainder of the fore limbs ought to present a perfectly
vertical line to the pastern, which should have such length and obliquity^
and such only, as shall bring the toe directly under the point of the shoulder!
The body should be circular, neither long nor very short ; his saddle-placincr
good his flank on a plane nearly with the rest of his carcass, his loins mde,
and his croup gently curved only, to allow of a graceful setting on of the
tail, trom hence downwards, the principles already laid down when treat-
1 W r .V """^'T' formation generally, will apply ; particularizing only,
tbat for this variety of horse a good foot ought never to be dispensed with.
Height IS not so essential in the hackney as in the hunter; it need never to
exceed fifteen hands two inches ; in most cases it may, with more propriety
range between fourteen hands three inches, and fifteen hands one inch.
Altogether, his frame should be compact, without being in the least clumsy •
and with this form, the more breeding he shews, short of full blood the'
better. '

Coach-horses should be nothing more than very large hackneys- and
whoever is at the pains to consider the matter attentively will agree with me
although It IS not usual to regard the matter exactly as I have stated it'
Horses for two-wheeled carriages should be the same, but something smaller!
The former are perfect between fifteen hands three inches and sixteen hands
one inch ; the latter between fifteen hands one inch and fifteen hands two
mches. No horse is so adapted for quick draught as a powerful hackney :
why, otherwise, do we take such pains to lunge and rein up om- carriage
horses, but to lighten them before ? When we again go back to old timTs
and read advertisements holding out safe and expeditious travelling from
London to York in six days, then we may safely resume the old Flanders
breed.

The heavy draught-horse, usually called the cart-horse, has likewise sub-
mitted to improvement, many being now purposely bred with lio-hter and
higher fore-hands ; by which their motions are much accelerated, to the
advantage of the transit of light roads, as in fly waggons, and on rail-roads,
and likewise to some agricultural purposes. The horse called the Suffolk
punch, by this alteration, is enabled to plough one-sixth more than formerly.
But where the weight and resistance to be overcome are great, weight and
bulk in the animal used on the occasion are required ; and here a heavy
fore-hand, and one not too elevated, is favourable to the exertion used. In

THE PACES OF THE HORSE.

57

cases where draught-horses are employed in the transporting of" heavy loads
without loss of time, as in coal-waggons, brewers' drays, &c. &c., then height
is very properly combined with great substance ; and the horses seen thus
employed, particularly in our coal-waggons, in the streets of London, are
splendid specimens of bulk and power. The traveller through Normandy
must have remarked them thei-e also equally fine. The general form of the
cart horse should, therefore, present (but in different proportions, according
to his uses) size and weight, with every mark of power ; his limbs should be
rather short than long ; his joints large and firm ; and the whole should
evidently be operated on by powerful masses of bone, flesh, or muscular
fibre : the simple fat of some of our draught-horses adds little to their weight
and nothing to their strength ; but the food which produces it robs the poor
of many a meal.

SECT. V.
THE PACES OF THE HORSE.

Having considered the horse in a state of rest, we will now consider him
as an animal of motion. The principles of progression or locomotion are
the same in all quadrupeds, and depend on an impetus given to the body
by a change in the centres of its limbs. The limbs themselves being com-
posed of portions moving on each other, form angles, the extensions and
flexions of which are operated by the muscles. The various degrees of
velocity communicated by these means are called paces, which may be
divided into natural and artificial. The natural paces of the horse, or such
as he assumes in a state of nature, are the walk, trot, and gallop.

The Walk — In walking, one of the hinder legs is first elevated and
carried forward ; the centre of gravity is by this means displaced, the chest
thrown forward, and the fore legs become inclined backward ; to relieve
which the animal moves the diagonal fore-leg. In the next action, the other
hind leg follows ; the trunk is again thrown forwards over the fore legs ; and
again, to relieve it, the fore leg, that has hitherto been at rest, moves on.
This is the most simple account of the walk that can be given ; but the sim-
plicity of this pace is by no means so great as may be at first supposed. It
is not OTily completely altered as the animal conducts it slowly or quickly,
in which cases it will be either successively or simultaneously conducted ;
but, like the trot, and the amble or pace, it may be performed either laterally
or diagonally. Neither is it invariable that, according to Borelli, the horse
^ incipit gressus pede postico,' to establish a new centre : on the contrary,
instead of a hinder leg, occasionally the horse advances a fore leg ; but in
these cases it is rather a preparatory movement than a progressive one. Mr,
R. Lawrence describes the walk as a pace wherein one foot only is elevated
at a time ; but which account applies to none but to a walk of the slowest
kind, and even that is at times conducted in two difi'erent ways. In the
one, the legs are laterally and successively in motion : the near hind leg,
being first elevated, is set down short of the near fore leg, which is then
raised also, and being set down, the off hind leg rises, and sets itself down
short of the off fore, which is then lifted up; and this finishes the round of
action. In what may be termed the diagonal slow walk, and which is the
most common, the legs move in the simple manner described at the com-
mencement of the subject. That in the walk ' three legs arc always on the
ground,' as stated by some writers, is erroneous, and will be apparent when it is

'^^ THE PACES OF THE HOUSE.

p^^^^^ ^^'^ ^^-^^ inches a<i-

v' ri l'.^","' '^^^ '•^P^d movements of the feet make t

very chfficul to detect the cadences in the walk : I have attentively watched
them from time to tmie, but have seldom satisfied myself. Mr. Freeman
m his elaborate work on horsemanship, thus describes the quick walk ; and
as his ideas on the subject of this pace are perfectly in unison witli my own
observations, I shall use his comprehensive account of the matter. He sup-
poses D to be the near hind, and C the near fore leg ; B to be the oflF hind
D— C off fore; consequently they will stand evenly; thus,

B— A' '^^^^ ^^i"& premised, he proceeds, 'I found that, supposing A the
off fore leg to begin, it was immediately succeeded by D, the near hind ; but
B, the off hmd leg, seemed not to follow the fore leg at the same time as
before (i. e. that was in the walk of the pace), but this was nothing more
than the alteration of the poise of the body, when either the one walk or the
other took place For when B, the off hind leg, began, it was succeeded
by A being lifted up ; and when B was set down, D was lifted up. But A
and B seemed m this walk so connected together by the poise bein? on
the same side, that B appeared to begin. The poise being altered by the
will ot the horse, A seemed to begin, and not to be succeeded bv B beino-
set down at the same time after it, as in the walk of the pace. dIs in both
cases taken up after B is set down ; and when A is set down, C is taken
up, to make room for D to be set down.'

It must be remarked, that Mr. Freeman had, before this quotation, been
describing the walk of the pace, into which many horses may be hurried
and some others assume naturally ; but which, in all, is now considered as
a defective action, from the decrease of manege riding with us : and unless
this be taken into consideration, Mr. F.'s description will appear somewhat
confused. From the account I have given of the true walk, it will appear
that whether it be conducted slowly or rapidly, the equipoise or balance will
be placed diagonally, and so conducted by the supporting members ; from
this walk, therefore, the trot can be at once produced without disunion or
change of centre. In the pacing walk, acceleration produces the amble,
provided no change of centre take place, or, in other words, provided no in-
terruption to the unison and harmony of the moving members occurs : for,
in this walk, the limbs acts laterally, and not diagonallv. The change of
the centre or equipoise of the body is sensibly felt by the rider when either
the walk of the pace or the walk of the trot is substituted for the other ; but
however attentively the eye may be fixed on the limbs, it is always very difficult
to see the change at the moment it occurs.

The Trot. — This pace, when true, is always performed diagonally, but
the limbs are very differently occupied, according as the action is slow or
fast. In the slow trot, the diagonal legs, as the off fore and the near hind
leg, are elevated and replaced together ; while the other diagonal limbs
remain on the ground to sustain the weight of the machine, although thev
are evidently making ready to take the place of the moving ones ; as exem-
plified in Jig. 1 . It is to be observed that this mode has been given as the
true detail of the trot under all its degrees of celerity : but which is errone-
ous ; for when it is conducted with some degree of celerity, there is a period
in every spring made by the diagonal members when all the feet are in the
air at the same time, and the body is completely elevated from the ground.
(See^j^-. 2). To exemplify this, we will suppose a horse trotting at the rate

Fig. 1.

of ten or twelve miles an hour, and that the off fore leg and the near hind
have been elevated in the air ; in such a case, before they meet the ground,
the near fore leg and the off hind are not only prepared, as in the slow trot,
to elevate themselves, but in this accelerated motion they actually do so
before the others are set down : consequently the feet at this precise time
must be all in air, as seen in the 2d figure. In the slower trot, as seen in
figure 1, the near fore and off hind legs are preparing for elevation only, while
the off fore leg and near hind are yet in action, and these raised legs' are, in
this instance, first set down before the near fore foot and off hind are actually

' hTi:1L7tr^t^fese "P^^*' ™P-- ^^ter,

^-hile the off fo,^ and t heT' V T '"™P?'^*^^^ "^"^^^

'^tnent, it must be cLar that tl ' 1 ^/f • ^^'^

rrom the eaith which forms the essential difference between the

60 THE PACES OF THE HOKSE.

slow and the extended trot. To pursue the description, the animal still
acting on the impulse derived from the near fore and off hind, they become
earned across the off fore and near hind at the moment these latter meet the
ground. The off fore and near hind having met the ground, immediately
prepare to rebound from it, and to give a fresh impetus to the motion before
the near fore and off hind legs again come down ; which then" forms the
second period when the horse is all in air, or, in other words, is again
aerially elevated, and as totally detached from the ground as a bird when
flying, or as the horse is understood to be when either leaping or gallopping.
If it should still not be readily comprehended how the horse should be with-
out support at any time during the trot, let us draw a parallel between the
progression of a biped and that of the horse. In the walking of a man, one
foot becoming elevated is carried forward, and set dowm ; during which the
body is likewise carried forward, and the centre of gravity takes a new line
through the moving mass. The contrary foot is now elevated also in its
turn, and repeats all the phenomena of its fellow. In running, so essential
a difference may be observed, that let running be conducted ever so slowly,
and walking ever so fast, so that the speed shall be greatly in favour of
walking, yet the paces will remain totally distinct. In the running of man,
as well as in the extended trot of the horse, there is a period when all the
supports are completely removed from the ground: for by means of the
flexion and extension of the angles of one of the lower extremities of the
man, a spring is made, which displaces and elevates the body, inclining it
forwards, and taking the first elevated leg with it, which, before it meets
the ground, is crossed by the other. The body, losing its impetus, waits
for fresh impulse to be gained by the rebound of the limb which was last
elevated, and is by that means again propelled forward ; the contrary leg
once more passes, to be ready to receive the propelled weight thrown on it,
and again, by flexing and extending its angles to relieve itself, it renews the
action. Exactly the same happens in the extended trot of the horse as in
the running of the man, for here the fore and hind diagonal extremities of
the horse, acting in unison, form themselves, as it were, into a single sup-
port, as one leg, the centre of motion being placed diagonally across it ; by
which the superincumbent weight, although moving on two distinct mem-
bers, yet these members, acting in perfect accordance, produce one effect.
The principles of the trot, therefore, are illustrated by the running of a
biped, and correspond with it in the mechanism of its action. Though the
trot has not been generally understood among horse amateurs, as being a
pace wherein the feet were all in air at one period, yet a very little con-
sideration will put the matter beyond doubt, and make it clear to the meanest
capacity. In the first place, it is evident, that the utmost limits to which
the limbs could extend themselves, would not cover the space of ground
which is passed over in the extended trot by each diagonal spring did the
feet remain in contact with it, as in the slow trot ; but being wholly freed
from it, as may be seen by marking the impressions of the feet in soft soils,
they are propelled through a space equal to the impulsive force they receive.
Figure 2 will display these principles, and present the legs as they may bo
seen in the reflection of a horse in the extended trot, as it may be gained
by means of a looking-glass. As this fact is even yet disputed, a second
proof may, perhaps, serve to render it yet still plainer, by considering the
action of overreaching or clicking, which occurs in heavy, awkward, or im-
broke horses ; but particularly where the hind quarters are high, the back

THE PACES OF THE HORSE.

61

short, and the fore quarters low and heavy. In these instances, the balance
of power being with the hinder parts, and the angles favourable to their
flexion, they act quicker ; and hence the hind toe is brought to the fore foot
before that is altogether ready for it, or, in other words, before it is removed
out of its reach : but in the worst cases, the hind never so far surpasses the
fore foot in quickness, as for the hind toe to hit the fore heel ; but it always
meets the middle of the under, or shoe surface, being at the precise time
that the fore foot has commenced its elevation ; but which, in case the action
was perfect, it would not do, for the fore foot would then have been com-
pletely elevated before the hinder had reached it.

The Gallop. — What is called the gallop may be properly divided into
three varieties of the same original action of the limbs. These are the
racing gallop, or gallop of full speed ; the slow, or hand gallop ; and the
canter. It is not usual to consider the canter as otherwise than a slower
gallop ; but whoever will pay sufficient attention to the subject, will perceive
that there are essential differences between the two : I am, however, not dis-
posed to agree with foreign manege masters, who consider all the gallops
as distinct paces ; on the contrary, I think them all constructed of one and
the same action; of which a sufficient proof presents itself in the certainty
that the horse can change from either of the gallops into any other, without
alteration of his centre of motion or equipoise, or without interrupting the
harmony of the moving members ; but merely by an increased or dimi-
nished effort of the same action.

The gallop of full speed is the most simple of all the paces, for it is
nothing more than a succession of leaps. Simple as it is, it cannot, how-
ever, in any instance, be commenced without the intervention of the slower
gallop, in which one of the hinder legs is first advanced to establish a new
centre; for it would require too great an effoi't to raise the foreparts at once
from a state of rest by means of the loins, and to throw them forwards, at
the first action, to a considerable distance by means of the haunches and
thighs. This fact is well known to jockies, and other sporting characters,
and they often derive profit from the circumstance, by wagering with the
unwary, that no horse shall be found to gallop one hundred yards while a
man runs fifty, provided each start together : in which case, so much time
is lost in acquiring the due momentum, that the man wins : make but the
race for one hundred and fifty yards, and the horse would beat ; for now
the impetus being acquired, arrives at its full momentum; in which the fore-
parts when raised are thrown forward by the force of the flexion and exten-
sion of the angles of the hinder parts ; and as both of the fore, and both of
the hind legs, in the gallop of full speed, become opposed to the ground in
succession at the same moment, that is, as the two fore feet at once beat the
ground together, and then the two hinder, so it is evident that the gallop of
speed is nothing more than a repetition of leaps.

The Hand-gallop, when acted tme, and with the right shoulder forward,
may be described thus : At the instant the horse elevates his fore quarters
by means of the muscles of the loins, he throws his. fore legs also forwards,
through the agency of the muscles distributed to the shoulders and arms :
but it appears that he does not elevate his fore limbs equally ; the right is
raised a little more, and it is also carried a little further forward than the
left, which niakes the action a pace, and not a leap. During this first ele-
vation, and in some instances preparatory to it, the right or ofi'-hind foot
moves slightly forward, but only sufficient to gain a true centre, and to cor-

^2 THE PACES OF THE HOUSE,

respond with the hiereased forwardness of tlie right shoulder: the near hind
leg, It must be remembered, yet remains fixed. The fore extremities now
reach the ground, the near fore a little before its fellow, the ofi-fore doubling
over It, and placmg itself a little beyond it; and the slower is the gallop
the more considerable will be the distance between the placing of the fore
legs. As soon as the near fore leg has met the ground, and before the oflF
tore has yet taken its full bearing, the hinder legs are moved in the follow-
mg manner : the near hind elevates itself, and, as it reaches the ground, the
oft hmd passes it, and becomes placed also. It is now that the horse begins
to be all m air in this pace ; for on the next spring that the hind quarters
make, the fore quarters being already elevated from the last impulse, the
animal is, of necessity, completely detached from the ground. The next
period when he is likewise so, is when the fore quarters, meeting the ground,
gain a new impulse by their rebound ; the haunches are again thrown in to
take their share, and likewise to give their impulse.

_ The Cawfer.— Whereas, in the gallop of speed, the legs are simultaneous
m the canter they are directly the reverse ; and whereas ua the slow <rallop
there is a period in which the legs are all in air, so in the canter an essen-
tial difference occurs, for, I believe, at no period in this pace is the horse
all in air, but has always a point of contact with the ground ; and this I
conceive to be the grand distinction between the canter and gallop. The •
canter appears to be conducted thus : when it is performed on the right, the
horse commences by first placing his off hind leg a little beyond the other •
at nearly the same instant he elevates the fore-hand, and places first the
near fore leg on the ground; the off doubling over and beyond, is placed in
an instant after it. In the next moment, the hind legs are thrown in, and,
while elevated, the off fore leg becomes raised from the ground ; but the
near fore leg is not elevated till the hinder ones are replaced, and this, as
remarked above, constitutes the grand difference between the canter and
gallop. _ I believe this explanation of all the gallops, but particularly of the
canter, is novel ; but it is the result of close and continued examination of
the subject. That there is a very considerable difference between these two
latter paces, no one who is in the habit of riding, or who has any sensibility
on a horse, can doubt. The sensation to the rider is as different as possible;
and so is the action to the eye also. If this is established, it will call to
mind that the whole weight of the body must at one time rest completely on
the near fore leg ; and that this does take place in the canter is evident from
the effects observed : for it is a remarkable fact, though seldom observed on
by writers, that in all cantering horses the near fore leg is more deteriorated,
and exhibits more of the effects of u-orJc than the off; and I have constantly
remarked, that three out of four of such horses as are confined principally
to cantering, as ladies' horses, &c. become first lame on the near in prefer-
ence to the off fore foot and leg : and this difference in the wear takes place
usually in the degree in which horses are used in this pace. It also occurs,
in a minor degree, where the hand-gallop is often practised, when there will
generally be a superior tendency to wear discoverable in the near or left
fore leg ; because in leading, as is usual, with the right shoidder forward,
in the moderate gallop, the near fore leg meets the ground first; and though
as the impulse gained by the rebound elevates the near fore leg along with
the off, yet they are not elevated precisely at the same moment ; but the
near fore dwells a longer period on the ground, takes an increased portion .•
of weight, and acts as a centre of gravity longer than the off or right fore L

CONDITION OF HORSES, 63

leg. Judicious horsemen, sensible of this, do not therefore permit their
horses always to lead on the same leg, but frequently change the centre,
and gallop, canter, and trot, sometimes with the right, and sometimes with
the left shoulder forward.

Leaping is performed by a sudden extension of all the articulations of
the hinder extremities immediately after they have undergone an unusual
degree of flexion. This extension communicating its impulse to the centre
of gravity of the body, the whole is projected forward with a velocity de-
termined by the force applied and the weight of the mass. The projectile
force depends on the proportional length and obliquity of the angles formed
by the bones and on the strength of the muscles which act on them; hence
becomes apparent, the absolute necessity that the hunter as well as the
racer should be so foi-med behind as not only to present great strength with
length, but also a certain angularity of the separate portions which compose
the whole. Nevertheless, it does not necessarily follow, that a large horse
only can take considerable leaps; for, cceteris paribus, small animals leap
proportionally farther than large ; for the projectile force impressed on two
bodies being in proportion to their different magnitudes, their velocities will
be equal, and the extent of the space through which they pass will neces-
sarily depend upon their respective velociLies. Thus a small horse with a
light weight will frequently leap both high and wide ; but from the greater
extent of the angles in large animals, and the increased force obtained from
larger muscles, it is obvious that a certain size is necessary to the hunter, to
enable him to cover his leaps, and the necessity is increased if much weight
is to be carried. The direction of a leap depends on the situation of the
centre of gravity with respect to the limbs by which the impulse is given.
Man and birds, having the trunk situated immediately over the impellino-
limbs, are the only animals that leap vertically. Hence, when a horse at°
tempts a standing leap of considerable height, as a wall, high gate, &c.
he raises himself almost perpendicularly, and the elevation of his body will
always be found correspondent to the height of the object he is to leap

over

The artificial paces of the horse are of little importance to the sportsman.
The amble, as is well known, is operated by a hind and a fore leg moving
together, immediately followed by the same legs of the other side. This
pace is not now cultivated artificially, but a few horses adopt it naturally.
In the manege, airs or artificial paces, called terre a terre, piaffe, curvet-
ting, passaging, &c. are still practised. Of all these, passaging only may
deserve mention, as not only necessary in the charger, but it also may be
considered as a useful appendage to the paces of every horse intended either
tor carnage or saddle.

SECT. VI.
CONDITION OF HORSES.

Condition, as regards horses, is a tei-m conventionally well understood •
but beyond the precincts of the stable, it is neither precise nor technical.'
Ihe term, m common parlance, might be supposed to imply nothino- more
than the symptoms and appearances which usually betoken health. Thus,
when ahorse is in perfect health, he ought under this view of it, to be con-
sidered as in perfect condition ; and, on the contrary, when a horse is in anv

CONDITION OF HORSES,
respect out of health, he should be considered as out of condUion ; that is.
m YondiUon that neither fits him for perfect service to his owner, nor for
perfect comfort to himself. But condition is used with a latitude of signifi-
cation much exceeding this, and in its popular acceptation among horse-
men is more comprehensive but less correct in its meaning. Thus a farmer
rides a horse to market in full vigour ; but from constant exercise', he is out
ot flesh, or from bemg exposed to the air, he may have a very rough coat.
Ihis horse, with the stabularian, would not be said to be in condition: and
though he may be in a state to do every thing a rider ought to require of
him, yet, if he should pass in this state into the hands of a dealer, he must
make some material alterations in him before he, the dealer, will pronounce
him in condition, or before he can expect to sell him as such. Having,
however, passed through some changes in his appearance, and being now
termed by the dealer in condition, he would yet be found by the horse ama-
teur to want further alteration before he would be fitted to undergo severe
exercise, or to be in a condition to hunt, or even to pace the road as a supe-
rior hackney. Supposing him to have undergone some further chano-es,
still m this improved state, if he should pass into the hands of the turf jockey,
hi& condition must again be somewhat altered before he can be considered
as in condition to 'run: This conventional term, therefore, comprehends
a variety of states and degrees ; some dependent on the real necessities for
alteration in the state of the animal, according to the several uses to which
he is applied, and others founded on an artificial taste relative to his exte-
rior appearance. Condition in the cart-horse would imply, with a healthy
state of his hairy covering, fulness and rotundity of frame generally; by
which his exertions in carrying loads or drawing weights would be assisted.
In the racer, on the contrary, in the hunter also, and, in a minor degree, in
every variety of horse used for quick moiion, Jine condition would imply a
state the reverse of fulness and rotunditj'.

Condition must, nevertheless, embrace some common properties in all :
it requires such a state of the body, , both internally and externally, as fits its
various organs to act uninterruptedly for the benefit of the whole; and thus
much, it is evident is equally necessary for the heaviest cart-horse as for
the fleetest racer: but in the lighter varieties, in addition to this, ' to be in
condition,' expresses a state favourable to accelerated and long -continued
motion ; produced by condensing the greatest possible quantity of animal
fibre, particularly of pure muscle, into the smallest possible bulk ; and of
promoting the absorption of the useless and hurtful incumbrance of adipose
and other interstitial matter, by which means we unite the grand desiderata
of lightness of body with full strength and elasticity. This state, if accom-
panied with a sleek and healthy coat, may be considered as one of peifect
condition ; and it is in the attempts to produce Aich state, that all the art of
training consists : but a total departure from Nature's rules by unnatural
heat, deprivation of light, stiniulating food, restraint from water, and exces-
sive clothing, are not now, as heretofore, considered, even in our racing
stables, as the means best calculated to promote these ends ; on the con-
trary, the light of truth and of nature is forcing a ray through the almost
impervious casements of these ' prison houses.' We must not, however,
join in a popular outcry, and thereby stifle the experience of many years,
and the evidence derived from that state of our racers which has "enabled
them to beat the stock from whence they sprang. Nature, as we have in- |{
numerable proofs, may be improved by art, as regards the powers of her

I

CONDITION OF HORSKS. 65
creatures. Nature gives due capabilities for all such purposes as are con-
nected with the preservation and the propagation of animals ; and to these
she confines her limits. The art of man now steps in : diverting nature
from her course, he is enabled to enlarge particular powers, which he directs
to particular purposes at his will ; nevertheless, such inroad on nature is
always found to be at the expense of some of the remaining qualities ; and
thus it is that speed in the race-horse is increased at the expense of the
safety and duration of his progression. In the greyhound also the celerity
has been improved by man, but scent has been withheld from the animal by
nature, as the improvement gained its maximum. As the rapidity of the
race-horse has evidently been increased by artificial means, we are now led to
consider him altogether an animal of art, and as such we also consider him as
one whose powers can only be kept up by a continuation of means not alto-
gether natural. That condition, therefore, which results from what is called
training, it is more than probable is essentially necessary to the speed exhi-
bited by the British racer. To the endurance of it, it certainly is. We
may, without doubt, improve on the training process, and simplify it to ad-
vantage ; but there is little doubt that we cannot wholly dispense with the
aids derived from long practice and experience. I shall first proceed to a
consideration of that want of condition which may be viewed as the result of
present disease, or of circumstances tending thereto ; and afterwards shall
touch on the process of conditioning the horse on his return from grass.

The accidental causes of morbid condition are various : a very common
one is found in injudicious feeding, both as to quality and quantity. Any
sudden alteration in the articles of a horse's diet will frequently, according
to the term of horse amateurs, ' throw him out of condition,' such as re-
moving him from the grass field or the straw yard to a full allowance of
dry hay and corn, with a scanty supply of water ' to draw up his belli/ :' all
which are perhaps done at once, without the smallest preparation. In these
cases the alimentary canal, being hardly yet in a state of digesting capacity,
sufiFers from the increased powers necessary to draw nutriment from sub -
stances which, although in themselves more nutritious, yet are, in this in-
stance, less digestible than those before in use. Thence follows costiveness,
heat, and thirst; as well- as an unhealthy state of the coat, which stares and
feels harsh and dry, being a necessary consequence of the ordinary sympathy
between the stomach and the skin. A sudden remove from a generous
to a poor diet is unfavourable to condition likewise ; for in such case the
chyle or nutritious pabulum from whence all the vital organs are recruited,
and all the vital energies derive their vigour, cannot be separated in suffi-
cient quantities : the blood thereby becomes deteriorated; universal ab-
sorption takes place of the softer parts, which produces lessened bulk • while
a laxity of -fibre m the remaining portions is productive of langour and debi-
lity. Ihe quality of the food is also of considerable consequence to the
condition. Mow-burnt hay, by exciting a partial diabetes, is very apt to
throw a horse out of condition.' Musty hay, and oats highly kiln-dried,
have a very unfavourable effect on it also. The liquid aliments should
likewise be attended to in a consideration of the condition. Mineral waters
are unfavourable to it in most cases; although there is reason to believe
that in some morbid affections they are salutary. Sea water may be con-
sidered in the same light; but a continued use of the brackish water found
near sea-bathing places, is unfavourable to the condition of such horses as
have not been accustomed to it : to which, in union with the bad care take '

Ken
E

CONDITION OF HORSES,
of them in most of the livery stables of the sea-coast bathing, I attribute the
universal complan.t of the ill condition in which thoy so frequently return
.from thence. Badly ventilated stables, excess of clothing, and deprivation
of water, are also frequent causes of morbid condition, as I have often wit-
nessed : for, m some of these cases, after a course of purgatives, followed
by alteratives and tonics, has failed, the more simple means of succulent
food, a proper quantity of water, a well regulated but perfectly cool stable,
with a free access of air, and very moderate clothing, have created an imme-
diate change. An inordinate quantity of exertion, particularly if continued
unremittingly for several days, will often produce morbid condition ; and
this, m cases where the feeding has been, as supposed, equal to the tasks
reqmred. It is particularly likely to happen to young horses, and to such
as have not been sufficiently prepared : in which cases, it is clear that the
stomach, participating with the general debility, has a double task to per-
form m digesting a larger quantity of nutriment than usual, to make up
the increased wants of the constitution; and thus the evil is increased by
adding the further deterioration of this organ to the others. I know of no
state of morbid condition which often proves so obstinate as this ; and which
IS often found at last only to give way to a good salt-marsh run. Drastic
purgatives, or violent remedies, as the mineral acids, when injudiciously con-
tinued, reduce the condition very quickly, and sometimes irrecoverably.
Another principal cause of want of condition is, the alternation of heat and
cold, A sudden check to the natural or acquired heat of the body, parti-
cularly if aggravated by the evaporation of a perspiring state, and great pre-
vious exertion, as a sudden check after a severe burst with the hounds ; this,
if It should not bring on topical inflammation of some vital organ, yet fre-
quently acts on the outer coverings of the body : the capillaries of the skin
appear to become constringed, and the unctous matter secreted by the seba-
ceous glands seems either vitiated or lost, by which the elasticity and pliancy
of the hide become lessened, and the hair, instead of lying smooth and ap-
pearing glossy, for want of the unctuous secretion becomes elevated, and
feels hard and dry to the touch. The dandrifif, or scurf, adheres closely to
the skin, instead of separating and falling in daily scales, and adds hkewise
Its share to the general derangement of the outer expansion. I have already
alluded to that consent of parts which is so apparent between the skin
and the digestive organs, and that it follows, in almost every instance, when
one of these becomes aflfected, the other takes on a morbid state also. From
much observation, I am disposed to think, that the sympathy between the
skm and alimentary canal is so intimate, that they change the order of attack
as circumstances occur. Thus, when the skin is primarily aflFected, the
stomach becomes secondarily so, and vice versa. In the application of cold
to the surface, it appears clear that the primary cause originates with the
morbid attack on the skin ; and when we consider the structure and func-
tions of this investure of the body (see Skin, in Splanchnohiry), we
need be at no loss to account for an inelastic or binding feel of the hide, as
one of the distinctive marks of want of conditioji. Hide-bound, it mav
therefore be inferred, is not to be considered as being in itself a specific dis'-
ease ; but, on the contrary, as a symptom only common to any state which
deranges the secretory, and perhaps also the excretory, functions of the skin ;
and it thus accompanies, by a common consent of parts, most chronic affec-
tions of long standing. A long-continued gleet from the nasal membranes
in glanders will produce it ; a local attack of farcy on the hinder extremi-

CONDITION OF HORSES. 67
ties brings it on ; and the integuraental affections of cracks, grease, and
mango, claim it as a companion also. In fact, any means which are capable
of producmg an absorption of the cellular and membranous medium between
the skm and muscular expansion, by which its motions are regulated, binds
It down so firmly to this fleshy pannicle, as to confine its extension and destroy
its usual elasticity.

_ The treatment of hide-hinding must necessarily, therefore, blend itself
» with the general treatment of morbid condition. The primary affection of
t the skm IS not always, however, confined to an inelasticity of the hide, nor
to the stanng of the hair upon it : for sometimes, from a kind of reaction, and
inflammatory process m the deranged and obstructed vessels, small tumours
become formed, generally extending pretty universally over the skin ; which
affection has received the name of Surfeit, and is often erroneously considered
as a distmct disease although a symptom only, being generally dependent on
.a primary affection of the skm. In a few instances I have, however, traced its
■ongmto a deranged state of stomach, brought on by eating noxious vegetal
.bks and, m some o^her mstances it has been produced by fhe musty quau'y
of the hay used. The treatment of surfeit, as well as of hide-bindiL- must
.the efore follow the principles apphcable to ill condition in general. "

Moulting though a natural process, yet frequently produces much de^
r:rangement m the system, and thereby affects the condition of en. This s
usually more sensibly felt at the autumnal than at the vernal shedding- fo -

oonJ-r?'' T °^ ""^^ f°rth more powe ^^of the

constitution than a short one. During the process of moultiifg The vessels
of the skin are in a state of increased action, for the purpose of formin " a
new growth of hair; and, as such, all the effects of slight W areTeSt

SSLrd W "touir\r'?' -ff- from'tW

irricaDie and low. Moulting, therefore, more or less, puts every horse out

■•breed off bpforP th. r.l\: ■ j old coat may not be too quickly

of the hMe "ai „„Sv ™2 f """" l>'™»te, the bind-

■lerefore, fall urfe "4?^ LTh I T'', * Mment must,

-ondition. " P'"" f« the removal of morbid

■entfo:^,tt~w a^nd^rh^l'^^T^'T; ^^^^ become une-

k Ld less :::;nu eV, so th^^^^ V" ^•^^^ ^""^

>Qd thus injure his condifim fVX T f f ""^riment,
Crib-bitinir Thi. vl - ^^^^ ^'^^^^ ("^d their diseases. J

a irequent, though not a constant, companion to

CONDITION OF HORSES,
the other symptoms of defective condition. (See Crib-biting.) 'Hie mor-
bid change which takes place in the alimentary canal in the state called 'out
of condition,' is not sufficiently defined ; and whether it be a diseased state
of structure in its surface, or whether it arises from a vitiation of the secre-
tions of the parts, is not altogether clear. If we argued from some appear-
ances which occur, as the swollen state of that cuticular portion of the alimen-
tary canal which lines the mouth, called lampas, and the thickened state of the
cuticle of the tongue also, we should be led to infer a diseased alteration in the
cuticular lining of the canal throughout. I have also observed, in two instances
which occurred of horses having been accidentally killed, both of which were
very much out of condition, that the cuticular portion of the stomach was
relaxed, and streaked with inflamed marks, nor was the secreting or villous
portion without some marks of affection also. On the contrary, in crib-bit-
ing, which is evidently an eructation of a small quantity of gas, I should, rea-
soning analogically, be prompted to believe that the secretions themselves
might become vitiated, and that this affection, as well as some other of the
symptoms of morbid condition, were purely dyspeptic, and dependent on an
altered state of the gastric secretion.

Worms within the stomach and intestines, but principally the latter, will
often injure the condition and produce irregular appetite, costiveness, with a
mucous covering to the dung-balls when they pass, and a staring coat. — See
this subject under the head Worms.

The Treatment of Morbid Condition.

From what has been said, it will be evident, that, as many different circum-
stances may produce defective condition, so it would, in every instance, be
favourable to the removal of it, were the exciting cause clearly ascertained ;
for to that we should direct our principal attention. If it were purely local,
for instance, as arising from impure air, or bad water, musty oats, mow-burnt
hay, &c. &c. such causes must be immediately removed. When the case is
more constitutional, internal remedies, acting on the alimentary canal, afford
the most ready and certain means of relief. When the morbid condition is
consequent on an attack of cold on the skin, whereby the capillaries suffer a
sudden translation of their blood into the interior of the body to the evident
injury of the organs, thus congested by these means, the remedial plan is still
best promoted by stimulating the stomach into a sympathy with the exterior
surface. Nauseating medicines in the human most readily affect the skin,
and relax it into a moist, perspirable state ; but as there are very few drugs
capable of nauseating a horse, and still fewer that will do it mildly, so our
dependence on antiraonials, to benefit the skin by this particular state of the
stomach, is lost : yet experience teaches us still to rely on them to act favour-
ably on the surface, by other stomachic agencies than direct nausea. For
myself, I feel more and more assured, that in many cases of morbid condi-
tion, but particularly in such as are accompanied with thirst and evident dc;-
rangement of the stomach and bowels, betokened by irregular appetito,
lampas, &c., antimonials are highly beneficial. They are equally so in most
cases of constringed skin or hide-binding ; and still more so when it is af-
fected, as in surfeits, with either small bumps or swellings, or partial detacli-
ments of hair. Antimony received into the blood may relax the vessels
themselves, and those of the extreme surface in particular, without disturli-
ance to the stomach, overlaid, as much of it is, with cuticle : certain it is

CONDITION OF HORSES.

69

that, in the above cases, the effect of antimonials on the skin and hair in par-
ticular, as well as on the other symptoms of morbid condition, are often
striking. In some instances, as in those strongly marked with atony and
emaciation, the tonic effect of mineral agents, of astringent bitters, spices ;
and in others, of the more diffusible stimuli of ale, malt, barley, oatmeal
gruel, &c. &c. experience proves to be the best adapted to promote the
desired end.

But to proceed with this important subject with some regularity, I would
direct thai, in young plethoric horses, with much flesh on them, and which
are, of all others, the most subject to take on this state of morbid condition,
that one or two moderate bleedings may be premised, particularly in such as
have been full fed for some time previous. If the inner surface of the eye-
lids, or of the nasal membranes, shew any tinges of red, it is still more neces-
sary to bleed ; and in such case I would repeat the same with moderation once
or twice more, or until this inflammatory appearance should be removed. I
have found this, united with mashing, in many instances sufficient to relax
the hide and reduce the rugous tumefaction of the lampas. In most cases,
however, some more active internal remedies will be found necessary with a
young and plethoric patient : thus one or two very mild doses of physic, pre-
ceded by a nightly mash, into which ten grains of submuriate of mercury
(calomel) has been mixed, are proper. If there be joined to the affected
hide, and the swollen or clammy mouth of lampas, any eruptions on the
skin, or any cracks of the heels, stable soiling, or even daily turning out to
grass, are advisable ; but as these cases usually happen when the animal is
either at present wanted, or is intended soon to be used; so I have not
mentioned turning out altogether ; yet, if these appearances prove obstinate,
such a course will be advisable, provided the season and other circumstances
are favourable to the proceeding. But when neither the partial nor total
turning out to grass is convenient, and when soiling is likewise not practica-
ble, still the use of carrots as manger food can be resorted to. See the article
Feeding. To this treatment may be added, after administration of the physic,
a nightly alterative. (In thus recommending carrots, soiling in the stable,
partial or total turning out to grass, &c. for an ill-conditioned horse, I shall
startle the systematic trainer, who will perhaps exclaim. What can these have
to do with condition ? But I would request such to consider, that I am here
treating of an actual state of diseased condition, which must be first removed
by a regular medical plan of treatment, before any efforts can prove success-
ful in promoting that artificial condition so much desired by him, and
indeed by most amateurs of the present day). Either of the following for-
mulse may be tried, as best suits the veterinarian's views of the matter. —
(See also Alteratives, in Mat. Med.)

Crude antimony ■)

Supertartrate of potash (cream of tartar) \°l ^^''f ""^
Nitrate of potash (niire) J drachms.

Or,

Supertartrate of potash two or three drachms.

Nitrate of potash ditto.

Powdered Sulphur ■ half an ounce.

Either of these yrill gently stimulate both the stomach and kidnics, and pro-
duce, by consent of parts, a favourable effect on the skin, and hair also.
Violent diuretics are never advisable ; nor have I seen their mildest form.

CONDITION OF HORSES.

CrrStLlt'T"'^"'' P"^"^^ ""^^ there have

discLrge ' ■ Wtoms, swelled legs, either with or without

When morhid condition arises in such horses as, from age, previous de-
pnvations, severe work, long confinement in bad stables, or^f;edinc; on un-
wholesome provender, are not to be supposed plethoric ; even then,
actual debdity is present, I have often derived gVeat benefit by commencing
the treatment with a very mild dose of physic,^he horse being previouslf
tu y mashed to make a small quantity of aloes sufficient ; for I have gene-
rally found that the stomach tonics to be afterwards administered have had
double effect from this previous preparation of the alimentary canal. But
where the debility has been extreme, or where there has been already suffi-
cient laxity of bowels, or perhaps even superpurgation from drastic physic,
begm at once with either of the following tonics, or of any of those detiiled
under that head m the Materia Medica :—

Socotrine aloes, in powder one drachm

Winter' s bark, ditto two drachms. • .

^rugo ( verdigris) one drachm.

Ireacle or honey to form a ball.

Or,

Oxide of arsenic (arsenic) eight grains.

1 imentof' allspice) in powder one drachm

Extract of gentian half an ounce.

Make into a ball with liquorice powder. Or,

Sulphate of copper a drachm and a half

aulphate of iron ditto

Powdered ginger a drachm.

Horse turpentine to form a ball.

Either of these formulae may be given some time in each day, at the con-
venience of the practitioner or owner. It would, however, where practicable,
be more prudent to let it be given in the morning, fasting, allowing the
horse but a handful or two of hay for an hour after its exhibition. If a liquid
toi-m only can be got down, either of the above mixtures may be dissolved
and horned down as a drink with ale ; but active mineral a<rents seem to
produce their effect best in mass. In all cases of morbid condition, marked
with emaciation and debility, a full allowance of carrots is advisable • and in
default of them, or alternating with them, malt mashes or speared corn may
be usefully brought in aid of the other tonics.

The essentials of the common cases of morbid condition, as far as regards
their immediate medical treatment, are comprised in what has been already
said. More may be gained by a reference to the numerous articles con-
nected therewith : that which relates to dieting, to stabling, clothing, exer-
cise, ^'c. proper in these cases, may be gained from the subject which imme-
diately follows. I have here to add, that, as a topical auxiliary remedy, I
have derived great benefit, in cases where the skin has been peculiarly hard,
dry, and scurfy, but particularly where the hair has fallen off in jjatches, as
after surfeits, &c. from the use of powdered sulphur mixed with oil, and
rubbed well into the skin every other day for a week. I shall now i)rocco(l
to give an outline of the principles of what is termed ' gcttinir (a luialtli \
horse) into condition;' or, in other words, into that state which fits him fiu
useful purposes on his removal from grass.

CONDITION OF HORSES.

71

Getting a Horse into Condition.

When a horse returns from grass, or straw-yard, both his external appear-
ance, and the internal state of his body, in general, require considerable
alteration before he can be said to be fit for the uses to which he is applied
by man. These alterations are properly called ^ getting a Jiorse into con-
dition;^ and as the exertions required of him are ordinary or extraordinary,
so the condition into which he is to be brought is more or less artificial. It
is evident, therefore, that no precise rules for the purpose can be expected
here, where principles alone are professed to be taught ; and, indeed, were it
otherwise, from the simple treatment of the ordinary hackney, to the disci-
pline of the training stable, the grades are so numerous and diversified, that
no common limits would suffice for their detail.

The alterations in the frame required by condition, have already been
stated to be, the removal of all unnecessary interstitial matter, by which the
animal fibre becomes more condensed, and all interruptions to progression
being now removed, the motions are accelerated, the lungs are allowed to
expand, which enlai-ges the measure of the wind ; and the stim\ilating nature
of the food gives courage and durability. To promote ' condition' in a horse
from grass, his dieting and watering, the temperature to which he is removed,
his clothing, grooming, and exercise, are the circumstances particularly to
be attended to. Physicking is also an usual and necessary appendage to the
other parts of the treatment.

Dieting. — It would be most imprudent to take a horse from so moist a
food as grass, and at once to place before him hay and corn without caution
or limitation. Coming from a straw-yard, this restraint is not so imperative
yet even in this case, little corn should be given at first ; but following the
removal from gfass, both corn and hay should be allowed but sparingly, par-
ticularly the former. The hay given for the first two or three days should
likewise be moistened, by sprinkling it with water ; the corn allowed should
also be mixed with bran, by which the dangers of constipation and.repletion
may be avoided. The constipating effects of the removal from a moist to a
dry course of feeding may be further obviated by a nightly bran mash. The
bran mashing may likewise be extended to twice a-day, or until the bowels be
somewhat relaxed, if the horse be very full in flesh, or have his skin at all
tight, or eruptive, or if the legs be inclined to swell. In all which cases it
likewise tends to shorten the process, and prevent that almost irrecoverable
hide-binding which often follows these appearances, if succulent food, parti-
cularly carrots, be mixed with, or even wholly substituted for hay. The priva-
tion of grass renders it prudent that water should at firsfrbe given in suflicient
quantity ; it is, however, often withheld, with a view to harden the flesh and
get up the belly : but which treatment is erroneous, and by exciting heat,
thirst, and indigestion, frustrates its own intention. The temperature into
which the newly stabled horse is removed, should not first be much increased
beyond that to which he has been so long accustomed, or the sudden change
may operate unfavourably on his lungs ; and if it do not produce inflamma-
tion, it may at least occasion roaring, or broken wind. The most prudent
plan is, first to place the horse in an airy box, which will not only prevent
too great heat, but also obviate the danger of swelled legs, and heated feet.
By degrees, so much increase of temperature may be kept up, as will m-o-
mote the fall of long hair, or the retention or renewal of tlie short : and in
the degree to which the artificial coating is wished to be carried, to that de-

CONDITION OP HORSES,
gree should a temperate or an ardent climate be imitated. The vlothiuLr
and groommg should, hke the other parts of the conditioning treatment,

ttf but?vT «°\P-d-- heat, the oth^ extra irrita-

tion, but by degrees both may be mcreased according to the views of the
owner, or the purposes of the horse. Physicking is found to assist the caJ
dU on of horses ; for by emptying the bowels thoroughly, absorption of X
ex raneous fluids is promoted. One, two, or three doses, according to the
extent to which the condition is intended to be carried, are usually Viven to
every horse, where this process is conducted on the usual principles • and
are certainly necessary, wherever continued and accelerated exertions are
required bee Physicking—Exercising a conditioning horse, like the
other aids, must be done with a due regard to circumstances. At fir<=t
walkmg alone best answers the purpose, and twice a-day is better than once '
the duration of each walk must be regulated by the age, the fulness of habit!
&c. &c. As the condition improves, trotting and gallopping may be employed,
to benefit the wind, draw up the carcass, and accustom the horse to full
• ^VT-^ J'""'^ remarked, that I have seen all attempts to promote
condition fail in a horse removed from an old companion, of when stabled
alone. Horses are gi-egarious, and often bear segregation badly : such a
case can only be treated by association.

SECT. vir.

STABLING OF HORSES.

Tlie Stable itself.

I HAVE, on this subject, avoided all topics but such as are directly con-
nected with health, and which consequently fall within the province of the
veterinarian. Other matters, which properiy belong to the groom, are pur-
posely omitted, as foreign to the intention of the Work. The stabling
of horses, as it is wholly a deviation from nature, so it paves the way for
the attack of disease ; and the higher this artificial system is carried, so
much the more is the liability incurred. A stable should, therefore, be
regulated on principles which, at the same time that it confines the animal,
yet allows of the free use of all his functions. One of these principles, and
one in general too little attended to, is to have it sufficiently airy althoucrh
moderately warm. It is justly supposed that warmth is congenial to horses,
particularly of the blood kind, as being originally natives of a warm climate •
but this opinion may be carried too far, for we must be aware that the horse
is native to all temperate climates, and therefore it may be supposed that
continual crossings have altered much of the original exotic peculiarities,
and have fitted this animal for an extended residence. We may with pro-
priety allow something more for the full blood horse, which does not bear
the abstraction of due warmth with equal impunity as those of a more
mixed breed, and yet it cannot be denied that some of the best bred horses
are occasionally seen in the most degrading servitude, and exposed to
scanty fare and wretched housing, as though they had wholly lost their
exotic dependencies. Our game fowls, although original descendants from
the poultry of the east, are now indigenous and equally hardy with any other
of the feather tribe. The beautiful camelia japonica, which a few years jigo
would live only in a green-house, succoured by artificial heat, will now bear

STABLING OF HORSES.

73

exposure to the rigours of a British winter without doors : and the blood-
horse, or eastern variety, experience shews, does not require more heat for
the simple purposes of life than any other. We say simple, because, as it
mav possibly be argued, that greater warmth is necessary to the forced con-
dition of the racer than to any other variety of cultivated horses, yet even
this would not invalidate the assertion that to overheating our horses much
injury results. We have ample proof that to confined stables, where the
same air is re-breathed over and over, and where the enervating effects of
unnatural heat are always present, we owe many of the diseases which swell
the veterinary catalogue, and which is fully proved by the trifling ailments
which befal those that are seldom or never confined. It is well known, that
since the full ventilation of our cavali-y stables, inflamed lungs, grease, and
glanders are infinitely decreased. Are not the animal inhabitants, of almost
every description, of the east confined in their bulk? and if not equally con-
fined in their energies, are not their lives shortened by the agencies of a
torrid zone ? and can we expect our own animals to ripen into bulk, to foster
into strength and activity, and to push life to its utmost verge by the self
same means (unnaturally applied also) which retard it in other climes ? Is
it not alike repugnant to judgment and experience to expect to keep animals
in health that, from stables heated to more than sixty degrees, and warmly
clad also, are first stripped, and then at one exposed to a temperature at the
freezing point ? — and yet such is the daily fate of thousands of our best sad-
dle and carriage horses. It will, perhaps, be argued, that exercise makes
up with them the deficiency of the heat and clothing they have left ; and
such might be the case, were they to be constantly in exercise when out :
but how often do the finest carriage horses wait for hours exposed to the
cold ? how often are horses bathed in perspiration seen loitering, while the
hounds are retrieving a lost scent ? Nor are saddle horses, however valua-
ble, exempt from the same treatment. If it be granted, that this unnatural
heat be not necessary to the well being of the health of even the full-bred or.
eastern variety of horse, now he is domesticated with us, what benefits, it
may be asked, are really gained by the continuance of this system so obsti-
nately persisted in ? To this query, the only reply that presents itself is,
that the benefits gained, appear to be the satisfying a sophisticated taste for
an appearance wholly unnatural to the animal. It is contrary to nature to
expect or desire to see a horse with a perfectly sleek and glossy coat in
winter in any clime, but in our own particularly : for here Nature provides
specifically for the rigours of her wintry blasts, by giving a long wai-m
exterior covering : to avoid which provision, we invert her order, and keep
up a tropical climate by heat and clothing ; under which treatment, the con-
stitution, not being subjected to the stimulus of necessity, provides a cover-
ing suited only to the climate the stable represents. But when they are
removed from this unnaturally heated temperature, and enter on their
work, it is evident they at once enter a new climate, rigorous in itself, and
rendered still more so by being forced into it naked and deprived of both
natural and artificial clothing: under which treatment, can it be wondered
that they become subject to disease ? and that they are not still more so, is
attributable only to that wi^e provision of Nature in giving capability to
resist ordinary changes ot temperature; but this capability being unfor-
tunately not always present, as in debility, constitutional predisposition, &c.
the worst consequences often ensue.

The heat of a well-regulated stable should be graduated by a thermo-

7d

^ STABLING OF HOUSES.

58 to 60 degrees as the winter maximum in the hunting stable. The best
hacks requu-e about the same temperature; at least such is usuallv the
warm h kept up for their respiration. To renew the air, every stebl should
be well ventilated ; and such ventilation should be as neaf the^eUbg or top
of the stable as possible, as the impure air ascends. The ventilator! some-
times seen, which revolve quickly on their o;vn centres, are nori think
good, because they occasion a draught of air; for whi h reason ikewise
wmdows should be so constructed as not to open directly on either the f^ont
or rear of the house, but their opening should be so managed that the cur-
1 ent of air received should be directed upwards towards the ceiling. Thus
tTnf ^'^'^^t without any strong current being directed on the

body of the horses. We have m our own stables encouraged free venti-
\tZ.^^ «)• t"^es or funnels, according to the size of

the stable, let into the ceiling, presenting below a larger end of twelve or
eighteen inches square, which, as it ascends, narrows at its summit to about
tour or five mches; and then passes out at the roof of the building, having a
raised cup over its top to prevent the wet from descending. Light appears
essen lally necessary to a stable: the exit from a dark one must be a painful
s imulus to the eyes of the horse, and his imperfect vision makes him
btartlish and irritab e Dark stables are supposed to encourage feeding ;
and It IS not impossible but the horses of eastern countries eat most during
the night. It also, it is thought, induces them to lie down more. The
greatest encouragement to the latter is a loose box, and to the former air,
exercise, and soft water. Stables should be well ceiled, and that veiT
closely: when this is not the case, not only does the dust from the hayloft
tall on the horse, but it frequently enters his eyes; and the impure air,
composted of nitrogen and ammoniacal gases, which always ascends, lodges
m the hay above In fact, it would be better that both the hay and cSrn
should be altogether removed from the sphere of action of the ammoniacal
effluvia of the stable, and be only brought to the animals as they are wanted.
1 artial draughts of air m a stable should be carefully avoided, as extremely
injurious to horses: a very lofty ceiling without an upper story is the best
preventive to tins. Narrow stalls are also very prejudicial to horses ; strains in
the back are often occasioned by them ; and whenever a stall is less than six
teet wide, the groom should have peremptory orders never to turn the
horse out of it, but always to back him out. Bars or bails arc also obiec-
tionable, from the ease with which horses may play with and kick each
other over them, and likewise because it is seldom that horses eat alike in
point of quickness ; and thus, when they are separated by bars only the
slowest eater gets robbed of his food.

The acclivity of the generality of stalls is also a very serious objection to
them, for they occasion a horse to stand unequally, and an undue proportion
of weight is thrown on the hinder extremities: the declivity also puts the
flexor tendons of both the hind and fore legs on a continual stretch, and by
it, probably, many horses are injured. The smallest possible slope only
should be allowed : neither is the central grating a remedy for this inconve-
nience; for it not only is useless as regards marcs, but it is rather injurious,
because it retains the urine, which thus continues to diffuse at every moment

STABLING OF HOUSES.

75

the effluvia it should be so much our study to avoid. It is much better that
each stall should be furnished with a gratiug placed over a small drain at the
foot of the stall, which should be so constructed as to carry oif the urine or
washings from each horse into one common out-door cesspool, so perfectly
secured against tlie access of the external air, that injurious exhalations may
not pass up through the gratings.

There is much contrariety of opinion relative to the propriety of permit-
ting horses to stand during the day on litter ; and there are cogent argu-
ments for and against it. Litter entices horses to lie down even during the
day, which relieves fatigue, and is consequently favourable to the recovery of
over-strained limbs ; it also prevents an uneven or hurtful pressure on the
feet when it is cobble-paved. On the other hand, gross feeding horses are
apt to eat their litter, which is not desirable. It is, likewise, too apt to retain
the urine, and thereby to generate the acrid salts we have described. Con-
stantly standing on straw makes many horses' legs swell, which is proved by
removing it, when such legs in most cases immediately return to their pro-
per size : the warmth and moisture retained in it, likewise, are very apt to
occasion cracks and swelled legs. Litter retained, is probably injurious to
the feet also ; for if horn has a tendency to contract by the application of
heat, the horn of the feet, being placed so many hours within it, must be
subjected to this additional stimulus to contraction. In my own stables
no litter is ever suflFered to remain under the fore feet during the day:
on the contrary, the horses stand on the bare bricks, which in summer
are watered to make them more cool. Behind, a little straw is strewed,
because horses are apt to kick and break the bricks or disturb the cobbles
with their hinder feet, and because, when no gratings exist, or no slope is
present, the litter thus placed sucks up the moisture of the urine, which
would be detrimental to the hinder feet, which are more liable to thrushes
than contraction. A moveable manger is a preventive to the taking on the
habit of crib-biting and wind-sucking : sloping racks are also injurious, by
encouraging the fall of hay-seeds into the eyes, as I have seen happen fre-
quently. Hay-racks should, on the contrary, be upright, and by no means
so much elevated from the ground as they usually are : by this undue ele-
vation the horse's neck is put continually on the stretch ; which being a
total departure from the natural posture in which the horse seeks his food,
is likely to be punished, in common with all artificial habits, by congestion
of the head, or other ill consequences.

The box is a necessary appendage to every good stable ; indeed it may,
with great propriety, fom a part of the stable; and I would advise
that, whenever a new one be erected, so to frame it, that every standing
may, by having a moveable partition, be readily made into a distinct and
separate box. It would be well were in-door horses more generally accus-
tomed to spend their leisure time in boxes than stalls : boxes are advan-
tageous to the jaded horse, by encouraging him to he down during the day:
they are advantageous to' the idle horse, by encouraging him to exercise him-
self. By means of boxes, the evils of long frosts to the hunter are avoided;
and the unrestrained enjoyment of freedom is relished by all. A loose box
wholly unconnected with the stable is also a valuable appendage to a gentle-
man's establishment : it may thus with impunity be the receptacle of a con-
tagious case. The detached box should be so constructed as to be capable
of bemg cooled to nearly the temperature of the external air, or, when neces-
sary, to be made as warm as requisite for some cases of sickness. No pro-

STABLING OF HORSES,
jectioiis should be allowed in its walls to hurt the hips in cases of falling from
weakness, staggers, &c. It should, also, have a grate in the centre commu-
mcating with an outer cesspool, with a general slight bearing of the floorin..
to the grating : into a large box of this description every horse taken u^
trom grass should be first put, to prevent the access of the worst colds to
which horses are liable, which are those caught on the sudden remove from
a cool into a heated temperature.

The summering of hunters seems so connected with the subject of boxes
as welx as with the health of a most valuable variety of our horses, that I
feel constrained to take some notice of it in this place. Of late years our
sporting works have teemed with conflicting testimonies in favour of opi)o-
site plans of keeping hunters during the summer months. The long prac-
tised method was, after some preparation, to turn them out to grass, there to
remain until the commencement of autumn : and, without due consideration,
no plan would seem so consonant with nature, and therefore none so likely
to restore the overstrained organs to their original state. But a more critical
exammation of the subject, and the collation of facts, will perhaps set the
matter in rather a difi^erent point of view. It has long been observed that a
horse that has been stabled for many years, and then turned out to grass,
seldom thrives ; on the contrary, he usually loses flesh and condition, al-
though the pasture in which he is placed may be of the most luxuriant kind.
It has been noticed also, by intelligent trainers, that race-horses, after beino-
turned out, never again fully recover that speed they had previously exhi"-
bited. It is likewise equally remarked on, that in hunters which have been
completely summered abroad, it has been found very diflicult, and often im-
possible, to restore them to their full condition until much of the hunting
season has passed by. Neither are these facts at all irreconcileable with
sound philosophy : a long course of artificial treatment, combining as it does
an over-heated atmosphere, stimulating food, warm clothing, with the efi'ecls
of exertions gradually forced on the animal, until they far exceed in intensity
and duration the natural maximum ; all these may, and certainly do, alter
the constitution, by introducing new habits and new wants ; and thus altered,
the body cannot without much force, and without some injury, be again
completely naturalized : on the contrary, that, being once fully subjected to
this kind of domestication, it will not bear at the will of the owner to be let
down and wound up again Hke a spring. But as it required much care and
much artifice to mould the constitution and organs into a capacity for this
unnatural condition, and these unnatural exertions ; so it appears that it is
only by a uniform continuance of the same means, that such condition and
such exertions can be with certainty insured when called for by the owners.
In other words, from the nature of the horse we now use, and what is re-
quired of him in following our present breed of fox-hounds, it is found best
to preserve through the summer as much as possible of that condition for
exertion which the end of the hunting season left him with.

Jt is said that the Earl of Plymouth first tried the plan of summering his
hunters altogether within the stable, with little variation in their treatment ;
by which it is asserted their condition was fully preserved, and that, by this
means, his horses entered on their hunting season in full ' wind, speed, and
bottom.' Others, to avoid this extreme, have soiled their hunters in the
stable, or have given carrots ; and some have gone a step further, and have
pursued the in-door summering, not in stables, but in loose boxes. Still, in
all these cases, regular exercise is required, or the feet must suffer, or the

STABLING OF HORSES.

77

horses are apt to become piirsive, thick-winded, roarers, or broken-winded ;
but be it remembered that, if such exercise is too severe, then the wear
on the Umbs continues the deterioration which the hunting season had
brought on. But if a sportsman had one, two, or three hunters only, and
would use them gently every day as hacks, he might then summer them
in this way without injury, provided they had not suffered previously from
strains or foot lamenesses ; in which cases absolute rest would of course be
requisite. It would, therefore, seem from all this, that a medium plan, which
should combine the renovating effects of air, mild exercise, moisture to the
feet, and the relaxant effects of grass, might be followed with much more pro-
priety and hope of general advantage than either total turning out on grass,
or total confining within on hay.

The box summering of hunters, in my opinion, is of this kind, and con-
sists in allowing each hunter his liberty in a loose box, having fly wire case-
ments and closed doors during the day, in which he is to be moderately fed
with corn and hay. At night, unless it be stormy or very cold, he might
be turned out into a small sheltered paddock which should afford only a
short bite of upland grass, of which an acre is sufficient for each horse ; but not
more than two or three should be together, to avoid violent racing about
amongst them, and other accidents. When the field is eaten quite bare, a
similar plot may be substituted ; but, in all cases, an open shed within each
field, independent of the boxes, should afford A refuge against accidental
storms and rain. At an early hour every morning the hunter should be taken
to his box, from whence he is not again to come out until the evening, unless
a very favourable gloomy day offers itself. Carrots may be substituted
for part of the corn and hay with advantage in stable summering ; which
variation, and many others, will present themselves, and prove beneficial,
when the true principles on which the subject should be considered form the
basis of the determination. The treatment of the feet during this period
must be regulated by circumstances : one or two quiet horses, used
to each other, may be allowed to range together without removing the
hinder shoes ; but it is always a safer plan to take them off, unless the
ground be very hard, or the box be paved. This latter circumstance can
always be obviated, by allowing these boxes to be covered over either with
tan, sod, or other soft matter : but boxes expressly built for this particular
purpose would be better altogether unpaved ; in which case, to avoid dust,
and to keep the flooring cool, it might be moderately watered every morn-
ing. The fore feet may he tipped, particularly if at all inclined to contrac-
tion ; or should they become hard, hot, and dry, such means must be made
use of as the medical parts of the Work direct, under diseases of the "feet.
The general state of the horse ought also to be attended to, particularly his
bowels, that they do not become costive ; and the skin also, that it do not
become hide-bound or eruptive, or that a short dry cough may not steal a
march unobserved on him. The careful and intelligent groom must watch
over the health of his in-door summered horses with vigilance, and alter his
plan according to circumstances ; but the still more prudent owner would do
well to have them inspected weekly by a well-informed veterinary surgeon.

Of Horse Provender.

The feeding of horses {orms the most essential part of their treatment,
and falls necessarily within the province of the veterinarian ; whose cxperi-

7ft

^ FEEDING OF HOUSES

^ZI^:£V7'^' ^ "--^-rvance of nature, and a want of

te^Z ^nTT '''' I" food of horses

that eve V .0^ '7' """'^^^^ ^'^hout considering

hat eveiy country has its peculiar products, from which the materia diel
.oa of horses are gamed. In some very sterile countries, horsefarrforced
to subsist on dried fish ; and in many others, animal masters are given as
ed bles-as milk m Arabia-flesh balls, eggs, broth, &c. in India, a?d other

matter occuis. The food of horses may be divided into the natural and

ing It aie best exammed by considering them under the leading heads of
herbage,green and dry ; grain, and varieties ; which latter are comno ed of
sub tances that embrace the principles of both these, as pulse, roots fruits
mixtures, and cooked or partially digested food. Of herbage the priS
IS grass, of which many varieties are known among agricd urists wh ch
are eaten by horses either in a succulent and mlt^or t rdrfed state
under the name of hay. The principal hay food of our racers, haters aTd

beS rr --dow grass, of which th; upllnd is by ■

tar the best. Clover rye, sainfoin, lucern, vetches or tares, and melilot

o nT.f ^^"^"^^---1 horses, or as a change for he

others. Of these latter it is customary to form a stable food in their green
state which IS called soiling a horse, and is found highly useful in cashes of
moi^id condition, dry coughs, chronic affections of |reLe and farc' /c

mg. In France, Spam, and Italy, leaves of various kinds, as vines, limes

fukf reeTfl^ -'"l^^"^ ^'"^^^ ^^-J^' 1° Holland, L p'S

cular reed flag is used in the same way. In Hungary, the dyer's wood /Latis
tmctoruc) is used for horses; and as it affords three or fo^r crops a year S
may be always collected fresh and green. In many parts of the so^iSi of
Europe, the leaves and smaller twigs of the acacia ar'e so employed likewise
In India, as the indigenous grasses mostly grow to an enormous height, and
contain but little nutriment, so numerous other vegetable substitutes are

2? ' farinaceous. In man^

paits of the European continent, furze or whin is used, in districts where
grass IS scarce, and is found to form an excellent food both for horses and
ca tie of all kmds^ It is usually prepared by crushing, and, when not so
fheir feet both horses and asses leara to do it for themselves ^rith

Jlai/ is dried herbage, made by cutting the various grasses, W occa-
sionally other vegetable matters during their fruiting and seeding processes •
when, being subjected to the action of the sun* and air a prober time thev
are then collected into large masses called ricks, where a certain deo-ree of
fermentation takes place before the vegetable matter of which they are com-

* It iV the opinion of some that the aroma of plants is dissipated by dryintr in the
sun , and, as this aromatic oil forms a powerful stimulus to the stomach to dtest the
hardened substance, it would, in such case, be better were hay (whenever it could be done^
made in the shade It would probably still further add to its qualities, if it could be made
wliolly without light also. In preparing plants for pharmaceutical purposes, we have full
proof that, thus dried, their active properties are greatly increased. Digitalis so eatliered
IS one-tliird stronger than when dried in the sun. ^ gatiierca.

FEEDING OF HORSES. 79

posed becomes wholesome or nutritious, or before it receives such altera-
tion as fits it for resisting further decomposition and decay. Thejudicious
management of this fermentative process, it is evident, must form a very
important feature in agriculture. Pursued to a proper extent, the remain-
ing moisture acting on the farinaceous parts, as the seeds, by the united aids
of the external temperature and the internal heat evolved during the pro-
cess, the whole mass is, as it were, malted, and sugar is produced. Pushed
beyond this, the hay becomes carbonized or mow-burnt, its nutritious pro-
perties are lessened, and its noxious qualities increased*. Fortunately for
agriculturists and their beasts, salt, sprinkled with such hay, renders it both
palatable and innoxious. Many substitutes are occasionally used for hay :
in our own country, wheat, barley, oat, rye, and other straws are used ; but
straw serves more to distend the stomach, and to mix with other matters,
than to nourish alone. Horses will, however, when at rest, live on it. In
some parts, dried fern, in others reed flags, dried leaves, small branches or
twigs collected and dried, are so used. In the West Indies, the tops of the
sugar-cane are stacked for the purpose ; and the straw of the Zea maize, or
guinea corn, is likewise so employed.

Horsemen are not agreed on the subject of the properties of hay as a food
for horses ; some holding it very cheap, others lauding it to the skies. If
these animals can be supported by it, of which there is ample proof, it must
have sufficient nutritious properties : but will it do so under great and acce-
lerated exertion ? The answer is, no. Hay, to support life even, must be
taken in great quantities : much time must be allowed to digest it, and much
water to furnish gastric maceration for it in the stomach. All these circum-
stances are directly against those uses of the horse to which luxury and the
wants of commerce have applied him, particularly the lighter varieties.
Among these, therefore, hay is more used as a condiment, or as we use our
vegetables, to increase the bulk of aliments to a healthy distention of the
stomach ; and, as such, very little of it is actually necessary where horses
are put to extreme exertion ; for their artificial life appears best maintained
by condensed nutriment, as grain. In some posting and fast-coach stables
hardly any hay is allowed, as uselessly distending the stomach. These are
the extreme cases : but the inference to be drawn is, that the uses to which
we apply the horse will best dictate the quantities of either provender ;
bearing it in mind, that horses, like ourselves, vary constitutionally, some
being more readily and more simply nourished than others.

The grcdn used for horses is of various kinds, and possesses different
degrees of nutriment, according (as is supposed) to the various proportions
of gluten, sugar, and farinaceous matter they contain : but a graduated scale
of these components has not been found to throw much light on their rela-
tive powers of animalization ; nor can the laws and phenomena of organic
life be ever found to be satisfactorily accounted for on chemical principles.
Grain seems peculiarly fitted for the support of those animals whose sto-
machs bemg small, muscular, and partly cuticular, approach the nature of
the gizzard or food-pouch of the gallinaceous tribes. Such animals are hence

• Mr. Clark has argued, that as the scythe knows no distinctions, so with the others
some noxious herbs are levelled; and-to this cause he attributes some evils in feeding on
hay : but surely the ingenuity here is greater than the probable trutli. The same instinc-
■ tive powers of selection enable the horse to refuse that which is noxious, whether green
■■ or dry, as we see by his wasting particular portions of his fodder, and which are always
- selected portions— for no other well-fcd horse will eat them.

FEEDING OF HORSES,
called granivorous, in distinction to the graminivorous, or grass-eating, of
winch the horse famdy is the most prominent instance and, althouglf he
vegetable stalk wdl furni^^h bare existence, yet it is from the nutritiouf qua!
nties of the fruit or seed that he is best supported. In South Britain, oats
are almost exclusively used as horse grain. Sir Humphrey Davy has, from
analyzation, supposed them to contain 748 parts of nutritious matter out of
lUOO; and it is probable the proportions are justly computed. Wheat
which he states by the same inquiries to contain 955 parts out of 1000 ca-
pable of animalizatioa, must, according to him, afford much more nutrin^ent
which agrees with observation ; but for obvious reasons it is seldom used for
such purposes, except on particular occasions ; and then generally as bread
in which form it is a most convenient condensed medium for recruiting
strength, and peculiarly adapted for horses which are ' tired off their appe-
tite, and whose digestions are weakened by over-exertion. Barley is more
frequently given to horses than wheat ; and according to the experiments of
hir H. Davy, it contains 920 parts out of 1000 of nutriment : it is, therefore
if the laws of organized life exactly tally with chemical rules, more nutri-
tious, though less used, than oats : made into bread, it is sometimes aiven
and still more frequently it is used in the form of malt, where its nutritious
qualities are heightened by the sugar evolved. Barley appears to have been
the principal ingredient in the horse food of the ancients ; and, on the con-
tinent, barley and straw are still very commonly made use of instead of oats
and hay.

In the West Indies, maize, or guinea corn, is likewise given to horses. In
Holland, and many parts of Germany and Norway, buckwheat is made into
a black bread, with which Ihey are fed. On the use of grain as a horse
provender among us, custom and experience have set their stamp ; but there
are some facts that the youn;*- veterinarian should bear in mind. All grain,
when new, is less nutritious, and, like grass, is apt to scour: time corrects
this; and thus oats and beans of some months old are are to be preferred
to such as are new. When circumstances force new grain on us, its noxious
properties may be avoided by heat: thus new grain should be kiln-dried
before it is made use of. Oats also should be plump in the grain, heavy in
the hand, and thin in the hull. For racers and hunters they should be well
winnowed to free them frr.m dust, and screened to clear them from the thin
grains, loose hulls, and tailings. There are also other edibles that are used
with advantage, particularly under certain circumstances, such as a necessitv
to relax the deteriorating influence of hide-binding.

Carrots stand foremost on this list, and hardly too much can be said on
their excellent qualities. They appear particularly favourable to condition,
as the skin and hair always look well under their use : they are highly nu-
tritious, as we know from the fat accumulated when they are used. We do
not, hov.ever, as some do, advocate their use for our hunters. In conjunc-
tion with bruised oats they agree well with all horses not employed on fast
work. In the Museum Rusticum is an account of two hunters fed with car-
rots and small loaves made of barley and oatmeal mixed ; and these horses
were said to be the pride of the field. We are not prepared to deny this,
but we should strongly object to ride a valuable hunter a sharp burst with a
pack of well-bred foxhounds on such dieting as this. It is true that agri-
cultural horses may be thus supported, or by sweet parsneps, Swedish turnips,
and other edibles in which sugar abounds. Potatoes have likewise been
successfully tried as food for agricultural horses, but they have been usually

FEKDING OF HORSES. 81

given cooked. Fruits, as gourds and sweet potatoes, in America ; figs and
chestnuts in Spain and Italy ; apples in some parts of France ; and numer-
ous other fructified exotics, are occasionally employed also as food for horses.

Mixtures of several kinds are in use as horse food among agriculturists,
and they possess many advantages. They are economical ; they can be va-
: ried to every taste, and also to almost every purpose, whether cooling as an
: alterative, or stimulating as a tonic. Although mixed food is principally in
: use among farmers, post-masters, and waggon-keepers, yet it would be be-
; neficial if its advantages were more widely extended. Among the mixtures
' which form what is called manger-feeding, one of the best is from a chaff
. composed of one part of the very best hay, and two parts of clean wheaten
: straw : to three bushels of this mixture add one bushel of bruised oats. It
; is of essential consequence that the oats be well bruised, not ground, but
! completely flattened by a proper machine made for the purpose. When
whole oats are used, the grains are apt to slip between the chaff in mastica-
: tion, and perhaps one half of it thus proves useless. If economy to the
i owners, and advantage to the animals, were generally studied, corn would

• seldom be given without being bruised. To horses under great exertion, the
: stomach must participate in the weakness of the whole, and such animals are
I often too much fatigued to masticate their food properly ; but by bruising, the
^ work is partly done for both organs. My experience among my own horses,

and my inquiries among those to whom I have recommended the. bruising

• their com, convince me that one-third is gained by the practice*. Of the
mixed food I have described, three, four, five, or six pecks may be given
daily, according to the size of the horse and the extent of his exertion. In
this manger feeding, little or no hay is requisite ; by which means horses
who work hard are enabled to lie down and rest, instead of wearying their

1 already tired limbs by standing through half a night to eat hay. When the
chaff used is made of clover instead of meadow hay, it proves more palatable

■ to horses, and is thought more nutritious also: but for horses travelling
L quick, that with meadow hay is to be preferred. In very many cases of horses

in moderate work, carrots thinly sliced with chaff may be substituted for corn.
; provided the quantity be doubled or trebled, and this with additional ad-
\ vantage to the health and condition of the animals in moderate work. These
V mixtures are particulariy used in farm stables, with benefit to the horses and

to the owners ; but without bran they often prove heating and binding.
Coohedfood is now much used by practical agricuHurists for horses, and

very favourable accounts of its advantages appear. The articles used are
; potatoes, turnips, carrots, and parsneps. To a weakened digestion arising
tfrom very severe work, food in sufficient quantities, thus already reduced to
' chyme without the labour of mastication, may be very important; and, as

Mr. Curwen remarks, the time gained for rest by the use of this food is a

■ very important feature in the plan. A horse, he observes, will consume
■neariy six hours in eating a stone of hay, whereas he will eat a stone of
^steamed potatoes in twenty minutes. It is also in favour of this food, that

^'^^g""^ effects of bruising of oats are well exemplified in a letter from an intelligent
•officer in he India service to J. Curwen, Esp. M.P., published by him in his Treatise on
i.ive Mock. JJunng a season of extreme, scarcity in India, it was the custom of the fa-
nmine .hunted wretches to follow the English camp, and to draw their principal subsistence
.:lrom the grams of corn extracted from the excrement of the horses. So little comminu-
tion do tliose grains suffer which do not i>ass under the teeth, that thev vegetate afterwards
readily. Some birds, we know, draw a great part of their subsistencc'from grain extracted

'^^ WATERING OF IIORSKS.

horses are almost always found disposed to lie down soon after eating it ; the
reason of which appears to be, that the sudden distention of the "stomach
disposes the horse, as it does all other animals, to sleep. The use of salt, as
a condiment to the food of horses, as well as of horned cattle, is every day
gaining ground. In France and Switzerland it is now very generally em-
ployed : for riding horses, three or four ounces per day are mixed with their
food : and for large draught horses five or six ounces. The animals be-
come extravagantly fond of it, thrive well, and are freed from much of their
liability to disease by its means.

From the foregoing examination of this matter, it may be gained, that, by
following the dictates of Nature as closely as circumstances will allow, we
shall best fulfil her intentions in the preservation of the animals entrusted to
our care : but it must not be overlooked, that art must also be counteracted
by art ; and, as luxury and commerce have introduced artificial habits and
exertions, as well among our animals as ourselves, so these must be taken
into the account. It is one thing to argue on the requisites to keep horses in
health simply, and another to describe the processes by which they are to be
enabled to undergo services to which, in a state of nature, they are never
likely to be called. Commensurate with their exertion, therefore, must be
the food given them, both in quantity and quality. If the work be simply
laborious, all that is requisite is, that the food be suflSciently nutritious : the
bulk whereby such nutriment is gained, is not a matter of import ; but if such
exertions are to be combined with accelerated progression, as in our racers,
lumters, &c. &c., it is evident that suc^ feeding is best adapted to the end
required which contains much nutriment in the smallest space, which in-
creases the durability, or aids by bracing the animal fibre, and heightens
courage by increasing the nervous irritability. Such intentions are found
to be best fulfilled by a full allowance of old grain, in preference to any
other mode of feeding at present known. It remains only to add, that, al-
though experience has fully proved this, in all cases where the exertions are
extreme ; yet that it has also occasionally led to another evil, by introducing a
plan of treating all horses of value alike. Thus, most of the hacknies and the
carriage horses of the wealthy, &c. are accustomed to be fed, not as though their
exertions were moderate, but as though they were unceasing ; to the great in-
jury of themselves, and to the destruction of a vast quantity of valuable corn.
To thousands of such horses at least one-third of their hay and com, particu-
larly the latter, might be advantageously abstracted : this opinion is not lightly
formed, but is the result of many years' observation, experiment, and inquiry.

Watering of horses is a part of their dietetics that is not of trifling im-
port. All horses prefer soft water, and it proves the most wholesome ; in-
deed, so pai'tial are they to it, that a muddy chalky pond is an irresistible
lure to every horse. It is not a good custom to warm the water generally
for horses; but it is still worse to give them water just drawn from a pump
or well ; and particularly in summer, when such water is, comparatively,
colder than in winter ; and when the horse is probably much hotter f^om exer-
cise, clothing, &c. As some horses drink quicker than others, it is more
proper to give them their water in the stable than at a pond, where the\-
often drink immoderately. The quantity given should be regulated by the
heat of the weather, the perspiration brought on by exercise, the nature of
the food, &c. &c. Under severe exercise, more is always required, and in
summer also. In common cases, a large horse requires rather more thau
the half of a large stable pail, and that twice in the day : at night a full pail

GROOMING OF HORSES. 83
should be allowed, making in all three waterings. It is ei-roneous to suppose
that abstinence from water increases the wind or vigour ; on the contrary,
many diseases are encouraged, particularly inflammatory ones, by this'de-
privation. If it wfere the custom to place water within the reach of the
animal, he would be found to drink more frequently, but less freely, than
when watered according to the usual method. Restraint in this particular
when journeymg, is barbarity itself; and is fatal to the appetite, to the
spirit, and to the temper of the animal. Horses should never be gallopped
after dnnkmg; it is the frequent cause of broken wind; nor should they
have much water given before eating: but on a journey, when the animal is
very thirsty, give three or four quarts ; then feed ; and when the food is
partly eaten, allow a little more ; and afterwards the remainder of the quan-
tity intended, which in hot weather should be liberal. A necessary caution
IS, that after exercise the horse be brought into the stable cool. It is to be
remembered, that passing from a cold atmosphere into a warm one will give
cold with almost as much certainty as removing from a warm into a cold
situation. But when, unavoidably, a horse is brought home very hot, he
should not be hung, as is often the case, by the bridle at the door till he get
cold ; he should, on the contrary, be walked about until he has become ctol.
the stSle '"hn^^ /"^ Z '"l^ weather,-may be with propriety washed within
not to waU th ' ^l^^y, '''^^^i dry afterwards, it would be far better
not to wash them at all. In cases where fears are entertained on this head

^ ^i P them tiS r t °^v'^ '''' ^ '-'^y tVent

3lv Thi l'' u't "^'T' ^•^"^^^"i"^ dust com-

pletely. The feet should, however, be always washed on a return from
exercise, and carefully picked out. It remains to add, that much of whaH
have inserted on the feeding of horses may not agree with the opTnilns of

. the out-and-out hard riders of the present day The plan of dietX offered
ouJ ^:TC"'T ^^^«°ded have, howevei( stood the test of verf mSy of

■ Z£T '"'^ sportsmen ; and we are sure that, could the anSs

themselves reason on the subject, we should engage theii- suffrages a o

• S describe : it is, however, certainly better to be done zvithotcf

. ndt hrfirair^'S 'Tf-i""' -^"^^ ^''''^^^^ ^^^^ otherTote
•currvcomb ;! r \ V'l ^^f^"^' '""i"^' ^^^ich is removed by the
>a3 i™e\rartCfo b ^'^P'"*' ''^T^ ^"'^ consequently it cann^ot be
eguest\S eyes of the oSf^ . ' x""*^"" P™^^ ^ very acceptable

• Ae an mals TeTme Wnt to tS^ ^ '"^I^ P^^' d for
.touch undpr' ht ° ^^'^^ ^=^""0* bear the slio-hfest

'dcklish horses suiAmdeVfhVl ^^ niaid^-he should remember what some
:^and not mistake this Zt J TT'^'f' himself,
cloth is all that i rl^f « ^"^ ' ^'^^ ^'''^'"^ '"''^

can be given witLiU dislr' ' f^'r''"^ '"^"^ "^"'^^ °f

-•?ood; L fri'bn Lt^ct"^^^^^^ f'T'^Sthe feelings, is

iklways benefitted bv If ' ^«i«fo™ most salutary. The legs arc

miore particularTy so^-lTher'"\J"* '''''' '^^''^"^"^ ^^^^
'horses- it chZI.l J- . '^"^^ '"Mentions answered by dressinir

^^f Wlcon red res'anJ^^^^^^^ T'''''''^'' '^^^'^^
■ment. by exciting the ctt Sr'^mM -f"^ l^''^'^^'"^

«o the ioat. GVooms i^uSu ' a ^'^"^^ ^"^ sleekness

urooms .usually consider only the latter intention ; and a.

F 2 ' ■■

84 GROOMING OF HORSES.

dressing requires much labour, they are apt to resort to such means as
produce a sleek smooth coat without the exertion ; and this, experience tells
them, is best effected by hot stables and heavy clothing. Idleness is the
principal agent in this substitution ; but which, to give it a hold on the good
opinion of their masters, grooms assert, and horsemen beheve, adds wonder-
fully to the health, and greatly increases the useful qualities of a horse.
They often likewise add another, and if possible greater evil, by a continued
use of heating spicy matters under the name of cordials : by these the sto-
mach is irritated to an undue sympathy with the skin and hair, which is done
by internal as well as external heat ; but would be as readily effected (as
respects the appearance of the animal, and infinitely more so as regards his
strength and non-liability to disease) by moderate heat, regular exercise, and
long-continued friction. Friction is equally beneficial with a brush as a
currycomb ; and to a very delicate skin, or in autumn, when the coat is always
thin and about to change, it is much moi*e so. To the legs, as already re-
marked, friction is of peculiar importance ; they should be well rubbed by
the groom on his knees, having a wisp of straw in both hands, and the leg
between the two. The dressing of horses is certainly not only a salutary
but a necessary part of their treatment ; it should nevertheless be practised
more mildly than it usually is by the generality of grooms and ostlers.

Clothing. — After what has been ofi'ered, it will not be expected I shall
say much : if horses were allowed to live less artificially, nothing but a body-
sheet, attached by a loose roller, would be seen in our stables ; and these
only as preventives to the teazing of flies, or settling of dust. But as rapid
locomotion is required of all blood-like horses, so warm clothing, which acl>
on the coat by keeping up a free perspiration, and removing all obstructions
to its close apposition, is necessarily employed. To this end, a kersey sheet
and quarter-piece ai"e used in winter for hacknies and carriage horses; a
hood and breast-piece are added for racers, and also for many of our high-
bred hunters, and even fancy hacks.

Clipping of Horses. — Of late years a custom has become somewhiit
prevalent of clipping off all the long hair of such horses as naturally get a
rough winter coat, under every circumstance; as well as of such horses as,
being taken in too late, will not readily shed theirs by all the efforts of
grooming, or the temperature of a heated stable.

There is no doubt but that the fashion of preserving the short summer
coat during the rigours of a British winter, by an extraordinary temperature,
is pleasing to the eye ; but those who wish to preserve appearances argue on
its real advantages also. Horses, with truth they observe, with long coats
sweat easily, but dry with great difficulty ; and what is worse, they certaiuiy
break out again long after they have, by care, become apparently dry ; whicli
second sweat sometimes gives cold, and always weakens a tender or hard
worked horse. There is here some argument ; but when we find one of tlie
warmest advocates for the custom asserting ' that a short coat is not only
less liable to give cold than a long one, and is warmer also, because it lies
closer to the skin,' we are completely posed, and constrained to believe Dame
Nature to be a bit of a simpleton if such be really the case. I have already
allowed that a glossy coat is more ornamental than a rough one ; but I have
shivered to see the st^aring hair of the sleekest of the high-bred hunter,
when a fault has suddenly checked us after half an hour's burst, at nearly
full speed : and I have then thought the little difference in appearance be-
tween the long and the short-coated hardly compensated for the umiatural

GROOMING OF HORSES.

85

condition. Were I, however, compelled to choose, I would prefer clipping
my horse, and then keeping in a temperate stable, to that of forcing his coat
from off his body by intense heat. When clipping is practised, a kersey rug
and hood should be worn for a day or two, both in doors and out : after that,
a linen hood and sheet may be used to exercise in, for two or three days
more, when the usual habits and clothing of the horse may be resumed.
Unnatural as the process is, it must, however, be confessed, that, with only
moderate caution, horses do not seem to suffer from the change. Mr. Ap-
perley, better known under the cognomen of Nimrod, shines on this subject ;
and, as he is a known experimentalist, his dicta ai-e worthy of being attended
to. He is the more to be attended to also, because he offers proofs of the
truth of most of his statements, and is daily making converts to them.

The Feet. — The feet are always an object of particular attention with
every prudent horseman, and every careful groom. Every morning they
should be picked and examined, to observe whether the shoes be fast ; what
state they may be in ; whether the clenches be not raised, so as to cut the
horse ; and that the heels of the shoe do not press on the foot. Where the
feet grow fast, the shoes ought to be removed once in three weeks, whether
they be worn out or not : a want of attention to this particular is the ruin of
many horses ; ignorant grooms supposing that, because the shoes are yet
good, the hoof wants no alteration. The moment a foot becomes too high,
it begins to contract. In hot weather, particularly when the feet are na-
turally di-y and hard, they should be stopped every night, Clay stopping, by
getting hard and dry, is not good ; cow dung, or even horse dung, is a much
better one, and it is rendered still more so if a small quantity of tar be put
into it. If the hoofs become brittle, not only stop them, but dress them
throughout the upper surface with the softening mixture directed among
stoppings in the Materia Medica. There have been, of late, many con-
trivances to imitate the natural moisture of the grass to the under surface of
horses' feet. Mr. Cherry's footpads are well adapted to this purpose, and
deserve attention. I would further recommend, that all the litter be removed
from under the fore feet the first thing in the morning ; and if such feet
should be naturally of the hard, dry kind, or shew any tendency to contract,
wet that part of the stall with water, and wrap also some thick pieces of
cloth which have been dipped in water round the hoof.

Carefully pick the feet after exercise : without this examination, a stone
may press on the sole, or a nail may remain inserted in the frog, to the ruin
of the animal. Inquire of the smith the convenient time for a horse to be
shod : horses sometimes remain many hours hi a cold shop, exposed to the
tricks or brutality of persons around ; but by suiting this operation to the
convenience of the sheer, it can be attended to immediately. After a long
journey, it is a very good plan to pull off the shoes, and turn the horse into
a loose place with plenty of litter under him. It recovers the feet very fast ;
for horses suffer, like ourselves, from their feet becoming heated and tender
in hot weather, or under severe exercise, and that when no real disease exists
in them beyond the present tumefaction and congestion.

When also a horse returns hot from exercise, his saddle must have ab-
sorbed a large quantity of moisture : without care this will remain damp ;
and if put on m this state the next day, it will very frequently give cold : the'
same often happens from the body-clothes, and even from the girths, when
they have been put by wet.

86

EXKRCISE OF HORSES.

xercise.

Nothing IS so convincing a proof of the necessity of ex<;rcise to animaK
as their love of play m a state of nature ; from which natural act we likewi.i
inter, that it is much more necessary to the young and to the robust, than
to the old and weakly: this remark should influence our domestic manage-
ment of horses. We confine our horses not only to have them at our immc -
diate call, but to bring them into particular states, which are artificial. Both
commerce and luxuiy have united to produce this close keeping ; and nature,
to keep pace with it, has introduced numerous diseases, unknown in the ori-
ginal state : these it is our duty to counteract as much as lies in our power
by regular and judicious exercise, when the ordinary work of the animal doe-^
not supply it.

Commerce and luxury have not only taught us to confine our horses, but
they have forced us also to the artificial system of high and luxurious feed-
mg, to supply an unnatural quantity of irritability (commonly called courage
and spirit), which enables them to continue the unnatural exertions fre-
quently required of them. High feeding, therefore, has its share in giving
a tendency to disease, which these continued exertions counteract, and, as
long as they are so continued, horses do not materially sufi"er : but there are
times when we do not want to employ our horses ; and yet we wish to keep
them in a state to be able to serve us when we do want their exertions : and
it is at this time they frequently suff"er; for the necessity of exercise' pro-
portioned to their food is not sufliciently considered, or the time cannot be
spared, or servants neglect them ; and thus the horse becomes pursive, that
is, he accumulates fat, his legs swell, his heels crack, and at length become
greasy ; all which must necessarily be the case : for the receipts of the con-
stitution being great by the high feeding, so the outgoings, by perspiration.
&c. «&c. ought to be large Hkewise ; and it follows that, if the secretions do
not find their natural vents, they will find themselves artificial ones.

The muscles are composed of fibres, having a contractile power, by which
all the motions of the body are performed. These fibres act best when the\
are placed parallel, or in a right line, to each other ; but it is not always thai
they are so placed. Every one has seen beef, where the fleshy fibres (which
form the muscles of the ox) were so interspersed with fat as to throw these
fibres out of their rectilinear course. It must be just the same with fat
horses ; and their muscles, therefore, having their fibres separated from each
other by the fat, cannot at these times act to advantage, or with their due
degree of contractility. The absorbents of the body are acted on by various
stimuli; exercise is one of the strongest of these, and by its means fat
horses are made lean : when, however, the exercise is only ordinate and in
due proportion, it does not emaciate the animal by wholly removing the
adipose matter; it merely takes it up from the interstices of the muscles', and
places it where there is less pressure ; so that the horse, if well fed, still con-
tinues lusty, but the fat becomes more advantageously disposed of. Exercise
enlarges the muscles, for Nature endeavours to become equal to her wants ;
therefore, when horses or dogs are trained for hunting or racing, they should
have regular and long-continued exercise. Exercise improves the wind, by
promoting an absorption of the surrounding fat from the viscera of the chest,
and thus allows the lungs to expand uninterruptedly : it also enlarges the air

EXERCISE OE HORSES. 87

cells of the lungs themselves ; and lience, by imbibing more air, the animal
can remain longer between his inspirations.

To give rules as to what quantity of exertion is necessary, we should
consider the age, constitution, and mode of feeding. A young horse re-
quires more exercise than an old one ; but, if he be very young, it must then
be neither very fatiguing nor very long continued. Some colts are observed
to come out of the hands of the breaker with windgalls or splints, from ex-
treme and long-continued exercise. A full-fed horse should have his ex-
ercise continued for a considerable time : if it be given once a day only, not
less than an hour and a half or two hours is requisite ; if twice a day, which
is most natural and proper, it- may be an hour each time. Horses exercising
should be first walked a considerable way ; they then may be gently trotted,
and, if intended for hunting or racing, they may be also moderately gal-
lopped : but, under any circumstances, the exercise should finish with a walk
of sufficient length to Ijring the horse in cool and inirritable from the vivify-
ing effects of arduous exertion. More is dependent on this than is usually
taken into account : when a horse returns vivid and fiery, it is ten to one
but he and the groom quarrel. It is evidently not my intention to ofiier any
instruction relative to what is called training ; I am only treating of exercise

: as necessaiy for health. Many valuable horses are spoiled by servants ex-
ercising them : it is not unusual with these gentry to gallop their horses
against each other ; and a horse frequently gets more severe exercise in one

: hour's work with the servant, than in a week's riding of the master's : to
prevent this, horses should either be exercised within sight of the house, or
on some road where they may be now and then seen by some one interested

i in the management ; or, what is far better, such a groom only should be

I employed as will do his duty faithfully without looking after. This gallop-
ing against time, or against each other, produces heat and thirst in both

i horses and grooms : the latter to slake their own, resort to the pubUc house,

• where half an hour is spent in drinking, and that while the shivering animals

• stand at the door. The time now lost must be made up by another gallop,
and the horses are returned to the stable, in a profuse perspiration, by which

I they frequently contract serious indisposition ; which is still more likely to
i happen if, as is frequently the case, they are washed with cold water, and then
; permitted to dry at leisure ; and this, it may be observed, is always a bad
< custom, for the heat and moisture united, encourage a determination of
1 blood to the legs, and occasion swelling, and often grease. A horse, there-
t fore, should be brought home after his exercise as cool as possible, and, if
' washed, he should be carefully rubbed dry. Friction itself may be consi-
( dered as a species of artificial exercise, and as the best substitute for it ; and

• whenever, therefore, circumstances prevent exercise, as frosts, lameness,
; &c. &c. a greater share of hand-rubbing should be made use of.— As the
1 prevention of disease is better than the cure, so it is greatly to our interest
tto attend to stable management in all the particulars detailed. By frequent-
i ing their stables, masters become interested in the personal comfort of their
\ horses, and a new pleasure opens itself to them. Nor are the horses them-
^ selves unmindful of this, but amply repay such attention by becoming pcr-
-sonally aJ^tached to such masters, and much more willing and obedient to
' them. 1 his is exemplified in borrowed horses, which, though enjoying and

deserving the reputation of excellent, 'are frequently found by the borrower,
sluggish, wilful, and often vicious.

We think it not unlikely that some of our readers may object to the ex-

®® EXERCISE OF HORSES.

tent and circumstantiality of this first portion of our work. Some may think
that they need not the mformation offered, and others that the room taken
up would have been better occupied by a more ample therapeutic detail.
We, however, opnie that instruction offered on the treatment of domestic
animals m health will lead to a more ready detection of their diseased states,
and to a more successful method of combatting them.

PART THE SECOND.

THE

ANATOMY OF THE HORSE;

A DESCRIPTION

OF THE

STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS, AND ECONOMY OF ALL THE PARTS

OF HIS BODY.

i

'I
♦

I

91

SECT. VIII.

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

Anatomy teaches the structure, functions, and economy of the various
. parts of the animal frame. It appears both convenient and systematic to
consider it under the several heads of

OSTEOLOGY, or tlie doctrine of the BONES

SYNDESMOLOGY LIGAMENTS

MYOLOGY MUSCLES

BURSALOGY MUCOUS CAPSULES

ANGIOLOGY VESSELS

NEUROLOGY NERVES

ANDENOLOGY GLANDS

SPLANCHNOLOGY VISCERA

HYGROLOGY FLUIDS.

In the following detail I have, throughout, blended the functions of the
•parts with their formation; the one illustrating the other, and both being-
essential to the art it is the object of the work to teach.

OSTEOLOGT.

Bones are hard, white, insensible bodies, which sustain the soft parts, and
form the base of the animal machine. They are composed of earth, carti-
lage, and membrane. The membrane appears first formed, into which car-
tilage is deposited : gradually the arteries pour out within the centre of each
bone the earthy matter, until the whole is completely consolidated. This
consolidation does not take place in all the bones until the full growth of
the animal ; neither are the stages of osseous evolution alike in each bone,
those becoming soonest ossified whose use could be least dispensed with ;

.and thus, also, the evolution of the bones in the indigent tribes, as kittens,
puppies, &c. is less perfect at birth than in the foal, lamb, calf, or others,
■who have to make exertions as soon as born. The bones of the horse are

iinuch harder than those of man, and consequently stronger. The deposit

« of earthy matter, and the consequent consolidation of their substance, ap-
pears to be hastened by any thing that permanently quickens the circulation,

I by occasioning a more speedy separation of the earthy parts from the blood :
it is thus that the inhabitants of warm climates come to perfection sooner
than those of the northern regions. But by preternaturally hastening the
earthy deposit in the bones we check their growth ; thus, horses early and

-eeverely worked,^ never arrive at their full size. Pressure likewise appears

I'to assist ossification ; parts, therefore, long exposed to it, as the cartilaginous
ends of the spinous processes of the vertebrae, ossify from the pressure of

•the saddle or heavy burdens. To unnatural pressure we also attribute the

^putting out' of splints and spavins in young horses which have been too
early and too hard worked.

The earthy matter of bones is continually changing by means of the ab-

^sorbents, which remove it, and the arteries which replace it. Its quantity
also depends on the wants of the animal and the stimulus applied : in the

! full-bred horse, therefore, the bones will be found more solid than in the
bulky lower bred varieties. The cavcrnotis part of a bone is lined by a mem-
brane, called the internal periosteum, which retains the medulla or marroiv
in its cells : the bones have also an external periosteum, or outer covering

THE ANATOMY OF THE HOUSE,
(see Syndesmology) The medullary cavities Have the effect of diminishina
he weight of bones without weakening them. Bones, thouo-h furnXd S
blood-vessels and nerves, have little sensibility, except under in rmmarn
to which they are very liable in the horse ; at least to that kinTwS rh pro
duces exostosis The varieties in the form of bones have occasioned thai;
division uito cyhndrical, flat, spherical, and irregular. They are furnished
with cavities and eminences : the cavities are glfna., or nar L and Tal o^
cotyl^, or deep and wide: they have, also, pits, furrows, notches fosi'
smnses, foramina, &c The eminences are epiphyses, whose use is of enTo
increase the surface of attachment of tendons, oi- to remove their ax^far-
ther from the centre of motion : apophyses are parts added to a large bone
Processes form themselves into a caput or head, or a cervix or neck a
rough one IS a tuberosity, and others are called mastoid, styloid, &c.: protu-
berant brims are called supercilia, &c. &c. Bones articulate with each other
either by diarthrosis, or separated articulation; or by synarthrosis, or con-
jomed articulation. Symphysis is also a species of articulation which takes,
place through the medium of another body, as cartilage, ligament, &c.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE I.
HEAD.

a, b, c d OS frontis. Only one can be seen ; the sagittal suture which divides then,
and which also unites the pair, is exactly in front of the head ; a, the coronal sutoe be

If the' fVo,'! I'f ''''."'^'T supra-orbital foramen on i^r , the

of he frontal forming the orbit; d, the portion uniting it with the makr ^d paE"
bones, parietal bone; e, its junction with the occipital by the lambdoida/suture
tt-H ' P'^'^ ^^""l ''■ ^' °f ^P'^f ' protuberance ; h, its cuneiform proccess ; i, the con-
?^ TemT:i T""^^ '■' P^'^'-^Soid process, one peculiar to ^he horse.

l, m Temporal bone, the squamous portion is seen just above the zygomatic arch • Joined
to the parietal by the squamous suture; I, the petrous portion forming the internal ear

cess of the frontal, and the zygomatic process of the malar, by two sutures • « malar

info kijtxm^r" ' '"'^l ''"f- -"-^^••'^'^Jy is the ^ine. whTch is'conS

nto the maxillary; o.oslachrymalis, nasal bones; q, r, f, superior maxilW • „

InS ""t' ''""^^ ' tLmIiting^vith tTe m a^r Jd

angular; the tnanguar space shews a portion of bone that is sometimes formed between
called OS tnquetra ; J, the inferior portion uniting the inferior maxillary ; be^een r mid /'
IS seen the superior maxillary canal. /, the inferior maxillary hone ; v, v l!m maxilk
posterior, or lower jaw; u, the branches ; posterior maxillary canal \ both above
passing under the zygomatic arch. '

VERTEBRA.

a, b, the seven cervical vertebra ; a, the atlas ; d, e,f, dentata or second ; d, its sinde
transverse process; e, its upper oblique process; /, its ridge answering for a spinous pro-
cess ; g, h,i, k, I, m, n third cervical vertebra; g, its body ; above the letter is the hole
tor the transmission of the vertebral arteries and veins ; i, k, anterior and posterior trans-
verse processes ; between h and is a hole through which the cen'ical nerves pass ; /, an-
terior protuberance in the body ; m, the spinous process ; the upper oblique processes;
«, the lower oblique processes; 1, 18, marks the 18 dorsal vertebrae; a, the body the
space between each is filled by a cartilago -ligamentous substance ; b, the transverse pro-
cesses, articulating with the head of each rib ; c, their upper oblique processes; rf, their
lower ditto. 1, 5. the five lumbar vertebra;, their transverse processes are very long, but
from the fore shortening in the perspective, are not very evident in the plate • .r, x, the
sacrum composed of five pieces ; the spinous processes are the only parts distinct • the
transverse are united into one unequal rough part; 1, 13, the coccygis or bones of the
tail ; the spinous and transverse processes are distinct o^y on the first four or five.

STERNUM, RIBS, SHOULDER, AND ANTERIOR EXTREMITIES.
a, b, 1, 9, the true ribs ; 10, 18, the false ribs ; n, the head articulating with the trans-
verse process of first dorsal vertciira ; under is seen the lower branch of tlio head Ih.if

OSTEOLOGY— BONES OF THE HEAD. 93

unites with the seventh cervical and first dorsal vertebra ; c, the end that unites with the
. sternum ; d, the sternum ; e,f, g, h, i, I, m, the scapula; e, its neck, below which is seen
its denoid cavity ; /, antea spinatus fossa;; /(, its spine, which in the human ends in the
processus acromion, but here by a tuberosity ; i, coracoid process ; between w and i, the
anterior costa ; I, between this and e, posterior costa ; between m and I is its base, and the
line above it marks the extent and situation of the cartilage of the scapula; n, o, p, q,
• humerus or arm, «, its cervix, above which is seen its head ; o, its anterior head, forming

■ the point of the shoulder, as it is usually called, in the horse ; p, its tuberosity ; q, its
lower head; behind is seen the cavity for the reception of the olecranon; r, r, ulna;

■ the upper part forms the olecranon or elbow ; the lower part is united by ligamentous
fibres to the radius; /,/, theradius ; 1, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, the carpus or knee ; 1, 1, trape-
zium ; 2, 2, scaphoid ; 3, 3, lunar ; 4, cuneiform ; 5, magnum ; 6, unciform ; 7, trape-
zoid ; /, u, metacarpus, /, canon ; «, two small metacarpals ; v, great pastern ; w, sessa-

I moids ; ,r, coronet bone, or little pastern ; y, coffin ; z, navicular or nut bone.

PELVIS AND POSTERIOR LIMBS.

a, b, c, d, e,f, g, the two ossa innominata ; a, b, c, ilium ; a, tuberosity of ilium, form-
ing the haunch or hip ; c, the union with ischium ; e, f, ischium ; g, g, pubis ; and between
the letters, the symphysis ; d, foramen thyroideum ; h, i, k, I, m, femur or thigh bone ; h,
the cervix, above which is the head received into the acetabulum of the pelvis ; i, great
trochanter; k, the outer trochanter; /, /, the inner trochanter; m,m, the anterior, con-
dyles ; n, II, the posterior ditto ; p, p, semilunar cartilages ; o, o, patella ; q, tibia or leg,
commonly called the thigh ; r, fibula ; the tibia is seen terminating in its maleoli, to arti-
culate with the tarsus ; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, tarsus or hock, 1, 2, 1, 2, calcis, forming the
point of hock, in man the heel ; 3, 4, astragalus ; 5, 5, cuneiform magnum ; 6, cuboides ;
7, cuneiform medium ; 8, cuneiform parvum. f, /, t, t, metatarsus ; J,f, canon or shank ;
t, t, two small metatarsals ; u, pastern ; v, sessamoids ; w, coronet bone or lesser pastern ;
X, X, coffin ; y, nut or navicular.

BONES OF THE HEAD.

The osseous structure of the head presents the bones of the skull, face,
and posterior jaw, which altogether, form a figure very ditFerent from that
of the human subject, principally owing to the elongation of the nose and
jaws, and the confined area of the skull.

The Cranium or Skull

Is composed of the following bones, which are mostly united together by
sutures or interlacing of their edges. This junction, gives great strength,
and forms a vaulted cavity for the reception and preservation of the brain.
The cranial bones are not thus united until birth, or soon after it*.

The frontal bones (^ossa frontis) are situated at the upper and anterior
part of the head, (a, b, c, d, plate I), their union forming a part of the
sagittal suture, and their inner surface lodging the anterior and inferior
part of the brain, while a division of the inner from the outer surface leaves
two cavities, called the frontal sinuses. Laterally, these bones are con-
nected with the malar by the orbitary process, their union forming the zi/go-
matic sutures ; inferiorly, they join the nasal bones, and interiorly the eth-
moid and sphenoid. The orbitar process forms the greater orbitar fossa,

• By this imperfect union of the foetal foal'fi cranial bones, little obstruction is oflTered
to its expulsion from the womb ; for the edges of the bones being not yet consolidated,
allow them to overlap, and thus lessen the bulk of the head. By the number of the
cranial pieces a great advantage is also gained ; for each bone growing distinctly from its
own centre, the general increase is rapid, to meet the rapid evolution of the organs after
birth.

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

giving passage to a branch of the fiffl „f „ ' supra-orbital forame,
sels furnishing the supercilia and part Ecent '°

shelpZrrst;,:ra"te^Ta::/bT''''ir"^' -

oipital bones : thl, . Z:L:Z£...^.r"^^^^ frontal, and oc

to the frontal by iTZonal l^I W = '^^^ ^'"^

moz.. sutures. The^rZi/bonP, ^ J^' *° ^^P^^-^^ ^^e
s_ and petrS X^^^^

as they usually are as nno r,,.;,. i i ^^vva^s uibunct. Considered

a lesser one of the malar hoL In f ^h^^h contributes, with

r iSg-'s- the^^Siiretiir^ " """'^
sit^t^:fJefthC^;srr■■^:^e^^^^^^^^^^^

Th^ V 7 / ^"^"^^^.t«™'nat^ngin the anterior turbinated bones *
The occt^ fe/ occ-^^t^*.; is situated at the summit of the heJ Lde

Portion 'Infh! lamMoidal suture; to the temporals, by their petrous

portion , and by Its cuneiform process to the sphenoid bone. ItiisesT
penorly into a ndge, or perpendicular process, L which the cervira i^a"
ment of the neck is attached ; and here, the head being much exS fhe
bone IS wisely made of extreme thickness. By its condyloid aXZtl h

(vide h,^late I), is received as a wedge among the bones of the skull It

The Face.

The warn; bones fossa nasi; videp, Plate I) are united together throuo-h-
out then- whole length, and internally receive the'cartilaginous Ip^nZ^u

with the frontals : superiorly and laterally with the angulars ; and inferiorli
with the lower maxillary. The nasal fossa, are formed by means of these

'^UIZTT "'"^""Y^^ ^r^' '''''^''y •> ^'^P^-'-'y «f t^e post rt

table of the frontals forming the frontal sinuses, with which they communi-
cate ; and posteriorly of the palatine bones. The lachymals,' or ossn la-
thi Jrn'so uil" "j^^ the c/isfcmpcr of cIors
rney are so likewise, when the disease is very virulent.

OSTEOLOGY — BONES OF THE HEAD.

95

chrymalia, are situated at the inner angle of the eyes f vide o, Plate I), and
fonn a considerable portion of the orbits. Each is nearly square, and joined
to the nasal, malar, frontal, and superior maxillary bones : its orbitary ridge
is perforated by a canal, just within the inner angle of the eye, forming the
lachrymal duct, or ductus ad nasum, which carries off the superfluous tears
into the nose. This duct passes bony between the turbinated bones, and
then becomes membranous under the inferior or posterior of them. The
malar, jugal, or cheek bones ( ossa malarum ), occupy the posterior part of
the orbits ( vide n, Plate I), between the angular, superior maxillary, and
temporal bones ; to the last of which each is united by its temporal process,
. and forms part of the zygomatic arch.

The superior maxillary bones f ossa maxillay'ia superiora J are the
\ largest of those particularly belonging to the face, and are connected ante-
: riorly to the nasal ; inferiorly to the inferior maxillary ; and internally to
each other, and to the palatine by their palatine processes : to the vomer
also, and within the orbit to the zygomatic process of the temporal bones.
Their exterior surface is convex, and has upon it the maxillary spine con-
1 tinned from the malar : midway between this and the junction with the nasal
1 bone, there is a foramen called the anterior maxillary canal, which is con-
; tinned through each of them, and transmits the second branch of the fifth
. pair of nerves, with some vessels ; all which go to supply the molar teeth :
its inferior edge is pierced by the molar alveoU. By their junction with each
other posteriorly, these bones form the inferior portion of the palatine arch, '
or roof of the mouth ; the superior part of which arch is formed by the pa-
5 latine bones themselves, to which the maxillary are united. Their internal

■ surface lodges the turbinated bones, with which the anterior of them is nearly
filled ( q, r, s, Plate I).

The inferior maxillary bones (ossa maxillaria inferiora ) have been
: frequently considered as parts of those last described, although the division
; between them is as evident as that betweeen the frontals and parietals*.
. Mr. Stubbs falls into the same error. These bones are wanting in the
I human, and are peculiar to animals with long jaws ; they unite together by

• symphysis, and to the inferior maxillary and nasal bones by suture. They
(concur in forming part of the nasal fossae, and at their inferior edge have

• six alveoli, lodging the anterior incisive teeth. At the symphysis is a fora-
r men, giving passage to bloodvessels and a nerve. ( Vide t, Skel.J — The
ipalatines ( ossa palati superiora) are situated at the upper part of the bony
{palate, beyond the superior maxillary, to which they unite, and jointly form
! the arch of the palate : superiorly, they unite to the wings of the sphenoid,

■ and leave an oval opening between them and its body, which forms the en-

• trance of the nasal fossa into the pharynx,- Os triquatra {vide o, r.) It
; is not uncommon to find a triangular portion of bony plate interposed be-
tween the unguis, superior maxillary, and the nasal bones. In oxen and

-sheep it is seldom met with. The superior turbinated bones (ossa turbi-
nata superiora) are thin, bony lamellae, within each superior maxillary
bone. They are connected with the nasal bones, and receive the continua-
tion of the ethmoidal cells, and are seen, on opening the nostrils, forming a

-species of tortuous cavity.— The inferior^turbinated bones (ossa turhinata

• Blumenbach terms it the intermaxillarij ; and as it is not found in man, he consi-
' dered it as a distmctive mark between the human and brute subjects. It is, however,
found that no such bone exists in some of the long-tailed monkeys, allhougli it is pre-
■sent m some of the short-tailed tribes : such distinction, therefore, is fallacious.

96 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

mfeviora) occupy the remainder of the cavity of the maxillary bones • bein^
tortuous ni situation, and spongy in texture, they increase the surface of the
pituitary membrane, which readily explains the reason why they are so con-
siderable in brutes, and so trivial in man.

The vomer, or ploughshare, is a single bone, and extends from the infe-
nor part of the nasal fossae, so as to divide (in conjunction with the caitila-
gmous septum) the nostrils into two equal cavities ; superiorly it ioins the
sphenoid, and inferiorly is received into a groove of the palatine process of
the maxillary bone ; it is likewise connected with the ethmoid.

The Posterior Jaw.

T\iQ posterior maxillary hone ( maxilla inferior ) , or lower jaw, is. in
the foetus, composed of two pieces, afterwards intimately united by symphy-
sis at the chin. . The anterior edge, by a separation of its tables, forms the
alveoli for the reception of the molares or grinders, the tushes and incisive
teeth. Superiorly and anteriorly it forms two considerable branches ; the
external angle of each of which is the thickest portion of the whole, and is
thence called the tuberosity : the branches themselves end in two processes
with an intermediate groove.' The first, and most superior of these, is called
the condyloid process, having a flat head tipped with cartilage, which arti-
culates with a cartilaginous depression of the zygomatic process of the tem-
poral bone (see Skel); between which articulations is placed, as in the
human, a moveable cartilaginous piece, accommodating itself by its figure
to the motions of the jaw. The second process is the coronoid, which is
flat, and passes under the zygomatic arch {videf&ndi m, Skel.) having the
crotaphite muscle inserted into it : were it not for this arch, every accidental
pressure, and every slight injury, would impede the motion of the jaw, and
might starve the animal. The whole likewise shews the most admirable
mechanism : the molar teeth, on whose action most is dependent, are operated
on by very powerful muscles ; and as the upper jaw in most animals is nearly
fixed, so it was necessary in the horse, and other graminivora, that the lower
should have considerable extent of action, as well as of force, for the purpose
of grinding, and it is accordingly so formed as to admit of motion in every
direction*.

The Teeth

Are very important organs, and deserve an attentive examination of their
anatomy and physiology. The parabohc line formed by their arrangement
in their alveolary sockets is called the dental arcade, of which there is an
upper or anterior, and a lower or posterior. Each arcade presents two rows
of teeth, which are not continuous, but interrupted by a vacancy, which is
also interrupted, by the admission of a single canine tooth. Inferiorly, the
fellow arcades form a circle of union, embracing the nippers. The teeth of
the horse are divided into incisores, cuspidati, and molares, or, popularly,

* A mere inspection of the articulation of a brute jaw separated from the body would
enable a naturalist to determine whether it belonged to a carnivorous or herbivorous ani-
mal. When the articulation is so formed as to admit of vertical motion only, i( may
safely be determined to belong to one of the carnivora ; but when it appears endowed
with both verticil and horizontal motion, it will be found to have formed apart of an ani-
mal of the herbivorous order.

OSTEOLOGY — THE TEETH. 97

nippn-s, tushes, and grinders*. Each tooth is formed of a crown, neck,
and root. The crown is the upper part, and is variously formed in the dif-
ferent teeth ; the neck is not very evident in the adult horse, but is more
. distinct in the colt.

The incisores or nippers of the adult horse are six above and six below.
\ The free part of each presents a cone-like figure, whose apex is wedged
■within the alveolary socket, and whose base is the table of the tooth. By
this arrangement room is allowed between each nipper for the surrounding
: gums and bony partitions ; while the roots remain in contact with each other.
An incisor in a horse of six years of age is oval at its base, round in its
: body, and triangular at its apex or alveolary portion. This specified form,
however, becomes much altered and modified by time, and the changes which
• take place form the ground-work of those tabular indications of age depicted
oon plate II. The anterior or outer surface of an incisor is slightly convex,
land presents two longitudinal channels, which are deeper in the upper than
lin the under jaw. The table or nipping surface is furnished with an oval-
- shaped fossa in its centre, which is interrupted in the corner teeth by a species
of artificial side or internal wall received within an inflection of the outer.
Among horsemen this cavity is known by the name of the mark, i. e. mark
' of the age. (See Exterior Conformation.) The corner teeth are likewise
altogether more thin and shelly than the other nippers, and are slightly tri-
angular in figure (see plate II). The dental fossa of the table surface is
not originally of more than a few lines in depth ; it is, however, deepest in
the corner nippers, less so in the middle teeth, and least of all in the cen-
tral. ' In the early periods of its formation, an incisor resembles a cellular
body, the thin sides of which are soft and membranous, but promptly be-
coming hard and thickened, are reflected at the side of the table. This first

■ dental production gives rise to two cavities that have no communication with

■ each other, and diff'er most essentially : the largest being situated next the
r>root(^ c,fig. 1, plate II) contains the pulpy substance, whilst the outer cavity
ids open at the side next the table, forming a reflected funnel (b fig. J. This
ssame dental production becomes transformed into enamel, which is quickly
^surrounded by the bony substance on both of its surfaces ; the latter incrusts
ftitself in greater quantity on the side next the root, and never completely
Sfills the funnel, the cavity of which does not become obliterated, but by the

effect of wear. The funnel (b, fig.) is formed, as has been just stated,

■ by the reflection of the -elementary membrane of the tooth, and forms a
.'genuine septum or partition, acquires a certain length, and terminates in a

rounded blind pouch.'— ijf, Girarcl on the Teeth ; Ganly's Trans. Editor's

Preface, p. 5.

The molares or grinders are twenty-four, six being implanted in each
■ramus of the jawsf . The upper are larger and stronger than the under,

• These varieties of teeth are common to man, and to many other quadrupeds besides
Che horse, as the quadrumana, the camivora, the pachydermata, and the hornless rumi-
□ants ; but It IS m man only that they are found closely approximated in one uninter--
•uptcd hne of contmuity.

t ' The anterior molars, three in number on each side, have long been (and upon the
luthority of Aristotle) considered as permanent. IBuflbn, Bourgelat, and Daubenton, con-
-mued to look on them as such, although lluini had published, in 1,598, that two of these
■.eeth were temporary ; and that error was persisted in, until Tenon had established, posi-
•ively, that the three anterior molars were liable to fall and to be replaced.'— G,m/t/'s

In the Veterinary Museum are two anterior jaws which have each eight molar teeth
war. Cherry is also said to possess a posterior jaw with four only.

G

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE,

which was a wise provision, as they form the fixed point on which mastica-
tion IS performed. The first and last molar teeth, above and below, are
triangular ; and while the extended angles (as well expressed by Mr. Perci-
vall) ' of the four inferior are directed downwards, those of the last, or supe-
rior, are so upwards. Indeed, these four teeth, instead of being inclined in-
wards in their sockets, are literally curved ; so that the upper ones of the
anterior jaw press with their roots against the floor of the maxillary sinuses,
and those of the posterior jaw run upwards into its branches.' The inter-
nal anatomy of the grinding teeth is thus clearly pourtrayed by the ingenious
writer of ' The Horse,' in the Farmers Series of Useful Knowledge :
' Each molar tooth is formed and prepared in cavities within the jaw-bones.
A delicate membranous bag, containing a jelly-like substance, is found in
the unborn animal, in a little cell within the jaw-bone. It assumes, by de-
grees, the form of the tooth that is to appear, and then the jelly within the
membrane begins to change to bony matter ; and a hard and beautiful chrys-
tallization is formed on the membrane without ; and thus the cutting tooth
becomes covered by its enamel. In the formation, however, of each of the
grinders of the horse, there are originally five of these membranous bags in
the upper jaw, and four in the lower filled with jelly. This jelly, by de-
grees, gives place to bony matter, which is thrown out by little vessels pene-
trating into it, and is represented by the darker portions (fg. 4, plate II,
which is a horizontal section of a molar tooth) with central black spots.
The crystallization of enamel can be traced around each ; and so there would
be five distinct bones or teeth. A third substance, however, is now secreted
(which is represented by the white spaces), and is a powerful cement, unit-
ing all these distinct bones into one body, and making one tooth of the five : .
this being done, another coat of enamel spreads over the sides, but not the
top, and the tooth is completed. The grinders in the lower jaw, having
originally but four of these bags or shells, are smaller and narrower, and
more regular than the upper ones. They are not placed horizontally in
either jaw; but in the lower, the higher side is within, and shelving inward;
and thus the grinding motion is most advantageously performed.'

Teeth are supposed to have some specialties of structure which distinguish
them from simple bone; and, d priori, something of this kind might have been
expected. Common bone is never exposed to the action of the external air,
nor is it ever subjected to abrasion : on the contrary, when two become op-
posed to each other, a cartilage tips the end of each, to prevent either friction
or concussion. The teeth have one-third of their substance not only ex-
posed to the action of the air, but are very often brought into contact with
the hardest bodies. It is not to be wondered at, therefore, if some spe-
ciality is found in them ; neither ought it be a matter of surprise if the free
or exposed portions, as the crown and bodies, and the covered parts, as the
root or fangs, should be seldom formed altogether of the same materials :
and even where they are in the main similar, yet the proportions of their
substances vary, or the modes in which they are distributed are unlike.
Enamel, ivory, and cement, enter the composition of the teeth of the horse
generally ; but, individually, their distribution varies. In the nippers and
tushes, the enamel covers the whole of the free portion ; in the grinders,
instead of covering the surface of the table generally, we see that it forms
distinct penetrating layers*. Of these dental components, the enamel is by

* By comparative anatomy we are frequently enabled to throw great ligltt on the func-
tions of particular parts of the human body, by which some of the obligation due to tin

OSTEOLOGY — THE TEETH. 99

u'ar the hardest and densest : it also contains less animal matter, and, when

v jxamined closely, appears fibrous. It will yield fire, with steel, like flint,
ind is hardly to be acted upon by the best tempered files : it never occurs
done, but always as a coating to the ivory of the tooth f a a, e e,Jigs. 1, 4,
ilate II). The enamel, chemically examined, appears to be a crystalline
lompound, from gelatine and phosphate of lime, and is secreted from the
nembrane of the pulp.

The ivo)y is harder than common bone ; it is also fibrous, and is the pro-
luce of the pulp of the tooth in the early state, which consolidating, forms
he substance of each tooth. It is principally difi'erent from bone in con-
ainiugmore phosphate of lime; or, according to some, fluoric acid, in com-
bination with lime. The cement is softer than either of the other compo-

tients, contains more animal matter, and resembles more nearly the common
)one of the bodj^. Sir Everard Home attributes its produce to an ossifica-
ion of the secreting membrane of the enamel ; Cuvier considers it as a
ipecific secretion. It may perhaps be better explained after this manner :
The pulp from whence the ivory is secreted is surrounded by a membrana-
ieous capsule, and presents two layers ; the central layer secretes the ena-
nel, while the outer furnishes the cement, and surrounds the terticeous
itrise of enamel, and unites the other substances into one firm mass.

The cuspidati, canini, or tushes, are four, and are usually, butnotinvaria-

ioly, confined to horses*. They are situated so as to break a long vacant

: tnowledge of the latter are repaid. I liave had frequent occasions of pointing to this mu-
nial advantage ; perhaps a more felicitous one does not occur than the present, in which
;rroneous notions on the suhject of the preservative use of the enamel have prevailed, and
ire yet every day insisted on hy dentists. Were a preservative quality the principal use of the
mamel, the teeth of both man and beast would be seldom free from decay. In both the
)ne and the other, parts of the teeth are entirely deprived of it, and in neither does decay
ake place at such parts. The depressions on the broad surfaces of the horse molar teeth
: ire, as described above, purposely formed from the first without enamel, and on the sm--
' ace of the incisors or nippers it early wears away, and yet caries is almost unknown to
;oth. The human incisors also wear from a sharp edge to a flattened surface, entirely un-
lovered by enamel, but on which surface caries never commences ; on the contrary, when
.hese decay, the disease commences at the neck of the tooth where the enamel is thickly
mcrusted over. The first carious spot usually seen in the human molar teeth is in the deep
lepressions on their semi-incisive grinding surface, where the enamel can suffer no abra-
sion : add to which, that decay in a tooth may generally be stopped, if the whole, of the
liseased portion be filed away. Some tribes among the Indians, remarked for the soundness
md goodness of their teeth, always keep them filed to a point; we therefore learn, by col-
I ating these facts, that the enamel of the teeth operates little in preserving them frommor-
)id decay; but that its principal use is, by its extreme hardness, so to temper the teeth, as
•teel tempers iron, that they may resist the impressions of constant mastications, and make
he wear of these organs commensurate with that of the body in general.

* Appearances of these teeth are not infrequently met with in mares, in the form of
^mall, irregular, bony knobs ; and, indeed, in all mares there are rudiments or markings
if them in maxillary bones, which in many cases become somewhat developed by age.
The ancients entertained a notion, but which is not confirmed by fact, that such mares as
lad them were alwa,ys barren. The tushes are occasionally double ; and Mr. Percivall has
iposterioror lower jaw which contains- two springing from separate sockets on the near side,
r ^^so to have seen, in Cow Cross, Smithfield.two jaws with supernumerarytushes.

-n France I saw also four distinct tushes in an upper jaw : other irregularities in their
ormation are likewise not uncommon. Mr. Percivall appears to think the canine teeth
;iven as weapons of defence, which appears to me questionable: they are not sufficiently
;xtended for such purposes, nor is it ever observed jthat in the most offensive attacks of llie
lorse he employs more than the incisors, which are capable of inflicting a very terrible
'Tv^*^'""' ^^'^ ^"^^ "''^'^ prehensile weapons to hold an enemy while he is

"^aTT- i," ^'^"'^■^ repeated concussions, or battered to death by the fore feet. It may be
4dded, that castration does not produce any alteration on the tushes of the horse, as on the

G 2

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE,
border between the incisors and molar teeth ; those of the upper or anterior
jaw being placed nearer to the grinders than those of the under, which pre-
vents any interference between them. There are no temporaneous tushes,
but one set only, which appears rather irregularly about the adult period,
growing slowly, and when completely evolved, presenting a slightly curved
figure, turned inwards, with an outer plain surface, and an inner one having
two perpendicular grooves with an intermediate rising. The upper part is
originally pointed; but the point wears away by age, leaving the tush
blunted : the internal surface also, by accretion, becomes smooth and equal
with the outer ; and as these appearances cannot be restored, the tushes may
be depended on as a guide in judging of the age, when a horse is suspected
of having been hishopped. ' So long as the tusk lies hidden in its socket.
It has no fang, and consists simply of a thin thimble-like shell of hard sub-
stance; but as the body emerges, the root also elongates, and a fang forms,
which is only perfected when the tooth itself has attained its greatest evolu-
tion in the mouth. At this period the tusk is hollow throughout, and is
perforated at its root by a small foramen ; but as years advance the growth,
the cavity gradually fills up, and in old horses we perceive no remains of it.
The horse, in common with man and the greater number of quadrupeds, is
provided with a primary and a secondary, or, as is more usually expressed,
with a temporaneous, shedding, or milk set of teeth, and a permanent, or
adult, or horse set. The primary dentition has already commenced at birth :
the secondary or permanent, although not completed before the adult period,
is successively appearing from the second year. This change, by which the
temporaneous teeth are displaced for the permanent, being very gradually
performed, the animal sufilers no inconvenience : were all the teeth, or even
several of them, to be removed at the same time, the animal would suffer
great injury.

Although the temporaneous and permanent sets of teeth appear with an
interval of some years between them, yet the rudiments of both are formed
nearly at the same period ; and the latter seem to be only prevented from
making their appearance from the pressure occasioned by the former, or
those above them: thus, when one of the first set is drawn, its place is soon
filled up by one of the second set ; and which promptness of growth is most
convenient, as by its means a new tooth may be soon ready to fill up any
accidental displacement that may occur before the usual period. If it be
asked here, why does not the same pressure which keeps down the perma-
nent set remove the temporaneous above them ? it may be readily answered,
that these lower teeth are not sufficiently consolidated ; but that, as soon as
they become so, they in turn become the pressing bodies, and the roots of
the temporaneous set, submitting to the stimulus, become absorbed. Dealers
avail themselves of this, and, as already shewn when treating on the teeth as
connected with the age, they draw the first, to produce a more early evolu-
tion of the second set.

It was essentially necessary that there should be two sets of teeth ; for as
these bodies grow but slowly in proportion to the jaws, so, had there been
horns of deer ; it neither retards nor advances the period of their evolution, which is na-
turally less regular than that of the other teeth. These united circumstances' are unfavour-
able to any opinion of their being organs purposely designed for offence. In the horse,
as in man, these teeth may, I think, be rather considered as placed in the jaws to preserve
that order and harmony so conspicuous throughout the links of nature's vast chain; while
to the elephant, the boar, the dog, and some other quadrupeds, where they are long and
pointed, they appear truly pugnatory organs.

OSTEOLOGY — THE TEETH.

101

but one, the disproportion in growth between the teeth and the jaw bones
must have separated the teeth from each other as the jaws increased in
length ; hence there is given at first a small and less numerous set, adapted
to the size of the bones. The living powers in the teeth are kept up, as in
bones in general, by nerves and bloodvessels, which may be traced entering
the hollows in their roots from trunks described in Angiology and Neuro-
logy. We have also sufficient proof of their having absorbents, by the re-
moval of the roots of the teraporaneous set by the process of absorption.

The economy of the teeth, as organs of mastication, is peculiarly interest-
ing ; and, in a practical point of view, its consideration is important to the
veterinarian. The nippers may be considered both as cutters and vellicators ;
for they embi'ace the vegetable matters around them, and by a twitch, or
sudden motion of the head, they partly cut it with the edges of the nippers
and partly tear it up. They are less properly named gatherers ; for the
gathering together the edible substances previous to the teeth closing on them
is made by the lips, which act the part of fingers, as may be readily seen by
watching their activity in collecting the grains of corn from the bottom of
a manger. The food taken between the nippers is quickly passed upwards or
backwards by means of the tongue and molar muscles, and is placed between
the crushing organs, the molares or grinding teeth, where it meets surfaces
above and below of impenetrable hardness, whose prominences exactly adapt-
ing themselves to the depressions of those opposed to them, allow nothing
to escape without being completely comminuted. Nothing could, therefore,
be better devised than the intermixture of a mass of such density as the
enamel, with one less so ; by which an uneven surface, like the peckings of
a mill-stone, is kept up to the latest periods of life : and as the ridges of one
set are received into the depressions of the other, it permits a just applica-
tion of the teeth, and a consequent complete shutting of the mouth during a
state of rest.

Constant attrition must, however, necessarily affect even these powerful
machines ; and although nature has amply provided for an ordinate wear,
she has not stepped out of her course to invariably supply that inordinate
one produced by a long-continued consiyuption of hay and dried grain in lieu
of grass and other succulent herbage. So long as the grinding surfaces of
the teeth remain truly opposed to each other, little inconvenience is felt ; but
sometimes age and other circumstances will alter this : sometimes also one
particular tooth preternaturally shoots up, and irritates, and even extensively
ulcerates, the surfaces of the mouth. Such a horse wastes, and wonder is
excited at the cause ; but were he observed, he would be seen, when eating,
to incline his head in such a direction as to favour the application of the food
to the deranged surfaces. He would also be found to quid, as it is termed, or
to partially chew his food, and then to throw it out of his mouth. Examina-
tion will likewise sometimes shew that a misapplication of one or more of the
teeth exists, the effect of long and undue wear ; the inner surface of both the
upper and under grinders, but more particularly so of the upper, being worn
away and bevilled, renders mastication difficult and incomplete ; to remedy
which, the animal endeavours to throw the wear on the outer edges, which
occasions the peculiar inclination of head spoken of. It also sometimes
happens that this uneven wearing leaves pointed prominences which pene-
trate the cheek by the increased efforts in the molar muscles to force the
food in a new direction : mastication now becomes painful as well as diffi-
cult, and the horse refuses his food. This latter case may be commonly

ANATOMY OF THE HORSE,
remedied by either the chisel or file ; but when the misapplication of the
general surface is considerable, it requires much care and pains to remedy
the defect, which can only be done by using a very well tempered file, having
first cast the horse and propped open his mouth. 1 have, however, suc-
ceeded by a daily application of the file without casting the animal ; by which
I fatigued myself less, and did not at all endanger the horse. Unless the
process be very efi"ectually done, it is surprising how soon the defect returns ;
and even when it has been very judiciously practised, one or two years is apt
to renew the evil, except the horse be ever after kept on mashed food,
grass, carrots, &c., when he may remain useful for a considerable time. An
individual tooth which projects materially had better be altogether extracted,
an instrument for this purpose, the invention of Mr. Surmon, is figured in
'The Veterinarian,' No. 13.

The carious decay of the teeth, so common to the human suhject, is in-
frequent in the horse ; but extended experience has shewn that it is not alto-
gether so much so as was formerly supposed. Mr. Percivall mentions
a carious permanent molaris in his own possession, which he thinks must-
have occasioned intense pain ; and Mr. Cherry had a patient with a dis-
charge of discoloured pus from the near nostril, which being very naturallv
mistaken for glanders, the horse was destroyed. A post-mortem examina"'-
tion discovered a molar tooth with one-third of its fang eroded, and an ab-
scess withm its alveolus. I mention the circumstance as a hint to the vete-
rinarian, that in all cases of nasal gleet, particularly when from one nostril
only, he should look farther, for ulceration of the nasal membrane, and sub-
maxillary swelling of the lymphatics, before he gives too hasty an opinion.
Ihe process of dentition is seldom attended with much pain, diflSculty, or
danger, in the horse or other herbivorous animals. It is not, however, in-
frequent, when the front nippers of the colt fall out, and are not immedi-
atdy replaced by those of the next set, that he will be found to graze with
diftculty. In the park of a nobleman, I accidentally saw two thorough-
bred colts, of great estimated value, which were both in a state of consider-
able emaciation from this cause. They had been physicked for worms by a
farrier, which increased the evil. I suggested the propriety of examining
then- mouths ; when they were both found to have lost the front nippers, and
much heat and inflammation attended the production of the new ; which,
though not very frequent, is not altogether uncommon. They were imme-
diately housed, and, being well fed with mashes and succulent tares, soon
recovered their condition.

A species of extra dentition sometimes takes place, and produces a small
supplementary molar tooth, placed immediately before the first : when this
happens to the milk or primary set, where it is most common, the growing
up ot the permanent molar tooth usually removes it ; if not, it should be
taken out. Another variety of this anomalous wolf's tooth of the farriers
IS produced when the second grinder does not rise immediately under the
first, but tovvards one side of it ; in which case, an imperfect absorption of
the root of the milk tooth takes place, and, instead of being displaced, it is
pushed to one side, and continues for some time to annov the animal, and
often to prevent his thriving, unless it be. removed artificially.

THE BONY TRUNK.

This osseous structure of the trunk comprises the spine, the pelvis, and
the thorax or chest.

OSTEOLIJGY — THE BONY TRUNK.

103

The spine is formed of seven cervical*, eig-hteen dorsal, six lumbar, and
five sacral vertebrse, with the addition of an indefinite number of small bones
of the coccygis, or tail, but which usually amount to about thirteen. The
spinal bones are thus divided, on account of the varieties they present; but
they have some characteristics in common, each being composed of a spongy
considerable substance, named its hody, and parts protruded therefrom, called
processes. These processes unite to form a hollow, through which the me-
dulla spinalis, or spinal marrow, is transmitted : they also furnish surfaces
of articulation with each other, as well as by their bodies anteriorly and
posteriorly ; by which means the surface of attachment of these bones to-
gether is much increased, and the strength of the spinal chain is thereby
rendered very great. Though but little motion is allowed between any two
of these bones; yet the flexibility of the whole spine is considerable ; by which
wise contrivance the spinal marrow, nerves, and bloodvessels, are not liable
to compression.

The cervical vertehrce, or neck bones (see Skeleton), are the largest of
the vertebral chain. Their spinous process is indistinct ; but on each side
a considerable prominence branches out into two broad transverse processes :
at the common base of these is seen a foramen for the passage of the verte-
bral arteries and veins. Each vertebra likewise forms a groove posteriorly,
and this united to a fellow groove in its opponent, produces a hole which,
communicating, with the spinal canal, allows the cervical nerves to pass.
(See description ofSkeL). The vertebrae are each connected together by
a round head, which is received into a corresponding cup-Uke cavity at the
posterior part of every one but the first ; and which union has articular
cai-tilages, dense capsular ligaments,' and all the appendages of a joint. It
will be evident, from the strong means of articulation they:have with each
other, not only by the round head and corresponding cavity, but more par-
ticularly by their oblique processes, that no dislocation can take place between
any of these vertebrae but between the first and second, in which case the
animal inevitably dies from the compression of the spinal marrow ; and which
accident is what is usually called breaking the neck.

The Ji,rst cervical vertebra fa, vertebrae, Skel.) would be improperly
called atlas, as in the human, for here the head does not rest on it, but is
rather pendant from it. Anteriorly it articulates with the occipital bone,
receiving into its fossae the two occipital condyles : on each side are two
foramina, one of which transmits the vertebral vessels, and the other a pair
of nerves. Posteriorly it articulates with the second cervical vertebra, re-
ceiving its odontoid process into its great cavity. This is the only one of
the cervical vertebra to which the suspensory ligament is not attached : were
it otherwise it would have interfered with its freedom of motion.

The second is named dentata (d, e,f, plate of Skel. vertebrtsj, from a
considerable tooth-like process inserted within the great cavity of the first.
Instead of a spinous process, it has a longitudinal dorsal ridge, to which the
cervical ligament is attached ; its oblique processes blend together so as to
appear a mere extension of its body : posteriorly they become more con-
spicuous, and articulate with the upper oblique processes of the third ver-

♦ The vertebral chain of mammalia differs much in the number of its pieces as a whole ;
but its cervical portion almost universally follows the human type, m being composed
of seven bones, whether the neck be as long as that of the cameleopard, or short as that
of the mole. The antediluvian saurian tribes were otherwise formed, they having many
more.

104 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE,

tebrae fh J, \\hose head is received into a cup -like articulating cavity in its
body posteriorly. Its transverse protuberance also presents only a posterior
point f d, d), forming a single process on each side*.

The third, fourth, Jifth, and sixth cervical vertebraB bear a common re-
semblance, and possess the general characters of anterior and posterior arti-
cular processes fh, nj ; as well as of lateral transverse ones ft, k ). Each
articulates anteriorly with the one before it by its head, and posteriorly with
that which follows it by its socket. All these present foramina for the
transmission of the vertebral vessels and nerves, like the first.

The seventh (h), which is the smallest of the whole, presents transverse
processes, small and not bifid, as those of the preceding ; neither is it per-
forated by a foramen : its spinous process is more elevated than that of the
others, and by its posterior oblique processes it articulates with the two
first ribs, presenting at the back part of its body two semilunar articulatory
cavities, which uniting with its fellow depressions in the first dorsal vertebrae,
form appropriate indentations for the reception of the heads of the first and
second ribs.

The dorsal vertebrce are eighteen (18 Skel.); occasionally there are
nineteen. These bones do not essentially differ from each other except in
the length of their spinous processes, which in the first seven or eight is
considerable, for the purpose of giving a long lever to the dorsal muscles.
It is these processes that give height to the withers ; and as they are
covered with muscles that act on them strongly, so their length is of great
consequence to progression. Their four oblique processes are small, as well
as their two transverse. They articulate with each other by their anterior
and posterior surfaces, and by their obhque processes : each also articulates
with two ribs on either side. As they advance in number, they increase in
size, and are pierced by the spinal canal, and transmit by their lateral holes
the spinal nerves ; but they have no foramina at the base of their transverse
processes. Between each is interposed a substance of the mixed nature of
cartilage and ligament, which is most compressible at its sides, permitting the
motion of the spine, and forming, by the solidity of its centre, a fulcrum or
pivot for the bones to move on. This interposed substance loses its elasti-
city in the old horse, and becomes nearly ossified; to which we may attri-
bute that stiffness in his rising up after lying down ; and the want of that
springy gait, as a horseman would term it, which is felt when on the back
of the young horse.

The siv lumbar vertebrce (I, 5, SJcel.)\iaye somewhat larger bodies than
the dorsal, and broader spinous processes. Their transverse processes bear
no comparison to those of any other vertebrae ; being extended out to supply
the place of the ribs, and to aflbrd attachment to the muscles of the back :
the last unites with the sacrumf.

• The non-attachment of the cervical ligament to the first cervical bone, and the pecu-
liarity of the articulation between the deutata and that, leaves an opening which exposes
the spinal niaci-ow, into which knackers and butchers, when they want to kill without
effusion of blood, plunge a pointed knife, between the first and second rack bones, which,
dividing the spinal medulla, instantly kills: this method is called ;«7A/n^, at which the
French are very dexterous.

•|- The foregoing description of the vertebral bones will shew the admirable mechanism
of the chain for properties apparently in opposition, which are elasticity and strength.
The cervical have much motion between them from the form of their articulation ; and
thus the neck enjoys ample liberty for the wants of the animal ; but to compensate this
it is strengthened by the ligamentum colli, or great nuchal ligament. On the first verte-
bra the head rotates with unlimited freedom ; and this one moves very freely on the

OSTEOLOGY — THE BONY TRUNK.

105

The pelvis, — The trunk is bounded by a bony mass or irregular ring of
great extent and substance, directed horizontally forwards and backwards,
with a small intermediate posterior appendage named coccygis. These
united masses are named the pelvis or basiii, from their containing within
their boundaries important viscera. The largest portions are formed by the
sacrum and two ossa innominata.

The sacrum, which in the colt is formed of five pieces, or false vertebrae,
in the adult horse is united into one bony mass of great strength, presenting
a convex form externally, and a concave one internally, which is smoothed
for the reception of the pelvic viscera. By an imperfect oval head it arti-
culates with the last lumbar vertebrae, with the oblique processes of which it
is also united by two articular surfaces ; a grove being formed between them,
on each side, for the transmission of the last dorsal pair of nerves : its trans-
verse processes are strong, and extend its whole length : the spinous are
directed backward and downward. The spinal canal begins to diminish con-
siderably in size in this bone, the medulla having parted with most of its
substance to form the sacral nerves, which are transmitted through eight
pairs of foramina at the under surface of the bone. Two articulary surfaces
unite the sacrum with the ilium : posteriorly it ai-ticulates vrith the first coc-
cygeal bone {vide xx).

The coccyx, or bones of the tail, vary in number : they are generally about
fifteen (in the ass there are sometimes sixteen, seventeen, or even eighteen),
which degenerate in their vertebral character as they descend ; but the whole
articulate with each other by true joints. The spinal canal, through which
the medulla is continued under the name of corda equina, is purely bony
in the first four or five of them only, being continued partly bony and partly
ligamentous in the remainder.

The two ossa innominata ( a, h, c, d, e,f, g, SJcel.) are usually described
as three pair of bones, though all the traces of their distinct existence are
lost long before the adult period. In quadrupeds like the horse, ox, and
sheep, not born indigent, but intended for early exertion, they are consoli-
dated even at birth, and are only to be found separate in a fostus of three
months. The three portions of which the os innominata is early formed,
are the ilium, ischium, and pubis. The ilium ( a, h, c, Skel.J, which is the
most considerable of these, is not rounded as in the human, but extends out
into three distinct branches, by portions of which the haunches are formed
C vide aj ; and when these portions are more extended than usual, the horse
is said to be ragged hijjped*. A tuberous spine, unlike that of man, extends

second also. Motion is, however, more limited in the dorsal : between the lumbar it is
rather less so ; but the lengtli of their transverse processes is nearly equivalent with the
straightness of the union of the lumbar. Tims the pieces of this admirable chain have
very different degrees of flexibility between them, according to their several uses : and if
the posterior portion of it is more confined than the anterior, as a whole it yet enjoys so
much as to suffice for all the elasticities of an animal of great speed : while its strength is
no less an object of our admiration, when we see the astonishing weights it will bear with-
out dislocation ; strengthened as it is by numerous points of contact, and powerful liga-
mentous cords. The vertebrse of the spine in the horse very seldom take on spontaneous
ulceration; but they are liable to malconformation, the whole being sometimes curved
upwards, and sometimes downwards, more than is natural. These bones are also liable to
exostoses, to such a degree sometimes as to anchylose nearly the whole dorsal and lumbar
joints.

♦ From a slight inspection of this portion of the pelvis, it will be evident that the rugged
outline of the rump in cattle arises from the great prominence of the spine of the ilium,
assisted by the extended tuberosity of the ischium. In tlie horse, the dorsum of the ilium
is also large, and in some of his neglected breeds the tuberosity of the ischium, and the

J

106 ANATOMY OF THK HORSE.

from it, and articulates by its inner surface with the sacrum (vide b ), to which
it unites by its posterior angle ; its inferior branch terminates in the ischium.

The OS ischium, or hip-bone, is a larger portion of the innominatum than
the pubis, but a less one than the preceding (e,f). It has three angles, and
an inner and outer surface : by the anterior of these angles it unites with
the ilium and pubis, and forms part of the cotyloid cavity: by its posterior
it stretches back jointly with the superior to form a curved process, called its
tuberosity ( vide f), which is very different to the same part in the human.
Its superior angle is convex, and gives attachment to the sacro-sciatic liga-
ment. . Between the anterior and posterior angle it forms, jointly with the
pubis, the oval cavity called^ramen thyroideum, or ovale (d^.

The OS pubis, or share-bone ( g g ), is the least of the three portions ; by
its anterior edge it unites with the ilium, and, with its fellow, forais the sym-
physis pubis. On the outer and inferior part of these pelvic bones a coty-
loid cavity or socket presents itself, lined with cartilage, and which is intended
to receive the head of the femur. This articulatory cup is called the aceta-
hulum, and is formed by the assistance of each of the above portions, but in
unequal degrees ; the pubis adds least, and the ischium most. The pelvic
bones are strongly attached to the sacrum by the articulating surfaces we
have described, and are held in these attachments by strong ligaments from
the anterior and posterior edge of the articular part of the ilium, uniting it
to the risings corresponding with the tranverse processes of the sacrum.
From the foregoing description, the wise intention of the pelvis is displayed
in its formation, which presents a complete cavity. The large posterior open-
ing between the innominata and sacrum is filled up by two strong layers of
ligament, which partially divide, to permit the pyriformis muscle, the sciatic
nerve, and posterior crural vessels, to pass out of the pelvis. Thus the pelvic
cavity has all its openings closed either by ligaments, muscles, or integu-
ments, except an abdominal one before and an excretory behind.

The thorax, or chest, comprises the sternum and ribs. The sternum of the
horse ( d Skel.) so far from being a perpendicular flat pile of bones, like that
of man, is inclined, and not dissimilar to the keel of a vessel, furnished at both
ends with a cartilaginous portion ; that of the posterior being considerable.

The cost(B, or ribs, are long perpendicular bones, having one end attached
to the spine, and the other connected with the sternum, either directly or in-
rectly. They are usually eighteen to each side, seven or eight of which ar-
ticulate with the sternum, and are thence called sternal, or true ribs;
while the remaining ten or eleven are connected together by interven-
ing cartilages, and are called asternal, or false ribs*. The central ribs
are the longest, the others gradually decrease in length both towards
the neck and loins. The fii-st is placed almost perpendicularly, the se-
cond less so ; and their curvature, as well as their inclination, increases as
they advance, so as to enlarge the dimensions of the chest, till it becomes
nearly circular (see Plate of Skeleton J. As they proceed towards the pel-
vis, their inferior extremity is carried backwards, which increases still more

extension of the protuberant lateral branches of the ilium, give almost as deformed an out-
line to them also.

• The number of true ribs is not invariably the same : in some cases there are seven
only; in many others a slight articulation is evident between the sternum and the eighth
rib. When they exceed thirty-six, which is sometimes the case, the eiglith is always a
sternal one ; and sometimes even the ninth is so likewise. In the Woolwich Musemn an
instance of forty ribs occurs. The number of costse in the ox and sheep are eight true and
five false.

OSTEOLOGY — THE BONY TRUNK.

107

the dimensions of the carcass, and strengthens the parietes of the abdomen.
Each of them has a body, an upper and a lower extremity, and an upper and
under surface. The upper extremity presents a small head (a), and a small
tuberosity : the head articulates by two surfaces to the bodies of two verte-
brse, and the tubercle with the transverse process of the posterior of these
same vertebrae. The anterior edge of each has a groove for the passage of
the intercostal vessels and nerve, which it is very necessary to be aware of in
operations on the chest*. Above this, likewise, is a ridge from which the
intercostal muscles spring, fixing themselves into the opposite edge of the
next rib. The lower extremity of each rib is furnished with a firmly-attached
cartilage, which articulates with the sternum in the true, and with each other
in the false. Both above and below, the attachments of these bones are
strengthened by powerful ligaments : each lower extremity is thus fixed into
articular pits in the sternum ; and each upper extremity is connected by arti-
cular as well as capsular ligaments. It must be evident that the ribs in the
horse have but Httle motion, and that what they have must be forwards, par-
ticularly in those called the true, the first of which, so far from having mo-
tion, presents a fixed point for the rest to act upon ; the false ribs can cer-
tainly be elevated considerably by means of the flexibility of their inferior
attachment ; and it is probable that such attachment was given for this pur-
pose. But the motion thus afl"orded could not have been sufiicient to enlarge
the chest during inspiration, without a very moveable diaphragmf .

The Anterior Extremities.

These bear but little resemblance to the human arm, particularly in those
quadrupeds, as the horse, who have but one phalange : in those with several,
the resemblance approximates much more, till in the fore extremities of the
ape they differ little but in the thumb, which forms a bad antagonist to the
fingers. It appears a very wise provision of nature, to have given a colt
very long limbs at birth, that the foi-m of parts might not be much altered
in their futui-e evolution ; but, at the same time the hinder ones are by much
the longest ; because, were the fore equally so, the young animal would have
been too much elevated from the ground, and rendered incapable of grazing,
or even of sucking conveniently.

The scapula or shotdder-blade, is a broad and rather triangular bone, ap-
phed to the chest, so that its apex reaches between the first and second ribs,

* In operating for paracentesis, unless the opening were made in a direction which ap-
proximated the posterior edge of the rib, there would be great danger of dividing the inter-
costal artery.

f The thorax of the graminivorous quadrupeds could not have been formed as the human
without detracting from the ease and stability of motion ; hence, to approximate the fore
extremities, it was necessary to flatten the chest : yet a posterior expansion of this cavity
is not only allowed, hut required, and is as essentially necessary to the horse as to the man.
The greater convexity the ribs have, and the more cylindrical is the form of the chest pos-
teriorly, the more favourable it proves not only to respiration but to chylification ; for, as
the belly usually partakes of the form of the chest, so a flat-sided horse is generally with-
out much carcass also. It must, however, be observed, that the chest may have great ca-
pacity by its depth also : and such a form of it actually seems the best adapted for animals
of speed, as already remarked on with regard to the racehorse and greyhound. But where
hardihood and a ready separation of nutriment are studied, the circular form (although
when carried to an extreme it detracts from the perfection of the fore extremities by re-
moving the scapulae distant from each other, and constituting a thic/c shoulder) is the most
advantageous.

y

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

and the posterior part of its base as far as the seventh*. It is, therefore
situated obhquely, with its broadest portion above, and its tuberous extre-
mity below. Its internal surface is flat and smooth, and its external is
divided into two unequal portions by its spine. Its anterior edge (w, i, SkeJ )
as It continues down, contracts inwards, and ends in a blunt rounded extre-
mity, called in the human its coracoid process, but which in the horse is
not very beak-like ; on the contrary, the horse cannot, strictly speaking, be
said to have either a coracoid, acromion, or recurrent process. Its superior
surface is furnished with a considerable cartilage, strongly adherent b.y.liaa-
mentous fibres; by which the surface of muscular attachment is much in-
creased, yet with little addition to either weight or bulk. The posterior
edge of the scapula inclines inwards, and ends in its cervix, or neck pre-
senting a superficial excavation to receive the head of the hnmerus or' arm
called Its glenoid cavity (vide ej. The spine (vide hj divides the external
surface into two portions : as it proceeds downwards it forms a rounded ex-
tremity, and not a sharp process, as in the human ; for in the horse, there
being no clavicle to articulate with, such formation would have been useless
The two portions formed by the spine are called the antea and postea
spinatus fossa;. The former (f) is the least and most superior ; the latter
IS the larger and most inferior (g)\.

The ( OS humeri) humerus, or bone of the real arm, is strong, «;hort and
very unlike the same bone in man. It extends from what is called the point
of the shoulder to the elbow (n, o, p, q, Skel.J forming an angle with the
scapula, extending obliquely backwards, as the shoulder does obliquely for-
wards. At the posterior part of the upper extremity it stretches out into
a round head, supported on a cervix (nj, with a circular fossa surrounding
Its base, for the insertion of the capsular ligament : this head is received
into the glenoid cavity of the scapula. The anterior part of the extremity
IS usually but improperly termed the point of the shoulder (o J, and has three
prominences, into which the extensor muscles of the arm are inserted:

* f ■;• ^'"f ^'-'11/.^™^''''"' and other delineators since liis time have re-

presented this bone higher than it is naturally placed, as well as less obliqueTn its situa-
tion. In this observation I believe Mr. P. is correct, and the fault orij^ates with the
articulator; as such I am disposed to think that my 'own figure is not^whol y exempt

JerTblvTn'dXrenT r ""v''"/? ^'T'' ^'^^^'^^ of obliquity (for it varies consl

also neaiiy^ ^''^ ^ ^'^'^''^'^^'^^'^^ my representation of it, and the height

obLvJr' "^ifh^fb? '''^T^ ^""^ ^"'"^•^ ^°«P"'«= at once strike the

observer. It has been very justly remarked, that the horse presents no proper back for

0 thrlhne'oTthro'^^ ^^'^ "'l- horse do'esTot pal ou

^Li^ T , ? ? ^J."""^""'' ""''"^^^ t'^^ human it forms an angle with it: and bv the
fe tCbonv noni '''' f'^''!^™^"' °f ^^e scapula to the chest is Iscular onb- It ht
S noL base .n^^h • " ^ aponeurotic expansion from its car-

inferior nartTv the , f°"«idered; it is however powerfully attached to the chest at its
luachment on^v H,P ' 1 """^ V '^"^ ^'"''"'^''^ '""^'=1^^ ^l^"' ^ "luscular

l^llT^^^^^^ ^^-r- V it could

Hirnlir tn thn linv,",^., J ^''ivicie CO contine It. Its usual situation is, to a plane perpen-

It can move through ; and in the same degree it can assist the action of the humerus with
whose angle its own is commonly consentaneous. The musVular a ac e.U^
blade-bone greatly favours the elasticity of the whole extremitv, mid at the s mo th ,e i'
ZS,lZ%^i:.t"°'i " '"^'^^ 'T'''^' articulatio?! : thus a dlloc t o

femur ^ " acetebulum and

OSTEOLOGY — THE ANTERIOR EXTREMITIES, 109
between the two anterior of these processes the tendon of the flexor radi-
alis anticus passes, secured by a cross ligament. This tendon, almost of a
cartilaginous hardness, is flattened out into a species of patella to this arti-
culation, effectually preventing any dislocation of this joint forwards ; which
is the only point in which it would otherwise be at all probable. The body
of the humerus presents an external and internal tuberosity, for the inser-
tion of the adductor and abductor muscles : when proceeding downwards, it
terminates in an inner and outer condyle fq), which are received into arti-
cular cavities in the superior extremity of the radius ; thereby confining the
motions of this joint to flexion and extension. In the front of this extre-
mity is a cavity to receive the protubei-ances of the radius, in the greatest
flexions of the fore arm ; and behind there is a very deep depression for the
reception of the olecranon or elbow, when it is again extended. The hu-
merus is attached to the scapula by a capsular ligament, which passes from
this bone to the cervix of the scapula ; over which are spread, both externally
and internally, strong ligamentous layers which stretch from one bone to the
other*, and powerfully bind the articulation.

The fore arm is composed of the radius and ulna ( s, r, Skel.J in the
young subject, but which become so intimately united in the old horse, as to
be by some, and without any great impropriety, described as one bonef . In
common parlance, the site of these bones is known by the terms arm and

* The mechanism of this bone, and its articulation, are well worthy of consideration.
It has been said that it cannot be too short, because thereby it brings the fore legs for-
ward; but we are disposed to think that the benefits of safety and celerity of progression
are best accomplished by a humerus of sufficient length, but one of great obUqiiitij of situa-
tion. When, however, its length is inordinate, it necessarily does bring the legs of the
horse too much under him ; and it unfortunately happens that this defect is too often ac-
companied by an upright and short shoulder. Its scapular articulation, without peculiar
provision, would be weak, from a glenoid cavity only as a recipient of its head; but its
powerful bindings, and its patella-like cap, secure it fully. Below, its articular surfaces
owe much of their security to the dove-tailing between the opposed bones, which is such
as to render it perfectly secure. The humerus is confined in its motions to being
brought from its inclined position backwards to a perpendicular one of the limb in situ
forwards.

f Bourgelat describes the radius and ulna as one bone, under the name of cubitus. La
Fosse speaks of them as two bones, radius and cubitus. Cubitus, in veterinary authors,
is sometimes applied to either bone, because in the human these bones are nearly of a
length, and not far distant from the measure of a cubit ; but as this will not apply to either
of these bones in the horse, the term ought to be rejected entirely. A comparison between
the human and brute osteology here exhibits many specialities, and in none more than
the ulna, which is always so formed as best suits the habits of the animal to which it
belongs. In man, the elboiu-joint will be found to be a complex and curiously contrived
piece of mechanism ; and that in him the tihia instead of being a mere appendage to the
radius, is, in fact, the larger bone of the two, receiving above, a tubercle of that bone,
whilst below it is the radius which furnishes the articulatory cavity, and the ulna supplies
the tubercle ; by which formation the human hand enjoys fully the rotating motions of
pronation and supination ; the radius moving on its own axis at the upper end, and revolv-
ing round the ulna at the lower. In the canine, feline, and some other tribes, where the
paws are used in some measure as prehensile organs, the ulna is also found sufficiently
perfect for variety of motion ; but in the horse and the ruminants, where a supine state of
the limb would have been inconvenient, it shrinks into a mere process, not moving on the
radius, but is anchylosed with it, by which firm union great strength is gained. Nor
would the safety of this important part have been studied without such provision ; for the
immense lever of the extended process of the olecranon would have endangered any other
opposition of it, without thereby gaining any advantage, its motions being confined to flexion
and extension, as the member it belongs to is principally employed in progression. Sup-
port and progression, therefore, being in the horse expected from the fore limbs, they ex-
hibit every contrivance to increase their strength, without destroying their elasticity or
increasing their bulk.

110

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

elbow. The radius is the long cyhndrical portion composed of a body and
two nearly equal extremities. The superior end is flat, and receives into
its articular depressions the condyles of the humerus : it presents anteriorly
tuberosities for the attachment of muscles, and posteriorly an articulating
surface for the ulnar portion of the bone. Its body is slightly convex ante-
riorly, and its inferior extremity is furnished with four eminences, covered
with cartilage, which articulate with the first bones of the carpus or knee.
The anterior part of this extremity is depressed with the sinuosities which
receive within them the tendons of the extensor muscles of the foot*.

The ulna is articulated in the young horse to the posterior and superior
part of the radius by intervening cartilages, and by strong ligamentous fibres :
stretching downwards (see Skel.) it is unattached, and permits vessels to
pass between it and the radius, till it has reached the middle of that bone,
when it terminates in a point. In the older horse, the intermediate carti-
lages of these bones become absorbed, and ossific matter is thi'own out in
their stead, which forms an anchylosis between them. The ulna stretches
out superiorly into a powerful process covered with cartilage, received into
the great posterior fossa of the humerus ; from which the whole extends
backwards to form the olecranon\, the whole surface of which is rough, for
the insertion of the strong extensor muscles of the fore arm.

The carpus, or Ttnee, (as it is universally called in the horse) following
the human anatomy as our type and guide, must be the same with the wrist
in man. It is therefore evident that one or the other of these terms must
be a complete misnomer ; and this forms another of the many instances
wherein a blind adherence to the human anatomical terms is attended with
inconvenience, begets confusion, and propagates error. In the articulated
skeleton there are seven principal carpal bones ; but in the recent subject
there is commonly, but not invariably, found an additamentary osselet of
the shape and size of a pea, situated behind the trapezoid, with which it is
sometimes articulated, and at others simply adherent : when it exists, it
certainly more properly deserves the name of pisiform than that of trape-
zium:];. Independent of this, the carpus consists of seven boiies ranged in

* It is observed in all speedy animals, that the length of this bone is very considera-
ble : in the hare and greyhound, the knee approximates the ground ; and a long fore-arm
is found by experience to be equally favourable to celerity of motion in the horse also, and
for such purposes legs so formed are by good judges always preferred. It has also else-
where been stated, that the parts below the knee appear to be bent in progression, prin-
cipally to receive the weight of the machine, but not to add to the extent of its progress ;
and allowing that the extent of the stride is effected by the parts above, it follows that the
longer they are the better.

f On the slightest inspection of the skeleton, it will appear how much the motions of
the fore extremity must depend on the length and obliquity of this process ; which, ope-
rating on the principle of a lever in the extension of the arm, must necessarily act in the
ratio of its length and strength. The ulna and radius are articulated with the humerus by
a very extensive capsular ligament which takes in the whole articular surface. This arti-
culation is strengthened by an external and internal ligament, extended from the condyles
of the humerus over the head of the radius, and likewise b}' powerful tendinous and apon-
emotic expansions spread over the whole, by which means this joint is wholly prevented
from dislocation : but the olecranon has been found at times fractured ; under which cir-
cumstances, from the great strength of the muscles implanted into it, a proper and com-
plete apposition of the fractured extremities would be extremely difficult. Punctured
wounds likewise sometimes happen in this part, when, if motion be kept up, a large quan-
tity of air becomes absorbed, forming extensive emphysema. Both these bones are occa-
sionally the subject of deformity, and are likewise now and then affected with exostoses.

X Mr. Percivall has very correctly observed that it is erroneous to call a bone of the
shape and size of a pea, Irapezinm, or a large quadrilateral one by the name oi pisiformis.

OSTEOLOGY — THE ANTERIOR EXTREMITIES.

Ill

two rows : the upper articulates with the inferior extremity of the radius,
and commencing from the inside of the row, first presents the scaphoid
(2, 2). It is the most considerable of the row, and articulates with the in-
ternal condyle of the radius anteriorly, and laterally with the lunar ; so that
the scaphoid and lunar are placed over the magnum in front of the knee, as,
in building, two bricks ai-e placed so that their line of division is over the
centre of a third, by which means great strength is given to this articulation : ,
it likewise articulates inferiorly with the trapezoid. The lunar is the second
bone of this row (3, 3), articulating above with the middle and anterior part
of the radius, below with the magnum and cuneiform, and laterally with the
scaphoid and cuneiform, and by a small posterior point to the trapezium.
The cuneiform, the outer bone of the first row (4), articulates above with
the external condyle of the radius ; posteriorly with the trapezium ; below
with the unciform, and laterally with the lunar. The trapezium* (1, 1,)
projects posteriorly on the outer side of the superior row, so as to give a
greater power of attachment to muscles, and to raise the Hgaments of the
knee from compressing the tendons ; but it takes no part in supporting the
weight of the machine. It articulates with the outer and posterior part of
the radius by one surface, and by another to the cuneiform. The trapezoid
(7) is the first and smallest bone on the inner side of the second row, and
is situated at the posterior lateral internal part of the knee, articulating
above with the scaphoid, below with the internal small metacarpal and a
small part of the cannon, and laterally with the magnum. The magnum
is the middle bone of the second row (5, 5), and the largest of the whole,
receiving above the scaphoid and lunar, and resting below on nearly the
whole of the surface of the large metacarpal or cannon bone : it articulates
at the lateral internal part with the trapezoid, and at the lateral external
with the next bone. The third and most external of the second row is the
unciform (6), which rests upon the external small metacarpal, and in part
upon the great metacarpal ; and articulates above with the cuneiform, and
laterally with the magnum-j-.

It is not a little singular, that among the French authors equal discordance exists on this
subject; hardly any two of them naming the carpal bones alike. Bourgelat describes
them as nine in number ; but says little more of them ; nor does he, if I remember aright,
attempt to name them at all.

• Although trapezium is by far a more appropriate name for this bone than its former
one of pisiformis, I am still in doubt whether that of posticum, as called by Mr. Clark, is
not more so.

t The carpal bones are covered with cartilage on their articular surfaces, and such as
are non-articular are rough for the attachment of ligaments, which Connect them so
closely as to allow but little motion between any but the first and second row ; enough,
however, is allowed between the whole to prevent concussion when the foot strikes the
ground. The capsular ligament is here very extensive ; arising from the inferior extremity
of the radius, passing to the first row of bones, to which having attached itself, it proceeds
more loosely to the second, from whence it is continued onwards, investing the superior
extremities of the large and small metacarpals. Within it, is secreted a large quantity of
synovia, the escape of which, and the inflammation of the surface from whence it is secreted,
renders deep wounds of the knee very dangerous. Besides the capsular, there arc also
several other layers of ligamentous fibres, some of which are applied to the bones ; pthers
are more loose, and stretch over the tendons to form annular bands. The carpal liga-
ments and tendinous attachments have many of them individual bursal cavities. In the
case of broken knees, it sometimes happens that one of these being opened, leads the
junior practitioner into a supposition that it is the cavity of the joint which is exposed,
and his prognosis is apt to be false. Each bone likewise has individual fibres connecting it
to the bones with which it is attached, forming, on the whole, a most complex ligamentary
binding, greatly strengthening the knee joint, and preventing a possibility of dislocation.

112

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE,

The metacarpus ( os metacarjji magni, t, t), or what is termed the can-
non or shank, is formed of a large metacarpal bone and two small ones,
which the French term styloids or perones. The cannon is a plain cylindri-
cal bone, having its two extremities rather enlarged, the superior of which
articulates with the second row of the knee, particularly with the os mag-
num : posteriorly its head is indented into two surfaces, receiving the small
metacarpals. Its inferior surface is formed into two condyles, divided by
an eminence, by which it articulates with the pastern and sessamoids in a
manner that preserves the utmost freedom of flexion and extension, yet
denies any lateral motion which would have detracted from the necessary great
strength of the joint. The small metacarpals ( ossa metacarpi parva, vide
u,u) are placed one on each side of the posterior part of the cannon, each
having a superior articulating surface uniting it with the carpal bones, and
likewise a surface of attachment with the upper extremity of the cannon ;
to which they are, above, intimately united by intervening cartilage and liga-
mentary bindings. As they proceed downwards they taper, and are loss
closely united ; terminating at about two-thirds the length of the cannon,
by an unattached button-like extremity*.

The pastern bone ( os suffraginis\ ) is the first of an oblique pile, which

The mechanical advantages of this assemblage of bones must be at once evident; for, not
only as a surface of attachment for ligaments and muscles is it favourable to motive
power and strength of connexion, but. it acts most advantageously as a spring placed be-
tween the two solid perpendicular arms of the radius and cannon, by which concussion is
divided and distributed among the bones, or, as it were, carried over an extended and
contiguous, but not contiimous surface. That such is its principal use, we learn from the
fact, that in animals not designed for quick or long-continued exertions, as the ruminants,
these bones are less numerous, and the joint altogether less favourably formed ; as another
instance of which inferiority, we may observe the os trapezium in them is small and less
prominent than in the horse.

* The small metacarpals ar^ attached to the large by a strong aponeurotic expansion,
which will be described with the extremities ; but they are more immediately connected
with the large metacarpal bone by strong appropriate ligamentous fibres ; yet not so
closely but that they have some motion, and hence can descend, or in some degree yield,
when pressed upon by the bones of the knee; and which appears one of their principal
uses. The internal receives the weight of the trapezoid, and the external part of that of
the unciform, by which the general elasticity is increased. But as the animal grows
old, and his exertions become greater than his strength, so nature, sjmpathising with
the general weakness of the parts, unites the sessamoids or splint bones with the can-
non by an unyielding ossific union, which deprives them of any spring-like property.
In young horses also, ligamentary inflammation often ends in bony union between them,
which forms what we term splint ; and as it is usual to raise the outer heel of the shoe, by
which means an undue share of weight must be thrown on the inner small metacarpal, so
this has been thought to be the reason why splint is generally confined to the inner side ;
but perhaps this will not wholly account for this partiality. On the contrary, there is
reason to believe that the natural form of the parts Jikewise gives a tendency to it ; for we
find that the weight of the carpal hone, pressing on the outer small metacarpal, is divided
between it and the cannon ; but that the internal small metacarpal receives nearly the
whole weight of the trapezoid. Under this view of the matter, which I believe a careful
inspection of the parts will shew to be correct, it is not easy to agree with those comparative
anatomists who consider these bones are mere styloid appendages, intended only to keep
up a harmonic connexion between the horse and the digitated animals ; although, without
doubt, this is a part of their intention. These bones are now and then fractured ; and
both the large and small metacarpals are occasionally the subjects of extensive exostoses.

t For the sake of uniformity with accredited authorities, I have, in this edition, intro-
duced this name for the pastern bone ; although I am not quite satisfied that it is sufli-
ciently critical for an improved nomenclature ; as the objection I raised to it in the last
edition still influences my opinion somewhat. This was, that siiffragn is equally, or in-
deed more, applicable to the hock than to the pastern. Columella, in reeominending
wa.shing of the legs, desires that the hinder may be wetted to the hocks, ' Lavenlur pedes

OSTEOLOGY— THE ANTERIOR EXTURMITIES. 113
terminates the extremities of the horse. The great pastern bone, as it is
sometimes called, is cylindrical, and inclined obliquely forward fv,v, Skel.J.
Upon its length and obliquity the ease and elasticity of the motion of the
animal greatly depend : nevertheless, when these properties are very consider-
able, it must require a corresponding effort in the tendinous and ligamentous
parts to preserve it in its situation ; and thence very long-jointed horses are
weaker, and more liable to become strained than others. Its superior sur-
face receives the greater part of the inferior surface of the cannon : poste-
riorly it articulates with the sessamoids, and inferiorly with the coronet or
small pastern. The body of the bone is much smaller than its extremities.
Its ligaments are the capsular, the lateral binders, and the suspensory, which
does little more than slide over it, yet serves to assist in preventing dislocation.

The sessamoids ( iv, w) are two small wedge-shaped bones, situated at
the point of the fetlock, exactly opposed to the posterior and inferior part of
the cannon, and to the posterior and superior part of the great pastern bone,
with both of which they articulate very closely by depressions suited to the
prominences of those bones. With the cannon the connexion is very close,
by means of an elastic ligament, by which, and the nature of their situation,
they support a portion of the stress and weight of this bone. They are placed
side by side, with their thinner portion pointed upwards, and their thicker
and more obtuse part below, by which portion they are firmly attached to the
pastern bone by strong ligamentous fibres, as well as by the suspensory liga-
ment. Between them a hollow is left, invested with a bursal capsule, through
which the flexor tendons slide with freedom and security*, at the same time
that they embrace them firmly.

The lesser pastern, or coronet hone, receives the great pastern, its largest"

deinde suffragineo:' and he lias again, ' eqtms suffraginoms,' a spavined liorse. I have
also discontinued Stubbs's term of phalanges to these bones, although sanctioned by M.
Girard ; for it must be owned that, however appropriate phalange may be to the human
digitated hand, which presents a phalanx {<^a\ayi) of bones, yet a cylindrical pile of single
pieces, like the foot of the horse, can hardly deserve the appellation by even forced analogy.
In the digitated animals, as the monkey, cat, dog, &c. a true phalanx of bones is met with,
as in man, although somewhat degenerated. The thumb of even the monkey is but an
imperfect antagonist to his fingers ; while the additamentary or dew-claw of dogs and cats
is still less useful. The cloven-footed have two perfect and two imperfect phalanges ; the
whole-hoofed has one only; and thus it is that some naturalists still use the term pha-
lange ; inasmuch as altliough the whole-hoofed animals concentrate the mechanism of the
extremity in a single toe, yet there are still added to it two imperfect but sufficiently well
characterised metacarpals.

_ * Small as these bones are, they are important aids to progression; and the mechanism
displayed in their formation and dependencies excites our admiration. To Professor Cole-
man we were first indebted for a precise and accurate accoimt of their action. Mr. Percivall's
descriptive language h;is also further tended to enlarge our views on the subject. Princi-
pally attached by their inferior portions, their upper parts are left in some measure free,
by which they act the part of a hinge to whatever rested on them, receding backwards
when pressed on by the cannon in the motions of tlic animal. The cessation of the im-
pulsive force (i. e. the weight of the machine) necessarily replaces these ))ones in their
former situation, and thus tliey may be considered as acting the part of true, xpri.iigs in tlie
motions of the pasterns, on which the elasticity displayed in action principally depends,
and consequently the grace and freedom of it also. Under these views, we account for the
great ease experienced by tlie rider of a horse having long oblique pa.stcrns, which operating
on the angle formed between the two opposed members of this joint, places the sessamoids
more under the centre of gravity, and enhances the spring of tl'ieir return. Thus the im-
proved breeds of horses, in which these peculiarities of formation are prevalent, are easy,
graceful, and pleasant; while the contrary fonnatioji of siiort uiiright pasterns, so common
among cart and most low-bred horses, renders quick progression uneasy to their riders
and hurtful to themselves.

114 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

extremity being placed below ; it presents an inferior, an anterior, and pos-
terior surface ; but cannot be said to be square (x, x ). Its anterior emi-
nence is received into the anterior and inferior depression of the large pas-
tern ; posteriorly the upper surface is formed into two depressions, receiving
the pulley-like surface of that bone. Inferiorly it terminates in two similar
surfaces, and an anterior depression, corresponding with the anterior emi-
nence of the coffin bone. It likewise articulates with the navicular bone by
two depressions which receive the navicular prominences when the joint is
fully extended : at its upper extremity it receives the capsular ligaijient of
the pastern, as well as strong ligamentary fibres on each side : inferiorly,
besides its capsule, it receives the ligaments of the navicular bone, as well as
an appropriate ligamentary junction with the coffin.

The coffin hone is a very peculiar one ( ?/). In shape it corresponds with
the hoof, which, with its appendages, it fills : in structure it is very porous,
having its bony fibres perpendicularly placed so as to give it a rough hnear
appearance, particularly at the lower part. When viewed in front, an emi-
nence is seen at the upper part, to which the tendon of the extensor pedis is
attached : its lateral parts are not so high, but project farther back, and form
two lateral processes, which are not however always distinct. In the lower
of these processes, or otherwise between the two, a considerable branch of
of an artery passes from the posterior part ; traversing around two-thirds of
the semidiameter of the bone, and being then ramified within it and its laminae.
There is usually likewise a lower lateral groove, from which' a branch of this
upper trunk proceeds to furnish the under surface of the bone. Above the
lateral processes is a concavity which receives the lateral cartilages of the
foot, and gives attachment to the capsular ligament likewise. Around the
outer surface of the coffin bone are placed the' sensible laminse, which, in-
denting themselves between the linear asperities, become strongly attached.
The inferior surface of the coffin bone has two concavities ; the anterior of
which has no foraminse, and is covered by the sensible sole : the posterior
surface appears hollowed out of this, and a rising line shews the extent of
attachment of the perforans flexor tendon, which strongly implants itself into
the remainder of the surface. Two grooves that lodge two considerable ar-
teries indent a part of this concavity .; and immediately under the flexor
tendon, ligaments are also attached to it : above this is seen an articulatory
narrow surface for the reception of a correspondent one on the navicular
bone. Beside the foramina particularized, numerous smaller ones perforate
it in every direction, giving free passage to nerves and bloodvessels. The
upper surface of the bone presents two articular depressions divided by a
rising line continued from the anterior eminence, which are covered with
articular cartilages. ( See plate IX, where this bone is represented.)

The navicular, nut, or shuttle bone, is situated at the posterior part of
the coffin, to which it is articulated, as just noticed: its upper surface forms
a continuation of the articulating surface of the coffin, by which these bones
jointly receive the broad extremity of the little pastern. The navicular bone
is, as it were, laid upon the flexor tendon, which passes up over its posterior
edge ( vide plate IX) : all which parts will be more particularly considered
when we describe the feet (vide z, z; y, y).

OSTEOLOGY — THE POSTERIOR EXTREMITIES.

115

Tlie Posterior Extremities.

These difFpr much from the anterior, not only in the strength of the parts
generally, but in the length and direction of the bones entering their formation.

The femur, or thigh hone, is the largest, thickest, and strongest in the
whole body. It is, however, short in the horse, as compared with that of most
other animals : its surface exhibits risings, asperities, and indentations for
the attachment of the most powerful muscles *. From its upper extremity
extends the cervix, or neck (h), supporting the caput, or rounded head, by
which it is articulated with the acetabular cavity of the pelvis. Within the
head is a cavity, giving origin to a Jlat ligament (although sometimes called
round), which being implanted in the acetabulum, retains the head of the
bone very strongly in its situation : below the head is a linear asperity for
the insertion of the capsular ligament ; and from the inner part of the cervix
a ridge extends down, in the middle of which is a process (I) called the
internal trochanter. On a line with the caput or head, is a large depres-
sion receiving the tendons inserted into it. From this, the bone is stretched
up into a very tall epiphysis (i), called its great trochanter, which is curved
forward, and by its form affords attachment for the gluteus maximus : be-
low, there is a considerable tuberosity, called the small external trochanter;
and under this, there appears on the outer side a curved process, peculiar to
the horse, called the lateral external trochanter {k)\. The body has two
flattened surfaces, one situated posteriorly, the other at its lateral and ex-
ternal part : its inferior extremity terminates in four large condyles. The
anterior unite to form a surface on which the patella slides (m, m) : the pos-
terior (n, n) have a cavity behind them in which the crural vessels pass pro-
tected from pressure.

The patella, which is called by farriers the stifle (o, o), is nearly angular,
and has an anterior rough concave surface to which ligaments are attached,
and an interior which is cartilaginous, adapted to the convexity of the femur '
and tibia. The patella has some of the tendons of the strongest muscles of
• the thigh inserted into it, which are from thence continued over to the tibia ;
by which the importance of this bone in assisting the motions of the leg and
giving power to the muscles of the limb must be evident. It is attached in
its situation by the strong muscles implanted into it above, and a ligament

• The femur of the horse does not, as in man, appear beyond the parietes of the ab-
domen, but, bemg hidden within the skin, is apt to be overlooked, and the next bone is,
therefore, m horseman's language, called the thigh. In this situation it difibrs also from
the human type, m not being curved outward : on the contrary, its body is straight, though
oblique m its direction, being elevated so that the patella falls within the line of the
haunch at an angle of 45 degrees. The upper extremity of the femur articulating with
the pelvis is called the whirl or round hone by farriers; and is hold in its situation, first by
the flattened ligament we have described, next by a strong capsular one, and, lastly, by
the large muscles surrounding the joint: nevertheless, powerful as is this articulation, this
bone IS now and then dislocated; though a violence of such magnitude more usually frac-
tures the head from the neck of the bone. Like most of the other bones, it is subject to
exostoses. In the dog, cat, and many lesser animals, whose limbs are capable of diversified
motions, a small bone is commonly attached to the external condyle, but whicli is wanting
in the horse. ^ "

t Every part of the os fcmoris of the horse betrays marks of the great powers required
of it. This process, which gives attachment to the vastus extcrnus, Cascia latiB, and m. f
glutealis muscles, is wanting in the ruminants, as well as the greater number of quadru-
peds, and is called by Stubbs the protuberating part of the linea aspira.

H 2

116 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

from its lower part, united with an expansion of the rectus tendon stretched
over and fixed into the depression at the head of the tibia*.

The tibia is a large bone situated within that part popularly called the
thigh, but which, speaking with analogy to the human, is properly the leg
(q, q). It is formed of a large epiphysis called its head, and a small at-
tached pyramidal part termed the fibula (r, r), which is altogether wanting in
the ruminants ; while the dog and cat possess a very perfect one, for the
purpose of extending the motion of their hinder limbs, and increasing the
surface of the lower digitated articulations in them. Its inferior extremity
terminates also in an epiphysis, which is furnished with articulating pro-
tuberances termed malleoli. In situ it will be found placed obliquely back-
ward, as the femur is obliquely forward ; forming with that bone an obtuse
angle. The superior extremity presents an anterior flat protuberant surface,
receiving the patella in the flexions of the limb ; it has likewise an upper
surface with two slight articular fossae, separated by a rising edge, which
enters between the condyles of the femur. On this surface the semilunar
cartilages are placed {p, p), and in a hollow formed for this purpose lodges
the cervical ligaments ; "and behind are seen the popliteal vessels in an ap-
propriate cavity surrounded by fat. The body of the bone is nearly trian-
gular ; the anterior angle of it is called its spine, and forms the human
shin. The inferior extremity is formed into three considerable protuberances,
and one lesser, which correspond with the pulley-like surfaces of the astra-
galus ; the risings of the one being received into the depressions of the
other, so as to unite to form a very strong articulation-]- .

The Jihula in the horse is nothing more than an epiphysis to the former
bone, but which forms an indissoluble union with it by age. It appears
more designed to keep up that beautiful connexion we observe throughout
animated nature, than for any great use in the machine. It is attached by a
cartilaginous surface to the lateral superior and posterior part of the tibia,
with its base upwards and its point directed below {i\ r) ; reaching a quar-
ter of the length of the tibia, to which its lower point is attached.

The tarsus or hock (vide Skel.) is a most complex and important joint ;
and though it contains six bones:t^, these are so intimately united as to appear
a solid mass. The astragalus or knuckle bone, which is the first and largest
of the tarsal range, presents a very irregular figure (3, 4 ; 3, 4-). Its upper
and anterior surface is pulley-like, having two remarkable circular risings

* The patella is liable to dislocation, although the occurrence is rare ( see Dislocations).
It is also open by its situation to violent blows, which contuse the parts around ; and they,
being mostly tendinous, ligamentous, and bony, the lameness produced is not only great,
but the recovery slow ; which the brutal attempts often made to work the poor animal
sound, make more so.

■}• The articulation of the tibia with the femur presents a glenoid cavity; consequently
this joint requires strong ligaments, or a dislocation might easily take place, and which on
a superficial observation would appear very probable ; but so perfect is the mechanism
here displayed, that I never heard of an instance of it. The semilitnar cartilages, by
being thick on the outside and thin in the middle, increase the depth of this otherwise
superficial joint; but the principal strength of the articulation is derived from its liga-
ments, which are a capsular, lateral, and crucial. The capsular is extensive, and completely
invests both extremities of the bones forming the joint The crucial ligaments arise
within a depression in the articular surface of the tibia, which crossing each other are in-
serted into the posterior part of the condyles of the femur. The lateral ligaments are an
external and internal, arising from the condyles of the femur, and being inserted into the
head of the tibia.

J Now and then, by a division of the internal cuneiform, there are seven tarsal bones.

OSTEOLOGY— THE POSTERIOR EXTREMITIES. 117

with an intermediate depression, which articulate with the malleoli of the
tibia. Posteriorly it has several surfaces of attachment with the calcis, re-
ceiving the eminences of -that bone into considerable depressions : inferiorly
it has similar surfaces for articulation with the great cuneiform, upon which
it rests ; and posteriorly at the lateral external part it has a surface of at-
tachment with the cuboid. The calcaneum, os calcis, or hock point (1,2;
1, 2), is placed nearly behind the centre of the joint; into which important
point the tendo Achilles, or twisted tendons of the gastrocnemii muscles, are
inserted : the longer therefore is this process, the longer is the lever these
muscles have to act by ; and a very slight increase or diminution in the
length of this bone must enlarge or lessen the power by which the motions
of the joint are operated. It is by this tendon that the limb, having flexed
the angle between the cannon and the tibia, is enabled again to open it to
operate the phenomena of progression. The calcaneum is not placed so as
to rise exactly from the centre of the joint, but rather externally ; and this
formation leaves a space on the inner side, by which the flexor tendons of the
foot, with vessels and nerves, pass protected from pressure ; inferiorly it
articulates by a concave cartilaginous surface with the cuhoides, and ante-
riorly it is received into the depressions of the astragalus. The remaining
bones are more wedge-like, and principally serve to increase the surface of
attachment. The large cuneiform (5, 5), or great wedge-like, is placed
under the astragalus, and articulates ^ith it by a concave, while inferiorly by
a convex surface it rests upon the middle wedge-like : posteriorly its inter-
nal, as well as part of its inferior surface, articulates with the cuboid, which
Mr. Stubbs calls the navicular : it has likewise posteriorly and inferiorly a
small surface of attachment with the little cuneiform. Immediately behind
this, on the outer side, appears the cuboid (6) ; articulating by its cartilagi-
nous sui*face, supei'iorly, with the inferior concave surface of the calcaneum,
receiving the inferior posterior edge of the astragalus, and resting inferiorly
on the external small styloid or metatarsal bone, and part of the cannon : it
has likewise two surfaces of attachment with the cuneiform magnum, and
one with the medium. The lesser or inner cuneiform (8) is situated most
posteriorly on the inner side, immediately under the posterior internal part
of the cuneifoi-m magnum, and over the internal small metatarsal bone. It
articulates by a small upper surface with the next bone, projecting rather
forward, to rest partly on the cannon; but its principal portions articulate
with the great cuneiform superiorly, and with the internal small styloid or
metatarsal inferiorly — The cuneiform medium (7, 7). The greater part of
this bone appears on the front of the hock, articulating by its superior car-
tilaginous surface with the great cuneiform, and inferiorly with the whole
head of the cannon, or great metatarsal. It is slightly triangular, with its
acute part pointed posteriorly, and articulates by a posterior lateral internal
surface with the cuneiform parvum, and at the lateral external part with the
cuboid.

Though the jbones of the hock have all cartilaginous surfaces, yet they
have but little motion except between the tibia and astragalus, and this is
confined to flexion and extension. Each of them has peculiar plans of fibres, •
stretching from one to the other in every direction, by which means they are
individually joined together. The capsular ligament arises from the infe-
rior extremity of the tibia, proceeds backward to insert itself into the calca-
neum behind, and before into the ridge of the cannon ; besides which, the
lesser bones have also peculiar capsules. From the malleoli on each side
arises a strong common ligament extending laterally over the joint, firmly

^^8 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

fixing itself to the bone in its passage : a continuation of its fibres forms
likewise the annular ligaments, under which the tendons insinuate themselves
in their passage. A short plane also of strong fibiies extends from the inner
and outer sides of the tibia into the astragalus ; and a still stronger layer
from the calcaneum passes over the cuboid and cuneiform medium, which,
uniting with the small metatarsal and posterior part of the cannon, covers all
the back part of the joint. It is the tumefaction of this ligament which
occasions the diseased enlargement called curb* .

The complexity of this joint, and the great powers required of it, render
it, however, very liable to disease and derangement ; and that more par-
ticularly in those horses which either naturally or by education ' set them-
selves much on their haunches :' for in such, an extra portion of weight is
added, and extra exertion is required of it. In the mode of riding usually
practised in England, the weight is more thrown on the shoulders and fore
limbs ; and, consequently, in English horses these are the parts that gene-
rally first fail ; but in France, and the whole of what is called the Continent,
where the arts of the manege are still in some repute, this joint is more
liable to suffer, and, consequently, spavins are or were equally plenty there
as splents are with us.

Hie posterior Metatarsals, Coronary, and Coffin Bones.

These bones have so much general resemblance to those of the fore ex-
tremities, that I shall only point out the particular variations which occur
in them. The large metatarsal hone, or cannon, is longer, and altogether
larger than that of the anterior extremity ; it is articulated above with the
intermediate cuneiform ; in part with the lesser cuneiform and cuboid ; and
below with the pastern and sessamoids. The external small metatarsal is
considerably larger than the internal, articulating superiorly with the cuboid,
and laterally with the cannon. The internal is somewhat less ; it articulates
above with the little cuneiform, and laterally with the internal edge of the
cannon : in most other respects these bones resemble the anterior metacar-
pals. The great pastern bone is longer than the anterior, and its situation
is less oblique, which constitute its principal difi'erences. The sessamoids
are two, and do not differ from those already described. The coronary

* The mere inspection of the hock would be sufficient to bespeak its importance to the
progression of every quadruped; but in the horse its mechanism is at once complex and
powerful in the extreme, and at the same time is so elastic as to possess a remarkable
capability of rapid and long-continued motion. By its extent of surface it affords suffi-
cient attachment for the tendons and muscles which operate in progression, nor is its
framing less worthy of admiration in affording so much ease and elasticity during the
most concussive motions of the animal ; for the weight carried downward by the tibia is
here received, not by one opposed bone only, and that in a right line with itself; but,
being itself oblique, it transmits its imjnilse not to one bone alone, but the efibrt is com-
nmnicated and dispersed through seven, whose impulses thus directed, without concur-
rent jar, are again given to the great metatarsal bones, and by them continued downwards.
Thus, m the ox and sheep, whose motions are less agile, instead of six bones there are but
four ; and a peculiarly formed and perfect hock seems essential to those animals who are
intended not only to gallop but to perform all their cadences with perfection. Not only
does the hock receive the superincumbent weight, but it is calculated to extend the gene-
ra] motive powers by the extension of the process of the os calcis, into the point of which
very powerful tendons imi)lant themselves, and thereby act with all the advantage of a
lever; nor will it be difficult, under this view, to perceive that the increased or diminished
lengtli of this process, or, in other words, that broad or narrow hocks are favourable or
unfavourable to progression, as they possess the one or the other form.

OSTEOLOGY — THE SKELETON. 119

hone being less oblique in its position, and resting more on the coffin, and
less on the navicular bones here than in the anterior limb, slightly alters its
articulatory surfaces ; in the coffin bone also the fossa of articulation is
deeper ; the reason of which appears to be, that, as a horse has frequently
to support his whole weight on his hinder extremities, so it was necessary
that these bones should be opposed to each other in a more, direct hne,
whereby they acquire strength ; the loss of elasticity thus occasioned is,
however, amply made up by the formation of the hock : and as, in action,
the natural inclination of the posterior extremities must carry them much
under the animal to gain the common centre of gravity ; so, had these arti-
culations allowed of equal obliquity with those before, the navicular bone,
would have been too much pressed upon ; add to which, that, in throwing a
horse on his hamiches, his fetlocks would have been actually brought to the
ground ; but in the present formation the bony pillar takes off much of that
strain which would otherwise have been forced upon the tendons.

Of the Skeleton, considered mechanically.

It is evident that the progression of animals depends principally on the form and direc-
tion of the parts constituting the base of the machine ; and we shall find that the mecha-
nical structure of the skeleton is admirably adapted for giving ease and celerity to mo-
tion. The horse presents a quadrilateral figure, of four supporting pillars to an inclined
cylinder*, which is not placed in equal lengths upon these supports, but has the head and
neck projected forwards : which is again counterpoised by the additional weight in the
hinder parts, so as to leave the line of direction still near the centre of the whole. The
length of a cylinder may be such as not to support its own weight ; Nature has, therefore,
wsely limited the length of the spine in animals, and their general growth : hence, ccsteris
paribus, a short-backed horse must be stronger than a long one ; it is likewise upon this
mechanical principle that smaller animals can carry proportionably more than larger. In
the osseous pillars forming the legs, scarcely any of the bones are perpendicularly opposed
to each other ; yet it will be found in the well-formed animal that a perpendicular from
their common centre of gravity fails nearly within their common base : by which means
they are supported as firmly as though their individual axes had been in a line perpendi-
cular to the horizon. It likewise greatly increases our admiration of this mechanism
when we observe the contra-disposition of the angles between the fore and hinder pillars
or legs. Had these angles existed in the same direction, the body must have been pre-
cipitated forward or backward ; but each angle opposing a counteraction to the other, the
machine is firmly sustained between them. The fore and hind limbs are evidently in-
tended as opponents to each other ; they present, independent of their inclinations, alto-
gether a different character. Less angular, the fore appear more in the true character of
pillars, and purposely formed to receive the weight impelled on them by the hinder limbs.
This weight they sustain until their elevation is forced upon them by the central tendency
of the who]^, and the impulsive force from behind. The hinder extremities, at no time
bearing an increase of pressure as the fore do, from the impetus communicated from be-
hind, are much more angular, and, by being thrown into a backward direction, afford the
necessary means for propelling the body forwards. The angular construction of the limbs
it must be evident is greatly favourable to their elasticity also : had they been perpendi-
cularly opposed to each other, there could have been but little ease or quickness in mo-
tion ; every exertion would have been a jar, and every increased efibrt would produce
luxation or fracture. This deviation from an upright position in the bones must neces-
sarily, however, require great powers to sustain them, which is done by muscles ; and
wherever the angles are found greatest, the muscles will bo found strongest. This mus-
cular exertion to counterbalance the angular inclination occasions fatigue, which is the
reason why one posture continued for a length of time gives a sense of pain: thcsct of
muscles immediately engaged becoming weary, the animal is obliged to call another into
play ; and which change will be necessarily more or less frequent, as the animal is weaker

• The liu.nan i» a perpendicular l.ndv, supporte.l by two pillars ; the Hpine nf 'JP'''^'"';''" l;^^^^^

pyramids joined into one common l.ase ; and llionRli nowlicie slraiRl.t, e« "^Lf" '.^^^^^

tliat a perpendicular Iron, their common centre of gravity Call.s into the.r common I sc. I »= luunan,
therefore/by this alteration In portion, l.ccomcs a much more complex machine th.ui the brute.

120 THE ANATOMY OF THE flORSE.

or .stronger. The I'.rlv.i.t, tlierefore, of the action of jjarts is tlie produce of their length
then- direction, and tlie difterent angles they are capable of forming; force arises from'
tlie direction, in combination with the agency of the muscles. The repelilion of the ac-
tion is dependent on the muscles alone ; but as the original action arose out of the length
and direction of the parts, so it will be evident that, in every subsequent repetition, it
will be more or less extensive as these are more or less perfect in' their formation, even
though the muscular exertions should be the same; hence some strong animals cannot
move so fast as weaker ones of the same kind, as the cart horse and racer, or the grey-
hound and mastiff. The power of muscles is increased or diminished as they are
situated near or more distant from the centre of motion : thus, the bones are usually so
placed as to give the muscles this advantageous position. To fiirnish this advantage some
bones are formed into angles, as the femur and tibia ; others throw out processes, siich as
the olecranon, calcaneum, &c. Every change in the position of a body must occasion a
shnilar one in the centre of gravity : in order to preserve which, the direction of the limbs
is changed to form a new centre for the moving machine in the act of progression.

SECT. IX.

SYNDESMOLOGT

Comprehends all the appendages to bone, as the cartilages, periosteum,
medulla, ligaments, and synovia.

Cartilages may be divided into three kinds ; articular, non- articular,
and temporary. Considered generally, cartilage (familiarly called gristle)
is a smooth, minutely fibrous, white, uniform, elastic substance, harder than
most other parts, but less so than bone ; having little vascularity, and being
furnished with a membrane reflected over it, called perichondrium.

Articular or obducent cartilages furnish the extremity of every articu-
lated bone, in the form of a layer or tip, which is thickest at the point of
extreme pressure. By these means, the bones slide easily on one another,
and the elasticity of the interposed cartilage prevents the effects of that con-
cussion which must otherwise take place between two such inelastic'bodies
as bones.

The non-articular cartilages are divided into the attached and unattached.
Attached cartilages are such as are placed on the ends of bones not articu-
lated, as the spine of the ilium, sides of the foot, ends of the sternum, super-
cilia of cavities, &c. They are likewise interposed between bones immoveably
joined, as the symphysis pubis, &c. The cartilages of the ribs are of this
kind, and afford flexibility to parts that would otherwise have but little. The
septum narium is an attached non-articular cartilage, serving the purpose of
bone. The unattached cartilages serve to sustain parts without adhering
to any bone ; those of the ears and larynx are familiar instances. *A variety
exists, which may be named cartilago-ligamentous, from its partaking of
the properties of both cartilage and ligament ; such are those between the
bodies of the vertebrae, &c. Bones attached to each other by cartilaginous
union, as the splent bones, the ulnae, and fibulae, are fortified from all dis-
location, yet enjoy the advantages of a limited joint, and possess sufficient
motion to form a sprmg, and to resist the effects of concussion. The tern-
porqry cartilages are those of which the ends of bones are formed in young
animals ; they are very vascular, that they may be the more easily absorbed,
and bone formed in their room as the organs become fully ossified. The
description of individual cartilages will appear in the progress of the" work,
therefore I shall not particularize them here. The powers of life in carti-
lages, though small, yet are fully evinced by their liability to ossification,'and
which disposition appears more common and universal in those of the horse

SYNDKSMOLOOY. 121

than of any other known animal ; there being very few cartilaginous parts
in him that have not been found partially converted into bone by age, or the
stimulus of great exertion, &c. ; from which we readily perceive why stiffness
and want of elasticity are the consequences of these states, the elasticity of
the cartilages decreasing with the progress of ossification. The ulceration
of cartilage, from its slight vascularity, is necessarily very slow, as we witness
in its attack on the nasal septum, and on the lateral cartilages in quitter : but
from some connexion with the vascular parts around, ulceration proceeds
much quicker at the ends of bones, where an opening into the joint has
been made. It is not ascertained that true cartilage is ever reproduced ; but
a cartilago-ligamentous substance is substituted sometimes by healthy gra-
nulations.

The periosteum is a general investing membrane to bones and their append-
ages, receiving different names as it covers diflFerent parts ; that investing
the skull being called pericranium ; that stretched over czxi\[a,ges, perichon-
drium ; and when it covers ligaments, peridesmium. The uses of the pe-
riosteum appear to be to circumscribe the form of bones, and to protect them
by its tenseness : it is also the medium whereby they are furnished with their
vessels. Periosteum, in a healthy state, has but little sensation ; but, like
some other parts, when diseased it becomes very sensible.

The medulla or marrow is a soft, fatty matter, deposited in the cancelli
of bones, particularly of the long ones, by means of little membranous sacs,
which do not communicate, or the marrow would gravitate ; and which,
as keeping the unctuous matter distinct from the bones, convinces us that
the use of this oil is not that of preventing brittleness in them. The medul-
lary vessels secrete the marrow within these cells ; and which secretion, being
in itself wholly inorganic, confutes the foolish notion of the exquisite sensi-
bility of the marrow.

Ligaments are dense, white, fibrous substances, of great tenacity ; either
cord-like as tendons, or expanded into more plane layers. Under still greater
tenuity, ligament becomes a common membrane in every part of the body ;
but it is more particularly appropriate to bones, and hence is generally de-
scribed with them. Ligaments are usually inelastic ; there are however ex-
ceptions, as the great cervical ligament of the neck, and the suspensory
ligament of the extremities. Some of them partake of the nature of carti-
lage, and are hence called cartilaginous ligaments, being hard and little
vascular. These organs may be divided into connecting, suspensory, and
capsular. Connecting ligaments are variable in form, strength, and situa-
tion, and are usually found stretched from one part to another. Thecas,
aponeuroses, and facias, are modifications of connecting tendinous ligaments.
Suspensory ligaments sustain parts, as the flat one springing from the head
of the femur suspends it within the acetabulum. The ligaments of the liver
attach it also in its situation ; and those which connect the sessamoid bones
to the fetlock joint are likewise of this kind.

Capsular ligaments surround the ends of articulated bones, and form the
joint into a complete cavity, which appears a principal end in their forma-
tion ; for they are frequently of considerable length, often of no great thick-
ness, but are always impervious. By the density of their structure, and by
their inelasticity, they musf, however, add to the strength of the joint, and
assist in preventing dislocation. Capsular ligaments are not very sensible
without, but they are extremely sensible and vascular within ; and seci-cte
from their inner surface a nmcus called synovia. It is from the sensibility

122

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

of this inner surface that the inflammation produced on wounds into the
cavity of a joint is so extreme. After the escape of the synovia, the whole
surface of the joint, which is very large when expanded, receives the stinm-
lus of the external air, suffers attrition, and becomes irritated and inflamed
to the highest degree. (See Wounds in Joints.) The individual ligaments
will be described with the parts they belong to.

The synovia is a fluid popularly, but erroneously, termed joint-oil, for it
is simply mucilaginous, and not unlike the white of an egg, and appears to
be secreted by the vessels of the capsular ligaments. Its lubricating use is
very great ; for without it, the attrition between the articulated ends of bones
would painfully interfere with motion : but by this slippery medium they
readily slide over each other, without pain or difl[iculty. This fluid may be
secreted in undue quantities, and then forms capsular dropsy, which is not,
however, frequent in the horse. Bursal dropsy, under the name of wind-
gall, is sufiiciently common.

SECT. X.

MYOLOGY.

Muscle is that part in an animal we term flesh, in distinction from skin,
cartilage, bone, membrane, &c. ; and the phenomena it exhibits are so uni-
versal, that it is probable it exists in every animal, though we are not so
easily able to detect it in some as in others. Muscles appear composed of
reddish bundles of fibres laid alongside of each other, divisible into lesser
fibrillse of the same figure, the ultimate division of which it is impossible to
trace*. When a mass of these bundles is connected together into a determi-
nate form, it is then called a muscle : and as the motions of an animal are very
various, and the circumstances under which they are brought about equally
so, the peculiar shape these motive masses take on is as varied-f-. Mus-
cular fibre not only exists in determinate masses, but it appears to be spread
over almost the whole of the body also ; and it has been very judiciously re-
marked that our ideas of it are probably much too limited:[; : thus, it consti-
tutes a principal part of all the viscera, and enters into the composition, it is

* The muscular fasciculi are not of uniform size ; in some muscles they are larger and
coarser than in others : they are particularly so in the masses of the glutei. In some
specimens in the same families the muscular texture is universally coarser; as we see in
the grain of some beef and mutton. Bull-beef is as obnoxious for this as for the rauk-
ness arising from spermatic diffusion. The direction of the fibres is not always the same,
which has given rise to the division of muscles into rectilinear or straight, radiated or in
rays, compound or intersecting each other, and penniform when the fibres branch out in
an angular direction like the plumes of a pen. In most muscles there may be observed
two kinds of fibres; the one red and purely muscular ; the other of a firmer texture, white
and glistening : the former are sensible and elastic, the latter insensible and inelastic.

■j- Muscles, from their infinite variety, are named according to their form, as triangu-
laris, trapezius, &c. ; or after their course, situation, and attachments, as recti, subscapu-
laris, sterno brachialis, &c. : or from their uses, as flexors, extensors, abductors, adductors,
&c. &c. Each is again divided into its origin or head ; its body or belly ; and its inser-
tion : but this admits of latitude, as these parts change by the action of the muscle itself
under various circumstances.

X We must not conclude those parts only as muscular that are of a red colour ; for the
muscles of insects, of fishes, and of many fowls, are white. The iris, the stomach, the
bladder, and the intestines, whose contractions are powerful and distinctly nniscular, want
the characteristic hue of red flesh. The hydatid is a transparent bag ; yet, when put into
warm water, produces motion and contraction, and must therefore be supposed to be nnis-
cular.

MYOLOGY.

123

probable, of many membranes ; and, in fact, forms the bulk of the body in
most animals. What is, however, generally understood by a muscle, is a
• distinct body, having its determinate parts. The vascularity of muscles is
extreme ; in the red-blooded, their inteijse colour is wholly derived from the
quantity of blood within them : but, from the circumstance that many mus-
cular parts are colourless, red blood does not seem essentially necessary to mus-
cular phenomena : their ultimate power, however, is connected with blood in
general ; for when deprived of a part of it, they become weak ; and if it be wholly
lost, they will wither and die. On the contrary, by exertion, which is but ano-
ther term for increasing their vascularity by forcing more blood into them,
they enlarge in size, in strength, and colour. (See Nature and Properties
of the BloodJ) The condition of a racer or hunter is that admired tension
and swelling of the muscles gained by exercise, under the name of ' training,'
contrasted with the general rotundity of frame arising from interstitial mat-
ter. From the extreme vascularity of muscles, their living powers are very
great ; they are also plentifully supplied with nerves and absorbents. Super-
added to the general living powers of other parts, they own one peculiar to
themselves, whereby they contract and shprten at pleasure ; during which
contraction, they become thicker and harder, but without actual increase to
their bulb. This power is dependent on the will in the voluntary muscles,
and in the involuntary on appropriate stimuU, as blood stimulates the heart,
and light the iris.* This obedience to the action of stimuli has been called
their irritability, and exists after death ; it likewise remains in them on their
removal from the body, whence it must be an inherent property*. If,
however, the nerves going to voluntary muscles are tied, we lose our power
over them; they become paralytic, and incapable of obeying the commands
of the will : hence it would appear, that nervous influence is the proper
stimulus to voluntary muscles. Neither can the will force the muscles to
contract beyond the capacity of their physical powers ; and hence, after ex-
ertion, they become fatigued, and at last paralytic-]-.

Muscles are called voluntary and involuntary. Voluntary muscles are'
such as are immediately imder the influence of the will, as those of the arms,
legs, eyes, mouth, &c. Involuntary muscles are such as are not under our
guidance, and whose functions go on without control, as the heart, the re-
spiratory and digestive muscles. A third sort may be added, which par-

* It is to these contradictory facts, that our total ignorance of the phenomena of mus-
cular contraction is principally owing ; for as the muscles can contract, not only after
what we understand by death, but also when cut off from all commimication with the
brain and nerves, so it might be concluded that their contractile powers were independ-
ent of them. But other phenomena convince that such is not the case : the brain and
nerves are not only the medium through which we operate on the voluntary muscles, but
they have a paramoimt influence on the volvmtary and involuntary also; as we see in
tetanus, epilepsy, &c., which we are assured, from incontrovertible facts, are irritations on
the sensorium, or its adjuncts the nerves. The exertions of a phrenitic horse and of a
maniacal man are infinitely greater than either are capable of mider mere healthy excite-
ment; because the muscles receive a more than ordinary portion of sensorial or nervous
influence. This will also explain why horses when vicious, or when running away through
fear, exhibit such uncontrollable efforts.

f It is by this influence over the contraction of the muscles by nervous excitement
that various other phenomena also can be readily explained. It is thus we learn why the
relative forces of large and small muscles are not in the ratio of their bulk; for some
small muscles are much stronger than Urgcr ones, and some small animals than otheri
of greater magnitude. The locomotive exertions of the blood-horse arc, comparatively
with his bulk, much greater than those of the cart-horse, because the nervous excitement
of the one is greater than the other.

124 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE,

takes of the nature of both, and are thcnoe called mixed: such are the re-
spiratory muscles, whose action we can increase or diminish, but cannot
wholly suspend. Muscles acquire a power of acting dependent on their
situation and their points of attachn^ent ; and as these points can be altered
by the muscle itself, their actions become much diversified, some more so
than others. Voluntary muscles have usually antagonists, whereby the per-
petual tendency to contraction is counterbalanced. The muscular masses
are commonly invested by a cellular or membranous covering, which in
some instances is very dense, called fascia, whereby they are bound down
and assisted in their action.

Tendons. — To the generality of muscles, particularly to those ending in
bones, is added another part of a very different texture, appearing first as
an insensible, inelastic, fibrous substance, of extreme tenacity, intermixed
with the fleshy fibres, but which become finally aggregated into a cord called
a tendon. The forms of tendons differ; and they are seen round, flat, ex-
tended, &c. : when their extension is thin and considerable, it is called an
aponeurosis : with still greater extension and tenuity, it becomes fasciu.
The size of the tendons is not always proportionate to that of the muscles
they belong to, and some muscles are altogether without any determinate
tendinous cord ; but probably no muscle is unmixed with tendinous fibre.
Tendons are but little vascular, nor can we easily detect any nerves in them ;
their powers of life are consequently small, and from being* so little vascular,'
they are hardly putrefactive : nor are they at all sensible but under inflam-
mation ; when they, in common with some other insensible parts, as the pe-
riosteum, become highly so, either by themselves, or probably by their gra-
nulations*. The thecal membrane also which covers them is under inflam-
mation singularly sensible, which will account for the extreme pain and
tenderness consequent on sprains. The absorbing system of tendons ap-
pears likewise inconsiderable, which paucity of vital powers renders their
ulcerative and reproductive processes necessarily slowf ; nevertheless, both
in the ass and dog, a divided tendon has reunited ; and the tendon Achilles
in man also. The uses of the tendons are very important ; they combine
immense strength with diminished bulk : hence are peculiarly appropriate to
the muscles of the extremities, where symmetry of parts and freedom of mo-
tion are required. What could have been expected from the limbs of the
racer, light, elegant, and flexible as we now see them, had the muscles been
continued downwards of the self same bulk as we see them at their origin in
the arm before, or in the buttock behind ? Tendons have a general cover-
ing from the cellular membrane ; and an individual theca, or sheath, is ap-
propriated to many others, by which they are prevented from displacement
during action. At the extremity of most tendons, inserted into moveable
parts, or between them and their thecal appendages or sheaths, and some-
times at the points of contact between two of them moving on each other,
there is found a bursa mucosa, or tendinous capsule, containing a lubricating
mucus, of the nature of synovia. (See Bursalogy.)

* When the extensor tendon has been exposed in broken knees, if it be pricked or irri-
tated, the animal immediately evinces much pain.

t Mr. Percivall has a very excellent practical remark on the tedious process of ulcera-
tion in tendons : ' So that if matter be poured forth under a tendinous fascia, unless we
discover its presence in time, and give it free issue by puncture, it will burrow among the
muscles or other soft parts, and produce extensive mischief; whereas, had it been collected
under the skin, ulceration of the integument would have readily discliarged it, without
any surgical assistance.' — Lectures, p. 201.

MYOLOGY.

125

Of Individual Muscles.

/Equine anatomy, like a young child, has been forced to draw all its supplies from the
parent stock (human anatomy) : and it is more than probable that the connexion can
never be entirely dissolved. But the prone situation of the brute, the progressional uses
he makes of his fore extremities, and the extreme extension of his head and neck, must
create much diversity in the arrangement of his muscles from those of the parent; and
hence has arisen difficultj' and confusion in forming an appropriate nomenclature. This
was felt as early as the time of Ruini, who classed the muscles of the horse nmnerically.
Bourgelat, the father of veterinary anatomy, stooped also to this feeble aid, where the
analogy between the human and brute subjects failed him; where they d.id not, he pur-
sued the human myological nomenclature : as did the other eminent French anatomists
of the horse frame, as La Fosse, Vitet, &c.

Such of our English authors as have at all attempted to display sequine myology, from
Snape to the present time, have one and all followed tlie human type. Stubbs, our great-
est authority on this head, was wholly guided by it. From this track some divergence
was first made by Chaussier, whose method has been adopted by M. Girard, the most emi-
nent among veterinary anatomists ; and though not altogether free from serious objec-
tions, it certainly offers a new and more critical view of the subject, environed with many
difficulties. Mr. Percivall, whose myology is drawn from this source, but enlarged in a
masterly manner, presents us with two nomenclatures, one of which is a translation of
Girard into Latin, the conventional language of science ; the other is dressed in the no-
menclature of human myology. With regard to the necessity of a minute attention to all
the muscles of the body, it may be said, that an acquaintance with every part is useful •
but it may be allowed, that this is not absolutely necessary to every veterinarian. The
means of acquiring a due knowledge of all of them is, however, within the reach of such
as wish it. Stubbs is yet before the public, and is still more readily accessible through
Boardman's Veterinary Dictionary; Girard' s Traiti d' Anatomie Vitirinaire may be ob-
tained ; or Mr. Percivall may be studied in his Lectures, or in Tlie Veterinarian. A par-
ticular description of each muscle will, therefore, in this edition of the Outlines, give
place to more important matter in the practical part of the work. '

But it must not thence be supposed that this branch of squine anatomy has been passed
over in silence; on the contrary, every important muscle will be noticed with the general
anatomical examination of the several organs. In the myology of the extremities, as
subjects of peculiar interest, I have endeavoured to be particularly correct. The figures
illustrating them were the result of numerous dissections made by myself, with great
care ; and the drawings were taken also by myself from the dissections, which enables me
to vouch for their accuracy : compared with the subject, as it appears under dissection,
they will, I am persuaded, mainly agree; but with the descriptions given by different
authors they may not altogether correspond ; for I have never yet found any two oriirinal
writers who did entirely coincide with each other. Different views are taken o/ ori-
gins, attachments, insertions, and divisions : parts are by some taken for a wliole ; the
ligaments of one are the tendons of another, &c. &c. &c. With these discrepancies' be-
fore me, I studied the page of Nature, and endeavoured to represent her as she is : she
may have been, and without doubt has been, better dressed ; but my object was to repre-
sent her as she is; so that when she may become deranged by disease, the practitioner
may better know what is the nature of the change, and to what he is to restore her by his
ars medendi. As regards the nomination of the muscles, I think so mucli is due to our
alma mater, the Veterinary College, as the source from whence our orthodox vocabulary
should emanate, that, were I in possession of that in which the college anatomical lectures
are given, I should certainly make all my future descriptions agree with it. The nomen-
clatures of different writers vary; that of Girard is popular in France, but that of Mr. Per-
civall is better suited to English ears, as well as being in many instances more strictly
appropriate, and certainly, as a whole, more inductive to English students.

SECT. XL

BURSALOGT.

This subject comprises a knowledge of those appendages to tendons
whereby the eflFects of friction are prevented. Tendons are usually fur-
nished with a sheath or theca, within which is secreted a glairy, slippery

126

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

mucus, of a similar nature with synovia, by which they are enabled to slide
within these sheaths with great ease. At the extremities of the tendons,
and also between them and other parts, and between contiguous tendons
themselves, wherever they are liable to pressure or friction, these slippery
mediums are frequent : these form distinct membranous sacs not unlike the
capsular ligaments, and are called mucous capsules or bursce mucosae., being
formed of a dense cellular membrane, whose internal vascular surface secretes
this mucus. From external injury, or other causes, this surface becomes
at times inflamed ; and, when resolution of such inflammation is not effected
speedily, coagulable lymph is thrown out, which being not always again ab-
sorbed, remains between the tendons and its sheath, and occasions distention
and lameness, from the obstruction it offers to the freedom of motion ;
therefore, we are at no loss to account for the gorged sinews in hard-worked
horses, nor for the stiffness they occasion. The mucous capsules at the ex-
tremities of the tendons also are extremely liable to become distended; and
bursal disease receives very different names according to its situation, as
windgalls at the fetlock, bog spavin or thoroughpin in the hock, and
capulet at the hock point : occasionally bursal eolargements are seen in the
knee also. These diseased accumulations appear to be brought on by undue
exertion of the parts continued beyond the natural powers of renovation :
after which exertion appears to act as a stimulus to them both to increase
and to disease the mucous secretion within. (See Windgalls, &c.) For a
more detailed account of the individual bursce mucosee, I would refer the
student to Girard and Percivall ; to Monro's description of them, with
plates likewise ; and to Fourcroy's Memoire des Tendons ; for wherever the
muscles of the human and horse bear a parallel, there, it may be readily
imagined, those of the tendons and mucous capsules have likewise the same.

SECT. XII.

ANGIOLOGY.

The vessels of the body are divided into arteries, vein.'}, and absorbents;
and, except the hoofs and epidermis, there is perhaps no part of the body
without them.

Of the Arteries generally.

The arteries are canals originating from the ventricles of the heart by
two trunks, the aorta and pulmonary, whose subdivisions are destined to
supply the whole body with blood. Considered generally, artei-ies are long
membranous tubes, which by reason of their numerous bifurcations become
smaller as they pi-oceed to the extreme parts*. In their course an especial
regard is observed towards their safety ; hence they are deep seated, and
pass on the inner sides of the limbs rather than on the outer. They appear
equally guarded against accidental pressure from neighbouring parts, by
passing over the bending surface of a joint; and where the extension of
soft parts and their frequent motions would render the blood \vithin con-

* Although the individual vessels themselves diminish, yet the conjoined area of the
numerous subdivisions springing from them is greater than the parent trunks; which
increase appears to arise from the greater capacity of the subdivisions, and the propor-
tional increase to their coats.

ANGIOLOGY. 127

tinually liable to obstruotion, they proceed in a tortuous course*. An artery
is composed of three different substances or tunics, united by means of cel-
lular membrane into one elastic tube : the external coat appears a thick,
dense, membranous coat of peculiar whitenessf , whose elastic powers ai-e
so considerable, as to preserve the cylindrical form of the principal canals
when empty. By their elastic power the arteries are capable of being dis-
tended so as to admit of a larger quantity of fluid than is merely sufficient
to render them cylindrical : by this likewise they can adapt themselves to a
smaller quantity than is usual ; and were it not for this property, a small
haemorrhage only must prove fatal. It is by this elasticity, which operates
longitudinally as well as circularly, that the divided ends of a wounded ar-
tery retreat within the cellular substance around, and thus close its divided
. orifices. When this contraction is prevented by a partial division only, the
haemorrhage continues J. The elastic powers appear in dissimilar proportions
in different horses, as in different men ; from which arises some constitu-
tional phenomena in the individuals of each species, giving some a greater
disposition to inflammation, which is called a sanguineous temperament.
The muscular coat of the arteries is interposed between the two others, and
appears formed of fibres nearly circular, extending around the artery by se-
veral segmental portions joined together ; which fibres are stronger in the
small than in the large branches, and strongest of all in the capillaries. The
muscular tunic appears to exist in greater proportion in the horse than in
the human, and this accounts for the predisposition in him to violent inflam-
mation ; and it is from hence that in him adhesive inflammation is less
common, but the process of ulceration peculiarly quick, and that granula-
tions so speedily form. To this cause it is probably owing, also, that acute
inflammations of the vital organs in the horse run through their stages so
much quicker than similar affections in the human. Inflammation of the
lungs frequently terminates fatally in forty-eight and sometimes in thirty-six
hours. From this power also it is, that a horse can. bear the division of a
much larger artery without danger than a man. From the strength of this
muscular coat in the capillary arteries, in the monitory symptoms of fever,
the blood is either forced back into the larger vessels, or pressed forwards
into the veins, by which shivering and a sensation of coldness is produced
in these cases§. The internal coat, like the exterior, is also membranous,
but much thinner ; more dense, but less elastic than the outer : the smooth

* The tortuous direction of the arteries serves also some other purpose than that of
preserving them from accidental obstruction by pressure : this we learn from finding
them so in the brain, testicle, and uterus, where they can be little liable to it. Here, re-
tarding the flow of the blood is probably studied for some functional purpose.

f The whiteness of the arteries is of considerable importance both to the anatomical
dissector and the practical surgeon, as by its means the presence of an arterial trunk is
at once detected.

X Aware of this circumstance, a prudent surgeon immediately severs the half-divided
vessel ; and if it be not a large one, this alone is sufficient to stop the flow of blood.

§ A muscular coat has, however, been denied, from the uniform whiteness of the arte-
ries ; but we have had other occasions of pointing out, that want of colour is no proof of
the absence of muscular structure. Mr. Hunter having bled a horse to death, found that
the area of these vessels was considerably diminished ; the aorta had lost one-twentieth of
its original breadth, while the radial artery was contracted to one-half. Other proofs esta-
blish the muscularity of these vessels : a principal one is the fact of their acting without
acceleration or alteration of the pulsations of the heart, as we know from slight topical
inflammations, and from a blush on the cheek, all which excite heat and redness in the
part, but do not disturb the general circulation. — Vide Hunter's Lectures ; Wilson on the
Bloud; and Dr. Thompson on Inflammation.

128 THE AiN ATOMY OF THE HORSE.

surface it presents is admirably calculated to allow a free passage to the

course of the blood.

Our knowledge of the termination of these vessels is very confined; we
can readily see their ordinary termination by anastomosis, or the unitmg of
one branch into another, whereby the blood has its course m some measure
altered and the constitution receives safety under the division of the vessels
of a part from its being thus furnished by some other. Our practice of
surgery is greatly extended by this knowledge, and we no longer fear taking
up a large artery* : by this free communication, pressure, likewise, is less
iniurious than it would otherwise be. We also know that arteries terminate
by means of their capillary branches in veins, because we can empty the
arteries, by drawing the blood from the venal trunks ; and because injection
forced into the arteries, in many instances enters the veins. They likewise
terminate by excretory ducts on secreting surfaces, or within bodies called
glands ; by which the arterial contents become in themselves changed ; and,
part of the blood having remained to enter into new combinations, the re-
mainder is returned by venal branches. Arteries have also another com-
mon termination, by exhalent openings on extended surfaces : it is by this
means the insensible perspiration passes off ; and by the same means serous
fluids are emitted throughout most membranous surfaces and cavities. A
more confined termination of arteries is that into cells, from which veins
arise to take it up again, as in the spleen, &c. Different parts are more or
less plentifully supplied with arteries according to their nature : secreting
organs have usually large trunks, as the kidneys, spleen, liver, &c. ; they
are hkewise themselves furnished with arterial and venal branches, for the
nourishment of their tubes. They have also nerves furnished to them from
the ganglial or sympathetic trunks ; but they are nearly destitute of feelingt :
their absorbents are too minute to be detected, but analogy would make us
conclude they were not without them.

The living power of the arteries must be great, for they are capable of
extending themselves through coagulable lymph thrown out previously : this
we see take place in the callus of bones, and in cicatrices, which in time be-
come vascular ; but an artery, when divided, will not become pervious, al-
though a vein will. The evident use of the arteries is to convey the blood
from the heart to the different parts of the body ; thus keeping up the vital
principle in these parts, by being the bearers of nutriment and heat. An
intimate knowledge of their functions, therefore, forms a very principal branch

Uac

* The horse suffers nothing from the loss of a carotid, and the dog has had an i
artery taken up without sensible injury ; so extensive is the connnunicaUon by anasto

mosis.

t This distribution of nervous energy to the aortic system, according to the present
prevailing theories, offers matter for consideration very interesting to the vctermarian, as
it embraces a much wider field than the mere support of the arterial tube itself. It ap-
pears that, although the sensibility of tlie arterial trunks is usually considered to be small,
yet that they are very ready to be acted upon in their functional capacity by nervous
agency ; thus, when the nerves communicate too much energy to these vessels, and inor-
dinately increase tlieir vigour, inflammation follows. If this inordinate supply springs at
once from the source, and extends through the whole arterial system, fever is the conse-
quence ; but when it is confined to a sm. dl space, or to a single organ, tlien it is the pa-
rent of local inriammation. This view of the connexion between the nervous and sangui-
ferous systems is thought to offer the best theory of infiaininatiou, and best to agree \viln
its various phenomena. In my own opinion, this theory gains much support Ironi the phe-
nomena observed in muscular contraction generally, wliich we know to be wonderlully m-
fluenced by nervous energy. — See Myology.

ANGIOLOGY — THE PULSE. 129

of physiology ; as a woll-grounded acquaintance with their situation is Hke-
wise essentially necessary to the veterinary surgeon.

Mr. Hunter has taught, that there is a strong affinity or peculiar connexion
between the blood and its vessels ; and his opinions on this subject have led
to oonsidei-able alterations in our manner of treating diseases in general, and
wounds in particular. The fluid state of the blood appears connected with
living vessels ; blood parted from them dies and coagulates. The blood like-
wise stimulates its vessels, which, perhaps, is one very principal cause of
their contraction : but this stimulus should have limits. When inordinately
increased, disease is produced : neither is it unlikely that a defect in this
natural stimulus may also produce derangement. (See the last note.) As
the use of the arteries is to convey the blood from the heart, so the heart
itself appears to be the first but not the only agent. The arteries equally
unite in the office ; and as the force of the heart decreases by distance, that
of the arteries strengthens the farther they are removed from it ; so that, at
last, the column is pressed on to almost a continuous stream : thus when a very
small artery is divided, there is a regular flow, with scarcely any jet : this,
however, only takes place in their minutest branches. We thus see why
there is no pulsation in the veins ; they receive the blood from the arteries
in one equable stream, and continue it by the last impulsive force of the
heart, and the new one of the arteries. Pulsation is a certain sensation in
the artery ; which, from various experiments, is found to arise from its being
alternately in a state of distention and relaxation. It appears that, when the left
ventricle contracts, and forces the blood into the arteries, the pressure of the
fluid occasions a distention and dilatation of their coats, which is termed their
diastole: when the left ventricle ceases to act, and becomes distended, the
impetus against the sides of the vessels ceases, and now the muscular fibres
of the artery contract and lessen its size, producing its relaxation or systole.

Of the Pulse.

This momentaiy increase of capacity in the artery, whereby its diameter
is enlarged, is called its pube ; and the more or less frequent are these dila-
tations in it, so is the pulse quicker or slower. The circulation of the blood
in animals being usually (as regards its momentum) in the ratio of their
bulk, i. e. that it is tardy in the large, and quick in the small *, has given to
every kind a standard pulse. In the adult horse it may be stated to range
between 36 and 46 f: in the colt it will be found at birth upwards of 60;

• This ratio of circulation is dependent on the principle, that a large animal having a
greater distance to propel the vital fluid from its foimtain, the resistance to be overcome is
greater, and it must therefore, of necessity, require a longer tiine to accomplish its exit
and return. Thus it will be found, that between the large draught horse and the diminu-
tive pony the mean pulsations will vary 6 or 8 per minute, which circumstance should not
be lost sight of by the medical practitioner when examining horses of such disproportionate

+ In consequence of the statements of Vatel and Girard, that the standard pulsations
ot the ordinary horse average 35 per minute, whereas Mr. Percivall states them at 45,
and myself at something more, I have however, since this was written, made innumerable
examinations of horses of every size, and under every variety of circumstance ; and the
result has been, that I am convinced that the average is really lower than that of either
Mr. P. or of that which I have heretofore stated it ; but that it is not so low as 32, which
IS that of Vatel and Mr. Sewell. I believe the error of both Mr. P. and myself has been
occasioned by the same circumstance, which is, that most of our examinations have been
made on horses within the confines of a stable, probably on those of a medium size also;
as well as usually on such as were under the stimulating eflccts of liberal feeding, and fre-

y^Q THE ANATOMY OF THE HOUSE,

but it decreases in frequency, at first rapidly and afterwards more slowly,
to the adult standard. This variation between the young and adult puke
is, however, less dependent on their relative sizes than on weakness of the
system, and the consequent irritability a£ this early period

There are also other causes of individual variation m the pulse of horses
of the same size. The idiosyncrasies, or constitutional peculiarities of some,
occasion a departure from the usual standard pulse attributable to that size :
in the irritable and impatient horse it is commonly 5 or 6 more per mmute
than in the mild and temperate : and in some blood horses this is peculiarly
the case A low bred sluggish horse is commonly below the standard of his size
in his pulsations. 'In stabled horses the pulsations are always more frequent
than in those abroad ; and it is accelerated in the degree corresponding with
the heat of their dwelling, the nature of their clothing, and the stimulating
property of their food. Desire, impatience, and fear, all raise the pulse : as
reo-ards the latter, it particularly concerns the medical attendant that his ex-
amination of his patient be so conducted as not to alarm ; which, m some, is
very easily done on the approach of a stranger. Without this precaution, the
pulse may present a very wrong indication : an equal attention to all the
foregoing causes of deviations is also necessary, where a critical examination

of the pulse is to be made. , , •

Viewed medically, the pulse is important, as it affords us our best criterion
of the state of the sanguiferous system, which may become in itself the imme-
diate seat of disturbance ; or otherwise mediately so, from active disease pre-
sent in any of the important vital organs, or, in other Words, the pulse toay be
influenced, indirectly, by the general state of the body, but directly by that
of the heart, or of the arteries, or of both, or of the quantity of blood which
the vessels have to contain. The pulse affords us a ready mdication ot a
quickened or a tardy state of the circulation ; but were our mformation to
stop here, it would be limited indeed ; and the pulse would then prove but
an indiflFerent nosometer. By an accelerated pulse we might certainly pre-
suppose irritability and excitement ; and by one retarded below its natural
standard, we might as readily conjecture a state of congestion, or a defa-
ciency of nervous energy. But the first will often accompany external and
momentary causes ; and the last may, to a certain degree, be brought on by
di-owsiness after a hearty meal. Here, then, both the quick and the slow
pulse might accompany a healthy state, and fail to prove true criteria ot
disease. There are, therefore, various other conditions of the pulse besides
its number to which we should attend : these may be characterized, to a
certain degree, and to a certain degree only, by the familiar terms of strong,
hard, soft, wiry, oppressed, small, quick, frequent, slow, regular, and irrfegular ;

quently of clothing- too. Vatel states tlie pulse of the horse as 32 to 38 beats pfer minute;
of the ass, 48 to 54 ; of the ox and cow, 35 to 42 ; of the sheep, 70 to / 9 ; of the goat, 11
to 76 ; of the dog, 90 to 100 ; of the cat, 110 to 120. Hurtrel D'Arhoval gives tliera as
35 in the horse ; 50 in the ass ; 38 in the cow ; 65 in the sheep ; and as 80 to 100 in tHe dog.

« I would not willingly alarm the tyro by this catalogue of varieties in the pulse ; tor
although they all do exist, it is not absolutely essential, in the greater number of instances,
that he be at once intimate with the whole of them. The cases winch will occur ui the
course of his profession will bring them before him, provided he is watchful to proht hy
them. On his outset, it will be sufficient that he attend to the following states, which, with
the opinions concerning their original importance, we will give in the words of an apparently
acute writer, in No. 29 of The Fetrnnarinn. ' So many ditterent appellations have been
given to different kinds of pulses, that it tends more to confuse than assist us' (q^cry the
young practitioner) ; ' bvit by attending to the four following rules, we shall find them, 1
think, quile suffidenl ; and, at all events, others may easily be referred to them:— 1st, a

ANGTOLOGY — THE PULSE, 131

to become familiar with which, it must not be concealed, requires nice dis-
crimination and habits of close attention*.

The arterial system being universally diffused, and its action being uiai-
form throughout, it follows that the pulse may be examined in every part of
the body ; but it can certainly be nowhere so conveniently, nor perhaps no-
where so advantageously, felt, as by the submaxillary artery (glosso-faciale,
G.) as it crosses the anterior portion of the tuberosity of the lower jaw, as
seen at o, j)lafe III, and as more particularly described with the arteries.
Having detected this vessel, enclose it within an angle formed between the
fore and middle fingers and the thumb, the fingers being carried just within
the ramies of the jaw, and the thumb resting without ; which latter will form
a fulcrum, while the index and median fingers, between them, pursue the
inquiry into the state of the circulation, now by one, now by the other press-
ing the arterial tube with various degrees of force against the bone, or
between themselves-}-.

A strong and full pulse, indicating forcible contractions in the heart, with

pulse where the artery is too much dilated ; 2d, where it is not sufficiently so ; 3d, where
it is too frequent in its motions ; 4th, where it is too slow.' This, we presume, was iji-
tended as a directing point to the ' youvg practitioner,' and was by no means considered
as ' quite sufficient' for all ; otherwise this quotation would not have been premised by the
following : — ' It has often struck me that sufficient attention is not paid to the state of the
pulse of the horse by the veterinarian ; the quantity of knowledge to be ascertained by it
being limited to the quickness or slowness of the pulsations, this being their chief guide
in the use of the lancet; but the experienced practitioner well knows that the quality of
the pulse will frequently inform him of the nature of the case, and be to him what the
tongue of the human patient would be, — his director.'

* It was probably by confining the examinations to the mere number ofpulsatory strokes
in a given time, that tlie early physicians paid so little attention to the arterial beat : even
Celsus himself regarded it as a res fallacissima, as did most of the eminent Greek physi-
cians. Noir are there wanting eminent moderns who follow in the same track, being
misled by the constitutional peculiarities which occasionally occur, as well as by certain
states of the sanguiferous system, which, from causes unknown to us, present opposite
indications to those laid down. But we caution the prudent veterinarian not to be thus
misled : in the horse these discrepancies are less frequent than in the human ; but as they
do occur, he must be on his guard : he may rest assured, that in all general cases of active
disease common to the horse, he may place much dependence on the criteria affijrded by
the pulse'; and when it does happen that the pulse and other well known and strongly
characterised symptoms present contrary indications, I would advise him to examine the
case with renewed attention, and finally to let the weight of the united evidences guide
his decision. To accustom himself to every variation from a healthy pulse, the young
veterinarian should apply himself to a frequent examination of it in horses in henlfh, and
that under every variety of circumstance which may have a tendency to alter it either in
diflfererit individuals, as age, sex, size, breed, &c. or in the same individual, as heat, cold,
full feeding, or emaciation, &c. &c.

t I liave before remarked, that this point for pulsatory examination I had never met
with, either in the practice or the wTitings of any veterinarian, when I first pointed it out;
since which it has, however, been very generally recommended, as it deserves, for the
convenience of the situation of the vessels, its ready application to the hard body of the
jaw, and as well as the readiness with which it may be examined under all circumstances.
Bartlet directs the pulse to be examined by the leg, by the carotids, and by the heart. Mr.
Clark describes it as most easily felt at the origin of the temporal artery, near the base of
the ear ; which, notwithstanding our respect for this gentleman's opinion, wo have observed
to be a most inconvenient and often impracticable .situation. Attempting it here alarms
many horses ; neither is the temporal artery easily embraced for a critical examination ;
and it is altogether, in my opinion, even a more ineligible spot for the purpose than
those which the metacarpal arteries affi)rd. It is sometimes j\ulicious to examine the
state of the circulation at the fountain head ; although it has been said that the liearf only
indicates the number of pulsations. I have had recourse to its action as an excellent'
guide in detecting water in the chest, by the peculiar undulating sensation produced
through Ihe watery medium. That irregubir pulse also which indicates extreme debility

I 2

132 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE,

a proportionate quantity of blood forced into, and propelled onwards, by the
arteries, is present in the horse under temporary excitement ; but is seldom
found to accompany any morbid state into which he falls, with an occasional
exception in favour of some attacks of phrenitis, accompanied with delirium.
The full pulse which accompanies disease in the horse has always some con-
fined vibratory hardness, and seldom gives the full bounding feel present in
inflammatory affections in the human ; occasionally, perhaps, it may be met
with in the first stages of membranous inflammation. In treating therefore
on diseases, whenever the term full pulse occurs, it must.be considered as
intended to convey the above idea only. A hard pulse with increased /re-
quency is the consequence of strong general sanguiferous action operating
on a diminished diameter but strong resistance of the arteries, and is cha-
racterised by its feeling to the fingers like a cord vibrating under them, and
not like the full undulations of an overcharged vessel. This pulse accom-
panies most extensive membranous inflammations, and is the usual attend-
ant on the early periods of most visceral ones also. In the incipient stages
of peritoneal jiiflammation of the intestines, or red cohc, it forms the best
characteristic between that and the spasmodic colic or gripes ; for in the
latter, although after a few hours' continuance there is often a wiry hardness
in the pulse, it is always accompanied, when purely spasmodic, with a degree
of fulness also, unknown to the other. A hard and full pulse is common
to all extensive inflammations of parts not immediately essential to life, as
of the cellular membranes, muscles, skin, &c. &c., when such inflammations
are sufficient to affect the constitution. It accompanies the early stages of
bad catarrhal affections, and occasionally of pneumonia also; but in the former
it usually exhibits more frequency than in the latter. The wh^ pulse is a
very important modification of the hard, in which the sensation is contracted
from that of a vibrating cord to that of a jarred wire, whence its name of
wiry, thready, &c. It is commonly accompanied with increased frequency,
but by no means invariably so ; and is often present in the protracted stages
of visceral inflammation, and in some few it accompanies them from their
outset. It appears to be the common consequence of the former pulse, and
thus succeeds to it so frequently in the secondary or protracted stages of all
inflammatory affections of magnitude, particularly of such as commence
slowly. The oppressed pulse is also, a modification of the hard pulse, and
appears brought about by the . opposing efforts of the muscular and elastic

is best examined by the heart itself: its dying flutters no arterial examination can aiibrd
a just conception of.

The pulsi-s of other animals which may become the object of the veterinarian's care,
present indications under disease not dissimilar to those met with in the horse, making
allowance for the varied ratio of their pulsations in a given time. The favourable situa-
ation for examination is not the same, however, in all of them. In the ox, as in the
horse, the submaxillary artery oiFers the most convenient spot ; but it must be remem-
bered, that the tuberous prominence of the jaw is less distinct in him, and also that the
artery is to be felt for somewhat behind the situation in which it is found in the horse.
In the sheep, the metacarpal arteries, the carotids, and coccigeal or arterial branches of
the tail, may furnish pulsatory indications. In the dog, the auricular artery, which is one
of the terminating branches of the external carotid, may be felt at the fore part of the root
of the ear, and will readily furnish the pulse : in very large dogs, the metacarpals may
also be felt for the purpose : in very small ones, examine it by a femoral branch, which
traverses the inner side of the thigh in an oblique direction, sometimes higher and some-
times lower, but may be always detected by care. In all small animals, however, the
irritability of the system hurries the circulation so as to render it somewhat indistinct ;
and in them, therefore, it is often most satisfactory to examine the heart itself, by applying
the hand to the left side of the thorax.

ANGIOLOGY — THE PULSE. 133

portions of the artery ; the efforts of the one appearing to be employed to
i-estrain the distention forced on the other, by a congestion within some part
immediately concerned in circulation. It is from this cause that it is so com-
mon to the active stages of pneumonia, or inflammation of the lungs ; and
it is probable that, when it is present also in other visceral affections, it
arises from the secondary effect produced on the respiratory oi'gans. When
the difficulty is in a certain degree removed to the transit of the blood
through the right side of the heart, by abstracting a large quantity of it, and
thus removing the congestion, it is i-emarkable how this oppressed pulse,
creeping, labouring, and often slow, will rise into a more full, free state, but
still with remnants of its parent hardness remaining ; and as long as such
alteration is produced by bleeding, it is prudent to pursue it.

A small pulse is usually present in all cases of great debility, and is gene-
rally attended with increased frequency. When it is very small and thread-
! like, it shews that the debiUty is extreme, and prognosticates a fatal termina-
tion of the existing disease, the heart and arteries attempting to make up by
quickness what they want in strength : when this pulse varies in its regu-
larity, and intermits, it is even more certainly a fatal prognostic. We must,
however, be careful not to mistake between this pulse and the oppressed one
last described, but to bear in mind that the distention of an artery may be
so great as to overcome its contracting power, as any elastic body may be
distended beyond its capability of recovering its original state : hence a small
pulse, when wiry and oppressed, is not necessarily a sign of general debiUty :
for in inflammation of the vital organs this distention of the vessels fre-
quently takes place to such a degree as to prevent their natural contraction ;
and, to the untutored, an apparently small pulse is by this means produced :
but if the over-distending column be relieved by copious bleeding, the over-
stretched muscular coat recovers its tone, and can contract on its contents ;
and thus, in such cases, the pulse is found to rise on bleeding*.

A qidck pulse usually denotes irritability of the system ; but there may
be natural or common causes for such quickness ; as youth, diminutive size,
fatigue, a hearty meal, or a particular temperament. But when none of
these natural causes are present, great quickness of the pulse indicates a
diseased irritability of the vascular system, and often a want of power also.

* When there is any doubt in the mind about these opposite, though, to some, appa-
rently similar states of the pulse, error may be always avoided by a practice which, not
only m this, but mdeed in all cases of abstracting blood under active disease, should be
pursued ; which is that of carefully examining the pulse at minute intervals during its
flow. I commonly kept my fingers pressed on the artery dm-ing the whole operation;
by which precaution all danger of prejudicial bleeding is avoided: a pulse of pure debility
will waver more and more as every half pint flows : a pulse of congestion, however op-
pressed and apparently debile, will become fuller, softer, and more free ; and in such
cases the flow of blood should be continued as long as the benefit or salutary alteration
m the pulse is manifest. This rising of the oppressed pulse by abstracting blood may be
exemp ified by the urinary bladder, which we know will become, under long retention, so
distended as to be incapable of contracting on its contents ; and that, unless it be arti-
facially emptied, the muscular coat will give way and burst. It is further probable, that
an inflamed part is not m a state of increased strength, though it is in one of increased
action, but the contrary ; for as the vessels are preternaturally (Usteuded, they are in con-
sequence weakened: hence, in some local inflammations, or where the vessels of a part
only are under this state of increased action, topical bleeding, by emptying these parti-
cular vessels, will often prove highly useful ; while, on the contrary, general bleeding
'"'''y '"1'"'' '''T prejudicial, because, by weakening the system in general, il
must still further weaken those particular vessels, as a part of that system, and thus ren-
der them less able to contract. We may therefore learn, that instances do occur where
diminishing the general strength may augment the inflammation.

1:U TIIK ANATOMY OF THE HOUSE.

But its indication becomes very different as it is accotTii)anied by fulness or
smallness : thus, when the frequency of the pulse is considerable, witli an
increase of strength in the action of the artery, it may be gathered, from what
has already been said, that it betokens inflammatory action, general or local.

A slow pulse may be occasioned by pressure on the brain from the effect
of accidents, or from congestion or effusion, as in lethargy, sleepy staggers,
epilepsy, &c. It may also be brought on through the medium of the sto-
mach by various substances taken in. White and black hellebore, aloes,
digitalis, hemlock, and whatever excites nausea, decreases the frequency of
the pulse in the horse, as in the human. But, unfortunately, in the horse
our means of exciting this sensation are usually limited to such matters
as are in themselves sources of great irritation, aiid hence hurtful. The
pulse may be also diminished in its frequency by cold ; but at the same time
it is apt to be increased in strength. We must likewise bear in mind that
a simple alteration in the frequency is not all that is necessary ; to a bene-
ficial end, we should render the pulse soft also, without which a slow pulse
may retain its inflammatory base, as we witness in the lethargy of staggers.

A sqfi pulse is, in all its characters, the reverse of the hard, and exhibits
also much difference from either the full or the oppressed : here, the artery
opposes little resistance to the fingers, but seems to allow a due volume of
blood to flow through it without labour or interruption. This pulse is fre-
quent at the decline of inflammatory affections, and usually shews the ces-
sation of that diathesis ; thus, after the hot fit of fever is removed, the pulse
from being hard becomes soft. Suppuration, as a termination of inflamma-
tion, also produces it ; and whenever there has been great local inflammation,
and pus forms, a soft pulse is generally the consequence.

A regular pulse is occasionally found when disease is present ; but it is
usually under such circumstances increased in its hardness or softness. A
regular pulse, with a proportionate fulness, is one of the strongest marks of
health ; as an irregular one usually betokens acute disease : irregularity in it
may, however, exist without acute morbid states, and may depend on organic
affections ; as peculiarities in the circulating system, or on disease in the
heart or its principal vessels. Irregularity in the pulse, in other cases, is
a mark of irritability, and characterises debility also. In inflammation of
the heart there is usually a peculiar irregularity in the pulse with extreme
oppression and smallness. An irregular jmlse in fever shews great danger ;
it also accompanies the fatal terminations of all inflammations, topical or
general. The worst cases of pleuritis and pneumonia commonly present it
before the close ; and in some also without an immediate or acute termina-
tion, a very singular irregularity is often present, from a large quantity of
serous fluid formed within the chest ; in which cases, besides its intermission,
the pulse appears as though undulating through a bladder of water. This
pulse should be particularly noticed, as, when once become familiar with, it
affords an unerring guide to the state of the patient.

The Distribution of Arteries.
The aorta, the principal vessel of the arterial system, rises perpendicu-
larly from the base of the left ventricle of the heart, between the vena cava,
pulmonary artery, and the trachea : having proceeded about two inches, it
divides into two branches, opposite the fifth dorsal vertebra, one of which is
carried forwards to furnish the head and extremities ; the other proceeds back-
wards, to be distributed to the rest of the body, but exhibits no incurvation, as in

ANGIOLOGY — DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES.

135

the human. These divisions form the anterior and posterior aortas ; but pre-
vious to this division, the original trunk has given off a pair of small arteries
immediately at its origin, under the semilunar valves, called the coronaries.

The anterior aorta is continued single to between the second and third
rib, where it divides into its right and left branches, called by Mr. Percivall
arteri(e innominatce. The left division gives first a small branch to the
pleura, next the dorsal ; then two others, which penetrate between the first,
second, and third ribs, under the names of anterior and posterior cervicals :
from this, passing towards the first rib, it gives off the left vetebral*, and
the internal and external pectorals : when, bending its course over this rib,
it takes the name of axillary. The right division of the anterior aorta is
much larger, as well as longer, than the left. In its course, having furnished
some considerable branches which mainly correspond with those given off to
the left side from the left division, it takes the name of carotid ; when di-
recting itself forward, it bifurcates into the right and left important vessels
of this name : the continuation of this light division of the aorta gaining the
edge of the first rib on the right side, forms the right axillary.

The axillary arteries, as furnishing the whole of the fore extremities with
blood, must be deemed very important : the right originates as above ; the
left springs from the left branch of the anterior aorta. The trunk of each
curves over the first rib, to reach the axilla of each side, from whence we shall
trace one only. From the axilla, the artery passes out at right angles with
the head of the humerus to the glenoid cavity, where it takes the name of
humeral or brachial, and in its passage gives branches to furnish the scapula.
Two principals may be calXeA scapularis inferior and scapukm's superior:
another distributed about the articulation of the scapula with the humerus,
is called arteria articularis, or humeral thoracic. The humeral or brachial
artery descends along the internal surface of the humerus, giving a consi-
derable ramus that penetrates the biceps extensor cubiti : here also it often
parts with a branch which ramifies over the ribs, behind the fore leg, in the
seat of the spur vein. Mr. Percivall calls it the external thoracic. Having
arrived at the inferior and anterior part of that bone, near its articulation,
the brachial makes a fresh division, giving sometimes one, at others two con-
siderable branches ; one which passes between the ulna and radius, and one
also called by Mr. Percivall the spiral, which ramifies around the elbow joint.
The ulnar artery proceeds posteriorly between the two bones, and down the
lateral external part of the fore arm, giving medullary branches to both the
ulna and radius ; and rami to the muscles of this part, anastomosing at the
knee with a branch of the radial, and continuing often in a small branch
down the cannon. The radial artery first gives off a branch that passes
between the condyles of the radius, in company with a vein immediately under

♦ The vertebrals are two important arteries, arising from the divisions of the aorta we
have described : they are given off opposite the first rib, and pass under the transverse pro-
cess of the first dorsal vertebra, insinuating themselves between the sixth and seventh
cervical, and are continued upwards through the foramina at the base of the transverse pro-
cesses of the remaining six of these vertebree : as they pass, thoy send off small branches
through the lateral notches in the vertebra to the spinal marrow,.and likewise to the nmscles
of the neck. Approaching the head, they give a small ramus, which usually passes
through a foramen in the oblique process of the atlas to communicate with the external
carotid, by which a communication is kept up between these vessels. After they have
made a number of inflections, apparently to retard the circulation, they unite, and form
the basillary artery, which runs on the inner surface of the cuneiform process of the occipi-
tal bone, and is finally ramified in the cerel)ellum, first giving a branch which unites with
a similar one of the carotid to form the rirciilii.i (ir/crio.iiix.

136

THE ANATOMY OF THE HOUSE.

the extensor pedis anticus, and over the extensor metacarpi radialis, and is
distributed to the anterior part of the knee. The main trunk is then con-
tinued downwards under the muscles, inclining behind the radius ; penetrates
the ligaments, and passes within the arch of the pisiform bone ; in which
passage it usually gives off a branch which Mr. Percivall names the small
metacarpal: it often accompanies the metacarpal vein, giving off rami around,
and anastomosing freely with the other branches of the radial. — The meta-
carpal artery. Continued down, and penetrating the sheath of the flexor
tendon, the radial trunk takes this name, and in company with the metacarpal
nerve is continued on the inner side of the flexor sheath ; gaining the under
portion, and descending in front of the bifurcating suspensory ligaments. At
the lower part of the cannon, accompanied by the metacarpal vein and nerve,
it divides just above the fetlock into the two next trunks.

The pastern, or according to Mr. Percivall the plantar arteries, do each
of them pass over its opposed sessamoid bone, behind the vein at the lateral
part of the pastern, tending rather posteriorly. The nerve which accom-
panies each is situated posteriorly to it ; so that the artery passes between
its fellow vein and nerve, which is of importance to remember in some ope-
rations on these parts, particularly in that of neurotomy, lately so much
practised. (See Plate of Feet; see also Neurotomy.) — These arteries
from hence are continued downwards to be further distributed, as will be
shewn by note below*.

* 111 the I'oriner editions, I pursued the arterial distribution into the feet according to
my own dissections, and, I believe, with sufficient correctness: but niy limits necessarily
curtailed the account. Mr. Percivall, aided by the accurate demonstrations and writings
of Mr. Coleman, has been enabled to carry the subject farther into detail ; and as it is a
matter both interesting and important to the student, I prefer pursuing it in his words to
my own : in doing which, as our objects are the same, the benefit of the veterinary art, I
am persuaded I shall stand excused by him, as well as the reader. ' The large metacarpal
artery, which may be regarded as the continuation of the radial trunk, continues its course
down the leg by the side of the tendo perforatus, passing with it at the knee under the pos-
terior annular ligament, inclosed with a cellular sheath of its own. As it proceeds, it in-
clines to the side ol' the tendo perforans, and, in approaching the fetlock, gets in advance
of that tendon : just above the joint, whei'e it is situated bebveen the tendo perforans and
the suspensory ligament, it splits into three vessels. The middle division gets behveen it
and the bone, forms a transverse arch, from which three recm-rent arteries retrace, in a
flexuous line, the suspensory ligament, and form communications with the small meta-
carpal artery : the lateral divisions become the plantar arteries. From the arch below come
oil" two lateral branches, which descend into the joint.

' The plantar arteries, external and inicrnal, in the fore extremity, result from the bifur-
cation of the metacarpal: in the hind, fi-om that of the metatarsal artery. Their general
distribution is the same, both in the fore and hind feet. These arteries, in emerging from
their origin behind the flexor tendons, descend the fetlock upon the sides of the sessa-
moids, in company with their veins, which run in front of them, and with the plantar
nerves, which proceed behind them: in this part of their course they describe correspond-
ing curves outward, to conform to the prominence of the fetlock, and henceforward pursue
the same imformity in course and distribution, so that we need only for the future make
mention of one. In its passage over the sessamoid, the outer edge of that bone rises be-
tween it and the flexor tendon ; but, in quitting the fetlock, the artery again approaches
the tendo perforatus, and runs beside it to its termination in the head of the os coronjB,
at which place the artery sinks behind tlie cartilage into the substance of what is called the
"Mly frog." Inclining fonvard in its subsequent descent, the artery next passes the
inner and upper extremity of the ala of the os pedis, where it enters a groove, which con-
ducts It, obliquely forward and inward, to the foramen in the posterior concavity of the bone.
Here we lose sight of it altogether; the knife and forceps no longer avail us to discover
Its progress and destination. To ctfect this, either the bone should be chiselled away, or
(the vessels being previously injected) be eroded by maceration in an acid: we shall then
detect Ihe artery in the interior of the collin-bone, making a turn outward again, and sub-

ANGIOLOGY — DISTllIBUTION OF ARTERIES. 137

The carotid common trunk arises from the right branch of the anterior
aorta, and soon divides into two portions. Each carotid is a very long ves-
sel, whereby the strong action of the heart is counteracted ; and the head of
the horse is less hable to congestion than our own, where these vessels are
so much shorter. As it approaches the head, it divides into what are termed
the external and internal carotids ; which designation they receive more from
the parts they furnish than from their immediate situation. — The internal
carotid enters the skull by a large foramen near the junction of the sphenoid
with the cuneifoi-m process of the occipital bone : by its tortuosities its con-
tents cannot be too much accelerated ; nor by this contrivance can accidental
pressure deprive the bi-ain of its support. As it enters the base of the skull,
it gives a branch, which uniting with a similar one from the vertebral, foi-ms
the circulus arteriosus. It anastomoses likewise with the internal carotid
of the other side, as well as gives branches to the adjacent parts, as the an-
terior cerebral and the ophthalmic: finally, it ramifies throughout the an-
fractuosities of the cerebrum and cerebellum.

The external carotid artery first bends downwards behind the angle of
the jaw, then, crossing the large membranous opening of the fauces, it is
directed under the parotid gland towards the hindmost part of the branch
of the jaw, and bifurcates immediately behind the neck of the condyle*..
The branchings of the external carotid are, according to Mr. Percivall, 1 .
The submaxillary\ , which divides into the facial and inferior labial, having

sequently another inward, in the course of which it meets w!th its fellow ; the trunks then
coalesce, and, in so doing, form an arterial semicircle corresponding to the circumferent
line of the edge of the os pedis, which has been very properly named, by Professor Cole-
man, the circulus arteriosus. The plantar vessels and nerves are invested, on their descent
to the foot, by cellular substance, which connects them loosely with the parts aroimd.'

The branches which tlie pastern or plantar arteries furnish in their course are nimierous :
many rami are distributed to the flexor and extensor tendons. The perpendicitlar artery,
as named by Mr. Percivall, is one of these, and descends on each side of the os sufiraginis,
when, uniting with its fellow, it forms the superficial coronary arch, furnished with eighteen
arterial branches which run over the coronary venal plexus : from these, it is thought by
Mr. Coleman, the crust of the hoof is secreted. The transverse artery is a branch which
proceeds directly across the coronet to join its fellow : thus united, they form an ivferior
eoronary arch. Posteriorly is seen the artery of the frog, which descends through the sub-
stance of the fatty frog, and, dividing, passes down on each side of the cleft. The lateral
lartwial artery proceeds within a groove to the front of the coffin, furnishing the laminse
with rami. The anterior luminal arteries make their exit from the foramina, and, commu-
cating with the last, are similarly distributed. The circulus arteriosus is a vascular con-
geries, resulting from branches derived from all the foregoing trunks : from it are given
the inferior communicating arteries, which are, according to Mr. Coleman, thirteen or
fourteen in number. The circumflex artery, which encircles the toe, and the solar arteries,
which radiate over the sole, and supply that with blood as the others, are principally dis-
tributed to the parts in front of the coffin.

• As Mr. Percivall observes, it is so imbedded in glandular matter, that it is not
safely accessible to the knife at any other part than rather more than an inch below and
behind the condyle, where it is only covered by a thin portion of the parotid.

t This vessel, which I have hitherto called the external branch of the internal maxil-
lary, is important in practice, a.s it forms the most convenient part for the examination
of the pulse. It is seen in plate III at o, and also in plate IV, where it is the middle
vessel of the three seen coming from under the jaw. Mr. Percivall says, ' it comes oflf
behind the corner of the os hyoides, just as the carotid is going to make its second curve,
and ranks next in size to the trunk itself. It takes an oblique course downward and for-
ward within the submaxillary space, preserving, at first, the lino of the corner ; it then
crosses the lower portion of the pterygoideus, and reaches the posterior border of the
branch of the jaw, about one- third of its length downward, which it turns round to arrive
upon the face : here it becomes subcutaneous, distinctly perceptible to the feel, and very
conveniently compressible, on which account it is now the vessel ordinarily selected for
examining tlio pulse by.'

138 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

first furnished the ascending pharyngeal, the lingual, the ranine, sublingual,
submental, and anterior masseter branches. The inferior labial is spread
over the lips. The facial spreads itself over the upper and fore part of the
face, and gives branches to the masseter muscle. 2. The parotideal branches
to the parotid form the next division of the carotid. 3. The pterygoidcus.
4. Posterior masseter. 5. The posterior auricular, which, emerging from
beneath the parotid gland, directs itself to the back of the ear, and furnishes
the concha. 6. The trunk of the external carotid may be now considered
as ending in the temporal*, the anterior auricular, internal maxillary, and
occipital branches, which are distributed to parts corresponding with, their
names.

The Posterior Aorta.

This large and important vessel furnishes blood to all the parts of the
body posterior to the chest. It curves upwards and backwards, opposed to
the fourth dorsal vertebra, between the pulmonary artery and the branching
off of the trachea ; inclining in its course to the left side of the vertebrae (see
plate IV), having the oesophagus to its right and the thoracic duct to the
left. In the thoracic passage of the aorta it gives off the bronchial, the
cesophageal, the intercostalf ; and as it enters the abdomen between the
crura of the diaphragm, it leaves the right and left phrenic. The coeliac|,
which, in most instances, is the common trunk of the splenic, gastric, and
hepatic arteries, is often the first true abdominal branch of the aorta. The
right branch of the gastric spreads its ramifications over the great curvature
of the stomach, and the left over the lesser, inosculating with each other, and
with the coronary. The hepatic artery is sometimes derived from the pan-
creatic, which, in that case, owes its origin at once to the aorta ; at others,
the hepatic forms a considerable branch of the coeliac : in either case, in its
course to the liver, it gives a branch to the duodenum and the coronary
branch which supplies the pyloric extremity of the stomach. The mesen-
teries, anterior and posterior, are two considerable branches given off from
the aorta ; the first, directly after the coeliac ; the last," which is smaller and
longer, arises farther backwards, and, according to Mr. Percivall, is the last
of the abdominal arteries. The anterior is distributed to the mesentery
and small intestines, giving a small branch to the pancreas : the posterior

* The temporal artery is also sometimes flie object of an operation in abstracting of
blood from tlie bead, and therefore its situation sliould be familiar to the veterinarian.
Mr. Percivall says, ' it leaves the carotid just as it is emerging from the depth of the pa-
rotid gland ; curves upward and forward around the neck of the jaw, a little below the con-
dyle, which serve.s as a guide to cut down upon it : from this it runs in a straight line to-
wards the outer circumference of the orbit, just opposite to which margin it dips into the
substance of the masseter, so as to elude further trace without the aid of dieseetion.'

•|- The first three or four of these vessels are furnished from other sources ; the remain-
der are supplied in pairs from each side of the aorta, and are continued on the inner sur-
face of the intercostal muscles at the posterior edge of each rib, fm'nishing the intercostal
muscles in their course. Anastomosing extensively with the pectorals and epigrastics,
they also give rami to enter the vertebral canal. It is therefore evident, from this dis-
tribution, that, m any operation on the ribs, we should be cautious to avoid cutting on
their posterior edge, or a dangerous hajmorrhage might ensue.

X This vessel sometimes originates in a manner that would render the name splemc, as
It stood m the former editions of the Veterinary Outlines, most appropriate : for al-
though the coehac of the human is a common trunk to the splenic, gastric, and hepatic
brandies, in the horse this trunk, though tributary to the stomach and liver, usual) v con-
tinues Its principal blood to the spleen. ]}ut to simplify our nomenclature to one common
standard is so desirable, that I am anxious always to adoiit that which is likelv to come into
general uscv

ANGIOLOGY— THE POSTERIOR AORTA. 139

furnishes the large intestines and mesocolon. The mesenteries anastomose
freely with each other by a particular branch, and surround the intestines,
so as to form a network of vessels. ( Vide k, plate IV.) The emu/gent, or
renals, are the next aortic branches to the anterior mesenteric, and are
very considerable trunks (see ^jfoife IV), where they may be traced imme-
diately under (allowing for the situation of the animal) the emulgent veins
marked (?"). Given off at right angles from the aorta, each at once reaches
its appropriate kidney*, giving off in its passage a branch to supply the renal
capsules. The spermatics follow next in order, and may be seen in plate
IV, parting from the aorta, ' about midway between the origin of the renals
and its bifurcationf .' — The lumhar arteries are usually five or six small
pairs, which arise from the superior part of the aorta, and are distributed
to the spinal canal and lumbar muscles.

The iliac arteries. — When the aorta has arrived to about the fifth lumbar
vertebra, it first gives off the two external iliacs, and in about three quarters
of an inch more, the trunk divides finally into two larger divisions. — The in-
ternal iliacs, so called from their pelvic situation and distribution. The first
to notice is the artery of the bulb (artere bulheuse, Girard) sometimes given
oft' before the iliac division, but always near it. It bends itself within the
pelvis, furnishing the umbilical, some vesical rami, the prostatic in the male,
and vaginal in the female, when it ramifies in the bulb of the penis in the
horse, and of the vagina in the mare. The obturator often follows next,
which traversing the pelvis, divides into the ischiatic, sacral, and pudendal,
by which the organs of generation in both sexes, as well as the other pelvic
viscera, are partly furnished. — The external iliacs travel more externally,
and having gained the brim of the pelvis, they proceed one on each side
down the iliac muscles towards the Fallopian ligament, in which course each
gives off a branch to the psoas and abdominal muscles. — The epigastrics are
given off within the pelvis ; run obliquely upon the tendon of the transver-
salis, pass forward on the abdominal muscles, and then ramify with the in -
ternal pectoral. — The arterice profunda;, given off sometimes within and
sometimes without the abdomen, run down on the inside of the thigh, to be
distributed to the muscles of the upper part of the extremity. — The external
pudendals go out by the crural arch, communicate with the internal puden-
dals, and are distributed to all the external parts of generation, giving
branches to the inguigal glands : they are then carried along the penis, to
be finally ramified throughout the glands.: in the mare it furnishes the
mammae, or bag. — The crural or femoral arteries, passing out of the abdo-

• By a rectilinear origin, the circulation of the hlood within the kidneys is retarded,
whicli must be presumed favourable to their secreting offices : the right emulgent is con-
siderably longer than the left, on account of the situation of the aorta, and the necessity of
its passing over the cava (see plale IV). It is likewise usually anterior to the other, from
the left kidney being pressed rather backwards in most subjects, by the body of the spleen.
As these vessels enter the renal fossaj, they branch out into three or four divisions, before
they imbed themselves within the substance.

f The spermatics are remarkably long, compared with their size : connecting them-
selves to the spermatic veins by cellular tissue, they are continued down to the internal
abdominal rings, where they cross the ureters in their passage ; and each, having joined
the vas deferens of its corresponding side, the united rope receives the name of the sjkt-
matic cord, and proceeds to the testicle. In plate IV, they may be distinctly seen. As
they furnish blood for the seminal secretion, it is evident that a division of these arteries
as effectually castrates as removing the testicles them.selves. In marcs these vessels
arise in the same manner, but do not in them pass out of the abdomen, but run within the
layers of the broad ligaments, to be distributed to the ovaria and Fallopian lubes.

140 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

men at the crural arch, accompany the psoas muscles. Each descending
along the lateral internal part of the femur, passes for some way in company
with the crural veins between the pectincus and sartorius muscles, to about
the middle of the femur ; where passing obliquely, it gains the posterior
part of the thigh, and is continued down behind that bone. In its passage,
as already mentioned, it sometimes gives origin to the profunda, and usually
furnishes small branches to the neighbouring parts, one of which makes a
turn backwards to furnish the acetabulum and muscles around it, anasto-
mosing with the profunda. Pursuing its course, the femoral artery accom-
panies the vein and the crural nerve ; at length it reaches the hollow at the
back of the stifle, where, opposed to the head of the tibia, it divides into the
posterior and anterior tibials. — The posterior tibial artery is continued down
the posterior internal part of the tibia, under the flexor minus pedis, accom-
panying the vein, and likewise joining the nerve in its course, through a
groove formed by the calcaneum {vide IV, Jig. i, plate of the Posterior
Eii'tremities), in company with the perforating tendon of the flexor pedis
muscle : it here gives several branches, some furnishing the hock, others the
muscles and skin : another branch, continued down on the inner side of the
internal metatarsal bone, may be called the internal metatarsal, which is
finally ramified into the integuments and parts at the posterior of the can-
non and pastern, anastomosing freely with the next, or anterior trunk. —
The anterior tibial forms the other division of the femoi-al, and runs from
between the condyles of the femur obliquely to the external superior part of
the tibia, passing between it and the fibula, in company with the vein (vide
15, 7%-, 2), where the artery takes its course under the extensor longus
pedis ; and again becomes evident between its tendon and that of the lateral
extensor, passing with them under the annular ligament, giving a branch to
furnish these parts, and another that passes backwards to anastomose with
the posterior tibial. It here changes its name to the external or principal
metatarsal artery ; which passing from under the ligaments of the hock, is
continued down obliquely over the front of the cannon, towards the outer
small metacarpal bone {vide 3, fig. 2), penetrating between it and the can-
non, to be continued on its inner side under the flexor tendons, anastomosing
in its passage with the internal metacarpal. Accompanying the nerve and
vein, it gains the superior part of the sessamoid bones, when it bifurcates
into the two pastern or plantar arteries, following, in ^pmpany with the veins
and nerve, a similar distribution. with those of the fore extremities.

The Pulmonary Vessels.

The passage of the blood through these vessels is termed the minor cir-
culation, and is effected by the pulmonary artery and veins. The pulmo-
nary artery is a trunk of five or six inches in length, given ofl" from the right
or anterior ventricle of the heart, to be continued upon the side of the aorta
to its division ; where it is connected with that artery by means of a mem-
branous canal, called ductus arteriosus: immediately after which it divides
into the right and left branches, the right* being more considerable than the
left, in conformity with the additional lobe of the right lung. Each of these
branches is divided upon its entering the lungs into others, which ramify

* By a verbal error, left was introduced for riglit tliroughout the early editions : that
it was a verbal error only is clear, from the anatomical history of the lungs, &c. &c. which
followed.

ANGIOLOGY — Tllli VEINS GENERALLY.

141

throughout the parenchymatous substance in every direction. From the
minute distributions of the artery, the blood is received by the ramifications
of the pulmonary veins, when the venal recipient branches increasing gra-
dually, unite into four, five, and occasionally six principal trunks, which all
terminate in the left auricle of the heart.

The Veins generally.

Veins correspond with arteries in their common office of carrying the
blood ; but with this difference, that the arteries distribute their blood from
the heart to every part of the body, and consequently diminish in their indi-
vidual diameter as they advance : whereas the veins bringing back the blood
from the parts the arteries had carried it to, and restoring it to the heart,
gradually enlarge in their calibre as they advance. They may, therefore,
be considered as canals arising in every part of the body, and terminating
in the heart. Their membranous fabric is thin, but tenacious and elastic, as
we know by their resuming their original size after distention by exercise.
Their number is greatly superior to that of the arteries : in some few in-
stances, as in the lungs, the proportions are equal ; but in other parts liable
to pressure, as in the extremities, the veins infinitely exceed the arteries in
number. It appears to be to obviate the obstruction which might arise
from pressure on their nonresisting caliber, that we find them distributed in
two orders, a superficial and a deep-seated, which communicate freely with
each other by anastomosis*. The superficial order runs immediately under
the skin ; the deep-seated accompany the arteries, and usually lie alongside
of their trunks. As a farther guard against continued obstruction, as in the
jaws, they in some cases enlarge into sacs. The want of solidity and re-
sisting power in veins is compensated by internal membranous projections,
which form valves-|-.

The physiology of veins is probably not well understood by us : at the
present time their functions are supposed to be somewhat connected with those

* By accelerated exercise the venous blood is forced into the superficial veins from the
deeper seated ; and it is this vascular turgescence tliat painters seize on and depict in
their representations of horses, either in action or immediately after it ; by which nature
is followed, and great force, beauty, and strength given to tlie picture. But inexperienced
artists, seeing this, have fallen into great error ; for it is not unusual to see two portraits
of the same horse, one under circumstances of the greatest exertion, the other perfectly
at rest, with each the same number of superficial veins, swelled and prominent alike. A
familiar and practical illustration of the efl[ccts of pressure on the superficial order, by
anastomosis, may be given in the words of Mr. Percivall : ' If you are drawing blood
from the shoulder of a horse, and you take up the other fore leg, you know that the blood
will flow in a much freer stream than if you allow the animal to favom: the limb from
which you are taking it ; for, by making him exert the muscles of the bleeding leg, the
blood is pressed from the deep-seated into the superficial veins.

t A valve appears a parabolic duplicaturo of the inner coat of the vein, raised into two
and sometimes three folds in the horse (in the lumian there are invariably two only) : of
these, one edge adheres to the side of the vein the most remote from the heart ; the other,
and nearest the heart, is free. By this formation the blood passing forward, keeps the
vessel continually open ; but when, by pressure, the fluid is stopped in its course, the
valve being pressed backward, expands, and prevents its return. Valves are not distri-
buted equally throughout the venous trunks, though tliey are more universal in tlie horse
than in man : in some they are numerous, in others they are entirely wanting. They are
found in most of the cutaneous veins, and in most of those of the extremities, except the
feet ; there are also but few in the viscera, nor are there any in parts where tlie circulation
is necessarily very slow, as in glands.

142 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSK.

of the absorbents* (which see); we however are acquainted with some of their
orio-ins. One is from the inner surface of cells into which the arteries have
pre^viously terminated, and likewise from larger cavities or sinuses : and
again by direct continuity of canal with minute arterial branches. A more
complex origin is derived from the termination of other veins, as the vena
portse. Veins are furnished with arterial blood for their support, by the
vasa vasorum, which is returned by minute venae venarum : they have also
nerves, and without doubt possess absorbents. The blood within the veins
is returned to the heart by a regular flow, at least no pulsation has ever been
satisfactorily detected ; nor have the veins, that we know of, any conti-actile
power beyond their elasticity.

Of particular Veins.

The orio-inal trunks in the horse are the anterior and 2iosterior cavas,
the pulmonari/, and the veiice partes ; which, according to Girard, may be
considered as forming three distinct systems ; a general, a pulmonic, and a
cliylo-hepatic. In this detail I shall, without reference to the course of the
blood within them, commence a description of the veins as vessels origin-
ating in the heart, and, like the arteries, distributed throughout the body
from thence.

The anterior cava arises from the right auricle : opposite to the first rib
it divides into four principal trunks, two of which (the axillary) go off at
right angles, and two at half right lines with itself, which are the jugulars.
But previously to this it has parted with the vena azygos, which passes
on the right side of the dorsal vertebrae, and receives the blood from all the
posterior intercostals on each side, and of the vertehrals also, which are
given off opposite to the second rib, and pass at the base of the transverse
processes of the cervical vertebrae, giving branches between these bones in
the same manner as the artieries whose blood they receive, and anastomosing
with the jugulars. The other early branches are the superior intercostal,
the dorsal, mediastinal, superior diaphragmatic, and internal pectoral, whose
mode of origin frequently varies.

The axillaries are two principal trunks, which having passed over the first
rib, each gains the humerus of its corresponding side near the articulation,
where it receives the name of humefal, giving in its passage the external
pectoral and some other minute branches.

The humeral descends towards the posterior part of the radius, where it
takes the name of radial, in company with the artery ; first giving a branch
to the posterior part of the fore arm called xdnar, and sometimes a deep-
seated one in front also; then passing down still contiguous to the artery, it
•anastomoses freely in its course with the cephalic; or superficial brachial, to
be noticed anon, and is continued downwards with the artery; when it re-
ceives the name of internal metacarpal, as the united trunks of the other
branch and the cephalic take that of external metacarpal\ .

Besides these divisions of the deeper-seated vessels, there is a superficial
order situated on the surface of the extremity, which we must now notice.

* Les veines constituent la principal partie du systfeme capillaires des organes, et,
prcnncnt un6 part tres-activc aux grands phenonienes de I'econoniic, k I'inflannnation, A
la secretion, et a la nutrition. — Did. tic Med. el Cliir.

f In pldte IX may be seen the plexuses and anastomotic branchings of tlic veins over
the whole surface of the foot, whereby it is furnished throughout with recipients for the
arterial blood after it has performed its nutritive functions.

ANGIOLOGY— PARTICULAR VEINS. 143

The superjicial set arises from tlie jugular, wlien travelling towards the point
of the shoulder, and crossing the muscles of this part, it usually gives a cu-
taneous ramus to run directly in front of the arm ; the principal branch is
then continued inwardly towards the inside of the arm, forming what is
termed the cephalic, or plate or plat vein (vide n, Jig. 2, plate VII) ; and
is that which farriers usually open in drawing blood from the shoulder or
arm. The cephalic here receives a branch from the humeral, soon after
which it in some instances bifurcates ; in others, it is continued down in one
superficial trunk on the inner side of the radius. Near the knee, it fre-
quently likewise, divides into two, which surround the inner side of the joint,
but unite again below it, and pass down on the outer side of the ligament,
receiving branches from the integuments, and anastomosing with the deeper
seated trunk : when arrived at the bottom of the cannon, it unites with the
internal metacarpal, when the united trunks bifurcate to form the external
and internal plantar or pastei'n veins, anastomosing together, as has been
before described. The subsequent course of the veins, from the pastern
downwards, is similar to that of the arteries, except that their branches are
much more numerous ; by which, and by the absence of valves in the veins of
the feet, the evils of pressure, to which they are here peculiarly liable, are
avoided.

The jugulars, one of the principal divisions of the anterior cava, run up
one on each side the trachea ; soon after their bifurcation, the cephalic, or
plate vein, just described, is given off. Having given this branch, and furnished
the parts in its passage with small rami (for we now describe one only), of
which the principal is the thyroid, towards the head it penetrates deeper,
and approaches the carotids : when arrived opposite the angle and tuberosity
of the lower jaw, about three or four inches from it, it bifurcates into two
grand divisions, within which bifurcation lies one portion of the parotid
glands (see plate IV). The lower branch may be called the inferior divi-
sion of the jugular, and the upper branch the superior division*. The in-
ferior division of the jugular (see pla te IV) corresponds with the anterior
external jugular of the human, and is called the internal or submaxillary;
passmg mwards, it gives some small branches to the larynx and tongue, and
then passes over the jaw to its outer side: running up the anterior edge of
the masseter muscle (see plate), it gives a branch to the lips, while another
enters a foramen in the posterior maxilla at the chin, with a branch of the
fifth pair of nerves, and an artery. Passing up, it makes usually three prin-
cipal divisions, at other times more, and sometimes less. The Jirst branch
gains the spine of the maxillaly bone, and gives a ramus that forms the
palatine vein ; it then penetrates the orbit under the zygomatic process, di-
viding into several ramifications. The second division, which is the posterior
ot the upper bifurcation (see plate IV), passes inwards under the spine, to
meet the temporal vein, with which it ramifies, and then gives a branch to
torm the angular vein, and sometimes likewise another that enters the skull •
the other and most anterior portion of this superior bifurcation gives its

rpmn^t !I'''r ^ tlepending on analogies drawn bom human anatomy, it niust be
r membered, that the distribution of blood to the head of the horse and man is diftcrent:

nfflno fT" . f • T^'."'"^ ■i"*''"''^'' ^" ' vein performing the

office of the mternal jugular is a branch of the superior division. It is also worthy o^f rZ
n^ark how this vessel dilates under the masseter, and in other parts of its passage about
he jaws into sacs not unlike aneurismal enlargements of the arteries, purposely to avoid
tinn'^' « "■'""^ '^'^ incessant motions of the jaws in mastica-

144 THE ANATOxMY OF THE HOUSE.

ramifications to the nose. As this branch of the jugular comes under the
jaw towards its outer side, it changes its name, and is properly the external
maxillary, as it accompanies the maxillary artery. The superior divinon
of the jugular passes up between andwithin the lobuli of the parotid gland,
furnishing it with ramifications, and finally dividing into several branchings,
not uniformly alike : frequently there are found three larger, and one or
two smaller. (See plate IV, where the larger divisions apptear.)

The first of these greater divisions is considerable, and corresponds in
office with the internal jugular of the human. It penetrates under the max-
illary bone, and is the branch seen in the inner view of the head {Jig. % k),
entering by a foramen, at the base of the skull ; sometimes it gives the tem-
poral vein. The next branch furnishes the masseter muscle, in company
with an artery, called the external maxillary. The third large division gives,
at times, the temporal vein, which is that seen in plate IV (/) ; it passes
under the spine of the maxilla, and anastomoses principally with the external
branch of the internal or submaxillary. The other branches of this third
division proceed towards the occipital bone, &c., and give rami to the inner
part of the skull at the cerebellum.

The Posterior Cava.

The blood is returned from the lower extremities, from the abdomen, and
from the thorax below the heart, by the vena cava and vena portae. The
vena portarum returns the blood of the chylopoietic and assistant chylo-
poietic viscera, which are those particularly concerned in the formation of
the chyle ; while the cava returns that from all the other parts. The vena
cava posterior is sent out from the posterior and lower portion of the right
auricle. It gives first the coronaries, and as it proceeds it is continued on
the right side of the spine, inclining rather towards the aorta. Passing
through the tendinous portion of the diaphragm, dextrally inclined, it gives
two or three branches to this muscle : from whence it proceeds through the
great sinus of the liver, where it joins the mass of hepatic veins. From the
liver, the cava, having reached the loins, receives the mesenteries, emulgents,
and the r-ight spermatic: the left usually enters the left emulgent. In the
mare the spermatics are given to the ovaria, but, in the horse, they accom-
pany the artery out of the abdomen with the spermatic cord. The emulgents
usually give the renals, and the lumbar veins receive the blood given by the
arteries of that name.

The cava having arrived at the termination of the lumbar vertebras, bifur-
cates : from which results the external and internal iliac veins. The in-
ternal furnish the pudicse interna?, and sometimes the veins of the penis, and
likewise the sacrals. The external iliac veins give off numerous lesser trunks,
corresponding with the arteries of the same name. Other branches are the
glutei, the ohturatrix, axiA p)udicce externa; and a particular ramus to the
nmscles of the abdomen, as well as the mammary in the mare. Passing out
of the abdomen with the psoas muscle, under the Fallopian ligament, accom-
panied throughout by the artery, the external iliac takes the name of crural,
or femoral. The crural or femoral vein first gives a branch that princi-
pally forms the superficial set of the posterior extremities, called saphena
major, and a smaller one on the outer side (not always present), called
saphena minor. — The saphena major appears along the internal part of the
thigh, just under the skin, giving branches to the integuments, and anasto-
mosing with the posterior tibial, when, passing down the inner side of the leg,

ANGIOLOGY— POSTERIOR CAVA. 145

it usually receives a considerable ramus from the anterior tibial, and is then
carried obliquely towards the inside of the hock, over the inner condyle of
the tibia ; at which part, passing over the bursa mucosa, it is liable, on the
diseased enlargement of that capsule, to become varicosed, forming what is
called blood-spavin. From this it gains the cannon posteriorly in a similar
manner with the artery on the outer side; where, passing between the large
and small metatarsals, it unites with the posterior tibial, giving branches to
all the surrounding parts, and to the cannon, pastern, and foot. — The little
saphena, when present, receives the blood from the external side of the hock
and tibia, which it pours into the saphena major. The crui'al or femoral
vein, having gained the posterior and lower part of the femur in the same
manner with the artery, divides into two trunks, distinguished by the names
of anterior and postei-ior tibial.

The posterior tibial accompanies the artery, receiving branches from the
surrounding parts, and passing in a groove of the calcaneum with the ten-
don of the perforatus muscle (see ^g. 1, plate VIII, tvhere the nerve that
accompanies it is seen, and which shews its course). From its passage at
the posterior part of the hock it gives branches to the surrounding parts,
and receives the name of internal or large metatarsal. It- is then conti-
nued down the posterior part of the cannon, towards the inferior part of
which it receives the saphena, and then, dividing with the artery, it forms
the pastern or plantar veins, in the same manner as in the fore extremities.

The anterior tibial vein accompanying the artery, passes with it under
the edge of the extensor longus pedis. In this course it gives a branch to
the saphena, and then, furnishing the interior part of the hock, it passes
down under the ligaments to its posterior part on the outer side, from whence
it is called external or small metatarsal ; when giving in its course branches
to the surrounding parts, is continued to the pastern and foot ; but it princi-
pally supplies the cannon and pastern, from whence downwards the venous
blood is received in the same manner as in the fore extremities.

The Vena Portce.

The wena portm is formed from the veins returning the blood of the chy~
lopoiiitic viscera, by branches which correspond in origin and distribution
with the arterial trunks that furnished it ; the veins, however, are more
numerous, and their diameter greatly enlarged. Having united, thev enter
the sinus of the vena portse, from the opposite extremity of which the other
trunks branch out to carry their visceral blood into and throughout the liver.
The trunks that bring the blood from the viscera are called the aMominal
portions of the vena porta? ; while those carrying it directly into the liver
are termed the hepatic portions of the same vein. From this it is seen-,
that the vena portarum performs the office of an artery ; resembling it
by its termination in cxhalent orifices and corresponding recipient veins.
The blood, deprived of its bile in the pori biliarii, is returned by the ex-
tremities of another set of veins, termed vena; hepaticce, which terminate in
the vena cava, as we have noticed. In the huriian foetus, and in the j oung
of all quadrupeds that we are acquainted with but the horse and ass, there
IS a communication between the sinus of the vena portaj and the vena cava,
by a canal tei-med ductus venosns : but in these it is wanting ; and all the
blood of their viscera circulates through the liver in the footal state.

K

146 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

General Remarks on the Vessels.

The bloodvessels, like other parts, are liable to diseases. A very general
one alfecting the arteries, is the distention they experience under inflamma-
tion, when the capillaries are made to receive red blood. They are, how-
ever but little liable to aneurism or ossification in the horse, though now
and then both have occurred. The division of a vein is not so dangerous
as that of an artery, as it usually gives way to pressure, or to applications
producing coagulation in the external orifice ; which coagulation does not so
readily take place in the arteries, from the greater impetus in the blood
and the rapidity of its motion.

The principal diseases of the veins are occasioned by causes operating on
them from without. One of these is called hlood sjmvin, and is a simple
distention of the venous trunk, from the resistance which the contained
blood meets with in passing over a morbidly distended capsule at the inner
and fore part of the hock. Another common disease of veins is an injlam-
mation of their coats, usually the morbid elFects of blood-letting, idiopathic
phlebitis being rare in them. The veins of the feet are also liable to become
varicosed from pressui-e and from inflammation, as in strains, cracks,-
grease, &c.

It has been a very ancient custom among ignorant farriers, to take up the
veins in difi"erent diseased afiiections, or, what they call, to har a vein, parti-
cularly in oedematous swellings ; but which practice is founded in ignorance ;
for in grease, scratches, inflamed eyes and feet, which are the usual cases
in which it is practised, it is evident that every thing that obstructs the return
of the blood must highly aggravate the disease: if, therefore, instead of de-
stroying a vein, they could in these cases add two or three, they might do
much towards a cure.

The Absorbents.

The absorption of matters from within and without by a set of vessels
destined particularly to that otEce is comparatively of late discovery ; for
though a vascular system distinct from the bloodvessels was long known*,
yet its uses were not even conjectured at ; until a milky fluid was discovered
soon after eating, in such of these transparent tubes as originated from the
intestines. These received the name of lacteals : some time after, otherfe
of these, which had been traced to arise from the body generally, and were
constantly found filled with a thin limpid fluid, were named the lymphatics.
Subsequent discoveries have, however, given reason to suppose that neither
in structui-e nor functions is there any real difi'erence between these two sets
of absorbing vessels, but that both are destined to receive fluids from the
various parts of the body, and to deposit them by one common destination
in the blood. This process, called absorption, is considered to be a power
sui generis, operated by the action of the vessels themselves. To effect
this, their tunics or coats are necessarily very strong, and their powers

* As early as the time of Galen, lymphatic vessels were seen in a goat by Erasistratus,
who considered them as a peculiar species of arteries. Eustachins discovered the thoracic
duct in a horse, which he considered as an extraordinary vein ( veva sire pari). It was
Riquet who first traced the chyle from the intestines into this duct, and thus became ac-
quainted with its uses.

ANGIOLOGY — VESSELS, ABSORBENTS. 147

are further assisted by valves, which are numerous and placed at convenient
distances*. To compass their extensive office, they are divided into a super-
ficial and a deep-seated set, both of which anastomose freely with each other :
the former usually accompanies the principal external veins, while the latter
is found near the principal arteries. Their living powers are great, from their
plentiful supply of bloodvessels and nervesf ; of which the phenomena of their
great energy in health, and their readiness to inflame, as well as extreme sensi-
bility under disease, are sufficient proofs.

The lacteal absorbents are that part of this system which arises from the
inner surface of the intestines, by means of the villi, and appear to be princi-
pally composed of numerous lacteal orifices, from whence they pass in mi-
nute capillary tubes obliquely through the intestinal coats to gain the
mesentery, uniting as they proceed into larger trunks, which are continued
through conglobate glands situated in it, and thence called mesenteric.
During this course they are called jorjmar?/ or original lacteals ; and as they
again pass out of these glands towards the thoracic duct, they are called
secondary lacteals.

The lymphatic absorbents are more universally though not equally dis-
tributed, some parts being more plentifully supplied with them than others ;
and although they have never been demonstrated in the brain, there is no "
reason to doubt of their existence in that, as in all the organs of the body,
the cuticle (as is said), hair, and hoofs excepted. They arise from the
cells of the vmiversal investing membrane of the body, and from all the
great cavities of the machine also ; they likewise pervade most of the solids.
The cutis is supplied with them, and thus various substances rubbed on the
skin produce effects exactly similar to those arising from the reception of
the same substances into the stomach.

The lymphatics of the head and neck^, of the fore extremities§, of the

* Their valves are disposed in pairs, but not equidistant ; some parts have few, and in
some they are numerous. A valve does not appear to take on disease so readily as the
vessel itself; from which it has been conjectured to be of a different structure to the inter-
nal surface of the tube itself. Farcied buds are said to be the ulceration of the obstructed
lymphatic, intercepted by the valve : but now and then I have seen the valve itself form
the bud, and more often a small lymphatic gland has received the infection and become
' enlarged. Valves tend to intercept the weight of the column, and thus assist their power
I generally ; they also effectually prevent any retrograding of the lymphatic contents.

f Although nerves may be distinctly traced to ramify on their larger branches, yet some
1 expenments go to prove that these vessels can act without the influence of the nerves.

X From Girard we learn that the superficial lymphatics of the head and neck acconi-
I pfeny the superficial veins, and pass through the sublingual and submaxillary glands. The
> deeper lymphatics of the nostrils, fauces, and palate, take the same course. The gut-
! tural and lymphatic glands having received these, allow lymphatic trunks to depart from
: them ; some superficial, but most deep-seated, which latter pursue a course along the track
of the trachea into the thoracic duct, receiving in their passage the more superficial ones
I of the neck and withers.

§ The lymphatics qf the fore extremities arise from the sensible parts within the hoof
'and pass up on each side of the limb ; the deeper-seated in company with the metacarpal
sand radial artery. The superficial principally accompanies the cephalic or superficial
f brachial vein in a considerable plexus (see plate VII), to reach the axillary lymphatic
;glancls within the neck, which it penetrates in company with the deep-seated branch to
lagain emerge ; those of the left fore extremity being carried at once into the thoracic duct :
: those of the right terminate by the right axillary glands, and, instead of pouring their con-
tents at once into the thoracic duct, form a short lymphatic trunk, whicli taking an oblique
ppassage on the transverse process of the last cervical vertebra, terminates in the right ax-
illary vein occasionally it either joins the thoracic duct, or ends close by it. This ad-
ventitious aid IS most important, for by its means an accidental obstruction in the tho-
rracic duct is not necessarily fatal. M. Diipuytrcn bound it in several horses, some of

K 2

148

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

hinder extremities*, and those of the trunk externally and internally-j- , are
all furnished with a superficial and a deeper-seated set ; all of which, includ-
ing the lacteals, tend to one common source, through the receptaculum chyli| ;
or otherwise at once into the thoracic duct§, or its tributary branches.

The absorbent glands are vascular oval bodies, intimately connected with
the absorbent system, as well lacteal as lymphatic. Their size differs con-
siderably ; some are minute, others are much larger, as may be seen by
what are called kernels in meat ; their structure is cellular, and each has
an investing capsule. When an absorbent enters a lymphatic gland, it first
divides itself into several vasa inferentia, which ramify throughout the inner
surface of its cell : other ramifications, or vasa efferentia, take their origin
from the opposite sides of the same cell, to be continued forward ; but what
purposes are intended to be accomplished thereby we do not at present know,
though it is a specific one without doubt ; and which is rendered more pro-
bable by the circumstance that there are some stray lymphatics which pass
over these ghinds, called vasa circuita, whose intention it is likely to be to
transport a part of the lymph, unaltered by the glandular function. The
absorbent glands of the lacteals are called mesenteric \\ , and those of the
lymphatics receive the name of lymphatic glands^.

which died; but others preserved perfect health. In those which died no injection would
pass from the lower part of the duct into the subclavian vein ; from which it is reasonable
to suppose that in them there was no additamentary short trunk or small lymphatic
brandies opening into the axillary or subclavian vein.

* The lymphatics of the hinder extremitirs, like those of the fore, are a superficial and a
deep-seated set. The former accompanies the superficial veins, and are seen in great
numbers with the saphena major. The deep-seated arise from the feet, and accompany
the bloodvessels, receiving branches from both sides; when proceeding upwards they reach
the inguinal glands, forming a large plexus, which communicates with the iliac glands :
they now travel with the iliac vessels, to be delivered by appropriate trunks into the great
chylous reservoir.

t The lymphatics of the trunk are numerous and important : those of the genital organs
within the pelvis bend their course to the glands of the basin; while the inguinal glands
receive those of the external generating organs. The general contents of the pelvis have
numerous lymphatics, which proceed to the internal pelvic lymphatic trunk ; the more
superficial bend their course to the lumbar glands. This order of lymphatics of the parietes
of the abdomen join the inguinal glands ; those of the loins pour their contents into the
lumbar glands. The superficial set of the chest reach the axillary glands, while those of the
internal parts follow the track of the large bloodvessels to gain their ultimate destination.

X The receptacnlum cliyli (la citcrne lomhair of Girard), the grand recipient of the lym-
phatics of the abdomen and posterior extremities, and the origin of the thoracic duct, arises
near the root of the larger mesenteric artery, and is situated between the aorta and vena
cava posterior, presenting a very variable figure and dimensions : it directs its course for-
wards into the thorax.

§ The thoracic duct is the continuation of this chylous sac within the chest on the right
side of the dorsal vertebra; between the aorta and vena azygos ; it consequently receives
the lymphatics from the posterior extremities, pelvis, parietes, and viscera of the abdomen,
head, neck, withers, and left anterior extremity. ' As it leaves the vertebrae, it runs ob-
liquely over tlie trachea and oesophagus, when, having reached the left side, it stretches
forward to the beginning of the anterior vena cava, and terminates against the middle of
the anterior border of the left first rib, in the base of the left axillarj' vein, sometimes into
the left jugular vein, near its junction with the axillary.'

II The mesenteric glands are by no means similarly disposed alike in all quadrupeds;
in some, as the dog, instead of being dispersed as in the horse, they are collected into cue"
mass, called, after its discoverer, the pancreas Asspltii.

^ The lymphatic glands appear, contrary to the quality of the valves, to be more dis-
posed to disease than the lymphatic tubes ; as we see by the absorption of cantharides in
blister : some morbid poisons likewise, as the venereal in the human and the malignant
epidemic in cattle, occasion abscesses in the glands, without affecting the vessels by which
they passed. In the human subject the mesenteric glands are more prone to disease than
the lymphatic, but in the horse the contrary is the case.

ANGIOLOGY — THE ABSORBENTS.

149

The Physiology of the Ahso7'bing System.

Lymphatic absorption is a most important subject, not only in a philosophical point of
view, but also as a knowledge of it greatly increases the eiRciency of the healing art. Ab-
sorption was originally attributed to the veins, until the discovery of this system of vessels,
when, by common consent and the weight of observation and experiment, it was attributed
to the lymphatics. Of late, however, some of the most eminent physiologists have been
disposed again to attribute some of this power to the veins, yet in a more partial degree
than before ; and the facts brought forward appear to support such a supposition* ; but
although the work of absorption may occasionally be performed by veins, it is certainly
principally operated by the lymphatics ; and until they were known, not only were we un-
able to account for many appearances that we now know the cause of, but we were una-
ble to bring about many effects in the constitution now perfectly under our command.
The fimctional effects of this system are abundantly active in the constitution at large ;
we are certain that the various organs of the body are continually changing, wholly or par-
tially, their component parts, either for renovation or alteration. It appears to be the
office of the arteries to build up new parts, and to repair the waste of others ; but the old
ones must be first of all pulled down and removed by ahsorption\. By this wonderful
power the alveoli having lost their teeth, are taken away, when their sharp edges would
injure the gums ; the roots of the temporaneous teeth are thus absorbed, that their crowns
may more easily give way : by this also the gubernaculum testis, having fulfilled its office,
is absorbed, and the thymus gland likewise removed : it is thus the vascular cartilages
are taken up by the absorbents, to make room for a bony deposit when the animal ap-
proaches maturity. By these the fluids as well as solids are continually changing, being
taken up and carried back into the mass of blood, from whence they are afterwards re-
deposited by the work of the arteries. It is by the lymphatics that the dead parts are
separated from the living in sloughing and ulceration, and by them coagulable lymph and
extravasated blood are removed. By the superficial absorbents, matters and even gases
are received from without ; the water held in suspension by the atmosphere is thus taken
m, and hence grazing horses require little or no water, and more especially if not exposed
to the heat of the sun, whereby evaporation or exhalation is promoted^. It is by this in-
haling power that some animals do not drink at all, being enabled to dilute their food sufli-
ciently from this source. Hence likewise unfortunate mariners, deprived of fresh water
at sea, wrap garments wetted with the salt water around them ; when the absorbents refuse
in a great measure the salt, but suck up the aqueous particles, and thereby lessen the
thirst§. The functional office of the lymphatics is most important also in the preserva-
tion of life under casualties. Long fasting is thus borne ; their capability of displacing
the animal oil or marrow from the bones, and the adeps or fat from the body generally is
here employed to make up the want. Hybernating animals live during their torpidity'by
a slow absorption of the adipose matter; thus it is found in the instance of the torpid bear
that, however fat he may enter his seclusion, he returns lean and emaciated. The absor-
bents appear to own a power also of selection with regard to the matters they take up
Ihe lacteals seem particularly and exclusively to employ themselves in the absorption of
chyle, and the lymphatics also receive some matters and reject others. Besides the
healthy and ordinate actioji of these vessels, they have an unhealthy and inordinale one like-
wise, which IS of itself a sufficient proof that absorption is not an act of capillary attrac-

or*ve"nf'Inro''th'prf havP^^JHi.?,?'"* "'e lymphatics were only a peculiar continuation of the arteries
or veins anrt others have since adopted the same suppos tion. Dr. Maiendie considers that thprp i« n

hat tliTv' invaHahlV;rfi^!;1h'''=''^'^ ''f lymphatics'^^^he former he cZ"!ers^^^^^^^ bu?
that they invariably confine themselves to the absorption of the chyle. Thus he suddoscs tlie vi Ions

,irt„mif J^lf "a^''"' between the depositing arteries and the absorbing vessels varies accordini; to

X"rdeDos1t durfnr^he it^f th '"^^^'^ = ^^^^^ the l.alance is with t^e arteries!

wiiose deposit during the growth of the animal is greater than the absorption : in middle life their ac-

h.nA "^'''''^'''''^*^"''''."''.""^' induenced by accidental circumstances : in old 1^11 rabsm--

ag^rdC'Yf semrn^reVe^"' '"'^^^ -generated b/tl,r ar^ede's.

ever'na,^pS'ttrT,'^b'ii u'l""^*"' ^"T Physiologists is denied the power of absorption ; and what-
ever passes through it is supposed to do so by imbibition ; the cutis vera is, however, allowed by them

lX'™vinvTa^rn1n''°7hJ"d" ^'r" = '"filtration that matters [7oZ X"t

t^^nnJ^^M; Itin H If T,^ "nmersed in a given r|uantity of water, by an accurate test, is linown
hJVZ Jl I , " ' ''"""t'ty -. ' » superficial absorption, it has been objected that emaciated person"
assim i Jfon fn ^nT.Ttl" ""V,'' ''""'^fit f™"' h^tli^ &c. &c.; but hero there was no digestive
assimilation to convert the matter received into chyle.

«inrSo!,r"'li f""' ' '" ^^""""^ of epidermic absorption: were it mere imbibition, the

muriate of soda would pass through tlic pores, and tlic benefits be destroyed. '

150 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

tion ; if it were, their al)sorbing capacities would ever remain tlic same: but we on the
contrary find, tliat sometimes they scarcely act at all, while at others they are empowered
with even too much energy ; and, as a farther proof of it, it is in our own power, by various
means, to stimulate or rouse them to increased action. The serous deposit in the swelled
legs of some horses is to be attributed more to a want of power in them than ta the super-
abundant action of the secreting or depositing vessels, and this we know by the efl'ects
which follow an artificial stimulus applied in the form of exercise or friction.

To our acquaintance with the power we possess over the lymphatics the practice of
medicine is greatly indebted ; and although we own few means of lessening an undue ab-
sorption, we fortunately have many of increasing it. Mechanical friction is a most active
and universal agent in stimulating tlie absorbents, as the hand-rubbing of horses proves in
many cases : in an observation of this property originated the custom of beating a splint
previous to the application of a blister. Mercury is a very active stimulant to the lympha-
tics, as many parts of veterinary practice testify. Pressure also increases their action ; and
thus we "bandage the swollen legs and we girth the bodies of our horses, to promote ab-
sorption of the adeps and interstitial fluid. Exercise, by swelling the muscles, produces
pressure, and thus exercise also removes swelled legs, and promotes absorption generally :
our older farriers used to bind lead on their splents and spavins, that the pressure might
promote their absorption. Cantharides has also an eifect upon them: thus we blister
swellings, exostoses, &c. A still stronger stimulant is the actual cautery ; from whence
arises the very common and free use of fire, in veterinary practice, to all obstinate and
diseased enlargements. There is likewise a strong sympathy between the stomach and
the absorbent system at large, wheieby nauseating medicines increase their action power-
fully. But of this we are not enabled to avail ourselves in the horse so readily as we can
in the human : nevertheless, a nauseating effect is not wholly denied to some medica-
ments, as we know by the effects produced. Purgatives and diuretics promote internal
absorption ; for by removing the contents of the intestinal canal and increasing the urinary
secretion, a call is made, which the absorbents obey, to repair the waste by taking up the
fluids from other parts.

SECT. XIII.

NEUROLOGY.
The Brain and its Meninges.

At the head of the nervous system stands the soft white mass contained
within the cavity of the skull, called the brain*. Of its membranous me-
ninges or matres, the dura mater is the most external, performing the
double office of a support to the brain, and a periosteum to the cranial
bones, to which it adheres strongly by its tendinous filaments. It forms
several folds or prolongations ; such is the falx which divides the cerebral
lobes : other expansions form sinuses to receive the blood returned from
the interior of the brain ; and some are prolonged to line the orbits, cover
the spinal marrow, &c. &c. The pia mater is a fine vascular web, exter-
nally smooth and internally villous, which immediately invests the brain,
and enters its convolutions, as well as those of the cerebellum and medulla
oblongata : it adheres to the dura mater by the veins passing from it into the
sinuses ; and its numerous fine bloodvessels pierce the brain in abundance.
The membrana arachnoidea appears a very fine external lamen of the pia
mater ; so thin as to be compared to a spider's web, from whence it take?
its name. It is spread uniformly over the surface of the brain, without en-
tering into any of its convolutions, and is connected to the pia matter by a
cellular substance.

• I shall merely offer an outline of the anatomy of the brain, reserving my confined
limits for anatomical inquiries more immeftiately connected with the practice of the art.
The inquisitive student will find this subject more in detail in the works of Girard or of
Percivall ; and also in the Library of Useful Knowledge, No. 3, p. 75, where a popular
but highly interesting description of it appears.

NEUROLOGY — THE BRAIN AND ITS MENINGES, 15]

The cranial brain, by a natural division formed fi-om its appearances, its
situation, and its physiological phenomena, divides itself into two parts*.
The cerebrum, the first and largest portion, is hounded anteriorly by the
frontal bones, and inferiorly rests on the ethmoidal and frontal cavities (vide
a, e,f, pi. Ill, Jig. 1): anteriorly it is convex, and posteriorly nearly flat;
and is divided longitudinally through its whole extent into two hemisphe-
rical portions, between which the falciform process of the dura mater ex-
tends. Its peripheral or cortical part is greyish, and exteriorly indented
by furrows or convolutions, which in the horse are singularly deep. The
interior and larger portion, called the medullary, is whiter aiid more tena-
cious than the outer. On separating the hemispheres, the corpus callosum
appears, terminating in a species of medullary arch, and presenting, as it
were, a nucleus to the cerebrum, and thence called centrum ovale. The
tentorium cerebelli, a transverse septum which divides the cerebrum from
the cerebellum, is separated into two portions. The dura mater laminates
at the falciform process, to form a long triangular venous hollow called the
longitudinal sinus, which extends to the transverse septum, where it bifur-
cates, and is continued double under the name of the lateral sinuses, which
passing out of the skull, are then called the jugular veins. Two other cavi-
ties of an oblong form are called the anterior or lateral ventricles, one being
appropriate to each lobe of the cerebrum, and extending throughout its
length. These ventricles, naturally, contain a very small quantity of inter-
stitial limpid fluid; but under any active excitement of the brain, as mad
staggers, &c., the quantity is increased to two or three ounces, and is then
often sanguineous. These cavities communicate with each other by a canal
situated behind a medullary arch termed /orm>; on removing which and
layin g open the ventricles, the vascular web or plexus choroides is seen,
apparently destined to furnish the internal parts of the brain with blood, as
the pia mater performs that office for the outer. As might be supposed, in
all vascular excitements, local or general, this plexus is liable to be preter-
natm-ally suffused with blood ; and in phrenitis it is often distended to tur-
gescence. The lateral ventricles branch out into other cavities, called also
ventricles ; two remarkable ones are found in the tujbular origins of the
olfactory nerves. The pituitary gland is a spongy body of considerable
magnitude in the horse, lodged between the sphenoidal folds of the dura
mater in the centre of the cavernous sinus. The pineal gland, the tuber-
cula quadrigemini of the cerebrum, most of the remaining eminences, pro-
cesses, and other minor peculiarities, may be learned by a reference to the
description of the human brain ; with which the brain of the horse corre-
sponds very nearly.

The cerebellum (b. Jig. 1, pi. Ill), or little brain, rests upon the tento-
num or transverse septum of the dura mater ; being placed superiorly and
a little posteriorly to the cerebrum, with which it unites by its inferior part,
Its proportions being to it as 1 to 7 : it is divided into four lobes ; an infe-
nor, two lateral, and a superior. It is, like the cerebrum, composed of two
substances, but somewhat differently disposed; giving to a longitudinal sec-

* The pendant position of the head of the horse necessarily makes some difference be-
tween the aspects of the human and brute brain: in the first, the cerebrum is the highest
portion; in the horse, it is the lowest; but both retain the same relative situation. In
the horse, the cerebellum approaches nearer to the foramen magnum, and the prolonga-
tion of the cerebrum passes under the cerebellum, to arrive at the same point (sec 7,/ate
LU)- which in the human is vertically opposed to the vertebral colmiin, but in quad-
rupeds presents a posterior aspect.

152 THE ANATOMY OF TIIK HORSE.

tion of it the appearance of a tree, the medullary white part branching out
from a body called arhor vitce: externally the cerebellum is formed into
numerous sulci, but has no circumvolutions. The fourth ventricle, which
in the horse is very considerable, is situated within this body, having its pos-
terior surface upon the medulla oblongata, and its anterior being formed of
the cerebellum.

The medulla oblongata (a, b, c, jig. 1, -pi. Ill) is formed by the reci-
procal continuation of the medullary substances of the cerebrum and cere-
bellum, by two portions from each, called its crura: proceeding upward and
backward to the edge of the foramen magnum in the occipital bone, it takes
the name of spinal marrow, and proceeds as will be shewn presently. The
bloodvessels of the brain and medulla spinalis we have before described in
the Angiology, where it will be found that both are supplied by the carotids
partially, and by the vertebrals principally. The arterial trunks enter the
skull in a very convoluted manner, and anastomose freely with each other,
distributing their capillary branches within the substance of the cerebral
mass. The blood is returned by the veins of the pia mater, which pour it,
when collected, into the sinuses*.

The sLructure of the brain (to be again touched on) is generally consi-
dered as fibrous ; such organization being demonstrable in some of its parts.
It is not in itself an organ of great sensibility ; on the contrary, some por-
tions of it, as the cerebrum, are nearly insensible : nor is the destruction
of a small quantity of it necessarily fatal. Its diseases in the horse are prin-
cipally confined to inflammation, which is either idiopathic, as in mad stag-
gers ; or symptomatic, as in the staggers of a distended stomach. Query,
Is tetanus a morbid irritation of the brain, or of the spinal nervesf ?

The Nerves.

The nerves are white fibrous cords, sent off either from the cranial or
spinal brain, whose ramifications are distributed to all parts of the body, en-
veloped in a firm membranous neurilema, to give them density and consis-
tence. Ten pairs of cerebral nerves pass out of the skull by appropriate
openings in the cranial bones :|: ; and thirty-six spinal pairs are given off from
the medulla spinalis by appropriate vertebral foraminae. (See Osteology.)

* An inspection of the bloodvessels of an injected brain sen'es to exemplify the care
that nature has taken, by tortuosity and almost endless communication, to prevent the
effects of too rapid a circulation of the great quantity of blood sent to it ; by which, as
well as by the great lengtb of the carotids, congestion of this organ is completely coun-
teracted. Equally careful to provide against any want of its vital supplies, it is furnished
with two sets of arteries ; the principal of which pass up encased, as it were, by the cer^'i-
cal vertebrae, and hence called vertebrals. The returning vessels are also formed to favour
the exit of the blood from the head; for here the veins have no valves, nor do they accojn-
pany the arteries; but are distinct and triangular, being formed of the strong firm
coat of the dura mater ; and to further this end they inosculate freely with each other ;
and also present, like the arteries, two trunks to each side, one of which (the vertebral)
is effectually guarded from pressure by its situation; and in the other (the jugular), en-
largements or sacs are found in many parts of it, particularly about the jaws {see Anatomy
of the Head), purposely to obviate the effects of accidental interruption.

t In No. 30 of the Hippiatrist, is an account of a yomig horse destroyed by the pre-
sence of a grub, resembling that within nuts, but more transparent, which had insinuated
Itself mto the substance of the cerebellum. We are informed by M. Desniaret also, that
It IS not very uncommon to find the filcu-ia papulosa within the serous cavities of the brain
of the horse. Sheep we know to be extremely liable to hydatids within its cavities, and
on its surfaces.

X Girard pursues a diflereut division of the cerebral nerves, which he describes a

NEUROLOGY — THE NERVES.

153

The cerebral nerves (nerfs encephaliques, Girard) — Tho ^rst pair or
olfactory nerves (n. ethmoidal, G.) are very large and hollow, communi-
cating by their cavities with the lateral ventricles of the brain*, in which
they exhibit a great speciality from the human olfactory nerves. They ap-
pear to be formed of both the cortical and medullary portions of the brain,
and take their origin from the anterior and inferior parts of the viscus, to be
passed out of the cranium by the foraminae in the cribriform portion of the
ethmoid bone ; after which they divide into numerous filamentary twigs, which
traversing the ethmoidal holes, are finally ramified in a reticular manner
over the surface of the pituitary membrane, by which its exquisite sensibi-
lity of smell is furnished.

The second pair, or optic (n. oculaire, G.), arise in firm cords behind
the fonner, from two eminences proper to them, called thalami nervorum
opticorum. In their progress forwards they unite near the pituitary gland,
where again separating, they leave the skull by their proper holes in the
sphenoid bone, each being enclosed in a sheath furnished by the dura ma-
ter ; proceeding in company with the ocular artery to enter the orbit, when,
penetrating the globe of the eye, it is expanded into the fine lamen called
retina. (See Anatomy of the Eye J)

The third pair, or moto7'es oculorum, ( n. oculo musculaire commun. G.)
are small branches which arise filamentai'y from the crura cerebri : they ac-
company a branch of the fifth pair out of the skull, by the foramen lacerum
into the orbit, dividing into two branches, both of which are distributed to
the muscles of the eye.

The pathetici, or fourth pair, ( n. ocul, mus. interne, G.) are likewid^
small nerves which take their origin from the cerebellum, near its junction
with the cerebrum : they also accompany a branch of the fifth pair, and are
principally spent in the oblique muscles of the eye.

The trigemini, or Jlfth pair, ( n. trifacial, G.) are large and very im-
portant nerves, having extensive communications, and consequently occa-
sioning very diversified operatiousf. They escape by numerous filamentary

twelve instead of ten pairs. His eighth pair ( on nerf labyrinfhique J is very small, and is
spent on the labyrinth of the ear. His ninth pair is not the lingual, but the glosso-pha-
ryngeus, usually described with the par vagum (which see). His tenth pair (pneumo gas-
irique) is the par vagum or eighth of ova list, and of Mr. Percivall's also. His eleventh
pair (trachilo-dorsal) is the accessory to the eighth pair. The lingual (hyo-glossien )
forms his twelfth pair.

* In former days, when anatomy was principally studied from the bodies of brutes, this
specialily led to a supposition that the olfactory nerves, being hollow, were intended as
emunctories of the brain, by which the superfluous moisture passed off through the eth-
moidal holes into the nose ; and which gave rise to sternutatories or sneezing powders to
clear the brain of man, in whom no such communication exists.

t ' Mr. Bell has shewn, that the spinal nerves, the suboccipital, and the fifth, have
several essential circumstances in common : that they have each two distinct roots ; that
they have each a ganglion on one of their roots ; that they are all distributed to tlie mus-
cular frame, for locomotion and action ; that each nerve is distributed to its corresponding
division of the bodily frame, without ever taking a longitudinal course on the body; and,
finally, that these nerves are common to all animals which have a symmetrical body and
a regular nervous system. When we examine the origin of the nerves minutely, we shall
find that the fifth is the only nerve of the skull which comes off in such critical circum-
stances as to have a root from the crus cerebri, and another from the crus cerebelli ;
which parts may, by comparative anatomy, be proved to be the continuations of the ante-
rior and posterior divisions of the spinal marrow. The fifth will also be found to be the
only nerve within the skull which has a ganglion at its roots. Those who have dissected
the deep nerves of the head, or who have attempted to demonstrate the brandies of the
fifth pair to students, will be able to estimate the value of this view. I have examined

154 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

twigs from the crura cerebcUi in one large cord, which speedily separates,
and each nerve of the pair then forms three principal branches. First, the
ophthalmic ( orbito frontale, G.), which passing through the foramen lace-
rum, divides into the supra-orbitar ; the lachrymal; and a nasal branch
Cpalpebro-nasal, G.) ; whose destinations we need not follow, seeing their
names already signify them. The second, or anterior maxillary branch,
( sumaxillaire, G.) which is larger than the last, escapes by an opening in
the sphenoid bone, and proceeds outwards by the infra-orbitar foramen, where
it gives off (after the manner of radii from a centre) the facial branches
(pes anseriniis ) , first parting with a twig to the inner canthus of the eye,
another along the tuberosity of the upper jaw bone, and two or three more
which ramify within the palate, posterior parts of the mouth, and among the
upper teeth. — The facial nerves, communicating with the portio dura, descend
in a straight course upon the side of the face, and divide into small branches,
to be distributed to the upper or anterior lip ; to the nares, and to the labial
muscles. — The third original division of the trigemini or fifth, is the poste-
rior maxillary nerve ( branche maxillaire, G.), which is still more con-
siderable than the former. It emerges from the skull at the base of the
petrous portion of the temporal bone, and runs, defended by the ramus of
the under jaw, across the pterygoideus muscle, to reach the"^ anterior max-
illary canal, where it furnishes the dental and medullary branches necessary
for the teeth and bone. Before its entrance, it had given a buccal, a pter)'-
goidean, a gustatory, and numerous other twigs, to the tongue and throat, as
well as dental and medullary rami to the posterior jaw. It also again emerges
f?6m the foramen, at the symphysis of the jaw, to be distributed to the mus-
cles of the lower lips and parts adjacent.

The sixth, or abducent pair ( n. oculo-musculaire externe, G.) arises
filamentary from the base of the annular processes, passes with the fifth pair,
and enters the orbits to be given to the abductor muscles of the eye.

The seventh pair, or auditory nerves, (n. facial, G.) arise from the
lateral superior part of the medulla oblongata, each dividing into two por-
tions : that called the portio mollis enters the auditory foramen in a soft
pulpy form, and is distributed to the internal ear. The portio dura, named
by Mr. Bell the respiratory nerve of the face, passes through the foramen
auditorium, inclosed in the same investiture of the dura mater with the portio
mollis ; in its course it detaches a considerable ramus, the corda tympani :
leaving the internal ear by the spiral canal in a firm cord, it parts with
branches to the inner and outer parts of the ear : the main trunk then hav-
mg first furnished the parotid gland, iuto which it dips, and, being enlarged
by uniting with a branch from the maxillary, it now passes over the posterior
jaw, contiguous to the temporal artery, and divides, its branches diverging
like the sticks of a fan, some of which are distributed to the muscles of the
anterior jaw, but the principal are given to the posterior, and unite with the
anteriory maxillary.

tiie nervre repeatedly, in its whole course, in man, in the horse, the ass, the calf, and tlie
dog. Jly these dissections it is shewn, that the fifth pair resembles the spinal nerves in
every respect, even in the peculiar form of its ganglion and plexus. In the horse, there
IS as distmct a plexus formed by the branches which go from the axilla or loins to supply
the limbs, ihe lorm of the part from which this nerve arises appears also analogous to*
that of the spinal marrow, where the axillary nerves take their origin. If this be correct,
oe another proof of the similarity of the fifth nerve to the spinal nerves.'— ^/ww',?
Manual of Anatomy.

NEUROLOGY — THE NERVES.

155

The par vagas, or eighth fair f pneumo-gastrique, G.), arises from near
the base of the corpora olivaria, at the extremity of the medulla oblongata,
in disgregated fibres, in connexion with another pair of similar origin, named
the glosso-phari/ngeus, which forms the ninth pair of Girard : these are
joined by a third from without the skull, called spinal accessor^/, to be here-
after described. These three trunks, united in one sheath, descend through
the foramen lacerum of the base of the skull, when each parting from its
fellow par vagum, passes on the side of the throat to distribute branches to
the pharynx and base of the tongue. The par vagum thus freed, joins the
carotid artery*, and enters the chest ; the right and left differing somewhat
from each other in course, but both eventually join the oesophagus, and ac-
company it to the diaphragmf . Having entered the abdomen, they reach
the stomach ; the left, to furnish the upper portion and lesser curvature, and
giving also a branch to the great semilunar ganglion ; the right, communi-
cating with the left by its ramifications, is principally spent on the under
portion and larger curvature, imiting with the hepatic and other abdominal
neighbouring plexiij:.

• In the course of its passage through the neck, the par vagum furnishes a filamentary-
union with the superior cervical ganglion ; a branch which ramifies in- the pharynx, a
smaller to the cesophagus, and one of communication with the sympathetic ; two nervous
twigs ramify around the carotid, and a laryngeal branch runs to the larynx. As the oeso-
phageal plexus is very conspicuous in man and the ruminants, it is reasonable to suppose
that it is placed there to combine, in a peculiar manner, the action of the pharynx and
stomach. And, on the other hand, may not its diminutive size in the horse and ass, in
some measure, influence his inaptitude to vomit? — See Dissection of a Camel, Journal of
Science, 1822.-

f Within the chest each par vagum gives twigs to the tracheal plexus, which consists
of communicating trunks from several sources, but principally from the great sympa-
thetic : others are given to the cardiac plexus ; and a single branch of some interest and
importance, called the recurrent nerve, here separates from it ; other filamentary rami
follow to join the anterior and posterior pulmonary plexi. The right par vagum in parti-
cular, according to Mr. Percivall, furnishes in this course a considerable cardiac branch,
which is distributed over the base of the heart within the auricles.

. The recurrent nerve (nerf tracheal recurrent, G.) originates, one on each side, from the
par vagum, near the anterior aorta, and passes up the neck along the trachea, at first to-
wards its under side, but afterwards to the upper, from the outer side of the par vagum :
it gradually approaches the inner side, and proceeds, as Mr. Percivall expresses it, ' along
the anterior half of the neck, between the carotid artery and the trachea, where it ramifies
in the muscles of the larynx and on the glottis ; but has filamentary commimication with
the pulmonary and cardiac plexi, with the posterior cervical ganglion, and gives rami in
its cervical passage to the trachea and cesophagus.' These nerves are supposed to be the
medium of furnishing vocal energy, inasmuch as a division of them effectually silences an
animal, which practice is on some occasions convenient ; and by the description now
ofifered, either or both may readily be detected, bearing in mind that along the anterior
half of the neck it will be found near the par vagum (from which it may be readily distin-
guished by its being much the least tnmk) and between the carotid artery and trachea.
The coiu-se of this nerve in dogs is nearly the same also, in which animals the division, of
it is the most likely to be required.

I The par vagas are so important to the economy of the horse, that a division of them
instantly kills ; at the same time the division of one occasions little inconvenience ; and
even the loss of both in many animals, as the dog, &c., is not followed by immediate
death. The par vagas have been supposed to be the principal agents in the secreting
powers of the stomach ; but as many animals in whom the digestive process is strong are
denied them, this has been questioned. That they are very intimately concerned in all
the functions of the stomach, we may suppose from the facts proved by experiment on
animals easily vomited by emetic matters, in whomvomition is readily repressed by pres-
sure on the brain at the origin of these nerves ; but their principal importance is derived
from theirimmediate and numerous connexions, as with most of thecerebrine nerves, and
with almost the whole of the spinal ones also ; by which extensive cominunication some of
the most curious phenomena which occur both in health and disease are operated, and be-

156 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

The spinal accessory nerves derive their orig-in from filaments friven off
by the fourth and fifth spinal nerves, and sometimes from the third and the
sixth also. As they enter the skull, they join the eighth ; when emerging from
thence, each ramifies within the muscles around, first communicating exten-
sively with the neighbouring nerves and ganglia. This forms the superior
exter-respiratory of Bell.

The ninth or lingual pair takes its origin from the corpus olivaria, and
both pass through the condoloid foramen downwards along the branch of the
posterior jaw to gain the root of the tongue, and seem thus to be peculiarly
appropriate to its locomotion, as the gustatory are to its functional property
of ttisto*

The tenth pair, or suboccipitals (la premidre paire trachilienne G )
are sometimes considered as a pair of the spinal nerves ; at others we find
them described as the tenth pair of the cerebrine*. They arise in part
from the extremity of the medulla oblongata, and, passing out by the occi-
pital holes, are distributed to the muscles of the head and neck • and in part
they also arise from the medulla spinalis. Each takes its course outwards
by a foramen of the atlas, separating into an upper and lower division.
Ihe upper ramifies into the muscles in its vicinity, giving a small branch
over the vertex to the ear and parts around. The inferior division, pierc-
ing a foramen m the anterior wing of the atlas, gains the trachea, ramifies
around its upper portion, the thyroid gland ana the muscles beneath ; com-
municating with the cervical ganglions, and very generally with the minute
tSc medium ""^ f'o^iug itself an important sympa-

The Spinal Nerves.

The spinal marrow\ {medulla spinalis) gives ofl^the spinal nerves as it
passes through the bodies of the vertebrae by an appropriate opening formed

'r?unShfo,l^ the larynx, pharynx, lungs, heart, and stomach,

Tie rlnx anr,r '^""Pf ^''^ """^ consentaneous action. In their connexion with
Tr Jr/ /^,S' nr^n'' "'°^ plexus, we readily perceive why pinching the trachea, in
co3i s7hS 'I'^tion of the respiratory organs in the fori; of

exl ned L nm,S ■ K?'" "P.?"''"' """'"^^^ of coughing, as asj^nptom of worms, is
Sa^s bV me Z Sr^ ^ disturbance of the alimentary canal operates on the serial
ByTtfconnrxfon with thfr'^^^^ ^^g'-'^^'th the pulmonic plexi.

leLrns the actZnA I ^'T' P^'^' generally, it arises that nauscatilig the stomach
the spLa „e hv 1 T\ !f ^'"""^'^ '^"^ '^""nexions of the ptr vagum with
erved betlTn tL^ V^"f furnished, a very marked sympathy is ob-

nr/Sra r bv ^"'^g^^ental covering of the horse ; and the veferi-

Trms S ndLUtiL readily learn%vhy hide-bound accompanies

Tnd dso Hmn- '■'ff'^'^tions of the alimentary canal in general ;

sLuld L mo, ; r^« ' ^ tumefaction of the cuticular lining of the mouth

his view aTo it isTof ''""^^'^ ^^^^^ i^f^-^tio"- Unde;

sympatlT; of wis lin J\n fil l^f" * 1° ""^erstand why broken-winded horses feel the morbid
prZc^^s^couS 1^ their stomachs with water; or why the drinking of cold water

proauces cough in many horses with tender lungs.

cerehrbT^Ax^ vet'nW ^^T^ ^'^^ *Pi"^'- ^r. Percivall acknowledges ten

Tctuanv Ehe ba t.T *f tentb with the spinal. In fact, however, this nerve mav
STe skulP an^Mr P ^''^^1,^'^^' f""^ it receives its roots from both within and with-
haveSven we'iJto f^^^^ ^''T'''^ dissections, particularly of the nerves, would

T The snTulf cord t °" whichever side he had placed tl.e pair,

that is comnosed o?/r T'f'^ continuations of the men.branes of the brain, and, like
a a s;yr ^.-^^/J"" 7^;^ -1 -I'y and a white : it may, tlierefore, be considered

By itria s^o-e Sn f ^ v<,x.A^rcA somewhat firmer bv its investments.

like the' eplfalirl ion of2^ V' ^"/'P'''^'^'^' P''''^'^'^''^'' '"J"^^' ^""^>

P portion 01 the nervous system, altogether encased by bone.

NEUROLOGY — THE NERVES. 157
by the articulation of each of these bones with the other (^see Skel.) ; con -
sequently the names and number of these pairs of spinal nerves correspond
with the vertebrae themselves. Hence there are seven cervical, eighteen
dwsal, six lumbar, and ^ve sacral nerves. Each spinal nerve in the horse,
as in man, owns a double origin by filamentary bundles from the upper and
under divisions of the spinal cord. The fasciculus of the upper origin (de-
scribing one side only), as soon as collected together, again disperses into a
ganghonic enlargement ; from the other end of which proceeds a nerve,
which seems principally designed to act as a nerve of sensation. From the
lower division passes a lesser cord, but which does not, like the upper, become
immediately ganglionic ; on the contrary, the integrity of its original struc-
ture is preserved, and throughout its ramifications it appears to prove itself
a nerve of motion, as the upper is one of sensation. Having passed the
ganglion, both unite into one rope within a common covering ; yet are pre-
served distinct by an individual one also, by which neither their substance
nor functions are blended*.

• Our physiological views have been greatly extended by the discoveries made relative
to this nervous rope. Mr. Sewell's attention was early drawn to a medullary hollow,
which, originating within a sulcus of the brain (calamus scriptorius), was carried through-
out the whole extent of the cord. This discovery made on the horse was found to exist
also m the \mmm fcetus and in the adult of all the higher orders of mammalia. Farther in-
vestigation has extended this most interesting fact, by the dissections, human and com-
parative, of Bell, Bellingeri, Mayo, Majendie, Desmoulines, &c. &c. : and in addition to
this median furrow, it is now incontestibly proved that the spinal cord is divided into two
semicylindric portions, a right and a left ; also that each of them present three dis-
tinct columns, which corresponding, according to the demonstrations of Mr. H. Mayo, in
dimension and directions to the corpora pyramidalia, corpora olivaria, and corpora resti--
formia of their own sides, respectively, are therefore reputed as direct continuations of
these cerebral portions. Agreeably to this view, ' the corpus pyramidale of the right half
of the spinal marrow occupies its anterior and inner edge from the tuber annulare to the
lower termination of the spinal cord ; and, by hardening this organ previously in alcohol
It may be easily detached from the rest of the column, without apparent laceration ■ the
fun-ow which separates it becomes visible indeed to the naked eye. From this column, at
different points of altitude, come off all the nerves destined to voluntary motion. Secondly
the corpora olivaria, situated immediately behind the pyramidal bodies, and occupying
the lateral aspect of the medulla oblongata, are in like manner continued along the spinal
cord downwards to its extremity, touching and parallel with the pyramidal column, and
consisting, like it, of a bundle of parallel fibres. The slits disjoining it from the poste-
rior and anterior columns are, according to Mr. Mayo, distinctly visible. This centro-
lateral column gives off nerves at different points of its altitude, certain anomalous nerves,
which Mr. C. Bell has reduced into one class, and named respiratory. The phrenic, the
external respiratory, the accessory nerves of Willis, and the nervous vagas of the eighth
pair, are the chief constituents of this class. Lastly, at the posterior and interior edge of
the half cord is found another and similar oblong body, which anatomists name co%«.,
restiforme from its resemblance to a rope. This body is likewise found to extend itself
downwards into the spinal cord, forming a posterior column, the last of the three into
which each semicylmder or half-cord is divided. From this, the restiform column, nerves
subserment to sense only originate at different parts of its height. The following, then, is
the sum of the ' «a<«ra/" theory :-" From the anterior aspect of the spinal marrow, on
each side, proceed nerves of motion ; from the posterior aspect corresponding, arise nerves
of sense merely; and from the middle or lateral column, between these, and which coin-
cides with the transverse diameter of the horizontal section of the cord, spring nerves of a
peculiar function, and named, by Mr. Bell, the respiratory system of nerves." The nerves
of sense are larger than those of motion, and form a ganglionic enlargement a little before
the point ot union. Thus, common nerves are seen to spring from two roots, namely,
from a large and knotted posterior root, and a small and uniform anterior root, soon join-
ing itself with the former. Hence is at once understood why some injuries of the spine
produce loss of sense ; others, loss of motion only ; and a third class, generally more
severe induces both species of privation. " I struck a rabbit behind the ear," says Mr
C. Bell, so as to deprive it of sensibility by the concussion, and tlien exposed the spinal

158 ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

The cei'vical nerves are seven pairs*, the upper bundle of each of which
may be considered as principally distributed to the muscles of the upper
surface of the neck ; while the lower not only furnishes the muscles below,
but sends off branches of extensive communication, as well as assistant
branches for the formation of original and important nerves.

The phrenic nerve is the internal respiratory nerve of Mr. Bell, and,
until his discoveries, was considered as the only respiratory nervous branch.
Each phrenic is formed of filaments from the fourth and fifth, but princi-
pally from the sixth and seventh cervicals, and general ganglionic twigs of
communication from the sympathetic, &c. &c. : passing along the neck, it
enters the chest near the axillary artery ; when, having gained the tendinous
portion of the diaphragm, it is spread within the whole substance of that
organ.

The eighteen dorsal pairs are given ofi^ by the notches at the extremity
of each dorsal vertebra, in the manner of the cervical pairs, but are less
considerable. The upper portion of each runs upwards between the trans-
verse processes, and furnishes the dorsal muscles and the integuments of the
dorsal region. The under bundles proceed in the grooves formed in the
hinder edge of the ribs, in company with the intercostal bloodvessels ; and
,themselves take the name of the intercostal nerves f.

The lumbar nerves are given off in the same manner as the former ; their
superior divisions being small, enter the muscles of the loins : the inferior di-
vision communicates extensively with the intercostals and the sympathetic, by

marrow. On irritating the posterior roots of the nerve, I could perceive no motion con-
sequent on any part of the muscular frame ; but, on irritating the anterior roots of the
nerve, at each touch of the forceps there was a corresponding motion of the muscles to
which the nerve was distributed. These experiments satisfied me that the diiferent roots
and difterent columns from whence those roots arose were devoted to distinct offices,
and that the notions drawn from the anatomy were correct." ' — Notes to Dr. Milligan's
Trans, of Majendie's Physiology, p. 584.

* The upper bundle of the first cervical nerve {la deuxiime paire, on le nerf sous-atloidien
of Girard) is principally distributed to the complexus or largest muscle of the neck, but
gives a branch of communication with the second cervical, and also assists in the forma-
tion of a deep-seated cervical plexus. The under bundle furnishes a branch which
mounts toward the poll of the neck and ears ; one of communication with the cervical
plexus ; a superficial cutaneous ; one to the larynx ; and other lesser ramifications. The
second cervical (for I shall now continue to speak of one only) furnishes extensive rami-
fications : its upper bundle, to the muscles around, to communicate with the first and
third pair; its_ lower bundle, to join the spinal accessory, to the next nerve, and to the
levator humeri. The third cervical follows much the same distribution as the last. The
fourth does the same : from its inferior fasciculus a branch is given off' to assist in the
formation of the phrenic nerve. The fifth, by its upper filaments, supplies the deeper-
seated muscles ; its under gives also a phrenic branch ; one to the levator humeri, serratus
magiius, and one to the cervical or humeral plexus. The sixth furnishes important and
large nerves: its upper bundles ramify in the muscles aroui^d; its lower are distributed
to the longus colli, to the cervical ganglion, to the humeral plexus, and to the phrenic.
I He seventh, by its inferior filaments, furnishes a branch to the humeral plexus, commu-
nicates with the first dorsal, and by another considerable ramus with the sjTiipathetic :
Its upper bundle is principally spent on the serratus magnus and neighbouring muscles.

t Ihehrst intercostal is large, as it principally forms the axillary or humeral plexus:
Its intercostal portion is small, and, unlike the others, it proceeds directly between the
nrst and second ribs: itdifl^ers, also, in giving off no cutaneous branches (ne fourmt nulle
dimsion cutnnec Girard). The second gives also an axillary branch and a subcutaneous
one. llie third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh, each furnish a cutaneous nerve, and
also suppfy muscles of the costal and sternal regions. The eleven succeeding intercostal
nerves spread themse yes over the asternal region and the abdominal parietes. The
wghteenth directs itself towards the flank, and ramifies within the oblique and transverse

NEUROLOGY — THE NERVES.

159

which the muscles and viscera around are furnislied. The first sends branches
to the muscles of the back, to the abdominal, to the psose, and to the iliac
muscles. The second gives rami to the psoas, and a spermatic branch
through the abdominal ring. The third, fourth, fifth, and sixth, unite to
form, in common with a branch of the intercostal, the crural nerve, which
escapes out of the abdomen with the vessels, below the crural arch. The
gluteal nerve accompanies the gluteal artery, and is ramified throughout the
gluteal muscles.

The crural nerve gives branches in its passage to the inguinal glands,
the adductors of the femur, and, passing downwards, is principally distri-
buted to the muscles, and parts in front of the thigh : a twig is, however,
sent down superficially on the inner side of the leg. — sacral nerves
are in pairs, and correspond with the number of the pieces of the false
vertebrae of which the sacrum is composed, emerging from the holes in
its sides. Their communications with the sympathetic are considerable ;
the first three or four pairs assisting to form the sciatic nerve on each side,
but particularly the first. The remainder, as well as some filaments of the
former, are distributed to the rectum, anus, bladder, and parts of generation
in either sex. The penis is furnished by a considerable branch from them,
in common with one arising from the hypogastric plexus.

The sciatic ner-ve is formed from branches derived from the last lumbar,
and the first three or four sacral pairs, united into a very considerable trunk,
which is found passing along the internal part of the ilium, and between the
two layers of the sacro-sciatic ligament. Within the pelvis it gives off some
rami ; and as it passes out, it likewise furnishes others to the muscles of the
thigh and scrotum : after gaining the posterior part of the thigh, it divides
into two or three considerable branches, called the popliteal, again to be re-
ferred to.

The coccygeal nerves, Girard says, are usually four to each side, and
' differ from the other spinal nerves in being unconnected with the sympa-
' thetic, as well as in forming no plexi ; and in being wholly distributed to the
' parts they emanate from, the tail.

The Nerves of the Fore Extremities.

I have already had occasion to advert to the axillary plexus (the plexus
I brachial of Girard, and the humeral of Mr. Percivall), from which source the
I fore extremity is furnished. This plexus formed from the fifth, sixth, and
: seventh cervicals, and the first and second dorsals, divides into six or seven
t trunks. The external thoracic (thoraco-musculaires, G.) are several branches
! given to the muscles' connecting the limb with the body, and which extend
' themselves to the fleshy pannicle also. The scapular are also parts of this
division, whose name denotes their destination. The spiral nerve of Mr.
1 Percivall (the posterior humeral of Girard, and the external humeral of the
llast edition of the VETERINARY OUTLINES) is a very large branch of these,
'derived from the axillary or humeral plexus, which first accompanies the
saxillary artery, then winds round the head of the humerus, gains the radius,
tfumishing in its course muscular energy to this important portion of the fore
ilimb, and is finally ramified in this vicinity.

The radial nerve (fig. % plate VII) is formed from one of the last of the
miliary branches,' which, in the last edition, was properly called the internal
ihumcral (cubito-cutane, G.) It descends along the back of the fore arm,

160

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

and, in company with the bloodvessels, is found under the annular liga-
ments behind the knee. It now takes the name of internal metacarpal, having
given numerous ramifications in its course, both muscular and cutaneous.

The ulnar nerve f cubital interne, G.) is the last branch of the humeral
plexus ; in its passage it gains the olecranon, and, running in the direction of
the humerus, it reaches the bend of the knee under the annular ligament :
passing along the inner edge of the trapezium, it becomes contiguous with
the tendo perforans, when it takes the name of the external metacarpal, in
which course it gives off several muscular and cutaneous rami.

The internal and external metacarpal nerves, formed as already de-
scribed, having gained the fetlock joint, become the pastern, plantar, or
lateral nerves ( n. plantaire, G.) The branches given off by the metacar-
pals in their course are slender twigs given to the tendons, ligaments, and
skin ; particularly one of communication from the internal to the external is
met with about the centre of the shank ; and another immediately above the
fetlock, of considerable magnitude and importance, is distributed over the
fetlock and fronts of the pasterns, ramifying over the coronets.

The plantar nerves, ( n. lateraux, G.) situated to the rear of the plantar
arteries, penetrate to the back of the foot : each in its passage detaches a
branch immediately to^e lateral cartilages, a more posterior branch to the
fatty frog, and one to furnish the laminae. The main trunk then penetrates
the cofl5n bone posteriorly with the principal division of the plantar artery,
to be, like that, distributed over the coffin surfaces.

The Nerves of the Hinder Extremities.

We have seen that the muscles of the haunch, and those of the true thigh,
are furnished with nervous branches from the crural, obturator, and gluteal
nerves. The sciatic nerve divides, as already pointed out, into the popliteal
branches, which, according to Mr. Percivall, are usually three, and thus dis-
tributed : — the first and principal one, passing between the fleshy portions of
the gastrocnemii, gains the hock (vide k, Jig. 1, plate VIII), where sepa-
rating, it forms the metatarsal nerves. The second, which is much smaller,
accompanies the first for a short distance, and is then ramified into the flexor
muscles and parts around the stifle. The third proceeds towards the outer
face of the thigh, when, having reached the anterior tibial artery, it travels
with it to the middle of the cannon ; when leaving it, and passing over the
fetlock joint, it spends itself on the pastern surface. In the early part of its
course it gives branches to the gastrocnemii and other muscles of the thigh,
leg, and foot.

The internal and external metatarsal nerves pursue a course so similar
in the hind to those of the fore extremities, that it is unnecessary for me to
proceed with them further.

The diseases of the nervous system at large are less numerous in the horse
than in man ; and, as might be supposed, those of the brute are more ob-
served in the nervous masses, where the development is so much greater in
proportion to the brain ; while in man, whose brain preponderates over the
nervous tissues, cerebral diseases prevail more. Such as are common to the
brain of the horse have already been enumerated. The diseases of the nerves
are principally such as are dependent either on a morbid excitement of the
irritability natural to them ; or otherwise of such as are bi-ought on by any
cause which obstracts or lessens the sources of this excitability, as pressure,

NEUROLOGY — PHYSIOLGOV OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 161

lesion, &c. Convulsions and spasm are consequences of morbid excitements
of the nervous system. Tetanus is the most prominent instance we have of
this ; and which, as it has been partially and momentarily relieved by pres-
sure on the brain, might be supposed to originate in that organ ; but our
knowledge of the connexion and dependencies of the cerebral with the spinal
mass will not necessarily force us to this conclusion, although it is not im-
possible or even improbable. Spasmodic colic appears to be a morbid ex-
citement of the nervous tissues spread over the intestines. Stringhalt is
probably occasioned by local nervous irritation. The diseases consequent
on an interruption to nervous excitement are more numerous ; and in the
horse seem to be connected more with the nervous part of the system than
the cerebral. A disease termed Jcumree, common in India, appears to be
produced by pressure on the spinal cord ; and sanguineous congestions are
now known to take place within the spinal canal in other cases, and produce
partial or total paralysis more frequently than we heretofore supposed. Hy-
datids have been found there ; and the general texture of the medulla spinalis
has also become morbidly softened ; as shewn by the post-mortem examina-
tion of palsied oxen, sheep, and dogs, as well as of horses. The spasmodic
twitchings left in the limbs of dogs after the distemper are probably derived
from some affection of the spinal nerves. The blindness of some horses ap-
pears to originate in paralysis of the optic nerves.

7%e Physiology of the Nervous System, as exhibited in its Structure,
Sympathetic Connexion, and Functional Purposes.

The structural peculiarities of the brain and nerves, connected with their physiology, may
be briefly stated thus : Modern physiologists are disposed now to consider the brain and
nerves as one and the same organ. Of the ultimate composition of the brain, our re-
searches teach us little more than that it presents two substances, a white and a brown,
intermingled in various ways ; and although tlie brownish-grey matter is called cortical,
yet the relative situations of both are frequently reversed. In some parts the cortical is
the invested portion ; in others laminated strata of each alternate ; and in some they traverse
each other in nervous masses. The vascularity of each portion is probably the same ; but
in the white part the ultimate divisions of the bloodvessels are probably too minute to admit
any but the colourless parts of the fluid. In the foetal state of the horse, as well as in that
of all mammalia which have been examined, the brain is developed after the other parts of
the nervous system, and appear in the following order : first, the more important ganglia,
the less complicated following; next, the spinal cord makes its appearance ; and, lastly" the
brain begins to assume form and consistence from a fluid speck. From this it has been
argued, that it is incorrect to say that the nerves originate from the brain, but rather that
the ganglionic and nervous cords are finally matured or developed in a cerebral mass. The
horse possesses a brain constructed in all its parts much after the human cerebral type ; the
absence of a few eminences, in addition to the variations already pointed out, are all that
nnark the structural difference ; the general volume of the encephalic mass, in relation to
the animal bulk, is much less in the horse than in man.

The structure of the nerves is little better known than that of the brain; their fibrous
composition is, however, more distinct, and their delicate texture is maintained entire by
nneans of a membranous envelope, termed neurilema. Whether this be a continuation of
the cerebral coverings throughout we are not aware ; but the dura and pia materal tissues
can be distinctly traced over a part of their course : what structural peculiarities mark their
ultimate divisions we know not; they have been supposed solid flbrilljE, and they have
been asserted to be hollow canals, conveying a nervous fluid of extreme subtilty. We
regard each nerve as presenting two extremities, one connected with the brain, the other
terminating in the organs ; and so vacillating have been our opinions, and so confused our
notions regarding them, that these extremities have each, by turns, been called the origin or
the termination of the nerves. These organs have no determinate figure ; some are long,
some short; some are round, while others are flat. Their organic life, like that of other
parts, requires a supply of blood, and we see the vessels which carry the vital fluid rami-
fying on their surface ; but their lightness of general hue shews that the red parts, at least,

L

162 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

do not enter their substance. Like the important bloodvessels, their principal trunks pass
to their destinations deeply seated, particularly in the extremities. In their passage they
branch off at acute angles, and finally ramify by sentient extremities of such minuteness as
to be invisible to the eye. Both the transit and the>3istribution of the nerves vary under
different circumstances: sometimes, they proceed to their destination in direct lines and
in single trunks, as the optic and olfactory : more frequently, however, they communicate
and interlace with each other ; and, where such junctions are particularly close and nu-
merous, they form a plexus, from which branches are again detached to different parts of
the body. The nervous divisions also frequently unite to form a still more remarkable and
important appendage to the system at large, called a ganglion.

A gaiiglioH is a swelling of a nervous cord, of a greyish colour, varying much in figure
and dimensions. In the larger ganglia, the fasciculi of nervous filaments are seen to be
first separated and then re-combined ; but beyond this our knowledge of their structure is
suppository, neither are we better informed as to their functions. Ganglia are not common
to all nerves : the upper branches of all the spinal, those of the eighth and the fifth pairs, are
the most prominent instances of ganglionic connexion ; and we become assured that a direct
and specific purpose is assigned to these nervous knots, by the fact, that the lower branches
of the spinal nerves are without them, as well as so many other important nervous trunks.
And further, that as nerves of involuntary motion, and such as are particularly destined to
general sensibility, are those which principally arise from ganglia ; so we are led to con-
jecture that they are designed to place the nei-ves they belong to out of the controul of the
will, as well as to furnish fresh relays of nervous energy, which it is remarkable become,
by their means, probably, incapable of fatigue or exhaustion. Thus the horse of thirty con-
tmues to respire with equal ease as he did at five, unless his lungs have become disorgan-
ized ; neither by any act of his will is he capable of stopping the respiratory inhalation.
The nerves of sense are five or six times larger than nerves of motion, which was neces-
sary, as well from the importance of their oflice, as that they receive in general no accession
of vigour from ganglia. This difference between the two is well illustrated in the anatomy
of the elephant, where the whole nervous branches given to the motive organs of his power-
ftil trunk are less than that from which the tactile qualities of its small nipple-like ex-
tremity are derived.

In the general distribution of nerves, some parts are found to be much more plentifully
supplied than others : the organs of sense, the muscles, and the skin, are peculiarly so.
The living powers of the nerves to support themselves must be considerable, from the
now fully established fact that they are capable of reproduction*. The simple division of
a nerve destroys for a time only the nervous powers of the ramifying branches beyond its
division ; it being found that the divided extremities becoming enlarged, and more vascu-
lar,^ pour out adhesive matter, which soon becomes organized, and the subsequent cicatri-
zation of which draws the divided ends nearer together, and the nervous as well as the liring
principle is continued through the interposed substance; which appears to assimilate
nearly, but not entirely, to the structure of the original trunk. This is proved to be in-
variably the case in the nerves formed for sensation ; but at present we are not aware that
similar phenomena can be made to follow the division of the nerves of voluntary motion,
(bee Neurotomy.)

The sympathetic connexions of the vervotis system are principally derived from a pair of
nerves whose course extends from the brain to the termination of the sacrum. Treating
of one only, this nerve has been called great intercostal, from its situation ; but, as it
neither originates within the area of the ribs, nor is confined in distribution to that vicin-
age, it IS with more propriety named great sympathetic, from its surprising effects and
extensive communications, which are such as to include not only all the most important
sentient nerves of cerebral origin, but the thirty-six spinal pairs also.

ihe great sympathetic nerve ( nerf trisplanchiiique, G.) may be considered to arise within
the skul^ by filaments received from the fifth, sixth, eighth, ninth, and tenth cerebral
nerves ; but it appears to receive its largest branch from the fifth ; next from the united
nerves of the eighth; next, from the tenth; and subordinately from the sixth, ninth spinal
accessory, and first spinal, as it enlarges without the skull, into the anterior cervical gan-
glion, found at the base of the cranium in front of the atlas. This important ganglion, formed
by these numerous assistants, again determines itself into a renewed sympathetic trunk,
which commences a new march of intercommunication, directing its course between the

' „.i,iI,Vf^ l?>. ?„,,''• promulgate, tlmt this important fact, if it did not immediately

ST til "J .ngeniou. Dr. Haigl.ton, yet was first established 1 v him in 1792. at which
t ZrtivHp, f , ".nmnerous experiments on the reproductive power of the nervous struct.ne in
t r vIho ,, of H °-'^^ " by drawings which I made from the parts in

the various stages of their re-union. were presented to the Roval Society the followine year and
gamed for tliis excellent physiologist their go d picdal ^ oocietj tnc louowing )ear, anu

I

NEUROLOGY— PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 163

carotid and par vagum, to which latter it is contiguous, to tlie bottom of the neck, where
it again enlarges into the posterior cervical ganglion, which is situated under the first dorsal
vertebra, from which nervous twigs oi" communication with the par vagum, recurrent, and
the remaining cervical, as well as some of the dorsal nerves, are given off"; by the union
of which, the important tracheal and cardiac plexi are formed, whose branches are distri-
buted to the important viscera of the chest, respiratory and circulatory. Proceeding under
the articulations of the ribs with the spine, at length it divides into three portions, the two
splanchnic nerves, and the remainder of its original trunk ; all which penetrate the abdo-
men, and principally expand their trunks in forming, togetlier with the par vagas, the
great semilunar ganglion, whose nervous radii, sent oft; constitute the solar plexus. From
the solar plexus numerous minor plexi are formed, each of which, furnishing an individual
important abdominal viscus, receives a corresponding name, as the splenic, hepatic, me-
senteries, aortic, hypogastric, and renal. Having gained the pelvis, the sympathetic, in
conjunction with the lumbar nerves and its fellow sympathetic, forms numerous minute
ganglia, from which the pelvic viscera are furnished: and thus terminates this extraordi-
nary medium of communication between all the important parts by which they are united
in one common sympathy of action ; from whence arise many curious phenomena, both
m health and disease, hut which are infinitely more diversified in the hrmian than the
horse ; where, however, the effects are yet sufficiently interesting, and practicallv im-
portant.

The physiology of the brain and nerves, important as it is, is yet involved in an impene-
trable mystery. We however know enough to be assured that the brain is the organ of
consciousness ; and that in proportion to cerebral development, are the number and kind
of mtellectual phenomena displayed in different animals*. The nerves appear to be the
media or messengers by which nervous influence, in the phenomena of sensation and voli-
tion, are transmitted to all parts of the body, and by them excitements to motions are pro-
pagatedf. The nerves also convey impressions back again to the brain ; thus the horse
smells with his nose, and feels with his lips ; and through the medium of the nerves of
both, his intellectual powers, resident in the brain, take cognizance of the matters ex-
amined. To the organs of voluntary motion, the excitement along the nerves is depend-
ent on the will ; to the involuntary, it is dependent on necessity or sympathy, connected
with the wants of the animal. If the brain be injured, locomotion is destroyed wholly
or partially, in proportion to the degree of cerebral derangement. From some wise pro-
visions, perhaps from a power resident within the ganglions per se, the functions of the
involuntary motions go on when the voluntary are stopped; as we see in animals partially
stunned, and in apoplexy, where breathing and even digestion are carried on while the
limbs are motionless and the animal sleeps. Pressure on the brain produces the same
phenomena as laceration of certain parts of it. Tasnia in the head of sheep gradually de-
stroys hfe by this means ; and concussion, by lacerating the medullary fibres, produces
similar symptoms, but more immediately. When the brain is diseased or coinpressed
the whole body suffers, and becomes convulsed or paralysed: but if the spinal marrow
be thus circumstanced, then only those parts whose nerves are given off posteriorly to
the seat of injury become affected. When the brain is compressed or injured on one side
only, leaving the other wholly unaffected, it has usually been found that the morbid con-
sequences appeared on the opposite sidej;. On the contrary, when one column only of the
spinal marrow is divided, the paralytic affection has appeared on the same side ; but is

itn^?*""' conclusion we may assume lliat where the rational principle is strong, and the or-
gans of sense are comparatively weak, as in man, the volume of bra n does greatly pren^erate Jo
the general mass of nervous matter. On the contrary, in brutes, where the ore an s of Se are moJe
depended on than the rational principles, the nerves form the greater proportion In directing f^o^p

U 'Tt win ."-'f 'i^l'" ^^"A ^'"^ ^"'"""^ ''"•■'^^ to the'^bulk of^he nerves ar sfn"f™m

h/pp ih , ■"^^'■f'>le as far as inquiries have been hitherto prosecuted, that irpropinlon as
vprJfi^H "'•"">;e.n«''le part preponderates, the rational powers will be seen niore extended and dT
versified : and by this mode of comparison, man is without anv competitor. The simia eleohant
cnnl-r^-f,' f°"»«',',f=h presenting an exact proportion in'the o der of its ntelScrwS
confirms the justness of the nrmciple. This superiority of mental power is not coiWctfd at alT viM
Wh^p^n H«"^ 'r'' 1" <^»"t"''y. ««oms to beset in opposition to themTfo in man ad the
higher orders of mammalia, the living principle is more easi y destroyed tlian n the lo ver'- and in
t%l"/iT-' ""P' r' "^^^^ """""'y- Proportion to the degree of int "ll Unce ,,r4s8ed

t There bc.ng nerves of sensation and otl.ers of volition, enables us to undcrstanrwhv a naralvHe

iiTe'areKTy'neuTotofnV"' V ''""V"^^" ""^^ dep™'o^\''e'nsa?r;n'i'n' a

nnrl>lvti„ iVr^- 1 ^y'liouHosing his power over the mot ons of it : it is senseless but not
En„i7 f ■ ""'^ sensation are then happily unconnected ; and altliougl t e fact was not un

t qome']^fPrJ°r ' additional light has been thrown on it v^itliin the lai^ wemy ye^rs!

thiir 1 -'"^.u °' inexplicable phenomena in the animal liody have made it appear that in

g:r[?iSr|^Zh'^s^nrh^g!U^

nr m-a^y yeTl'^^v^^Tt^^s^nlrn '^^H^^''- '"^'^^ otherl'ld:o?'th"e b^il^'

h 2

164

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

still equally accounted for by a decussation of its medullary fibres, which decussating within
the vertebral canal, restore the integrity of their course. The nerves are acted on by what
we call stimuli, and which are of various kinds. Mental stimuli act on the brain of the
horse as well as on that of man ; iind the phenomena produced, though not so numerous,
are no less well marked. Who has not witnessed the effect of the voice of the hounds on
a hunter ? and who but has observed his extraordinary exertions when his nervous system
has been thus excited? There is something also exhilarating in the effects of a clear frosty
air on the aequine system, which produces a disposition to gambol and frolic. Full health
and generous food are stimuli, natural and appropriate, and 'the nervous sensibilities are
increased by them. The passions, generally, are also powerful excitements; fear will pro-
duce exertions extraordinary to witness. Some nerves are insensible but to an appropriate
stimulus, as light stimulates the retina, but the finest sounds fail to move it; and thus, hear-
ing is operated by the acoustic nerves only. These specific stimuli are totally independent
of the ordinary one of sensation, by the intervention of nervous branches of sensation : thus
the blind eye is sensible to heat, though dead to light ; and we hence learn to admire that
wisdom which has thus separated these ordinary from the extraordinary excitements.

The nervous principle, — what is it? It has been supposed to be identified with tleciri
city or galvanism, because these agents excite extraordinary convulsive motions in the
body when applied to them : but it should be recollected that nervous energy ceases when
a nerve is compressed or divided; while the galvanic influence will still retain its power
over the nerves, provided the severed portions are brought into contact. If electricity,
therefore, be identified with nervous principle, it may at least act without cerebral conti-
nuity: and we do, indeed, find that a cerebral power, or one similar to it, does actually
reside in some of the nerves, the spinal for instance, independently of the cephalic portion
of the system ; and thus, though the nervous excitement is one sui generis, it may yet be
a modified form of electricity ; which, with the probable exceptions of caloric and attrac-
tion, appears to be the most universal principle in nature. The nervous excitation has
been attributed by some to oxygen ; by others to hydrogen ; and by a .third, to azote ; but
it cannot depend on either of these ; for the first proves a morbid irritant to them, and the
two latter suspend their action. To suppose the elementary nature of this exciting power
consists in oscillation or vibration of the nerves as cords, is to resist numerous proofs to
the contrary. The pulpy softness of their texture, their continuity with other masses, and
their own laxity of situation, but, above all, our knowledge that a compressed nerve is
inert, whereas a tense cord, although tied, oscillates, are, we think, of this kind. Many
others believe in a subtle nervous fluid, which, passing within the hollowed trunks of the
nerves, and exhaling through their terminal points, proves the medium of excitement. It
is cited in proof of this circulating fluid, that the effects of tying prove that there is some-
thing corporeal in it, and that this matter is a secretion from the brain. It is, however,
not necessary to sensation that either the nerve, or the part on which the impression is
represented in the sensoriuni, should even be in existence. The limb left on the plains of
Waterloo is felt.most acutely by the old soldier to the ends of his fingers or toes. Here no
fluid can circulate ; nor can any chord ring a vibratory note in the ear of him who has lost it.
N ervous power is something sui generis, and, at present, is completely beyond our com-
prehension.

Nervous sympathy presents also phenomena equally inexplicable, although here we
have also tangible and solid objects, as well as marked operations, resulting from them.
I have endeavoured, in a comprehensive manner, to trace the course of the sympathetic
nerve, by which a kind of common consent is kept up in dissimilar and far distant parts.
The debauchee finds a distressing head-ache relieved almost immediately by a dose of
magnesia, or a glass of soda water, because the nerves of the head sympathised with those
of the stomach. We need not, however, look for proofs of sympathy in man alone ; for,
by turning to our own subjects, we shall find them multiply on us. Wlio has not seen
the slaver run from the mouth of the hungry dog in sight of the mixing of his daily mess ?
Here the salivary glands were in unison with the cravings of the stomach, and were al-
ready preparing the accustomed diluent of the food. The horsing mare has her stomach
affected by the cestrum of her genitals; and she eats little, because of thecommunicationr
betwcen her pelvic and semilunar ganglia. The urinary organs can be brought by habit
to sympath ise with the ears ; and hence the solicitation of whistling long applied, at last,
by associating with it the ideas of rest and opportunity, will bring on staling in the horse
almost at will. The philosopher may laugh at this, but the ploughboy and ostler acknow-
ledge its power, and act on it to their own advantage and that of their horses : nor is there
more reason to doubt that a horse may be influenced by hearing an accustomed whistle of
solicitation, than tluit Sir Joshua Reynolds was unable to refrain from a similar evacua-
tion whenever he heard the sound of a violin. Cows almost invariably both dung and
water the moment they enter a pond : the sympathetic effect produced by cold partially

ADENOLOGY.

165

applied to the extremities only, is marked : deluge them with rain, and no such eff'ect is
produced.

In disease, the sympathies are equally numerous and important : the devastating and
painful effects of a quittor are acknowledged hy the stomach, and food is refused. The
skin sympathises with the convulsive action of the abdominal portions of the great sym-
pathetic, and thus the griped horse becomes bathed in sweat. The action of the heart is
quickened, and that of the lungs is also accelerated, from sympathising with an inflamed
foot. Sympathy is a great and necessary sentinel, so that one part shall not be allowed to
suffer without all the others being apprised of it ; and a general call is then made on the
vis medicairi.v iiatiira.

Some very important and ingenious experiments, lately made by Mr. Brodie, would
seem to extend this sympathetic communication from the nervous to the sanguiferous
system, in the production of animal heat ; which has been long supposed to depend on the
chemical change which the blood undergoes in the round of circulation, but which his
experiments would tend to prove is effected by nervous influence. For Mr. B. invariably
found, by destroying the communication between the brain and lungs, the heat of the
body disappeared, although respiration was kept up by artificial means, and the other or-
dinary changes of the blood appeared the same. (See Respiration.) It remains only to
add, that if I have extended this subject beyond the limits of even the last edition, where
it had been also greatly enlarged on, it has been from a still stronger conviction than
heretofore of its great importance to the medical student, both in a theoretical and prac-
tical point of view. To a more accurate knowledge of the structure, anatomical arrange-
ment, and functions of the nerves, we are indebted for some of the greatest improvements
the healing art in general has lately received, and in which the veterinary department ac-
knowledges at least an equal share ; of this. Neurotomy forms a prominent instance. My
limits necessarily confine me in my anatomical detail. I have however introduced, I
believe, all that is essentially connected with the practical deductions of the student
Brevity is forced on me ; but a reference to the ingenious writers we have quoted, both
English and foreign, will supply my insufficiencies ; in particular, Mr. Percivall and M.
Girard, as anatomical guides, may be studied with advantage. Mr. Percivall's dissections
of the nerves are masterly performances, and, in many instances, are perhaps more cor-
rect, and certainly more explanatory, than those of his great assistant guide, Girari

SECT. XIV,

ADENOLOGY.

Glands are vascular secretory bodies distributed over every part of the
animal frame. They are of various sizes, some being very large, as the
liver, and others small, as the cryptae. Their ^gure is as varied, and their
situation undetermined ; some being deep-seated, or within cavities, while
others are altogether superficial. The office of secretion does not appear
proper to all those parts we consider glandular, as is instanced in the thy-
roid, which, as far as we know, does not secrete ; other parts again secrete
that appear to have no glandular structure, as the capsular ligaments. Glands
maybe divided mto folliculose, globate, glomerate, and conglomerate; they
likewise receive individual names, according to their office, as lachrymal,
salivary, &c. The follicular are small glandular bodies variously disposed,
and appear either sebaceous or muciparous. The sebaceous are mostly
situated on or near the surface of the body, and produce a semi-solid sub-
stance resembling suet. Muciparous glands are small follicular bodies,
usually situated in cavities and canals ; secreting a mucus, as that of the nos-
trils, fauces, and urethra ; but in many instances they are not very evident,
and in some mucous membranes their existence even is doubtful. Glohate
glands are oval vascular bodies, receiving lymphatic vessels at one side, and
permitting their exit at the other, but are" destitute of any other excretory
trunk ; hence they are deemed peculiar to tlie lymphatic system. A glo-
merate gland appears one connected body, of an indefinite shape, with an

166 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE,

excretory duct, as the kidney, liver, &c. A conglomerate gland is a body
composed of several glomerate glands, or lobuli, each of which has its proper
excretory duct, which unite to form one trunk common to the whole, whereby
the gland is officially connected, but is structurally held together by the cel-
lular membrane : instances occur in the parotid and pancreas. There does
not seem to be any essential difference in the economy or functions of the
glomerate or conglomerate glands ; the convenience of situation appears to
be studied more than any varieties in their office ; hence, early in life, some
are conglomerate which in the adult become glomerate. The glands of
young subjects are said to be larger than those of older ; and from the alter-
ation which takes place in the kidney and thymus glands, we see that some
change really does take place both in their size and figure during life The
nerves of glands are small, and thus their sensibility is not considerable
They have also absorbents, which in some instances, as those of the Hver
and spleen, are very large. Their bloodvessels, both arteries and veins
are usually large, particularly when the office of secretion is considerable'
as m the kidneys. In its passage through glandular bodies, the blood is
found to be retarded m its course by means of the 'structure and situation of
these vessels : their arteries being usually convoluted, and having a greater
proportion of muscular than elastic coat, while their veins are without valves-
by which the blood is retarded within the gland, and can be more completely
acted upon. All the secreting glands perform their office on the arterial
blood, except the hver, which separates the bile from venous blood. Among
the phenomena that these bodies present, a sympathetic property is a marked
one. Ihe sight of food stimulates the salivary glands, and which is parti-
cularly observable m the carnivora ; thus a dog will slaver abundantly while
his meat is cuttmg for him. The sympathy of the kidneys with the skin is
very considerable, and,' when either becomes greatly excited, the secre-
tion ot the other diminishes. In summer, when the skin is in full action,
and the blood pours out its aqueous particles in sweat in great plenty, little
urine is made; but in winter the reverse takes place. As the circulation
through a gland is mcreased, so is the secretion enlarged hkewise; hence
under the first stages of inflammation glands secrete more, because the cir-
culation IS quickened; but in the latter stages of it, and when it becomes
excessive, the secretion is lessened, or totally stopped, for then the gland
probably becomes, in a measure, disorganized, and unfitted for its functions.
Ihe individual glands will be described with the parts to which they more
immediately belong. ^

Hfe'T"^"?,^ o/«fcre<io« is but little known. That from one liquid (the blood) fluids
wnnHpf.^, r\ «lio"l<J formed, cannot fail to excite our

■ inquiries. Glandular secretion has been supposed to depend

^nlv . J^'^r' ^^^'l^^n^e °f 'he secreted matter within the blood, and that the glands
bPPn otherwise separated, these component particles. But the blood, it has

dr^wn frnr^^f^'""'^''^' chemical properties throughout the body; and that,

Hrv J 7'i,''r'^"'S ""^^^^ '"^y- i' i^ «till the same. Nevertheless, the elemen-

fn L . . exist in the blood in a latent state ; audit does appear

Hon frl^T^ tl'emselves to separate and compound each proper secre-

nn nSfv l, 1 ''V'"' arbitrarily alter many of the secretions both in quality and

menn nf T) "^^'^^J^^'^ts. This opinion is farther proved by some of the pheno-
,npd;^,nf "^^"^^^I'^X. The sap of trees owns the same chemical properties, yet forms, by
med urn through which it passes, either wood, bark, leaves, blossoms, or frifits.

TT, *^^g''''"<l« the horse are fewer than those of the Inunan glandular
Th^ ;i ^T;*" ? aflcctions are nearly unknown in veterinary pathology.

Ihe glandular secretion can, however, become morbidly excited, not only as "to quantity,

SPLANCHNOLOGY.

167

but as to quality also ; as we witness in diabetes. Urinary calculi arise from a deranged
secretion also, or from morbid separation of earth mattery from the blood. The liver, the
spleen, and the pancreas of the horse, have all of them been occasionally found diseased
and much altered in structure.

SECT. XV.

SPLANCHNOLOGY.

Having treated of the structure and composition of the parts of the body
generally, we come now to describe the organs themselves individually ;
which we shall do by considering the horse as composed of head, neck, chest,
abdomen, pelvis, and extremities. All these parts are invested by some
general coverings, which must be first noticed.

The common Coverings and Integuments.

Under the name of skin, are exterior parts kindly bestowed on animals to
regulate their form, to protect them from injury, and to modify the action of
the surrounding elements. These components are the cuticle, or insensible
skin, the rete mucosum, and the cutis, corium, or sensible skin ; and con-
nected with these, are the adipose and cellular membranes, and the panni-
culus caraosus. The hair and hoofs are also considered as appendages to
the skin ; the former of which, as being most exterior and almost universal,
we shall first notice ; the latter will be described with the extremities.

The hair. — Each hair is a little tube, whose bulbous end arises within the
cellular web immediately attached to the cutis, or true skin * : it penetrates
that, the mucous web and the cuticle, and appears exteriorly of indeter-
minate lengths, figures f, and sizes. Thus those of the mane and tail are
large and long ; those above the eyes and around the muzzle are strong, but
of diminished length ; while those which extend over the body generally are
comparatively very short and fine. Each hairy tube is formed of an ex-
ternal homy covering, and a central vascular part, termed its medulla or
pith. The horny portion is filamentous, and so disposed as to form each
hair into an elongated cone with protruded processes, giving the hair the
property of receding in the direction of its roots when subjected to pressure,
and on which the process oi felting depends. The colour of the hair varies
much in different subjects, and in different parts of the same subject, and
which variations appear in a considerable degree to depend on the colour of
the mucous web, which is exemplified by spotted or piebald horses, in which
the colour of the skin varies with that of the hair. As certain tints of haii-
are supposed to arise from certain general structural arrangements, so its
colour laas been regarded as a criterion of mental and personal qualities (see
Exterior Conformation) : and there appears to be reason for this supposi-
tion ; for many facts prove to us that hair of a dark tint usually accompa-
nies strength and durabilityl, as light hair usually indicates weakness and

* In some animals the hairs appear to be merely filamentous elongations of the cuticle,
and are subjected to its various changes, as is seen in caterpillars, whose hairs are cast
with their cuticle or outer skin.

t Some hairs are thickest in the middle, and in some animals they are seen flat; in the
whiskers of the seal their margins are waved. In the porcupine and hedge-hog they be-
come spines ; in swine, bristles ; and when crisped, they form wool : but in all, hair forms
one of the most permanent animal substances with which we are acquainted, resisting
putrefaction very long.

X It is found that black hair is usually accompanied by a very thick skin, and it is re-
markable that few thorough-bred horses arc black. There is also a general connexion be-

168 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE,

irritability. Age, which produces debility, is accompanied by a change in
the colour of the hair, from a darker to a lighter tint ; and the hair which
arises after a wound is usually white, and this whether the mucous web has
been destroyed or not ; which cannot be accounted for but by considering-
the part to be in a state of debility. It is likewise remarked that white ex-
tremities are found more disposed to the affections of cracks, grease, &c
than others. The inclined position of the hair admirably adapts it to the
purposes of protection for which it is designed*. This position sometimes
becomes disturbed, partly by a derangement in the vascular bulb of the hair
from whence the unctuous matter is derived, which tends to make the sleek
glossy coat of the healthy horse so beautiful ; and in a greater degree from
a derangement in the skin itself, originating in a sympathetic communication
between it and the alimentary canal (see Hide-bound, see also Physiology
of the Nerves). In the cold fit of fever, or under the action of accidenS
cold, the coat will also stare by the corrugating influence of the panniculus
carnosus. The hair is kindly allowed to sympathize with the wants of the
body generally, and thus it is given thick and curied in cold countries, as is
witnessed in the Shetland breeds. It also alters its quantity and quality by
this sympathy, to the varied temperature of climates alternately hot and
cold. In the Orkneys, the horses retain their long hair all the year, and
English horses taken there do the same. But with us, as that portion of
the hair called the coat is deciduous, and falls off (that on the mane, tail,
and fetlocks, is permanent), so the animal is seen to present the phenomena
of a fine short coat in the spring, which has succeeded to the winter cover-
ing. As autumn approaches, this also falls, and gives place to a longer,
thicker, and warmer expansion. That this is a sympathetic effect between the
skin and constitution, is evident from what takes place in such horses as are
very artificially treated, that is, by being constantly immured in hot stables :
for in them, as the change of temperature between winter and summer is
hardly perceptible, from the additional heat that is usually given the stables
at this time, so, the constitution not wanting any increase to the coverino-, the
sumnier coat either remains, or, if it be changed, it is for one with the "same
length of hair. Not only do hot stables tend to prevent a long coat from
torming, and thus to perpetuate a short one, but most stimulating substances
hkewise have the same effect ; from which it appears probable that any thino-
which increases the circulation has a similar tendency : hence hkewise horses",
atter strong exercise, shed much hair, which is an act of the skin to prepare
tor a future production ; and, aware of this, idle grooms give their horses
spice and other stimulants to hasten the deciduous change. The general
growth of hair appears a process that requires considerable powers of the
constitution ; thus horses at the time of moulting are usually weak, have an
mcrease of pulse, dry mouth, and other slight febrile symptoms; which ap-
pearances are particularly observed in such horses as are very artificially

frr/lv'nf tl?I°"'' ^T-' ^'^^ °f ^'^^ Theeyes, hah-, and skin, are

usually of the same tint : milk- white horses are thus often wall-eyed.

Parts subjected to much disturbance by motion, as the bendings of the extremities,
throat, flank, &c. have the ban- in-egularly placed and wavy, which prevents the effects of
friction ; we thus apply the cnsped fleece of the sheep, in the undressed skin, as a guard
against galling, tt, our collars and cruppers. The hair is also equally irregular in its dis-
tribution being on the exposed portions of the body very dense, but under the belly, the
entrance to cavities, and around the hps, nose, &c., very soft and fine. A singular variety
oi Afncan l.orse is entirely without hair; Mr. ScwcU saw a stuffbd preparation of such a
one at Bcrlm. ' '

SPLANCHNOLOGY — THE CUTICLE

169

treated*. As the hair appears to be a production of the true skin and the
cellular web, so, if by any means these become wholly destroyed, the hair is
not reproduced ; thus in blisters, when properly applied, the cuticle only is
raised : but if the blistering matter act very strongly, and the cutis be de-
stroyed, a permanent baldness is the consequence.

Two varieties of hair are seen on the horse, which are thus described by
Mr. Percivall : ' The horse is clad with hair of two kinds or qualities ; the
one is that fine soft material which clothes the body generally, and which
we expressively distinguish by the term coat ; the other, vulgarly known as
horse-hair, is of a coarser and stronger nature, is confined to particular
parts, and appears to have been added rather for the purposes of ornament
and defence than those of vesture and interception.'

The Cuticle.

Immediately under the hair is a firm insensible covering to the true skin,
called cuticle, or epidermis. The substance of the cuticle is by no means
equally thick in every part : on some its substance is considerable, as on the
back and extremities ; and on others it is very thin, as over the lips, &c. It
appears, as in the human, to be much increased by pressure ; hence I have
found it of astonishing thickness on the rumps of asses, who are much ex-
posed to be beaten on that part. Over the knees, the points of the elbows,
and hocks, it becomes likewise much increased from pressure, and it is also
originally given thick to these parts. Within the fore arm, and on the
inner side of the cannon behind, it produces a substance not unlike horn,
which grows to a considerable length, and is then removed in scales and
reproduced. The colour of the cuticle is the same in every horse, let his
tints or markings be what they may ; and the apparent diversities of tone it
presents are wholly dependent on the parts underneath. The cuticle ad-
heres to the cutis or true skin by means of numerous papillae, which run
from the cutis into its substance. These papillae are thought to be the ex-
pansion of the nerves of the skin, the exquisite sensibility of which is modi-
fied through the medium of this substance. The cuticle may be separated
by maceration and boiling in the dead subject ; in the living, by frictions
and stimulants, as cantharides. It covers the skin throughout its whole ex-
tent, except at the hoofs, which it is probable are themselves only a species
of cuticle, or a secretion from the cutisf . This expansion likewise lines
many of the large openings made through the skin by the entrance of canals,
as the mouth, where the cuticular lining is continued into the oesophagus,
and even over the first portion of the stomach. The cuticle is perforated
by the sebaceous ducts, by the exhalent vessels, and probably by the ab-
sorbents also:}:. Through the exhalent orifices, the insensible perspiration

• Animals who lick themselves are subject to have collections of hair in the form of
balls within their stomachs : sometimes these collections have increased to such an extent,
especially in oxen, as to incommode, and even to kill ; they are said to be particularly fre-
quent in the chamois goat, called Mgagropilus ; and in times of superstition and igno-
rance these particularly were used in medicine as a species of bezoar. Some hair balls
are covered with a thin smooth coat or shell, of which kind I have a beautiful specimen,
correctly spherical, extracted from the stomach of a camel : others are naked, and shew the
hairs on their surface, being simply connected together by gluten. Horses are but little
subject to these hair balls, though now and then they do exist in them also.

t Insensible as is the cuticle, it is convertible, or is modified into the diversities of
scales, nails, shells, plates, and hoofs.

X Some modern physiologists deny the power of absorption to the cuticle, affirming
that whatever passes through it enters by mere imbibition.

170 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE,

passes off; and through the sebaceous ducts, which are evident to the naked
eye, the cuticle is furnished with an unctuous substance which keeps it soft
and pliant, and which gives it that greasy feel we are accustomed to. Blis-
ters applied, irritate and inflame the true skin, and occasion so great a de-
posit of serum underneath, that, the cuticle being no longer pervious, the
liquid contents present themselves in small bladders. The insensible' skin
appears formed from a real secretion of the true skin, and is almost endless
in its reproduction, forming itself anew in a very short time after its re-
moval from a healthy surface.

The corpus mucosum, or rete mucosum, is a mucilaginous substance
placed between the layers of the cuticle and cutis, the structure and uses of
which have not yet been satisfactorily explained. It is found to be difficult
of reproduction, and by some it is said to be never regenerated.

The cutis, dermis, or true skin, is a very general and highly organised
membrane, whether as regards its vascularity, sensibility, or the intimate
reticulation of its fibres. Its density of structure will be apparent when we
view it as leather. It is not equally thick in everv part of the body ; but,
like the cuticle, is most dense in the parts most exposed, as may be seen in
the extremities, particularly over the fetlocks, knees, and hocks ; as well as
over the back, belly, and some parts of the head : it is also much more loose
and flexible in some parts than in others, to admit of motion. It is con-
nected exteriorly to the rete mucosum and cuticle, and interiorly to the
fleshy pannicle and membrana adiposa ; and wherever it is so connected it
is more loose : in some parts it is even corrugated, as behind the fore legs.
Its outer surface is garnished with numerous papillae, which are small emi-
nences extremely sensible, lying under the cuticle, and received into its de-
pressions ; and wherever the skin is most sensible, these papillae are found
most numerous and extensive. The cutis, like the cuticle, is perforated by
numerous openings, which are the exhalent and inhalent orifices ; and by the
ducts of its sebaceous glands, which are in greater plenty in some parts than
in others ; as in the nose, ears, and parts of generation, as well as in parts
subjected to friction*. The cutis is elastic, as we know by the effects of preg-
nancy, m which it becomes greatly extended, yet soon recovers its former
dimensions. The bloodvessels, nerves, and absorbents of the cutis are as
abundant as its highly organised structure would give us reason to expect.

Sense of Touch.

This sense is principally operated by means of the skin, which is universally affected by
many external circumstances, as those of heat and cold, dryness and moisture. But it is
nLd^nir .^'''''r' muzzle or extremities of the lips, and by the toes, that

113 H . 1?^"°.'^''^"'^"''^^ "^'j^^'^ fr°m e'-'ch other particularly; and in these it is
TrriHWH/. If f, , 9"^^"^°"' ""T" ^''^ numerous, and the cuticle thinner. The

nlp;«nrl ^ U A I ir" fr^lV^^tly ^ery great: that mixed sensation between pain and
nlnhllv ^11 . ^ ^"^m' '^'\'"^t^"<=e of its susceptibility under taction, and which was
probably given to warn the animal of approaching danger, as the attacks of insects, &c.

• Mallenders and sellenders appear to arise from a diseased increase or alteration of
the sebaceous glands within the bendings of the knee and hock ; and as these follicular
opemngs are very numerous m the heels, so cracks, scabs, and grease are referrible fo
the same cause. It may be remarked, that the secretion of the sebaceous glands varies
according to the necessities of the part furnishing it ; thus it is ceruminous in the ears,
semi-cerummous in the glans penis, and unctuous over the cuticular surfaces

SPLANCHNOLOGY — CELLULAR MEMBRANE.

171

Adipose Membrane and Fat.

The adipose membrane forms a considerable portion of the body of most
animals ; but like the panniculus carnosus, it cannot be regarded as a com-
plete covering or investment, since many parts are without it, as the eyelids,
ears, sheath, some parts of the extremities, &c. It appears composed of a
number of membranous laminae, so disposed as to form themselves into cells,
neither the number nor the size of which are the same in all parts of the
body. In the mesentery, omentum, and about the kidneys, they are large
and numerous, and their contained matter is of a more solid consistence : on
the surface of the body these cells are smaller, and in the bones, where their
contents are nearly fluid, they are very small. The adipose cells do not ap-
pear to communicate, or the fat would gravitate ; which forms a very essen-
tial difference between this substance and the general connecting cellular
membrane. It is vascular, and has nei'ves and absorbents, and is likewise
subject to the diseases attendant on vascularity, as inflammation and abscess.

Thefat is an unctuous juice that is secreted or poured into the cells of
the adipose membrane, at first in a fluid form, from which it gradually be-
comes of. a firmer consistence. It appears in greater quantity in some parts
of the body than in others, forming in the abdomen suet or lard, while that
over the surface of the body, and within the bones, is semi-oleaginous.
Difi'erent animals have their adeps of difi'erent degrees of firmness, from the
firm suet of the ox, and the tallow of the sheep, to the soft lard of the hog :
that of the horse is of a mixed degree of consistence.

The uses of this substance appear to be several : it may be considered as a guard to
partSj and its distribution strengthens this opinion : hence it is found covering the nerves
and bloodvessels, especially such as are in the neighbourhood of hard parts, and liable to
pressure. It fills up most interstices, and thus adds much to beauty : this is instanced
m the eye-pits, which in young horses are filled up with this substance : it is useful also
in lessening that irritability of the cutaneous nerves so remarkable in young animals ;
and for which reason we find most of the adeps in early life distributed exteriorly, while
that of older subjects is placed mostly within the cavities of the body. In quadrupeds
of all ages, the omentum is very plentifully supplied with it, but in some more than in
others ; in the horse it is proportionally small ; and the quantity of abdominal fat gene-
rally is in him very limited, as it is in most animals destined for extraordinary speed.
Even the kidneys of the horse, usually so imbedded by adeps, are in him but sparingly
furnished. In well fed animals the fat fills up the interstices of the muscles, and is placed
m the cancelli of bones, where it is termed marrow. The most important of the uses of
the fat to animals, however, is to form a depot for the support of the constitution under
the accidental want of nourishment : hence much fatigue produces a rapid absorption of
it. It is/rom this cause that animals who fast long, from the highest state of obesity
become wholly lean and impoverished ; and thus the hybernating bear, who enters his
wintry liabitation surrounded with an immense quantity of adeps, leaves it in the spring
greatly emaciated, having been supported during his torpidity by the absorption of this
large portion of animal oil, and not, as is vulgarly supposed, by sucking his paws, which
probably are only wrapped around his nose, but never enter his mouth. Animals living
a, life of rest appear to have a tendency to form this fluid, but not in an equal degree ; for,
m addition to inaction, there must be present a certain disposition of constitution. A
particular form of body is favourable to its accumulation, of which the circular carcass, as
afiording the most room for chylification, is the best example. A superabundant quan-
tity of food beyond the waste of the constitution is converted into this oil: hence full-
fed animals are prone to become fat.

Cellular Membrane.
This expansion, and the former, are probably but modifications of each
other, and form the innermost layer of the integumental coverings of almost
every part of the body. Like the adipose membrane, it is cellular, but its

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE,
cells freely communiGate with each other throughout the whole body • as
we see in the practice of butchers, who blow up the newly killed calf from
any one point, until not only the surface, but even the viscera, become dis-
tended by the air. This cellular structure is exemplified, likewise, by the
emphysematous distention which follows wounds of the lungs, as we'll as the
more partial ones, from punctures of the hock and elbow ; from which latter
cases we learn that these cells have a disposition to absorb air also. Cellu-
lar membrane is, probably, a more general substance than is supposed, and
even ligaments may be but a modification of it with a peculiar arrangement
of fibres ; nor are aponeuroses, or tendons, very dissimilar. We already
know that it exists in diflerent quantities, and in various forms in different
parts : in some it is strong and dense, taking on the appearance of lio-aments •
m others, it consists of the finest laminae. It is the general connecting me-
dium between parts ; it unites the skin to the body ; it enters into the inter-
stices of muscles, and is likewise interposed between the various expansions
ot which parts are made up ; it connects filamentary substances, and holds
together the granulated: it is also vascular and elastic. Anasarca has its
seat within Its cells ; and it is probable that to some alteration in its struc-
ture, as well as to sympathetic influence on the pannicle, that we may often
attribute obstinate cases of what is termed hide-bound. It is the very seat
of abscess.

Subcutaneous Muscles* of the Integuments.

Providence having denied hands to quadrupeds, has given them, in lieu,
three pairs of cutaneous muscles, which having a cellular attachment to the
integuments, and being extended nearly over the whole body, enables them
to corrugate the skm, and thus to shake off dust, prevent the attack of
noxious msects, and perform other purposes necessary for their ease and
convenience : a general subcutaneous muscular expansion is therefore found
only m quadrupeds, and not in the whole of them. In different tribes it has
difierent at achments, and consequently its actions and powers become varied
also. In the horse and all the mammalia with short hair, it is, by the ex-
tent ot Its attachments, capable of very powerful and diffused operations.
Its centres are usually muscular, and its terminal attachments often aponeu-
rotic, ending sometimes into other muscles or their fascias; by which, as
either or any of these become the fixed point or points, the action of the
whole may be changed at pleasure, either partially or totally. It acts to
greatest advantage when the horse is at rest, because the various attach-
ments are then fixed: considering this fleshy expansion, therefore, as a por-
tion of the integumental covering, I am warranted in removing it from the
"^^^^^^.'^^^ff it will best elucidate its functions to describe it here
and Ldv' '^''''''Z subcutaneous muscles of the head, neck,

tit ^7\ 1 ^'"^f ««^^>c« this muscular expansion will be found
ll"^ ^"Z ''"^i ""'^^ described throughout); extending

1 . '^''^ ^"'^ P^'-°^id ^h^H' adhering very

strongly o the zygomatic crest, it stretches itself downwards to the lips, and
loses Itself m the labial integuments. On the neck it is evidently hatf mus-

iin • Viiit a« If nv,Mo„f +l,of ;V;* 1 7 "'^^".'"'ig Known as the pmniicidiis carm-

siii , Dui as It IS evident tnat, it it be proner to dosrnhr. thr. ,■>„, <.„,.! ^ ^ •

teguments of the ,ojl,, here, it n.u.t b^e ^Jii:::^^!^^:^^^:^:^ ^

skin of the neck and headm the same, so I shall follow that course edition!

I

SPLANCHNOLOGY — THE EAR. 173

cular and half aponeurotic, extending from the forehead along the crest
over the whole cervical surface, connecting itself with the muscles of the
neck by tendinous fibres, and more intimately and generally with the cervi-
cal integuments.

The subcutaneous fleshy pannicle (panniculus carnosusj of the body
extends from the anterior edge of the scapula upwards, to unite with the
cervical portion, and downwards to where its fleshy portion terminates in
the upper part of the arm ; but is mediately continued lower by a union of
its aponeurotic expansion, which, uniting with the aponeurosis extending
over the cannon, carries the corrugating action thus far. In proceeding over
the sides of the trunk, it may be said to be truly fleshy ; but the attachments
it sends upwards to the spine are most of them semi-tendinous, as those it
sends downwards to the median Une of the abdomen are principally aponeu-
rotic. In the region of the flank it radiates, as it were, but is nevertheless
continued inferiorly and posteriorly by a strong aponeurotic expansion into
the groin, partly covering the penis, and is then continued inwards, to unite
with the fascia of the inside of the thigh : externally it proceeds, but much
stronger, in an aponeurotic expansion, over the muscles of the thigh, blend-
ing with the fascia of the fascia lata. — The fleshy pannicle is very plentifully
supplied throughout with nerves, distributed to it in very considerable
branches, and many of which penetrate it to enter the skin. A very large
nervous bundle enters it from under the shoulder, and it receives one or
more twigs from between each rib in its whole course : it is likewise as well
supplied with bloodvessels from the intercostals and neighbouring parts. It
must, therefore, be evident that its irritability is great, and its general living-
powers very considerable ; circumstances very favourable to its functional
purposes, of being a constrictor to the skin of almost every part of the body,
shaking and corrugating it in any and every direction.

ANATOMY OF THE HEAD.

Of the Head generally.

The parts forming the head are considered as external and internal. The
external parts are the hair, the common integuments, the muscles, the glands,
the external parts of the organs of sense, the periosteum, pericranium, and
the bones by which these parts are supported. The internal parts are the
brain and its appendages ; the deep-seated parts of the organs of sense, with
the cavities attached thereto. Some of these have been already considered
in their proper places ; such as have not, we shall proceed to describe.

The Bar.

The ears are formed of an inner and outer part. The internal parts do
not very materially differ in diff'erent quadrupeds of the higher orders, nor
from the human ; but the form of the outer ear is very wisely adapted to the
various habits and manners of the animal on which it is placed. The external
ear in the horse presents a truncated one, obliquely severed, of much elegance
in appearance, and most advantageously formed to take in a vast number of
sonorous waves or rays of sound ; it is singularly mobile *, and easily directed

• The mobility of the external ear is well displayed in the horse, where this organ is in
almost constant motion ; and it appears nearly the only double organ of sense that is
equally facile in applying one only at pleasure to a functional purpose : the horse is most
frequently seen with one car directed forward and the other backward. In the predacious

^"^4 THE ANATOMV OF THE HORSE,

towards the quarter from whence sound i)roceeds. The hair, which garnishes
the tube internally, is long and fine, and guards it from the effects of wet
cold, and the attack of insects ; hence the clipping of this close, as is usually
done, may prove in some cases very prejudicial : this surface is also furnished,
m addition to the general sebaceous glands, with a peculiar and larger kind'
called ceruminous, which secrete a bitter whitish substance, intended pro-
bably to prove noxious to insects. The motions of the ear are effected by
several appropriate muscles*. Its cartilages are three ; the concha, the in-
ternal, and the anterior. The concha, or principal cartilage, is that' conical
body which gives to the ear its figure ; it is covered by the skin and muscles
externally, and internally by cuticular folds which form longitudinal emi-
nences and depressions throughout the extent of the cavity. This cartilage
IS fixed to the petrous process of the temporal bone by means of two appen-
dicles, and is further maintained in this situation by ligamentous attachment
Within this, and leading to the auditif canal, is the annular cartilage, a
small moveable portion, whereby the external cavity is rendered more tor-
tuous. The anterior cartilage is situated at the anterior part of the base of
the concha; it is irregularly triangular, and has a ligamentary expansion in-
serted into the parietal bone, upon which it moves freely. The meatus au-
ditorius externus is in part bony, and in part cartilaginous ; and very tor-
tuous, whereby its surface is much increased : it enters the bony canal in
the petrous part of the os temporis, whose extremity is furnished with a car-
tiJaginous appendage. The memhrana tympani is the covering of a cavity
called the drum of the ear, from its supposed resemblance to that instru-
ment, over which this delicate membrane is expanded, and by which the inner
is separated from the outer cavity. The tympanum, it is supposed, has little
muscles, giving it by their contractions different degrees of tensity, and which
thereby fit it to receive the impressions of the air. The tympanum is a por-
tion ot the internal cavity of the ear, being irregularly spherical, and pre-
senting several prominences and subordinate cavities. It contains likewise
tour small bones, which are named, according to their supposed resemblances,
mcus, malleus, stapes, and orbicularis ; by whose movements it is conjectured
the impressions received by the membrana tympani are regulated, and receive
modifications from the cochlea and more interior parts. These bones are
moved by three muscles, two of which belong to the malleus, and one to the
stapes. 1 he internal ear presents several openings ; as those of the mastoid
cells, the Eustachian tube, and the communication between the cavity and the
labyrinth called the fenestra ovalis. The mastoid cells are small irregular
cavities m the substance of the mastoid processes, lined by a fine memb?ane,
and communicating with each other, having a common entrance near the
Eustachian canal. The Eustachian tube is an opening at the upper and an-
tenor edge of the hollow of the tympanum, forming I duct which is in part
Dony, and in part cartilaginous ; extending from the tympanum to a great

Sftr;™"'- '° fo™^^^,^ to have their general aspect forward, as in the fox, &c. ;
nnSl i ? r f r f '"f ''"f '""'■^•'''■y' 'lir^'^ted backward. The one

beWnd ^^^^^''^ to fancied pursuit of enemies from

* Instead of the numerical division after Bourgelat, Girard lias named these muscles
accordmg to situation Mr. Percivall divides them into four classes: attollentes; musculi
proprii concha; retrahentes; abducentes. Three pairs of a«o««,ir^ erect or cock the ears;
the first approximate, the second depress, and the third elevate them. Of the two miis
prop, concha, the first assists in the elevation, and the second will direct it backward The
uses of the retractor and abductor pairs arc indicated by their names.

SPLANCHNOLOGY — THE EAR. 175

membranous cavity at the posterior pai't of the nasal ' fossa (see d, fig. 1,
plate III).

The Eustachian ca.vity is this large membranous sac, whose use is not
known* ; and whose size and appearance bear no resemblance to the part
of the same name in the human, which in him is nothing more than the
cartilaginous enlargement of the Eustachian tube ; nor is it by any means
equally considerable in other quadrupeds : but in the horse it forms a very
large cavity, one proper to each side of the head ; the two being opposed to
each other, but with some intermediate space between. Each is closed by
a septum which sepai-ates it from the pharynx, by the removal of either
of which the cavity is brought to view ; when within may be seen a part
of the OS hyoides, a lingual branch of nerves, the trunk of the carotid, and
the continuation of the jugular ; all of them passing up its outer surface
{vide plate III).

H^XQ fenestra ovalis is usually considered as another opening of the tym-
panum, although it is little more than a hole of communication between the
tympanum and the labyrinth. The fenestra rotunda is situated inferiorly
to this, and is the entrance to a particular duct in the labyrinth. The vesti-
bule is a cavity in the petrous portion of the temporal bone, immediately
beyond the tympanum ; and the fenestra ovalis is the common opening to
them. The semicircular canals are three bony furrows which communi-
cate with the vestibule ; and the cochlea is a double spiral canal, within the
pars petrosa, opening also into the vestibule. These spiral convoluted canals,
divided from each other by a lamen of fine membrane, are filled with a thin
fluid, to perfect the undulations communicated by the drum. The nerves of
the inner and outer ear are principally furnished from the seventh pair.
(See Neurology.^ Blood is furnished to the organ, both internal and ex-
ternal, by means of the carotids and vertebrals ;, which blood is returned by
the jugulars. (See Angiology.)

Sense of Hearing.

The collision of elastic bodies produces phenomena which are called sounds ; and thus
a tremulous motion communicated to the surrounding medium extends in all directions,
and at length reaches the external ear; whose form is admirably adapted to receive a
large portion of these sonorous waves, which are then reliected from the cartilaginous
sides of the concha, till they reach the bottom of the outer ear. Becoming impinged on
the memhrani tympanij or ear-drum, they force it into similar oscillations ; which being-
communicated to the fluids in the spiral channels of the inner ear, finally act on the acutely
sensible expansion of the auditory nerve*, and produce those sensations we call hearing.
The student may find a most correct anatomical detail and instructive figui'e of the in-
ternal ear in No. 3 of the Farmers' Series, Library of Useful Knowledge.

* It has been suggested, that this hollow is probably intended as an assistant to the
action of neighing in horses and braying in asses : but as each has a membrane by which
it is shut out from immediate connexion with the larynx and pharynx, it does not ap-
pear easy to conceive how it can influence these sounds, unless by the oscillations of the
membrane itself. Bourgelat speaks of it as a cavity open with the pharynx ; but I have
always found it, as I have said, separated by a fine membrane : perhaps, in the usual mode
of examining it, this membrane has been torn through. Prom analogy, it Would be more
reasonable to suppose it connected, as in man, with the sense of hearing.

• It may be observed that tliere is a considerable similarity between the senses of hearing andtoueh,
which both take cognizance of bodies by tlieir mechanical properties ; whereas the senses of smelling
and of taste are operated on by the chemical properties of the bodies examined. The sense of Tision
appears to be compounded of both these : the forms of bodies are submitted to our vision by their me-
chanical admeasurement ; but their colours arc taken cognizance of by some chemical action of light
on tlie bodies viewed.

176

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

The Eye.

The phenomena of vision have engaged the attention of the curious in
every age, and the structure of the organ by which these are brought about
has occupied the anatomists of ever)"^ country. It is impossible to contem-
plate the organ of sense, as a whole, without being struck with admiration,
that the same substance, the brain, should, by modifications not to be de-
tected by the minutest examination, produce such varied results as are
brought about by the nervous messengers which furnish them with their
different sensibilities. The eyes of the horse are not situated, as. in the
human, directly in front of the face, but have a more lateral aspect, to in-
crease his field of view : each may be divided into ocular appendages,
and the eye itself. The eye-ball is situated in a funnel-shaped cavity,
formed by the concurrence of several bones, called the optic orbit. (See
Osteology.) Within this socket, the globe, surrounded by its moving agents
or muscles, rests on a quantity of fatty gelatinous matter," serving to prevent
the effects of friction* ; while the optic orbits themselves are lined by a
periosteum furnished by the dura mater.

The Coats of the Eye — -The conjunctiva is a fine delicate and transpa-
rent membrane which lines the internal superfices of each eyelid, and is re-
flected from thence over the anterior part of the globe of" the eye : being
thus reflected, freedom of motion is allowed, yet the eye is amply secured
within the orbit, and the entrance of any foreign substance beyond "the dupli-
cature completely prevented. The conjunctive coat, where it is opposed to
the pupil, is transparent, to admit of the visual rays ; and here, therefore,
although it be not entirely deprived of vascularity, it does not admit of any
other than the colourless parts of the blood. That portion which hues the
eyelids, on the contrary, is more highly vascular, does receive red blood, and
forms a secreting surface for the mucus furnished to defend these parts from
the irritation of the tears.

The sclerotica is the outermost of the more complete investments of the
eye, and is likewise the thickest and strongest, forming all the posterior
and larger part of the globe ; the remainder and smaller portion of the
sphere being formed of the cornea, and which has been thought to be only
a continuation of the sclerotic expansion in a transparent form, thus giving
rise to the tei-ms of transparent and Opaque corneas : this coat is but little
vascular or sensible, and hence not much subjected to disease. The cornea
transparens, diaphanous as it is, is yet laminated, as may be seen by either
boiling or submitting it to putrefaction. As a tunic, it extends over the
anterior part of the bulb ' of the eye ; forming in itself the segment of a
sphere, distinct from that portion of which the posterior part of the globe is
formed : appearing thus like a segmental portion of a small sphere, adapted
to the segment of a larger rone ; or as though a large cup existed posteriorly,
having a smaller cup applied to its margin anteriorly. The convexity varies
much in different subjects, by which the focal distance is adapted to the
viewing of near or more distant objects, according to the habits and manners
of the animal. In man, the focal distance of the eye is less than a foot, and
thus his cornea is considerably more convex. But the horse has to see objects

* It is the absorption of this adipose substance by age which gives to tlie eyes of old
horses tlieir sunken and retracted appearances, and also that depth of cavity in the pits
over them.

SPLANCHNOLOGY — THE EYE. 177
from his eye to the ground, where the substances he most usually studies
are placed ; in him, therefore, the convexity is less, and the focal distance of
his eye is probably some feet. The cornea is in different animals of different
shapes, but in all is adapted to their various habits and manners : in the
human, it is circular and small; while in the horse, very little of the opaque
part, or white of the eye, is exposed ; but a very large surface of transparent
matter of a horizontal oblong shape is exposed to the influence of the rays,
by which means vision is rendered very perfect in him*.

The Internal Kvjmnsions. — The m'w is described by some anatomists as
a muscular apparatus designed to regulate the focal distance of the eye, by
directing the rays through particular portions of the crystalline lens ; which
it is enabled to do by an orbicular and a radiated plan of fibres, whose ac-
tion contracts or dilates it at pleasure. This moveable curtain is situated
within the cavity of the globe, immediately under the cornea, to which it
corresponds in shape in all animals, being in the horse, as well as the ox
and sheep, of an horizontal oblong ; by these means objects on each side
can be distinguished, which are such as they most wish to observe ; and
thus they are not only enabled to see their food, but also to avoid their ene-
mies; which are not lil^ely to attack them from above or below, but on a
level with themselves. In man, the direction of the iris is circular ; for his
habits and manners require, and his intelligence leads him, to take cog-
nizance of objects in every direction. The colour of the eye depends on
the ins ; thus the human eye is commonlv grey, black, or blue : inlhe horse
It is usually brown, but now and then white,, when the animal is said to be
wall-eijecl. The space between the inner circumference of the iris is usually
termed the uvea, or pupil; the size of which necessarily increases or de-
creases as the ins contracts or dilates. The colour of the pupil is de-
pendent, m a degree, on that of the bottom of the eye and the transparency
ot Its humours, but in a degree only ; for the pupil "of the horse always in-
■chnes to a uniform greyish tint, though the substance at the bottom of the
eye may be of very different shades. At the margin of the iris are seen
some httle g obular bodies or bags covered with a black pigment, usually
attached to the upper margin only ; and when any do exist on the lower, they
are alvvays small : these bodies appear designed to stifle a portion of the rays :
and which, in a contracted state of the iris, when the pupil almost forms a

W r'nl T r ^'il'" remaining opening as to admit
but httle light. The ins, therefore, it is' evident, is a very important part,
tor by Its actions vision is in a great degree regulated. The choroides is a
vascular expansion spread over the internal surface of the sclerotic coat:
the ciliary processes are plaits or folds of it, spread on the anterior and outer
" The corneous coat, so called, is any thing but horny: it is, on the contrary eauallv

cases ol opacity of this suhstmce, introduced powdered glass within the eyelids ' or made

know ,t to he organized, and possessed of considerable living powers, whereby it exhibits
akes r f •'""'"^"^f "th'^r parts. It inflames, it deposit's co.gulable 1 n ,h and
. IrJf ' '"P'P'"-'^"^'' ^^^'--ornte., and afterwards reunites. I have ioen n an

which communicated directly with no other part

M

178 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

portions of the crystalline lens ; as a part of its connexion to the sclerotica
is termed the ciliary ligament. The pigment* is a black mucus spread
over the tapetum, and extending over the internal layer of the choroides.
The tapetum is a variegated expansion at the posterior part of the choroid
coat, over which the pigment is spread, designed, apparently, for important
purposes ; for it is observed that the lighter the colour of the tapetum is, the
better the animal can see at night ; that is, a less quantity of perceptible rays
are necessary to distinct vision in some animals than in others in whom this
expansion is darker.

The Retina. — The last and most important expansion of the eye is the
retina, so called from its supposed net- like structure: it appears to be an
exquisitely fine expansion of the substance of the optic nerve, which enters
the orbit at its posterior surface, not altogether centrally : it pierces the
sclerotic and choroid coats a little to one side, and, spreading itself over the
internal surface of the globe, terminates within a very short distance of the
ciliary circle ; by this means reaching as far as it is possible for any rays to
produce distinct vision : for, as well known, it is only where this expansion
exists that the eye is susceptible to the impression of light, or that it can
take visual cognizance of objects.

The Humours of the Eye. — The vitreous humour is of a jelly-like form
and consistence, and fills all its globe, except the spaces occupied by the
aqueous humour and the crystalline lens ; corresponding in extent to the
expansion of the retina, and thus occupying the posterior part of the space,
as the aqueous fills up the anterior, with the crystalline lodged between them.
It is placed in a capsule, the timica vitrea, and appears to be in greater
quantity, according to the bulk of the eye, in the horse than in man, and
consequently the aqueous humour is less. The crystalline humour forms
a lenticular body of a tolerably firm consistence, and is therefore more pror
perly termed the crystalline lens. It is by the refraction of the rays of light
through this substance that vision is brought about ; and hence different
animals have it of different figures : in the horse it is more spherical than
in man, being in the latter as 1 to 2 ; in the horse as 2 to 3 ; and in the
ox as 5 to 8 : in fishes it is still more perfectly globular. Its consistence
is not equal throughout, but is more intense towards its centre, by which the
visual rays are refracted in a greater degree, and receive the image of ob-
jects near at hand : the less central parts being of a much thinner consist-
ence, refract less, and are therefore better adapted to receive those more

* The pigment is generally black in man, but is of varied hues in different animals ;
and as this variety extends to such as feed alike, its intention cannot be to reflect the
colour of the food. In some animals it is altogether deficient, as in the cream-coloured
horse, white rabbit, and white-haired human albino ; in all of which, the blood circulating
in the choroid is seen through the pupil, while in the common eye the vessels are obscured
by the black pigment. Many circumstances lead us to conclude, that the dark pigment
is unfavourable to crepuscular vision : it is never dark in animals who, like the grami-
nivorous, feed as well by night as by day. In man it appears given to stifle superfluous
light (the albino cannot face the sun) : on the contrary, in predaceous animals, it appears
invariably of a light colour ; and, to favour nocturnal feeding in the grazing and browsing
tribes, superadded to its lightness of tone, it is compounded also ; in them exhibiting a
greenish cast, whereby they are enabled to collect in great plenty the rays corresponding
to the colour of their food ; which is yet sufficiently light to answer the purposes of noc-
turnal vision. In dogs likewise, who see remarkably well in the night, it is greyish ; but
in the cat tribe, one of our most nocturnally predaceous animals, it is very light, and
adapted to receive all the rays it meets with ; and it is more than probable that cats are
more completely crepuscular than any other domestic animal. In the owl, the na-
turalist will at once recognize a familiar instance of this ocular peculiarity.

SPLANCHNOLOGY— THE EYE.

179

distant. The lens is said to be laminated : we know it to be highly vascular
by the readiness it shews to inflame. It floats within a capsule, and occu-
pies a situation within a fossula in the centre of the anterior part of the
vitreous humour, just behind the iris, but is not connected to it : the space
between it and the iris, which is very small, is called the posterior chamber
of the eye ; as that between the iris and cornea forms the anterior chamber.
The use of the lens appears to be to increase the refraction of the rays which
pass through it, and to modify the degree of such refraction according to the
portion of it they penetrate.

The aqueous humour is a limpid fluid which fills up the anterior and pos-
terior chambers of the eye; that portion of it behind the iris being, however,
very inconsiderable. It does not seem to have any proper capsule, but ap-
pears to be a secretion of the arteries of the inner surface of the eye, and is
therefore capable of regeneration. The muscles of the globe of the eye are
seven : four of these are termed recti, or straight, and perform the oflices
of elevation, depression, abduction, and adduction ; and are individually named
accordingly. They all arise from the bottom of the orbit, and are inserted
into the anterior part of the sclerotica, either above, below, or to one side,
according as they are to operate, by a tendinous expansion which extends as
far as the edge of the cornea. Two others of the seven muscles are termed
obliquus major and minor, or trochlearis and antagonista. The first of
these arises from the inner and posterior portion of the orbit, and passes
obliquely through a cartilaginous ring at the anterior and inner part of it :
then returning, it passes under the levator rectus, to insert itself into the
anterior and superior part of the globe ; this, therefore, can draw the eye
forward. The obliquus minor arises from near the nasal duct in the angular
bone, and inserts itself towards the inner side, under the depressor rectus.
Mr. Hunter conjectured, that these two muscles in conjunction could rotate
the eye. The retractor oculi, or choanoid, forms the seventh muscle, and
is pecuhar to quadrupeds ; being a very large and powerful bundle of fibres,
which arising from the bottom of the orbit, envelope the optic nerve, and
insert themselves around the middle of the sphere. This muscle acts on the
globe of the eye by very forcibly drawing it within the bottom of the orbit*,
by which means it effectually protects it from injury: and as it exists
indiscriminately in omnivorous as well as graminivorous quadrupeds, the
term suspensory is erroneously applied to it. The membrana nictitans ap-
pears an appendage to this muscle, having all its actions dependent upon it.
It consists of a cartilaginous substance, situated at the inner or inferior can-
thus ; and is hid by the eyelids, except a very small dark portion of it called
the haw: under inflammation of the eye, a larger portion of the nictitating
cartilage projects forward, evidently occasioned by the action of the retractor
muscle, which then draws the globe inward to avoid the irritation of the
light : for the eye being imbedded in soft fatty substance, can be drawn
backwards by a displacement of the fat ; which latter becoming pressed for-
wards, carries with it the nictitating cartilage, and forces it over the eye.
From this description, it will be readily seen that this organ acts as a third

* I was some years since requested to attempt the removal of a considerable excrescence
that grew on the transparent cornea of a very valuable ox, in Sussex, where they are used
in husbandry. On casting the animal, and forcibly keeping his eye open, the retractor
muscle drew the globe so strongly within the orbit, as to elude all my attempts to reach
it. It was uncertain and hazardous to attempt getting at the orbitary fossa, and I was,
therefore, obliged to desist from my attpmpt.

M 2

180 THE ANATOMY OF THE HOUSE.

eyelid, and amply makes up the deficiency resulting from the want of hands* ;
it even more effectually wipes away the dust, or other foreign bodies, than the
fingers can possibly do. Farriers and horsemen call this the haw ; and it
has been usual, in the practice of the former, to mistake effect for cause, and
to suppose that, because it protrudes when the eye is inflamed, it is the offend-
ing part. From this, excision of it has been, and is even yet, practised as a
remedy ; when it is evident the inflamed eye becomes more exposed to the
irritating effects of light than before.

The lEyelids and their Appendages. — The palpebrse are a species of cur-
tain placed before the eye, which is bisected into an upper and lower lid con-
cavely formed, to adapt them to the ocular globe : the superior is the most
considerable, the lower is less, and has but little motion : the places of their
union are termed canthi, or angles; one of which is internal and larger, the
other is external and smaller ; which latter has a loose attachment to a tar-
sal ligament : the inferior, or internal, is less angular, and furnishes an at-
tachment to the tendon of the orbiculai'is muscle. The tarsi are the thin
cartilaginous rims which form the edges of the eyelids, those of the superior
being somewhat larger than the inferior : along each of these ciliary edges
are seen some little holes called pwicta ciliaria, which pour out a sebaceous
matter from small follicular bodies called meibomian glands: the upper lid
only is furnished with hairs immediately on the edge, and which are not
placed in one, but in several small rows ; most abundant on the outer or
temporal angle, where light most requires a shield from : the under has a
few long hairs only, placed before the marginal edge. The horse has no
supercilia, or eyebrows, unless we reckon as such the few straggling long
hairs above the eyes. The muscles of the palpehrce, strictly appropriate,
are two only ; one surrounding the whole orbit, having its strongest part
above, termed orbicularis palpebrarum., which shuts both eyelids ; the
other, proper to the upper lid, is termed levator palpebrce superioris, and
arises from the bottom of the orbit, to be inserted into the upper lid, by
which means it elevates it. These muscles have a compound and subordi-
nate action, called winking; and in all their diversified movements they are
much assisted by other fascial muscles. The lachryinal gland is a conglo-
merate body, lodged within the conjunctiva at the upper jiart of the orbit, in
a fossa above the external angle ; its several lobuli, together, send out five
or six little ducts, which penetrate the conjunctiva, and pour out a saline
fluid known as the tears, which lubricate the eye without irritating it, the
visual surface being guarded by a mucous secretion of the conjunctiva. —
The lachrymal gland can be stimulated to a more than ordinary supply of
the tears, which then flow ovef the cheek : the ordinary supply passes off
by an opening termed puncta lachrymalia., being guided there by a groove
formed by the junction of the eyelids and a fold in the conjunctive mem-
branes, with a protuberant dark-coloured portion situated between the inter-
nal angle of the palpebrae and the globe of the eye, termed caruncula lachry-
malia. Thus directed, the tears are carried into the lachrymal ductf , and

* The monkey is an exception among quadrupeds, but which may readily be accounted
for. Nature gives nothing in vain ; and as this animal uses his fore paws with great dex-
terity, so he is enabled, by this means, to defend his eyes sufficiently ; and it is, for the
same reason, denied to man.

\ Both English and French veterinary anatomists have asserted that the horse has no
lachrymal sac; which Mr. Percivall considers as a negligence arising from want of ob-
servation. T agree with him, that there is a cavity in the os unguis. In the last edition
of this work, at page 220, the 13th line, it is stated that ' the puncta arc openings to a

SPLANCJINOLOGY— THE EYE. 181

so pass into tlie nose by the ductus ad nasum. (See Osteology, and JDe-
scription of the Nose.) The vessels of the eye are arteries, from the ex-
ternal and internal carotids : the external parts being furnished by the maxil-
lary ; and the internal by the ophthalmic and some branches that penetrate
the sclerotic coat ; and veins which return their blood by the jugulars. The
optic nerve enters the orbit through the foramen opticum, and, piercing the
globe, forms the retina : the eye receives rami also from the third, fourth,
fifth, and sixth pairs. (See Neurology.) From the great vascularity and
sensibility of the eye, it is very susceptible of disease ; the^ two principal of
which are cataract and gutta serena : both of these in the horse are even morg
obstinate and incurable than in the human. (See Diseases of the Eyes.)

Physiology of the Eye, or the Function of Vision.

Light is the appropriate stimulus to the functional purposes of the eye, enabling it to
take cognizance of the figure, colour, and distance of bodies. The visual rays, in their
ordniary state, shoot rectilinearly through space : but when'they pass through denser me-
dia, they do not preserve this rectilinear course, but are bent in a degree equal to the
density of the medium through which they pass. This bending of the rays is called their
refraction: the tendency of which is to bring them to a focus or focal point; to which
point all luminous rays reach, sooner or later, according to the increased or diminished
density of the medium they have to pass through; upon which property most of the phe-
nomena of vision depend. This premised, it will become evident tiiat the visual rays
meet with several different refractions, or bendings, in passing through the eye. Their
course through the cornea and aqueous humour must form their first refraction ; that
-through the crystalline lens will be the next, the powers of which, as a refracting me-
dium, must be great ; and in their further course through the vitreous hmnour they must
undergo a still farther bending, till they meet in a point on the retina: thus forminsr a
cone, the basis of which will be the smface of the cornea, and the apex tlie radiant point
■ Amidst the wonderful number of objects that present themselves to the eyes of the ani-
mal. It appears as though care was taken, that he should h<tve the means of principally
collecting such only as are connected with his views or pursuits. The form of the
visual organ is such that no confusion exists from an indiscriminate admission of rays ■
. thus only such enter as arc capable of this couvergency, or, if any others do penetrate!
they become lost in the nigrum pigmentum. It is therefore to be understood that the
rays which the refracting power of the humours is able to concentrate, meet upon the re-
tina in a pomt, or vep. small circle, within which the object is painted, and that the mind
takes cognizance of it through the medium of the optic nerves*. As the eye must ne-
tf/jll Vff '^'"f '° ^"'^ ^^""'^ "''•'■'^'^^^ P^''"''^'! "P°" whose distances are

TnJb le if to'eLr, H- 1-"'?'-''' i?t"^ -'Iju^tmeiit of the powers of the part, to

ed v fhf 1% '"f'^'T »^<->^- But whether this be

effected by the angle formed on the wo opposite axes, or, as has been more lately taught,

afterX L ' satisfactorily proved : certain i[is, tha

after the loss of one eye time is required for the remaining eye to learn to adjust dis-
tances; and this equally in the human and brute subjectsf. Were it not for somi " djust-

r*'''".*' w^*'"" The reason that a lachrymal sac has been denied to the

horse by anatomists, was, because the duct here had not a sufficient enlargement, a n t e
human, to merit it. It is therefore merely a difference of terms, and both may be g-ht

hult^/-'burfvhi".ll"hp'?,!f,n^f ""■'"'■'">•' B«"t'«n'an who was po.sosse.l of a valuable

182 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

meat of the optical organs, tlie rays rellected from objects very near the eye would fall
behind it, and those from very distant ones would, from being almost parallel, meet toge-
ther before the retina. The mechanical adjustment of the focus, it must be observed, is
also assisted by the iris,'which lessening the opening of the pupil when we look at minute
objects, only permits such rays to pass as penetrate towards the centre of the lens, by
which they will be very much refracted ; but when the eye regards distant objects, the' iris
becomes dilated, and the rays are then received through the edges of the lens, whereby
their refraction is diminished.

The Nose.

In brute animals, the organ of smelling is, next to that of seeing, the most
essential, as it forms the principal means by which they judge of good or
evil : consequently we cannot be surprised that the nose of quadrupeds is
very dilTerently formed, and much more extensive than in ourselves, in whom
the deductions of reason and comparison are intended to supply the instinc-
tive acuteness. In the horse, the nose, it is seen, constitutes a very consi-
derable portion of the head, being formed of two principal cavities ; each
having an exterior communication with the air, called the nostril, and an
interior opening at the back of the mouth. The cavities of the nares or
nostrils are limited anteriorly by the nasal bones, superiorly by the frontal,
sphenoidal, and ethmoidal ; laterally by the inferior and superior turbinated
bones, and posteriorly by the palatine, and palatine portion of the maxillary
bones. Immediately above the arch of the palate, the nares reach upwards,
and communicate with the frontal sinuses anteriorly, with the ethmoidal su-
periorly, and with the sphenoidal a little posteriorly as well as superiorly.
They are divided in the middle by the septum narium, which is above bony,
and below cartilaginous ; the bony part is formed by the vomer, which unit-
ing to the spine of the sphenoid, and to the middle lamen of the ethmoid,
extends downwards, being received by its anterior edge between the junction
of the nasal, and by its posterior into the groove formed by the union of the
palatine bones, and of the palatine part of the maxillary with each other.
Having extended some way, it unites with the catilaginous septum ; which
is continued down in the same manner as the vomer, that is, it is received
anteriorly by the nasal bones, and posteriorly by the maxillary, till it arrives
near the end of the nose, when it bifurcates into two portions.

The frontal sinuses are formed by the separation of the two tables of the
frontal bones. (See Osteology.) There is usually a bony partition which
forms them into two equal portions, and frequently other bony prolongations
are seen supporting the parietes : these sinuses communicate superiorly with
the nasal cavies, and are lined by the same membrane. The sphenoidal
smus IS formed from a vault in the middle of the substance of the bone of
.that name : it communicates superiorly with the nasal cavities, and is also
hned with the pituitary membrane. The ethmoidal cells communicate with
the nasal fossae superiorly: they are formed from the numerous cavities in
the ethmoid bone, and are Hkewise lined by the same membrane. The

eye, be trusted safplv to hunt till they have learned to adjust the distances, which time enables them
to do. Mr. Perfivall, in his Lectures, seems to doubt whether the loss of an eye will have this effect ;
and instances a hunter he possessed with one eye only which was an excellent and true leapcr. As
Mr P. omits to say whether his ho.se proved so, directly after he had lost hi, eye, we gain nothine
by the inforniation. U .9 well known that the loss of an eye docs not perpetuate the incapability of
judging of di-tances; but that it does so for a lime, I have of late taken much pains to assure
myself. 1 am, however, bound to confess, that the effect is not so very obvious in the ncwlv mono-
cular horse as It IS in the experiment among ourselves of attempting to pass a pin at arms length bv one
hand through a pm.icld at arms Icng h by the other; which experiment, from the optical aeception,
almost invariably fails The eyes of the horse are laterally placed, and he thus sees objects willi one
eye more frequently than man ; bv which he may more readily adjust a focal distance bv one only :
but whatever is directly in front of Inm must yet require some Bccoinniodation of the organ" before one
eye can prove as critical as two. "

SPLANCHNOLOGY— THE NOSE. 183

mcu-illM-y cavities can hardly be called sinuses ; because though the maxil-
lary bone itself forms an immense cavity, yet it is, as it were, shut and
nearly filled up by the turhinated bones, which have been described m the
Osteology ; they, however, by their tortuous direction within the nasal cavi-
ties, and their cellular and spongy texture, very considerably increase the
surface of this mucous membrane, which seems their principal use. The
hia-hly vascular and sensible expansion called the pituitary membrane lines
the whole nasal fossae throughout all their compartments, and was first cor-
rectly described by Schneider, from whence it is frequently called the Schnei-
derian membrane. It is also continued into the pharynx and larynx*, where
likewise it is equally fine and vascular in all its parts : it is furnished with a
mucus secreted throughout the whole extent of its surface, whereby the sur-
face is always kept pliant, soft, and susceptible ; by this mucus likewise in-
sects are prevented from penetrating the nose. The evident use of the pi-
tuitary membrane appears to be a medium for the expansion of the olfactory
nerves, whereby the impressions from the effluvia of difi'erent substances are

received. .

Ductus ad nasum.— The puncta lachrymalia, which we described m the
eye, are the openings to a canal within the angular bone (see Osteology),
called the nasal duct, which is continued membranous between the turbinated
bones, and terminates by an opening within the nostril near the bottom,
where it may be easily seen. This duct carries off the superfluous saline
fluid, secreted by the lachrymal gland ; but being lined with the pituitary
membrane, in glanders it often becomes obstructed ; by which the lachrymal
fluid is forced over the face ; and, as the ulceration proceeds, purulent mat-
ter at length flows out at the puncta lachrymalia. In inflammations of the
eye, the puncta likewise becomes so inflamed as to be impervious for a time ;
hence a horse in this affection is commonly observed weeping — The ductus
communis narium is a second duct of the nostrils, which passes into the
pharynx, being formed by the junction of parts originating in the floor of
the nostrils. The common integuments of the body are spread over the
nose, except that there appears here but little adipose membrane ; it is like-
wise furnished with fine hair to the edges of the nostrils, and is internally
lined throughout with the pituitary membrane, except the inner edge, which
is supplied by the skin ; but even here it is bknded, as it were, with the
mucous covering. By an inflection of these integuments, a well known fossa
is formed in each nasal cavity, called the false nostril, which communicates
freely with the chamber of the nose, and opens outwardly in common with
the exteraal nares. The nasal opening is furnished with a semilunar carti-~
lage enveloped within its membranes, by means of which the surface is kept
dilated. The nose is influenced in its motions by means of muscles, as un-'
derf . Its bloodvessels are numerous, both for its living and functional

• This connexion furnishes us with pathological reasons why catarrhal affections so
readily translate themselves to the lungs ; the inflammation creeping thence ftom the
pharynx and larynx, by the bronchia. It is on the same grounds that, when pneumonia
exists, we examine the pituitary membrane of the nose, to detect the degree of it, that
membrane being exquisitely fine and open to impressions.

t Dilator naris anterior, opens the nostrils, being attached to the cartilages of the open
fossa; above to the nasal bones, and below to the lip. — Nasilis brevis appears particularly
to act in widening the nasal opening also, though its action may be compounded. It
surrounds the inflexions of the false nares, and attaches itself to the suture of the maxil-
lary bone. — Leva/or lahii siiperiurcs akeqiie nasi. This muscle of the lips lends a slip of at-
tachment to the nasal bones, and to the lateral parts of the skin of tlic nose anteriorly, by
which it is drawn forward. — Dilator naris lateralis is a flat pyramidal slip, spreading over

184 THE ANATOMY OF THE ilOitSK.

purposes (see Angiology). The nerves are furnished from the first and
fourth pairs. The olfactory have been ah-eady described as very large hol-
low tubes, which are expanded into a pulpy mass over the whole pituitary
surface, rendering it highly sensible to impressions received from the effluvia
of bodies. The external parts are furnished by a branch of the fifth pair.
(See Neurology.)

The Physiology of the Nasal Organs.

Conipnrativc anatomy shews that tlie organs of smell are in most animals placed at the
entrance of the respiratory organs ; by wliich they are made subservient to both purpose-^
of breathing and smelling, and by the same means are rendered as well voluntarj' as in
voluntary agents; for the action of respiration will carry all the effluvia from bodies whe
ther sought for or not, agamst the sensitive pituitary membrane. The herbivorous tribes
smell vegetable matters better than flesh ; and, on the contrary, carnivorous animals take
httle cognizance of vegetable bodies : it is also to be remarked, that in the camivora the
ethmoidal and turbinated cells are lamellar ; whereas in the herbivorous and ruminant
they are spiral and convoluted, whereby their surface of capacitv is greatly increased In
all the vei tebrated animals, the parts connected with the organ of smell are like the parts
composing the other organs of sense, double. The cognizance taken of the' volatile parts
of bodies continually flying off from them, and impressed on the sensitive surface of the
nose, IS transmitted by the nervous expansion of the olfactory nerves to the brain where
It produces the sensation we understand by the name of smell. '

The Cavity of the Mouth, with its Parts.

This cavity in the horse forms all that extensive opening from the first
cervical vertebra to the incisive teeth ; bounded above by the palatine
arch, and below by the tongue ; thus it becomes divided into the mouth, pro-
perly so called, and the large posterior cavity which unites and partly forms
the pharynx. The mouth itself is composed of external and internal parts ;
the external are the lips, cheeks, and beard ; the internal are the gums, the
bars, the teeth, the alveolary edges, the palate, the septum palati, and the
tongue. The lips form the inferior and external parts of the mouth, and
are two m number ; an upper and lower, or anterior and posterior, each
bemg composed of fleshy masses fixed in different directions which extend
around them jomtly ; but principally a circular one is apparent, forming the
orbicular muscle, or sphincter oris : the rest are composed of the numerous
muscular plans that perform the various motions of the mouth and lips, as
noticed below*. They have, beside these muscular strata, a species of pecu-

the lateral parts of the cheek and nose, so as to act as an antagonist to the former,-AV,-
htlnr^l f expansion, stretching from the lower part of the or-

. fr'r* '^^t'^r'P^'" giving a portion to the false nostril, which
acts m drawing It together witli the lip, directly upwards, in that sniffing singular Grimace
common with stallions after smelling a horsing mare . B « ^rimace

Pplivlu '"'r'"' "r"'' "'"''-^ '"1'^ ''P' ''■■^ ^'^"^ accurately named and described by Mr.
FercivaU. Zygomatwus, arising by tendinous fibres from the zygomatic process of the

Zl^JlT' f ''"V'"'° ^'^^ by ^^hich'if is draw^ upwmd and

backwaid.-Z.t,„i»r «,,^«?,on..- froni the side of the os nasi\nto the angle of the mouth,
iippe hp and nostril , thus at the same time retracting the lip and dilating the nostril.-
Le^lor labu supertarts : from the side of the face, gives a tendinous portion to the false
. -,1 ^f°^- the points of the nasal bone, and then expends itself

ir '"-l " 'i" "'- K'"" ''' ^PP"- liP' dilates the false nostril,

n . ? Tir I r the upper in the remarkable

manner of stallions, who, having received some of the effluvia from the sexual parts of the
mare under her oestrum, thus elevate the liii to apply it more closely to the nose.-Thc
dilHlor miritnn is common to the nostril and upper lip.— iir/r«c/or anguU oris draws tlio

SPLANCHNOLOGY— CAVITY OF THE MOUTH.

185

liar cellular substance interposed. The outer covering of the lips is not
exactly Hke that of tlie other parts, being nearly devoid of hair, and altoge-
ther its structure is much thinner and finer ; by which means it possesses a
greater sensibility, which is of importance to an animal that makes use of
the' lips as the organs of touch. As the outer membrane is reflected to line
the inner side of the lips, it becomes of still more vascular and villous a tex -
ture, and combines with the glandulous or mucous membrane of the mouth.
The muscles of the lips, as we have seen, are numerous, and their motions
thereby so various, that the animal is readily enabled to collect his food, and
to form and place it between his teeth by their assistance ; by these means
likewise the young colt sucks in its milk ; and, in fact, so varied are the
dispositions of the muscular plans around the mouth, that, like the tongue,
there is no direction in which the lips cannot place themselves. The blood-
vessels and nerves of these parts are numerous, as might be expected from
their great vascularity and sensitiveness (see Angiology and Neurology ).
The gums are formed of a very vascular compact and elastic substance, com-
pletely surrounding the neck of each tooth, and, as this substance is also ad-
herent to the periosteum of the maxillae, so it supports the teeth firmly in
their situations. It appears it?elf formed from a union of the proper mem-
brane of the mouth with the cuticle ; thus it participates in the colour of the
general skin, being sometimes light and at others dark : this membrane,
continued from the posterior part of the alveolary edges, blends with the
membrane of the tongue, and at its under or posterior part thickens itself
into a frenum or bridle, by which unnatural displacement of the tongue is
prevented. On each side of this lingual bridal is seen the small nipple-
like termination of the maxillary and lingual glands, which the French have
called barhillons, and the English barbs, paps, flaps, &c., as I shall further
notice anon. The substance of the gums, though very plentifully supplied
with bloodvessels, is but sparingly furnished with nerves ; thus they are
more vascular than sensible : were it not so, the hard substances taken into
the mouth, as corn, hay, &c., would hurt them by its pressure. Under in-
flammation they are, however, highly sensitive.

The bars, anatomically considered, are spaces left by nature between the
teeth, from the great length of the jaws ; for incisive teeth continued up so
high would have been worse than useless, because, as they could never be
brought into action, their wear would not have been equal to the others ; and
thus they would in the end have starved the owner : nor was it necessary
that the molar teeth should reach thus far ; for being removed so distant
from the centre of motion, the animal would have found their power very
disproportionate to those behind them. But Nature follows throughout her

mouth backwards.— 5«cciw«<or is the flesliy mass which fills up the space of what may be
called the cheeks ; by its connexions with the upper and under jaws, and the buccal mem-
brane also, it is of extreme importance in the act of grinding the iooA.— Orbicularis oris
IS the muscular mass which extends around the lips ; stronger in the upper than the lower;
mixed with much cellular tissue, and a considerable quantity of nervous and vascular
branches. It closes the lips, and gives them their prehensile power : its extreme sensi-
bility makes it the principal organ of touch, as we know from numerous actions of horses
towards each other, and towards those persons to whom they are attached ; and hard must
be his heart, who has not been pleased by the labial caresses of his horse.— Depressor labii
«M/;enoci.9 are fleshy fibres arising from the alveolar portions in front of the upper jaw, and
mserted into the upper lip as well as the alas of the nose.— Levator labii inferioris has the
same origin, and the same insertion in the lower jaw as the last had in the ujjper, by which
It serves to elevate the under lip : it is to a partial paralysis of this muscle by age that the
old horse presents so pendulous a posterior lip as we occasionally see.

186 THE ANATOMY OF THE HOUSE.

works a similitude, and blends the general animal characters into each other ;
she has therefore here placed a solitary canine tooth, which at once breaks
the vacancy, and forms a connecting link between the carnivorous aud herbi-
vorous tribes. This space has been advantageously seized on by man as a
convenient and certain means of ensuring the obedience of the horse ; and
we thus find that, in every cultivated country, the bars are made subject to
the pressure of a rod of metal, in England called the bit. These continua-
tions of the alveolary borders are in some horses more crested or sharp than
in others ; they are also more or less thickly clad with the substance of
gum in different subjects, as well as that the gums themselves are not
equally sensitive in all horses ; to which diversities of structure we owe the
terms of hard and soft mouths, or, as the anatomist would say, ' sensible
and insensible mouths.' The teeth, as parts of the mouth, have been already
fully considered with the general osteology of the body.

palate is divided into its arch and its septum, or into the hard and
soft palate. The hard palate is the roof of the mouth, and is a rugous
membranous structure, adhering by its inner or upper surface to the bony
arch foraied of the palatine portions of the superior and inferior maxillary
bones. The rugae of the outer or mouth surface are more distant from each
other, and larger in the inferior part of the arch towards the incisive teeth,
than in the superior and farther part of the mouth ; and appear to be formed
of the common integuments with a dense cellular substance interaiixed, which
is laterally connected with the membrane of the gums. In colts and young
horses this part is naturally thicker than in old ones : sometimes it becomes
morbidly so much swollen as to reverse the palatine arch, making it convex
instead of concave ; in which cases it is usual, with farriers, to say the horse
has lampas, and the swollen part is commonly cauterized or scarified, put-
ting the animal to unnecessary pain, perhaps producing caries of the bone,
or otherwise a violent haemorrhage, by dividing the palatine bloodvessel. It
is true that the rugae may become relaxed and tumefied, particularly during
dentition, and on extraordinary cases may be topically affected ; but the
cause is usually to be sought for elsewhere (see Lampas, Dentition, and
Condition). The use of this rugous surface is to prevent the food under
mastication from displacement by the inclined situation of the head : in the
human mouth they are much less evident, as being but little necessary, from
its more horizontal placing.

The velum palati forms the posterior portion of this arch, and is attached
to the palatine edges ; laterally, appearing as though it were a continuation
of the membranes of the palate mixed with muscular fasciculi. It presents
an inferior or posterior opening, thus dividing the mouth from the pharynx ;
itself having its superior or anterior portions fixed to the palatine bone,
where the arch of the palate ceases. Its sides have a lateral attachment,
and its centre floats loose within the cavity, like a curtain of division be-
tween the parts, but presenting a small central arched opening. The horse
has no uvula, but its place is supplied by a greater extension of the velum
palati, so that the posterior opening of the mouth becomes exactly closed up
by the epiglottic, which is embraced by its edges ; thus, except when the
horse be swallowing, there is no immediate communication between the
mouth and the pharynx, and none whatever with the nose. The cavities of
the nose open into the pharynx, and the larynx opens likewise into the
same hollow : as, therefore, the communication between the mouth and i)ha-
rynx is shut out, it is evident that the horse cannot breathe by his mouth ;

SPLANCHNOLOGY— CAVITY OF THE MOUTH. 187

aud when any air is expired by this way, as in coughing, it can only be by
a convulsive displacement of the velum palati. The oesophagus likewise
opens into the pharynx, consequently there is no natural passage for the
food either ; and it is only by a still greater convulsive effort, which even
more unnaturally displaces the parts, that regurgitation can take place in
the horse. In truly regurgitating animals, the velum palati is less exten-
sive ; such likewise can breathe through the mouth, which the horse is not
naturally formed to do.

Though the curtain of the palate cannot be carried forward but by a very
convulsive effort, it can be readily elevated and carried back by means of
its muscles, which are difficult to characterise. Mr. Percivall resolves them
into levator palati, which arises from the temporal bone and is inserted into
the curtain. Tensor palati is a muscular plan of fibres which surrounds
the arch, and indeed it forms much of its substance. It is, however, con-
nected with numerous other muscular fasciculi, particularly with some fleshy
pillars or half arches, which, by their insertion into the base of the tongue,
greatly diversify its action, and bring it into accordance with the other parts
concerned in deglutition. It is therefore by means of these united mus-
cular plans that the velum palati becomes elevated, when the masticated
bolus passing over the epiglottis presses it down, whereby the opening is at
once increased, and the cavity of the larynx shut, so that nothing is permit-
ted to pass from the pharynx to the mouth, but every thing readily slides
from the mouth to the pharynx.

The tongue is that large fleshy mass which fills up the channel or space
between the branches of the posterior jaw, being surrounded by the alveo-
lary border, and extending upwards, so as to adapt itself to the arch of the
palate. (See plate III.) Like the other organs of sense, it presents a
double formation ; and although its median line of division is not so evident
as in some animals, it is yet so perfectly double that the two portions have
each their separate organs of sensation, volition, and nutrition. It is ex-
tremely moveable, being almost wholly composed of muscular fibres ; the
extent of its motions being assisted by the nature of its attachment, which
is principally by its base, the muscular fibres of which part are strongly im-
planted in the hos hyoides and posterior maxilla ; its under surface being
further connected to the parts around by means of a frenum. It is covered
by integumental tunics, which over its anterior surface assume a particular
structure, and is studded with conical papillse and a thick reticular structure
of rete mucosum* : this papillary texture pierces the rete mucosum, with a
portion of the cuticle over it ; while the anterior surface presents a pure
covering, and exhibits none of these eminences. On examination, these
papillae appear of different forms : in some animals they are very large, as
in the ox, bear, and some others : between them are seen follicular open-
ings, from whence the mucus of the tongue is derived. The muscular fibres
of the tongue take almost every direction, and present a whitish substance

* The rete mucosum is not observed in the human tongue : hence, however black the
negro, his tongue is invariably red. In the two former editions of the Veterinaiiy Out-
lines, posterior surface was less properly used than anterior in the present : posterior was,
however, then equally intended to express the hinder parts of this organ, which it is well
known are the seat of the gustatory eminences (as these papilliB are supposed to be), and
as we know by ourselves, where it is by the base (and most justly, in man, the posterior
part) of the tongue that we principally exercise our sense of taste, though strong, sapid,
acid, and caustic bodies arc sufficiently recognised by the tip also ; probably more so in
him than in most animals, in some of which the apex is purely cuticular.

188 THE ANATOMY OF THE HOUSE.

transversely interposed between them, which substance is in greatest quan -
tity towards the base. The fibres in the central parts of the organ are placed
in various ways, that the motion may be performed on all sides : besides
which, there appears a perpendicular plane immediately under the surface,
whereby its mass is shortened. Its jjroper muscles are those which pass
between it and the os hyoides ; as the Genio-hyo-glonsus, which projects the
tongue ; the hyo-glossus longus, which retracts it within the mouth ; the
hyo-glossus hrevis, which assists the last, and depresses the root of the
tongue : lingualis is a part of the appropriate side of the tongue itself, ex-
tending from the base to the point, and furnishing attachments for.all the
others. Blood is very plentifully suppHed to the tongue by the lingual and
Tanince. (See Angiology.) The nerves are derived from the lingual, or
ninth pair, which furnishes the muscular mass ; w^hile its exquisite percep-
tions of taste are principally drawn from a branch of the fifth pair, called
the gustatory, whose ramifications are expended on its papillae and tasting
surface. It is an organ of great sympathy, and its extensive nervous con-
nexions favour this sympathetic property. By the ninth pair of nerves it is
connected with the larynx and pharynx, as well as by the glosso-pharyngeal,
which nerve is divided between the tongue and pharynx, and connects these
parts in deglutition, while the gustatory unites the actions of the tongue and
salivary glands. The associations of these three nerves produce a general
consent of action between the tongue, the pharynx, larynx, oesophagus, and
salivary glands. (See Neurology.) For an exemplification of these parts,
see plate III. The tongue is a very principal organ in mastication : by its
great mobility it carries the food into every direction the most favourable
for the purpose, and, finally, passes it to the pharynx.

The Physiology of the Mouth and the Sense of Taste.

Tdsle appears to be derived from a property in the mouth of fluidifying wliatever is re-
ceived, ill which it resembles the sense of smell : for although that exerts its influence in
the form of gas, yet moisture is necessary to both, and both operate by their chemical
qualities ; whereas the matters taken cognizance of by touch depend on their mechanical
properties. The tongue, which is the organ of taste in all vertebrated animals, possesses an
exquisitely modified sensibility, and in brutes is endowed also with a salutary instinct. In
man, civilization, by heightening the intellectual, has weakened the instinctive powers, if
they ever existed. Taste was given to brutes, to regulate their other senses, and thus there
are few plants or substances whose application to the tongue produces an agreeable effect
but such as are proper for food. It must, however, be confessed, that the discriminating
quality in brutes, with regard to food, is greatly assisted by their sense of smelling : the
horse will not touch the water from a greasy bucket ; and his refusal takes place before he
has absorbed a drop. Nature, therefore, stimulates her creatiu-es to take food by a double
motive, — the pleasure of taste and the pain of hunger.

The Pharynx.

I shall consider and describe as the pharynx all that considerable cavity
which is superior and posterior to the mouth, properly so called ; and so
divided from it by the velum palati and epiglottis as to have no communi-
cation with it, except when either swallowing or coughing. The pharynx is
therefore a distinct cavity, within which are seen the two nasal fossa;, the ca-
vity of the larynx, and the opening of the oesophagus. The manner in
which the nasal fossae open into the pharynx is best learned by a reference
to jofa^e III, where their true situation is at once seen. The Eustachian
cavities, which have been already described with the ear, are shut from im-

SPLANCHNOLOGY — THE PHARYNX, 189

mediate communication with the pharynx by means of their membranous
covering : each cavity is placed on one side of the pharynx, immediately be-
hind tlie base of the skull, as seen in plate III. The pharynx is muscular
throughout, and its principal plans of fibres tend to constrict it in the act of
deglutition. M. Girard describes six pairs — the Pterygo, Kerato, Hyo,
Thyro, Crico, Arytheno-pharyngien, all ending and originating in the pha-
rynx, as their names imply. Mr. Percivall considers the pharyngeal muscles
as three constrictory pairs, designated by their situation, superior, medius, et
inferior.

The larynx, which is the opening or commencement of the trachea, is
placed in the posterior part of the pharynx, and forms a kind of cartilaginous
box, which is composed principally of five pieces, so situated between and
connected with the branches of the os hyoides as to have very small lateral
motion ; but an extensive one above downwards, forwards, and backwards,
as it may be acted on. The os hyoides was purposely omitted in the Osteo-
logy, that its relative situation might unite with its description. It consists
of five bony portions articulated together. The body, as aptly observed by
Mr. Percivall, very much resembles a common spur, the segmental portion
embracing the margin of the palate, and the appendicular portion pushed
forward to support the root of the tongue. From the posterior ends of its
body spring two other appendices, likened, by Girard, to the handle of a
fork, ' manche defourche' which also support the substance of the tongue :
from these also arise two bony prolongations or horns, or prongs of the fork,
to which the upper border of the thyroid cartilage is fixed. (See i i, plate
III, fig. %)

The laryngeal cartilages are, the thyroid, cricoid, the two arytenoid, and
the epiglottis. (See plaie.) The ^%7-oi(^ carifiYa^e, the most considerable,
forms a kind of half circle, having a longitudinal convexity on the anterior
part, and concave within : it is united to the lateral and middle parts of the
cricoid cartilage; superiorly it is received between the branches of the os
hyoides, the epiglottis being situated, as it were, at its anterior part. The
cricoid cartilage is a thick ring-like cartilage partly received within the thy-
roid, to which it is united by a ligament ; articulating above with the aryte-
noid, with its base united 'to or rather overlapping the upper part of the tra-
chea. The arytenoid are two small similar cartilages, situated posteriorly
above the cricoid, and rather within the cavity of the larynx, uniting toge-
ther at the beginning of the glottis : their concave inferior surface receives
the superior convex surface of the cricoid cartilage, and the superior extre-
mity forms a kind of point, which is curved backwards. The epiglottis (see
plate III) is a very elastic body, situated and attached to the anterior por-
tion of the thyroid cartilage by a strong ligament. Its internal surface is
concave ; its external is slightly convex, and its termination forms a point
which is curved forward, giving it something of a heart-hke shape. This
cartilage is of the utmost importance to the animal ; it exactly fills up the
floating arch of the velum palati, thereby shutting up the cavity of the mouth,
and forcing the animal to breathe through his nose, in ordinary cases : but
when mastication has formed the alimentary bolus, and presses it downwards,
it then equally closes the glottis, fitting exactly to its rima, by the assistance
of two cartilaginous slips ; thus forming a new apparatus, by means of the
same organ, to effectually prevent the entrance of any thing within the tra-
chea. As soon as the bolus has passed, the epiglottis by its elasticity, and,
perhaps, assisted by mnscnlar fibres, roturns to its situation. And here we

190

THE ANATOMY OF THE HOUSE.

must, in a particular manner, admire the wisdom of its formation : had it been
ligamentary, and influenced in its actions by muscles only, it would continu-
ally have endangered the animal, for numerous diseases might affect the mus-
cular energy : but the cartilaginous elasticity is never lost till the body falls
into a state of decomposition and decay. The glottis is nothing more than
the oval opening into the laryngeal box, formed by means of the cartilages,
and their numerous connecting membranes and ligaments.

The larynx gives insertion to a great number of muscles, and its motions
are consequently much varied ; some of these muscles operate on the whole
of it as a body, and have their attachments in other parts ; some operate only
on particular cartilages, but are wholly inserted in the larynx. The hyo-
epiglottideus is a single muscle connected with the hyoides ; and is inserted
into the expanded portion of the epiglottis, which it stretches open. The
other lar3Tigeal muscles act in pairs : the crico-thyroidcei draw the opening
downwards after it has been raised in deglutition; it is elevated in this action
by the hyo-thyroidcei. The crico-arytenoideei lateralis and posterioris,
thyro-arytenoidaei, are muscles appropriated to their specified cartilages ; by
means of which the cavity of the larynx is altered in its figure and dimensions,
and the sounds of the voice become variously modulated. The thyroid glands,
situated one on each side of the cricoid cartilage in the horse, are two oval
bodies, and, like the single one of the human, are larger in the young than
the old subject ; but their functional purpose is unknown. The bloodves-
sels of both the pharynx and larynx are derived from the carotids and jugu-
lars. Their nerves are furnished by the recurrents ; they are also connected
with the glosso-pharyngeal, and with rami from the fifth, seventh, and other
filaments ; thus not only uniting the surface of these great and important
cavities into a sympathetic action with the parts around, but also with im-
portant viscera of the body. (See Neurology).

Uses. of the Larynx. — This part answers two very principal purposes in the economy;
it is the organ by which air is received into the lungs ; it is likewise the organ of the voice :
hence, if the recurrent nerves, which furnish this part, be divided, the voice is entirely lost.
The cartilages of the larynx are moveable one upon the other, and are furnished with mus-
cular cords named cordis vocales, which tighten or relax this sonorous box, which being
acted on by the aerial vibrations within, the undulations are transmitted to the ear*.

• The variations of sound emitted by the voice of different quadrupeds appear to consist principally
in the number and form of the laryngeal sacs. There are usually three of these, one of which is seen
under the vault formed by the anterior boundary of the thyroid cartilage, having its aperture near the
root of the epiglottis. Tlie other two arc oblong sinuses contained between the lateral parietes of the
glottis and the thyroid cartilage, and are covered in a groat measure by the arytenoidei muscles. In
the horse these lateral sacs are very long and wide, and are not unlike the usual ventricles of the
glottis. The aperture of the outer cavity is veiy large in the horse ; in the ass the opening into each
of the three sacs is a small hole, and the anterior sac forms a bag-like cavity. In the mule these or-
gans differ, but their anatomical formation is in general blended between the horse and ass. The va-
rious sounds emitted by animals aie abitrarily named, without reference to the sounds themselves:
thus we say the horse neighs and the ass bravs. Neighing appears produced by expirations, as are
most of the tones of voice from the horse. The vibrations produced by the resonance of different
sized cavities, assisted by the tremors of the cartilages of the nostrils, produce the compounded
sounds which are emitted. Knnckeri/ig, as it is termed, is only a lesser neigh, with shorter, deeper,
and less forcible tones, and expresses affection and joy. The horse has one acute souml, produced by
the act of inspiration, which usually expresses either play or lust ; but in most other instances, sound
in the hoise is produced from expirations ; nor does it appear that the tongue or teeth are much con-
cerned in the modulations of his voice ; but in dogs they are very much so. In the ass, the principal
sounds are those of braying, and perhaps he differs in no respect so much from the liorse as in the
sounds he emits, which is another very strong proof that an ass is not a horse degenerated, as has
been supposed by some. Braying appears to be produced through the mouth by a convulsive dis-
placement of the velum palati, assisted by the vibrations occasioned by the extent of the laryngeal
sacs, and by their being so much separated from the cavity of the larynx : it appears effected by alter-
nate inspirations and expirations ; the inspirations forming half tones, and the lengthened notes being
formed of expirations. The lowing of oxen is likewise performed through the mouth ; and the bleat-
ing of sheep also : hence it would appear, that the mouth is better adapted to convey sound than the
nose : or at least it produces more variety in tones, though the passage is not so direct. Barking is
formed of short continued expirations, with the jaws very slightly separated; succeeded by a quick
and forcible expiration, the mouth being alternately Qpened and shut. A dog produces more tones

SPLANCHNOLOGY— GLANDS OF THE HEAD.

191

The Physiology of Mastication and Deglutition.

Animals liave organs wisely adapted to their wants. The reception of food into the
stomach is a process of great importance, and is managed with a most instinctive dex-
terity. The natural food of the horse is grain or herbage, usually collected near the
■ ground. When a horse grazes, he crops the grass with his incisive teeth, first placing by
his lips a tuft between them, when, elevating his chin, the sharp edges of the under ones
become applied to the grass, and cut it through : were it torn up, instead of cut off, the
horse would be under the necessity of taking up roots and all ; therefore, it will be found,
the prominent edges of these teeth are all wisely adapted to this process. Oxen and sheep,
wanting upper nippers, wrap a tuft of grass round with their tongue, and then apply it to
the under incisive, by which it is cut off ; and thus we find that they are obliged always
to carry the chin forward in collecting their grass. When a quantity of herbage is thus
gained, it is carried by the tongue and molar muscles to the upper part of the mouth, to
encounter the action of the grinders, for which their broad flat surfaces are admirably
adapted : the matter being carried from side to side, to be placed in the most favourable
direction for perfect mastication, by means of the tongue and molar muscles. During
this process, it continues to be mixed with the salivary fluid, from the parotid, maxillary,
and sublingual glands, which pour out their secretion by the pressure of the surrounding
muscles : and for which reason, that is, to be subjected to this pressure, these glands are
so placed as to be near the motion of the muscles used in mastication. Pressure is, how-
ever, not their only stimulus ; they are also acted on by a sympathy existing between the
stomach and themselves: thus we observe, if victuals be placed before a hungry dog, just
without his reach, his jaws will pour out saliva in great plenty. |

The vegetable mass having been thus completely masticated, is, by the tongue, carried
backwards and upwards into the pharynx, which forces the epiglottis down, so as exactly
to cover the glottis or opening of the larynx ; the velum palati being at the same time
carried backwards so as to close the nasal fossae : the mouth remaining closed during this
action, that the muscles may find a fixed point. The pharynx then, it will be seen, first
sinks to receive the bolus pushed into it by the contraction of the tongue, and then rises,
elevating the funnel-like extremity of the oesophagus, into which the bolus is forced ;
being shaped in its passage by the constricting powers of the pharyngeal muscles. Having
entered the oesophagus, it is propelled backward towards the stomach ; not, as heretofore,
by volition, but by a functional necessity, dependent on the muscular structure of the ali-
mentary tube, whose power acts against the gravity of the food, as well as independent of
the will. But, until the bolus has entered the oesophagus, deglutition is altogether an act
of volition, and cannot be performed without the assistance of the tongue*.

The Glands of the Head.

These are foUiculose, mi^cous, and salivary, with the cerumino-sebaceous
of the ears. The salivary' glands secrete the fluid we call saliva, and are
three to each side of the head, the parotid, the submaxillary, and the sub-
lingual. The parotid is a considerable body, situated in the hollow formed
by the articulation of the head with the neck, stretching around from the
root of the ear to the angle of the lower jaw, attached to the upper branch
of the jugular; another portion fills up the triangular space between the upper
and lower branches of this vein. It is distinctly lobular, its lobes being con-
nected by cellular membrane ; and from each of which ramify an infinity of
minute tubes, which finally unite into one common trunk. The salivary

than most quadrupeds ; his howl consists of a great variety of notes ; but are all, except the whine,
formed with the mouth open. tSnarling is effected by a tremor of the vclunvpalati, and can be
brought about equally by expiration or inspiration. The mewing of a cat is prdfuced bv expiration
both tlirougb the nose and mouth ; beginning with the consonant m, and continued by passing the air
through the nose, and then following it with a more steady expiration through the open mouth, the
shuttmg of which produces the final expression. The grunting of hogs appears gener.-illy composed
of expiration-, and can be effected either through the mouth or nose : it consists in a convulsive tremor
of the curtain of the palate during the expiration : their cry of distress is effected through the mouth by
expirations forcibly directed through a constricted larynx : thus persons, when killing pigs, usually
tie the mouth, to drown or lessen the noise. = • = /

• A woman, who had lost this organ, was forced always to place the food, by means of a spoon
or fork, quite into the pharynx, or she could not swallow; so animals who have been deprived of
the tongue, elevate the head to let the substance gravitate : hence becomes evident the folly of those
farriers who attempt to give a ball, yet the whole time confine the tongue till they suppose it is
swallowed ; for, by preventing this organ from being raised at its base, the hall cannot be carried
back, but either remains stationary, or gets into some of the interstices of the mouth.

192 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

ditct thus formed (see plate IV) finally quits the gland about the centre of
its anterior edge, passing along the tuberosity of the jaw, within the inner
surface of which it proceeds to the extremity of the tuberous ridge, when it
crosses over the posterior edge of the jaw, in company with the maxillary
artery and vein, and pierces the muscles and integuments of the mouth, fre-
quently between the second and third molar teeth, and sometimes directly
opposite one or the other of these ; forming itself into a bulbous rising, or,
as Girard describes it, un gros tuhercule TiemispMrique. It is an inflam-
mation and suppuration of either these or the submaxillary glands which
forms the complaint called strangles. Farriers call these glands vives, and
any affection of them they name vives also ; and a number of gross preju-
dices prevail among them relative thereto. From the structure detailed
it will be apparent that, when an artificial opening is necessary to be made
in the parotid gland, great caution is requisite to select a proper part for the
operation, which it is evident should be distant from the course of the ex-
cretory duct, or a fistulous opening, most difficult to close, may be formed,
and the animal permanently robbed of the saliva of that side.

The submaxillary, though much smaller than the parotid, is still a con-
siderable gland, situated within the" great hollow of the posterior jaw, its
upper part being near the condyloid process of that bone, and its lower
pointed extremity occupying the angle ; superiorly, being just within, and
under the parotid glands. Its duct passes under the mylo-hyoideus muscle,
and under the tendon of the digastric, and penetrates the membrane of the
mouth, and on the sides of the lingual frenum, about an inch and a half
from the lower nippei's, by an orifice proper to each gland, which projects
up into a nipple-like rising. , Vide plate III, Jig. 2, n. n. J

The sublingual gland is still smaller than the submaxillary, and is placed
along the under part of the tongue, where, from its lobular form, it be-
comes easily detected. It pours out its secretion by little papillary orifices,
which may be traced on a rising line on each side of the frenum of the
tongue*. The labial glands are placed under the common membrane of

* These membranous terminations of tlie salivary ducts have been supposed valvular,
to prevent any of the edible matters from entering their canals ; but whether so or not,
they have proved sad stumbling-blocks to both the learned and the unlearned. Even
Bourgelat, the French futlier of the art, and our original anatomical guide, terms them
' les excroissances contre nature.' It is hardly, therefore, to be wondered at that Bracken,
the English /r///H^r of it, fell into the same : and still less, that Bartlett, his copyist, should
have so totally mistaken their origin and use as to have branded them as the occasional
cause of those inflammatory appearances which arise within the mouth from catarrh and
febrile affections generally ; and which presumption was the more strengthened, as, under
such circumstances, these processes become more prominent than usual. With such au-
thorities before them, we are not to wonder that the farriers of even later days, regarding
them as useless at all times, and as hurtful sometimes, are anxious to remove them; and
our books on farriery present repeated directions to excise them, under the various temis
of paps, barbs, bladders, flaps, and gigs ; but which practice is likely, under some circum-
stances, to be attended with injurious consequences ; and, were it not that the secreting
pressure, in genei-al cases, would overcome the tumefaction of the severed end, might
prove serious indeed. The Ungual frenum and its appurtenances would appear to be as
full of evils as Pandora's box. Many ' is the time and oft,' that, in the days of my no-
vitiate in human surgery, I have tortured the helpless infant by snipping its tiny bridle,
because the maternal fluid, swallowed with eagerness, convulsed its little mouth into a
' cluck,' as the sapient mother expressed it. This almost by-gone error will, probably,
bring to the recollection of the reader that equally notorious one, even now prevalent,—
that the membranous frsenum or fold under the tongue, of the dog is neither more nor
less than a 'ivorni,' or a something, the extraction of which is cnpal>le of preventing rabies :
and this we are told in the nineteenth century ! ! ! Creilat Jm/fFiis.

\

\

I

SPLANCHNOLOGY — DESCRIPTION OF PLATE III, 193

the mouth, on the inner surface of the lips, and are small secreting salivary
bodies. The molar glands are found on each side of the mouth, near the
alveolar edges, and are also of the same kind, whose excreting ducts open
near the last molar teeth. Folliculose and mucous glands are distributed
over these parts, as already noticed ; forming the whole of the membrane of
the nose, mouth, pharynx, and larynx, into one vast secreting surface, designed
to form a mucus, which defends these parts from the external atmosphere, and
serves to keep up the sensibility of their surfaces. It is the inflammation
of this membrane which forms catarrh, in which case this secretion is seen
to be at first increased and thinner, but gradually to degenerate into a thicker
and more purulent state. There are also the lymphatic glands common to
the head, which are principally the maxillary ; these 'are situated in the
channel towards the superior part of the branches of the posterior jaw, but
slightly buried below the skin. It is from the morbid appearances exhibited
by them that a diagnosis is frequently formed in glanders. The lymph re-
ceived by them is carried to the cervical glands. The muscles of the head
will be found with those of the neck.

The uses of the salivary secretion appear to be to fluidify the food, thereby enabling
such as is dry to be more readily swallowed. It has, however, functional properties of
other kinds, and contains, without doubt, living prinnples of action, as well as mechani-
cal : by resolving the matters taken in into their principles, it commences the work of
chjTnification and digestion. At all times it is useful, likewise, by moistening the mouth
and fauces, thereby keeping them in a constant state of susceptibility. From some ex-
periments made, it would appear that the quantity of saliva furnished by the parotid ducts
during the process of eating is more than a pint per hour*. As will be seen in the pro-
gress of the Work, the salivary glands are liable to disease, of which the strangles is the
most prominent instance. To this sometimes succeeds a much worse affection, which is
.that of a fistulous opening in the duct of the gland. (See Veterinarrj Surgery.)

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IIL

This Plate represents a section of the head, as far as the second cervical yertebra. The
section was not carried exactly through the centre, but was inclined to the right side ;
consequently the left portion is rather the largest, by which the septa dividing the parts
are presei-ved. \^

FIGURE THE FIRST

Presents the left portion of the section, in which the cartilaginous partition of the two
nasal cavities is entire, mth part of the falx or septum dividing the two lobes of the brain
likewise. The oesophagus, as inclining naturally rather to the left side, appears, there-
fore, whole in this section.

a. The cerebrum, b, the cerebellum, with its arborescent appearance ; c, c, the me-
dulla oblongata. The anterior c, s'hews its origin at the base of the cerebrum and cere-
bellum j the posterior e, depicts the spinal marrow, passing out at the great foramen in
the occipital bone ; d, the eustachian cavity, its membranous septum being removed, to
shew the cavity more completely; the letter d, is immediately upon a part of the os
hyoides ; the two vessels that run under and across it are the carotid artery and jugular
vein: posterior to it, is a muscle of the os hyoides ; next to it, the lingual nerve; and
behind these, are branches of the external carotid ; e, the frontal sinuses divided by their
partition, part of which ii? broken ofl;; to shew the left of these cavities; /, the ethmoidal
sinuses; g, the sphenoidal sinus; h, the septum narium ; i, the vomer implanted below,
into the groove of the palatine bones, and above, fixed into the septum of the nose ; k, the
cartilaginous substance immediately over the palatine bones, assisting in the division of
these cavities and their formation ; /, the palate, or roof of the mouth, with its. folds or rugaa ;
m, shews the section of the posterior jaw, at the symphysis of the chin : above and below

^' apr4s avoir fait jpQner un cheval deux k deux joure ct dcmi, I'on dfecouvrc les deux
S«^ii, J-®'" H"* ''o" 1 "oin d'Isoler; pendant le temps que I'animal-mangera environ une
aemi notte ordinaire de foire, I'on pcut nbtcnir jus<|u'ii dix libres d'une salive claire, blaiicbc, mais
les mlmc^rTsuftats ' ''^P^'''''"" r^i'erfee ,«ur dcs vicux chevmv m'a donnfe prcsquc toiijours

N

194

TFIE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

the musculav substance of the lips is seen with the integuments as a line over it ; n, the
section of the tongue, with its greater intermixture of tendinous fibres towards the root;
0, its outer covering formed of epidermis, or skin, expressed by a white line around its
edge ; its papillary eminences, greater near the base, are expressed in the figure ; p, is
intended to shew the velum palati, or curtain of the palate attached to the edge of the
palatine bone, and extending down in front of the epiglottis ; q, the epiglottis, or carti-
lage ; 7; the larynx ; ,s, the aretenoid cartilage, or commencement of the trachea ; ( t, with
its cartilaginous rings ; u u, the pharynx, or cavity of the hinder mouth, divided by the
cm-tain of the palate : the pharynx receives the left nostril at the anterior letter u ; v, the
internal cuticular coat of the oesophagus ; .r, the muscular coat of the oesophagus ; y, the
cervical ligament, attached to the occipital bone, but escaping the first vertebra ; %, the
cervical hollow maintained for the enlargement of the oesophagus in swallowing.

FIGURE THE SECOND

Represents the • right half of the head, with the velum palati and the membranous
pharynx removed, as well as the brain and spinal marrow ; a, the cavity for the lodgment
of the cerebrum, with its risings and depressions marked ; b, the cavity within the occi-
pital bone, for the lodgment of the cerebellum; c, marks the passage through the occi-
pital foramen and atlas ; d, the frontal sinuses exposed, the bony septum dividing the
right from the left remaining with the right portion, but within are seen bony pillars sup-
porting these sinuses ; e, the superior turbinated bone forming the upper cornet of the
nose ; /, the inferior turbinated bone forming the under or posterior cornet of the nose ;

the ethmoidal sinuses; /(, the sphenoidal sinuses; i i, the os hyoides; the superior
letter expresses its larger branches, as the lower does its lesser appendicular portions : the
■bottom portion is its fork or lesser appendicle, and embraces the upper border of the thy-
roid cartilage ; k, a branch of the carotid going to the base of the skull : ne.xt to it is seen
part of the jugular returning the blood from the sinuses ; /, the carotid artery forming its
divisions ; 7)i m m, the digastric muscle, with its two flesby attachments and intermediate
tendon; w, the right maxillary gland: the posterior letter shews its body which lies
within, and under the parotid, as seen in Plate IV : the middle ?i, shews its duct passing
at the posterior, and under part of the tongue ; and the anterior letter shews the termina-
tion of this duct in the mouth under the tongue, a little distance from the incisive teeth
or nippers ; 0, the submaxillary artery, which forms the most convenient part for feeling
the pulse, the fingers being applied exactly where the letter is placed; the left half of
the tongue ; q, its root dissected from its attachment to the os hyoides ; r, a probe shew-
ing the passage of some of the vessels of the brain ; .9, the optic foramen of the sphenoid
bone ; /, another foramen permitting the passage of the cerebral vessels ; v v, the most
anterior of these, shews the exit of the olfactory nerves, and the posterior the transverse
septum, dividing the cerebrum from the cerebellum ; tv, is intended to shew the retraction
of the skin of the ear, with the concha, or cartilage of that organ imderneath, as it appears
in the operation of cropping ; ,r x, the parts composing the eustachian cavity and pharynx,
as far as the velum palati removed ; y, the two tables of the sjcull, with the intermediate
cancelli, or diploe ; z the pericranium lining the skull.

ANATOMY OF THE NECK.

The neck of the horse is a part of considerable extent and much beauty :
it assists him in progression, by forming a counterpoise to the great weight
and extent of his hinder parts : it is hkewise useful in enabling him to reach
his food from the ground : to favour description, it may be divided into ex-
ternal and internal parts. Considered exteriorly, the neck extends above,
from the pole of the head ; and below, from the termination of the channel :
it terminates superiorly at the withers, and below at the breast ; or, in ana-
tomical language, comprehends all that space between the occipital bone
above, and the angle of the posterior jaw below : also to the spinous pro-
cesses of the first dorsal vertebrae above, and to near the articulation of the
humerus with the scapula below. The common integuments of the neck
are similar to those of the other parts of the body : the upper margin pre-
sents a line of flowing hair, called the mane ; and the lower, masses of
powerful muscles and indentations formed by the course of the trachea.

SPLA.NCHNOLOGY — PARTS OK THE NECK.

195

Parts of the Neck,

The cervical ligament, or ligamentum colli, is a very strong substance,
i)f a rope-like form, placed between the head and the body, as a support
10 the head. The muscles of the nqck are very strong: but muscles, if
constantly kept in action, tire ; Nature has, therefore, given a substance
that has great strength, without being liable to fatigue, by which the head
remains permanently supported. This substance differs from ligament, in
isome respects, by being elastic, and thus the motions of the head are much
accelerated. It is strongly attached, by its antei-ior extremity, to the poste-
rior part of the occipital bone ; passing over the first cervical vertebra, with-
out attaching itself to it, but being intimately connected with the spinous
processes of the second, third, and fourth ; the stronger portion of it here
passes forward to reach the spinous processes of the dorsal, but it sends
down a kind of double lamen of ligament, to unite with the rest of the cervi-
cal bones*. (See plate III.) The muscles of the neck operate on the
head ; and many of the fleshy masses moving the neck, originate on the
shoulders : the cervical muscles will therefore be deso'ibed, together with
those of the fore extremities, en masse. It will be only remarked of them
here, that those situated on the neck have, the greater number of them, con-
nextions with the cervical ligament, and that in surgical operations on it, it
should be kept in mind that the direction of their fibres is usually longitudi-
nal. The jugular veins run one on each side of the neck on the outside of
the trachea or windpipe, to within a few inches of the angle of the jaw, when
a bifurcation takes place into its upper and lower branches. (See plates
111 and IV.) The cutaneous vessels, nerves, and lymphatics of the neck,
are described with those respective organs.

Of the internal parts of the neck, the seven cervical vertebrje have been
described with the Osteology. The cervical portion of this bony chain has its
first three links within the upper parts of the neck; the remainder gradually
gain the middle portion ; and the>space between is filled up by the cervical
ligament and muscles. Within the bodies of the cervical vertebrae is found
the medulla spinalis : and through foramina in their transverse processes
creep the vertebral vessels, more deeply seated than the jugulars ; and in the
vicinity of both the trachea and oesophagus pass the carotid arteries, the par
vagas, recurrent, and sympathetic nerves. (See plate III, b,fg. 2.) The
cervical cavity is intended to characterise a hollow, but seldom noticed, in
the region of the oesophagus, purposely left to admit of its distention in de-
glutition. (See z,fig. 1, plate III.) The trachea, or ivindpipe, is a large
canal which arises from the cricoid cartilage of the larynx, and extends down
the anterior part of the neck into the thorax, between the duplicatures of the
mediastinum : it is composed of upwards of fifty annular cartilages, which
taper from their front into mere slips, having their terminal points unat-

* There is much to be admired in the construction and application of this substance.
It purposely departs from the usual character of ligaments, which are essentially inelastic:
this, on the contrary, ' will yield to a force impressed upon it, and it will resume its na-
tural dimensions when that force is removed.' The horse's head is depressed by means of
muscles, but which tire by exertion; and thus the grazing horse elevates his head fre-
quently to relieve them: but he is able to stand for hours without hwmng his head, be-
cause It IS supported l)y this elastic suspender, which is incapable of fatigue.— Much in-
teresting matter on this subject may be met with in No. 3 of the Farmcr.'s' Series, Lihrtmi
nf Uspfiil Kiiowlrdi^c. •'

N 2

196 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

tached except by the tracheal membrane, but connected by their edges to
each other by strong ligaments : thus rendering the trachea perfectly flexible,
yet permanently tubular. Externally it is united to the surrounding parts
by cellular substances ; internally it is lined by a very vascular mucous mem-
brane, the secretion of which defends it against the irritating effects of va-
rieties in the temperature of the air. About the third or fourth dorsal ver-
tebra, it divides into two branches or bronchiae, the principal divisions of
which, at first segmental, become animlar, in such manner that their ultimate
ramifications, as the lungs collapse, readily pass within one another. (See
t t,fig. 1, plate III.)

The oesophagus is the contracted tubular continuation of the funnel-like
cavity of the pharynx. Structurally partly membranous and partly muscu-
lar, it directs its course between the carotid arteries, inclining a little to the
left side, and then penetrates the chest between the layers of the mediasti-
num, and passes along the dorsal vertebrae, through an opening in the dia-
phragm, to terminate in the stomach. Its coats are, first, a slight and cellu-
lar one, which it retains while in the neck, but which in the chest gives place
to a covering from the duplicature of the mediastinum. Its second coat is
muscular, and made up of two strata of fibres, an external longitudinal and
an internal circular. The inner coat is cuticular and wrinkled into folds,
that it may adapt itself to the muscular expansion in deglutition : this cuti-
cular portion extends over one-half of the stomach. (See x, Jig. 1,
plate III.)

Tlie Cavity of the ThoTOJe generally.

The second great cavity of the body is termed thorax, or chest. It is
bounded anteriorly by the vessels filling up the opening between the two first
ribs : posteriorly by the diaphragm ; and laterally by the ribs ; above by the
vertebrae, and below by the sternum. Its external parts are, the integuments,
muscles, and bones : its internal, the pleurae and mediastinum, the thymus
gland, lungs, heart, vessels, and nerves, with the diaphragm. The integu-
ments are common to those of other parts : the muscles will be hereafter
noticed ; and the bony portions, as vertebrae, costae, and sternum, have been
already described.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IV.

The viscera of the chest and belly of a horse, and such other parts as come readily into
view, when the subject is laid on its back, and elevated before, to meet the sight, are here
represented. The skin is raised and thrown back ; the cutaneous muscle is removed from
the neck ; and the sternum has been removed, with the pericardium, mediastinum, and
pleura ; by which the lungs, heart, and principal vessels, are brought into view, as well
as the course of the thoracic duct. The view represents the abdominal cavity cut open
through its whole length, and the symphysis pubis divided, to shew the contents of the
pelvis. An entire male subject was purposely chosen, as exposing parts more frequently
engaging veterinary operations. The intestines have been removed, di\'iding them below
the entrance of the biliary and pancreatic ducts, about a foot before the termination of the
rectum ; and are the only parts displaced, the remaining viscera appearing in their na-
tural situation. The stomach only is slightly distended, to give an accurate idea of its
form, but not to its ftill extent, that the neighbouring viscera might not be hid.

PARTS OF THF, HEAn, NECK, AND CHEST.

a, the masseter muscle, upon the upper part of which is seen spread a branch of the
fifth pair of nerves ; above, its attachment to the spine of the maxillary bone has been
raised to bring b, the temporal artery and vein, into view, which are seen above the nerve,
and are distribi ted principally to the masseter, but contribute nothing to the support of
the eye, and consequently the (rivision of this vessel in the horse does not imnn'didtehi

\

I

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IV. 197

abstract blood from the eye ; c, the anterior cartilage of the ear ; d, the submaxillary
artery and vein, and the duct of the parotid gland. The middle vessel is the parotid duct,
piercing the molar muscles, and entering the mouth a little above the second and third
molar teeth ; e, e, the upper and lower portions of the parotid gland : its duct is rather
brought forward, from the tuberosity of the jaw; it is, however, nearly in situ, traversing
the front of the gland ; f, the superior division of the jugular ; g, its inferior division ;

h, the anterior vena cava formed of these jugular branches, with the axillaries j h, the
aorta, with its division into anterior and posterior ; the anterior goes upwards and for-
wards, and the posterior becomes lost in the view behind the heart ; I, I, the axillary arte-
ries ; m, the imited trunk of the carotids arising from the right axillary artery, and di--
aiding into the right and left carotids; n, the entrance of the thoracic duct into the left
jugular ; o, o, o, the lobes of the lungs : on the right side is seen a small lobe with a larger
one; the lesser lobules do not appear; ^, the right or anterior ventricle ; 17, the left or
posterior ventricle ; r, the right auricle, from which the two veuK cavae arise ; s, the left
auricle ; t, the pulmonary artery, dividing into a right and left ; the left is seen to pass
imder the posterior division of the aorta, at which part is situated the canalis arteriosus ;
u, the posterior cava ; v, the posterior aorta ; between which are seen, to the right, the
vena azygos, and, to the left, the thoracic duct.

VISCERA OF THE ABDOMEN.

a, a, the diapliragm. The middle and lighter portion, to which the ligament of the
liver is attached, is the tendinous part ; and the light portions round the circumference
are likewise tendinous intersections ; b, b, the lobes of the liver j c, the biliary duct arising
at once from the liver, without any gall-bladder as in other animals ; d, the stomach with
the omentum attached, and vessels ramifying on it ; e, its pyloric orifice, ending in the
duodenum, into which ai-e seen entering the biliary and pancreatic ducts ; /, the pan-
creas, the remaining portion lies under the omentum, g, the diminutive size of which in
the horse should not escape observation : a portion of it in the view is kept up by a pin
stuck into the spleen, to shew that viscus ; h, the spleen, with its granulated appearance ;

i, the posterior cava forming the emulgent veins ; k, the posterior aorta giving off the
ajiterior mesenteric trunk, to which the united ti-unk of the lacteals is attached to gain
the receptaculum chyli ; but neither does the anterior mesenteric always present itself in
this situation, nor do the united trunks of the lacteals always accompany it. Immediately
beyond are seen the small emulgent arterial trunks given off; /, the right and left kid-
ney with the emulgent artery and vein, ramifying into each. The left is seen lower than
the right, being pressed down by the spleen ; m, m, the glandula renales receiving their
vessels from the emulgents ; v, n, the vu-eters seen passing out from the pelvis of the kid-
neys, and 111 their course crossing the vasa deferentia ; 0, 0, the spermatic vessels formed
of an artery and vein each : the left spermatic vein is seen arising from the emulgent vein
of that side, to avoid a circuitous route, by originating from the cava on the right ; p, p,
the lymphatic vessels bringing the lymph from the lower extremities ; on the left side
they proceed up from the pelvis in company with the iliac vessels and the aorta ; q, part
of the rectum lying immediately behind the bladder ; r, r, the division of the aorta into
external and internal iliacs, with the iliac division of the cava also.

THE ORGANS OF GENERATION.

a, the bladder cut open to shew the termination of the ureters within it at b. The ure-
ters are seen proceeding from the testicles and crossing the spermatic rope ; c, c, the en-
largement of the vasa deferentia before their termination into the urethra alongside of the
opening of the vesiculae seminales; d, d, the vesiculm seminales ; the right is cut open
to shew Its opening within th,e urethra alongside of the vasa deferentia ; e, marks the ter-
mination ot the vasa deferentia, and the vesiculae seminales opening into the same part
of the urethra by two little orifices ; /, /, two glandular bodies that correspond in situation,
hut not in structure, to the human prostates ; g, g, the two antiprostata; or Cowper's
glands covered with the accelerator muscles : the right is cut open to shew its cavity,
ine little ducts of these glands, called lacunae, are seen within the urethra ; h, the left
testicle, with Its rope passing through the ring of the oblique muscle, covered by its va-
ginal coat and the cremaster muscle, which latter descends along its inner side, and is
expanded over its upper part; i, the right testicle removed from its passage through the
abdominal ring, and its vaginal coat laid open ; the body is seen with its vessels ramifying
on it, being alternately straight and waved upon its albugineous coat ; k, that part of the
testicle called its appendix or epididymis, communicating with the main body by the
tubuli semcnifen, and passing up to form the vas deferens; /, the convolutions of the
spermatic vessels before they enter the testicles; m,m, the corpora cavernosa of the penis

198

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

with its muscular fibres intermixed : between the two, lies the urethra, llie muscular filwes
of which are seen running in the direction of that canal ; o, the body of the penis divested
of its outer coverings ; p, the glans : the dark part shews a portion of the sheath innne-
diately investing it, and thrown into folds to admit of the increase of the dimensions of
the organ; q, the termination of the urethra by a loose floating extremity, which is fixed
in a cavity peculiar to the horse ; the outer part of the glans is laid open, to make this
more distinct, as well as the internal structure of the glans itself.

Viscera of the Chest.

The pleurae and mediastinum. — When the chest is opened, a smooth po-
lished membrane is seen, covering its surface, and investing its contents.
Each side of the chest has its particular jileui-a, which is distinct frOm that
of the other by the intervention of cellular membrane. So conjoined, they
form the mediastinum, the two lamen of which are strongly attached to the
sternum, and compose what is called the inferior mediastinum : from whence
separating, they receive between their laminae the heart and its vessels, and
are afterwards reflected over the lungs ; which having completely invested,
they again unite, and form the superior mediastinum, as it has been called.
Near the vertebraj they again separate, one portion passing over the half
of the spine on one side, while the other passes over the remaining half of
the spine on the other side, to line the whole cavity of the chest. By this
division a tubular opening is formed, in which are situated the thymus gland,
aorta, vena cava, vena azj'gos, ductus thoracicus, and oesophagus : and bv
this, two pleural reflections are formed on each side ; one connected to the
surface of the chest, the other to the surface of the lungs, exhibiting a distinct
cavity for each lung, in which is contained a small quantity of fluid, termed
liquor pleura;, the diseased increase of which forms hydrothorax. The
pleural surface, that comes into view on opening the chest, whether of the
lungs lor of the chest itself, is smooth, that it may facilitate the sliding of
these parts over each other, which the healthy serous secretion from the sur-
faces further facilitates ; but the attached pleural surface is rough and fibrous,
to hold the parts together. — The mediastinum is, therefore, nothing more
than the duplicature of the two pleurae, which divides the chest into two
nearly equal portions : the right being rather the largest, in consequence of
the situation of the heart, but the difi'erence in capacity is not so great in the
horse as in the human. This complete division of the cavity is of great im-
portance to the animal ; for shoidd the chest become penetrated, if total col-
lapse of the lungs were to take place, death must ensue ; but life can be car-
ried on by one lung, when an injury to the other has rendered it useless.
By this wise -provision, ulceration also sometimes confines its effects to one
side of the thorax only, and the animal becomes supported finally hj the
other. That portion of the pleura which lines the bony cavity of the chest,
is termed the costal pleura, while the reflected portion receives the name of
pulmonary pleura; and which distinctions are necessary to be kept in mind,
both in the surgery and pathology connected with these parts. These mem-
branous investments are supplied with blood by the intercostal arteries, and
they return it by intercostal veins. The nerves of these parts are also
branches from the intercostal nervous trunks ; but they are small, and there-
fore, except under inflammation, the sensibility of the pleura is not great.
The thymus is a spongy, irregularly formed, and apparently glandular body,
placed anteriorly, between the duplicatures of the mediastinum, contiguous
to the sternum and to the aorta, and vena cava, at their division. In the
colt its size is considcniblo, and at this time it is said to contain a small por-

SPLANCHNOLOGY. — VISCERA OF THE CHEST.

199

tion of whitish fluid. As the animal advances in age, it lessens, its colour
changes, and at last it is scarcely discernible. No excretory duct has ever
been discovered in it, and neither in the horse nor the human is its use
known*.

The diaphragm or midriff is a most important musclef, and, like the
heart, is in constant action during life. It is a broad, thin, tendinous, and
fleshy expansion, and is so situated as to form a complete septum or division
between the thorax and abdomen, but an oblique one ; for its upper part, op-
posed to the back, extends considerably farther towards the lumbar vertebrae,
while the anterior part is attached to the sternum. In a state of rest, it is
anteriorly convex, and posteriorly concave ; that surface opposed to the thorax
bemg covered by the pleura, and that towards the abdomen by the peritoneum.
From some peculiarities in the disposition of its fibres, it is sometimes de-
scribed as two muscles ; the great and little diaphragm. The anterior or
larger portion arises by distinct tendinous fleshy fibres from the ensiform
cartilage, from the internal surface of the cartilages of the eighth, and all
the remaining ribs, except the two last, by portions which admit of small
tendinous digitations between them (see plate IV). From these origins, the
fibres are directed like radii from the circumference of a circle to a tendinous
centre, which is perforated by a dextrally inclined triangular hole, a little in-
feriorly to the spine, furnishing a passage for the vena cava. — The superior,
posterior, and lesser portion of the diaphragm fills up the space left by the
larger ; arising by difl"erent portions from the first, second, and third lumbar
vertebrae, of which the two central ones are called its crura or pillars ; be-
tween which an interval (its hiatus) is left for a transit of the aorta, the vena
azygos, and thoracic duct. Sinestrally is situated a third opening, formed
from the decussation of the fibres of the crura, through which passes the
oesophagus.

Vessels and nerves of the diaphragm. — The aorta, in its passage between
the crura, usually gives a branch or; two to this muscle; besides which, it
receives other rami from the arteries of the chest. (See Arteries.) Its
veins, which are much larger than its arteries, to obviate the efl"ects of pres-
sure during its motions, finally pour their contents into the vena cava. The
phrenic nerves arise from filaments given from the fourth, fifth, sixth, and
seventh cervicals : other small branches are likewise given ofi' from the sur-
rounding ganglia and from the great sympathetics, which, uniting with it, tend
to compound its action, and to make it an organ of extensive visceral sym-
pathy (see Neurology, p. 158), as well as the principal agent in resjm-a-
tionX. The exertions of the horse not unfrequently rupture it, and it is very
liable to communicated inflammation from other organs, and occasionally be-
comes primarily so.

* As the thymus gland in dogs is large, and the thyroid small ; and as it usually hap-
pens, that when one is considerable, the other is the reverse ; so vvc may reasonably sup-
pose that their use is the same. It is the stveethrcad of the call', andj according to La
Fosse, is sometimes fatally diseased in them.

t Nobilisimus post cor musculus. — Hnlli'r.

X The importance of the diaphragTH is not confined to its respiratory agency ; hut by
its great sympathetic connexions, it can act at one time as an assistant, and at another as
an antagonist, in various functional capacities. In contracting the dimensions of the
chest to expirate, it then acts in direct opposition to the abdominal Tuuscles. In enlarg-
ing the capacity of the chest, it becomes a direct aid to the ahdominal muscles in many
of their actions, particularly in the expulsion of the faeces and urine, as well as in the act
of parturition. .In quadrupeds prone to vomition, it is an important agent; but I am
disposed to think its assistance is not great in rumination.

200

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

The Heart,

pei'iccirdiiim is a membranous sac suiTounding' the heart, attached
by its outer surface to the mediastinum, between the duplicatures of which
it is situated : its inner surface is contiguous but not continuous to the heart,
for there is a fine fluid, the liquor pericardii, intei'posed. It appears com-
posed of two lamina3, and is attached above to the vessels, over which it is
reflected, giving them a covering, and passing down to the sternum ; but is
not, as in the human, attached to the diaphragm ; for the horizontal position
of the animal alters in some measure the position of the heart. Its inner
surface secretes a very fine fluid, called liquor pericardii, which thus pre-
serves a freedom of motion between the heart and sac : in health this is about
an ounce in quantity ; but when it becomes much increased beyond this, it
constitutes dropsy of the pericardium ; which is, however, not a frequent dis-
ease in the horse.

The heart. — This important organ appears a composition of muscular
fibres combined with membranous matter, to form a conoidal body with four
principal cavities, and several openings, common and proper. Invested by
its sac, it is situated obliquely and rather sinestrally, its base being on a line
with the dorsal vertebrae, and its apex, which is slightly curved, directed to
the left of the sternum between the eighth and ninth ribs. It presents four
cavities, two inferior or ventricles, and two superior or auricles. Each ven-
tricle opens by two orifices, one of which communicates with the auricles ;
the other forms the mouth of a large artery, and the septum divides the two.
The right ventricle opens into the right auricle and into the pulmonary ar-
tery ; the left into the left auricle and into the aorta ; at the edges of which
orifices there are valves. The right or anterior ventricle is thicker than
the left ; its sides are strengthened by fleshy pillars, called carnece columnce,
and also by tendinous cords attached to the valves of the auricle and ven-
tricle, by which the mechanism of these parts is greatly strengthened. The
left or posterior ventricle, although altogether longer than the right, is,
nevertheless, less dense and capacious. The auricles may be considered as
appendages to the base of the heart, and separated from each other by a
septum, though extei'nally they appear but one cavity, with indented edges.
The right and larger auricle is irregularly rounded, and has two openings,
an anterior and posterior, which receive the anterior and posterior vena cava.
The left auricle is considerably more muscular than the right, though its
size is less: it receives the pulmonary veins, and it has a common opening
with the ventricle. The substance of the auricles is both membranous and
muscular, and they are also furnished with a few tendinous and fleshy cords
to strengthen them. The valves are strong membranous appendages to the
ventricles, which prevent the blood from passing but in one direction : those
of the arterial openings being called semilunar; and those of the auricular,
tricuspid ; as the auricular valve of the left ventricle is known as the mi-
tral*. The heart is furnished with blood for its own individual support by

* Tlie valves act by means of folds of their inner membrane, opposed to the entrance
of the blood, but permitting its exit by a separation of their sides ; thus, as either ventricle
contracts, the blood is driven into the artery, which communicates with that ventricle :
the sides of tlio cavity being brought nearer to each other, the valves close the opening
into the auricle, and the artery, being the only remaining passage, receives the blood. The
heart after this contraction becomes again relaxed, and the valves of the auricle being
drawn downwards, the blood is poured by the Veins into its recipient cavities.

SPLANCHNOLOGY— THE HEART, 201

the coronary arteries, which is returned by the coronary veins. Its nerves
are gained from the cardiac plexus and rami of communication derived from
the par vagas and sympathetic nerves.

The Physiology of the Action of the Heart, as the grand Agent in the

Circulation of the Blood.

The ch cnlatori/ round of the blood is a vital action performed by the heart, the descrip-
tion of which I shall prosecute by the ordinary method of dividing it into the pulmonary*
and general ; or, as they are sometimes called, the lesser and greater circulations.

The lesser, or puhnonary circulation. — The blood of the two cavas, being poured into the
right or pulmonic avu-icle, irritates that sac to contract, by which the valves of the cor-
retpondent ventricle are forced close to its sides, and the blood rushes into the cavity ;
wliich being stimulated to contract on it, shuts up the tricuspid valves which had permitted
its entry. The contained blood, therefore, now seeks another course : and the same ac-
tion that shut the ventricle, opens the pulmonary artery, by pressing the edges of its
valves towards its sides, and leaving its cavity extended, into which the blood, by the con-
traction of the ventricle, is now forced. The blood thus received into the pulmonary ar-
tery proceeds to be circulated through the lungs, and, when returned by the pulmonary
veins, to be emptied into the left or posterior auricle ; which, having received it, becomes
likewise stimulated to contract, in its turn also, and the fluid then is forced into the left
ventricle. Thus much of the motion of the blood is termed the pulmonary, or minor cir-
culation, and so much appears to have been known to many of the ancients.

The greater, or general circulation. — -We have traced the blood into the left ventricle,
from, which it is prevented returning again into the left auricle, by the closing of the mitral
valves. The reciprocal contraction of the left ventricle drives the contained blood in the
direction of its axis, against the valves of the aorta : which dilating, allow the passage of
the fluid into this vessel, from whence it is distributed by divisions to every part of the
body, to furnish it with nutritious principles. The remainder being put into a retrograde
course, by means of the veins, is again poured from the trunks of the anterior and posterior
cavas, into the right auricle ; and thus a complete round of sanguineous circulation is
formed. It appears that the contraction of the two ventricles is synchronous, and that at
the same time that the blood is driven from the left ventricle into the aorta, the right ven-
tricle impels it into the pulmonary artery ; and as the period at which the left auricle re-
ceives the pulmonary blood is the same with that in which the right auricle receives the
blood of the cavas, so it will be evident that the relaxation of the ventricles and the dis-
tention of the auricles are synchronical also. These alternate contractions and dilatations
of the heart are called its systole and diastole. The contraction, or its systole, pressing the
blood into the arteries, distends them : when, uniting to the force of the heart a contractile
power of their own, the blood is propelled through the body. It follows, therefore, that
when the heart is in a state of contraction, or systole, the arteries are in a state of disten-
tion, or diastole : and it is at this period we feel what is termed their pulsaiion. (See
Pulse, p. 129.) Thus it will appear, that the two nominal circulations form but one di-
rect round of transmission of the blood through the body of the horse ; and which course
is universally kept up, except in a few instances, where the economy requires some spe-
ciality of deviation ; as in its passage through the liver, in the corpora cavernosa of the
penis, and in the cavernous sinuses of the dura mater.

The physiology of the heart, as the exciting cause of circulation, or the means by which
it is enabled thus to act on its contents with such regularity through life, has been a con-
stant subject of physiological inquiry. Suffice it here to state, that other functional phe-
nomena, evidently derived from nervous influence, I think are satisfactory proofs that we
are also to look to this agency for the contractility of the vascular system at largef ; pro-
bably assisted by an inherent stimulus in the contained fluid.

The diseases of the heart are not numerous in the horse. Carditis, or idiopathic, in-
flammation of its substance, is by no means frequent, but now and then it does occur: the
pericardium is very often seen secondarily affected by pneumonia, and hydrops pericardii

• There seems great propriety in denominating the. vessels which contain the blood previous to its
aeration, pulmonic, according to Dr. Barclay .—Anatomical Nomenclature, p. \7S.

+ he (Jallois instituted a great number of ingenious experiments, to prove not only that it was
by nervous influence that the action of the heart was kept up, but that such influence was directly
derived from the gpinal marrow ; and it is clear, that although the substance of its nervous branclics
is not large, they arc most extensively connected with medullary origin. An additional proof of the
importance of nervous influence on the vascular system is the well known fact, that the bloodvessels
of a palsied limb diminish from the time of its attack ; it becomes colder, and sometimes mortifies.

THE ANATOMY OF THli HOUSE.

has Ibllowed. The valves and even tlie substance oC the heart have ossified* • its s„h-
stuiice has also become iiiijtured by great exertion, but llie occurence is rare.

The Lungs.

Each side of the cavity of the chest is occupied by soft, snongy, and
s ightly elastic masses, called lungs, having the heart appended between
them. In a state of distention they completely fill the parietes of the tho-
rax, to which their figure is exactly adapted. The lungs have a distinct
division mto a right and left mass, each of which presents deep fissures, par-
tially dividing its substance into what are called its lobes. These divisions
are not always the same in every subject, but in the majority of instances
the right and largest lung presents three lobuli, the left two only. As al-
ready described, the pleura first lines the thoracic cavity, and is then reflected
over the lungs, affording them a dense covering : a second reflection from
each lung by a union of its lamina}, forms a septum or complete division of
the chest, into two distinct cavities, and thus effectually shuts out all com-
munication between one lung and the other, except by their vessels. The
colour of the lungs varies considerably : in the colt they present a lively pinky
hue ; in the adult horse they are darker, and in very old subjects they have
a greyish cast and granulated appearance. Internally they are always dark
in colour and spongy in texture, being formed from the ramifications of the
bronchia, or air-vessels, and the bloodvessels which accompany them, held
together by an_ intervening cellular substance called parenchyma.

The bronchicB are formed from the bifurcations of the trachea already
noticed. (See plate IV.) The right and larger branch given to the right
lung, quickly divides into three trunks. The left, which is the longer, from
the necessity it has to stretch itself under the posterior aorta, usually sub-
divides into two principal trunks. The cartilages of the larger bronchial
tubes are distinct, but in the minuter divisions they seem less so; and in the
extreme ramifications this structure is altogether lost. They are lined
throughout by the mucous membrane of the larynx and trachea, furnishing
a mucous covering, and a serous supply that loads the expired air with mois-
ture, and by which non-perspiring animals, as dogs, &c. pass off that which,
in the horse, perspires through the exhalents of the skin. The extreme
ramifications of the bronchiae end in minute cavities or cellsf , over whose
surfaces are spread, in capillary tubes of exquisite minuteness, the ultimate
ramifications of the pulmonary arteries, whose trunks accompany the bron-
chial branches side by side. The venal ramifications receive the 'blood from
the surface of the cells which the arterial capillaries had deposited, from
whence it is collected and returned to the heart by the pulmonary trunks de-
scribed in the Angiology. The lungs are themselves supported by appro-
priate vessels or bronchial arteries whose blood is returned by bronchial veins.
(See Angiology.) Their nerves are furnished from the cervical ganglions :
but except under inflammation, these organs are not endowed with much
sensibility. Their lymphatics are very plentifully distributed over them,

* Mr. Henderson possesses a remarkable specimen of ossification of the substance of
the heart, in which the right auricle appears completely bony. It is to this tendency to
ossific deposit in this organ we owe the vulgar opinion, lluit there is a hone in the hcai'j.

i These cells are readily demonstrable to the naked eye in amphibia, and appear dis-
posed to dilate and yield to the stimulus of pressure, since they are said to be considcrablv
enlarged in the pearl divers. It is also very possible that on their varied dimensions, iii
a great measure, depends the superiority, of ' wind' in some horses over others.

SPLANCHNOLOGY— OF THE BLOOD. 203

and have been successfully injected in the horse. Diseases of the lungs,
both acute and chronic, might, d pi-io'i, be supposed important, from their
great vascularity. The numbers we lose by pneumonia attest the magnitude
of the former ; as the deteriorating effects of what are called thick wind and
broken wind are instances of the latter*.

The Physiology of the Lungs in Respiration) and Aeration of

the Blood.

Respiration. — The foetal colt subsists by direct communications between its own organs
and the maternal, througb the medium of the placenta ; and it is by these secondary
means that its blood becomes aerated ; but as soon as separated from the mother, this
process is brought about by its own organs alone; and the lungs, hitherto passive, by a
sympathetic want are roused into action : the muscles of the chest enlarge the cavity ; the
air rushes in and distends their cellular substance, and> the animal now breathes. The
distention of the chest is a very important feature in respiration, and is operated by an
increase of its several diameters ; circumferently by the elevation of the ribs*, and
longitudinally by the agency of the diaphragm : to which, without doubt, we are princi-
pally indebted for the general inflation of the Umgs. This muscle in a state of rest is con-
vex towards the breast, and concave towards the abdomen ; but when its muscular fibres
contract, it becomes plane-like, which forcing backwards the abdominal visceraf, neces-
sarily enlarges the thoracic cavity. The air received into the lungs expands their cells
throughout, by which also the blood of the pulmonary vessels find a ready passage through
them. The lungs thus filled, an uneasy sensation stimulates them to contract; the dia-
phragm relaxes, and the abdominal muscles shorten, by which the contents of the abdo-
men are forced forward : the intercostals cease their expanding action, and the capacity
of the chest is diminished ; by which the air is expired, or forced out of it. After a mo-
mentary pause, the blood becomes collected in the right side of the heart, owing to the
resistance it met with in the pulmonary artery, from the collapsed state of the lungs, and
causes a plethora in every other part of the body; which enables us to account for the ful-
ness of the vessels of the head, and its consequences, from a tight collar pressing on the
trachea in ascending a hill. This accumulation, therefore, renders it necessary for fresh
air to be drawn into the lungs ; and in this manner the routine of respiration is carried
on, the actions, under ordinary circumstances, being repeated about six times per minute.
Tliere is, indeed, a certain consent, or proportion, between the action of the heart and that
of respiration in the general state of the animal. If more blood be sent to the heart by
the stimulus of exercise, &c., the respiration will be also accelerated : thus, in quick mo-
tion, or great exertion, there is panting or quick breathing ; the air being suddenly ex-

• Few proofs of the morbid effects entailed on horses, by the artificial state of life we
subject them to, are so incontestible as these diseases, which are almost unknown among
asses ; and nearly equally so among the wild, half-reclaimed horses of Asia and America.

• Mr. Percivall questions this circumferent enlargement , except on extraordinary occasions ;
but I am disposed to tliinlc that a consideration of tlic matter, either anatomically, analogically, or
experimentally, will alFord pniofs of a uniforiit enlargement of the Costal arches under respiration,
and that to a greater degree than is geneially supposed. The first rib being lixed, becomes a fulcrum
to the remainder, whose articulations, though limited, yet in conjunction with tlie flexibility of their
cartilaginous connexions, turns their angles outwards, and elevates the costal arches, when operated
on by the contractions of the intercostales, as well as transversalis and levatores costarum muscles ;
by these means there must he a very considerable enlargement of the transverse diameter of the chest.
It would be most analogical to suppose, that these appropriate respiratory muscles were given to be
called into action on extraordinary occasions only ; for such, the chest calls on other muscles as respi-
ratory aids: tlie scrratus magnus, the sternal, humeral, and others, which pass between the ribs
and shoulders to operate progression, &f;. &c. ate of thislvind. It is thus that, when violent exer-
cise has, what is termed, ' blown' ahorse, he severs his fore legs (as we elevate and extend our arms
when we wish to take a moiethan ordinarily deep inspiration to yawn), inclines them forwaid. and de-
presses his head, that be may lirmly fix these parts, and make them act as fulcri to the thoracic extre-
mity of the a»Bi»taiit muscles in expanding his chest : and how grateful an assistant it is at this mo-
ment to loosen his girths every humane fox-bunter is well aware. It is principally to the pleural
connexion ofjthe intercostal muscles that pleurisy in the horse is observed more .acutely painful than
pneumonia : it disturbs the circular expansion more.

f This displacement of the abdominal contents is marked by an elevation posteriorly, or what is
known as the 'heaving of the Jlanks :' this action, therefore, becomes a usual criteron both of the
celerity and state of respiration : for when the elevation is excessive, it shews that the diaphragm is
put into more than ordinary reqiiisition to relieve the inlereostal muscles from tli« effect of the circuiU''
fcrent distention : and which is particularly observed in iiiflamnuilions of the viscera of the chest.

THE ANATOMY or THE HOUSE.

pelled, and as^quickly inspired, that no ol.staclo may l,e offered to the passa.re of tl..
blood. This becomes also necessary on another account ; for, as the fbrce'^f hfrelirl
InZZl the auxiliary ones, must be diminished when other muse r ^

n strong action, what is wanting in strength, therefore, is made up in celerity the aux

diest TnH r ^'"\^ '° ^« Iheir fi^Ked po nts mus be t'^

chest, and their moveable ones the extremities.

The Nature and Properties of the Blood.
The nature and properties of this fluid belong to the section on Hydro-
logy ; but Its intimate physiological connexion with the parts just described
makes it more proper to consider it in this place. The blood was, in the
earliest ages, pecuharly venerated, and it always stood high in the estimate
ot animal parts : perhaps, the great stress laid upon it in the Bible has not a
little contributed to continue an opinion of its importance, seeing that in it
men were strictly commanded to 'refrain from blood,' because ' it was the
lije. Ihis sentiment is so generally diffused, that, by common consent, it
is called the vital fluid ; and the gaudiest flowers of rhetoric have been ex-
pended on imagery flowing from this general opinion. The immortal Harvey
left its course through the body as a legacy to the physiologists of our times':
to the illustrious John Hunter we are indebted for much of our knowledge of
Its physical and chemical properties, and particularly of its agencies in the
living systems, of which its makes so important and so considerable a part.
In essential characters and properties, blood is the same in all animals: in
some, It wants the colouring matter*, but it is invariably red in the hioher
orders, though the intensity of its hue varies with circumstances, the princi-
pal instance of which is that afi-orded between the venous and arterial ; where

It IS, in the former, almost purple, but in the latter, a bright scarlet The

specific gravity of the blood is very diff-erently estimated, it being subject to
increase and decrease at difl-erent times. Disease and emaciation make it
lighter, while m the contrary states, from its more perfect organization, it is
found heavier. If water be estimated at 1000, the specific gravity of blood
may be reckoned at 1050 ; from which it may, however, be increased to 1 120.
Venous blood IS heavier that arterial, as 1052 is to 1019; but, as before
observed, these data vary.— The temperature of the blood in the horse is
about 100; in the ox, 102; and in the sheep, 103: but various circum-
stances tend to increase or decrease it. Arterial blood is usually one or two
degrees warmer than venous: Mr. Vines, I beheve, rates the diff-erence much
higher. Some diseases reduce the heat of the blood, and ardent inflamma-
tions are also capable of augmenting it. The quantity that an animal con-
tains, in proportion to his bulk, has been endeavoured to be ascertained: but
the results have been various. Very fat animals are found usually to have
proportionably less than lean ones ; and in those in a state of close confine-
ment, the quantity is found to "be smaller than in the wild ; but it is evident
that, as the calculation must be in a degree imaginary, from that which will
remain in the vessels, so the real quantity is not easy to estimate. A medium
sized horse has lost forty-four pounds without apparent injury, and most of

• It is red in man, and all the mammalia, but less intensely so in the horse than in
many other quadrupeds ; among which it'also varies, it being deeper in the hare than the
rabbit : neither is it alike in the same animal at different times and under different cir-
cumstances : thus permanency of colour is not essential to its vital properties ; so little
so, that it is limpid in some of the most important parts of the body, as in the eye of the
horse. It is also universally so in various tribes; being white in some of the Crustacea,
as the lobster and ;ihrimp ; and green among insects, as the grasshopper and white cater-
pillar.

SPLANCHNOLOGY— NATURIi, &C. OF THE BLOOD. 205

thera will lose one-fifteenth of their total weight before life becomes extinct :
it may, therefore, be presumed that it forms one-tenth of the whole : Mr.
Percivall thinks one-eighth. — The chemical properties of the blood are im-
portant subjects to the medical student. It appears to be variously com-
pounded, but is most distinctly separable into two parts ; the one solid and
red ; the other fluid and slightly tinged with yellow, or, as otherwise ex-
pressed, divisible into crassamentum* and serum-f-. The process which se-
parates them is termed coagulation.

* The coaguliim, cruor, or crassamentum, is found to be composed of two parts : that to
which it owes its colour is called its red globules, although the form of the particles has
been a subject of infinite dispute ; the other component, and that which gives con-
sistence and adherence to the red particles, is known by the names of coagulable lymph,
fibrin, and gluten. As some animals have no red particles in their blood, and as others
are only partially supplied with them, as fishes, insects, &c., it has been supposed that
they were the least important portions of the blood. Mr. Hunter, however, considers
them as greatly connected with the strength of the organs, as he observed that the parts
subjected to the greatest exertions, as muscles, were fullest of them, and that in proportion
as muscles are more or less highly coloured by thern, so have they proved stronger or
weaker. From known facts, one would infer that the red globules are longer in forming
than the other parts*.

t The fibrin, as it is now more generally called (though until lately better known as
coagulable lymph), forms the other portion of the clot, and appears to be the most import-
ant part of the vital fluid, and is present in every animal. It appears to have undergone
the most complete animalization of all the other parts, and is mechanically, but intimately,
mixed with them. After the perfect abstraction of the serum and red particles by mace-
ration, it will be left nearly limpid, firm, tough, and fibrous, bearing in its general aspect,
as well as chemical characters, a close resemblance to muscular fibre when deprived of
its connecting membranes and colouring matter. It appears to be that part of which all
the solids of the body are immediately framed : it forms the callus of bones, and can be-
come organized whenever extravasated, either by its own specific action, or by the action
of the solids upon it. It readily coagulates, is soluble in aljcalies but insoluble in water,
oils, or ardent spirits, and yields salts by incineration. The coagulation of the fibrin is a
very important feature in the character of the blood ; and, as seen below, has been used
in advancing the doctrine of the vitality of the blood ; from this property are also gained ap-
pearances, which have been considered practically connected with the treatment of diseasef .

• When blood is abstracted, the general bulk appears to be very quickly reinstated ; and this occurs
although the quantity he considerable and often repeated. A ladv who was bled every other day
(when phlebotomy was a fashionable practice in phthisis), though not so much reduced by it as might
have been expected, yet gradually exhibited the curious spectacle of almost colourless blood.
Butchers are in the habit of daily bleeding their calves, to render their veal white : if the colourless
parts were not more quickly restored than the red, rapid absorption would take place, and the loss of
weight in the animal would soon stop the practice.

f " From coagulation," observes a favourer of the Hunterian principles, " arises the formation of
what is termed the ' buffy coat,' an appearance in the blood which denotes inflammatory action in the
system, and the presence of which affords an invaluable guide in the treatment of disease. The terms
' buff," or ' size,' are employed to denote that state of the crassamentum when its upper part contains
no red particles, but exhibits a layer of buff-coloured substance, lying on the top of the red clot. In
this condition of the blood the red particles sink to the lower part of the clot before the coagulation is
completed, and,' therefore, the upper surface of the clot is colourless ; at the same time, the whole of
the coagiilaled portion is much firmer than natural. The red particles have time to subside
before the coagulation is complete, because the coagulation is slower ; and it is slower, because in
the morbid condition of the system, of which this buCFy appearance is the sign, the blood possesses
a higher degree of vitality than it does in a sound state." This condition of the blood hav-
ing been long considered as indicative of an inflammatory state of the vessels, is, among practitioners,
carefully sought after; and if it really be as above stated, it becomes of great importance to inquire
what accidental circumstaHces tend to hasten or retard the coagulation of the blood, that we may not
be led to form a wrong prognosis from its appearance. It is found that detaching it from the body
quickly by o large orifice, and receiving it into a deep vessel with a narrow bottom, tends to
delay it, and consequently to assist the separation of the red narticles, and exhibit the bufl^ on the
surface of the clot; it is, therefore, very generally recommended, in all acute diseases, to draw the
blood in this manner. It is not only that the blood itself may yield a just indication, but there arc
also curative intentions involved in this method of abstracting blood in violent inflammatory affec-
tions, and which are supposed to be effected by the sudden check it gives to the circulation ; the
disgorged vessels being now enabled to contract on their over-distended coats. It may be here
remarked, also, that the cupped appearance of the coagulum, although denied any existence in the
horse, is yet occasionally present, as I have witnessed, and that both in health and disease : Mr. Per-
civall asserts the same. In fact, I long ago bad remarked, that in the horse, as well as in the human,
neither the cupped nor the bnfTy state of the blood were invariable marks of disease; liut that, li'i
both subjects, blood abstracted when In health (for both, as is well known, are bled from caprice or

206 THE ANATOMY OF Till!; lIORSIi;.

Spontaneous coagulation is not so rapid in the lioise as in man, in whom it is completed
111 seven or eight minutes ; whereas it commonly requires more than twenty to si'l tlie
blood of the former.

as a preventive) often exhibited a coal of size, as well as tliat, in BOuie cases of disease : if

, , , , •• - " - • r*'Kaid to the buflfy state of

corse DIood also. Mr. Peicivall, on this subject, observes : ■ That what is re,?arded as indicative of
increased, if not diseased, action in tlie vascular system of the hiiinaii subject, is ncrfcctly natural to
that of the horse in his domesticated state. If vou examine the blood of a horse in apparent good
health, you expect to find it sis;!/.' The opinions of Mr. Vinos, of the Veteriiiarv College, go much
farther than this, and appear to militate altogether against those originally formed by Hnnter in
many of the phenomena exhibited bv the blood. In several numbers of the Lancet arc detailed a
series of observations on the blood of animals under different states of excitement; and attempts to
account for the change which blood undergoes, and the appearances it puts on under disease. But
previously to any detail of these, it may be prudent to glance at those opinions and doctrines to
which they stand in opposition, and which doctrines and opinions have formed the ground of many of
our physiological as well as pathological data for a considerable peiiod. Mr. Hunter, as is well
known, advocated the absolute vitality of the blood, and taxed the power of his great mind In sup-'
port of his theory. The proofs brought forward rested on tlie phenomena displayed by it ; which, he
argued, were directly peculiar to and characteristic of the principles of life: as,' lit, 'its resistance of
cold ; 2d, its capability of originating motion and action in effused blood ejected on surfaces or
poured within cavities; 3d, its capability of dying ; 4tli, its power of maintaining a constant fluidity
while circulating within its vessels; .'ith, its prop(?rty of coagulation when separated from them ; on
which latter property most stress is laid by himself ; and it is on this that his opponents ground their
principal arguments of dissent to his doctrines, which they allow formed an assemblage of indis-
putable facts. But the physical explanation of facts by no means establishes a law ; yet into such an
error Mr. Hunter seems to have fallen, and his arguments, therefore, when sifted, a'le said to prove
little more than ' that the blood coagulates because it does coagulate.' A strenuous advocate for a
principle of life in the blood, speaking of the bnffy state as already noticed, thus continues : ' these
facts abundantly attest how little the coagulating process is dependent on physical agents; there are
also other phenomena connected with it, which shew how closely it is related to the actions of life;
phenomena which prove that the vitality of the blood increases or diminishes with the vitality of
other parts of the body. The blood, when drawn from Its vessel, docs not instantly die or coa.gulate.
By observing the length of time consumed in the process, we are enabled in some sort to measure
the degree of vital energy it possessed. It is found that in diseases which depend on a preternatural
energy of vital action, as in inflammation, the blood coagulates much more slowly than in a state of
health, while the coagulation itself is more pcifect; and, on the contiary, that in diseases which
depend on a diminution of the vital energy, as in certain fevers, it either coagulates much more
rapidly, or does not coagulate at all ; because, in the first case, it possesses the vital principle in a
higher degree than natural, and tlieiefore resists longer the influence of the physical agents to which
it la exposed ; and, in the second case, it possesses the vital prim iplc in a less degree than natural,
and therefore sooner yields to the influence of those agents. The experiments of Mr. Thackrah are
also cited in proof of the general principles of the vitality of the blood, and particularly of the opinion
Avhich considers in the morbid state of the system, of which this buff'y appearance is the
sign, the blood possesses a higher degree of vitality than it does in a sound slate. Mr.
Tiiackrah's experiments consisted in receiving blood taken from the vessels of a living animal, in a
full and uninterrupted flow, into different cups, and noting the time at which coagulation commenced
in each. For example: blood was taken from a horse at four periods, about a minute and a half
being allowed to intervene between the filling of each cup. In the first cup coagulation began in
eleven minutes ten seconds; in the second cup, in ten minutes four seconds; in the third cup, in
nine minutes tliirty-flve seconds; in the fourth cu]i, in three minutes twenty seconds. In another ex-
periment, Mood was received from the vessels of a slaughtered ox into three cups ; No. 1 being
filled in the first flow ; No. 2, about three minutes altcrwards ; No. a short time before the death of
the animal. Coagulation commenced in No. 1, in two minutes thirty seconds; in No. 2, in one
minute thirty-five seconds ; in No. ,3, in one minute'ten seconds. In a simiiar experiment, coagula-
tion commenced in the first cup in two minutes ten seconds; in the second, in one minute forty-five
seconds; in the thiid, in thirty-five seconds. Similar phenomena are observed to take place in the
human subject.

Having thus stated the Hunterian principles of the blood, we will now contrast them with those above
hinted at, as advocated by Mr. Vines. ' It is an established fact,' says this gentleman, ' that the blood
puts on a peculiar appearance when an animal is labouring under disease ; for when it coagulates it
separates into two parts, the superior part being of a yellow colour, which has received the name of
lymph or bnlly coat, and the inferior of a red colour. We find, however, a similar thing takes place
when in health, but this has not yet been accounted for. I have, therefore, been induced to try a
great number of experiments, and am now aide to prove the following facts. 1, That if froni'an
animal, as, for instance, an ass, being in ]iorfect health, feeding only on hay, and living in the open
air at a tempeiature between 4j and 35 degrees, blond be drawn to the amount of two ounces, it will
be found huffy. 2, That if the temperatuie be increased to beyond CO degrees, the blood will be
wholly red also. .3, That if an animal in health, his blood being iniify, be made to undergo moderate
exercise, it will become wholly red, and will continue so for some hours afterwards ; but when the
circulation becomes tranquil, it will again put ou its bnffy appearance. 4, That should the exertion
he continued to an immoderate degree, the blood becomes again bulfy. 5, When the venous blood is
huffy, the arterial is so likewise, but in a less degree. In old weak animals, and those suffering from
disease, these changes are not so evident. 6, That if a horse or an ass, being in health, and the blood
huffy, be destroyed by bleeding from the jugular vein, and the blood be caught in difleient glass
vessels, and allowed to coagulate, on examination it will be found that that which flowed until the
animal niaiiifested symptoms of exhaustion from loss of blood, will be huffy ; whilst that which flowed
after, even until the death of the animal, w ill exhibit no such appearance. 7, That if from a horse or
an ass, being in health, and the blood bully ..blood be diawn from the jugular vein to some amount,
and the spinal marrow be divided as near the brain as possible, the arterial blood, the moment respirn-

SPLANCHNOLOGY— PHYSIOLOGY Ol' THE BLOOD. 207

Physiologrf of the Blood.

The fluid liasis of the blood is serum : it serves to dilute it, and it forms about four-
sevenths of the whole ; the proportions being somewhat smaller in the horse than in the
human*. It is slightly saline, and less putrefactive than the coagnlum. It remains fluid
in every degree of heat, between 30 and KiO degrees Fahrenheit: with a less heat it freezes;
in a greater it coagulates. It appears chemically composed of albumen, gelatin, saline
matter, and a considerable quantity of fluid which drains from it, called the sitoxUi/, which
as it exudes from oiu- dressed meat we call gravy. Serum appears not only the fluid base
of the blood, but it also dilutes all the secretions as well ; it is Uie interstitial fluid of ca-
vities : when morbidly increased, it forms dropsy. The blood, therefore, is considered as
a compounded fluid made up of these several parts, and which, considered as an aggre-
gate, is a most essential component of the animal. All parts of the body are formed of
it ; and all parts of the body can be resolved again into it, by means of the absorbents ;
kence we nuist conclude that there is a very intimate connexion between the solids and
the fluids, from whence Mr. Hunter, and many subsequent jjhysiologists, have been led
to consider both as governed by the same laws, and as identified with each other in living-
properties. For many centuries a morbid condition of the fluids, but particularly a vitiated
state of the blood, was considered as the principal cause of disease. This peccant quality
in the humours of the body was called the humorul palhology, the overthrow of which, be-
gmi by Boerhaave, continued by Cullen, and completed by Hunter, has occasioned the
difiTerent diseased aflections to be now rather ascribed to a vitiated action or derangement
of the solids than of the fluids ; contending, that were the blood si)ecifically aflTected in dis-
eases, that circulating as it does over the whole body, it must necessarily afl'ect the system
generalli/, and not locally. The blood, therefore, it is alleged, cannot contain in itself any
morbific matter ; for if it did, it is argued, inoculation by it ought to produce, in contagious
diseases particularly, the same contagion which the introduction of the morbid matter it-
self woidd have done. Great as have been the obligations which physiology, pathology,
and surgery, owe to the researches of this distinguished character, yet it is now very gene-
rally acknowledged that the doctrines he inculcated have been carried too far ; and that
numerous facts, incontrovertibly proved, convince us, that the fluids of the body, and
the blood itself, are not exempted from disease, but are in .many instances specifically
affected with morbid matter, which is capable, by inoculation or transfusion, of producing
its likef . Facts also go to prove that putrid matter injected into the blood is capable of
producing putrid diseases.

tion cfiases. will become as dark-coloured as venous, and of the same temperature ; and if from the
same animal blood bo taken from the right and left auricles of the heart, and allowed to coagulate, that
from tlie right will be found to possess the huffy coat, wliilst that from the left will be entirely red,
without the least appearance of buff. 8, That in young heaithv animals the buffv coat is nearly white,
much resembling coagulated chyle. .Mr. Hunter,' in his work' on the blond, .considers the huffy ap-
peal ance to aiise "either from an increase of animal life, or from an increase of a disposition to act
witli the full powers which the machine is already in possession of." Hunter on the Blood, p. 68
and 69, vol. 2.) This I consider cannot bo the case, since we find it in horses turned out to straw-
yards during the autumn and winter, when the vilals are weak in consequence of a want of proper
nourishment, but not in the spring and summer, when they are in full onjovuieiit of good food. The
blood is found to assume this buffy appearance in horses lahiuiring under organic disease, as inflam-
mation of the lungs, &e. The vital power of llie animal liaving been exhausted from some exciting
cause, the action of the heart and aiterial system is found quicker than usual: some practitioners,
therefore, oliserving tlie blood then to be of this bulfy appearance, consider this as the liighest stage
of the inllammatory action; the horse is therefore hied and blistered lirgelv, with a view to subdue
the disease, but which treatment will tend to exhaust the vital poweis. In' the latter stages of farcy
and glanders, the blood is always bulfy, the ciiculation quick and weak,. and the lymphatics of the
extremities become distended with fluid ; all indicating extreme dehilitv. It apiiears, therefore, from
this, that the blood assumes this white or buffy appearance when the vilal poioers are weak, and the
florid hue when strong.'

• Mous. O'irard estimates it at one-half, hnt which docs not agree with my observations on it. Mr.
Percivali veiy justly observes, that tlie dis|iioportions between the scrum of the horse and man are in
some instances scarcely observable, but in others they are.

■f At the Veterinary ('ollege, the blood of a Elandered horse was transfused into a lie.althv ass, who
in a lew days oecanie affected with the same disease, and comiuunicated it to another by in'oculation.
Transfusion of tlie blood of a mangy dog has also iiroduced mange in a healthy dog, and numerous
other proofs equally couvincir.g might be brought fm-waid to estiib'lish the fact, that the lluids, as well
as the solids, may he morbidly affected. The grand argument, that the universal iircseuce of blood in
every part of the body must nccessaiily, if such blood became all'ected, produce general disease
throughout that body, and not the local affection of a part, is by no means tenable : for, liy laws framed
by the Great Architect of the machine, every disease has its particular seat, and aliiiost'every poison
it^ preference : mange affects the .skin ; grease the heels ; glanders the mucous membranes of the nose ;
farcy the superficial abvoi bents ; and the murrain throws out buboes in the cellular membrane.

208

ANATOMY OF THl^ HORSE.

The Aeration of the Blood.

The blood, in its course through the macliine, is constantly encountering deterioration
and waste : the former, in giving warmth to the body ; and the latter, in furnishing mate-
rials for the support and growth of parts : it therefore becomes necessary that it should
have sources by which it may be meliorated and augmented : these sources we consider to
be the lungs, and the chylopoietic viscera. Air is inspired, and air is expired; but that taken
in and that ejected are essentially different. The air inspired by animals, called atmo-
spheric air, we know to be formed by the union of three aeriform fluids in very different
proportions ; there being rather more than two-thirds of azotic or nitrogen gas to some-
thing less than a third of oxygen : carbonic acid (or, as it used to be called, fixed air) form-
ing the supplementary gas, to the amount of one per cent. only. The expired air has lost
much of its oxygen, and, instead of it*, has acquired an accession of carbonic acid nearly
equal to its loss of oxygen. It is now unfit for the support of human life; and the mea-
sure of its inability is, that it is unfit for combustion alsof. A question now arises. What
is become of the oxygen ? Has the blood absorbed it, and has it been conveyed in this
state over the machine by means of the arteries, while an equivalent of carbonic acid has
escaped from the blood ? or does the blood furnish the carbon only, with which the oxygen
of the air unites? The former supposition has long been that most generally received;
but difficulties to its admission have occurred which have now given a preponderance to
the latter opinion. Messrs. Allen and Pepys, after many experiments, could not discover
that any portion of the oxygen was absorbed in ordinary respiration ; and further results,
by Mr. Ellis, would seem to shew also, that the oxygenous portion does actually unite
with the excreted carbon of the pulmonary vessels, and thus forms carbonic acid exterior
to the lungs, and which is exhaled in the expirations. On the other hand, there yet re-
main some powerful advocates for pulmonary absorption of the oxygen. The expired air
is loaded with moisture ; but it is not now supposed that such moisture is produced by the
combination of the oxygen with the hydrogen given off by the blood; but that it is a direct
serous exhalation from the mucous surfaces of bronchiaj, by which not only is the blood
unloaded of a ffpcal portion, but unnecessary heat is disposed of: thus respiration, by its
changes, at once gives heat and moderates it ; so simple, yet so efficient, are Nature's
contrivances.

The colour of the blood is singularly altered by the action of the air received into the
lungs ; dependent, as experiments lead us to conclude, on its oxygenous portion, and con-
nected with that general salutary alteration which takes place in its change from a venous
to an arterial character. It is thus that venal blood exposed to the action of the air soon
loses its dark hue, and becomes florid§ ; and hence, also, if the blood within the pulmo-

• 'I'lie expired air has, however, not entirely lost its oxygen ; for, according to Goodwyn, a quantity
of air taken into the lungs at a single inspiration, containing 80 parts of azote, 18 oxygen, and 2
carbonic acid, had its composition altered, after the experiment, into 80 azote, 5 oxygen, and 13
carbonic acid ; 2 parts of the whole having disappeared, and 11 parts of carbonic acid having been
snbstituted for 13 parts of oxygen.

j It is thus that we let down into a drain, well, or cistern, a lighted candle, previously to ven-
turing into it ourselves ; for if the candle will not hum, the air is unfit for respiration, and vice versd.
It is thus that air breathed and rebreatlied in crowded stables is rendered unwholesome, from the de-
privation of its oxygen ; which being, as w ill be shewn, so essential to life, that its total abstraction
immediately destroys, renders it reasoniible to conclude that a partial abstraction of it sensibly injures
the frame, and lessens its energies.

X As we are informed that not less than twenty ounces are exhaled every twenty-four hours from the
lungs of an ordinary man, we may suppose that as much as two quarts transpire from the serous sur-
faces of the bronchia of the horse in tlie same time. This serous exhalation is genprallv distributed
through the animal economy, and exists in two forms : on the superficial cellular "tissue of the body it
transpires by a sensible and an insensible perspiration Some animals principally exhibit the insen-
sible exhalation, as dogs, &c. ; in them the sensible or sweat seldom appears ; but this fluid eva-
cuation being essentially neci'ssary to them as well as to others, their bronchial exhalation is corie-
spondeiitly more considerable ; and therefore, instead of a dripping skin, they pant away with open
mouth that portion of serosity which tl,e horse sweats off by his euticle : and thus in both the blood is
equally relieved from it* accumulation of moisture, and the body from superabundant heat by the eva-
poration pioduced. In the words of Richerand, it may be therefore concluded, 'that these two se-
cretions are supplemental to one another: when much water passes ofl" by the pulmonary exhalation,
the cutaneous is less, and vice vcrsd.' The thinking veterinarian will observe, in these ciicum-
stanccs, a solution to many phenomena, and may also derive tberefiom many practical facts,

§ As might be supposed, the action of the air on the colour of Iht- blood was-originally denied, from
the apparent impossibility of its immediate contact through the membranous sides of the bloodvessels ;
but which difficulty was removed by the acumen of Priestley, whose experiments proved that, under
the cover of a surface of bladder, venous blood became as florid as by open exposure. A familiar and
conclusive proof of the direct action of the air on the blood may be gained by changing the surfaces of
the grumons clot taken from the vessel into which a horse had been bled some hours: the upper sur-
face, whichever it be, will by the application of air soon become florid : change the surfaces, and the

SPLANCHNOLOGY— AERATION OF THE BLOOD. 209

nary artery be examined, wliich, as before observed, performs the office of a vein, it will
be found dark and venous, while that in the pulmonary vein will be found florid and arte-
rial. That this change of colour arises from the air, we know ; for if we strangle an ani-
mal, and then open each side of the heart, we shall find the blood in both equally black
and venous. A great change takes place in the density oi the blood likewise by the process
of aeration. An experiment made by Dr. Davy on that of a sheep yielded 1051 for the
venous and 1049 for the arterial : nearly similar results have followed the examination of
the blood of horses and that of oxen also.

The production of anivtal heat. — Interesting and important as is the sensible change
operated on the blood by its conversion from a dark to a bright hue, there is yet another
equally so; and if we take into the account that it operates on animals generally, as well
those whose blood is not red, as on those in which it is, it may be deemed of even more
wVn/ importance. To the veterinarian, few subjects can be more interesting than the ex-
position of the perennial and independent temperature of animals : and to be enabled to
regulate animal heat to the preservation of health, to learn how to diminish it in acute or
inflammatory affections, or to increase it in chronic or indolent ones, are objects worthy
his utmost attention. Any thing beyond the slightest summary of the doctrines or theo-
ries by which its phenomena are attempted to be explained would much exceed my con-
fined linn'ts ; but the practical inferences to be drawn from the subject are so numerous,
that I cannot pass it witho\it some notice, first premising that it behoves the veterinarian
to consider every theory hitherto formed on the subject as open to weighty objections. Of
the reigning hypotheses, the first is the celebrated one of Dr. Black, materially elucidated
by Dr. Crawford ; which, pre-supposing the specific heat of oxygen to be greater than that
of carbonic acid gas, it follows, that, when the former is converted into the latter in the
lungs, a quantity of latent caloric* must be disengaged, by which sensible heat will be given
to the blood ; and as that circulates universally through the body, so it imparts warmth
throughout the machine. To either our implicit reception or total rejection of this theory
It is necessary to be better acquainted with the relative connexions Ijetween the formation
of carbonic acid, and the disappearance of oxygen in the lungs, than we are at present ■
on this Dr. Majendie observes, ' however, as the oxygen very probably combines with
the carbon of the blood, and as every formation of this sort is accompanied with a consi-
derable disengagement of caloric, it is also probable that this is the source of the greater
part of the heat of the arterial blood.' Notwithstanding this testimony and others equally
able, the chemical theory of animal temperature must be considered on the decline and
the arguments brought against it must be acknowredged numerous and importantt. ' Mr.

effect will be repeated ; the upper speedily becoming red, and the under soon acquii lnff a nurnle hue
Again, If a large artery be taken up, the blood in it, which was before florid, soon becomes dark -
the veins likewise have the dark blood in them rendered still darker, if its course be retarded or ston'
'ped ; thus on tying up the neck to bleed, the fluid that first issues, particularly if the lio-atu.e is
tight or has been ong applied, is very dark ; audit is common to heai- it said, 'that sue hi "id s
very had ;■ but after it has continued to flow, it becomes more brislit, as having been less under the
suspension, w iich is then said to arise from the horse ' havingjparted with his bid blood ■ It is ike-
wise usual, when blood trickles down, to see a florid and dark stream ; the florid part arising f om
some of the capillary branches which have not yet been deprived of their oxygen
• Caloric IS a term invented to remedy the defect of the ambiguity of the conventional names heat
" "'""',>-''<"l;,=>;« wholly indefinite, being usually measured by the momen-
tary standard of our feelings only. Cold is nothing more than our perception of the absence of the
.natter oi heat ovcalonc. Although, therefore, this comparative measure of heat sufficed fo le
common affairs of lite yet it proved ambiguous in the extreme in philosophical description. Caloric
therefore, expresses that umyersal agent to which matter owes ts fluidity: for without it vateVis
b« ice : and all plasticity whatever is destroyed by its absence. Caloric may exist, however with-
out its being perceptible to our senses in a latent state, as is exemplified hy friction between two
bodies cold to the touch, which only disengages the latent heat within them, and presen iig it a"
«cnsrA/e heat; 1. e. our sensations can take cognizance of it cacntiua u, .is

• Dulo'ig, and Beiard, go to prove that the quantity of the
matter of heat disengaged hy the conversion of oxygen into carbonic acid gas, would be iusufficie i t
to heat the residual air that is expelled in breathing to its ordinary elevation • "J""'" "<""^""'«ient
affords a r'" " •i--* - ^i .r • =

Accordingly in the Inrmer, the a;terial blood remaining arteiial, is nearly as floii'l i, th;
ve ns as ,„ the arteries, and the inspired air is less vitiated ; in low temperatures he .'nrs ,1 ,ri =
extremely d,yk, and the inspired air more vitiated. Home have imagine I that the dy e ns ' M «
trih, • ' •^'"r™';"''' "■"/'■f-iK'-i-ation of the evaporating sweat. IJiit l.liough \ i , m i ,, J,, f
tribute. It IS not the sole cause ; for frogs lose as much, proporlioimbly to their size, 1 ^M a oi a^^^^^^^^^

210

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

Brodie's experiments, therefore, came opportimely to relieve the lovers of new doctrines* :
by these the perennial temperature of the body was referred rather to certain conditions
of the brain and nerves, than to any chemical decomposition of air within the lungs. Mr.
Brodie found, that, after removing the head of an animal, he could keep up respiration
by artificial means ; that the usual changes from a venous to an arterial state, by the ab-
straction of carbon, was carried on as completely as by the ordinary process of breathing ;
but that, notwithstanding, the temperature of the animal gradually lowered, until the ac-
tion of the heart ceased altogether. Mr. B. also found, that, by impairing the nerves of
any part, the heat of the part is impaired in proportion to the extent of injury received by
the nervous branches, although the circulation be continued perfect He argues, there-
fore, that were animal heat, derived from the change which takes place in the blood from a
venous to an arterial character, it would follow, that, so long as the action of the heart
could be maintained, the temperature of the animals thus experimented on would be pre-
served, as well as the other phenomena. To this theory also there have been found very
weighty objectionsf ; and great ditRculties certainly occur in applying it to all the phe-
nomena before us. My intimation, when I commenced this inquiry, is thus verified ;
and the inquirer will learn from what has been set down, that there is yet much to acquire
before the rationale of the action of the air on the blood can be rendered clear to our un-
derstandings. I will, therefore, now turn from the theory of the subject to some of the
important facts connected with it ; and the favourers of either hypothesis may adapt it to
a solution of the phenomena at their pleasure. It is observed — 1st, That an animal be-
coming exposed to a change of temperature, always experiences a change in its own heat
also J. 2d, If an animal be exposed to temperature which greatly exceeds its own ordinary-
standard heat, by some inherent capability of coimteraction cold is generated§. 3d, Re-

as any other animal, and yet tliey follow pretty closely the surrounding tempeiatui e. Whenever, on
the other hand, the body its^elf heightens its temperature, as in fever, more oxygen is consumed by
the hings. The temperature of the various classes of animals, and their vitiation of the air, ai-e al-
ways proportional, and inverse to the length of time they can live without air."

• It is however denied that this is a new doctrine : it is said to be a revival of the opinions of Ca-
verhill, as noticed by Haller in his ^uctarimn. Bnt that it is to the experiments of this able physio-
logist, Mr. Brodie, that we owe it its present notoriety, is beyond all doubt.

f An opponent of the agency of the nervous system in generating heat, observes, on this fact, that
forcible and unnatural respiration always produces a large secretion of bronchial mucus, the evapo-
ration of which alone miglit occasion a decrease of temperature : ' But whether,' he continues, ' the
fall of temperature be owing to the evaporation of this copious secretion, and its prevention of contact
between the air and air-cells, or to the injurious nature of artificial respiration, still the fact ascer-
tained by Le Gallois, viz. that under artificial respiration the animal may be killed even if no part be
injured, destroys the conclusions which appeared deducible from Mr. Btodie's experiments. Indeed,
he adds, Le Gallois found tliat less oxygen was consumed than in natural breathing, and that the tem-
perature fell exactly in propoition to the smallness of the quantity of oxygen consumed.' Dr. Cope-
land, on the contrary, argues rather strongly in favour of nervous energy against chemical action
as the generating cause of the heat of the system. 'The ganglionic system of neives," says Dr. C.'by
means of the influence derived fiom its principal and subordinate sources and nuraerous distributions,
and exerted upon the vascular system, generates animal heat throughout the body, and the produc-
tion of animal heat takes place in a manner analogous to tlie processes of nutrition and secretion.
The experiments of insulating a limb, by dividing all tlie voluntary nerves and arteries, excepting one
arterial trunk, performed by Mr. Brodie, in order to ascertain the effects produced upon the genera-
tion of heat in the limb, prove this proposition, and could not fail of giving rise to what was actually
observed. For the ganglial or vital nerves supplying that vessel conld not be completely detached as
long as any of the coats of the artery remained undivided.' To this, in another part of the same quo-
tation from Dr. Copeland, the following may be added, and which, in my own opinion, offers a clearer
and more s.itisfactory vievv of the sul)ject than has appeared. " Animal heat, however intimately
related with tlie respiratory process, cannot be considered a function of the lungs. It-must neverthe-
less be allowed, that the changes indnced on the blood during respiration are preparatory to
the evolnlion of this heal ; and although we contend that tlie effect is immediately the result of a
manifestation of the vital influence of the ganglial system of nerves, exerted upon the blood contained
in the vessels to which these nerves are distributed, yet it must be admitted that the respiratory pro-
cesses are requisite to its production, inasmuch as they produce on the blood a change of properties
which are requisite to excite this system ; and as this fluid, wlien thus changed, contains the mate-
rials necessary to, or is otherwise in a suitable condition for, the manifestation of the influence which
that part of this system of nerves which is distributed to the bloodvesseii exeits."

\ This, as one of the general laws, must not impeach that tendency observed in animals generally
to pre^erve a natural temperature of their own, more or less distinct from the medium which sur-
rounds them. This natural temperature is, however, so widely different amoug them, as to occasion
a division into warm and cold-blooded ; thus, while the temperament of birds is 110 degrees, of the
horse 100, and of man 96, 9/, or 98, that of fishes is not more than two degrees warmer than the water
they inhabit. It is still observed, notwithstanding, that the heat of the body is influenced, to a cer-
tain degree, by the media around it. Dr. Davy found the heat of the human body two degrees higher
in Ceylon thaii in England: summer heats increase the temperature of birds as much as six degrees :
in the horse it is heightened two degrees only ; but may be raised in the dog to 109, by bathing him m
water at 112. . .... j i

§ The increase of heat in the animal body is limited : thus, in the dog it could be increased 01115 to
109 degrees, although in a medium of 112. Ilut in other cases this is more evident. Dr. Fordycc toumi
tliat in^a heated temperature his body reached to 100 degrees ; but when the external temperature was
further heated to 211, it did not raise the heat of the body beyond that measure.

SPLANCHNOLOGY — AERATION OF THE BLOOD. 211

verse these premises, and heat is evolved*. These powers of resisting the force of external
agencies when applied to an extraordinary degree, and yet of submitting to them in a
limited one, excite in our minds wonder and interest : but let us now proceed to consider
the means by which the waste of blood in the support of the machine is brought about.

Having thue cursorily endeavoured to sketch the doctrines used in explanation of the
alteration which the blood undergoes in the lungs, as well as the phenomena which result
from it, I shall endeavour to turn them to the grand use of anatomical and physiological
research, — that of connecting them with our physical and medical treatment of animals.
The capability given to animals to support a perennial and equable temperature, enables
them to live and propagate in climates equally scorching and cold ; and, in point of geo-
graphical distribution, that valuable subject of our research, the horse, is a very extraor-
dinary instance ; but, on the other hand, as it has been shewn that an increased tempe-
ratm-e around will increase the animal heat, so, according to the chemical theory, more
oxygen is consumed, but, according to the same theory, the enormity of the process can-
not be continued ; and in hot climates we do actually find that asthenic diseases, in both
man and brute, soon assume a sthenic character. In cold climates, and in the cold parts
of the year of temperate ones, the omnivorous animals seek animal food, and the grami-
nivorous also require something like it in the gluten of grain : they will even thrive on fish
and flesh ; and in all cases more food is required to keep up the animal temperature in
wmter than in summer, which hint ought not to be lost on us in feeding our horses, &c.
In wai-m climates, on the contrary, and in the summers of all, light vegetable food is
sought after by the animals themselves, not only to keep down the putrid tendency, but
also to lessen the absorption of oxygen ; and were we to follow natm-e at this season, we
should alternate with our corn a portion of green food. Our treatment of disease, when
the temperature is high, ought to be regulated by the same principles ; and as a hurried
circulation evolves more beat, and such evolution expends the vital powers, we should
use every means to moderate the surrounding temperature, or to adapt the constitution
to bear up against it : on the contrary, in winter, warmth should be encouraged as a sti-
mulus to the flagging powers. Animals pant in summer to pass off" by exhalation serous
moisture from the lungs, and the evaporation with it carries off" superabundant heat - but
cateris paribus, horses breathe uniformly more frequently in winter than in summer pur-
posely to encourage calorification. Is it the alleged abundance of oxygen in the air in
trosty weather which makes horses more frolicsome at those times ? or does it arise from
an instinctive disposition to use muscular exertion i which has a very powerful influence
over the heat of the body, as we well know. The heat so generated would become dis-
tressing, but that sensible sweat breaks out, and the heat escapes with the evaporation
occasioned. If this sweat is a natural relief in summer, it can only be a forced one in
wmter: It is no wonder, therefore, that exhaustion and disease follow the evils of allowins
horses to remain in a perspiring state in a low surrounding temperature, and particularly
If exposed to the action of the air, which increases the evaporation, and consequently de-
prives the surface of caloric ; or, in familiar language, produces cold. During sleep the
temperature sinks somewhat, and therefore horses, as well as most animals, seek a shel-
tered situation for the purpose ; it is, however, a singular fact, that, except there be rain
a horse is seldom found in his box, but commonly in his paddock : if the night be frosty
bu serene, this ^vill be invariably the case. Wind and%vet, by favouring^vapo S',
encourage a surface-cold, if it may be so expressed : a bright atmosphere affords^xygen
for the lungs, and a surface-heat follows. b y uAygen

he^niZ f^^^^^^f. insisted on the advantages of a circular form of chest, the proofs may
to act vi '^''''''T '''''^'^ ■• ^l^«°^bing surface for i^

IZM I ^ ^ ^^'^ °f *^ Wood correspondent to both. In dis-

at tb'p P.^'^T"' 'f'^f^ respiration are many and will marked. The heaving
at the flanks has been already pointed out, the increase of heat is also manifest asTonf
as oxygen can be fully received; but when congestion has impeded the circulation, th!

frozen with much more difficul' v than a Sc^ ' ^UenM onP '"fnTn ° r^'i't cold , a living ogg is

anima hody, placed in water it 4-lZJr,.„. ) j, ^- ' ""'^ ''vmcr, than a dead phint. An

end of uJ^cJZolT^^^^^^^ 98 to 87 ; "inu, at the
minutci. : such are the con.titiiHon.!l • '^"othcr instance, had reached to 90 in thirteen
of these facts, but we are not "o t.Tl ware of thV'llTh"'''":'"^ ^'O aw=^'e

have seen, are enabled to receive hearfrom L .hnnt lH'^ "'•'"v" "'^P'^"^- "^'''^ '""fc'"- «'e

more than an ordinary .n^^ntitv of it n.hn„r. ^ "^''l'^ respiration may separate even ,

i^^r^-iir^ad^idbBS^SSS ~

decreased .'and rendercTofhenvi"; a^^^^^^^ which heat may he both increased and

O 2

212

THE ANATOMY OF THE HOUSE.

cold extremities evince that all the vital heat rallies round the centre, or makes its strong
hold in the diseased organ ; and the livid or otherwise purpled nostril shews that the
necessary changes are not going on in the hlood. Morbid chronic derangement in the
pulmonary structure affects the temperature also : the broken-winded horse exhibits an
abstraction of heat of 1", and sometimes of 1^", below the ordinary standard. The sub-
ject is fascinating, and capable of much amplification; but I have already trespassed on
my just limits.

ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN.

Of the Abdomen generally.

The external parts of the abdomen, or belly, are the common . integu-
ments ; the abdominal muscles ; the parts of generation in the horse, and the
mammae in the mare. The internal parts are the visceral investures, and
the viscera themselves, as the chylo-poietic, theurinaoy, and the spermatic.
The abdominal cavity, when its contents are removed, presents an extensive
oval vault, bounded anteriorly by the diaphragm, posteriorly by the bones
of the pelvis, superiorly by the vertebrae, laterally by the ribs, and inferiorly
by the abdominal muscles. This cavity, for the convenience of anatomical
and surgical description, is divided into imaginary compartments or regions ;
and as certain viscera are treated of as within the limits of certain regions,
and the symptoms of diseases are pointed out by their presence in such or
such region, it is very necessary not only that the veterinary surgeon make
himself familiar with their names, but more so with the viscera, whole or in
part, which occupy them.

The epigastric region includes the anterior portion of the abdomen, and
extends from the ensiform cartilage to the boundaries of a perpendicular
line drawn immediately behind the point of the last false rib, which will be
found to be within four or five inches of the umbilicus, or navel. Minor
divisions form the lower portion, included between the ribs into the scrohi-
culus cordis, and the parietes into the right and left hypochondria. The
central portion of the belly forms the umbilical region, which commences
four or five inches anteriorly to the navel, and reaches also so much poste-
riorly to it, taking in the portion that two transverse lines in this direction
would form ; thJt is, from one anterior spinous process of the ilium to the
other : the lateral and superior parts of this are termed the lumbar regions
The hypogastric region extends from the posterior limit of the umbilical
region over the rest of the abdomen, and admits of lateral divisions into the
iliac regions, or flanks, intersected by a middle portion, known as the pubic
region* or groins.

The relative situation of the viscera within the regions may be thus
stated : the large intestines occupy the whole inferior portion of the abdo-
minal cavity, as well as a considerable part of its sides. The apex of the
caecum places its large blind end along the right side of the abdomen to the
diaphragm, encircled almost by the circumvolutions of the colon ; and thus
a wound penetrating any part of the lower marginal half of the abdomen of
the horse is sure to protrude some portion of the large intestines. In the

* Girard departs from the human type in describing these imaginary boundaries, and
makes four principal regions: 1, anterior or diaphragmatic ; 2, posterior or pelvic ; 3, a
superior or sub-lumbar ; 4, an inferior and larger. The centres and lateral portions of
these form, as in the human, subdivisions, which do not differ materially m name or
limit from the human. Mr. Percivall, in my opinion with more propriety, owns three
principal divisions, an anterior, posterior, and central ; each of which admits of tlirct
subdivisions.

SPLANCHNOLOGY — OF THE ABDOMEN GENERALLY. 213

horned riuninnnts, such a wound any where not greatly below the median
line, particularly on the left side, would more probably penetrate the paunch
or first stomach. When the large intestines are removed from the abdomen,
the small intestines, which in a natural state lie over them, come into view,
whose situation, as regards the regions, is not strictly determinate, but de-
pends on their state of distention and the peristaltic motion. The stomach
will be found to occupy the left hypochondriac region when empty, and when
distended, to stretch itself into the epigastrium. (jAate IV.) The liver is
attached to the diaphragm in the epigastric region, and extends into the
right and left hypochondriac regions ; a small portion is found in the left
hypochondrium. The spleen occupies a space in the left hypochondrium,
between the great extremity of the stomach and the left kidney. The pan-
creas will be found principally in the left epigastrium, while the renal cap-
sules and kidneys occupy the lumbar regions : and the bladder, with the
parts of generaticm, occupy the pubic region in the horse, and both pubic
and hypogastric in the mare.

The peritoneum is a strong dense membranous lining to the abdomen, as
well as an investure and support to its contents, performing the same office
in this cavity that the pleura does in the thorax, or that the cuticular integu-
ments do to -the body generally. Its outer surface is loose, and full of mem-
branous attaching villi, of different lengths and strengths ; its inner surface,
on the contrary, is remarkably smooth, and exhales a serous fluid for lubri-
cation. Regarding it per se, it may be traced from its anterior connexion
with the diaphragm, whose posterior or abdominal surface it completely lines,
as the pleura does the anterior or thoracic, and thus completes the septum,
by meeting the pleura in the intervals of the diaphragm. From the epigas-
tric region it either extends over, or is reflected on*, most of the viscera, as
the liver, stomach, spleen, pancreas, and kidneys, when, dipping inlo the
pelvis, it passes over the fundus of the bladder and a part of the uterus ; it
next partly invests the rectum, and again descending, protrudes itself in the
male in the form of two pouches, through the abdominal rings, in which the
testicles are lodged, and from which they receive a vaginal coat. The peri-
toneum now proceeds to traverse the lower surface of the abdomen, furnish-
ing that vicinity and its contents in the same manner ; completing the inte-
grity of the sac at the diaphragm, from whence we commenced our descrip-
tion. Besides its investures, it is remarkable for it prolongations, some of
which are mere sheaths to the vessels : other folds form ligamentous ropes,
as those of the liver, that which originally formed the umbilicus; and also
two, the posterior, of similar origin. It likewise gives suspending prolonga-
tions to individual intestines, as the mesocolon and mesorectum, but its most
important are those which forai the mesentery and omentum. The perito-
neum derives its vessels and nerves from the surrounding parts, and is, like
them, very vascular, and therefore equally subject to disease. In any acute
inflammation of the abdominal viscera, it is generally found inflamed also ;
but pure peritonitis is rare ; it, however, often becomes inflamed from wounds
into the cavity of the abdomen, and not unfrequently it follows castration
also. Thickenings and adhesions are not uncommonly met with in subjects

• A just idea of the peritoneum is best gained by considering it as a large closed bag
placed within the belly, into the outer surface of which some of the viscera are wholly in-
dented, and thus reflected over by it; others it simply passes over, without any reflection
or individual investure, of which the kidneys form an instance.

214

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

who have been slaughtered, which 1 attributed to attacks of enteritis ; and it
is to a morbid increase of its interstitial fluid we attribute ventral dropsy.

The USK.1 of the peritoneum are not only to protect the abdominal contents, but also to
suspend, confine, and keep them relatively situated towards each other ; at the same time
by the smoothness of its surface, and by the fluid it secretes, to allow free motion between
them. It is at once very strong and very elastic, as is sufficiently apparent by what oc-
curs in pregnancy, ascites, and accumulations of fat, in all which cases it accommodates
itself to the distention ; but on the removal of the distending cause it soon regains its ori-
ginal size.

TTie Omentum.

The omentum, or caul, are doublings of the folds of the peritoneum, two
of which are derived immediately from that proper to the stomach, and two
other are formed from the mesenteric lamen reflected from the intestines.
Within these duplicatures, adipose nodules ai*e dispersed, but which are in
small proportion in the horse to what are found in many other animals ; as in
the hog, where as soon as the abdomen is opened, the omentum, grossly fat
and long, spreads over the whole contents of the belly. In the ox and sheep
also, the pi'incipal fold alone incloses the four stomachs and duodenum : but
in the horse its extent is small, and, besides its attachments to the great cur-
vature of the stomach, it does little more than cover part of the pancreas,
and a small portion of the colon, to which it is also attached. (Vide d, g,
plate IV.) The horse, therefore, is not subject to epiplocele, as dogs and
some other quadrupeds are. The uses of the omentum are conjectural only.

The Stomach.

This important alimentary bag, which stands at the head of the chylo-
poietic viscera, comparatively, is remarkably small in the horse* ; and in
figure, under slight distention, is not unlike the bladder part of a bagpipe.
(See d, plate IV.) Structurally, it presents diversities: its situation may
be described as being immediately behind the diaphragm, its principal por-
tion occupying the left hypoehondrium, and a smaller part the epigastrium,
with its expellent orifice stretched across the spine to the right sidef . It

* It is, however, capable of such distention, as to have been found with upwards of
forty pounds of undigested hay in it ; but this, it must be remarked, was a remarkable in-
stance, as it has become ruptured from combined gaseous and solid contents of much less
apparent bulk.

f It must be evident that the dilatation of a distended stomach will greatly disturb its
described situation, seeing its attachments are purposely loose to favom- its variable capa-
cities. A full meal of herbage distends the whole abdominal parietes (even the diaphragm,
under very great distention, is liable to be pressed forward) ; the small intestines are
forced downwards and backwards ; the spleen and pancreas also are somewhat displaced.
Its pyloric extremity advances towards the right hypoehondrium, its great ciurature will
approach the hollow of the epigastrium, and each inspiration will tend to drive it into the
umbilical region. With the mechanical pressure occasioned by the visceral changes of
situation, can we wonder at the phenomena occasioned by a full meal ? And although, by
specialities yet to be noticed, the stomach of the horse is less liable to distressing disten-
tion than that of most animals, yet we must not presume that we can with impunity exer-
cise him violently, any more than ourselves, immediately after a full meal ; neither ought
we to lose the force of the restrictions already laid down against galloping a horse imme-
diately after drinking, ' to warm the water in his belly.' But as it will be seen that water
passes immediately into the intestines, so it may he always proper, when a horse drinks
Jiis fill of very cold water, to move him moderately afterwards, and more particularly so
if he were previously heated. On the distention occasioned by a full meal, the advantages

SPLANCHNOLOGY— THE STOMACH. 21^

has two surfaces, which may be called its sides, though one is posterior,
and the other anterior. It has also two extremities, the larger of which,
directed towards the left false ribs, forms its fundus ; and a smaller, which,
after a slight curve that carries its posterior to the largest extremity, forms
the pylorus. Its arches or curvatures are, a large one, to which the omen-
tum and spleen ai-e attached, and a smaller, formed between its openings or
orifices, which are a cardiac or recipient, placed near the centre of the les-
ser curvature, and a pyloric or expellent, forming the right or small extremity,
distinctly seen in plate IV : the cardiac orifice being hidden by the stomach,
which may be considered as nearly opposed to the letter d,. By this de-
sci-iption it may be seen that the stomach, when moderately distended, must
lie in an obliquely transverse direction, with its greater extremity projected a
little forward, and its two orifices superiorly inclined, but the cardiac the
most so. The stomach is formed of two general investing coats, and two
others partially supplied ; but the whole display a general intention favour-
able to the varying capacities of the organ. The first or peritoneal tunic
does not adhere with much tenacity to the muscular surface, and as it gains
the larger curvature, entirely separates into two layers, which first furnish a
sheath to the gastric vessels and nerves, and are then continued onward to
form the omentum. The second coat, though distinctly muscular, is of a
pale colour, and exhibits considerable speciality, as well in the sti-ength as
the direction of its fibres, which are principally a longitudinal and a trans-
verse plan, but intermixed with others, whose direction is more oblique.
The longitudinal and most external plan (c, c, plate V), appears a continua-
tion of the outer one of the oesophagus, strengthened by additional original
fibres, which, spreading over the lesser curvature, carry themselves obliquely
around, and likewise over the gi-eat extremity, where they conspicuously form
themselves into a kind of vortex round the central part of the fundus. The
inner, and by much the largest plan, is not quite circular in its direction, but
slightly oblique, intersecting the course of the longitudinal plan ; it is very
thick and strong around the oesophagean' extremity, and altogether exhibits
so much structural speciality, as to warrant a conclusion that it was purposely
placed there to prevent the return of the food, to which I shall again recur
in the physiological detail*.

The inner surface of the stomach presents the two partial expansions al-
ready noted, and which are a cuticular and a villous. This species of cuti-
cular covering to nearly one-half of the stomach appears to be peculiar to
the granivorous monogastrics, and is present in rats and mice ; and appears
to form it into a curious and connecting link of stomach placed between the
true membranous one of graminivorous animals, and the muscular of the

of a circular form of trunk (' a barrelled carcass'), so often insisted on, must again strike
the reader as being here particularly apparent ; and that, in the absence of this form, cau-
tion will become more immediately imperative.

• A valvular apparatus to the cardia of the horse's stomach has been altogether denied
by some comparative anatomists and veterinarians ; but I am disposed to think that a care-
fiil and unbiased examination of the parts will detect the structural intention to be of this
nature; on which subject Girard observes: — A partir un peu en arrifere de la crossc de
I'aorte, jusqu'4 I'estomac la membrane charnue du mcme conduit oesopliagien devient in-
sensiblement blanchiltre, plus forte, plus tipaisse, etprend une fermete tr6s-remarquiible ;
elle tient cette extremity gastrique dans un etat permanent de constriction, qui ne cede
qu'aux substances poussf-es de la bouchc vers I'estomac. En abordant dans Ic ventricule,
cette memo membrane forme de fortes lames supcrposfies, et dent une, la plus grande, la
plus interne ct longltudinale, cntoure vmc parlii; de I'ouvcrture cardifique. Se propage
et se perd insensiblemciit dans les parois du vicere.

•^^^ THE ANATOMY OF THE. HORSE

carnivora: it further bespeaks the ordination of this animal to be one of
much locomotion ; and for wliich reasons he was furnished with peculiarlv
powertiil but compact digestive organs, and an aptitude to search for con-
densed food, m the form of vegetable gluten, to be found in farinaceous seeds
or gram. This cuticular coat is a prolongation of that which, commencing
with the mouth, extends down the oesophagus, is continued over nearly the
hrst half of the stomach, covering its fundus or left extremity, and ends ab-
ruptly by a sort of fringed termination, very distinct from the next coat,
over which its serpentine irregular edges are seen to lap by a slight rugose
told. ( bee plate V.) From the pharynx to its termination, this alimentary
tunic is plicated, to admit of distention : thus the plicse of the cesophagus are
continued into the cardia, and in a less regular manner also over the remain-
der of the cuticular surface, making it slightly rugose. It is whitish in co-
lour, and is perforated with secretory mucous openings, from whence a gas-
tric secretion, necessary to digestion, is probably poured out. It is to this
coat of the stomach that bots are so frequently found adhering, and which
they sometimes penetrate.

The villous or sensible portion appears to commence from the line of ter-
mination of the cuticular part. It is at once firm, vascular, and exceedingly
fine m its texture ; and, when attentively examined, presents innumerable
villi, which probably are the minute ramifications of bloodvessels, from
whence the solvent gastric fluid is secreted. The surface of the villous coat
IS likewise furnished with waving folds, by which it suffers no injurious pres-
sure when the stomach is filled, but can easily accommodate itself to the
elasticity of the other investitures. (Vide d, plate V.) The villous ruga;
are largest towards the great extremity, but towards the duodenum they
lessen, and at the pylorus they unite with some muscular fibres to form a
valvular apparatus, which prevents the return of the food, as well as its too
early exit : these prolongations throughout not only hinder the too speedy
passage of the food, but they increase the surface of secretion also.

The stomach, as a secreting organ, is very plentifully supplied with blood
from gastric, splenic, and hepatic trunks, which proceed in a tortuous direc-
tion, to avoid the effects of distention ; and, in accordance with the same end,
the gastric veins which return the blood possess no valves to impede its pro-
gress towards the vena portae. The nerves are supplied by means of an ap-
propriate and important pair called the par vagum, or eighth, and branches
of communication from the abdominal ganglia ; which tend to unite the sto-
mach in one sympathetic union with all the principal viscera of the body ;
and from whence result some of the most important phenomena observed in
the animal machine, both in health and under disease.

The diseases of the stomach of the horse have been thought not numerous
or important, from the circumstance of there being so large a portion of insen-
sible surface to it. But such an opinion, grounded on a consideration of the
stomach being more a triturating than a solvent organ, has proved erroneous :
for although it presents some likeness to the triturating properties of the
one, it is infinitely allied in secreting and solving properties to the other ;
and as it owns all the vascularity and nervous sensibility of the latter, so also
it is liable to become morbidly affected. It is also subject to functional de-
rangement, from its extensive visceral connexions, and its direct sympathy
with them. To the skin also this is extended in a very marked degree : but
we must refer to our Nosology for more on this head.

SPLANCHNOLOGY— rilYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION. 217

The Physiology of Digestion.

If a physiological inquiiy into the aerating organs and their various phenomena be as
inteiesting and important as I have endeavoured to prove it to be, surely a similar atten-
tion to the digestive organs and their functions can be no less so. Digestion may be cha-
racterised as that wonderful power whereby substances received into an animal body lose
their own properties, and become endowed with those of the constitution in which the
assimilation is carried on. That this animalization takes place within the stomach has
been always allowed ; but in what manner it is brought about has always been, and still
remains, a subject of unwearied experiment and endless dispute. The various actions of
an animal body produce a waste of its energies and a decrease of its parts, which are mdi-
cated by the sensations of fatigue and hunger. To restore the tone of parts, rest is re-
quired ; and to repair the waste, food becomes necessary ; and now hunger and thirst, which
appear to be sympathetic feelings of the stomach with its own wants and those of the con-
stitution generally, stimulate its owner to take in solid and fluid aliments. By the dis-
tinguishing terms oiits own as well as that of constitutional want, it may be gathered that
I consider this sympathy as subdivided into individual and general. That the stomach
sympathises with itself principally, in some cases, is proved by the fact, that the mere me-
chanical distention of a draught of water will, for a time, satisfy the sensation of hunger ;
but as it does not repair the loss of chyle, so a repetition of the draught, instead of aflTord-
ing relief, only adds to the general prosti-ation : it is also by its distending properties,
probably, that food taken invigorates long before its chylification has taken place*. The
constitutional sympathy admits also of partial relief by other means than constitutional
repair ; thus the inanition of a hunter long employed in reaching a distant cover is no bar
to his after-exertions in the chase. However fatigued, the moment he hears the well-
known sounds, he receives a temporary supply of nervous energy, which acting on his ir-
ritability (i. e. his passions), produces renewed muscular exertions : but the chase over,
the supply having not been one of pure renovation, a double prostration is the consequence,
and the nervous supplies being already expended (which have so great a share in the digest-
ing process, as seen in the Physiology of the Nerves), it often happens that the stomach is
unable to renew its sympathy, and the horse become 'too tired to eat.'

Thirst differs from hunger principally by its excitement to receive liquid instead of solid
ingesta : it is equally a sympathetic feeling in the stoiftach to repair waste ; but not one of
the solids, but of the liquids. It calls for supplies for the fluid parts of the blood, wasted
ia secretion : thus, perspiration produces thirst ; and it is thus that dim-ectics do the same.
It is also instinctively sought for the purpose of diluting the food : it may also be re-
marked of it, that it is variable in the quantity sought ; some animals, horses particularly,
requiring three times more than others : in broken wind, thirst is invariably present, and
all inflammatory afiections increase it. Of the manner by which liquids are imbibed by
the mouth, Mr. Percivall gives the following correct and descriptive account : — ' The lijjs
being immersed in water, arti separated for its admission, the tongue is rendered concave
upon its anterior surface, and projected in close contact with them, along whose hollowed
dorsuni, as along a channel, the fluid mounts as it is imbibed by suction : the want of such
previous collocation of these parts occasions the confusion in swallowing when we drench
a horse. The animal exerts the power of suction, by first rendering his mouth inaccessible
to the external air, and them forming a vacuum in it by inspiration, into which the water
rushes, from the pressure of the atmosphere upon its surface, as into the cylinder of a sy-
ringe : flowing along the tongue into the pharynx, it ascends (should the horse be drinking
from a pond), in consequence of the contracticyis of these parts, in successive portions, by
the groom called go-downs, through the oesophagus into the stomach.' Stimulated there-
fore, by the sensations of hunger and thirst, animals seek for and take into their stomachs

• Wolves are said to eat mud when very hungry, to stay their appetite by the mechanical distention
of the stomacli ; and it probably is more for this purpose than as absolute nutriment, that the In-
dians take in steatite, mica, clay, and other inorfanic substances. Many circumstances tend both to
increase and to diminisli hunger, but which may be all referred either to the state of the stomach indi-
vidually or to its tendency to sympathise with the body generally. Cold air applied to the skin ; sti-
mulants, as spicy cordials, and moderate doses of mineral acids and vegetable astringents ; tlie sight of
food, or the note of preparation fur feeding themselves or others, act on the stomach immediately j
while warm clothing, heated stables, diverted attention, and great quantities of water, are unfavour-
able to the sensation. Sickness lessens the sympathetic action of the stomacli in its desire for food ;
but it is a known fact, though not well understood, that it operates much less in the horse than in man,
and even less than in many other domestic animals. Query, are the structural peculiarities at all in-
fluential in this ? From these facts many practical hints may be drawn, which our limits will not allow
lis to detail. It may be added, that hunger, though consequent on an empty stimuch, does not arise
from mechanical friction of its parietes togetlier : were this tlie cause, it would be constant, whenever
and as long as the stomach remained empty ; whereas we know that in tlic longest privations there arc
alternate periods of case and stomachic distress.

218 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

such matters as their organs are fitted to the assimilation of, and to which they are instinc-
tively directed by their senses of smell and taste. The horse and his congener the ass are
granivorous by structural markings, and, were it always within their reach, by choice also
they ai-e also graminivorous by usage, and herbivorous by compulsion: and both can be
supported when strictly confined to either of these diets, accordi igto the usual acceptance
of the tei^s*. The stomach of the horse is therefore, by naturf, kindly made aTorgan
ot adaptation, and is enabled, when absolutely necessary, to convert into nutriment most
of the matters around him ; which circumstance, united with his capability of supplvin?
himself with a requisite quantity of heat, as pointed out in the Physioloav of the Blood
has given him a wide geographical distribution. •> bj j ,

The mastication, insalivation, and deglutition of the food have already been noticed
(bee page 191). But I would again urge my humble opinion, that we by no means usually
give to the sahva its full merit as an important agent in the digestive process. When we-
consider the quantity given out, the chemical nature of the fluid, its remarkable affinity
tor oxygen and that a complete mastication invariably produces a direct change in the
qualities of the food, as well in taste and odour as by chemical analysis, it would be most
unphilosophical to regard it as a mere diluentf. The masticated aliments received in the
stomach become subjected to the further action of two gastric fluids ; one supplied by the
secreting orifices of the cuticular portion, without doubt assistant to the great work of di-
gestiont, and to another more abundant and more important, of a mucous consistence, the
produce ol the secreting surface of the villous portion. The gastric mucus, or juice, is
possessed of a solvent power sui generisi ; but to subject the ingesta to its action, requires
that they be applied to it in situ ; that is, to the secreting surface which generates it- and
here I feel somewhat diffident in expressing my M\ conviction that it (the stomach) has
an ordinary and an extraordinary process.

The ordinary process is adapted to the horse, both as a gi-aminivorous and an herbivor-
ous animal, in which cas? the masticated vegetable matter is indiscriminately deposited

• We must be careful to avoid a false but favouiite theory, which had crept into physioloey —that
the powers of the stomach were uecessarily confiued to an assimilation of nutriment from such matters
only as appear, d prion, calculated for that purpose. It is true, that the distinctions between carni-
vorous graminivorous, and omnivorous, are justified by an examination and compaiison of their or-
gans ot c lylificatiou : coiiiniencinjr " ith those whereby they obtain their food, those by which they
perform the manducation of it, and the peculiarities of the alimentary track it passes throuffh durine
Its conversion into chyle : these all evince the intention of Nature to sustain life more readily by the
adherence to such aliments as tlieir organs are thus evidently designed for. But life, happily for all
these, can be supported by food not apparently intended for them : and experiments have proved that
the stomachs of llie carnivoious tribes can, when pressed by necessity, perform the office of animaliza-

t.ion nf vptrf>tnh^ti fnnrl qo fKnc^n nf iUn l.A..K:..n..».. r. . i:r- „r l _ m

lion Ot vegetable food, as those of the herbivorous can support life by animal matter. The Arabs it
IS said are even fond of feeding some of their favourite horses on milk ; many of the Indian tribes, also
give their horses flesh ; while others, who reside on the sea-shore, occasionally feed theirs entirely on
dried fish. At the- Veterinary College, a horse was sn|)ported some time on animal matter alone.

^ ...^ . ..V. ....... J v.....^.., 1. ijui^i- .1 <io cii |i[)ui Lvu Millie luiiu uii unniiai mailer aione.

Oranivorous birds, as pigeons, &c. have been brought to live on flesh, and to prefer it to any other
food ; and the piscivorous otter, in state a of domestication, will live and thrive on potatoes. Eagles,
falcons, and owls, have been experimented on by Spallanzani and others, and were found to subsist
on pure vegetable matter, without much alteration of condition or strength.

t It has been said the affinity for oxygen in the saliva renders it more than probable that nitrogen is
also received ; and we discover a new source for the introduction of nitrogen into the circulating fluids,
beyond that gained from the mere food itself. But fjicts speak more loudly, and we need not inform
the observant veterinarian, that the rapid eater is seldom a horse of good digestion ; his aliments not
only pass nnmasticated, but frequently so little acted on, that the oats ejected will vegetate. During a
famine in India, the wretched natives extracted the'unbroken grains of corn from the dung dropped by
horses, which they ate. In ourselves, the rapid m.asticator, from a partial insalivation, is, in .almost
every instance, troubled with a slow and painful digestion.

I I perfectly coincide with Girard in such a view of the follicular openings observed on the cuti-
cular coat. A simply sebaceous matter would have been unnecessarv : here is nothing to guard from
abrasion ; no unctuous shield required from atmospheric application ; the secretion is, therefore, with-
out doubt, a niacer.ating, and probably a slightly solvent one also.

§ The gastric secretion has been a subject of an infinity of experiment : John Hunter stood foremost
in the throng, yet this distinguished physiologist was wont, in his lectures on the digesting process,
to sum up the account laconically, by — ' Gentlemen, the stomach has been held by some to be a mill ;
others will have that it is a fermenting vat ; others, that it is a stew-pan; but, in my view of the
matter, it is neither a mill, a fermenting vat, nor a stew-pan ; but a stoma<;b, gentlemen— a stomach.'
A grand difficulty to a precise knowledge of the nature of this fluid is, that it varies in different ani-
mals, according to the nature of their food ; in man it does not act readily on bones; in dogs, bones
are as readily digested as rtesh ; in the horse it is a thin transparent mucus', slighllv saline, and desti-
tute of smell ; and it colours blue vegetable j uices red. But we are not to look for the measure of its
properties in its chemical characters ; these may, it is true, have some influence, by affording, in con-
junction with the saliva, nitrogen or azote; but we rely mainly on its living power. It neither fer-
ments nor promotes a decomposition of the substances it acts on ; on the contrary, it arrests fermen-
tation, and possesses a preservative quality. Its principles of action, therefore, are independent of all
these and other agencies formerly attributed to it, but are derived from a principle within itself,
which enables it to act on organic matter already dead, and on that only, for life has a particular power
to resist its action : hence bots, and other worms, reside unhurt within the stomacli ; but destroy them,
and they become dissolved like other matter : and it is in this way, that this secretion has been Ibund
to operate upon even the stomach itself after death.

SPLANCHNOLOGY — PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION, 219

in the cuticular cavity of the stomach generally, from whence it is propelled forward by
muscular contractions of the organ in the direction of its great curvature, from left to right,
towards the pylorus ; being, however, so turned and contorted in its passage, that every
portion of the mass becomes first macerated with the cuticular secretion, and then receives
the more important accession, as it is propelled forward, of the solvent gastric mucus*.
It is thus tliat a mass of vegetable matter, of the nature of hay, grass, or other succulent
herbage, passes the assimilating process within the stomach, wliich readily and quickly re-
duces it into a semipultaceous mass, called chyme, after which it is hurried onward to have
the chylous animalization completed within the intestines.

The extraordinary process is somewhat different, and is calculated to shew the wonder-
ful powers inherent in the organs for adapting themselves to exigent circumstances. It
must be premised, that the horse exhibits specialties which were evidently given for spe-
cific purposes. His vast bulk, yet vast powers of locomotion ; his inherent capability of
subsisting and reproducing in almost every climate ; these important circumstances would,
a priori, lead us to expect structural peculiarities to meet them. He is one of Nature's
noblest works : magnificent in stature, he is yet endowed, as has been happily expressed,
with a specific energy, which renders him capable of vast and continued exertigns : and his
power is exceeded only by his rapidity,' for which ends his organization throughout ap-
pears to be designed. The bulky stomach of the ox would have proved to him most in-
convenient, yet a greater consumption of food, and a more complete conversion of it into
chyle, were more necessary to supply his energies than those of the ox. We find him,
therefore, furnished with a single stomach, capable of extracting ordinary mitriment from
herbage, and further furnished with a functional ability of extracting an extraordinary
supply from farinaceous matters, for a more ample extension of his powers when neces-
saiyt ; for we need not inform the reader that the original organic molecule in the farina
of plants infinitely exceed those which reside in their stems, or that found in the ligneous
fibres of wood or the foliage of shrubs. The specialties hinted at, by which the horse as-
similates extraordinary nutriment without injury to his general properties, are both func-
tional and structural. The functional is derived from the great energies of the stomach
generally, the nature of the gastic juice, and the longer detention of the food to be more
completely acted on. The structural part of the speciality consists in the form of the
sequine stomach, its muscular fundus, and of a particular covering to the first half of it.
It was long ago observed by Spallanzani and others, that the great pouch of the horse's
stomach gave it a near resemblance to the rumen or jiaunch of the ox, &c. ; and he con-
jectured that it was destined to the detention oi particular parts of the food ; and by actual
experiment, it has been since discovered that the food is really distributed in the stomach
of the horse according to its qualities^ ; and we now feel assured that the large pouch-

" It is somewhat extraordinary that Oiiardtakes little notice of the effect which the cuticular covcr-
inj; of the stomach must have on the phenomena of digestion ; neither does he seem apprised of any
difference between the processes, according to whether grass or grain be the substances acted on.
With him, only general action is pursued. 'The ahments are first deposited in the left sac of the
stomach, and advance under digestion from the left towards the right, following the direction of the
great curvature towards the pylorus ; and an animal killed immediately after eating a quantity of hay,
exhibits the contained matters in a state of chymiflcation in the order of their entrance, and likewise in
their order of original situation, so that the first received is nearest the pylorus, and vice versd.' But
had this celebrated anatomist varied his experiment, he would have found a very different result. An
ass, experimented on by Mr. Percivall, had a quarter of a peck of oats given to it, which was eaten in
twenty-five minutes : the animal was killed six hours after : in the stomach were found both grass and
corn ; the former occupied the vascular part, and the boundary line between it and the corn, which all
laid in the cuticular pouch, precisely corresponded with that formed by the borders of the sensible
and insensible linings. A horse was also fed with the same quantity of oats after a two days' fast,
and six hours and a half afterwards was destroyed. Most of the corn was lodged in the fundus : its
colour was unchanged, thongli it was converted into a soft, humid mass, consisting of husks, ker-
nels, and parts of kernels, from which could easily be expressed a yellow liquor, into which the un-
dissolved kernels were convertible by a little trituration between the fingers. It is therefore evident,
that the process of digestion, as it operates on corn, is not altogether the same as that which acts on
herbage : in the former it is delayed w ithin the cuticular part of the cavity, and it is also proved that
within this cavity a complete maceration and solution of the farinaceous parts of the seeds can take
place; but It may be assumed, that a more perfect assimilation would' yet be performed on it as it
passed through the villous portion. Does there want further proof that the cuticular lining of the
stomach Is the first step towards the triturating nature of the gizzard of fowls and the gastric apparatus
of some fish, as the trout?

■f We may here ask, what could be expected of our machine horses of every description, were thov
fed on grass or hay alone ? Who would witness the death of a stout fox, mounted even on a stabled
horse, were he not grain-fed? The new locomotive apparatus must in such case be applied to our
waggon wheels; for even here the common process of digestion would not suffice to keep up the
necessary powers of the waggon horse: and in what part of the Beacon course would a gramini-
vorous Eclipse trail his slow length into a stand-still, deprived of a deliberate maceration and animal-
ization of vegetable gluten, drawn from oats, beans, wheat, or ba, ley?

t Spallanzani's experiments go directly to prove, that when the stomach of various animals contain
more tban one kind of food, that most easily digested is soonest evacuated. M. lyiillemand also oh-
fCrvcs, that, from hi« experiments, he has found that aliments did not escape from the stomach In the

220 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSK.

like left extremity of his stomach is purposely intended to receive and detain within it
such food as requires more complete maceration and more active pressure, and which can
he readily performed by means of the muscular vortex around the centre of the fundus,
aided, as it must be, by the cuticular covering to the part. Thus, when farinaceous food
is received into the stomach, an undulatory motion takes place, which, by pressing and
wedging the masticated grains together, not only softens and separates their subsUnce, but
most intimately mixes the gastric juices with them : for I am fully of opinion that the
motion of the stomach is not equal throughout its whole length, but that it has a rotatory
winding or twisting movement, different from that of the villous half, which, by means of
its longitudinal fibrous plan, partakes more of the true peristaltic motion*. To proceed :
the mass, in its progress towards the pylorus, becomes more completely saturated with
the true gastric mucus, and the work of chymification being finished, the chyme is pro-
truded through the" pyloric outlet, to be further acted on for perfect chylification in the
intestines. This view of the digestive processes in the horse, I am aware, is open to dis-
cussion as it regards the discriminating powers of the stomach, the purposed detention of

order in which they were introduced. In ourselves the same fact often presents itself ; when edibles
are returned from the stomach by vomiting, nearly unaltered, some days after they were eaten, although
ingesta received at the same time had proceeded in its nntiiral course. Mr. Percivall relates two very
satisfactory experiments made by himself, relative to this power of separation in the stomach of the
horse, which have been already quoted.

• To suppose the stomach confined to the simple act of propulsion, is to take much too limited a
view of its powers : vomilion at once disproves it: and also that it may have a functional capability
of adapting its movements to circumstances as they occur, we have no reason to doubt. In the ru-
minants, the cud when chewed and re-swallowed, then passes over the first two stomachs, from whence
it came, and enters the third : the process also can be delayed at pleasure, when the paunch is full.
Cannot the stomach of the horse, therefore, act somewhat iid libilum likewise ? In no organ do we
witness such a diversity of means, all tending to one grand end, as in the stomach. Well might it be
by the ancients regarded as the seat of the soul, and by the moderns as the giand characteristic of
animal in contradistinction to vegetable life. In some of the lower orders, as the polypus, the body
forms one entire gastric cavity : as we ascend in the scale, the organs become more complex. In
carnivorous birds, the oesophagus terminates in an iugluvies or crop, smaller and less rtluscular than
in the granivorous, where the crop is large, very muscular, and internally lined by a cuticular coat,
so strong as amply to compensate the want of teeth. In carnivorons quadrupeds the stomach is also
small and muscular, and the alimentary track short ; but in the herbivoro.us, on the contrary, it is
much larger, and the intestinal track long. In the graminivorous and ruminants, the gastric cavities
arc multiplied into as many as four, as we find in the camel, ox, sheep, and goat. In the hornless
ruminants, the second stomach is exclusively designed as a reservoir for water ; and in some, as the
camel and dromedary, is capable of holding a vast quantity, which is passed up as wanted, to be
mixed with the dry matters chewed during rumination; or retained as a supply for accidental scarcity
in their arid climes. But these are, most of them, what may be called stationary animals, and, with
the exception of the camel tribe, they are usually located where herbage is luxuriant, and the neces-
sity to travel in search of it is little felt. Their means of defence are borrowed from their horns, by
which, when congregated, they are in little danger of attack, and consequently experience little neces-
sity for great rapidity of flight. It is far otherwise with the horse; he does, it is true, congregate,
but not in such masses as the ruminants : his means of offence are limited, and his flesh is peculiarly
sought after by predacious animals. His original situation also appears to have been in open arid
plains, where herbage is widely spread, and wheie his instinctive inclination for farinaceous food
tends to make him rove still more extensively. In him, therefore, a form correspondent with these
intentions was peculiarly necessary; and how eminently his structural peculiarities fit him for them,
both his internal and external framing will amply testify. Hnw adapted his external figure and the
mechanical arrangement of his limbs arc to the end, has been before pointed out, and internally we are
proving that he is no less so. We find him encumbered with one small stomach only, not more than
three times as large as that of a man ; but far other proportions exist between the voluine of the food
received by each, which instead of three to one, are as six to one, which consequently were intended
to supply the deficiency, and yield abundant supplies. It is self-evident, therefore, that if the horse
have a small stomach, and yet eats so largely, and, as is well known, so frequently, he must digest
all bulky food, as grass, with equal rojoid/iy. He can drink eight or ten gallons of water at a draught,
hut his stomach will not contain more than two ; and it also appears a singular union of intention, that
fluids arc passed with sipgular rapidity, that the effects of distention may be in every way avoided.
The pure herbage-fed horse is almost always eating and always digesting : so much time is requited to
insalivate and masticate a sufficient quantity, that the first portions are passed forwards through the
duodenum before the meal is finished ; and it is by this wise provision that he is ever ready, in a state
of nature, to fly from his swifte t enemies, as well as in a state of domestication, to be subservient to
the purposes of his owner, provided they be not accelerated nor too long continued. By this ready
digestion his respiratory functions are not impeded, nor is he, like man and many animals, liable to
that healthy congestion after a full meal, which, by preventing the free return of blood from the head,
retards its functions, and produces a disinclination to exertion and an aptitude to rest and sleep. The
iiorse, on the contrary, I believe, never lies dowu to assist digestion; some horses never recumb, and
in all 'it is done merely to relieve fatigue, and renovate their muscular structure. Analogy, has,
therefore, deceived the trainers of race-horses, who have been used to darken their stables, and shut
close their doors after feeding their horses, to encourage them to lie down : but as in horses a quick
passage of the food is indicated by nature, so it may be reasonably inferred that gentle motion, but
gentle only, would be more consonant with the natural habits of the animal. Both sleep and total
inaction after full feeding are certainly favourable to the accumulation of fat in many animals, but it
is doubtful whether it increases the muscular fibre in any. Thus pigs fatten rapidly when close shut up;
stalled oxen do the same ; and hence stable keepers and horse dealers closely confine their lean horses :
but the practice is not attended with any accession of energy, or of solid and hard fibic, but of animal
oil or fat only ; it is not to be wondered at, therefore, that such horses, when suddenly put to work, so
often ' fall l" pieces,' as expressed by horsemen.

SPLANCHNOLOGY— PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION.

221

the food in its fundus, and the immediate operation of its cuticular portion ; but I am
more and more persuaded that tlie phenomena which present themselves, and the physi-
ological deductions which may be fairly drawn from the anatomical display, bear me out
in such a consideration of it». _ -it i- ,

Vomitio)i.—K structural peculiarity in the stomach remains to he noticed ; by which,
in all ordinary cases, the horse is denied the power of regurgitationf or vomitionj. These
acts, so natural on the one hand, and so common on the other, to all but the monodac-

• With very little alteration of sentiment, the foregoinpr views of the functional phenomena re-
sultinc from the peculiar organization of the stomach of the horse, have been tho^ I originally set
out with thirty years ago, as will he seen by a reference to the first edition of this Work. They are
also in most essential particulars, the same with those advocated by Mr. Percivall in his admirable
• Lectures.* Our principal diCference consists, that in ray view some pressure is actually made on
i\\e farinaceous food received by means of the muscular and cuticular mechanism of the fundus
of the organ. But I have constantly and distinctly stated, that the pressure, grinding, ortnture, or
whatever beside it might be called, was of a shght kind only. A translation of the first edition (for
1 have not the work itself hv me) says, ' II ne faut ccpendant pas se figurer qu'il se passe ici rien d'ana-
logue 4 la trituration qui a' lieu dans le gosier des oiseaux. II ne s'agit que d'une simple pression
plus au moins legere.' In the second, the wording is, ' may act by gentle constriction, producmg
a slight species of trituration in that part on the contained grain, which may produce a further
maceration.' In the third it is stated, ' that by a gentle motion, effected by the vortex of muscular
fibre around the fundus, the farinaceous grains are rather triturated against themselves than ground
by the stomach itself, as in true gizzards." Mr. Percivall is, however, of opinion that nothing like
trituration occurs, but simple maceration alone ; and he grounds his objections to any comminuting
property in the fundus of the stomach derived either from its muscular or cuticular fabric ; Mr. P.
is. however, adverse to any even the smallest action of the kind, from a want of redness (i.e. strength)
in the muscular fibres of this cuticular half of the stomach, as also from the absence of any superior
quantity of muscular fibre possessed by this part ; and further, because other parts have cuticular co-
verings without exercising any comminutive action. He also appears to consider that the fact of
horses passing whole grains of corn, militates against any triturating power. The well known expe-
riments of Spallanzani, on which this ingenious writer lays much stress, were made on masticated let-
tuce and trefoil, and not on grain ; for which, I contend, the. cuticular portion was principally given,
and for the digestion of which the stomach can step out of its ordinary course (if action by detaining,
pressing, kneading, rubbing, or even slishtly triturating, if the reader pleases, the grains against each
other ; and as these matters were enclosed in tuhps, in Spallanzani's experiments, purposely to shew
the solvent quality of the gastric secretion, and that only, they prove nothing against trituration.
As regards the muscular structure of the stomach, a want of colour, T need not tell so excellent au
anatomist, is no proof against either its existence or its strength. The muscles of fishes and the pec-
torals of many fowls are both notoriously strong, yet white; and that it is furnished with a strong
vortex of muscular fibre around its fundus, I_think an inspection of it will prove, as well as the tes-
timonies of many anatomists, that the halance'of power rests eminently with the recipient orifice and
insensible portion. On the objection taken, that other cavities furnished with cuticle are not commi-
nutive, I think nothing need he offered ; neither does it, I imagine, form any just chjection lo this
view of it, that grain is occasionally passed whole ; it is not pretended that perfect trituration is here
performed ; but a moderate pressure only on the contained grain, not even sufficient to destroy the
actual form of the seed, or to grind its envelopment, yet fully sufficient to destroy the organization of
the contained farina, and reduce it into a pulp. Neither would it militate against this argument, that
grains do pass even whole, and so little acted on as afterwards to germinate, seeing that a rapid and
incomplete mastication is very common with horses, and an incomplete digestion not uncommon also,
by which a few grains may escape the united processes. Trees, shrubs, and vegetables, are every
day planted by the imperfectly digested seeds dropped in the dung of birds, who have a real mill to grind
tfipir corn. Tlie suliject, however, after all, is more interesting than important ; and its interest is not
decreased by the ingenuity of the arguments used by Mr. Percivall against it, as well as some facts
connected with his experiments.

■f Regurgitation must not he confounded with vomitiou ; although they are, by the actions of the
organs concerned, but modifications of each other. Regurgitati<ni is altogetlier a natural act ; vomit-
ing is never wholly so : tlie regurgitation of the ruminant is effected as a necessary part of its economy.
The oesophagus is framed by its organization to assist it ; it is powerfully muscular, much more so
than tliat of the horse, whose layers of tieshy fibres aie an external longitudinal, and an internal circu-
lar ; whereas, in neat cattle, tlie oesophageal plans are both oblique, and thus can both dilate and
shorten the tube, either to permit the enti y of the aliments, or to assist their return : hut, naturally,
the horned ruminants never vomit; and if they have not the structural hindrances of the horse, tlieir
diffused gastric cavities are a sufficient impediment.

X y omition exists in some animals, as the canine and feline tribes, where regnrgilation is the natu-
ral, and vomiting an occasional and forced act. The dog swallows a large quantity of food at a time ;
and eitlier by a partial deposit, or by delaying the process of digestion, he keeps it until he has found
a hiding-place, when he regurgitates a portion or the whole ; this must have been witnessed by most
persons who have liad bitches with their whelps in their possession. Vomitiou is certainly encouraged
by the dog, who eats an emetic grass for the purpose ; hut the act is altogether a differeiit one to that
of regurgitation, as must be evident to any one who observes it. In regurgitation, the matters seem
either not to have entered the stomach, airl to have occupied the cavity only, which we have described
as existing around the oesophagus to favour its distention; or otherwise, by some capability in the
stomacli, it is received and retained at its very entrance : for its regurgitation is without effort, and the
abdominal muscles are hardly called into action at all. Vomitiou, on the contrary, in him employs the
ahdominai muscles most forcibly ; and it seems designed, tliat he should have this means of relief at
hand, seeing his stomach is placed so as to be immediately within the sphere of tlieir action, which,
it has been shewn, is so necessary to the act, that, without their aid, attempts may be made, hut are
ineffectual, in procuring vomition. Still it is to lie remarked, vomitiou is an act of necessity from

morbid excitement ; and though instinctively encouraged. Is conducted with violence and some pain.

I have purposely introduced this matter, as Illustrative of one of the hindrances to voinitliig in the

horse, his stomach being wliolly removed from any pressure by tlie aliiliuiilnal muscles.

222 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

tyles, Imve occupied much attention among our indefatigable neighbours the French-
aiul we find mnged m the list ofexperin.entalists, and arguers thereon, LamorierfBe tin

tellS 'r,"'" ' f'Tr 7^""^''' -^"n'^' »^'the, and a' host of minor sa-'

teuites* Ibe whole of the gastric portion of the alimentary canal exhibits a structural
imi ormity of intention, unfavourable to regurgitation or vomition. The membranous
curtain of the palate closes all return of the contents of the stomach by the mouth, ex-
cept mider the most violent efforts; and consequently when vomition does occur it is
m most cases confined to the nasal openings, or, in other words, the matters thrown up
come out by the nostrils. The next structural impediment may be observed in the oeso-
phagus, which, by being much less muscular than that of the ruminants, and having a
different arrangement of its muscular fibres, evidently proves that regurgitation fonned
no part of the natural economy of the horse. The obliquity of its insertion, and the irum-
ber, strength, and direction of its fleshy layers, are powerful impediments ; and if they do
not actually constitute a valvular apparatus, by the addition of the rugose folds of the cu-
ticular, or a sphincter by the power of the contraction, they must form a sufficient bar to all
ordinary tendency of the aliments to return. And if it be, as already stated, that the true
peristaltic motion be confined to the villous portion, and the compound undulatory one
be proper to the left or cuticular half, we have sufficient reasons for the inaptitude of the
horse to vomit : for were we to suppose nausea to be sufficient to produce attempts of the
kind, the superior resistance offered by the greater volume of muscular matter around the
cardiac than the pyloric extremity, must, in all general cases, prevent it. Vomition may,
tfierefore, be considered altogether unnatural to the horse, and the formation of his organs
evinces the intention of Nature to be such: but it is to be remarked, that no actual im-
possibility exists to the act itself, neither to the state of nausea which is the usual precursor
to It; for both have occurred suflSciently often to make their capability notorious; but in
every instance they are forced by extraordinary circumstances of in-itation. M. Hurtrcl
d Arboval thus describes the manner of vomitting in the horse :— ' Quoi qu'il en soit, le
vomissement, dans le cheval, est generalement precede de quelques nausees, mais il'ne
les suit pas toujours. Au moment de rendre des mati^res, I'animal se raidit sur les
quatre membres, allonge la tete et le cou, comme il a ete dit, raniene le menton vers le
poitrail, fait une grande inspiration, contracte les muscles abdoininaux, et on le voit ex-
pulser par les naseaux, rarement par la bouche en meme temps, un liquide jauufiti-e, ver-
datre, acc-teux, m61e d'alimeiis mal 6labores, tantot deli^s, tantdt r6unis en petites pe-
lotes, tantot en petite quaiititS et tantot a pleins naseaux. Le cheval qui vomit secoue
la tete et fait une fort expiration. Le plus souvent il ne vomit qu'une fois ; cependant
on a vu les efforts se renouveler, et le vomissement se r^peter plusieurs fois, apres des
intervalles plus on moins rapproches ou eloignes.'

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE V.

This plate represents the stomach and intestines taken out of the body, the stomach
being cut open to shew its inner surface and cuticular coat, a, the cardiac, or recipient
orifice, with the oesophagus cut off; b b, the circular plan of fibres, which give great force
to the cardia, and prevent the return of food. This plan is seen directing its course into

• Lamoriei- attributes the sequine inaptitude to I'omit to the want of muscular force in both the
oesophagus and stomach, but more particularly to a valvular apparatus at the cardiac orifice as well
as to heiug out of the sphere of pressure from the abdominal muscles.— Berlin admits that a sphincter-
like apparatus is found at the caidiac termination of th» oesophagus, but he denies its being valvular
He attributes much to the obliquity of the insertion of the oesophagus, and to its placing in the lesser
curvature, somewhat remote fiom the left extremity of the stomach, as well as to three distinct plans
of fleshy fibres, which he finds surrounding the fundus of the stomach.— Bourgelat observes, that the
muscular constiuction of the cardiac orifice is such, that the general propulsive action of the stomach
only increases its constriction, and that, even were the peristaltic motion reversed, the powerful fibres
ot this part would resist the action of vomiting.— La Fosse thinks that no case of'vomition can occur
without rupture of the stomach; even at his time of practice we cannot but wonder at a conclusion
so vague, and so adverse to established facts.— Giraid, who has written largely on the subject and '
has evidently paid it a minute attention, advances, that three essential obstacles to vomition are found in
the horse. 1 , A muscular enlargement of the gastric extremity of the oesophagus, as well as a species
of inward protrusion of a fold of the cuticular lining, which has been mistaken for a valve to the
orifice. 2, The siluati on chosen for the entrance of the tube, which is that of the lesser curvature
3, The oblique course it takes in piercing the viscus, which although not so well marked, yet is after
the same manner as that by which the ureters penetrate the bladder.— Dupuy observes, 'Le passage
de I'ccsophage au milieu du pilier droit du diaphragnie doit etre mis au nombrc des causes qui s'op-
posent au vomiscement dans le cheval.'— Uci the has observed a partial vomition to be not uncommon
among cribbiters, i:; which cases much viscous mucous and alimentary matter has been thrown out bv
the nostrils, which induces him to suppose it connected with indigestion. JBut this appears to he
altogether an unfounded conclusion ; and 1 strongly suspect that in these cases, as well as in some
others, much alimentary matter occasionally remains in the pharynx until its .accuunilation irritates
the larynx, when it is, by a convulsive eifort, thrown out by the nostrils.

SPLANCHNOLOGY — THE INTESTINES.

223

the fundus, or gi-eat extremity : c c, the longitudinal plan, also carried over the fundus ;
(/, the cuticular surface of the great extremity of the stomach, called its insensihle part :
its rugcP, or folds, which are small, are shewn on this surface a, the villous or membran-
ous portion of the stomach, or its vascular and sensible part : its folds are seen larger than
those of the other portion : /, the external part of the great extremity ; g, the pylorus, or
pyloric extremity of the stomach, presenting a valvular duplication of its membrane, to
prevent the too hasty passage of food through it ; the duodenum, with the biliary and
pancreatic ducts entering it ; i, the mesentery ; k, the small intestines ending in the c;e-
cum ; the cfficum, with its blind end shewn ; m, the commencement of the colon by a
contracted portion ; the continuation of the colon, with its membranous bands, and
its sides throwni into cells ; o, the termination of the colon into the rectum, and of the
rectum by the anal opening.

The Intestines.

The remainder of the alimentary canal is continued from the expellent
orifice of the stomach to the anus, or end of the passage ; forming a long
canal, whose varying dimensions have occasioned it to be divided into the
large and small intestines*. The length of the tract ranges between twenty-
seven and thirty yards ; of which proportions the small intestines occupy
from twenty to twenty-two yards, and the large from seven to eight. It is
not easy to give a determinate place to the intestines, either individually or
generally ; the large, however, may be said to occupy all the inferior por-
tion of the abdomen throughout, and the small to range between and upon
them ; both occasionally shifting their position somewhat by the peristaltic
motion. They ai'e, however, prevented from an unnatural displacement, by
membranous productions of the peritoneum, under the name of mesentery,
mesocolon, and mesorectum. The first intestinal coat is derived from the
peritoneum, which separates to receive the tube between its lamen : at once
protecting it, and affording a medium for the transmission of its vessels and
a lubricating surface. The second, or muscular coat, presents a longitudi-
nal and a circular plan of fibres ; by the contraction of which the vermi-
cular motion, called peristaltic, is performed, the longitudinal slightly short-
ening them, and the circular diminishing their diameter : the inner surface
of this fabric being garnished with a quantity of dense cellular tissue, was
fonnerly erroneously considered as another and a nervous coat. The inner
tunic of the intestinal canal is villous or mucous, and is very vascular and
sensible, its villi presenting an increased surface for the mucous secretion, as
well as more numerous chyliferous orifices with which it is thickly studded :
but it presents no valvulae conniventes, as in the human, their place being
supplied by the increased length of the tract.

The duodenum, the first portion of the small intestines, commences from
the pyloric orifice of the stomach. It hangs loose and pendulous, being
attached to the concave surface of the liver, from which making a turn, it
becomes fixed to the vertebrae, and then takes the name of jejunum ; but as
in this course its length is nearer twenty inches than twelve, it is evident
that duodenum is an improper term for it in the horse. It appears rather
larger in circumference than the other small intestines, and more vascular,

* In man, and most carnivorous quadrupeds, there is but little disproportion between
them ; but in the horse it is very great. Our knowledge of the nature and economy of
an animal may be in a great measure gained by a mere inspection of his intestines only :
for, as a general principle, it is found that the length and capacity of the alimentary canal
are in proportion to the difficulty of assimilating alimentary principles from the various
matters used as edibles. The tract is, therefore, larger and longer in the herbivorous
tribes, less in the omnivorous, and least of all in the carnivorous.

224 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE,

but it is peculiarly remarkable for having the pancreatic and biliary ducts
obliquely penetrating it, which they sometimes do by one common orifice,
and as often by distinct ones, about five inches from its commencement.
(Vide h, plate V.) The jejunum gains its name from being commonly
found empty, and is attached to the mesentery, which follows its circumvo-
lutions ; the line of division between it and the ilium is only imaginary : it
is usual to consider rather more than a third of the joint length to belong to
this intestine, and something less than two-thirds to the next. The ilium occu-
pies a portion within the iliac region, from whence it derives its name : it
presents no peculiarities of structure; but, equally with the foraier, its cir-
cumvolutions are all connected by the windings of the folds of the mesen-
tery to its termination in the caecum.

The large intestines dififer widely from the small in structure and appear-
ance as well as in size, having their large volume contracted by membra-
nous folds into distinct compartments which lodge the alimentary contents,
and prevent their too hasty egress. The ccecum, or blind gut, as it is called,
is the first of them, and it might with propriety be considered as a mere ap-
pendage to the colon. Into this the ilium terminates, by protruding itself
some way within the cavity, by which is formed the valvula colli, which
prevents the return of the contents of the caecum. From this the anterior
part of the caecum projects forward nearly three feet, in a pocket-like form,
of the size of the colon (vide I, plate Y). It usually occupies the right side
of the abdomen, and appears immediately on opening the peritoneum : com-
mencing from the colon and ilium in the right iliac region, it extends for-
wards to the right side, with its pocket-like part applied towards the diaphragm
and liver near the xiphoid cartilage : the horse has no appendix vermiformis.
Through the peritoneal covering, we observe three or four muscular longi-
tudinal bands, extending from its exti'emity along the muscular tunic, so as
to divide the gut into three portions ; between these fraena the internal
membrane is plaited up, and its intersections form elliptical cavities called
the cells. From this gut being frequently found with a considerable quan-
tity of water in it, it has been conjectured to be a receptacle for fluid, and
fluid only ; but it is not always furnished with water, and I have also found
the solid iugesta as well as the fluid within it.

The colon is small at its origin, as may be seen by a reference to plate
V, vide m; but soon enlarges its bulk greatly, and in convoluting itself
round the abdomen it makes five considerable turns or flexures, which are
principally found in the lower parts of the belly. After its second flexure,
which is the most considerable, it presents a contracted portion attached to
the spleen : from which, enlarging again, its volume makes two other tortu-
ous reflections backwards, which form its sigmoid Jiexure ; when again
contracting at the sacrum, it becomes the rectum. These massive turns,
and which form a bed for the small intestines (w, n, plate V), are, though
apparently free, yet steadily bound to circumscribed limits by peritoneal
elongations : they are also internally furnished, like the caecum, with liga-
mentous bands whose intersections produce unequal cells ; and is altogether
sustained in its situation by that portion of the mesentery termed mesocolon.
The colon and caecum are the principal suff'erers in those inflammations that
arise from violent purging medicines.

The rectum is the continuation of the colon (vide o, plate V), and passes
backwards from the lumbar vertebrae to the anus. Its substance is thicker
than that of the other intestines ; and though it is not longitudinally inter-

SPLANCHNOLOGY— THE INTESTINES. 225

sected by muscular bands, still it presents a plicated appearance, and is piick-
orcd into small cell-like depressions, to prevent a too frequent expulsion of
the fajccs. The rectum is attached to the spine and sacrum by a detach-
ment of the peritoneum, which is here, therefore, called mesorectum : but
the true lamen of peritoneum does not invest its whole portion, but leaves it
as it approaches the gut, its place being supplied by cellular membrane, which
forms strong attachments for the terminal portion of it to the coccygis. The
anus is opened by the force of the peristaltic motion and the consent of
part, and is shut by a muscular band around the extremity of the gut, called
the sphincter; it is likewise elevated and retracted by two pair of appro-
priate muscles.

The mesentery (vide plate V). — This great folded membrane is a pro-
longation of the peritoneum, within which the intestines are involved : these
investing laminae uniting at the superior part, form a single membrane,
called mesentery, and which are of different lengths, as the intestines are
protruded farther or less within the great bag. These peritoneal prolonga-
tions are very useful, for they not only invest the intestines, and give them
their outer covering, but they attach them likewise within their situations,
and furnish a medium through which they receive their bloodvessels and
nerves : the lacteals also are situated and sustained within these membran-
ous folds. The origin of the mesentery from the spine is of small extent,
but it is so framed, that, as it proceeds, it is enabled to follow the whole of
the intestines through their course, branching out like a fan, from its begin-
ning at the duodenum to its termination at the rectum : that portion of it
which sustains the small intestines being called the mesentery ; that longer
part attached to the colon, the mesocolon ; and the mesorectum that more in-
considerable portion which attaches the rectum : its laminfE contain a larger
or smaller quantity of adeps, as the animal is more or less fat in general.
The mesenteric vessels and nerves have been already described with Angio-
logy and Neurology. The mesenteric glands also have been noticed as
part of the absorbing system, where also the lacteals have been considered.

The diseases of the intestines are very serious, as might be expected from
their great vascularity : the acute peritoneal inflammation called enteritis is
a most rapid and fatal one. Their muscular structure is also very frequently
affected by spasm or colic : calcular concretions form within them; strangu-
lation occurs ; and they are occasionally subjected to diarrhoea, and a species
of dysentery also.

JTie Physiology of the Intestines and remaining CJiylopoietic Viscera,
The intestinal canal receives the pulpy mass of the chyme in a somewhat partial state
oi digestion, but, becoming mixed in the fluodcnum with the pancreatic and the biliary
fluids, fresh changes take place in it* ; and the chylification is by these accessions more
perfectly advanced, and the chyle more completely animalized. The mass is continually
propelled onward by the creeping muscular contractions of the intestinal tract, called
Xhcn imrnlaltic motion, which appears to be operated by two orders of muscular libres ; a
longitudmal straightening the convolutions, and steadying them ; while a circular order,

• What these changes arc, has long been a subiect of dispute among nhysiolneists. The pan-
pienticseCTCtion in chemical characters, is not nnlikc saliva, and has I, ml a solvent power a-^eril.Al to

t, which It IS probable it may possess; hut that it is not absolutely essential to life n o know from the
nrcniiislance of (l<,gs having survived the loss of commniiication between it and the diiodennm. The

.iliary secretion seems to be more essential to the process of digestion, although it is affii nied thatdiv-
lihcation has proceeded without it ; but this is at variance with the cxnerin ts .,f IVIr. Ilrnfiie, who

on applying a ligature so as to obstruct the ductus cliolodocbus of nits, found thiit, iiltliongh Uie pro-
nuction ot chyme in the -toniach proceeilod as usual, vet the ci.nversiiui of clivnie into chyle was inva-
riably and completely interrupted, 'riie bile, as an assistant to cbylilication, has been supi.osed to sei.a-
r.ile itpe l into two parts, a serous and a re-inons one ; and that tlie former was essential tntlie nrodiic-
imii oli-byle, while the latter united with the fuiccs, and was ejected by Ibcin as excremcntitloiis

226

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

in its progresi?ive contractions, presses the contents onwards, not by continued bnt hy
g^cntlc efforts, renewed after the lapse of a short time. This motion is not altogether uni-
Ibrm, either in direction or duration ; on the contrary, it sometimes acts inversely ; occa-
sionally it halts altogether, and often is irregularly agitated. That this propelling force
may not hurry the contents too fast, a cellular arrangement throughout exists, evidently
intended to delay the chyme within the intestines till the whole of its nutritive parts are
taken up. The powers of the horse requiring a very complete chylification, he is furnished
with a long and large alimentary tract; and whereas in man, and many quadrupeds, little
more is effected in the large intestines than faecation, in the horse there is reason to be-
lieve that not only a considerable chylous absori)ti(m occurs, but that this mucous sur-
face adds much to the nature and quality of it also*. The chyle is separated from the
iligested mass by the agency of the lacteals, whose orifices, abundantly spread over the
villous surface of the intestines, receive it, and, directing their course through thp mesen-
teric lamen, deposit it in the chylous receptacle, to be mixed with the blood. (See Jh-
sorhents.) And by which means an increase to its qnantitii is acquired, as by the act of
respiration its qiialitij is restored. The intestines own a high degree of irritability, which
in its natural state produces their vital phenomena, and in its deranged state some of their
most fatal diseases. The stimuli of the intestines are various ; food is the most ordinary,
and it is generally supposed to have its activity increased by the biliary secretionf.
Exercise is also a natural stimulus, as well probably by the increased absorption of oxygen
occasioned, as by its mechanical pressuret- The application of particular substances
stimulates them remarkably, and are thence called purges§.

TTie Liver.

The liver is so bulky and ponderous a mass, that there seems gi-eat wis-
dom in ])Uicingit in the" centre of the body. Anatomically its larger part is
situated in the left hypochondrium ; a smaller portion in the right (vide h b,
plate IV), and a third in the epigastrium; in circumference extending be-
tween two and two and a half feet ; thick towards the middle, but thin at the
edges. It is divided into two large and several smaller lobes, which are again
further divided by notches or deep indentations, the principal of which sepa-

• The ciccum of the ox is much larger than that of the horse, but his colon is less capacious, by
which an equal decree of detention of the contained matters is brought about. It is the "pmion of
some French and English scqnine anatomists, that the ciccum is m inc.pal y destuicd to hold the flu.d
aliments. Mr. Percivall observes, that in most cases he has found l.ttle else than water in ,t ; and it
anpears to be his opinion, that as the stomach has not the capacity, functionally nor yet structurally
ai regards its bulk to retain the water taken in ; so the caecum is the reservoir appropriated to that
mirnose • for it is argued, were it to be passed into the colon with the general aliments, they would be
too much diluted by its means, and constant diarrhoea would he the consequence There appears
much 0 persuade us of the truth of this view ; hut it is somewha against it, that the ox, who has a
a ger C!^^^^^^^^^^ less, and also that in the ox the pultaceous mass is very

Lencrallv recognized in this intestine. On the other hand, the horse exhibits so many specialities of
ftructn e in acmdance with his powers, and other animals, as the camel, &c. present diversities so
^„^,V.ri^^^hlcV^^^^^ the wants of their system, lliat it is not easy to deny such an intention.

rsome n X 'pl^y olog^^^^^^^ deny that bile is the natural purge of the bowels ; alleging, that were
thtttircasT ve could not ourselves so frequently suDFer under a state ot diarrhoea when the cystic

Ic is obstni'c cd; b itthis is not cogent, seeing there may be other morbid agencies acting on the.n
aJ the same iime and also that we So know that the deficiency of it in obstructions does more fre-

'nfeCnt: acVll oV'^hrabrm^^^^^^^^ in exercise have a very great efTect on the bowels ; thus

t inecontiaccions .1 i.it nromote the process of ' physickins;;' and thus it is that hard riding
Tm^nie'lh^ely af a'fnU^ early aiid Liassimllated state of the contents of the

ho ve s - in srii horses as have little capacity in the abdominal cavity (' small carcassed or badly
^, e lVd-\ th s is of bourse greatly aggravated ; and they arc thence termed, from their early and liquid
iTJc atioif'' 'alCr^^^^^^ therefore remember, that in all. but more particularly

wiH?«!,ra onrtt K lot digestion proceed some length when baiting on a journey before we
with P'"^^^^^^^ prone led before the chvle can be taken up; and thus he will

t thrhenefi of a c^rdTal ^ it acts by sympathy, is me.ely temporary ; b'.t the per-

what is required of ll';^'"- . intestinal tract, and the horizontal situation of the horse, we

Scared win infonn us why horses who habitually purge, seldom thrive.

SPLANCHNOLOGY — THE LIVER. 227

rates the two large lobes, and is called the great scissure : witliin this may be
soon the remains of the foetal umbilical vein, the tract of the vena cava and
oesophagus ; while a smaller indentation, seen about the centre of the concave
surface, forms the portae. By its convex surface the liver is attached to the
diaphragm by productions of the pei-itoneum, which being also reflected
over it by its cellular tissue, sustains its outer form and its inner granular
structure. Numerous lymphatics run over its surface, and the vascular
rami which enter its portce pass within a sheath called Glisson's capsule. Its
principal bloodvessels are the vena portae, vena hepatica, and arteria hopa-
tica. Its nerves are derived from the hepatic ganglia, and communicating
rami from the sympathetic are also received by it.

Vena portcB hepaticce. — The circulation of the venous blood in the liver
of the horse presents a remarkable speciality, as may be gained by what fol-
lows. I have already described the veins of the abdominal viscera, as re-
turning theii- blood into the sinus of the vena portae, which may be regarded
as the termination of that portion called vena portce ventralis, and the be-
ginning of that termed vem portce hepaticce; from whence this venous trunk
being branched off in every direction to be ramified throughout the substance
of the liver, necessarily performs the office of an artery. — Hepatic veins.
The blood being circulated through the substance of this viscus, and acted
on within it, is collected from the terminations of the vena portae and he-
patic artery, whose several rami thus form the hepatic veins, and pour their
blood into the cava by numerous branches.— The hepatic artery arises from
the aorta ; and it -is to be remarked that, though it furnishes so great a viscus
in vascular capacity, it is yet much smaller than either of the emulgents : it
can therefore yield little more that support to the liver, and cannot afford
much towards its secretory office.

Fori b iliarii, and hepatic duct. — In the glandular corpuscles some great
change goes on, by which a fluid substance is separated from the blood*.
The biliary pores appear to end in small tubes, which unite to form the he-
patic duct, as may be seen by turning up the right lobe. (See c, plate VI.)
As it parts from the liver, it accompanies the hepatic artery, and passing be-
low the vena portarum, it .terminates, as has been already described, in the
duodenum, about five inches from the pylorusf. The diseases of this organ
are, as may be supposed from its simplicity of structure, not numerous or
very important. Its gall duct is not often obstructed, although in olden
times nine sick horses out of ten ' had the yellows.' Hepatitis now and then
occurs, and it has been found tuberculatedj .

• It is not yet detennined whether bile be secreted wholly from venous blood, or in
part only ; the diminutive supply forbids the presumption that it is formed from the blood
ot the hepatic artery; and yet two cases. in human anatomy have shewn the strange ano-
maly of a want of the vena portarum : the vein corresponding to it ended in the inferior
cava, while the liepatic veins tenninated in the cava; the hepatic artery was very large
Here the presumption is, that the bile was furnished wholly by arterial blood. It is pro-
bable that bile IS eliminated from both; for injections prove, in the words of Majendie,
that all the vessels of the liver, venous, lymphatic, and excretory, communicate with each
other.

f The entrance of the biliary duct has had more importance attached to it than it seems
to deserve. In some animals it invariably pierces the duodenum solitarily; at others, one
orihce common to it and the pancreatic duct is seen ; but in every instance there is a dis-
tinct internal orifice, by which the peculiar secretion is observed to iiow, and each pre-
sents Its separate valvular apparatus to prevent the entrance of foreign matter. It was an
opinion that the proximity of the entrance to the pylorus marked the carnivorous charac-
ter, but which is now known to be fallacious.

X In the ruminants, tubercles on the liver, and their consequences, arq much more

P 2

228 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

The physiology of llie livvr has been already detailed with that of the intestines ; it re-
mains, therefore, only to observe, that the anatomical account rendered, shews that in the-
horse there is no gall -bladder or biliary receptacle**, and consequently that his bile is
uniformly flowing, which was necessary to him, seeing that his habit of frequent feeding
required as frequent a supply of all the digestive adjuncts.

The Pancreas.

The pancreas is a conglomerate gland, of a very irregular figure, length-
ened out into three processes, which extend it across the spine in the epi-
gastrium between the stomach and left kidney (vide f, plate IV). Its superior
surface is applied to the abdomen, and its inferior to the great curvature of the
stomach ; it is also connected to the omentum, liver, duodenum, spleen, and,
by its small appendicular portion, to the duodenum. From its substance
small tubuli collect into one common duct, which penetrates the duodenum,
sometimes immediately with, and sometimes distinct from, the biliary. Its
use has not yet been satisfactorily explained*.

The Spleen.

The spleen, or milt, is a viscus of a soft and apparently glandular struc-
ture, but without an excretoiy duct ; its colour is that of a rusty brown, in-
clining to blue, but both that and its size are variable. In shape it resem-
bles a very lengthened triangle, and is conseqtiently very dissimilar to that
of man. (p, plate IV.) Its texture is spongy, and so tender, that were it
not for its peritoneal covering, it would be liable to become torn by slight
causes. By its upper convex surface it is attached to the ribs, and to the
left extremity of the stomach : inferiorly it rest on the abdominal viscera.
It is plentifully supplied with bloodvessels, absorbents, and nerves ; the two
former particularly : but its use is altogether conjecturalf . It is seldom
idiopathically inflamed, although so eminently vascular ; but its spongy tex-

frequent than in the horse. It is also the peculiar seat of intestinal worins in many qua-
drupeds : out of eighteen rats that were examined, sixteen were found with taema withm
its substance. The disease termed the rot in sheep appears to arise from a species of worm
within the gall duct, and Monsieur {3halette professes to have often found them in horses
also. In ctttle they are occasionally met with, and it may be observed that parasitic am-
mals are found within the substance of this organ and its ducts throughout every part of

the animal kingdom. . ..... . . ,.

• We know little more of it, than that its structure is not dissimilar to the salivajy
elands, and that its secreted fluid resembles saliva ; from whence it may be supposed, like
that, to be intended as a (Uluent to the aliments, and without doubt as an assistant to chy-
lificltion ; but not altogether an indispensable one, as its secretion may be cut off without
any marked injury to the digestive process. Its structura similarity in calves to the
thymus gland is such, that both are called and both are used by cooks as the siveetbread

+ The volume of blood received by this organ, and the systematic detention of it, with-
out any secretory outlet, has naturally excited a su.spicion that it was an occasional reser^
voir fo^ that fluid : others have supposed that the blood w.thm it was there prepared for a
more ready separation of the bile. Dr. Haighton-s experiments on dogs tended to shew
h as a Sstive agent, by pouring out its contained blood for the use of the stomach when
Sutctlnallv eniployec : bit the situation of the splenic vessels m the horse being less
S wa^-l to on which this ingenious theory was ^oM...^.^^^^

probability. The expeiiments of Sir E. Home tend to shew that splenic blood is mor.
serous and less disposed to coagulation than other blood.

graiiivoiotis habits essci ti.M to it, toi it ' " „,,.,,,„j,i ' ahvavo found. In some ofthr

i;:^':^^ t^^^^^a -^i^^ tt^.:^. m u. ..or. a.o. ....

may in some measure answer similar purposes.

SPLANCHNOLOGY — RENAL CAPSULES — KIDNEYS.

229

ture has subjected it to rupture, aud its structure to a species of scirrhous
enlargement, particularly in dogs labouring under asthma : it has also been
found ossified to a considerable degree.

The Renal Capsules.

These (sometimes called swper-renal glands ) are two irregularly shaped
bluish-bro\TO bodies, situated each in front of its respective kidney, as seen
in plate IV, m, m. Their size in the young subject is very considei'able,
but lessens remarkably as age advances ; internally they seem composed of
two substances, one a dirty yellow-coloured compact vascular part ; and one
more central, less in quantity and more spongy in texture, from which in
the young colt a fluid may be pressed out. They derive their blood gene-
rally from the emulgents, and occasionally from the aorta ; their nerves
are gained from the renal plexus, but their functional purpose is wholly un-
known*-

The Kidneys.

The kidneys are two glandular bodies (vide c c, platelY) situated in the
lumbar regions, at the superior and posterior part of the abdomen ; the right
being generally the most anterior, and attached to the posterior margin of
the right lobe of the liver, under the sixteenth or seventeenth rib ; while the
left is pressed backward by the spleen, and is therefore usually situated under
the last false rib. The kidney bean, so named after these parts, serves to
give a pretty exact idea of their shape ; but which is not uniformly the same
in every horse. The central notch offers an entrance and outlet to its ves-
sels, secretory as well as nutritive. In many brutes, as the hog, ox, and
sheep, these organs are imbedded in a very large mass of fat, known as suet;
but in the horse, dog, and most animals designed for accelerated motion, the
quantity is less considerable. They are sustained in their situation by cel-
lular investm-e by their vessels, and by the peritoneum, which passes over
their inferior surface ; but as it does not wholly cover them, and is not again
reflected over them, they cannot be said to be within its sac. In the foetal colt
the kidneys are lobular or conglobate ; in the adult they are uniform or con-
glomerate ; and when cut into present three distinct portions. The cortical
or outer part is of a dull red, moderately compact, and dips by intersections
into the medullary substance ; the cortical mass may be regarded as the rami-
fications of the emulgent arteries, from whence the secreted urinary fluid is
first derived. The second or tubular part is lighter in colour than the last,
and presents radiating fasciculi, which collect into minute cones or fapillce,
and from thence are formed large canals, or infundibula, which, being even-
tually combined into three common outlets, present a central uniform cavity
called the pelvis, whose funnel-like termination forms the ureter. The blood-
vessels of the kidneys are so large as to be supposed to carry one-sixth of
the whole blood of the body to and from these comparatively small organs.
The large trunks of the emulgent arteries (see plate lY) emerge at right

* Although no direct communication can be discovered between these bodies and the
kidneys, yet their mutual connexion is marked by the variations in structure which take
place m different animals, and which are always consentaneous. Thus in the kidney of
the elephant, in which the cortical and medullary substances are distinct, the substances
of the renal capsules are so likewise; but in birds, whose kidneys present an uniform struc--
ture, and want the distinctions of medulla and cortex, the renal capsules do the same The
researches of some continental anatomists shew a remarkable sympathetic connexion be-
tween thcin and the sexual organs.

230 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

angles with the aorta, immediately behind the anterior mesenteric artery ;
by which origin the motion of the blood is rendered slower, for the benefit
of secretion : the left is much shorter than the right, from the inclination of
the aorta to that side ; each trunk penetrating its kidney by two or three
divisions. The emulgent veins arise from the venal terminations of the
artery, and follow the direction of the arteries. The renal capsules are two,
a right and a left, in an opposed situation to the kidneys, exhibiting inter-
nally two substances, from which a yellowish fluid may be pressed out, tlu;
use of which is unknown. The nerves of the kidney are furnished from
the renal plexus, and its lymphatics are seen accompanying the emulgent
veins.

The ureters (n n, plate IV), each of them passing out at the posterior
part of its appropriate kidney, is continued backwards, inclining towards the
bladder and each other ; when, becoming connected with the ligamentum
latum, they travel with it to the upper part of the bladder ; and finally insert
themselves at some distance from each other within that viscus, not far from
its neck, piercing the coats obliquely, and running between them for a short
distance ; thus performing the office of a valve.

The Pelvis,

That part of the abdomen which is included within the ossa innomiiiala
and sacrum is called the pelvic cavity ; the posterior portion of which is not
within the peritoneal cavity, nor are all the pelvic viscera within its investure,
as will be seen.

The Bladder.

This is a membranous and muscular sac of a pyriforra shape under dis-
tention, but firm and globose when empty ; in which state it is wholly within
the cavity of the pelvis, but stretches beyond the pubis when distended, and
may be then felt in the belly*. It will contain several pints of urine, but is
usually stimulated to a more early evacuation. It presents a base, which is
its central portion, and an anterior and posterior apex ; it is surmounted by
the rectum in the horse, and the vagina in the mare. The bladder is at-
tached to the parietes of the pelvis by the peritoneum, which forais its liga-
menta lata, by first girthing its upper surface, and then reflecting itself back-
wards, to form a more complete covering to this anterior portion : being supe-
riorly reflected from the bladder over a part of male rectum and female vagina.
The bladder has two perfect tunics, and the peritoneal investure, which it
has been seen furnishes only a half of it. The outer is the muscidar coat,
whose fibres, longitudinal, transverse, and oblique, adapt it for uniform and
complete contraction. The inner side is the villous or mucous coat, from
the vascular surface of which a mucus is secreted, to defend the organ from
the irritation of its contained fluid. At its posterior part the bladder is
pierced by the ureters in the manner stated. The neck of the bladder, which
is certainly surroimded by faint traces of a muscular band, or sphincter, is
afterwards continued under the name of urethra, as will be seen heretifter.

* It will therefore be evident, that there is a portion both of the bladder and rectum
without the peritoneal cavity, which it behoves the veterinarian to be aware of, as, were
it necessary to puncture the bladder, it might be done through the rect\un, without entering
the peritoneal cavity.

SPLANCHNOLOGY— THE UllINARY ORGANS. 231
The arteries of the bladder arise from different branches of the internal
iliacs ; the venal trunks return their blood into the internal iliac veins ; and
the nerves are given from the sacral and abdominal plexi.

The Physiology of the Urinary Organs. .

In consideration of this subject it may be asked, what is the nature of the fluid secreted?
wliat phenomena attend its formation and ejection ? and what practical hints can we de-
rive from the inquiry? Urine may be considered as a separation from the blood of its
superabundant serous diluting portion, operated by the agency of the kidneys ; which or-
"■ans therefore appear somewliat united with the skin, and with the exhalmg bronchial sur-
Bices, in the common ofBce of faecal outlets to the vascular system*. But of these it may
be remarked, tliat the urinai-y excretion is the most compoundedi', holding in suspension,
in addition to its other chemical constituents, a remarkable one, termed iircaX, on the pre-
sence of which, it has been supposed, much of the renal functional purpose depends. Urine
in colour is yellow, of a lighter or deeper tint ; at some times it is transparent, and at
others turbid in the extreme ; in flavour it is more or less saline ; its odour is peculiaiy al-
ways pungent, sometimes offensively so, at .others rather fragrant ; but its compoimded
qualities subject it to early decomposition and separation : its specific gravity is some-
what greater than that of water. Both its quantity and its quality are very variable, and
very much under the influence of circumstances§. The phenomena attending the forma-
tion and ejection of urine are numerous and important: one of the most interesting of
these is the rapidity of its formation after liquid aliments have been received ; and the
vei-y early detection in the urine of other matters taken into the stomach, which long ago
led to a supposition that there must he some more direct communication between the
stomach and kidneys than the routine of circulation. Mr. Brande, Sir Everard Home,
and others, are of that opinion, but the nicest research has failed to detect it||. The regu-

• It has long been a matter of observation, that the kidneys and sliin have a great symiiatlietic
connexion and great uniformity of action ; and that, in a minor degree, the same exists between tlieni
and the lungs also; thus the inhaling of some substances will taint the urine. With the slciu the
connexion is most intimate: in winter, when the perspirable matter thrown off is tiilling, urine is
evacuated in greater quantity. In summer, on tlie contrary, these positions ai-e reversed ; and if the
perspiration be further increased by violent exercise, the urinary flow becomes still furtlier lessened.
Tlie renal secretion has been supposed to act with the skin in regulating the temperature of the body,
by receiving the superabund-int fluid particles, when not required for cutaneous transpiration. We
have an experimental proof that the serum or watery parts of the blood are those taken up, by
examining blood fiom both the emulgent vein and emulgent artery, when tlie venous will be found
distinctly to contain the smallest portion of serum. But that there are other parts intended to be
carried off beside the mere liquid ones, is evident from fowls, wlio have kidneys, liut uo urinary
bladder : therefore in theni the urine is deposited in the intestines, in a saline mass, which forms the
white portion at the last extremity of their fec es.

f According to Fourcroy and Vauquehn, the urine of the horse contains in 1000 parts, carbonate of
lime. 11 parts; ditto- of soda, 9; benzoit of soda, 24; muriate of potash, 9; urea, 7; water and
mucilage, 940. According to Mr. Braude, carbonate of lime, sulphate of soda, muriate of soda,
benzoit of ditto, and phosphate of lime, were found in horse urine, in united quantities, to amount to
one-eighth of the fluid. Mr. Brande could not find that the urine of the ass deposited any carbonate
of lime, nor benzoic acid ; but ttiat it contained a much greater relative proportion of phosphate of liine
and urea. It must however be remarked, that though we believe it to be formed wholly from tlie
blood, it contains many proximate principles in the horse, as well as in man, not to be detected in the
blood ; these new products result from the chemical changes it undergoes in the kidney, and, notwith-
standing this perfect elaboration, we cannot view without wonder its constant and large supply.

t The kidneys cannot be designed as mere supplementary organs to the skin ; the immensity of their
supply of blood, and the pains taken to detain it, shew that they have a distinct functional oflSee ; and
it has been supposed that through their means the system is relieved from its superfluous azote, as the
lungs and liver serve the purpose of getting rid of tlie refuse quantity of carbon. This opinion is very
much strengthened by our knowledge of a newly discovered salt in the urine, called urea. T)v. Prout
informs us that urea is thus composed : hydrogen two atoms, oxygen and carbon one each ; but that
by removing one of the atoms of liydrogen, the urea is convertea inso sugar ; and by adding another
atom of carbon, lithic acid is produced. It must, therefore, be remembered in our cousideration of the
composition of the urine, that urea and lithic acid arc distinct substances, which distinctions are
required as well in our pathological as in our physiological views ; and, yet, that both urea and uric
acid, being the most azotized of all animal substances, it amounts to a conviction that the separa-
tion of the excess of azote from the blood is the most Important of the functional purposes of the
kidneys.

§ Its quantity may be increased at pleasure by giving an inordinate quantity of water after exticmo
thirst; but the flow does not take place In its full degree until the blood has absorbed its due
dilution ; then the staling becomes profuse : it is also increased by the nature of the food, as green
nie.it, mow-burnt hay, &c. Many substances have an effect on its quality likewise : dry meat, as
oats, beans, and bailey, produce a scanty evacuation frequently ; but it is, under these circnmBtances,
invariably of a higher colour, and possesses a more acriil odour. Terebiuthiuated matters of all kimis
incrc.ise it, and as certainly impregnate it with their cHluvium. Mr. Percivall states, that iu tlio balsam
copaiba this property is singularly observed.

11 The experiments of Majendie and others on venous absorption appear likely to account salis-
factorilv for this quick transit. The venous radicles take up every sort of gaseous or liquid iii;iUer

^•^^ THE ANATOMY OF THE HOUSE.

liirity of tlic urinaiy secretion is a notable plienoincna ; it is always going on, as well
when sleeping as when waking : sensible perspiration is occasional only. Its accumulation
in the pelvic cavity of the kidney forces it into the urcthra. wliose contractile power carries
it drop by drop into the bladder, which becoming distended, flattens the ureters more effec-
tually as the pressure of its sides increases. The complete distention of the bladder oc-
casions an instinctive attempt at evacuation, but the act remains under the influence of the
will, and is regulated by habit, the accession of stimuli, and opportunity. It is evident
from the nature of its structure, and its globose massive state when empty, that its con-
traction is constant, yet that the urine escapes only at certain intervals. A continued
flow of it would have been most inconvenient ; nature has, therefore, kindly guarded
against it by a temporary receptacle solely appropriated to that purpose.

The evacuation of the urine is thus correctly described by Mr. Percivall. • The animal
(supposing him to be in action) first stops, and places himself in a certain convenient po-
sition ; he then takes in a deep inspiration, by which the diaphragm thrusts the abdo-
doniinal viscera towards the pelvis, and keeps them pressing upon the bladder ; lastly, still
holding his breath, by the exertion of the abdominal muscles (particularly the transver-
sales) this pressure is greatly increased, and, by the joint contraction of the muscular coat
of the organ itself, is rendered available in its evacuation. It would appear from what we
have learnt by experiment and from pathology, that these powers acting singly are insuf-
ficient to the end : if the bladder be paralysed, all voluntary efforts to discharge the urine
are unavailing, and so are the contractions of the organ itself when the abdominal parietcs
are cut away*. During the continuance of the act the impetus of the stream may be in-
creased at pleasure, or the current may be projected by jerks, as it commonly is towards
the conclusion ; the former is the effect simply of increased abdominal effort, the latter is
ascribable to the superadded action of the aocelerator urinse. But a few drops make their
appearance, or the stream is but small at first, in consequence of the time taken up by the
voluntary powers in overcoming the opposition at the cervix of the bladder ; but, when
once this part is dilated, the urine flows in full stream, and continues to do so without fur-
ther effort, as is seen by the relaxation of the flanks and the recommencement of respira-
tion, the operation being continued by the bladder alone. Towards the end of the act the
stream becomes again diminished, and the last portions of urine are so feebly expelled
from the bladder, that their discharge ii-om the urethra calls forth the contractions of the
accelerator urinae. Through this same muscle also the animal has the power of suddenly
arresting or interrupting the stream during micturition, and of resisting an urgent impulse
to stale ; for it will so effectually compress the urethra, all the way from the bulb to its
termination, tliat no effort the bladder can make can have any effect.'

The practical hints we derive from a consideration of the nature and properties of the
urinary secretion are, that the extreme vascularity and sensibility of the organs are of such
a kind as to render them particularly susceptible of increased action ; and that, although
in man and many quadrupeds we have little power over the secreting property of the kid-
neys, in the horse no medicaments are more certain in their operation than diuretics ; to
which it may be added, that few occasion more disturbance in the system. I have noticed
that less urine is formed in summer than winter, and that when violent perspiration has
robbed the blood of much serous transpiration, then so little urine is sometimes passed,
as to have led t® a supposition that a dangerous obstruction existed, and a horse has in
consequence been injuriously forced with diuretics. It is also to be observed, that, in our
present state of veterinary knowledge, we are not able to obtain manj' pathognomonic hints
irom the various modifications of urine. It is true that, when purulent, we are aware that
ulceration is present in some of the passages ; and when ropy, that mucous abrasion exists
in the same. When the urine is tinged with blood, we attribute it to lesion of the minute
vascular texture of the kidneys ; and that this does not more often happen is more to be
wondered at than that it does occur, when we recollect that these organs are situated im-
mediately within the sphere of action of the psom muscles, whose contractions in a long
journey, or in very powerful • efforts under a heavy weight, either in riding or drawing,
must be continually exposing them to pressure. Our observations on tlie components of

from the diBci cnt parts of the body, and transport it into tlie hiiigs . thus a solution of oaniplior, placed
in any of tliC scions or mucons cavities, may be detected in a few moments after in tlie breath. A
camphorated clyster in live or six minutes taints the breath also with the odonr of camphor ; and the
same, according to this great physiologist, occurs with almost all the odoriferous substances that do
not cnnihine with the blood. Flandrin found in the chyle of the lacteals no odour similar to the liquid
contents of the intestines, but a very mnrked one in their venous blood.

• The experiments of Majeiidie shew a different result : he says, ' I have seen dogs excrete nrinc
Willi their abdomen laid open, and the bladder out of the reach of the abdominal muscles. If we even
detai h, in the male dog, the bladder, the prostate gland, and a small portion of the meinbianoiis
urethra, after some moments the bladder contracts, and projects the urine with a distinct jet, till that
liiiuid is entirely expelled.'

SPLANCHNOLOGY — ^MALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 233
a-uuiue urine will likewise prevent onr wondering timt he is occasionally the sul.ject of
urinirv calculi- and the same observation will prevent surprise that diabetes is now
■Mid then a visitor among horse maladies. Dr. Prout has shewn, that if a portion of the
hvdro.^en in the urea be removed, the remainder is converted into sugar; and how many
opporU.nities the various changes brought about by an artificial treatment of our horses
have of abstracting hydrogen from the fluid, we need not hei;e press. Finally, it ought
„ot to escape our observation, that many active substances taken mto the stomach, and
received into tlie circulation, e.«rt none of their sensible properties until separated within
the kidneys; thus cantharides, either rubbed on the skin or taken mto the stomach, fai
to inflame the bloodvessels ; but, arrived in the kidneys, recover their active qualities, and
i.roduce violent elFects. Diuretics, generally, appear to act by a specific property ol sti-
mulating these organs, though inert to the intermediate route they traverse.

The Male Organs of Generation.

The genital parts of the horse are most of them external ; on the con-
trary, in the mare, they are principally internal ; but in both they are con-
nected with the urinary organs, by which one part is made to answer two
purposes. — The scrotum, purse, or bag, containing- the testicles, is formed
from the integuments of the abdomen : outwardly it is smooth, thin, and
scantily supplied with hairs ; internally, it is lined by cellular substance, and
by a fibrous layer, called clartos*, which forms a distinct capsule for each
testicle; and by an application of their capsular sides to each other, a septum
is supplied which completely divides the scrotal cavities.

The testicles, which occupy the scrotal pouch, are two ovoid glandular
bodies-j-, that, in most animals, are first formed within the abdomen, and in
some quadrupeds, and in all birds, always remain there. In the foetal colt
they are lodged within the belly, immediately behind the kidneys, and in
some cases are retained there till some time after birth ; in others a tempo-
rary descent follows birth almost immediately. The coverings of the testi-
cle are, first, a partial one from the cremaster muscle, which, according to
Girard, arises by joint fibres from the ileo-abdominalis and lumbo-abdomi-
nalis muscles, continued with the spermatic cord till it reach the testicles,
when its aponeurotic digitations become merely aponeurotic, and inserts itself
into the tunica vaginalis (vide h, plate IV) J. The tunica albuginea is the
first true testicular coat, and closely invests the body of each, being the por-
tion of the peritoneum that surrounded the testicle in its first situation within
the abdomen. It is white, firm, and externally smooth. The tunica vagi-

* The dartos I used to consider as muscular ; but as regards the horse, whose scrotum
is never observed to corrugate, I am now disposed to doubt ; and am more inclined to
think it, with Girard, as an elastic suspensory ligamentous expansion, of the nature of the
cervical ligament.

t In very large horses, each testicle is considerably larger than a duck-egg, but is, ne-
vertheless, smaller than the testicle of a bull. Girard remarks of them, ' La gauehe est
communement un peu gros et plus pendant;' which is substantially true : and he might
have added, that the large curvature of the left is usually somewhat more posterior than
the right ; at least so I have remarked it.

X The cremaster is an additamentary part rather than a tunic ; but it is a very useful
one, greatly strengthening the general mass ; and how powerfully it acts as a contractor,
whoever has grasped a testicle in the operation of castration can bear witness. An equally
striking one is the temporary taking up of the testicles within, the outer ring, which occurs
between the sixth and tenth months. This muscle, like every other, is liable to fatigue :
the pendulous state of the testicles in the debile horse, either from inanition or fatigue,
shews this. The running horse, by the extremity of his muscular exertions, has the tes-
ticles barred up to his belly immediately after a long race ; but the stimulus over, the cre-
master loses its power, and the testicles appear like those of a stallion debilitated by recent
or too frequent coverings. In protracted illness this flabby' state of the scrotum and pros-
tration of the testicles must be familiar to every practitioner.

234 THE ANATOMY OF THE HOUSE.

nalis is the second tunic, and is the loose, sheath-like covering seen cut open
in plate IV ; within its cavity a portion of serous fluid is found, the morbid
increase of which becomes hydrocele, a disease uncommon in the horse*.
Internally, the testicle is formed of a congeries of minute tubes, within which
the spermatic secretion is formed ; these tubuli produce ductiform bodies,
from the union of which arise the vasa efferentia, whose numerous convolu-
tions form the eji;«rfic??/TOW or appendicular part, seen traversing the upper
border of each testicle, as shewn at plate IV, where also, its final termination
in the secretory duct, the vas deferens may be observed. Beside the sper-
matic secreting arteries, the cord receives a branch of supply derived from
the iliac ; the veins, numerous and tortuous, empty themselves hi the -cava ;
and nervous influence is derived from small twigs given by the hypogastric
plexus. The absorbents of the testicles are large, and may be readily traced,
accompanying the cord.

The vasa deferentia, or spermatic excretory ducts, at first take an indepen-
dent course, in numerous convolutions, as seen in the display of the i*ight tes-
ticle in plate IV; at length each joins the spennatic cord, and proceeding
with it into the pelvis, by means of the abdominal rings (yet to be explained),
it takes an upward and backward course, increasing in its volume, and finally
gains the lateral and superior surface of the bladder, to terminate near the
verumontanum in the urethra, either alongside or within the opening of the
seminal vesicle. The vesiculce seminales are situated one on each side of
the neck of the bladder, immediately behind and contiguous to the vas de-
ferens : these membranous sacs, which contain a mucous secretion, have large
excretory ducts, that terminate also in the urethra by orifices just noticed.
The prostate glands are described by Girard and Mr. Percivall as one large
and two smaller glandular bodies : other comparative anatomists quote, some
two, some three, and others four prostatae, so indeterminate are their ap-
pearancesf . I believe it will be usually found, that the great prostate of
Girard might be more correctly described as two bodies (seef,f, plate IV),
having an intermediate dorsal portion. The lesser prostates, or Cowper's
glands (see g, g), are two smaller glandular bodies, less elongated, of the
size and shape of a chestnut, situated near the last described, lying upon the
branches of the ischium. The former are cellular; these are more regularly
cavernous, and both furnish a mucus, whose numerous outlets are seen near
the verumontanum of the urethra. There is no doubt whatever that the ve-
sicles and prostates are assistants to the seminal fluid, but in what degree
or by what manner is not known.

* Those in the hahit of castrating will occasionally meet with adhesions, which, having
formed between these two coats, render it necessary to dissect it out I mention this, that
the junior practitioner may be on the alert in case of a testicle not readily sliding out of
its sac, and avoid shewing an embarrassment unfavourable to his reputation.

f In two subjects I particularly dissected for graphic illustration of the generative or-
gans there were evidently four distinct prostatic masses encircling the portion between
the neck of the bladder and bulb of the urethra; but it is to be remarked, that anomalies
are as common here as in man, who is sometimes with and sometimes wthout Cowper's
glands. French anatomists *cscribe also a third accessory vesicle as not unusual in the
horse ; but in the aquine prostatas, combinations and modifications are even more com-
mon. As regards these, I beg to remark that their situation is not so strictly lateral in
most subjects as represented by the figure, but have rather more of a dorsal aspect.

SPLANCHNOLOGY — TIIK PENIS.

235

The Penis.

The penis, or yard, is a firm body, nearly two feet in length, somewhat
prismatic posteriorly, and cylindrical towards its anterior extremity. The
sheath, which incloses it from view in its ordinary state, is formed of the
common integ-uments, continued loose from the scrotum to the umbilicus, and
united in this course by a raphe; forming altogether a very extended envelope,
which is reflectedand carried inward with the retracted penis. The pendulous
outer fold of sheath owes it bulk to a firm ring-like ligamentous substance
within, useful in keeping the orifice open and firm : from this the reflected
integuments become thinner and more vascular, and are again reflected so as to
encircle the glans penis, and form its j^repuce. Such is the situation of the
parts when the penis is retracted ; but when erect, it will be found that the
ring of the glans forms the termination of the external part of the sheath,
and that the integuments are stretched from it in a true continuation over
the whole extent of that part which appears without its vulva, being firmly at-
tached to the extremity, or head, but loosely only to the rest of the parts :
when the penis again contracts, and enters the sheath, it draws this portion
or prepuce with it, within which is seen a moist secretion that keeps these
parts from adhering. The body of the yard is composed of two cavernous
flatted poi'tions closely connected, and a canal admitted within an inferior
groove.

The urethra is this canal, which is continued through the body of the penis
from the neck of the bladder, from whence, to its quitting the pelvis, it is
principally membranous, the spongy bulb being inconsiderable. As it passes
round the pubis, from behind forward, over the angle formed by the junction
of these bones, it becomes enlarged and muscular also. In taking this course,
it is evident that the angle made by it must be very acute, and tend to in-
crease our difficulty of entering the bladder*. Arrived at the ischial arch,
the canal is bound firmly to the pubic bones, and here it commences it cha-
racter of penis by receiving the copora cavernosa. The bulb of the urethra
is a spongy inconsiderable portion compared with the human corpus spon-
giorum ; and may be distinguished by its prominence in the canal, extending
from the vicinity of the prostates to some way beyond the curvature. The
internal surface of the urethra is highly sensible and vascular, and, besides
being pierced by the several semiferous ducts, it presents numerous mucous
orifices or lacunae : thus formed, this important tube at length terminates
in a fossa in the centre of the glans penis by -a projection of its inner mem-
brane.

The corpora cavernosa are two cavernous bodies originating separately
by the two crura from the tuberosities of the ischium : their union together
takes place near the symphysis pubis, and leaves an inferior groove for the
lodgement of the urethra. They are externally covered by a very strong
membrane ; internally, they are cavernous, exhibiting a mixture of muscular

• In the human subject, although the urethra makes an equally sharp turn around the
inferior part of the pubis, yet as in him the penis is unconfined, so a sound, or catheter,
can be introduced into the blsidder : but in the horse, from the close attachment of the
penis to the belly, we can only introduce an instrument as far as the periniEum ; and to
carry it into the bladder, we must make an external oi)ening in that i)art on the introduced
instrument, and by that opening re-introduce it within the canal, at which part the spongy
substance of the bulb is not considerable, nor is it surrounded by any of the more import-
ant glandular substances.

236 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

fibre with a compact cellular substance : their cells are always furnished
with blood, bat when the penis is erect they then become fully distended ;
in fact, their cells, as may be readily seen in a dried preparation, are a true
continuation of the veins. These cavernous bodies terminate some inches
before the extremity of the penis by a tubercle, which is received into a cor-
responding depression in the glans.

The glans penis appears a distinct part, and is not formed, as in the
human, of an expansion of the spongy portion of the urethra ; it is also cy-
lindrical, and extends some inches up the yard. It is connected to the cor-
pora cavernosa by a strong cellular connexion, and by a continuation of the
ligamentary integuments of the yard, receiving the rounded end of the ca-
vernous parts into an appropriate depression. Its internal substance is very
spongy and cellular, so as to admit of equal expansion with the other parts
of this body, and ends in a kind of ring around its verge, which is larger
and more prominent above than below. This anterior surface of the glans
presents a considerable depression, or fossa, with a central eminence, formed
from the termination of the inner membrane of the urethra, which divides
the fossa into an anterior and posterior division, within which there is usually
a quantity of sebaceous matter ; the whole surface of the prepuce being fur-
nished with it from glandular orifices. The muscles of the penis are, the
erectors, the accelerator, and triangular. The erectors arise from the tube-
rosity of the ischium, embrace the roots of the cavernous body, are in-
serted into its lateral pai'ts ; and it follows that by their conti*action they
apply the penis to the belly, and consequently are of great use in copulation
or covering : their power must also be very considerable to counteract the
weight of the yard. The accelerator is a fleshy expansion extending over
the bulb, and over nearly the whole length of the urethra, by which both
the urine and semen are ejected from the urethra, and the canal kept closed
when it is not passing one or other of these fluids. The triangular is a
similar expansion, but spreads farther back, assisting the accelerator, and
acting on the prostates or Cowper's glands, so called, one known as the
great prostate, and two others smaller. Both the arteries and veins of the
penis are furnished from the pudendals ; the veins particularly form a com-
plete net-work over its dorsum. The nerves of the penis and its sheath
originate from the lumbar and sacral. We had almost omitted to have
mentioned the two small teat-like papillae, in some sort forming a commu-
nicating line of structui-al connexion between the horse and the'mare, which
are seen, to use Mr. PercivaJl's descriptive language, near the borders of
reflexion of the sides of the sheath. Internally they assimilate in structure
with the dugs of the mare, being, like them, imperforate ; thus connecting
the general features of both parents.

Female Organs of Generation.

The only female genital parts which deserve to be called external are the
labia and their commissures ; but it is usual to add also the clitoris and
meatus urinarius, which are absorbed within the great fissure ; the mammae,
though necessary to the grand end, not being essential to the immediate re-
productive process. The vulva, or sheath of the pudendal parts, is a long
oval opening divided from the anus by a small space or perinceum : its two
labia, closely applied to each other, are united above and below by their

SPLANCHNOLOGY— FEMALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 237

co7nmissures : tlic inferior of these is thick and rounded, and is indented by
the navicular or scaphoid fossa*. The tumid substance of the labia is made
up of adipose and cellular membrane, intermixed with a strata of muscular
fibres or sphincter vagince, which, in copulation, embraces the penis, and at
other times supports and closes these lips. The vulva does not appear to
terminate with the labia, but is continued, by an extension of their substance,
for five or six inches ; which part of the canal M. Girard designates as the
bulbes vaginais, and Mr. Percivall as the corpora cavernosa vagmce.

The clitoris.— inferior commissure, being separated, is found to lodge
a body like an imperforate glansf, which, like the male penis, has two ca-
vernous bodies attached to the ischium, internally cellular, and externally
strong and elastic ; it has also an expansion of muscular fibres, or erectors,
which perfoi-m a similar office with those muscles in the male — The mea-
tus urinarius, or entrance to the urethra, is situated beyond the clitoris,
nearly four inches from the entrance of the vulvaj . The female urethra is
short, but large, and direct in its course : it is principally membranous, with
an internal vascular surface furnished with lacunae similar to the male.

The vagina is a long canal, capable of great extension, about ten or
twelve inches long§. Its direction is nearly horizontal, and is situated be-
tween the bladder and rectum ; by its external orifice uniting with the vulva,
and by its internal terminating in the neck of the uterus. It is composed
of a spongy cellular substance interwoven with numerous bloodvessels ; it
has likewise a considerable muscular fabric, and is lined by a fine vascular
secreting membrane, which is thrown into numerous folds, whereby its ca-
pacity for distention is much increased. The vagina, uterus, and bladder,
are only in part covered with peritoneum, and the extent of this covering is
easily seen in the dead subject ; for it takes in as much of these parts as can
be observed within the cavity of the abdomen. The female bladder, there-
fore, though it might be punctured like that of the male without penetrating
the abdominal cavity, yet it must be through the vagina, and therefore is a
still less ehgible operation in the mare than in the horse.

• Among horsemen, the commissures are remarked on as indications of having had
none, few, or many progeny. After repeated foalings they hecome loose or open ; but
particularly the inferior is seen elongated and somewhat everted, so that a good judge will
at once detect her productive properties.

f The difference between the situations of the human and Eequine clitoris will not
escape the observer ; in the mare it being found at the luider margin of the vaginal canal,
l)ut in women at the upper.

+ Mr. Percivall insists, with great propriety, on the necessity of being well informed
regarding the situalion and direction of the entrance to the female urethra; and observes,
' that the conduit into which it (the meatus) leads is about two inches in length, and its
course dowmvards and forwards.' It may be added to this, that the orifice may be distin-
guished by its size, which is sufficient to admit a finger; and also by a doubling or fold
of the membranes of the canal, which, although it protrudes a little, yet may be rather said
to fall over the orifice, and which, in passing a sound or catheter, it would be well to
remember must be first elevated for its introduction.

§ Girard, and Mr. Percivall, describe as vagina the whole canal from the labia to
the cervix uteri; and hence give it, with justice, under such consideration, a length of
eighteen inches ; but other French anatomists liave treated of it as having its first por-
tion formed of the vulva, being continued inwards for five or six inches; and the differ-
ence in structure between the anterior and posterior portions of the canal being such
as seems to authorise this distinction. The membranous valvular fold of this part was
mistaken by Mr. Hunter, who thence was used to- assert, that women, mares, and ele-
phants, alone had a hymen. Dr. Gartner also has discovered two canals in the vagina
and uterus in the cow, sow, and some other mammalia, which terminate near the Fallopian
tubes.

THE ANATOMY OF THE HOUSE.
The uterus has a body and two branching portions, called its horns*.
The body is implanted into the vagina by a narrow portion called its neck^
from which it is continued about six or eight inches of the size of a small in-
testine in diameter, having its fundus extended rather beyond the bladder,
and bifurcating into two large cornua, each six or seven inches long, which
float within the cavity of the abdomen, one to the right and the other to the
left, under the anterior part of the iUum, rather without the pelvis, resting
directly upon the large intestines, and behind the convolutions of the small
ones. To prevent any prejudicial removal of these parts from their situation,
the peritoneum, after it has covered the body of the uterus, is reflected over
the horns, and forms the two broad ligamenta lata. Within these are the
Fallopian tubes; each of which presents a small tubular body, attached by
its apex to the extremity of each cornua, while its broad extremity, called
the Jtmbria, like the large part of a trumpet with a fringed edge, floats in
the cavity of the abdomen, slightly attached by one part to the ovaria. The
ovariaf are two oblong oval bodies of the size of an egg, and are situated
at the extremity of the uterine horns, enveloped within a fold of the perito-
flfeum : they are composed of a compact spongy substance, containing a num-
ber of little transparent vesiculae called ova, each of which is surrounded by
cellular substance and coats, the outer of which is represented as belonging
to the ovaria ; for when the vesicle escapes, this remains, and produces an
indentation, and leaves a green spot, which remaining spot is called corpus
lutea — The vessels and nerves of the uterus have been described in the
sections on Angiology and Neurology.

The enquine mammcB. — The bag of the mare, although apparently uni-
form, presents two distinct collections of glands, very conveniently placed,
in an animal destined for quick motion, between the hind legs : each mamma
is made up of an infinity of arterial ramifications, from which the milk is
secreted. The teat or nipple (of which there are two) receives the milk
by several tubes, which have separate expellent orifices, with valves placed
superiorly over each, by which the fluid, in ordinary cases, is prevented from
flowing out ; but the nipple being elevated, the valve opens and permits its
descent : thus the colt is seen to push up the teat with its nose ; pigs and
puppies with their feet ; and a similar action is made use of in milking of
cows. The milk in difi'erent animals has different component parts, and
varies in taste ; but in each it has those best adapted to the animal it is in-
tended to nourish. — See Hygrology.

* In few internal organs is greater diversity of character observable than in the uterus,
and it is remarkable that the most simple kind belongs to the Imman. From man the
complexity increases in various degrees, but still not in a ratio with the importauce of the
animal, or his general complexity of structure. In the dog, hedgehog, and the larger
herl)ivora, the uterus bicornis is found : in a third kind we find a double uterus, where the
cornua, instead of opening into a common cavity,, enlarge into two distinct uteri: such is
the case with hares and rabbits.

•(• It was formerly very common to call these female testicles ; and although their struc-
ture is more simple, yet their apparent connexion is strengthened by the circumstance,
that they are found in the females of all animals where testicles are found in tlie males,
and serve to keep up that structural similarity that is found between the male and female
organization.

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS.

239

SECT. XVI.

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM GENERALLY.

Nothing in the animal economy is a greater subject of admiration than that
reproductive process -vvhereby a new being arises from certain acts of the old.
In the lower orders of^'animals, the production of young appears but a simple
effort; but in the higliey orders, it comprehends a series of acts much more in-
tricate and obscure. Iii quadrupeds there is a true sexual distinction and divi-
sion of generating organs ; the work of propagation is mutual, and it becomes ne-
cessary for the liiale semen to render the female ova prolific, either by direct
contact or by a sympathy which we cannot explain.

Of cestrum, or heat. — That the great work of propagation might not be left to
chance, all animals are irresistibly impelled to it by the sensation of lust, called,
in quadrupeds, heat. This impulse is happily delayed until the animal organiza-
tion is nearly complete, otherwise we should have parents imperfectly developed,
and progeny without stamina ; and, as long as it remains sufficiently entire for
the rearing of young, so long they are subject to a periodical return of it*. The
appetency of the mare is vulgarly called hoi-sing, and is known by vascular changes
in the generative organs, and by some nei-vous excitement in the system gene-
rally : the vulva swells, and is highly reddened ; staling is excited more frequently,
and is followed by the ejection of a whitish mucous matter from the vagina, in
stable language called the heats : sometimes it is slightly bloodyf. The usual
period of the heat of the mare is between April and July ; it occasionally appears
in the former month, but in healthy subjects is seldom protracted until the latter.
It is sometimes very trifling in the case of aged, hard-worked, or emaciated
mares ; and, by some constitutional anomaly, it often continues the whole sum-
mer, particularly in barren mares, who wiU, some of them, admit the horse when-
ever put to them. Where this exists to such a degree as to weaken the animal
or to render her disgusting, the removal of the ovaria might be attempted with
hopes of success.

The male appetency is constant, but not uniform : low feeding, cold weather,
and absence from the effluvia of mares, greatly mitigates it ; but during the sea-
son of female oestrum it rages with uncontrolled force. The irritability of the
stallion at this time is well known, and his impatience of restraint bespeaks the
ungovernable nature of his desires: even the sluggish and otherwise insensible ass

• This perioaical return of oestrum appears a settled plan in tlie economy of nature, that the offspring
might be brought forth under the most favourable circumstances to their well being. In the grazing
tribes it occurs so that their progeny appear in tlie spring, when herbage is plenty, the temperature
genial, an'l when time may be allowed for them to gain strength to bear up against the rigours of ap-
proaching winter. In tlie larger orders of herbivorous animals, the production of young is to this end
limited to an annual supply, that their numbers might not starve themselves, and the arts of man there-
fore cannot increase it : bnt nevertheless the powerful agencies of cultivation and artificial habits have
materially altered many of the phenomena attending their reproductive process : and as shelter and
nurture arc found for them at all times of the year, so the periods of their oestrum or heat return at un-
certain intervals, as confinement or highly stimulating food may hasten the sexual excitement: thus
colts and calves are seen at Christmas, and lambs long before, hi tlie lesser tribes we have, by finding
the means of their support, altogether diverted Nature out of her conrse, and the domesticated dog will
breed three or even four times in two years, while the wild dog and his congenors,in a state of nature,
produce generally but once a year. The cultivated hog farrows in a few months from her former litter-
ing, while tlie wild hog brings forth progeny hut once in twelve months. In the human subject, sexual
desire is providentially constant, that the stimulus to a continuance of the species might not be arbitra-
rily impeded ; bnt it is never violent, that it might be under the restraints of reason and decency ; had it
returned at stated periods, as in brutes, it would have been troublesome and irrestrainable. Man, by
his intelligence and omnivorous habits, can always supply his progeny, and therefore they are brought
forth at all seasons.

■i If a mare be accidentally destroyed during lier oestrum, it will be found that this vascular state of
the organs extends to the uterus, its cornua, and to the Fallopian tubes. These signs of concurrent
aptitude for fecundation throughout the organs have led to a pr.actice of stimulating-, by nrtificial
means, the outer organs to induce the fecundating aptitude of those within. Infusions of cantliarides,
&c. have been thrown up the vagina, or have been given by the mouth, irr cases where the oestrum
has been delayed, or where it has been desirable to produce an early foaling ; which, in breeding for
the turf, is a desideratum sometimes: and as success has occasionally attended the attempt, it has
been too often practised. It is, however, unnatural, seldom succeeds, and has proved very injurious,
and sometimes fatal. The best stimulant is liberal feeding, warmth, and moderate exercise only.

240 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS.

will swim wide rivers, leap hedges, and go through fire, to prosecute his amours.
These effects are, without doubt, produced by the absorption of the semen into
the blood, where, in the course of circulation, it produces its peculiar influence on
the sensorium, and from thence to the sexual organs. The generative functions
of the horse, therefore, consist in elaborating a. fecundating fluid, the semen*; and
also an apparatus, by which this fluid can be placed within the female parts des-
tined for the purpose. The generative functions of the mare impose on her the
necessity of receiving within a fecund matrix the male semen, there to be nourished
and evolved after the likeness of the parents.

Copulation is the immediate act by which the generative functions arc mutually
accomplished. By a peculiar sympathy present in the male system, the cavern-
ous substance of the penis becomes distended with blood poured in from the pudic
arteries, and retained there by a spasmodic constriction of the venous system,
aided probably by mechanical pressure against the bones of the pubes. In this
state it enters the vagina ; the testicles, drawn up by the cremasters, the accele-
ratores urinae, and levatores ani, are alike spasmodically and sjTnpathetically con-
vulsed, and an ejaculation of semen follows. The mare is also affected by a ve-
nereal orgasm, but of less manifest intensity : and although her frame is agitated,
her actions are rather passive than active ; and it is, perhaps, to stimulate her
into increased energy, that he is seen to seize her by the neck with his teeth,
while he powerfully embraces her by the approximation of his fore extremities ;
in doing which he retains not only a more firm hold, but probably also further
stimulates her by means of the semicorneous substances within the arms, called
by the French the chestnuts (chdtaigne), and which, if I am not mistaken, is the
principal piu-pose of these hitherto ill-understood partsf .

• The semen is a fluid we know to be comiiomidcd of the secretions of the testicles and the mucus of
the prostates; it also probably receives something from tlie vesicles, unless it be concluded that the
sole use of those organs is to furnish a reservoir for the semen : to whicli belief there is the difficulty of
accounting for its retrograde admission ; as, on the other hand, it has been observed that, wlttuiut
some such stoiehouse, the extensive su pply demanded for copulations so often and so quickly repeated
could not be obtained. Of aninialcula; found in the semen, which are equally present in the horse as
that of man, and where, consequently, equiniculi have as much right to he looked for as honuinculi,
I will only observe, that every fluid of the body may be found to be a nidus for parasitic life, if glasses
of sufficient power be used. The semen of the horse is scmi-opaqne, of a very slightly yellow tinge, and
peculiar odour: it may also be added, that whatever admixture it may receive from the accessory or-
gans is not essential to its vivifying qualities generally, seeing that in several quadrupeds they are
altogether wanting, particularly the vesicula; seminales : the prosfatce arc much less seldom absent.

•f I have been but lately only led into a conviction that the functional purpose of this organ (here-
tofore deemed altogether useless) is manifestly that of a prehensile nature, and probably something of
a stimulaling medium also That it is prehensile no one will doubt, if they obseive it when uncut
(long and horny as it then is), indented into tlie parietes of the thorax of a mare, by the amorous pres-
sure of a stallion in the copulative act. The analogies between these horny ]iroc.esses and other organs
notoriously intended for this purpose, arc such as to render it a matter of wonder that their true use
lias hitherto remained unnoticed. I may cite, as striking parallels, the pedal tubercle which appears
annually on what is called the thumb of the frog, during the breeding season, and disappears when it
is over : hy these, it is notorious this salacious animal continues irremoveably applied to the body of
bis 11. ate for many hours. Another analogical instance exists in the spur on the hinder legs of the male
ornithoryncbus; by which the natives observe he attaches hiuiaelf and retains his hold of the female
during his sexual intercourse. It remained for British anatomists to demonstrate the further claim of
this organ to unite, in a particular degree, the stimulating with the prehensile character. Types of
these organs of adhesion are to be met with in other mammalia, whose purpose is well known to be of
this nature: nor are they wanting in fishes and inserts, but in such only as perform the fecund,ating
process by a penis intrans. Armed with these analogies, if any candid person will take the trouble to
observe the leap of a stallion, and to note, at this time, the close appli. ation of these protuberances to
the post-«-cfipulary hollows of the mare, and particularly in those few cases where they may be found
of their natural growth ; if he will afterwards mark the impressions left by them, he will admit, not
onlvthat they are well calculated to afford an additional hold on an animal whose fine hair, directed
iiackwards, must offer a very slippery medium for contact, without some extra adherent points, but
that the extent of this pressure must act, in some measure, as a stimtilu.t also. On the subject
of extra stimuli offered in the person of the male to heighten the female energies during the copulative
proc««s, there are abundant proofs throughout nature that such exist, either in organs expressly
formed tor the purpose, or in the temporary use of organs adapted to other functions. It is a remark-
able fact, that hoth pleasure and pain are employed as sexual stimuli in some animals ; the proportion
of the latter might even be supposed to preponderate over the former : in some, as in the common cat,
whose cries, from the scaly spines of the male glans and the bony jiortion of the urethra, are proofs of
her sufferings : this hone in the penis of the dog is even more considerable, and its intrusion within the
female urethra is rendered even more irksome by other structural |>ecnliarities intended to prolong the
copulative act. The stallion seizes ihc mare by the neck, and often bites her with fury, to rouse her
into extra action ; and it the ring- like verge of his penis be not cartilaginous, like that of some animals,
yet, when fully disleu<led, it must act very forcibly on the sensilile vascular surface of the female va-
gina. It is, therefore, not forcing aimlogv too far to consider that the semii'orneons chestnuts of the
liorsc, when indented into the sensible sides of the mare, act as a stimul.iting as well as a prehensile

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS.

241

The copulative act is one of much more animal expenditure to the male than
to the female, which is proved by the consequences of a too frequent repetition
of it in him*. In the mare, although her oestrum is sufficiently evident, yet her
conduct in copulation is attended with less expenditure of system, and is also
marked with less salacity ; and it is this which gives rise to those varied modes
in use among male animals, already hinted at, to rouse the females into increased
actionf.

Conception and pregnancy. — Conception follows a fruitful covering, and the
majority of mares require but one copulation for the purpose ; in which case the
heats, as they are termed, cease, and the animal will afterwards refuse the horse.
As the symptomatic appearances of heat recur at intervals of eight or nine days,
it is therefore usual at that pei-iod to make the experiment. In a physiological
point of view, impregnation is brought about by means of the action of the semen
on the ovum or germ ; but whether the effect is produced by achial contact or by
sympathetic influence, the most arduous investigations have not yet fully informed
us ; although the balance is, by direct experiment, very much in favour of the
actual transmission of the impregnating fluid through the uterus and oviducts to
the ovarium ; which is rendered more probable by the circumstance that the ova
of the multiparous animals never reach the uterus, but are retained in the cornua§.

spur on the occasion. In this view of the matter, novel as it is, I am prepared to meet with much dif-
ference of opinion, and expect to find it urged, that, as these organs exist as well in the mare as the
horse, and as well in the hinder as in the fore extremities, they cannot he intended for such functional
purposes. To the validity of such objections, I would call the attention of the candid opponent to the
existence of nipples also in the horse, where their only intention can be to aid in that harmony and uni-
formity observed throughout Nature's worlfs ; particularly in making the organization of one sex so
strikingly a type of the other. I would also equally urge, that Nature's obvious intent to render the
anterior and posterior extremities of all true quadrupeds as similar as the nature of their progiessiou
will allow, sufficiently accounts for the presence of the chestnuts on the hinder legs. The spur of the
domestic cock, situated as it is on the metatarsal bone, is supposed by some to have, besides its
powers as an organ of defence, an especial sympathetic influence over the genital organs. See Blu-
menbach on this subject.

• This consideration is apt to give way to cupidity among the great breeders of horses, who allow
their stallions to cover until they are emaciated and lose their condition ; by which their procreative
powers are injured, or tlieir progeny do not inherit the true qualities of the sire. It may be regarded
as a rule, that as soon as the crest of the stallion ceases to maintain its firmness and elevation and
his coat falls off irregularly, he is too often employed in this way for his powers. It is much better to
attend to these premonitory symptoms than to fix any daily number of mares : for, like ourselves one
horse excels in one quality, and another in a different one. Brabram covered fifty-three mares in the
same season that he won several plates: such united exertions in training, running, and leapinif
would have ruined many other horses. Previously to the covering season, stallions should be regularly
prepared by exercise, mild physic, and nutritive food : but by no means remove a stallion at once from
meagre food to plenitude and excitement, or inflammatory diseases, and eruptive ones, may follow
Farcy and glanders have succeeded these neglects in caution, nor are ruptured diaphragms and blood-
vessels without precedents from such causes.

+ To prevent the irritation arising from frustrated desires of valuable stallions, when brood mares are
suspected of being shy in receivingthe horse, it is common to try them with a stallion of inferior worth
to rouse their dormant passions. It is also prudent on another account, the skittishness of some mares
making it dangerous to bring a horse of great value within their reach : in such cases it is better
either to hopple the mare, or otherwise to place a bar to remain between her and the horse The leav
completed, the mare usually ejects the superfluous seminal secretion, mixed with some of her own
which has occasioned attempts of various kinds to restrain it, all of which I believe to be totally use^
less: for the work of impregnation is, without doubt, a momentary one, and occasioned by a »mall
portion only of semen, which finds its way to the ovaria; the remainder is altogether useless and the
attempts to confine it within the womb, where alone it could be useful, by tying down the' tail, or
wrapping ofwbisps of hay or straw up to the vagina, are alike useless. Some breeders floe their
mares, and others ride them for a considerable distance, both before and alter the act for the same
i;i^'F?.'*y which custom was probably gained from the Arabs, who, Girard informs us, " sont dans
1 liabitude de fatiguer a la course la cavale qui doigt 6tre saillie afin que, restant eu rcpos aprds le coit,
elle puisse etre plus efficacement ffecondec." i . <o ^oii,,

i As a proof that the semen is not ariested within the vagina, but is carried into the uterus and ovarv
Haller informs us he saw semen in the uterus of a sheep : Verheyneus, in a cow ; and Huysch asserts
tbat in the bodies of two women, who were accidentally killed immediately after copulation, he found
semen not only in the u erus, but in the Fallopian tubes. Mr. Hunter savv it likewise in thi uterus of
a bitch who was killed immediately after copulation by puncturing the spinal marrow. See also
some interesting experimentj in reference to this subject, by Dr. Haighton, Phil. Trans. 1797 n 169 •
and by Mr. Cruickshanks <A p. 197. Other eminent physiologisti, however, are of opinion that
impregnation IS not the effect of immediate contact, but of a subtle exhalation from it, termed aura
temtnahs. M. Mondat, of Turin, asserts, that in eighteen out of twenty trials, in which he intro-
duced the semen of a dog, by means of a tube, into the vagina of bitches in beat, impregnation fol-
owed, and these experiments he prosecuted in the presence of two other physiologists. What is moro
to our present purpose, he asserts that the same results followed on two mares. These however
cannot be termed decisive experiments, seeing it was equally possible that the uterus might receive
the substance of the semen by absorption ; indeed, it has been the opinion of some, that impieL'nation
13 always the consequence of venous absorption of semen from the uterus, which thus acts on the

242

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

In a prolific copulation one of the turgid ovarial vesicles bursts its outer coat,
which, as already noticed, it leaves as the corpus lutea Is received within one of
the Fallopian tubes, and conveyed by it into the uterus*, to which it is sometime

ovai ia through the medium of the circulation ; and, as observed by Majendie, if this could be proved
we might impregnate females by injecting semen into the veins ; it would, at least, be very convenient
among horses I I

• If a vesicle under the influence of the semen should csc&pc the fimbriated extremity of the tube,
and, falling into tlic cavity of the abdomen, the ovum should be nourished there, it is called an extra-
uterine fcEtus, and it is evident that the abdominal cavity must be opened to deliver it : but such
instances in quadrupeds are extremely rare ; in the human they are more frequently met with. There
have been instances likewise of an impregnated ovum remaining in the ovaria and tubes, and yet
coming to maturity. If two vesicles be impregnated, twins arc the consequence; as the forcing of
one impregnated vesicle within another will probably account for monstrosities of double bodies, and
of our meetiug with hair, bones, teeth, &c., within the various organs of the male as well as the
female body: these anomalies, however, admit of other solutions, as we shall presently see. The
imprinting the sexual stamp on the ovum or egg-state of the progeny, — to whose influence is it to be
attributed, the niale or female? It is a subject of very great importance to the agriculturist and
sportsman; some have supposed it principally dependent on the male, and others on the female.
Some physiologists (among whom may be reckoned Sir Everard Home) have been of opinion that the
ovum or germ, previous to impregnation, is of no sex, but is so formed as to be equally fitted to
become a male or female ; and that it is the process of impregnation which marks the sex, and forms
either male or female generative organs. Sir E. Home, in the Phil. Trans.- vol. Ixxxix, p. l/o, in-
forms us, that until the fourth month the sex cannot be said to be confirmed ; but that the parts pre-
vious to that are so blended, that either the one or the other may be formed therefrom, as a tendency
towards the paternal or maternal type may preponderate. In this way it would not be difficult to
account for the disposition which some stallions, some bulls, and some dogs, have to beget a greater
number of males than females, and vicn verxd. The same is observed in the human. In the Phil.
Trans. 1/8/, p. 344, mention is made of a gentleman who was the youngest of forty sons, all produced
in succession from three different wives, by one father, in Ireland. In the church of King's Langley,
Herts, are the effigies of seven successive daughters born to a man by his first wife, and of seven son's,
the produce of his second wife, in succession. Mr. Knight, a most intelligent naturalist and attentive
observer, is favourable to female aptitude in determining the sex. He says, ' In several species of
domesticated animals (I believe in all) particular females are found to produce a majority of offspring
of the same sex ; and I have proved repeatedly, that, by dividing a herd of thirty cows into three equal
parts, I could calculate on a large majority of females from one part, of males from another, and upon
nearly an equal number of males-and females from the remainder. I frequently endeavoured to change
the habits by changing the male, but without success.' Phil. Trans. 1809, p. 3!)/.— Some experiments
made by E. dc Uuzarcurgues (corresponding member of the Royal Academy of Sciences) in France,
had for their object to determine the capability of arbitrarily producing a larger number of either sex.
His subjects were slieep, and his results went to prove, that;' if the male be very young, there will be
produced more females than males, and vicf^ versd : thus, in order to produce male sheep, a ram of four
or five years old should be used as the parent. It is also supposed to be under this view, of areadiness
in the early state of the ovum to receive any impression, that other of the extraordinary phenomena of
gestation may be explained ; for whenever the impregnation falls short in stamping its full character on
the ovum, not only the secondary parts, as the labia, prcputium, clitoris, penis, and mamnice, which ap-
pear so contrived as to be equally adapted to the organs of the male or female, and, therefore, by some
curious anomaly, may readily be blended, but also that the testicles may be substituted for the ovaria ;
or that neither an ovarium or testicle, but an organ bearing a resemblance to both, maybe formed, and
may either remain in the natural situation of the ovaria, or pass into the situation proper for the tes-
ticles, or the labia pudendi of the female. See an extraordinary case of this related by Mr. Per-
civall in his Lectures, Part 3, p. 1 12. In this way also-hermaphrodites may be formed, of which an
instance in the horse is given in Mr. Sewell's Reports ; and this, it is supposed, will account for the
free-marten among cattle, as well ns why twins arc usually of the same sex, and that, when otherwise,
the female has usually less of the female character, and frequently does not propagate. That the great
work of repioduction is divided belweenthe sexes, we know, but the exact limits of their proportional
influence we shall probably ever remain unacquainted with. Some have supposed that the male
parent is principally concerned in giving the characteristic external form, while the internal organiza-
tion is derived from the mother. With others the male influence is supposed to predominate through-
out and they regard the mother as a mere hotbed, wherein the seed is placed with its full stamp, to be
simply reared ; which opinion, as regards horses, has probably been formed from the too common want
of attention in the selection of the female as a parent : any mare rendered unfit for other service is yet
retained by many of our farmers to produce colts, without reference to form or qualities; and as it is
these who are the principal breeders of common hacks, and common draught horses, the evil is' great.
Fortunately it is not so with the practical breeder of the better kinds, among whom the ratio of future
expectation is even most built on the mare ; and it is a very general opinion among breeders for the
' turf,' th&t it is very seldom indeed that a bad mare produces a good runner, although got by a good
stallion ; but, on the contrary, it is not at all uncommon for a very indifferent horse to produce a good
runner from a bad mare. It must, however, be remembered that this principally relates to the single
property of speed, and therefore must not lead us too far: on the contrary, an attentive examination
of the subject, and a careful collation of facts, will shew that the general characteristic form of the
animal is arbitrarily settled by Nature, but the individualities of character in the separate organs is
usually divided between the parents, in nearly equal proportions. This is exemplified in the breed
which arises from the intermixture of the blood with the cart-horse, where the extreme difference in
form and character is nicely blended, yet the peculiarities of each remain distinguishable. The judi-
cious breeder, therefore, will do well to select both sire and dam with equal care, opposing the defects
of one parent, both mental and bodily, by superior excellence in such immediate pohits of the other.
Occasional anomalies, however, will occur; and the external characters of some breeds are actually
observed to be principally derived from the male, and in others from the female ; but these do not tend
to alter the general similitude observed towards both parents. In the multipaious animals the in-
fluence of one parent evidently preponderates in a part of the progeny, and of the other to another part
of it. Thus it happens that, when a pointer and a setter breed together, it is not unusual to find part
of the whelps almost perfect pointers, and the remainder as nearly true setters. The hybrid mule

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS.

243

after found to be universally adherent, by the following means. A layer of
effused lymph is thrown out over the entire surface of the uterus and its con-^
nexions, forming the whole into one closed cavity : this effusion becoming or-

divides tho sequine and asinine characters; at the same time it must be allowed, that the hinny, or
produce of the stallion and ass, is more allied to the horse than the mule. Nature will not he wholly
driven out of her track, but she may be diverted from it ; and it is one of the highest attributes of
the philosopher to seize on the advantages derived from the one, and avoid the evils resulting from
fruitless attempts to force the other. Domestication and cultivation go hand in hand; for what
domesticate it is our interest to protect and cultivate. By this close intercourse, we learn bow to
correct the qualities of the present breeds, and how to regulate both the organization as well as
qualities of the future races : by this particular breeds are preserved in their original integrity, or are
improved, or new varieties are introduced. In fact, there appear, at first view, hardly any limits to
our powers over the size, form, and qualities of our animals, wbeu subjected to the physical and moral
agencies resulting from judicious domestication, [n some cases, the very base of the machine, which
is the most intractable of parts, submits to our caprice ; and thus we breed wry-legged terriers, to
shoot rabbits to ; and wry-legged Scotch sheep, to prevent their straying. The Herefordshire ox can
be bred to a white face, or a half white face, and the length of the horns of others can be ensured to an
inch. The colour of the game cock is arbitrarily imposed by the handler and feeder: and the expe-
rienced pigeon-fancier can breed to a feather.

The breeding system. — It is evident that these arts would have failed, had not man taken on
himself to regulate the sexual intercourse ; by which the selection of models was in liis power, when,
by a judicious balancing of merits and defects, be became enabled to produce harmony and an ap-
proach to perfection in the forms reared. It has resulted from tliese selections that our racers have
been brought to excel in speed the fleetest of the Arabian breed ; and that stallions have been sold for
one thousand guineas, for the mere purpose of exporting to India. In the ruminants, cultivation has
been equally successful, and judicious breeders have sold bulls for three hundred guineas and rams for
half as much. It is the same with our dogs, among which greyhounds have been let out to ward
bitches at five and I believe even ten guineas each female. In this consideration, it should not be lost
sight of that the mental qualities, as well as the personal, are proved to admit of cultivation and of
being handed down in the breed: many qualities may be considered as dependent on the organization,
such are hardihood, particular excellence in one pace, &c. and which, it priori, it would he expected
might be perpetuated; and we are not surprised at a son of Eclipse or Match'em bavine speed in his
gallop, or the produce of a Norfolk trotter excelling in that pace ; but it has not been'taken into the
account that temper, courage, docihty, and patience under restraint, are equally handed down in here-
ditary descent, as the peculiarities of form. We have said Nature may be diverted but not wholly
driven out of her course: the former have been seized on to enable us to beget and to propagate ex-
cellencies ; but with this advantage, we are constrained to own that we have propagated defects also,
which circumstance it requires the breeder to bear in mind ; for it is now well known to the observant'
that very many of the diseases incident t« the horse are hereditary ; and that, if the actual ailment be'
not immediately born with them, the predisposition is ; and it only requires an exciting cause to call
pome of them into action. Blindness from ophthalmia is thus transmitted : founder, bony exostoses
in the shape of splents and spavins, and broken wind, are popular names for morbid affections that
are frequently observed to be heir-looms to some breeds.

Purity of blood. — A very long-continued and rigorous confinement of the sexual intercourse, or
as it may be familiarly expressed, of breeding from particular races or families only, begets what is'
popularly known by the term purity of blood. A blood-horse is one derived from the Eastern races,
where the accounts we meet with of the primogenitor tracings exceed Cadwallader's genealogical
tree ; and experience has proved to our own breeders, that this perpetuation of particular races or
families, in every kind of domestic animals, tends to keep up the desired qualities in each. But in
none is it watched over with such jealous care as in the horse, and particularly in that variety termed
the race-horse. The pedigree of many of our present racers can be satisfactorily traced back for one
hundred and fifty ye.irs, and many so recorded have never received one impure admixture ; to which
close confinement of the reproductive system is attributed the continuance of their astonishiii'g powers •
and although philosophy may shrink from the doctrine of specific organization and interminable quali-
ties, as so confined, yet we must bend to the weight of experience and the force of a long series of
facts, which have proved that such organization and such qualities can only be continued by confinine
the descent in the same immediate line. *

The in-and-in system of breeding, popularly so called, is that which is conducted by choosina-
parents from the nearest afflnities, and which, from an opinion that nature has placed both physical
and mor.al impediments in the way of it, is with many deemed an ineligible practice. The i esult of mv
observations, as detailed in my • Canine Pathology,' has been to convince me that mostof the evils re-
sulting from the tn-and-in system are imaginary. Our earliest races must necessarily have sprunff
from consanguineous intercourse, and must, for many generations, have been so kept up ■ it is there-
fore, most unphilosophic to suppose that Nature would have made her first essays in animal character
generally cin a principle tending to the deterioration of her noblest works. This view applies eniiallv
to man and beast; but if we descend in the scale, and examine the brute creation only, we shall find
reason to consider it as offering to our choice some benefits, and probably some objections. If we
look for precedents, we are assured that the Arab horses of the best blood arc hvQA'in-nnd-in ■ and
as these horses have the greatest possible attention paid to them, the deteriorating effect cff such a
practice could not have escaped observation, had it existed. iWr. Bakewell reared his valuable stock
wholly from family .alliances, and In fact his improvements were founded on confining the intercourse
to relationship Mr. Meynell bred most of his celebrated fox-hounds from the nearest affinities • and our
<Kr/ records afford numerous instances of the best breeds being kept up by what has been called bv a
very forced construction, incestuous intercourse. Shakespeare, who some assert to be the real sire
of lichpse and Childers, were both so bred. Higliflyer, Mark Anthonv, and llegulns, owned no blood
but that of the Godolphin Arabian ; and the descent was thus continued through many generations
Old Fox, Priestess, the little but fleet hor.se Glmcrack, Damper, and manyotliei s, were also bred froni
the nearest affinities. A scientific breeder says, ' that pursuing the mmxe. strain for three or four
races, such strain may possibly deteriorate (liut this Is merely opinion) : however, the mode of breed
ing am partial to is, to cross out once and then back again.' Many other successful rearers of racinir
stock also, though averse to breeding in succession from near relationship by blood, are favourablp to
It m a remote degree, which is particularly the case with some rearers of game fowls, who seek the

Q 2

244 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

ganized, receives the name of chorion, and is separable into two laminae : that
which remains attached to the surface of the womb is called by Dr. William Hunter
tunica decidua uteri; the other, and which becomes reflected over the ovum, was
thence named by the same great anatomist tunica decidua reflexa. When the
ovum exhibits traces of the germ, and which, gradually developing the lineaments
of the embryo or foetal colt, renders the whole a subject capable of distinct exa-
mination, it wiU then be found surrounded, as already pointed out, by the deci-
duous and reflected portions of the chorion ; the latter forming its proper outer
involucrum, within which is an inner and finer expansion, called the amnios. In
the latter periods of pregnancy the tunica reflexa becomes covered with or suc-
ceeded by the allantois*. — The placenta. From the attachments of these outer
involucra originates a direct communication between the parent and offspring,
called the placenta\. Into this the uterine arterial branches terminate-; and

intercourse of a third remove, which they call a • nick.' I could quote innumerable other authorities
in favour of in-and-in breedine:,.but candour obliges me to own, that there exists a large number of
able antagonists to it also : one objection to it certainly exists, which is, that as theie are few breeds
which do not own some hereditary defects, some disease, or predisposition to it, or some detracting
quality; such are likely to be perpetuated through the whole race, but which a judicious crossing
would have removed.

Breeding back. — While on this subject, it bpcomes me to glance at a very cnrious phenomena in
the reproductive system, popularly known by the term of breeding back; by which it would appear
as though the ova or germs of tlie futuic race were originally formed after one common mould, and
which, if it were not for accidental circumstances and foreign commixtures, would ahi ays bear the
same stamp. It is thus observed that the progeny of the hoi se, and of most domestic animaU, do
occasionally bear a more striking rcsemblanee to the grandam, or grandfather, than to their imme-
diate parents ; and it must be e\idciit that this is more likely to happen when one common character
has been preserved during successive generations, or, in turf language, where the blood has been
preserved pure. A practical hint naturally presents itself on the extreme importance, therefore, of
admitting no accidental admixture of blood, where it is peculiarly requisite that it should flow in true
lineal descent ; knowing that its debasing consequences are carried unseen through one or two genera-
tions, and unexpectedly appear in a third or fourth. It remains to add, that our conviction that the
organization, the qualities, and even the diseases of the mare are imprinted on her offspring, is, from
anatomical considerations, little to be wondered at ; but by what mysterious laws can her imagination
even have influence over the young within her? and although such phenomena are more frequent in the
closely domesticated animals, as dogs, &c. it occasionally occurs in the mare also. Lord Morton produced
a breed between a male quagga and a chestnut mare, and which mare was afterwards bred from by a
black Arabian horse ; the piogeny, however, exhibited in colour and mane a striking resemblance to
the quagga. D. Giles, Esq. had a sow of the black and white kind, which became pregnant by a boar
of the wild breed, of a deep chestnut colour : the pigs produced by this intercourse were duly mixed,
the colour of the boar being in some very predominant. The sow was afterwards bred from by two
of Mr. Western's boars, ana in both instances chestnut marks were prevalent in the young pigs, which
in other instances had never presented any appearance of the kind. — Phil. Tram. 1821. See many
other instances detailed in the Canine Pathology , third edition, p. 94. It is evident that these facts
deserve the utmost attention among the breeders of horses and other domestic animals, inasmuch as
very slight causes may frustrate the hopes entertained of any particular race.

• Some further notice of these investments may thus betaken. Of the c/iorion, the uterine por-
tion, or tunica decidua, is somewhat spongy, adhering to the womb by vascular filaments, and is
strictly maternal ; for though continuous w'ith the reflexa, or foetal portion, its vessels do not at
all inosculate with it, as is proved by injecting the umbilical vessels, in which the true chorion and
amnios only become filled with the wax, as well also, that, if the vessels of the mother be injected, the
wax flows into the tunica decidua only. By insisting on which it is intended to prove, that by this
intervention the vital principle of the foetus, or change of its blood from a venous to an
arterial character, is absorbed from the mother in the self same manner as in the adult
state it is gained from the bronchial ramifications. In the ruminants, the uterine portion of the
chorion presents depressions, into which are received prominent portions of the foetal part, called
cotyledons or placentulie. The allantois of the mare, although not very evident until advanced preg-
nancy, is a complete membranous expansion, found between the chorion and amnios: in the ruminants
it is less considerable, while in swine, rabbits, &c.it dwindles into little more than a tube ; and through-
out the mammalia it presents numerous modifications. It appears to derive its origin from the dila-
tation of a canal that arises fiom the bladder of the foetus, called the urachus, which being continued
to the ulnbilicus or navel, is reflected over the cord, and over the inner surface of the chorion, and
outer of the amnios, and is destined, as is supposed, to receive the urine of the foetus within it? ca-
vity, the fluid contained presenting all the characters of urine. It is within this the substances called
hippomanes are found, resembling detached masses of coagulable lymph, from ten to fourteen in
number. These questionable substances are not confined to the horse, but exist in the sow also : the
old term therefore, of horse venom, is as inapplicable as the ideas formed by the ancients relative to
their adherence to the forehead of the foal, and that, as they were attached more or less firmly, they
were omens of good or evil. The term hippomanes, as used by Aristotle, Mist. An. 8, 24, refers to the
mucus on the skin of a foal at birth, which the mother removes by licking : or, as in 6, 18, to the
•humor e.v equarum equientium naluralibus distillans.' The amnios is a very fine but hrm
membrane, immediately involving the ftfitus, and secreting a fluid, liquor amnii, in which the foetus
swims till birth, and by which it is guarded from pressure. , . , .,

+ In the human impregnated uterus the placenta originates from any point on which the ovum may
first attach itself to the surface of the cavity ; but in most quadrupeds it is widely different. I he
ovum of the mare, by uniting with all the surface of the membrana decidua, forms it into one surface
of Dlacentatlon, which in her is extended even into the cornea, thus offering to our notice another
sequine speciality tending to the functional purposes of the young animal; and, as far ns we know,
mares and asses are tlie only animals found with so cYtensive an attachment of placenta.

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS.

245

from hence the nutritive vascular rami take their origin, by wliich the foal re-
ceives nutriment from the mother, through the agency of two umbilical arteries
and a vein which occupy a membranous rope of nearly three feet in length and an
inch in diameter, called the wnbiUcal cord, and which, in addition to these ves-
sels, gives passage also to the wachus, the whole being enveloped in a gelatinous
matter. Thus constituted, this rope, which originates from the uterine surface
and terminates in the umbilicus of the foal, forms the communicating medium
between the mother and offspring ; and it is thus that her uterine organs are
"made subservient to the development of the foetus, as her mammary are after-
wards employed in its future accretion and perfection. In the early periods of
gestation the investing foetal membranes are by far the larger portion of the ute-
rine contents ; towards the middle period the foetus and involucra are nearly
equal, but in the latter months the weight of the young animal greatly preponde-
rates. It remains to remark on the increase of the uterus by actual accretion of
parts, by which, from being completely hiddeu within the pelvis, its fundus ad-
vances beyond its cornua nearly to the epigastrium, when at length, becoming
painfully distended, it essays to lid itself of its burthen by contractions on its
contents*.

Parturition or fooling. — The premonitory sjonptoms of foaling are a sudden
enlargement of the udder ; sometimes milk may be expressed from the teats ; the
vulva protrudes ; and when the act has commenced, the tail is protruded : a rest-
less shifting and change of place, with some heaving of the fltoks and some ac-
celeration of the pulse, are also usually present. The painful contractions of the
uterus now call in the aid of the abdominal muscles ; deep inspirations are made,
to enable the diaphragm to assist m forcing the uterine contents backwards, by
which the mouth of the womb dilates, and thus ruptures the attachment of the
chorion. As the propelling efforts become moi-e violent, the hind legs are set
wide apart, to form fixed points for muscular action : the membranes now pro-
trude in the form of a bladder, which bursting, often brings with it the young
one also, particularly in large roomy mares, who have had several foalings. At
other times the act is more protracted, and the head, with the fore legs, are more
gradually protruded into the vagina ; when usually a few more efforts usher the
whole animal into the world, whose descent to the ground commonly ruptures the
umbiUcal cord, and is accompanied by the remaining waters and a gush of blood.
The secundines formed from the placenta and membranes, popularly called the
afterhirth, occasionally accompany the foal ; and when this is not the case, the
whole comes away very soon after.

The gestaiory term is considered by breeders to range between eleven and
twelve months, these periods forming the extreme limits ; but, according to the
observations of M. Tessier, in 582 mares, which copulated but once, the shortest
period was 287 days, and the longest 419 ; making the extraordinary difference
of 132 days, and of 89 days beyond the usual term of 11 months. His memoir
states that, of two female asses, one brought forth at the end of 12 months and
20 days, and the other at 13 months and I day. The cow occupies about 9 months
m gestation ; the sheep, 5 months : swine usually farrow between the 120th and
140th day; but they also exhibit great variations in this particular, influenced

• The symptoms of pregnancy in tti« early months are not very decisive ; there is no menstrual
discharge to be suppressed, as fn the human female; although the total cessation of oestrum is in
many mstances some (fuide to our opinion. Neither does the mare, in usual cases, exhibit any
sympathetic effect between her stomach and uterus ; and therefore for three or four months the matter
remains uncertain, particularly in pastured mates. Some distention takes place after this period ; and
It IS usual to expect to discover the motions of the fcetus hy placing the hand flat on the fore part of
the belly ot the mare when in the act of drinking, particularly if she be thirsty and warm ; at which
time the change of temperature and the distention are ant to excite sensible motions in the voung with-
in. Pregnant mares should he well fed, and, if worked at all, let it be only during the first six months
of gestation ; for a contrary treatment will not only endanger the present, but all her future progeny ;
as the habitude of abortion once excited is very liable to recurrence, even without liolence. If a
marc appears very large for the time of her gestation, even more than usual caution is required, as
twin foals render her particularly liable to miscarriage. IMares in foal should never be pastured with
vicious or even playful horses: some geldings even arc salacious, and will leap on a pregnant marc ;
and others mav kick or worry her. These cautions are still more requisite as her pregnancy advances ;
and she should, if tender or valuable, be nightly housed, that the young foal may not be dropped in
an unfavourable situation, or stagger into aditch or pond.

246 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

apparently by size and breed. Bitches pup near the 63d day. Horse-breeders
have a notion that a mare carries her first foal longer than her future ones.

Lactation. — As soon as the foal comes into the world, it is interesting to ob-
serve how readily, and without functional disturbance, it submits to the loss of
its umbilical connexion with the mother ; and how soon it opens another source
of support, by seeking for the parent milk, which it is sometimes, with a weakly
foal, prudent to assist it in doing, by setting it on its legs, and supporting it to the
teats. The first milk, instead of being prejudicial, as supposed by some, who
therefore draw it away, is, equally with them as with us, beneficial ; as by its
purgative qualities it brings away the raucous contents of the fojtal alimentary
canal, thus clearing it out for acting on a more nutritive and elementary food.
Occasionally the mammae refuse their office, and do not yield any or not suffi-
cient milk ; or a mother may die : it is consolatory to know that colts can be,
and have been, successfully reared by hand. Cade and Milksop, both excellent
racers, were thus reared* ; and either cows' milk, or that of asses, may be em-
ployed for the purpose. Should that of cows be found to scour, it should be
boiled : or it may be medicated by having sugar and starch added to itf . The
udder of the mare does not become completely distended with milk until the third
or fourth day, in which state it continues to yield its secretion until the nippers
of the young one enable it to browse the more tender grass, when it gradually
forsakes the bag, whose secretory stores di'y up, and the bag resumes nearly its
former dimensions ; it is said nearly, because ouce having given suck, a certain dis-
tention may always be observed in both bag and teats|. The connexion having
ceased, she again feels oestrum, and again goes through the reproductive process§.

The Festal Colt, and the Physiology of his Organization.

Unlike the human young and those of many other animals, the fcetal colt is not
born indigent ; but, on the contrary, its aptitudes and its organs for locomotion
are already developed, and it is capable of performing many of the common phe-
nomena of life with dexterity and ease ; to enable it to do which, its organization
exhibits some specialities worthy of notice||.

• But, notwitlistanding these instances, I cannot recommend the practice ; but in cases of neces-
sity, and in such where no extreme expectations are formed of the offspring : for there are not wanting
facts to warrant an opinion, that the niill< of a foster mother can have an effect on tlie mental and con-
stitutional qualities of the adopted, by some sympathetic connexion kept up between the organs which
secrete the milk and those which receive it. If tliis be true, it however enables us to open a new
source of improvement, and interchange of properties ; but it is probable that it would operate most
in those who, being born indigent, receive the personal attentions and mental solicitudes of maternity
in the greatest degree, as dogs, cats, &c.

■|- It must strike the naturalist how much greater is the ratio of nutriment in a given bulk of mare's
milk than that of the cow ; as well as how admirably this agrees with the habits of the parent to be
thus unconfined from the monstrous udder of the ruminants, and yet to be able to yield at once so nu-
tritious yet so condensed a beverage.

} It is a subject of curiosity, that the presence of the young of both the mare and the female ass is
necessary to keep up the lactiferous secretion ; and we cannot gain their milk after their young are
removed, as we do from cows : with the maternal sympathy the secretion ceases.

§ 1 have, on the subject of the teeth, been at some pains to prove that we limit the age of the horse
too narrowly ; and the breeding of the mare is another instance of the same, although in the very face
of well known facts. It is common to consider the reproductive system of the mare as confined to
fifteen or sixteen years; when many instances occur of mares re.iring healthy and useful progeny at
twcnty-fivejyears old. After the old Tartar mare, as slie is usually called, had passed her twentieth
season, O'Kelly cleared .£30,000 by her produce. Mr. Pratt's Squirt mare produced seventeen foals in
succession, most of which proved valuable racers.

II We are too apt to take a confined view of the animal economy, and to consider it in reference only
to that artificial state into which we have brought the domesticated creatures, rather than that in which
nature originally placed them. Thus, our consideration of the horse philosophically directed, will
teach us to regard him as living uncontrolled, and surrounded by predaccous animals, greedy for his
blood and flesh, which, it is observed, is more keenly relished by tliem than any otbet animal mass,
from most of which his only hope of escape is by flight. He should also be regarded as by nature
destined to rove extensively in search of food ; for in a state of nature where these animals congregate,
that is where they associate in herds, the scanty provisions raised on one spot, without the assistance of
aericultiirc, would not long suffice the wants of a numerous assembly of wild horses; and our phy-
siological examination of hts organs should be directed towards a capability for this kind of life ; and
we should not draw our inferences from the nurture of the stable, or the education of the riding-house.
Regarding him therefore aright, we shall find the structure of this noble animal admirably adapted to
bis economy : the young colt, as soon as foaled, appears capable of makine considerable exertions,
and is possessed of great speed ; by which he can accompany his mother and the associated herd, either
in Hying from their enemies, or in search of food ; and if we examine him .-xttentively. we shall find his
exterior form, as well as his internal economy, admirably adapted to this : his body is very slender, and

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FGETAL ORGANIZATION.

247

Fatal circulation. — It has been shewn that the placenta owns a maternal and a
foetal portion, in which distinct circulations are carried on. Into the latter the
umbilical arteries, first anastomosing very freely with each other, then terminate
wholly in returning veins. In the maternal portion, on the contrary, the arteries
are llu-nished from the uterus, and terminate in an exhalent orifice and a return-
ing vein. This exhalent orifice is a very important agent, for it deposits a fluid
of a chylous quality, which, becoming absorbed into the vessels of the fostus, is the
source of its mitrition. It is evident, therefore, that the blood thus received, after
having circulated through the foetal body, and given out its nutritive principles,
must return impure and venous, through the umbilical arteries ; which in this
case, as is seen, carry venous blood, as the umbilical veins bear blood of the arte-
terial character ; having become oxygenated in the cells of the maternal portion
of the placenta, and having there also received its chyliferous principles. Thus,
therefore, the placenta forms the true foetal lungs ; in fact, it forms also the true
foetal stomach ; and it may be said to be the organ that possesses the specific
power of the aerating and chyliferous organs combined, while the foetal organs
themselves only enjoy the Ufe fitted to their evolution, but not that adapted to
then- specific action*. The umbihcal vein, it was just now stated, carries arterial
blood, which it gains fi'om the exhalent orifices of the uterine portion of the pla-
centa, where a new speciality presents itself: for having gained the umbilicus, it
leaves the umbilical arteries, plunges into the sinus of the vena portse, and there
deposits its whole contents, and is by that means circulated with the blood of the
abdominal viscera. In the human, on the contrary, and in all other animals that
have been examined, except the ass, there is a considerable branch of the umbi-
lical vein, which, by communicating with one of the hepatic venal trunks, appears
designed to prevent the whole of the blood from taking this cu-cuitous route :
this forms the canalis venosusf. From the liver the sequine blood is passed into
the vena cava, and from thence to the right auricle ; but it does not from this
wholly enter the right ventricle, as in the adult horse ; but a part of it escapes
through an opening in the septum of the heart, between the right and left auri-
cles, and is pom-ed into the left auricle, from whence it is prevented fi-om return-
ing by the Eustachian valve : this opening, caUed the foramen ovale, closes up as
soon as respiration takes place. The remaining blood is suffered to proceed, as
in the adult, into the right ventricle, and from thence into the pulmonary artery,
where another structural impediment to the pulmonic passage of more blood than
is merelj' necessary for support presents itself by a lateral trunk of communica-
tion, called ductus arteriosus, found between the pulmonarj' artery and the aorta.

consequently very light, and his legs are remarkably long, by which he can reach his food, the milk ;
and by which he is also enabled to exert very considerable speed without making any greater exer-
tions than his j uvenile state will admit of. On the contrary, in animals who seek the safety of their
young by hiding them in holes and caverns, where it is necessary for their preservation that they
should remain quiet. Nature has wisely given them a correspondent form : their bodies are fat and un-
wieldy, that thus they may have a constant disposition to rest and sleep ; and which is further brought
about by their being' blind. Their legs also are short, so that every impediment is placed as a bar to
their roving till they possess something like the parent strength anil the parent intelligence : but the
internal economy of the foal is such, that he has no need of much sleep to quicken digestion ; for, in
him, the process of solution is not carried on in the stomach wholly, but in the intestines likewise :
therefore he can be always alert and on the look-out to avoid surprise. In the stately herds of horned
cattle likewise, though the calf can make considerable exertions at birth, yet there is not that studied
attention to its speed, .and the safety of the olTspring consists in the means of defence given to the
parent by its formidable horns; and, consequently, to them Nature has given a greater degree of fero-
city when they have young, that they may make use of these means ; but, in the mare, who has them
not, she is stimulated to trust more to flight than resistance. Therefore, that the evolution of the
parts of the colt at birth might be such as to ailmit of these neiessary exertions, we find a considerable
peculiarity in the gestation of his mother ; for, by the very extensive attachment of the placenta to
the whole surface of the utei us and its cornua, the blond must be much more oxygenated ; there must
be likewise a much greater quantity of chylous nutriment, and hence the organs of necessity are more
completely evolved at birth, and fitted to greater exertions. I5y this means it is that his pelvis is
completely ossified when foaled, and many of the epiphyses of the bones likewise, which, in the
human infant, remain cartilaginous for many months afterwards ; and it is for this purpose, it is more
than probable, that the very extensive attachment wc have pointed out is permitted in the uterus of
the mare.

• As the blood of the foetus draws its oxygen from the placenta, so it must be evident, according to
the modern doctrines, that the vital heat of the fcetna is derived from this source : but as the oxygena-
tion of the fwtal blood is probably not so complete as that of the adult, so the heat evolved is less,
which is compensated by being surrounded by a high and uniform tcnrperature.

t It is gonicwiiat remarkable , that the early Frcirch veterinary anatomists, as Vitct, Lafosse, and
even Bourgclat, one and all describe a canalis vcnosus in the fa'tal horse.

248 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

The small portion of pulmonic blood is returned by the usual manner into the
lett auricle, where, uniting with that which had escaped from the right through
the toramen, both entering the left ventricle, pass into the aorta, and, being joinld
with that also received by the ductus arteriosus, the whole becomes distributed
over the body in the usual manner*. The umbilical arteries of the foetal colt are
very considerable vessels, derived from what are called by Girard the bulbous
trunks, which themselves spring from the internal iliacs, immediately after their
origin : m their passage, each towards its appropriate side of the bladder, they
approximate and join the urachus, proceeding together as apart of the umbilical
cord.

Descent of the testicles.— It is necessary, before I describe this interesting pro-
cess in the foetal economy, that I say something of the construction of the track
by which these organs reach the scrotum. The ahdominal ring (or as it might
be called rings, for there may be said to be an outer and an inner) is not only a
• prominent feature in this, but an important one also in some morbid phenomena

»

• The specialities above hinted at naturally excite some inquiry as to their determinate purpose • the
intention of the extejisive placentation in the uterus of the mare has been already observed on; and as
regards the want ol a canalis venosus, so commou in man and other animiils, it has been already shewn
that in the foetus, or unborn colt, the glands and other organs have onlv the function of accretion to
perform, but are not employed on any specific action: thus the blood' furnished to them is sufficient
foi their structural supi^ort only: for were the liver to secrete bile, and the kidneys urine, and so with
the other glands, the destruction of the foetus must be inevitable ; we, therefore, presume that Nature
has introduced a contrivance purposely to render the blood less pure, that the specific action of the
orijans might be prevented. We may further remark that, as the maternal placenta only vivifies the
ffPtal blood in a secondary manner, that is, after it must have given out some of its oxygen, so it is
evident the blood of the umbilical veins, when first received, is but in a comparative state of purity;
that as if passes towards the heart in most mammalia, except the horse, it mixes part of its blood with
that circulating through the liver, by which it must be rendered still more impure: and here we can
but admire the peculiar wisdoui displayed ; for as the liver is the onlv gland that secretes from venous
blood, thill its specific action might not be employed at this time, it is' so arranged that, in the horse, it
Khitll receive purer blood than any other organ. Neither is it to be wondered 'at that there should be
sosnc curious speciality in this instance, seeing that, as the placenta in the mare is connected with the
^lyliole surface of the uterus, there must consequently be a very great absorption of oxygen from this
extensive attachment. Nor does this at all tend to destroy our former argument, that 'this speciality
was purposely designed to favour the taking up an extra quantity o( nutritious principles by the
foetal foal ; for it has been already staled, that these are of two kinds, the aerating and chyliferous ;
the former of which only is here less necessary ; the latter is purposely intended for the evolution of
the parts, and is consequently in full requisition. As the lungs also are kept simply in a state of
capacity, the ductus arteriosus musst be considered as an intended stop to the passage of the blood
through them, they having as yet no aerating ofHce: the blood, therefore, passes at once from the
right to the left side of the heart.

Foramen ovale. — It remains to remark, that the existence of this communication (which in two
subjects that I examined appeared sufficiently distinct) has been taught throughout the continental
schools, is also depicted in the works of their ereatest veteiiuary anatomists, and which, if I greatly
mistake not, was long, if it be not now also, uemonstrated at our own Veterinary College, is alto-
gether denied any existence by Mr. Vines, a gentleman to whom the veterinary world has many obli-
gations, and whose dissections and experiments entitle his observations to every attention. I, there-
fore, give room to the substance of his account of the fecial circulation ; assuiing him, that the error
of its existence, if it be one, was not necessarily 'derived from human anatomy,' seeing it is de-
scribed by such numerous veterinary authorities: nor was it even probably so derived, as may be
judged from the general tenour of the page in which it appears, and the very subject where it is em-
bodied, which are all replete with parallels drawn between the human and brute organs. My limits
will not allow of my transcribing more proofs of the former, numerous as they are ; I shall, therefore,
content myself with the following, from the 3d edition of Girard's .4natomie T'etirinaire, published
in the year 1831, with the corrections of its celebiated author. 'La colonne sanguine de la vein —
cave posterieur arrive en majeure paitie, dans roreillette gauche, d, la faveur de l onverture ovale
du septum auriculairc ; de ce reservoir, elle parvieut dans le ventricule gauche, et de la dans le tronc
primitive de I'aorte.' From this it may be judged, that, if I have erred in my description, it has, at
least, been in good company. I will now extract not as much as I wish, hulas much as my limits
will allow, from Mr. Vines' researches into the foetal circulation, which appeared in the Lancet, and
which is so replete with interest and somewhat new views of the fcetal dependencies, as to be worthy
the full attention of the veterinarian. 'Hitherto,' says Mr. V., ' the foramen ovale, in the foetal
heart of the horse and ass, like that of the human subject, has been described as being formed by an
opening through the partition between the right and left auricles of the iheart ; and that a valve is so
constructed and situated, that it allows the blood to pass from the right to the left auricle, but not
from the left to the right. Now, in the fcetal heart of the horse, ass, and likewise that of the calf, we
certainly find something of this kind of appearance ; but it is only when examined iirevious to its being
injected ; and if the auricles and ventricles be injected through the medium of the posterior cava (the
vena cava ascendens in the human subject) and the connexion between the auricles, then completely di-
vided, no foramen ovale, or oiieuing of any kind, is to be seen j and if the posterior cava be examined
close to the auricles, it will he found to open into the left as well as into the right auricle, thereby
(ihewing that the blood, which is brought from the placenta and posterior parts of the body, enters
partly into the left and partly into the right auricle of the heart ; and consequently the blood of the
placenta, which enters the left auricle, unites with the venous blood that is returned from the lungs
by the pulmonary veins, and, by thu« uniting, becomes of the arterial character : it then enters the left
ventricle and aoita of the heart.

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FOiTAL ORGANIZATION. 249

particularly in hernia. The fleshy walls of the abdomen are formed of four pairs
of large muscles, whose central line of union forms the linea alba, which is seen
perforated by the umbilicus or navel. The obliquus abdominis externus (costo
abdominal, G.) is the most external of these, and arises by ten or twelve fleshy
portions, from so many of the posterior ribs, as well as from the spine of the ileum.
From these origins its fibres are directed obliquely downwards and backwards, to
be inserted into the whole extent of the linea alba ; and from it two important
aponeurotic expansions leave the ileum, one of which, of little strength, stretches
unattached to the pubis, and is called Poupart's ligament*. The other, which is
stronger and more decidedly tendinous, proceeds rather in advance of this, but
unattached also, to he finally blended with the dense fascia within the thigh. These
unattached portions consequently offer an abdominal ouUet, and give passage to
the spermatic cord in horses and the round ligaments in mares : it is thus that
the true abdominal ring is formed. That part called the inner ring, or inner por-
tion of this outlet, is gained from the intersections of the obliquus abdominis in-
ternus (ilio-abdominal, G.) and of the transversalis abdominis (lombo-abdominal,
G.), in such a manner as to appear formed immediately within the expansion of
fascia named by Sir A. Cooper transversalisf.

The foetal situation of the testicles is immediately behind the kidneys^, from
whence they eventually make their way into the scrotum ; but by what means
the transit was made was merely conjectural, until Mr. Hunter's discoveries
cleared up the difficulty. He found that, when situated within the cavity of the
abdomen, they were enveloped by a prolongation of the peritoneum, in the same
manner with the other viscera ; and were each of them likewise attached to a
ligamentous substance of a pyramidal shape, whose base, or broad part, adhered
to the testicle, while its other portion was continued through the abdominal rings,
to be attached to the bottom of the scrotum. This ligament, which he termed
gubernacidum testis, attains its full growth before birth ; after which period, it
begins to contract and shorten itself; but, as it cannot di'aw the scrotum within
the rings, nor free itself from the testicle, it therefore draws the testis itself from
its situation under the psoae muscles, surrounded by its peritoneal covering, which
forms its tunica albuginea. (See i, plate 4.) This progress is carried on gradu-
ally ; and when the testicles by this contraction have been drawn to the abdo-
minal ring, it is evident they must there meet with some obstruction ; for the
peritoneum surrounding the whole abdominal cavity, as we have described, only
permits the passage of this ligament by a minute opening; consequently, in yield-
ing to the pressure, it must either open farther, or the peritoneum itself must be
forced down : it appears that it does the latter ; and that the testicles, before in-
vested by the peritoneal covering they had in the abdomen, from their tunica al-
buginea, now force along with them the fold or portion opposed to the ring ; in
doing so, it is, however, not as a close investment, but as a simple bag-like pro-
trusion forming a vaginal coat to each (see h in the same plate) ; and is finally
carried into the scrotum with the testicles by the complete contraction of the
gubernaculum testis, which now being no longer wanted, becomes wholly ab-
sorbed. It is to be remarked, that by this means an open communication is
formed with the scrotal cavity, and which always remains so ; the horizontal situ-

• In the human this unattached tendinous edge leaves a more complete opening than in tlie horse,
and thus with the crural vessels it sometimes permits, with us, some other of the ahdominal contents
also, which protrusion is then called crural hernia.

^ Mr. Percivall observes, 'the cavity of the abdomen is closed directly behind the abdominal ring
by the internus obliquus and transversalis ; under the crescentic borders of which the spermatic cord is
taking its course along the inguinal canal, and entering the cavity by an opening at the upper part of
it, called the internal abdominal ring. This aperture, let it be remarked, is not placed opposite to
the external ring, but at the space of three inches from it outwardly, and somewhat anteriorly to it ; no
intestine therefore can protrude directly through the external ring (at least I have never heard of any
instance of it); hut inguinal hernia in the horse arc all oblique, i. e., they pass out of the abdomen at
the internal ring, and proceed with the spermatic cord down the inguinal canal, through the external
ting, into the scrotum."

I It has been stated that this early placing of the testicles within the abdomen is for the purpose of
delaying their secretory purpose; but which must be erroneous, for many animals are true <(M<icojirfi,
of which the elephant i> a <|uadrupedal instance, and birds arc universally so.

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

_ At lohat time do the testicles first appear in the colt?— As far as mv own exno
nence goes, there are great anomalies in the scrotal lodgement of t^heTestldes
I perfectly agree with Mr 1 ercivall, that they are seldom, if ever, found at he
lottom until eleven or twelve months have expired; but it must be

fiv ' '"g'^^^^Pd'^g' particularly high-feeding, wiU hasten The de-
seen five or SIX weeks, in the same manner that it produces other marks of early
development. But it is, I believe, equaUy certain that they do make a partial
appearance m the upper portions of the scrotal hag within a few days after fSaUne
and in some cases the animal is even foaled with them already theret We mav
reconcile the varying accounts of this descent by a circumstance frequently over-
ooked which IS, that having before or soon after birth protruded themselves
th ough the nngs, as though they intended merely to make their appearance and
establish their claim to scrotal tenure, they in a longer or shorter period, by the
accretion and strengthening of the cremaster muscles, are again drawn up, some-
times only to the edge of the ring, but more often to lodge themselves between
tne inner and outer ringsj, where they remain three or four months.

The effect which the presence of the testicles has on the masculine character is,
evidently, in due order, a portion of our present physiological inquiry: those
alterations which take place by their removal, and the methods pursued for the
purpose, will appear with our surgical detail. The permanent descent of the
testicles has a great effect on the exterior form ; it has a correspondent one also
on the character : it is, however, principally in reference to the latter that we
castrate; and as we incHne to regulate the form between the mascuUne or the
teminme character, so we castrate early or late. (See Castration.)

Puberty in both sexes is not delayed untU the full maturity and expansion of
the system, but in both horses and mares it takes place, if they have been weU fed
and housed, as early as the second year, and both have been known to procreate
at that period; but in both the practice is irrational as regards the welfare of the
animals : neither does it appear that the mare, Hke the human female, has a more
early puberty than the horse, which could not be expected in an animal whose
perfection is altogether so rapid. After that period, the change of the tempora-
neous for the permanent set of teeth occurs ; and all those characters commence
in the male which are to distinguish him from the female. His form expands
into rotundity and gracefulness ; his action becomes lofty, his crest elevated and
thick ; his hair, from being crisp and woolly, is seen sleek and smooth ; while that
of the mane and tail grows singularly long and flowing ; and the feet, before round
and flat, now rise in height and strength of horn, and assume the form of a trun-
cated cone. The voice also becomes singularly sonorous ; and if he remain un-
cut, he emits a pungent odour, and an excess of cutaneous secretion.

The adult period in both sexes may be considered as the fifth year, when the
height of the animal is complete ; and it is between the fourth and fifth year
that the colt and filly are translated into horse and maj-e in the breeders' voca-
bulary.

Temperament is not confined to man, but is extended to all our domestic ani-
mals, and to none more than the horse. It consists in a vital causation, whose
effects we recognise, but of whose spring and action we are totally ignorant. We

• In man it is otherwise ; for after the testes have passed the abdominal rings, a complete union takes
place between the vaginal coat and its cord, and thus effectually closes up any abdominal communica-
tion, and of cjsurse prevents any descent of insterstitial fluid, and intestinal protrusion ; but which with-
out such provision would be unavoidable, as we know by what occurs when from malformation this
opening remains unclosed ; when it usually follows that some of tlie abdominal contents present them-
selves within the scrotum, and form hernia congenita; as a similar effect resulting afterwards from
violence is called scrotal hernia.

f Girard, notwithstanding, says, ' Les testicules sont logfes dans I'abdomen, autour de I'anneau
supubien, qui'lsnefranchissent que six a sept mois apris la naissance ; h. eette epoque, ils descenderit
pen i peu, dilatent les bourses et prennent insensiblement la fermcte qui leur est propre.'

X I have said many anomalies -attend this transit : sometimes they never appear in the scrotum ; and
such horses, though 'riggish,' seldom procreate. Otcasionally one remains within the abdominal ca-
vity ; and sometimes one or both, after their removal from the scrotum, are never able again to fiec
themselves from the tendinous fold of the outer ring, l)ut remain tliere through life.

0

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EXTREMITIES. 251

possess two horses, probably by the same parents, which exhibit, to all appearance,
an exact siuiilitude in organization ; but one shall nevertheless prove infinitely
more hardy and durable that the other : tlie immediate exertions,^ in point of mus-
cular force, shall even be the same, but their duration very difFereut : one will
tvavel sixty miles per day with ease, tlie other will be fatigued by a journey of
thu'ty. One shall be sluggish and dull, the other fiery and irascible, and shaU
possess organs ever ready to run into a disordered state ; and although these two
animals may have been reared and domesticated exactly alike, yet their several
degrees of capability of bearing exposure, and privations, and resistance to disease,
shall be in the opposite extremes. One coughs on every slight occasion ; the
other never coughs, but perhaps his heels swell on every exposure. Senility over-
takes one at fifteen, the other frohcs and gambols a Nestor of thirty. Such is
temjierament : but are-we to look for its cause or essence in matter or spirit; or,
in other words, in organization or susceptibilities ?

SECT. XVII.

THE STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL DISPLAY OF THE
EXTREMITIES.

Of the Anterior Extremity.

MUSCLES or THE SHOTJLDEK.

Trapezius* arises posteriorly from several of the spinous processes of the
dorsal vertebi-ae, and blends with the panniculus carnosus, and latissimus dorsi;
anteriorly it arises fi-om the ligamentum coUi, or cervical ligament, and then runs
do'wn in an angular form to be inserted tendinous into the prominent part of the
spine of the scapula {pi. 6, fig. 1, a). This muscle, is very useful in drawing the
scapula upwards and backwards ; and, therefore, must be a powerful assistant in
progression.

Rhomhoidem major vel brevis. — This muscle arises, and continues fleshy, from
the 3d, 4th, 5th, and 6th spinous processes of the dorsal vertebrae, and is*iuserted
into the internal surface of the cartilage, at the base of the scapula, through its
whole extent (I, fig. 2, pi. 6). — Dorso-subscapidaris, Gir. It di'aws the shoulder
upwards, and attaches it to the chest.

Rlwmhoideus minor vel longus arises under the cervical ligament, to which it is
attached nearly its whole length, and is inserted into the anterior edge of the
cartilage at the base of the scapula, rather internally : it is very intimately blended
with the former. — Cervico-subscapularis, Gir. (_g,fig. 1, and o, fig. 2, pi. 6.) It
has been called levator scapuli, as, when the neck is fixed, it must tend to elevate
and draw the superior part of the sgapulary base forward. — Pectoralis minor
(■stemo-scapidaire, Gir.), is a long fleshy muscle immediately in front of the sca-
pula, arising from the lateral part of the sternum, under the origin of the pectora-
lis magnus, to be inserted into the anterior superior part of the scapula (h,fig. 1,
p., fig. 2, pi. 6), by which it acts as a scapulary depressor.

Serratus magnus. — This immense plane of muscular fibre extends over much of
the surface of the ribs anteriorly, occupying the whole region of the scapula, to
almost the whole inner surface of which it is attached. It forms almost a seg-
mental origin by firm digitated clasps from all the true ribs which intermix with
the intercostals, probably for a specific purpose, and is stretched forward into
the neck, much of the bulk of the lower part of which is formed by it, and where
its great volume purposely intended it to make a fixed point in its action on the
motions of the shoulder: this cervical origin extends upwards from the transverse
processes of the four or five last cervical vertebrae in a voluminous mass also.

• Tliis description, however, forms, according to Girard, only tiie posterior portion of tliia nuisclo,
under tlin name of dorio-acromialia, but it best agrees with the operation of dissection and anatomi-
cal display.

252 THE ANATOMY OF THE HOUSE.

The united portions then direct the course of their fibres, intermixed with tendi-
nous and aponeurotic also, to be inserted into the whole of the upper and inter-
nal scapular surface. The ostensible use of the serratus is that of forming Bi fleshy
joint to the fore extremity, it being known that no hony connexion subsists between
it and the trunk*.

MUSCLES OF THE HUMEEUS, OK ARM.

Antea spinatus fossa occupies the whole antea spinatus fossa of the scapula ;
as it proceeds it becomes thicker, and towards its insertion it bifurcates into two
portions (admitting the tendon of the flexor cubiti between them), whose tendons
are inserted into the two anterior tuberosities of the humerus (/, fig. 1, pi. 6) :
it powerfully extends the arm, and carries it forward. {Super-acrondo-trochite-
rens, Gir.) — Postea spinatus fossa major fills up nearly the whole of the posterior
fossa : arising thin, but becoming thicker, it is inserted first and principally into
the lateral external and superior head of the humerus, by which it can draw the
arm-bone outward and upward : it next sends ofi" a fleshy slip from the humeral
ridge into the capsular ligament, to prevent it from being pinched in action (e,
fig. l,pL6). (Sub -acrovtio-trochitereus, Gir. Teres iniuor. Per.) — Postea spinatus
minor is a small muscle immediately under and behind the former, arising from
the posterior part of the scapula, near where the spine ends, and is inserted into
the upper small tuberosity of the humerus. In its action it assists the former (e,
fig.l,pl.6).

Latissimus dorsi is a large thin muscle arising by aponeurosis, from all the
dorsal muscles almost to the ilium, and from the spinous processes of the dorsal
and lumbar vertebrae : becoming muscular, it is continued over the ribs, inti-
mately connected with the panniculus carnosus, as well as with the trapezius. It
then contracts, and being continued downwards under the scapula, it is inserted
into the internal superior tuberosity of the humerus, either connected with or
giving a tendinous expansion to unite with the fascia of the muscles of the radius.
It di-aws the humerus obliquely backwards, and assists the trapezius in elevating
the scapula (g,fig- 2,joZ. 6.) — (Dorso-humeralis, Gir.)

Levator humeri is an extensively spread nmscle, of equally complicated origin,
insertion, and action : it appears common to the head, neck, and arm ; and is, I
believe, found only in quadrupeds. It may be described as arising from the tu-
bercle of the occipital bone, from the mastoid process of the temporal, from the
transverse processes of the first cervical vertebrae, and the spinous of the next
three; it then becomes attached to the cervical ligament, as seen at r, r, fig. 1,
^l. 6, connects itself very intimately with the fascia of the scapular region, and
mserts its immediate tendinous portion into a ridge on the body of the humerus,
from whence an aponeurotic expansion connects it strongly with the fore-arm
also {pifig- 6.)| — {Mastoido-Jiumeral, Gir.)

• Of the importance of this muscle little need he insisted on here, it hcing evidently the grand organ
for sustaining the body between two pillars, in sucl^a manner as to be liberated from bony connexion ;
by which suspension the machine is freed from concussion, enjoys vast liberty of locomotion, and yet
is insured from dislocation by the most violent efiforts, shoulder-slip existing only in the imagination
of tbe sapient farrier of the old school, and many grooms of the modern. (Sec Exterior Coiiforma-
tion, antf also Mechanism of the Skeleton.) But the serratus has other offices to perform ; it is an
important aid in progression, and greatly assists inspiration, and that when it is most wanted, which
is, when the proper respiratory muscles are suffering under continuous inflammation from their con-
nexion with an inflamed pleura ; at such time they call in this moving power to act on the chest in-
stead, which it can effectually do when the body is at rest, by changing the point of action of the mus-
cular fibres from the centre to the circumference. To aid this operation the fore legs are set wide
apart, that the fixed points, removed more distant from each other, may act more advantageously in
elevating the ribs. Thus the pneumonic horse stands night and day, to avail himself of the aid of the
serrati, and usually he is found with his fore legs apart: thus also the 'blown' horse, ridden to a
stand-still, drops his head, throws wide his fore legs, and expands hia exhausted Umgs by the aid of
these muscles. It should have been stated in the hody of the' account, that, by a partial change of
the centre of action, the scapulee can be moved upward, downward, forward, and backward by these
muscles. Girard descrihcs them as three distinct pairs — costo-subscapulares, dorsu-costalcs, and
lumbo-costales. , , . ' ,,.

+ Hardly any two authors agree in their characters of this muscle. Stubbs calls it lattsaimus colh.
La Fosse and Bourgelat connect it with the cutaneous muscle, or rather consider the origin from the
cervical ligament, seen to hang down in Jig. 1 , 6, as a distinct part. In whatever way it is viewed,
it is an important agent in the motions both of the head and fore extremity, varying its action according
as the head or the arm become the fixed points : and thence it is under these view* that it received it«
name of common muscle by Bourgelat, &c., and its divisions by Girard.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EXTREMITIES. 253

Subscapularis— It fills up all the subscapulary hollow not occupied by the ser-
ratus and rhomboid muscles, and the site of the antea spinatus (h,Jig. 2, pi. 6).
It is inserted into the inner head of the os humeri, to depress the scapula ;
slightly adducting and rotating the humerus, as well also strengthening the articu-
lation, and preventing the capsular ligament from being pinched (a, Jig 2, pi. 6).
—Adductor humeri is a muscle arising from the posterior and superior edge of
the scapula, attached to the former, but sufficiently distinct to merit a particular
name, and is inserted internally into the humerus some way below its head (n,Jig.
2, pi. 6). It depresses the shoulder, rotates the humerus, and draws it backwards.
(Sub.scapula-humeralis, Gir., Teres major, ^er.}— Flexor hracMalis aniicus arises
from the lower part of the scapula near the articulation, and is inserted into the
humerus at its upper and outer part, so as to flex and rotate it in action. — Pecto-
ralis magnus arises from the posterior half of the sternum, and from the cartilages
of the six last true ribs; is connected with the panniculus carnosus, and the
aponeurosis of the bbhquus ; and is inserted into the head of the humerus inter-
nally, and slightly into the outer and anterior part of the apex of the scapula. It
draws the humerus downwards and backwards. It appears as cut off in the
plate, but its insertion is marked by the letter g, pi. Q.—{Sterno-trocMnm, Gir.)

Pectoralis transversus is divided into two portions, which arise from the ante-
rior part of the sternum, and are continued over the humerus ; one, to be inserted
into the lower and inner part of that bone, and the other, into the fascia of the
arm : both must powerfully adduct the arm*. It is removed mfig. 2, pi. 6, but
its insertion is likewise marked {md. r). Coraco-humeralis, Gir. and Per. — Co-
raco-brachialis arises from the slight process in the human called the coracoid
process of the scapula, and is inserted into the humerus, towards the lower head
anteriorly {n,Jig. 2, pi. 6). It draws the arm-bone upwards and inwards, and
must prove an adductor. — Abductor longus humeri arises from the superior part
of the posterior costa of the scapula : passing along the hinder edge of the next
muscle, it is inserted into the external tuberosity, at the upper part of the hume-
rus (c. Jig. 1, pi. 6). It rolls that bone outwards, draws it from the chest, and
elevates it. — Abductor brevis humeri. This muscle arises from the posterior edge
of the scapula below the preceding, and is inserted between that and the subsca-
pularis muscle : it assists the former in its abduction of the arm.

MUSCLES OF THE FORE-ABM.

Flexor radialis aniicus arises tendinous from the process of the scapula, cor-
responding with the human coracoid, and runs between the divided portions of
the antea spinatus muscle : as it passes over the articulation of the scapula with
the arm, it widens and hardens into a cartilaginous substance representing a
patella, and which becomes of the same use to this joint that the true patella
is of to the stifle ; it is also furnished with synovia and a capsular ligament :
after this, the tendon is continued between the two anterior eminences of the
humerus, from whence it beco^nes fleshy, having a central line of division, and
a strong tendinous or fascial covering, and is finally inserted into the anterior
and superior part of the head of the radius, towards the inner side, with the
brachialis obliquus (b, fig. 2, pi. 6). This forms the principal flexor of the
fore-arm, carrying it forwards and upwardsf. Coraco-cubitalis, Gir., Flexor-
brachii, Per.

JBrachialis obliquus arises from around the humerus immediately below its
head; passes obliquely over the body of the bone, through the extensor inter-
medii, or rather through an interval! left by its attachment, and is inserted into
the superior part of the radius rather internally with the preceding. It is a flexor
muscle, and can produce a small degree of lateral motion (o, o,Jig. 2, pi. 6).

• This principally forms what is Icnown as the bosom of tlie horse, and was in a former edition named
tterno brachialis. Girard considers it as two distinct muscles, which lie names eterno-aponeuroli-
cus and nterno-hiimeralia.

■f It is but baiely possible that this pulley-like tendon might become dislocated, in which case the
hoise might be truly said to have a ' «/wulder-slip.' Injuries to this part are, however, not uncom-
mon from blows, which, producing inflammation, give rise to what is til<ely to be called ' nhoulder-
ttrain,' the scape-goat of former ignorance of the seat of lameness from the withcri to th« toe even.

254 THE ANATOMY OF THE HOUSE.

Scapulo-olea-anms longus arises by a thin tendinous expansion from the pos-
terior costa of the scapula behind the next muscle : in its course it presents two
portions, one of which inserts itself into the point of the olecranon {h^ fig. \,pl.
6) ; and the other by an aponeurotic union with the fascia of the inner surface of
the arm ; by which relations, while the former is a direct extensor, the latter also
adds to this a preventive operation, in tightening the fascia, and obviating the
danger of its being pinched (/, fig. 2, and e, fig. 1, pi. 6). Scapula-olecrards
grandis forms a very considerable portion of the fleshy mass upon and behind the
humerus, occupying the angular interval between that and the scapula. It de-
rives its origin from the posterior scapular edge, and inserts itself into the summit
of the olecranon, in connexion with the former (n, fig. 1, pi. 6). It forms the
grand agent in the extension of the fore-arm. Ilumero-olecranius extemus is also
a thick fleshy mass found between the humerus and the inferior edge of. the last
muscle : it originates from the cervix and humeral ridge of that bone, and is in-
serted into the olecranon with the former, whose action it assists..

Humero-olecranius internus is a muscular mass, more internally placed on the
humerus opposite the last, which inserts itself into the inner side of the olecranon
(S^ifig- 2, pi- 6). It assists the former, and is an antagonist to the obliquus.

Humero-oleci-anms parvus occxi^ies a situation immediately under the inser-
tions of the two last muscles, between the condyles of the humerus, from whence
it directs its short plan of fibres to insert itself with the fomier, and also into the
capsular ligament of the articulation, by which means, in its contractions, it tenses
that ligament, and frees it from the dangers of pressure*.

MUSCLES OF THE CANNOS.

Extensor metacarpi magnm, arising fleshy from the tuberosity and external
head of the humerus, and from the body of the bone for half its length, its fibres
are directed in a semi-pennated manner into a tendon, which, at the inferior part
of the radius, passes through a groove under the tendon of the next muscle, to
be inserted into the anterior and superior part or the head of the cannon or large
metacarpal bone {a, fig. 1, pi. 7). This muscle straightens the knee and extends
the cannon. Epitrochlo-premetacarpetis, Gir.

Extensor metacarpi ohliqmis is a thin flat muscle which arises from the lateral
part of the radius externally ; its fibres pass over the bone anteriorly, and con-
tract into a tendon which proceeds over that of the former muscle, like that plaj--
ing within a groove, and at length inserts itself into the inner head of the cannon,
and into the head of the small internal metacai-pal bone (e, fig. 1, pi. 6). This
nmscle assists in the extension of the metacarpus ; but its principal use is ex-
erted upon the ligaments of the knee, which it keeps firm, and fi-om being pinched.
Cuhito-metacarpens obliquus, Gir.

Flexor metacarpi extemus. — The flexor muscles of the extremities of the horse,
it may be remarked, are more complex than the extensors. The long tendinous
muscle in question arises from the posterior part of the external condyle of the
humerus, and from some fibres fi'om the capsular ligament also : arrived at the
outer part of the knee, it gives off" a tendinous slip to be insei'tcd into the trape-
zium ; the remainder is continued onwards to be inserted into the external small
metacarpal bone, and into the ligaments surrounding these parts. This muscle
can act very strongly as a flexor by its advantageous attachment to the pisiform
bone, being thereby removed far from the centre of motion ; and by its con-
nexions (s,fig. 1, pi. 7), as well as by the tightness with which it is bound down
to its insertions, it possesses a very compound action, but generally favourable

• Of the five preceding muscles it may be remarked that, togetlier, they form almost a continuous
extending muscular mass to the fore arm, which, in the French school, is divided as ahove. Mr. Pcr-
civall describes them, together, as a triceps, having a large, a middle, and a small head. Bourgclat
recognized them as the long, the great, the short, the middle, and the small extensors. The first of
them as named, in the former editions of this work, faseialis cnbiti, and which forms a part of the
caput magnum of Mr. P., as the second of them forms his other poition of the large head: it also con-
stituted one head of mv former biceps extensor cnbiti. The third constitutes the other head of my
biceps ; the fourth makes the brachialis internus ; while the fifth, which was omitted Ihcte, is the an-
coneus of Chausier and of Mr. Percivall. I have made my own alterations from the former editions,
purely with a view to approach to something like general uniformity of nomenclature and descrip-
tion : the pupil may, with perfect safety, adopt and dissect by that of Mr. Percivall also.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EXTREMITIES. 255

to flexion (s, g, Ti,Jig. 1, pi. 7). It is the external extensor of Bourgelat, and the
epitrochlo-carpetis of Girard.

Flexor metacarpi intefmts arises from the posterior part of the internal condyle
of the humerus ; is a long thin fleshy muscle, which passes down on the inner and
back part of the arm, degenerating into a small tendon which enters an appro-
priate sheath behind the knee, as seen (a, Jig. 2, pi. 7) ; and is finally inserted
into the posterior portion of the inner head of the cannon. It is a flexor to the
metacarpus {a^Jig. %pl. 7), and forms the internal flexor of Bourgelat, and the
epicondylo-metacarpeus of Girard. — Flexor metacarpi medivs arises near the former,
enters a thecal sheath, and inserts itself into the trapezium : it follows the origin
and insertion of the external flexor, and consequently must be assistant to that
(b, c,^. 2, pi. 7). Epicondylo-carpeus, G\Y*.

The interossii muscles are not always present, but when they are, they usually
arise by two small fleshy bodies in the groove formed by the large and small me-
tacarpal bones : when forming two small tendons, they diverge around the poste-
rior ends of these bones, and are lost in the attachments of the flexor muscles of
the foot. In one subject that I examined, they existed before and not behind ;
in others, I sometimes found them both before and behind ; and in some not at
aU. Bourgelat called these, from their figure, lumbrici ; and Mr. Percivali has
so named them also.

MUSCLES OF THE PASTBKN AND FOOT.

Extensor longus pedis anticus arises fleshy, in part from the external and lower
head of the humerus, and in part from the external and supei-ior portion of the
radius, passing over the extensor metacarpi obliquus, semipennated. Towards
the lower part of the fore-arm it becomes wholly tendinous, its cord being re-
ceived at the knee under an annular ligament, which firmly binds it between two
prominences in the carpus. As it passes over this joint, its tendon flattens and
expands (see _/ig. 1, pi. 7), and becomes very smooth, by which the effects of
friction are prevented ; it is here also furnished with a thecal and bursal capside,
and itself furnishes cellular attachments to the joint. At the pastern a second
expansion of its surface takes place ; and where it also intimately connects itself
with the cellular membrane of the pastern joint, greatly strengthening all its liga-
mentous connexions, but particularly the capsular. Towards the lower portion
of the pastern it receives the lateral expansions of the suspensory ligaments (vid.
Jig. 1), connecting itself very firmly with the lower head of the great pastern, and
the upper head of the small; it is finally inserted into the anterior eminence of
the coffin bone, to the joint of which, and to that of the pastern, it anteriorly per-
forms the office of a capsular ligament ; for on raising it from these parts, the
cavity of the joint is always exposed. (Vid. c, d, jig. I, pi. 7.) This important
muscle is an antagonist to the flexors, and acts on the knee, cannon, pastern, and
foot ; straightening all these parts, when the flexors have elevated the limbf.

Extensor metacarpi lateralis is a long slender muscle, situated by the side of
the preceding, to the first or great pastern bone. It arises from the outer head
of the radius, soon becomes tendinous, and passes down through a bursa, and
under the annular ligament on the anterior and rather external part of the knee ;
from whence it proceeds obliquely backward to unite itself with a lateral slip of
the anterior ligaments, with which it is continued, and with them is inserted into
the pastern, uniting also with the general metacarpal ligamentous expansion ;
by which, beside its immediate action on the os suffraginis, it aids the flexion of
the articulations belowj. ( Vid. r, /, t, Jig. 1 .) This small peculiar muscle is an
assistant extensor.

• To this list Mr. Percivali adds a small accessory flexor, Flcvor accessorius suljlimi.i. I cannot
doubt the accuracy of his dissections, hut I cainiot recognize it in Girard : nor have I any other notice
in my own notes, made while dissecting, further tlian that the numerous connexions anil attachments
of the external metacarpal flexors are such, as to afford room for many further structural and functional
divisions ; and I therefore consider this muscle of Mr. I'crcivall's to be an accessory slip of flexor me-
tacarpi medins.

i Ft is called by Stubbs, in conformity witli human anatomical nomenclature, cxinnsnr diidlorum
communis ; anterior cvtemor, by Bourgelat; cpilroklo-prcplialangeua, by Girard; anil cvlcn-
sor pedis, by Mr. Percivali.

t It is the ohlifjuc extensor of Bourgelat, the extensor suffraginis of Mr. Percivali, and the
'•iil/ito-prephuiangeus of fiirard.

256

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

Flexor pedis pe7'foratm antiais. — The perforatus and perforans have been con-
sidered and described as one muscle with several heads ; but though some por-
tion of their origin is common to both, yet they are evidently distinct muscles.
The perforatus arises from the posterior and lower part of the internal condyle
of the humerus, between the heads of the perforans ; proceeds with them, and,
becoming tendinous where they also take on the same structure, it enters the
ligamentous arch formed between the trapezium and neighbouring parts. It here
first spreads to encase the united tendons of the perforans ; but at this part the
encased and encasing tendons are not united by cellular substance, but are very
smooth ; and though one lies within the other, lubricating mucus is always inter-
posed between. Within this arch these tendons are firmly bound down between
the heads of the small metacarpal bones by ligamentous fibres ; and between
them and the surface they pass over within this arch an enclosed cavity exists,
which contains synovia; so that cutting the tendon through here would have aU
the effect of opening a joint; and by its being so firmly and closely connected to
the bones, its strong contractions are prevented from rupturing or lacerating the
surrounding parts. As the perforating tendon passes below the knee, encasing
the perforans tendon, it receives a peculiar ligamentous expansion, by which the
investing and invested tendons are more firmly connected to the bones, and kept
in their proper line of action. (Vid. s^fig. 2.) The perforatus tendon now pass-
ing down, perfectly encases the tendon of the perforans, the whole being com-
pacted and united together by a cellular substance ; near the fetlock it enlarges,
and, when opposite the sessamoids, it presents a complete ring for the investment
of the perforating tendon (t,Jig. 2, pi. 7), and exhibits an admirable contrivance
to meet the functional exigencies ; for as an evident intention is here apparent to
throw the tendons farther from the centre of motion, and which tendons are here
peculiarly exposed to accident, so without this they might become dislocated
from each other. The joint tendons are fiirther held in this situation by an ex-
pansion of the suspensory ligaments (vid. 10,^%-. 1, 9, ^g. 2, pi. 7), as well as by
strong ligamentous fibres from the integuments : inferiorly they are secured by a
ligamentous expansion from the pastern (vid. d^Jig. 1 and 7, _fig. 2, pi. 7) : so at
this part the perforans is enclosed within a double theca. The perforatus tendon
now passing towards the heels, bifurcates into two portions {vid. p, fig. 1, u,Jig. 2,
pi. 7), which are inserted into the upper portions of the coronet bone, but blend
also with the ligaments of these parts generally. {Cubito phalangien,G\v.)

Flexor pedis perforans anticus arises in continuity with the former by two heads
distinct, and two heads less distinct; one of which originates from the posterior
part of the ulna {vid. g,fig. 2., pi. 7) ; two others, in some measure blended toge^-
ther {vid. e,f,Jig. 2), arise from the internal and posterior inferior portion of the
humerus ; and a fourth still more indistinct, appearing like a collection of fibres
belonging to one of the former, arises under these rather posteriorly. These por-
tions pass down fleshy to near the knee, where the most central receives a liga-
ment from the inner edge of the tibia, and becomes itself of a cartilaginous firm-
ness, and is enclosed with the former tendon in a bursal sheath {vid. r. Jig. 2),
the use of which must be to bind it more closely down in its action. As these
heads enter the arch formed by the ligaments extending from the os trapezium,
they unite to form one strong tendon, which is received into the perforatus ten-
don ; but which does not wholly surround it, but closely embraces the whole of
its posterior part {vid. /, fig. 1, w, fig 2) : in the human the perforatus forms a
division merely to let the perforans tendons through. As the perforans tendon
passes the ligamentary arch behind the knee, it is firmly bound down to the bones
as we have shewn, by which it not only operates in the flexion of this part, but
its strong action is also prevented from lacerating any of the surrounding sub-
stances : at this part synovia is found interposed between the perforatus tendon
and its own, and likewise between this and the pisifoi-m bone, by which means
motion is assisted, and the effects of friction prevented ; but between the other
parts of this and the perforatus tendon, except at the ring of the fetlock, there is
merely connecting cellular membrane, but throughout their surfaces are admira-
bly adapted to slide uninterruptedly on each other. Proceeding fi-om under the

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EXTREMITIES. 257

arch of the knee, and down the cannon, invested at its posterior part in the way
we have mentioned, the perforans tendon passes between the divided portions of
the ligament described with the last muscle, and, continuing down the remainder
of the cannon, at the fetlock is found entirely surrounded by the perforatus, which
at this part becomes perfectly annular, as before noticed, to prevent the possibi-
lity of a dislocation between the two tendons at this exposed part. (Vid. 10,
Jig. I, t, giji'g. 2.) At the heels the perforatus leaves the perforans, and is now
continued alone, to be inserted by a segmental expansion of its substance into
the posterior part of the vaulted arch of the coffin bone. ( Vid Jig. 2, pi. 7, and
fififis- ^iV^- 9-) '^^^ muscles, it is evident, are most important agents in pro-
gression, and flex the knee, the pasterns, and foot. We cannot omit this oppor-
tunity of stating, that these flexors are purposely divided with success in obstinate
lamenesses. See VeteriTiarian, vol. vii, pp. 249. See Division of Flexor Tendons.,
in Index.

UtGAMENTOUS CONNEXIONS OF THE ANTEBIOE EXTBEMITT.

The bones of the extremity have been examined already. The integuments
also have been generally considered ; but a particular notice of the skin of the
fore-leg will shew some structural peculiarities adapted to the functions, or to
the preservation of the limb. The skin will be found at once dense and dilat-
able ; those portions which immediately cover the joints are remarkably strong
and substantial, as well as very firmly bound down to the membranous structure
underneath : the elbow, the knee, and fetlock joints, are instances in point. The
integuments of the fore-leg are thicker at the posterior than the anterior surface;
and, with the exceptions of the parts investing the joints, are very elastic, though
firm ; not that they are wholly inelastic at the joints, but they ai-e there thicker
in substance and more closely confined ; indeed, throughout the surface of the
limb generally, an unequal degree of tenseness prevails ; and in some points the
union to the membranous substance is more confined than in others. — The cellu-
lar membrane of the limbs is also dense, fibrous, and considerable in quantity, so
as to be capable of being raised layer after layer, almost without end, forming a
strong investing covering to the whole : some portions of it are found to be more
loose, while others are closely attached to the ligaments below ; so that it is ex-
tremely difiicult, in raising it, to ascertain justly what is investing ceUulai- sub-
stance, what is fkscia, or aponeurotic expansion, and what is appropriate ligament.
When the outer and more loose portions of this general membrane have been
removed, there appears to extend around the arm and fore-arm a general fascia
formed from extensions of the muscles of these parts, which seems either to end
in, ox unite with, a general ligamentous expansion that covers the whole. Beside
which, the fleshy bellies of the muscles of the arm and fore-arm are particularly
covered by a tendinous theca, forming a sheath to each of them individually, and
reflected over the whole of them generally; so that on removing the integu-
ments one plain surface is seen, and the risings and depressions of the muscles
themselves are rendered hardly visible.

The liganients of the shoulder are, first, its capsular, which is very extensive
and strong, having its adherences around the glenoid cavity of the scapula and
the cervix humeri : externally it furnishes attachment for muscles which in their
turn strengthen and free it from pressure. There are also bursal ligaments, ap-
propriated to individual muscles, of which the pulley-like tendon of the flexor
radiahs anticus is an instance.— The ligaments of the elhoiu joint are, first, its cap-
sular, which taking in the condyles of the humerus, and embracing the head of
the radius around, forms a complete cavity : there are next two strong connect-
ing ligamentous ties, one of which is seen to extend from the inner condyle of the
humerus to the head and body of the radius ; the other runs from tlie outer con-
dyle, and implants itself also into the head of the radius externally.— The liga-
mentous connexions of the knee are singularly numerous, and equally complex.
Mr. Pcrcivall distinguishes five distinct articulations, and as many distinct cap-
sular ligaments : my own dissections also perfectly agree with his in this respect •
and a little consideration will prove that it is most fortunate that the general

K

258 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE,

capsular cavity is thus divided, otherwise every bad broken knee must prove
fatal. The Jirst row of small knee bones and the end of the radius furnishes the
Jirst cavity ; the inter-articulary surfaces of the two rows of small bones above
and below furnishes the second ; the head of the cannon and the lower row of
knee bones the tMrd; the trapezium and cuneiform the fourth; and the pisiform
and trapezoid the fifth.

The carpal restraining ligaments are broad powerful bands, not easy to separate
or distinguish ; the general annular expansions are very marked and very import-
ant ones (3, fig. 1, where the connecting portion is cut out, distinctly shews
them.) By these the tendons are at once bound firmly down in their situation,
but are left unconfined in their actions ; their motions being further assisted by
inucous capsules interposed between their moveable surfaces. The anterior por-
tion of the general annular carpal ligament (3, b, f,fig. 1, pi. 7) is seen to extend
over the front of the knee, being attached to the tuberous portions of the heads
of both the cannon and radius, by which it confines the extensor tendons ge-
nerally, as distinct portions form individual sheaths also for each. Laterally
there appear very firm bands also stretched from the inner and outer tubercle of
the radial and metacarpal bones, both large and small, by which the general me-
chanism of the knee is strengthened. The posterior portion of the general an-
nular carpal ligament is continued around the back of the knee, more dense and
firm than that of the fore part. In stretching around the back of the carpus, it
naturally meets the trapezium, to which it is strongly attached ; behind this and
the remaining small bones a considerable cavity or groove must exist, in which
are found the flexor tendons, confined within the limits of this ligamentous arch.
It will be remembered, that, on previous occasions, the importance of the size
and placing of the trapezium has been insisted on ; and what now appears will
explain the rationale of the account. And if this bone be small, and if it do not
stand out fuU in advance of the carpal row to which it is attached, the flexor ten-
dons become too closely confined for advantageous action, the lever not being
sufficiently removed from the central line of motion ; and the defect called ' tjdng
in under the knee' is, as is well known, a precursor of bowed. legs, and early de-
terioration of the limb generally (3, fig. 2, pi. 7). The posterior ligamentous ex-
pansion being continued thus dense to a little below the heads of the small meta-
carpals, as seen at 10,^^.2, becomes now further continued, but much less dense
and much less straightened, to some distance below, insensibly losing itself in the
general cellular membrane. It is evident that, had it continued equally tense
further down, it would have greatly impeded the action of the flexors, and would
have destroyed the benefits resulting from a knee laterally wide ; and this, it may
be remarked, does now and then actually occur, where the future descent of the
ligament is bound too closely to the small metacarpals ; in which case we say
such a horse is not ' flat legged' or ' broad in his back sinews.' But that the cir-
cumferent ligament is truly thus continued downward, may be seen by its remains
left at z,fig. 2, pi. 7, where it was removed for the purpose of exposing the flexor
tendons. — The anterior reflection hinted at is formed from a combination of the
lateral ligaments with the annular, and with two other distinct bands, one of
which is in direct communication with an aponeurotic expansion from the lateral
extensor, as the other is with a similar one from the long extensor (5, u,fig. 1,
pi. 7). This general anterior ligamentous plane is firmly bound to the pastern,
and finally loses itself in the coronet, and insertion of the extensor longus (i, v,
fig. pi. 7).

The various tendons of the cannon and foot have each a sheath, or theca, with
a vascular secreting surface, between which and the tendon a mucus is formed
to prevent the effects of friction. It often happens that this secreting surface
becomes inflamed from long-continued exertion or other injury done to the parts,
when, instead of mucus, coagulable lymph is thrown out between the sheath and
the tendon : while the inflammation remains, motion is rendered painful and im-
perfect ; and if the lymph be not afterwards absorbed, it becomes organized, and
permanent enlargement remains ; such injuries are called claps or strains in the
back sinews. Sinews or tendons are almost inelastic ; and it is in some measure

ANATOMY, &C. OF THE POSTERIOR EXTREMITY. 259

doubtful whether a sufficient extension of their substance ever takes place actually
to strain without tearing their structure ; but probably a small distention may
rupture their fine vessels. They may be themselves ruptured, as we know, though
the occurrence.is rare ; more frequently their sheaths give way, which accident is
called breaking down. — For the vessels and nerves of the anterior extremities, see
Angiologi/, Neurology, and Lymphatics.

Ruptures or accidental divisions of the flexor tendons of the fore and hind legs
have occurred, and which lesions have nevertheless reunited, and again performed
all their original functions ; the knowledge of which is a proof of the importance
otj and the benefits to be derived from, veterinary surgery. Among several other
cases, the following may be cited : Mr. Henderson, V.S., Edinburgh, tells us, that
a farrier of the name of Bracket was the first person who performed an operation
of dividing these tendons to straighten a flexed limb. This was done on a horse,
the property of the late Lord Hermond, many years ago. After this, similar ex-
periments have been made, and, when operated by ingenious practitioners, the
result has been usually favourable, whether it was done on the flexor tendons of
the hind or the fore foot. — See Operations in Farriery.

Anatomy and Physiology of the Posterior Extremity.

MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE PELVIS AND THIGH, BELONGING TO EITHEK THE

THIGH OB LEG.

In the display of these parts in the posterior limb, I have in this edition pre-
ferred the order of description used by Girard, and in most instances I have used
his nomenclature also, offering at the same time that of Mr. Percivall to the choice
of the student. Where the names used in the former edition have been retained
it has only been from a conviction of their greater propriety. '

Tensor vagina feynoris.— This, muscle is called, by Stubbs, musculus fascia
lata, and it is so directly appropriated to that vast aponeurotic expansion which
envelopes the region of the haunch and thigh, that perhaps it merited it. It
arises from the anterior angle of the ilium ; is connected posteriorly with the ex-
ternal glutei, and extends into the flank, thus appearing, at the lateral external
part of the thigh, a thin fleshy expansion, which soon degenerates into an apo-
neurosis, uniting in some degree with that from the other muscles to cover the
external part of the thigh very strongly, as well as part of the leg : being conti-
nued over a portion of the inner side of the thigh immediately under the fascia
expanded from the panniculus carnosus, it inserts itself into the patella, as well
as mto the head and lateral part of the tibia. {Vid. g,Jig. 3, pi. 6.) This
muscle tends to bend and abduct the thigh ; it likewise, by stretching the vaginal
fascia, mcreases the general strength of the muscles, and as such, as weU as
bemg connected with the general fascia which envelopes the hock, &c. hereafter
to be noticed, this name is a more proper one than that of fascia Ma.—(llio-
aponeuroticm, Gir.)

Gluteus posticus, or extemus, is the outer of the glutei muscles, and is not, as in
the human, the largest of the two : it arises by two portions ; one from the an-
tenor angle of the ilium, and one from its posterior angle : between these two
heads the gluteus maximus sweUs into prominence, covered by a tendinous union
of the two portions, from which this part of the muscle takes its origin ; it then
inserts Itself at the smaU external trochanter, by a flat tendon, first giving off
along the postenor side of its belly a firm aponeurosis to the muscles within the
thigh. {Vid.fig. 3, pi. 6.) It acts as a flexor and an abductor. Ilio-trochan-
tenus medius, Gir.— Gluteus maximus is not, as in the human, situated the most
externaUy of the glutei muscles, but is placed under the former one. It is a very
large mass, and fills up almost the whole of the croup, covering the external sur-
face of the dium and lumbar vertebra, arising from the spinous processes of these
as well as those of the sacrum, and from the anterior and superior spine of the
Jbum; when, contracting, it becomes interspersed with tendinous layers, and ter-
minates by inserting itself very strongly into the trochanter major. (Vtd.f, fig.

260

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

3, pi. 6.) IHo-trochanterius magmis, Gir. It acts by drawing out the femur, by
which it can straighten the limb, and force it outward and backward. — Gluteus
minimus. This muscle is a small mass, immediately under the former muscle,
arising from the ilium above the acetabulum, and inserted immediately under the
former and into the trochanter, whose action it must assist. (^Eio-trochanterius
parvus, Gir.) — Ilio rotulius rises from the angle of the ilium near the cotoloid
cavity, as well as from the upper part of the femur, and inserts itself into the supe-
rior part of the patella by a very strong tendon in connexion with the next muscle.
It formed the rectus cruris of the last edition, and the rectus of Mr. Percivall. —
Trifemoro-rotuleus originates from all the anterior surface of the femur, and in-
serts itself into the patella with the former. The use of these fleshy masses is
very great : when the leg and thigh are fixed points, their tendons must project
the haunch forward, and are therefore important agents in leaping, as well as in
all the paces, particularly the trot ; for the body being advanced, they forcibly
draw the thigh forward Qi^fig: 3, li^Jig. 4, pi. 6*). — Uio-femoralis is a smaU fleshy
deeply-seated slip, which may be considered either as a portion of the glutea, or
as a distinct muscle, whose origin varies ; but in my examinations they were from
the brim of the acetabulum in connexion with the capsular ligament, which oc-
casioned my naming it capsularis in the last editions, from an opinion that one,
and perhaps its principal, use was that of a tensor to that ligament. Girard says
it frequently originates between the tendons of the ilio rot ulcus or rectus. It
inserts its small flat tendon a little beneath and before the convexity of the tro-
chanter ; and he considers that it draws the femur forward, and also rotates it. —
IscMo -tibialis externus is a considerable mass, and arises from the tuberosity of
the ischium, and the whole of the inferior angle, and from an aponeurosis con-
nected to some part of the length of the femur ; it then passes down in a fan-
like form, to be expanded into a broad fascia ; the anterior portion of which is
inserted into the anterior part of the femvir and tibia its posterior covers the
posterior muscles of the thigh, leg, and tendo Achilles. {Vid a, a, Jig: 3, pi. 6.)
The whole must powerfully flex the leg, and abduct both thigh and leg. — Ischio-
tibialis medius vel posterior is found on the outer and back part of the haunch,
and forms, in conjunction with the next, the posterior limits of the quarter, as
well as much of its outer volume. Its origins are wide spread, as from the tube-
rosity of the ischium, from the coccygeal bones, and from the sacral ligaments ;
these several portions uniting, form a thick muscular mass, which occupies the
space between the trochanter major and the tuberosity of the ischium, and is, in
fact, that which gives such muscular character to the quarters of the through-bred
horse. Its insertions are first aponeurotic into the upper part of the tibia, and
into the fascia posteriorly. By the diversity of its origins it will act in various
motions, but its principal operations are that of flexing the leg on the thigh, and
of abducting the limb generallyf. — Ischio-tihialis inteiiius forms the boundary of
the haunch, and is placed immediately behind the last muscle, originating from
the coccyx, the tuberosity of the ischium, and the sacro-ischiatic ligaments ; it
descends along the posterior part of the thigh, to be inserted into the internal
surface of the tibia, opposite to the insertion of the preceding muscle, to which
it is therefore an antagonist as well as a flexor of the leg J (c, c,d,Jig. 3. pi. 6.)

• This muscle of Girard's combines the vastus iiilernus, the vastus esternus, and the cruieus or
cruralis of the former edition, and of Mr. Percivall also. They certainly are so much intermixed, and
yet exhibit such traces of distinction, as to allow of either the present or former mode of description,
i have chosen the pre^^ent for uniformity. The rectus, by a parity of origin, insertion, and action,
might also be considered as a fourth head : and from this in particular an extension of its tendon
over the patella forms an union with a strong slip {vid. pi. 7), extending from its inferior part to
the head of the tibia; the vasti also unite to form lateral bands in connexion with the tibia, and the
powerful fascia by which this joint is environed. The joint action of these muscles must be greatly
increased by their insertion in the patella, by reason of elevating their tendinous insertions from the
centre of motion. , , j . .

+ This was biceps flexor cruris in the last edition, and it was there stated to he inserted into
the patcila: and with due deference to M. G., I am still inclined to think it does so insert itself
(provided we mean tlie same muscle) ; and I am the more inclined to be of this opinion from Mr. Per-
civall's dissections, who distinctly states that it 'inserts itself into the outer border of the patella,'

^"t'Thi/foi'nieif the rfc»)J»ieOTir/in(>jii(* of Bourgclal, and both the lemitendinosus and semimem-
Arnnojin,? of Mr. Percivall ; it is also the *PTOi<f»irfinof<» of Stubb? ; and was called /cror crjjn*
posticus in the last edition.

ANATOMY, &C. OF TPIE POSTERIOR EXTREMITY. 261

— Ischio-femoralis is a small fleshy mass, very deeply seated among the former
muscles, arising from the region of the acetabulum, and being inserted into the
femur behind the great trochanter.

MUSCLES ON THE INSIDE OF THE THIGH.

Suhpubio-tihialis is the broad, thin, fleshy expansion which first appears on the
inner side of the thigh on removing the integuments and fascia ; it arises from
the symphysis pubis, and from the ischium, and terminates by an aponeurosis,
•which covers the internal part of the thigh, and more particularly ends in the
superior and internal part of the tibia. ( Vid. b,fg. 4, pi. 6). It rotates the thigh,
and bends it inwards. {Gracilis, P. and Bl.) — Sublunibar-tihialis is a long thin
muscle, originating from the brim of the pelvis, and passing obliquely across the
psoas and iliac muscles to terminate in a small tendon attached with that of the
gracilis to the upper and lateral internal part of the tibia. It flexes and adducts
the leg and thigh. {Vid. Kfig- 6)- {Sartorius, P. and Bl.) — Superpuhio-
femoralis arises from the pelvis near the pubis, is inserted below the internal small
trochanter, and draws the thigh inwards and upwards {i,Jig. 4, pi. 6). {Pecti-
neus, P. and Bl.) — Subpubio-femoralis originates from the inferior surface of the
pubis, and is inserted by two portions (from whence Bourgelat called it the biceps
adductor), one of which attaches itself to the body of the femur behind the pecti-
neus ; the other and longer inserts itself into its internal condyle : it is the use of
both heads to adduct the thighs together («, a, Jig. 4, pi. 6.)* — Subpubio trochan-
terius extemus is situated without the pelvis, and arises from the inner crus of the
ischium, from the foramen magnum, and from the obturator ligament : collecting
it fibres, it passes rather around the root of the back part of the neck of the fe-
mur ; and is inserted by a strong tendon into the cavity at the posterior part of
the great trochanter. Though it is a short muscle, yet, by its direction and its
numerous points of contact, it can act with considerable strength in rotating the
thigh inwards, directly contrary to the action of the same muscle in the human.
{Obturator extemus of P. and Bl.) — SubpuMo-trochanterius internus arises within
the pelvis from the same foramen, and from its ligamentous covering ; it then
passes the angle of the ischium, in company with the crural nerve, and is inserted
with the next pair. {Obturator internum, P. and Bl.) — IscMo-troclianterius or Ge-
mini are two shps which arise, one superior to the other, fi-om the ischium and
pubis, near the junction of these bones ; and are inserted along with the preced-
ing muscle, to which they are antagonists. — Pyriformis arises within the pelvis
from the sacrum ; passes out at the niche in the ischium with the posterior crural
nerve, and is inserted with the gemini, assisting them in their action.

THE MUSCLES OF THE CANNON.

Femoro-tibialis obliquus may be described either as belonging to the leg or can-
non, whose situation is at the inner side of the back of the articulation of the fe-
mur or thigh with the tibia or true leg-bone, deeply embedded with the muscles
which follow in the crural or popliteal region. It may be described as arising in
a considerable mass from the inner surface near the head of the tibia; (e, Jig. 1,
pi. 8) its fleshy fibres, directed obliquely upwards and outwards, terminate in a
short strong tendon into the outer and under part of the external condyle of the
femur {jj,Jig. 2). It altogether attaches the articulation, and extends the capsu-
lar ligament, over which it passes ; it also flexes the stifle, and turns the hock in-
wards. {Popliteus, P. and Bl. and the abductor ojthe leg of Bourgelat). — Tibio
premetatarseus originates by a strong tendon {d,Jig. 2) from a cavity on th6 ante-
rior part of the external condyle of the femur, which passing inwardly, is received
by the fleshy part which arises from the cavity behind the anterior spine of the
tibia for nearly its own length, and is continued down within it. Gradually, how-
ever, this fleshy portion itself becomes tendinous, and then in turn sun-ounds the
tendon of the first origin, and, coming out from that {vid. rn.,Jig. 1, p, Jig. 2), it

•This bici'ps muscle and Hie iscliio-tibialis toeetlicr coimtitutc tlic tlircc IiCBili of Mr. Percivall'i
trtccpt adductor, and also tlie triceps adductor of tliis work.

262 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

it bifurcates into two branches, one of which is longer, and expands to insert it-
self on the inner side into the lateral or posterior part of the cannon, and the inner
splent bone : the other, and shorter, is inserted into the anterior and superior part
of the head of the cannon. The investing tendon {vM. n,fig, 1, o,Jig. 2) like-
wise divides into two branches, which attach themselves near those of the former
portion, but rather superiorly. By this peculiar mode of insertion of its tendon,
this necessarily acts with great force and advantage, embracing numerous points
of contact, and acting upon several parts of the hock at the same time, and by
these means strongly flexing the cannon. Flexor-metatarsi, P. Tibialis anticus.
Vet. Out. third edition) — Bifemoro-calcanem {Gastrocnemius externus, P. Gas-
trocnemius, Bl.) is a powerful but complex muscle, situated at the back of the
thigh ; it arises by two portions, an outer and inner ; the outer from near the
external condyle of the femur, and the inner from the opposite condyle, of the
same (A, h, fig. 1, pi. 8) ; both portions pass down intermixed with tendinous
fibres ; when from the union of the two is formed a flat tendon, which after mak-
ing several spiral turns, passes under the tendon of the next muscle, and after
forming cellular attachments with the other tendons, is finally inserted on the
point of the hock {vid. pi. S,fig. 1). Bourgelat expressively names this ihegrand
extensor of the cannon, and it certainly is one of the most important muscles con-
cerned in progression, for it is inserted at the extremity of one of the most power-
ful levers of the body. When the hinder limbs are flexed, or, as a horseman would
express it, ' thrown under the body in action,' this muscle contracting, closes the
angle formed between the calcaneum and the tibia, and in so doing forces the body
forward by making use of the fixed points formed by the feet in their descent to
the ground. Viewing it thus, it will be apparent how much of progressive motion
depends on this muscle ; and how much more advantageously it can act on a wide-
spread hock, i. e. a long os calcis, than on one less favourably formed. — Peroneus-
calcaneus {Plantaris, P. Plantaris, Bl.) is situate beside the last, as a long thin
fleshy slip, whose small tendon unites itself with that of the former, and follows its
insertion. — Femoro-plialangeus {Gastrocnemius internum, V . Flexor pedis perfora-
tus posticus, Bl.) arises near the origin of the gastrocnemius in the cavity behind
the condyles of the femur : proceeding downwards, it passes fi-om the inner side
of the tendon of the gastrocnemii to the outer and posterior part, and below re-
ceives a powerful ligamentous expansion, at p, fig. 1, x, fig. 2, by which it is
bound closely to the hock; here it becomes expanded to receive the point of the
OS calcis into a kind of sac or cap, in which synovia exists ; so that here also a
wound of this part, sufficiently deep to penetrate the tendon, would have the
effect of opening a joint. It then runs down the posterior and inferior part of
the hock, and is seen in fig. 1 and 2, having its ligamentous connexions cut off"
to shew its progress as it proceeds to meet the perforans tendon, which it passes
to the outside, and surrounds the outer portion of : continued down, it wholly
encircles the perforans tendon at the pastern {vid. h,fig. 2), in a similar manner
as in the anterior extremities ; when running through an expansion formed jointly
from the elastic suspensory ligaments, and that extended from the small meta-
carpal bones, it bifurcates into two portions {vid. 4, fig. 2), which are inserted
one on each side of the large pastern, at its inferior part. — Tibio-phalangeus (Flexor
pedis, P. Flexor magnus pedis perforans posticus, Bl.) arises from the posterior
and external parts of the head of the tibia ; continuing down, it receives oblique
fleshy fibres from its posterior surface, which pass into its tendon {vid. It, fig. 1)
from the inner edge of the tibia, and some from the outer edge ; between which
are seen the posterior tibial artery, and some small branches of the vein and
nerves. At the beginning of the hock the whole becomes one strong tendon,
which enters into a groove, formed on the inner side of the calcaneum, and
slides upon the articulation of the tibia and hock under the general annular
ligament, having a cartilage interposed for the purpose of preventing friction.
{Vid. r, Jig. 1, t, fig. 2.) After this passage it comes in contact with the
tendon of tne perforatus muscle {z, jfig. 1), and is continued down on its inner
side, having its posterior part covered by it, till it arrives at the pastern, when
it becoming surrounded by the complete ring of the perforatus, it is inserted, as

ANATOMY, &C. OF THE POSTERIOR EXTREMITY. 263

in the fore-extremities, on the coffin bone. The metacarpal nerve accompanies
the gastrocnemius muscle at its origin, and continues down on the edge of the
tendon of the perforans, passing with it through the annular ligament on its outer
side ; it then gains the inner side, and runs within it, to be divided and distri-
buted over the foot and pastern (yid. r,fig. 1, just, above tvliich it is seen). This
and the preceding muscle are the flexors of the foot, but this latter is more im-
mediately so ; while the former, which is much more complex in its termina-
tions, and more divided in its uses, appears to belong to the hock, cannon, and
pasterns also ; and forms a medium, whereby the actions of all the parts are uni-
form and consentaneous. — Per oneo-phalavgeus (Flexor pedis accessorius T., Flexor
minus pedis posticus, Bl.) arises near the posterior part of the head of the tibia ; pass-
ing down on the outer side of the popliteus, it bends its course obliquely inwards,
and under an annular ligament at the lateral internal part of the hock (vid.fig.

1) : about the middle of the cannon (vid. 2, fig. 1) it unites with the preceding,
and to which it is thus an assistant. — Femoro-prephalangeus {Extensor pedis, P.
Extensor longus pedis posticus, Bl.) This is one of three muscles, by which the
extension of the foot is performed. (Vid. n,fig. 2.) It appears to arise tendi-
nous in connexion with the tibio premetatarseus from around the tendon of the
flexor of the cannon, as well as by some tendinous fibres of its own ; and also
from the head of the tibia at its outer part ; it is then continued down in front
of the shank, and becomes formed into a strong tendon {vid. r, fig. 2), which
passes under the annular hgament, in close union with the tendon of the peroneo-
prephalangeus to the bottom of the cannon ; when, separating, it is continued
over the front of the pastern, connected by the suspensory ligaments (vid. 7,fiq:

2) ; it inserts itself, as in the fore-leg, into the anterior eminence of the coffin-
bone, and, like that, its use is to extend the foot. — Peroneo-prephalangeus. Pe-
roneus, P.*) — Extensor lateralis pedis forms the lateral extensor of Bourgelat,
and is similar to the peroneus longus of the human ; arising by a tendon from
the head of the fibula: running down it becomes tendinous, and joins the artery
some way under the annular ligament ; then, passing obliquely on the cannon, it
unites with the tendon of the last muscle, as already noticed (vid. Jig. 2), to the
pastern, where a partial division around that takes place, but leaving their joint
insertion the same belowf.

UGAMENTOTJS CONNEXIONS OF THE POSTERIOR EXTREMITY.

On removing the skin from the croup, thigh, and leg, the muscles are so covered
and held down by a tendinous expansion, of extreme firmness, as to be very indis-
tinct until it be removed. This dense covering, called fascia lata, is found, in
full-fed horses, besprinkled over with adipose matter, and intersected by the rami-
fications of the cuticular nerves. It is not an individual extension of any one
muscle, or of any set of muscles ; but is jointly formed by all, yet necessarily
some yield a larger proportion than others. From above, it receives the fascia
of the external oblique, by which it spreads over the haunch in connexion with
portions furnished by the muscles of the back generally. It is strongly attached
to the bony prominences, as those of the tail, the buttock, and the hip ; and in
many places, further to strengthen its attachment, it dips deeply between indivi-
dual muscles, emplanting itself into the bones underneath. It is particularly
strong over the whole surface on the outer side of the thigh and leg, becoming
thinner, and intennixed with ligamentous covering proper to the cannon. It
greatly assists motion by confining the muscles within their proper line of action.
The integuments are also found thickest on the outside of the limb, and particularly
so over the more exposed parts of it, as around the hock, the cannon, pasterns,
and fetlocks, to which they are strongly connected by a dense cellular membrane.

The articulations generally are furnished with strong appropriate ligamentous

• Mr. Percivall observes of tins, ' that it is the only ;)«r«»r«; mtiacle tlie horse has.'

f At 9, yfy. 2, may he seen snmc fleshy fibres rontimicd obliquely botwceii the tendons of these
muscles, which have been considercil as of snfRcicnt coiisequeiice to ( (institute a tninor c.vtrnsur,
and were so designated in the last edition ; but though strictly niUHuular, and evidently intended to ap-
proximate these tcii(ions, and thus to assist their action, they hardly merit a separute nomination

264 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

bindings that of the thigh with the pelvis is so formed as to render dislocation
between tlie parts a very rare occurrence. The acetabulum is deepened by a
hgameutom n,^, and Us notch is prevented from offering an escape to the bone
by U^o tranmwrse bgament : the capsular ligament being thickly surrounded with
muscular fibres, must add to the firmness of union as h courses the cervix of the

the ^oint -^-f (A- hpl.^): but the principal strength of

the jouit is derived from the ligamentum teres, which is connected by one end to
a cavity in the head of'the femur (see v,fig. 1, pi. 8), and by the other to a simi-
lar cavity in the acetabulum. The arUcnlation of the thigh-bone with the tihiaawl
Jibida, constituting the stifle joint, is formed likewise with great art and streneth-
and that the muscles extending these bones might act with greater power, there
was given a detached bony piece or patella (the whirlbone of the farriers) 'which
allows them to move on the parts below without incumbrance, or without inter-
rupting the ease of motion. This bony appendage is retained in its situation by
means of very strong' ligaments, assisted by the fascia and tendons. One of these
placed before, appears jointly formed of the rectus tendons extended over the pa-
tella, and IS continued with a ligament from its inferior and anterior portion into
the cavity in the front and head of the tibia (see d,Jig. 1, 10, fig. 2) • another
arisuig from its outer side, is united to an expansion of the vastus externus mus-
cle, and IS inserted into the external part of the tubercle of the tibia. (See c,
.^g- 1, 2.) A thii-d sHght one, which is removed in the plate to shew the

joint, arises from the inner side of the pateUa, is continued with an expansion of
the vastus internus, and inserted on the inner side of the head of the tibia. A
fourth, coming from its outer side, inserts itself into the external condyle of the
femur ; there is likewise a correspondent one on the inner side, and, independent
of these, there are lateral cords carried across the patella ; and the capsular liga-
ment, which circumscribes the whole, adds somewhat to the general security ; as
the semilunar cartilages {2,, fig. I, e,fig. 2) add to the ease of motion: but not-
withstanding these safeguards, the patella is occasionally dislocated. The femur
and tibia are held together principally by means of the cnidal or cross ligaments,
which originate from the posterior part of the femur, when, crossing each other
within the joint, they are inserted into the head of the tibia: a posterior ligament
arises within the articulation behind these between the condyles, and terminates
in the hinder part of the head of the tibia ; which prevents it from being dislo-
cated forward, as the crucial prevent both of these bones from being rotated or
twisted on each other. There are likewise continued on each side, from the con-
dyles to the femur, tendons which answer the purpose of lateral ligaments. On
the outer side this is effected (vid.f fig. 2) by the tendon of the lateral extensor
of the foot ; and on the inner side by an expansion formed of part of the triceps,
and vastus internus muscles.

The hock, as a joint, is strong, and its mechanical arrangement cannot fail to
excite our admiration : much pains therefore have been taken to make both the
description and the graphic views of the parts composing it, clear and inteUigible.
It is covered in common with its vicinage by a very dense cellular substance in--
termixed with ligamentous fibres of great strength, and when many of these have
been removed in successive layers, there will yet remain a close expansion appa-
rently derived from the fascia of the semimembranosus and tensor vaginae femoris,
which is extended over the muscles of the tibia. If this expansion be raised from
the front of the leg, it seems to thicken as it gains the hollow formed between
the tendo Achilles and the flexor of the foot, at which part it is very firm, and
appears to end in two ligamentous bands connected apparently with a tendinous
expansion from the perforatus muscle (p,fig. 1, arid x, fig. 2). The capsular liga-
ment of this joint arises from the tibia, unites with the fascial expansion, and is
continued over its various bones to the superior extremity of the cannon. At the
bottom of the tibia may be observed an articulary cartilage, held in its situation
by an appropriate ligament, interposed between the posterior and inferior head of
that bone, and the tendon of the flexor of the foot. It is not improbable that some
of the inveterate lamenesses of the hock, and even stringhalt, where no enlarge-
ment appears, arise from an ossification of this cartilage. {Vid. r, fig. 1, 12, fig:

ANATOMY, &C. OF THE POSTERIOR EXTREMITY. 265

2). There is likewise a very strong ligament at the posterior part of the astra-
gaius helow v,f g. 2, and continued over these bones, and the small metacarpals,
serviiW to connect them with the cannon. It is this posterior ligament that be-
comes''affected in the disease called the curl). The annular ligaments of the hock
appear to arise from the same dense general expansion of this joint intermixed
with some appropriate ligamentous bands. Having formed common and indivi-
dual sheaths to the tendons, it is continued to some inches below the hock, near
to the origin ©f the elastic bifurcating ligaments, where it appears to be reflected
over, from one small metacarpal bone to the other. It now follows the front of
the cannon, binding the extensor tendons to each other, and is again reflected
from the sides, leaving the flexors uncovered, that thereby they might not be im-
peded in their motion ; for were they bound too closely, they would be prevented
from acting to advantage, as situated too near the centre of motion ; but which
is directly the reverse with the extensor tendons, whose situation is such that
they can only act when closely applied to the cannon. ■ The tendons have most
of them an individual sheath, independent of the general thecal investment of the
whole : within the sheaths, near to the termination of such tendons as have con-
siderable actions to perform, and whose motions are extensive, are placed mucous
capsules, or hursm mucosa. The umcus furnished from the secreting arteries of
the part, from violent or long-continued action, is apt to become morbidly in-
creased, and then forms what is erroneously called windgall. Occasionally, to
the increase, a disposition to concretion is added, and the enlargement becomes
solidified. • The usual situations of these swellings are in the burste of the hock
behind {vid. 3,». 1), and in the pasterns (11, fig. 2), both before and behind.
The sheaths and bursas of the flexor tendons of the cannon are also frequently
the seat of these enlagemeuts, as likewise those of the flexors of the foot (h and Z,
Jig. 1). Blood-spavin is the consequence of bursal disease of the tendon of the
little flexor of the foot il, fig. 1) ; for a superficial branch of vein, passing over the
inside of the hock, becomes by this means pressed upon, and its efforts to over-
come the obstruction occasion an increase in its coats. The investing fascia
covers also a bursa at the point of the hock, which is hable to a diseased enlarge-
ment similar to the others, and is then called a capidet. — For an account of the
ligamentous connexions of the joints below, I would refer to the description of
the anterior extremities, the one being similar with the other.

THE STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS, AND ECONOMY OF

THE FOOT.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IX.

Fig. 1. — A foot, with the arteries and veins injected with wax, from the pas-
terns ; a a, the plantar veins ramifying over the foot, so as to form a complete
network ; h b, the plantar arteries. — Fig. 2. A foot sawn down the middle ; a, os
pedis or cofiin bone ; h, os coronaj or coronet, or smaU pastern, but which is here
represented rather too long ; c, os naviculare or navicular bone, confined by its
ligaments ; d d, ligaments of the navicular bone ; e, flexor tendon of the coronary
bone ; //, flexor tendon of the cofiin bone ; g, sensible frog ; /* h, sensible sole ; i,
sensible laminae ; k, coronary ligament ; I, extensor tendon of the cofiin bone ; m,
homy or insensible frog ; n, horny sole. — Fig. 3. A foot without the hoof ; a,
sensible lamin£E ; b, laminae of the sole continued from the front round the heels ;
c, sensible sole; d, sensible frog; e, cartilaginous part of the frog continued from
the lateral cartilage ; / f, vascular coronary ligament ; g g, lateral cartilages. —
Fig. 4. The coflSn, the navicular, and the coronary bones, with the flexor tendon
attached, to shew its connexion with these bones; a, the cofiin bone deprived of
its left lateral cartilage ; that of the right remains, but lessened and ossified ; b,
navicular or shuttle bone ; c, flexor tendon passing under the navicular bone to be
inserted in the arch of the coffin bone ; d, articulating cavities in the cofiin and
navicular bones ; e, a groove for the passage of bloodvessels between the lateral
processes of the coffin bone ; /, the little pastern or coronet bone.

266

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

The Anatomy and Physiology of the Foot.

The foot of the horse presents a mechanism truly wonderful and curious, and
most admirably adapted to the habits and manners of the animal ; and here all
the complexity of structure, exhibited in the numerous phalanges of the quadru-
mana, is found united in one. From the various artificial circumstances to which
we subject this noble quadruped, such as stabling, hard roads, and the attach-
ment of iron shoes, the feet become peculiarly susceptible of disease; and as
progression is the very foundation of the utiUty of the animal in question, so
these diseases become objects of the greatest import to the veterinarian ; to the
proper understanding of which, an intimate acquaintance with the structure and
economy of the parts composing the feet is absolutely necessary. My circumscribed
limits will curtail much extent of detail here; but the works of Mr. Coleman,
Mr. Clark, and Mr. Freeman, will supply minutiae, and to them I would refer the
student. At birth, the horny parts of the feet are found less evolved than most
other of the external organs ; were they more perfected, their hard surfaces might
bruise the mother : at this early period the pasterns are long and upright, and
instead of the extremities ending, as in the adult, in a broad extended base, they
terminate in a small circle of horny matter, pointed in front and behind, and pre-
sent only the rudiments of a frog. The bones immediately belonging to the foot
are two, the coffin and the navicular : the little pastern, or coronary bone, which
articulates with both of these, is also partly hidden within the hoof; but though
intimately connected with the economy of the organ, has no pretension to be called
a foot bone. The coffin bone corresponds in shape to the cavity of the hoof : in
front it presents an eminence, to which the extensor tendon is attached ; its sides
stretch back into two lateral processes or wings, to the upper surface of which
are fixed the lateral cartilages : its superior surface presents two articular cavities,
and its lower is vaulted, and attaches the flexor tendon ; while its anterior is
covered by the sensible lamina; (czVi. pi. of Skeleton; vid. a, fig. 2, and «, e?,
fig. 4, of pi. 9). It will be seen to be of a spongy but adhesive texture, with small
bony ridges extending from above downwards, favouring the attachment of the
sensible laminae. It is very strongly secured from dislocation from its fellow
bones, and from its general connexions, by the capsular as well as by other liga-
ments, which stretch from the edges of its alae to the coronet; from behind also
to the same ; and likewise by its cartilages. The navicular bone, which in figure
resembles a boat or shuttle, embeds itself between the posterior processes or
wings of the coffin bone, to which it is attached closely ; first, by a broad ligament
which extends from it over the extensor longus, to be strongly inserted in the
coffin bone ; next, by an upper ligamentous band which binds it with the tendo
perforans ; and, lastly, by the capsular ligament, which includes in its grasp this
bone, the coffin, and the small pastern bones*.

The coronary, or small pastern bone, is seen in fig. 4, /, and fig. 2, b. pi. 9,
and articulates with the coffin and with the navicular bones, to both of which it
is united by the capsular and the lateral ligaments. The lateral cartilages affixed,
one to each side of the coffin bone by indentation, are externally convex, and
internally slightly concave, their upper surface stretching upwards beyond the
confines of the hoof. The lamince are vascular, sensible, and elastic productions
of the cutis, situated round the anterior surface of the coffin bone, which are
received between correspondent horny lamellae protruded from the hoof. The
coronary ligament is a vascular expansion, projecting and extending around the
coronet to the back of the frog ; from the vessels of which the hoof is secreted.
The extensor tendon passes in front of these parts into the anterior eminence of
the coffin, and the flexor tendon affixes itself to the vaulted arch posteriorly. The
sensible frog is situated next to this, on which and on the flexor tendon the navi-
cular bone rests. The sensible sole lies under that part of the coffin covered by
neither of these latter substances, while the hoof a hard insensible box, covers

• The synovial capsule, between the artieulatoiy snrfacesof the coffin and navicular bone, appears,
by tJie aids of morbiu anatomy, to be peculiarly the scat of g-ro^-g-y lamenesses.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP THE FOOT. 267

and protects the whole. Having thus outlined the parts of this order, we shall
retrace them in a contrary one, by which the student will become familiarized
therewith, individually and collectively.

The hoof is a horny envclopement, secreted from an expansion of the cutis,
exactly as the human nail is formed from what is termed the quick : it is dis-
tinctly composed of fibres parallel with each other in their oblique descent from
the coronet to the toe, and held together by a glutinous horny exudation which
maceration will separate. Inordinate heat and dryness will also do the same m
the living hoof, as we know by what are called sandcracks. The hoof in its
natural state is conical, but by no means so perfectly so as has generally been
taught. Mr. Bracy Clark expressively describes it as an oblique cylinder trun-
cated, having its truncated extremity opposed to the ground : but age and arti-
ficial habits tend much to alter its natural appearance. Both the obliquity and
the height are greatest in front, lessening from thence to the heels : in a natural
state it is also widest at the outer side of the inferior margin, by which a broader
surface of support is afforded without encumbering motion, or increasing a ten-
dency to strike the opposite limb. The walls or cnxst of the hoof are the cir-
cumferent portion visible when the foot is placed on the ground, and, in a
healthy state, is smooth and uniform*. The quarters are the lateral parts of the
walls or crust ; and, as in the fore feet, the anterior portion of each hoof is the
thickest, as being the most exerted and the most exposed ; so, in the hinder ones,
the sides are by much the strongest ; thus we nail the fore shoes principally
towards the front, but the hinder ones towards the quarters. In the usual for-
mation of feet, the inner side of the hoof is observed to be both weaker and
higher than the outer, a circumstance which is not sufficiently attended to by
the operative smith, and the neglect is often the source of lameness. The general
substance and density of the hoof decreases as it approaches the heels, evidently
to favour the expansibility of the horn and the descent of the elastic pad. The
superior marginal part of the hoof is softer and thinner than the rest ; and if, from
the outward surface, our eye be directed inward, we shaU perceive an indenta-
tion called the coronary ring., which receives within it the coronary ligament
already noticedl (vid. k^ffifig- 3, and li^fig. 2, pZ. 9). Immediately contiguous
to this ligament, but rather under it, exists an elongation of dense substance,
very similar in structure with the circle of cuticle which overhangs what we term
the roots of our nails.

To finish our description of the hoof, we must turn our attention posteriorly,
where we shall find the horny heels inflecting themselves abruptly inwards, having
the intermediate space filled up by the fleshy or soft heels. The hoof is subject
to wear and decay, but, like our nails, it is continually reproduced by fresh se-
cretions of horn; and how speedily the process of renovation is executed, we have
many instances of observing in veterinary practice : the superfluous portions of
homy matter desquamate, and fall off in flakes.

The horny sole, or under concave elastic surface of the hoof, is {vid. 7i, fig. 2,
pi. 9) not so fibrous or brittle as the crust ; it is thickest at the circumference,
where it unites with the outer walls of the hoof, than it is towards its centre. Its
concavity admirably adapts it to embrace the ground, and enable the foot to re-
tain its situation ; while it forms a point of resistance to the pressure from above
on the best principles, those of the arch, and yet yields by its elasticity from
above downwards, thus affording a spring also. The liorny frog\ is the trian-

• Hoofs, however, not in a state of much discnsp, will yet appear witli longitudinal rings around
them, frequently the effect of accidental circumstances, as change of situation from the stable to
pasturage, &c. ; for as heat, high feeding, and violent exercise, tend to limit the expansion, so the
opposite extremes, when brought to alternate with these stimuli, again encouraging a full growth,
naturally produce inequalities in the horny circles, formed during these different states of the animal.

+ Although coronary ligament is a term given by an authority to which the veterinarian ought to
bow (that of Mr. Coleman), its strict propriety may be questioned. It appears less ligamentous
than a true elongation or fold of the cutis, is of a very highly vascular texture, its surface being
covered with villous secretory projections, from whence the horn of the hoof is principally formed.
This is its evident functional capacity, and it docs little towards attaching the hoofs to the internal
parts, as we Icnow by the ease with which it may be torn from its connexions in a recent subject ; and
because tliere is evidently a distinct apparatus, yet to be noticed, for tliis especial purpose.

t The elasticity of the horny solo yielding to the pressure of the parts above, occasions a momentary
descent during the forcible placing down of the limb, which must approximate it still more to the

268 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

gular portion that fills up the natural excavation of the under surface of the hoof.
(Vid. rn,Jiff. 2, pi. 9.) This elastic pad swells itself out beyond the immediate
part It IS in contact with, but not so much in general eases as to extend beyond
the level of the outer surface of the crust ; it however is sufficiently prominent
m every healthy foot as to receive its full share of pressure. A horizontal sec-
tion of the foot will shew the frog to be completely a distinct secretion from the
other horn : it is not only structurally dilfcreiit, but presents also a distinct line
of separation between it and the horny parts it is connected with ; and which
connexion is principally kept up by an internal prolongation of cuticular matter
throughout alj these parts. It is also intimately connected to the sensible frog
above by the inosculation of vessels; and still more forcibly by an extension of
itself indented with the sensible substance, as may be seen "in the section of the
foot, pi. 9. _ The posterior superior part of the frog is covered by the fatty elastic
substance, into which the sensible sole blends itself, forming the soft sensible
heels : from whence its lateral parts appear to be continued by a true prolon-
gation ; or, otherwise, a firm lamen of elastic horny matter is reflected from it to
spread over the under part of the coronary ring immediately below the vascular
coronary ligament. Mr. Bracy Clark, who, we believe, first accurately described
it, calls it the frog stay, its use being, as he supposes, to support the frog in its
situation. Mr. Coleman, I beheve, denies its existence altogether ; but an accu-
rate dissection of the parts certainly demonstrates a prolongation of the frog, or
otherwise a continuation of an elastic matter reflected from it; and its existence
is, I believe, now generally recognized.

It may not be amiss to notice here, that the quantity of horny matter, even
in a full-formed frog, is not so great as might be supposed from a hasty inspec-
tion of the under surface of the foot ; for the horny frog is placed as an inverted
arch over the sensible frog above it (vid. g, h, fig. 2, pi. 9). It is, therefore,
evident that an unlimited paring away of the horny frog is dangerous : but in
extent of plane surface, the frog, in its natural state, forms not less than a
sixth of the whole. Between its bifurcations a deep sinuosity appears, called
its cleft; by means of which it possesses a power of expansion, and also a ca-
pability of adapting itself to the uneven surfaces the foot may pass over. The
formation of the horny frog is effected by secretion from the vascular sensible
frog immediately over it, and is hence subjected to the same laws with the
horny parts of the hoof and sole, scaling and detaching itself, when overgrown, as
they do*.

earth ; and as the hard edges of the ciust must indent themselves deeply in the surface of the ground
on most occasions, it leads into erroneous views of this part of the apparatus to suppose it free from
pressure: on the contrary, although the pressure may not be long continued, yet it wouM appear
that in the unshod horse, when ranging at large, the descent of the sole is sufficient to relieve the
crust and laminiE by coming into contact with and resting upon portions of the earth's surface at each
descent. If this be true, we have another reason to anprchi'nd contraction as one of the necessaiy
consequences of shoeing, inasmuch as it must still further remove the sole from healthy because
natural pressure ; and by thus depriving the foot of the assistance to be derived from it, and trans-
ferring all the weight to the crust and lamina;, the want of it must tend ti» approximate the walls of
the hoof moie in a shod than in an unshod horse. In thus aiguing, I will suppose the descent of the
sole to be taken for granted ; if not, let the doubter exactly fill up the hollow of a shod foot with any
plastic mutter, levelling it oif exactly with the under surface of a perfectly plane shoe ; after putting
a die of any kind on any level surface, let him place the horse's foot directly and centrally over it.
Having so done, momentarily elevate the contrary foot, and afterwards lift up the experimental foot,
when, on examining the die (we will say one quarter of an inch thick), it will be found indented
into the plastic matter half of an inch, more or less, according to circumstances, but some descent
always takes place. It becomes, therefore, imperatively necessary for the operative smith to keep
this circumstance always in mind ; for the sole is so constituted, as, by its elasticity, to resist any
injurious consequences from momentary pressure, yet of considerable force even ; but the course of
its fibres will not bear long-continued pressure of a slight kind : thus, if a shoe be placed so as to
allow any part of its surface actually to rest on this horny sole, it must, of course press the vascular
surface of such sole between the edges of the coffin hone and the hard outer surface of horn during the
descent of the arch. When the shoe simply lies on the sole, it creates pain and slight inflammation
from the mere descent of the sole, and such a horse goes tender, and is said to be shoe-bonnd. When,
in addition to this, the shoe s.Uo presses on the sole, then the joint action from above and below aggra-
vates the evil, and inflammation and abscess follow.

• This growth of the frog has led into many erroneous practices ; by some it has been supposed
necessary on all occasions to pare much of it away ; but when its functioiis are duly considered, it will
be concluded that no more should be removed than would be sufficient to copy Nature in her detrition.
In some feet the growth of the frog is hardly commensurate with the wear: and, in such cases, an
imprudent smith may pare more away in three minutes than will grow in three months.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FOOT. 269
Modern physiologists have been very much divided in their opinions relative
to the use of the frog. La Fosse insisted on the impropriety of panng it away,
as it appeared to him both as a guard to the tendon, and as assistmg the navi-
cular bone in its office of a spring. Mr. Freeman considered it m a similar point
of view and also that, in conjunction With the navicular bone, it greatly assisted
the sprino- of the tendon. Mr. Coleman denies its office as a guard to the flexor
tendon, from the nature of its situation ; and argues, very ingeniously to prove
that its principal and determinate use is, to prevent contraction in the hoof, and,
subordinately, displacement of the foot by slipping*. But if we take an ex-
tended view of the matter, and call in the aids of comparative anatomy, that
generalizing and sure guide, we shaU be, I think, led to consider its uses as of a
mixed nature. Eminently simple in form and structure, it combines even more
than the qualities possessed by the tendo-cartilaginous balls at the posterior part
of the feet of the digitated tribes, as dogs, cats, &c. It is more dense in struc-
ture, to resist the weight imposed on it ; yet more truly elastic, to enable it to
preserve its own intensity under the increased pressure of so large an animal,
and to transfer the shock of motion more uniformly over the limb. It differs also
in bein<^ united into a whole at its apex; but is wisely disunited by its cleft at
its postCTior portion, where it can best act on the yielding waUs of the hoof It
claims likewise, as Mr. Coleman justly observesf, importance as a natural wedge,
to prevent slipping and sliding on smooth surfaces. It is reasonable also to sup-
pose, that it forms a valuable antagonist to the downward and backward direc-
tion of the internal parts of the foot, which occur through the medium of the
elasticity of the lamina; ; and in this way it may offer a point of solid support to
the flexor tendon during its violent extensions : and it most unquestionably acts
very favourably in promoting the expansion of the hoof

The bars.— We have akeady fully explained that the crust of the hoof does
not terminate at the heels, as a superficial observation might lead one to conclude;
but that having gained the heels, it turns acutely inwards, decreasing in extent,
and laying itself obliquely along each side of the frog to terminate at the point.
The bars, or binders, as they are often termed by smiths and farriers, cannot be
considered, therefore, as parts exclusively belonging to the sole ; on the contrary,
they more immediately belong to the crust of the hoof, and are also active in
keeping open the horny segment. It was essentially necessary, to destroy the
effects of resistance and to lessen concussion, that the hoof should not extend
around the foot ; but that it should be interrupted by a chasm : it was also as
necessary, to guard against contraction, that it should not end abruptly around
this chasm ; for this purpose each horny heel suddenly inflects inwards, and

• 'The natural frog of the horse,' says Mr. Coleman, Ms placed in the centre of the sole, exter-
nally convex and of a wedge-like form, pointed towards the toe, but expanded as it advances to the
heels: in the'centre of the broad part there is a fissure, or separation. The frog is connected in-
ternally with another frog, of a similar figure but dififerent in structure. Tlie external frog is com-
posed of soft elastic horn, and totally insensible. Tlie internal frog has sensation, and is much more
elastic than the horny frog, and at the extremity of the heels is connected with two elastic substances,
called cartilages. Tlie toe of the sensible frog is united to the coffin bone, but more than nine-tenths
of both frogs are behind the coffin bone. The toe of the sensible and horny frogs from their con-
nexion with the coffin bone, are fixed points, and have no motion ; but the heels of the frogs being
placed posterior to the coffin bone, and in contact with moveable, elastic, and not fixed or resisting
substances, a very considerable lever is formed, and, whenever the horny frog comes in contact with
the ground, it first ascends and then descends. The pressure of the ground also expands the horny
frog, and the sensible frog expands the cartilages ; and at the heels and quarters, immediately below
the hair, totally governs the direction of the future growth of the crust. This ascent of the frog not
only, by its wedge-like form, preserves the heels and quarters from contraction, but affords to the
horse an elastic spring, and prevents the animal from slipping whenever it embraces the ground.
Without any anatomical inquiry into its internal structure and union with other parts, the shape and
convexity of the horny frog clearly demonstrate that it was formed to come into contact with the
ground ; and the more I investigate this subject, the more I am convinced that the use of the frog is to
prevent the horse from slipning, to picserve the cartilages and hoof expanded, and, by its motion, to
act as an elastic spring to tlie animal.' , <• . , ^

+ Mr. Coleman's view of the uses of the frog will deserve the most attentive perusal of the student,
as tending to practical inferences of great importance ; and although I cannot think the frog more than
a valuable assistant in preventing contraction of the hoof, which sometimes commences above, be-
yond the limits of the action of the frog, as well as below ; yet, even as a valuable assistant only. Mr.
Coleman's observations, that the paring of it away, as is too frequently the case, and removing it
from the natural and healthy pressure of the ground, is bad, inasmuch as it ' annilulates its functions,
and ultimately, if not immediately, produces disease,' arc strikingly just.

-^'^ THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

traverses the foot to its centre, thus forming each leg of the angle into a pillar of
support agauist the contracting tendency* : the obliquity of the bars at the same
time assisting the general intention, as the whole effect produced is favourable to
the elasticity of the organ throughout.

THE INTEBIOB OF THE FOOT.

The first part that presents itself when the hoof is removed, is the sensible, or
as it is sometimes termed, the fleshj sole (vid. h,fig. 2, h,fig. 3, pi. 9), which is
a vascular expansion covering a considerable portion of the under surface of the
coffin bone ; extending beyond its posterior part, but leavuig a triangular space
for the vascular expansion of the sensible frog. As the sensible sole passes be-
hind the coffin bone it becomes thicker and more elastic, and attaches itself to
the cartilages, and slightly to the navicular bone: it here also furnishes a few
laminae, to correspond with those in the heels of the horny sole : its upper sur-
face is of a ligamentous nature, but the under is highly vascular, and from it is
secreted the horny sole. The vascularity of this part renders it very suscepti-
ble of inflammation, but in different degreesf. The sensible frog {vid. g, Jig. 2,
and Jig. 3, pi. 9) presents a very curious structure of ligamentous and tendinous
expansions, but covered underneath by a vascular coating, corresponding in
shape to the horny frog, which is secreted from it. It lies in an interval formed
within the sensible sole, attached by its point to the concave inferior surface of
the coffin bone, with its heels expanding posteriorly beyond that, and attached to
the posterior and lower portions of the lateral cartilages ; at which part they are
connected with or degenerate into a lax cartilaginous substance, which, imited
with cellular matter, and the coverings of the skin, forms the rounded bulbs of
the fleshy heels (vid. g, fig. 2, d, e,Jig. 3, pi. 9). An inflanmiation of this sen-
sible frog alters its secretion from horn into pus or matter, which finding its most
ready exit between the cleft of the horny frog, is then called a running thrush. —
The lateral cartilages are one to each side, indented into a groove in each lateral
upper surface of the coffin bone, extending in front almost to each other, being
separated only by the insertion of the extensor tendon. Independent of their
bony implantation, they are also retained in their situation by means of ligament-
ous fibres, by lateral connexions to the ligaments of the coffin and ua^icular bones,
and by a ligament in connexion with the flexor tendon {pi. 9, g, g, fig. 3). They
are externally convex, internally concave ; highest in the centre, but thinner and
smaller towards the extremities : their posterior portions pass beyond the lateral
processes of the coffin bone, and unite with the semi-cartilaginous substance of
the sensible frog. They are partly within and partly without the hoof, and are
covered at their lower portion by the coronary ligament, which, by being extended
over them, prevents their too great dilatation : to their lower portion likewise the
attachment of the laminae takes place ; and within the concavity formed by the
extension of the cartilages bcj'ond the coffin bone (see ^g. 3, pi. 9) is lodged
the ligamentous fatty substance forming the upper and posterior part of the fleshy
frog. The uses of these cartilages, as before observed, are considerable, and di-
vested of them the coffin bone appears but a small part, compared to the coffin
that encloses it ; but, increased by their attachment, the whole presents an ex-
tensive sm-face, equally useful as a support as though altogether bony, yet jield-
ing and elastic. The cartilages themselves appear particularly intended to ope-
rate in expanding the upper horny portions of the hoof, as the inflected horny
bars do the lower portions| : they also assist in the preservation of the cavity of
the coffin joint, and likewise in the formation of its articular cavity.

• Most unfortunately it happens that smiths, in general, consider these inflections useless, because
they cannot imniodiately perceive their operation, and thus almost invariably cut them out.

f The mischiefs resulting from pressure on the general surface of the horny sole being transmitted
to the sensible sole above it, have been hinted at already ; but when such pressuie occurs at the heels,
the inflammation is less active, from decreased vasculaiity in this portion of the fleshy sole ; and
therefore, instead of maturation, it is more usual for a deposit of blood to take place, and the product
is a corn.

t The general tendency to ossific deposit in aged horses is exemplified here in a remarkable degree :
there are few of them, particularly of the draught kind, in whom they are not more or less ossified. In

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FOOT. 271

The sensible lamina: (vid. a, Jig. 3, pi. 9, also Jig: l,pl. 7).— In describing the
hoof I observed that its internal surface was lined with numerous horny lamellae,
which possessed a considerable degree of elasticity obliquely downwards and
backwai-ds, with an arrangement of their fibres corresponding to this direction,
and were called the insensible laminae. The subjects of our present inquiry are,
on the contrary, highly sensible and vascular. The whole circumference of the
coffin bone, from above downwards, is covered with about five hundred of these
sensible semicartilaginous leaves, each of which is received between and firmly
attached to two of the elastic laminse of the hoof, just noticed, and consequently
each horny process is also received between two sensible ones. It is, therefore,
evident that the surface of attachment between the hoof and the internal parts
(for the cofiin bone governs all the rest) must be in an extraordinary degree ex-
tensive and strong, and that they must thus form a complete support to the parts
above. But support is only a part of their important office : they are the grand
agents in that perfect elasticity of the foot which raises it from a mere solid mass
to that of a case of multiplied springs. A partial observer of the foot of the horse
would be led to suppose that the sole bears the superincumbent weight, appa-
rently resting upon the coffin bone, but which is erroneous ; on the contrary, we
find the sensible sole can bear little continued pressure, though its elasticity and '
form enable it to bear a momentary one, and to descend in the effiarts of the horse ;
being at such times only pressed on by the parts above, but which in no instance
exceeds that which the elastic elongations of the laminse allow it*. The vessels
and nerves of the feet have been already described in the Angiologij and Neuro-
logy: the bloodvessels are, I believe, also accurately figured in pi. 9, Jig. 1.

days of yore, from a mistaken opinion that cartilages were too inorganic to perform the ordinary pro-
cesses of reproduction, it was the custom with the French school, whenever quittor attacked them, to
extirpate them entirely. La Fosse was a strenuous advocate for the practice.

• That these lamina are the means whereby the foot is sustained, appears evident from the follow-
ing fact : A horse in whom both horny soles of the fore-feet had been removed, and who was remark-
ably given to kicking, still continued the practice, lashing out behind with both feet with great
violence ; yet no injury was sustained by the fore feet. From this it is clear, that had the sole been
intended to sustain the superincumbent weight, the feet must have actually forced themselves through
the surrounding horny circle of the hoofs. The sensible laminse are therefore evidently the principal
means whereby the internal foot is held within the outer ; and further, it is through their agency that
the whole possesses the greater part of its ease, elasticity, and freedom from the effects of concussion :
for the foot is internally observed to he oblique from behind to before; but the weight is not oblique,
but nearly perpendicular : heuce it is evident there must be a constant tendency to dislocation between
the parts, the coffin bone being pressed down in a direction different from that of the inner surface of
the hoof; the laminse both of the hoof and of the coffin being elastic, their joint action must allow a
very considerable alteration in the position of the coffin bone obliquely downwards and backwards.
Thus it would appear that, during the action of progression, the weight is first thrown perpendicu-
larly on the pastern ; from whence it is transmitted to the coffin principally, and to the navicular sub-
ordinately : but that the hard medium of these bones, and the equally hard medium of the earth,
might not produce concussion and a hurtful pressure, there are these elastic laminated springs, which
are so placed that both the shock and the general weight are distributed over a vast extent of surface ;
and that no auxiliary aid might be wanting to prevent concussion, the vaulted arch of the sole waa
superadded.

My contracted limits will not allow of more than a note on two subjects connected with the phy-
siology of these organs, — their elasticity and their expansibility. So much has been written, so
much dogmatism has been displayed, and so much bitter invective brought forward on the elasticity
of the foot of the horse, that the subject excites almost as much disgust as interest. Is there any
animal in existence whose locomotion is performed by pedal members whose feet are inelastic f
Nay, is not the principle of elasticity eminently displayed throughout the whole limb, from its origin
to the extremest point of its surface of opposition to the ground? Was it, therefore, in consonance
with the general operations of Nature, that in forming the very noblest of her brute products she
should have lost sight of a property so paramount in the rest? Would she have given to an animal at
once large and heavy, but of vast power of accelerated and long-continued motion, an unyielding
base, where every locomotive exertion would propagate an injurious shock through the whole
machine ? Elasticity was here, therefore, to be expected d priori; and to advocate the principle as
the immediate discovery of any individual, is to slander every naturalist from the time of Aristotle to
the present. We are sorry, therefore, when we observe so able a writer as Mr. Bracy Clark losing
himself in grasping at the shadow, where he mi^ht insure to himself the substance. Long before
Mr. Claik's publications, the elasticity of the Joot of the horse had been spccific.allv noticed in
the writings of Mr. Freeman, .VI t. Coleman, and others, as well as by myself also. To claim, there-
fore, the discovery of this long and well-known property, was a phantom and shadow. The substance,
I apprehend to be, that Mr. Clark has elucidated it more fully and clearly than any writer before him ;
ana, above all, that he principally directed the attention to the evils which flowed from our artificial
obstruction of this principle : and here Mr Clark might have rested his claim without fear of rivalry.
As already observed, an examination of the foot betrays elasticity and strength as leading features
throughout its organization ; and we would hope, that as the existence of elasticity as a principle is
now generally acknowledged, the claim to the discovery may yield to attempts to render our acquaint-
ance with it more and moie practically useful. The eapanaibility of the hoof, though recognized

272

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

SECT. XVIII.
HYGROLOGY.

The fluid secretions of the body are mostly separated from the blood ; and as
most of them have already been noticed, little more than the enumeration of them
will appear here.

Blood is contained in the heart, arteries, and veins ; is circulatory and com-
pounded, appearing red in the former, and purple in the latter. It contains
essentially albumen, gelatin, fibrin, and water ; and is not so intensely red in
the horse as in the human and some quadrupeds.

Gastric juice is a limpid, colourless, mucous fluid, secreted from the villous
surface of the stomach. It yields but few sensible qualities to chemical tests, but
coagulates milk, and is proportionally small in quantity in the horse.

Chyle presents different appearances in difierent animals : in the horse it is of
a milky hue ; and is gained from the decomposition produced by the gastric,
biliary, pancreatic, and intestinal juices acting on the chyme. Its analysis yields
water, albumen, fibrin, and salts.

The lymphatic fluids are necessarily various, as being received from every part
of the body : they are elaborated in the lymphatic glands, and eventually mixed
with the chyle.

Milk is a fluid secreted in the mammae of lactiferous animals, in some degree
animalized, and partaking of the nature of chyle : it separates into cream, coa-
gulum or curd, and serum or whey ; and from its being possessed of phosphate
of lime, has been supposed to be useful in the first formation of bone. The
quantity secreted by the mare is proportionally small, but it is also proportionally
more highly nutritious.

The pancreatic fluid resembles the salivary secretion, and is apparently in-
tended for the dilution of the chyle, and probably efiects some decomposition
in it.

Bile is a fluid secretion of the liver ; producing, in conjunction with the pan-
creatic fluid, a decomposition of chyle in the intestines : in the horse it is only of
one kind, the pungent cystic bile being wanting in him.

Urine is a turbid yellow fluid, at times transparent, separated from the blood
in the kidneys, and apparently excrementitious. Its properties partake of the
nature of the food ; and its quantity is relative as well to that as to the season
of the year and the state of the skin. Its analysis yields various salts, acids, and
an animal matter.

Mucus is a thick fluid, secreted on the surface of the membranes denominated
mucous. It is of a mild, bland quality, intended to keep up due moisture in

by most, is liowcver yet denied bv some. Mr. M^irgnn, a writer in the I.ancet, of miicli acumen,
professes to have niad'e many experiments on tl>e fore feet with calipers ; and he asserts, as a conse-
qnence, that 'there is not an atom of dilfercnce in tlie width of the foot, wliether on or off tlic
ground'; whether standing on one or botli feet ; or whether witli twenty stone on liis hack or nothing."
Tliesc are strong statements, and as there ap]iears not the least reason to doubt the perfect veracity
of tiie experimenter, it will requiie further examination to ei.deavour to detect the error, if there be
one IMv own experiments have been but few, but I considered tliem at the tiujc as decisive ; peihaps.
however, they were not sufficiently so, \et such as they were, they proved a different result. Every
observation made in the im printings of the foot in stiff clay I believe invariably proves the expansible
property of the hoof; but as the expansion must necessarily be small, it will require other and very
numerous processes of mensuration to clear up the point. Analogically, I think no one can doubt
the existence of it in the horse, anv more than that the evils resulting fiom shoeing him are mauily
attributable to its operation being frustrated by the iron ring applied. Dilatability is so common
property in all feet, that it would he a species of scepticism to doubt it ui those of the horse. We
■ed not look further than our own feet to recognize the principle, which sensibly expand in the
)re solid parts even at each step; and to increase this necessaiy property, the foot is in many
animais divided or cleft into many portions, as in the digitigradn . In the the expansi-

bility is still pieserved by some division of the foot ; in the ruminants it is divided into two distinct
hoofed portions. Neither in the various species of the genus equus it is lost sight of, as we have
seen • for here even solidungula is not strictly a correct term, for the foot of the horse is also cleft
to the centre and the inflected heels of the divided portion form a crescented bow, which by the
mobility of its points yielding to the downward pressure, expands the walls of the circle at e.ioh pro-
gressive motion. In fact, as we must own the fool of the horse is evidently fiaraed for dilatability, it
would be most unphilosophical to acknowledge structural capacity without functional performaHcc.

a
need
more
an

HYGROLOGY.

273

parts ; and thus to render them apt to the impression of proper irritation, as
well as to preserve them from that which is improper.

Saliva is a fluid intended to dilute the food ; to assist digestion ; to keep the
alimentary canal moist, and apt to gustatory impression. Its analysis yields
phosphates, muriates, albumen, and mucilage.

The lachrymal secretion. — This does not materially differ from saliva, and is
secreted by the lachrymal gland, to moisten the eye, and keep it transparent. —
Semen is secreted from the blood in the testes. It contains mucilage, phosphate
and muriate of soda, and phosphate of lime ; but no light is thrown upon its ulti-
mate ends by any analyzation of it. The microscope detects animalculaj in it. —
Synovia is an animal mucUage, secreted by the inner membrane of the joints, to
prevent attrition. — Intei-stitial fluid is a serous secretion pom-ed out into all the
cavities, to prevent friction and an improper union of parts. — Fat is a condensed
inflammable juice, spread over almost the whole body, secreted within the cells
of the adipose membrane by the arteries ramifying on their inner surface : it is
of various consistencies in the different parts, and in different animals ; forming
grease in the horse, tallow in sheep and oxen, lard in the hog, and train oil and
spermaceti in fish : it is not miscible in water, and, like oil, it forms soap with
alkahes. It is a protection to parts, and a depot for occasional inanition. — Sweat
is an excrementitious fluid ; in some horses of a strong smell, particularly when
feeding on grass : its properties differ little from those of urine ; and where one
is formed in great quantities, the other is usually lessened.

PART THE THIRD.

THE

PRACTICE OF VETERINARY MEDICINE ;

OH,

A DESCRIPTION

OF THE

CAUSES, SYMPTOMS, AND MEDICAL TREATMENT

OF THE

DISEASES OF THE HORSE;

'l"o which is added,
A MORE CONCISE ACCOUNT
OP THOSE OF

NEAT CATTLE AND SHEEP.

■277

OF DISEASE GENERALLY.

Disease is a morbid affection of a part or of the whole of the body, whereby
the exercise of some of its functions is altered or suspended. The causes of dis-
ease are various ; some of them are evident, others are obscure. We name these
causes remote, or such as predispose a part or the whole of the body to take on
disease: thus peculiarity of conformation predisposes to morbid attack; as small
carcassed horses are prone to constitutional diarrhoea, and dark chestnut horses to
contracted feet. By encouraging a particular conformation, hereditary aptitudes
to certain diseases of body and defects in temper are often entailed. Thus some
breeds are particularly subjected to catarrh, as others are prone to broken wind.
There are also proxi?nate, exciting, and occasional causes constantly acting in the
production of disease ; thus a horse, violently heated during hunting, plunges
into a river, and inflammation of the lungs follows. A nipping wind, with
sleet, blows on cattle purposely fed high for sale ; they take a cold, for they had
been hitherto not exposed to so frigid a temperature. Cold supervening on heat
is here the occasional, the exciting, and, in fact, the proximate cause of the
affection. Diseases for many centuries were principally attributed to an affection
of the fluids or humours of the body, and this theory was termed the humoral
pathology. Gradually, however, as anatomy and physiology shed their powerful
lights over the subject, the solids of the body also were found capable of becom-
ing primarily affected, and more particularly the vascular system. It was first
taught that fever originated in the viscosity of the blood, whereby its passage
through the small vessels was obstructed. Others assumed that it is to a spasm
of the extreme arteries that the fancied obstruction of the blood was attributable.
Diseases of an inflammatory nature vary in appearance according to the part at-
tacked : thus phrenitis is the consequence of morbid vascular action of the brain,
and enteritis on the substance of the intestines ; but phrenitis and enteritis are
diseases very dissimilar in their symptoms. Each disease also, though it affords
some characters in common, yet is liable to individual peculiarities dependent on
the immediate state, age, temperament, and situation of the object attacked. We
conceive it wrong to consider domestication as the sole agent in the production
of disease. Epidemics are known to thin the herds of wild horses. Neverthe-
less, artificial culture does certainly beget a disposition or liability to sickness,
greater than that attendant on a more natural life.

The systematic division of diseases is termed nosology, the simplest arrange-
ment of which is the alphabetical*. Anciently, diseases were divided according
to their duration, and this laid the foundation for the acute and the chronic; but
which subjected the founders to call in the aid of the subacute, for those which
ranged in the intermediate spaces. It has also been attempted to arrange dis-
eases simply according to the parts of the animal frame, which suits well with
the plan of uniting the anatomical, physiological, and pathological considerations
togetherf . Modern nosology is framed as well on the distinctive symptoms of
diseases, as on doctrines drawn from an observance of the morbid actions of
the vascular, nervousj and lymphatic systems. Linneus, Sauvages, and Cullen,
raised stupendous nosological monuments, the bases of which still serve for
foundations for modern superstructures. In England, one of the earliest sys-
tematic arrangements of the diseases of the horse was that which appeared in
the Vetekinart Outlines. Mr. Percivall's "Hippo-pathology," which followed,
has hitherto found no competitor in point of excellence.

• In human pathology. Dr. Hcberden'9 excellent nosology, founded on this plans, forms a promi-
nent instance.

f The Lectures of Mr. Percivall afford an excellent illustration of this metlioil of teaching the vete-
rinary art. Among our continental neighl)ours, nosological arrangements aliound. Ilourgciut, M.
Vitet, La Fosse, &c. arranged the diseases of the liorse, after various nietliods, inti> systems. Later
professors have worked in tlie same field, and one of llie last productions of tliis l<ind is the Esquissu
He Nosographle Veterinairc of M. Huzard, jun., which is a work of ureat merit.

™ DISEASE GENERALLY. [ClaSS T

foot lameness wliich attacks our sC is al=o anoHu"r^ T> ''^^tance, as the

dcmic diseases are not very frequent in brute siihJprt^ ';,*'*^'^"^r' however, en-
in opposition to the two former^ S a verfiSlnsiv?^^^^^^^ '""7 ' r"'*

or ages . thus Strang es becomes a sporadic disease to youL horses • and the H«

peSr^r otrioJr'f dogs, ^^^^e fcT/^^e 'uc^^^^

peculiar to a particular class of animals : thus farcy, glanders and strantrlp,
among the specific diseases of the horse, as distemper oXlaVh so ^
peculiar to dogs Homed cattle, swine, &c. haSo XStSttTng S

lo a proper knowledge of the management of diseases we consider the cause
symptoms, diagnosis, prognosis, and cure. The cause is freMfv involved fn
obscunty ; at others a moderate portion of attention will diWer^ S n
some instances it is evident at once. The symptoms of a di ease are the ^^me-
effects It produces; thus an inflamed brain, being proSvrof deSS
and redness at the eyes, makes delirium and redness a^t ^he ejes a symptomTf
inflamed brain : but this does not take in any other than the?mme(SiTlffect
[nfl.SV' ^'^'^^'''^y V^^' of this disease, but death is not a Tyltom^^^^^
inflamed brain From the symptoms we form our diagnostic of the diseaT that
IS, we judge of its present state ; being masters of which, we are SabTedTo forS
^prognosis, or opinion of its probable termination. The cure foms the m^!
important part, and fi-equently consists in attempts to assis? Natueb her efforts
to produce a natural remission of the disease.' If these efforts ar™tins o?
inert we promote an artificial one, or we attempt to resist the effeSs of the dis-
ease throughout its progress. -^"c^-io ui me uih

CLASS I.

FEBRILE DISEASES IN QUADRUPEDS.

OF PURE FEVER.

Unfohtunately it is not yet a settled opinion among veteriuarians, whether
jmre fever, as a distinct disease, is found in quadrupeds. Mr. Coleman altogether
denied Its existence in horses. Mr. PercivaU on the contrary, backed by a vast
body of veterinarians of repute, acknowledges that horses and other quadrupeds
are the subjects on many occasions of simple fever; and whoever will turn to his
admired work, entitled " Ilippo-pathology," p. 142, wiU there see the subject of
fever very ably treated on, and with ourselves, and numerous others, be led to
acknowledge its idiopathic character. We propose this reference, because our own
limits will not aUow us to transcribe them. Nevertheless, candour obliges us to
allow that very able supporters of the non-existence of such an affection as pure
feyer m the horse. Dr. Clutterbuck, Professor Marcus, and others, were impressed
with a similar opinion as regards man; but we long since dissented therefirom,
being, by observation, constrained to admit that we very frequently witness inflam-
matory affections exhibiting all the phenomena of febrile action, without topical
affections of any important organs, thus leaving us unable to point out any defi-
nitive marks by which we can characterize true or simple fever. Boerhaave, the
great medical luminary at the University of Leyden, says, ' In every fever, arising
from internal causes, there is always a shiveri?ig, a. quick pulse, and heat; but adds,
that ' the quick pulse alone is fi-equent through its whole course, from the begin-
ning to the end, and hj that only the physician judges of the existence of fever.' We
are ourselves taxed with having stated it as our opinion, that;;M;-e or primary fever

Class !•] ^"^^ fevek. 279

is of rare occurrence; and we acknowledge that until we had watched very many
fev ered horses, we had our doubts on the point : but an extended held of niqunj,
and a close exkmination of many simple febrile cases, m which no loca malady
Lould be detected either by om-selves or others, foi-ced on us the conviction that
fever was not unknown in the horse. We can also affirm, from our
S experience, that so long as it continues not to be mixed with other affections,
Tt is ve?y manageable. The horse appears first in a state of dejection, and sweats
on every exertion, however trivial. His extremities, in aU probabihty, are cold at
the onset, and not unfrequently he shivers universaUy. As soon as a remission
of the cold fit takes place, general heat succeeds ; the pulse, before slow, and its
stroke debile, becomes quick and at length throbbing. Breathing is quickened,
and the delected animal looks around as though he implored relief, yet is watch-
ful and sleepless, alternately sweating and shivering His thirst is m most cases
urgent, but his appetite is diminished. He stales httle, his urme is high-coloured,
and the dung he voids is hard and in small baUs. We have occasionally seen a
sudden change both in urine and dung baUs, which usually bespoke either a me-
tastasis to some individual organ, or the disturbance in the system lessened, and
health graduaUy returned. A correspondent in TJie Veterinarian, who signs him-
self P., observes, ' The incipient dejection, and the cold fit, require close, early,
and accustomed observation to detect. The practitioner, not caUed in (if at aU)
untU long after it has ceased to exist, declares " he witnessed no cold or shivering
fit •" how should he ? The groom is the only probable person to have noticed
the occurrence; and it is by no means improbable that he, through heedlessness
or ignorance, or both, has overlooked it. Be it added, however, that a cold fit is
Moi invariably present; nor is it essential to constitute fever. 1 he disturbed
breathing in idiopathic fever never amounts to or at all resembles the hurried,
laborious, and painful heaving of the flanks, characteristic of inflammatioa of the
lungs : in symptomatic fever, poignant, agonizing pain wiU, however, occasion
equally distressing heaves of the flanks ; but then, in the latter ease, the animal
breaks out into a profuse sweat, and must be promptly relieved, or he dies. Faint-
ness, occasioned from loss of blood, wiU produce similai- symptoms. I make these
latter remarks in reply to those who would fain persuade me that I could not
distinguish between a fever and a pneumonia.'

We will, therefore, content ourselves with a supposition that we have esta-
blished the existence of idiopathic or pure fever in the horse ; and that it is in
medical nosology verv nearly allied to synoc/ia, which, it is well known, bears the
leading characters of an inflammatory affection, and is to be treated by early but
mild depleting, both by bleeding and purging, followed up by such sedatives as will
keep down the excess of arterial action, be it in horses, cows, sheep, goats, deer,
swine, dogs, &c. ; and, farther, whether we choose to consider of our patients
that they are attacked with pure fever, or a general inflammatory/ diathesis, will
matter but little, so that our treatment is calculated to lessen the arterial action,
and to renovate the organs that have suffered in the attack. We wiU now pro-
ceed to a subject of no less importance to the welfare of the horse than that we
have just quitted, only premising that the treatment of Diffused or General In-
flammation, when, by metastasis, it quits its early seat and fixes on some other
part, that be it understood, under such circumstances, the accompanying fever
becomes symptomatic, of which we shall have to treat hereafter.

DIFFUSED OR GENERAL INFLAMMATION IN HORSES, &c.

Inflammation is a subject of the greatest possible importance, whether we
regard its noxious or its salutary effects ; or as an active and necessary agent in
the restoration of some parts, or in the injuring or destruction of others. It may be
considered under the divisions of c-e/ieraZ or f/j^Mse^Z; as when the whole vascular
system participates primarily in the affection. Or it may be local^ or confined;
the bloodvessels of an individual part only being affected with the mflammatory
action. To the first of these we refer febrile affections and extensive inflamma-
tions of vital organs, as well as symptomatic fever generally, all which more iiu-

280 DIFFUSED OR GENERAL INFLAMMATION. [CLASS I

mediately concern our present pathological purpose. Local inflammation will be
more fully considered with our surgical detail, and the structural derangements
of the more external parts : but as the leading features of this importantTbject
belong to both departments, we shall commence with a summary of the whole
reserving the practical illustrations of local inflammation to hereafter

lnflammaho7i may be regarded as a disease of the bloodvessels*, princinallv of
the arterial ones; and thus in proportion as a part is more or less vascular so it
is more or less prone to active inflammationf. Inflammation is characterised by
heat redness, tension, and pain. The temperature of an inflamed part will be
found in every instance increased, but not in a degree proportioned to the in-
tensity of the inflammatory actionj. In the horse and other quadrupeds we can-
not so readily detect the heightened colour of inflamed parts, from then- exterior
hairy covenng ; but when this is shaved off, it is sufficiently evident, and in cer-
tain parts, as the conjunctive membrane of the eye, and the mucous lim'ng of the
nostrils and mouth, it is most easily observed. This effect we know to be occa-
sioned by more red particles being circulated than natural in such parts as usually
carry red blood, and by red globules being forced into such vessels during the
inflammatory state as at other times carried only the colourless parts of the blood
as the transparent part of the eye, which under inflammation is therefore often
seen bloodshot. The swelling of an inflamed part is effected at first by this in-
crease to the capacity and distention of its vessels ; afterwards it may be kept up
or even enlarged by effusion of the contents of the vessels within it§. The sensi-
bility of an inflamed part is always increased, but not uniformly in proportion
to the degree of its vascularity; but it appears more generally dependent on the
supply of nervous influence.

The divisions of inflammation are numerous, some of which are useful and
appear, natural, as into acute and chronic. Very vascular parts are subject to the
former, which is commonly more quick in its progress and more favourable in its
termination than in parts less vascular, as bones, ligaments, and tendons, in which

• It has been before stated, that iiiflauimation was formerly under the humoral patholoev considered

the bloodvessels, and considering the blood itself to be unaltered. Upon this consideration of the sub-
ject the theory of inflammation is now formed ; and as it is a most important subject to the veterina-
rian, and one on which the practice of his art must mainly hingo, he would do well to inform himself
of the experiments made, the facts collected, and the reasonings deduced in support of the present
doctrines, from the able works of accredited writers on human and brute pathologv both of the
English and continental schools.

t In this way a stimulus applied to a part, as heat, friction, acrid matters, &c. increases the florid
tnige, by determining more blood to the part. Greatly increased redness in the inflamed part is not

same opinion, that an Inflamed part is not to be considered as possessing increased vitality or strength"
but that, on the contrary, it is in a state of increased and acquired debility. It is not, however pro-
bable that such is the immediate consequence : but it is more than probable that, after some conti-
nuance of the inflammatory state, the action is carried beyond the powers of the vessels of the part
and that they become weakened in proportion as their contractility is exerted to overcome their dis-
tention. According to Dr. Thomson, the velocity of the blood in inflamed capillaries sometimes con-
tinues from the commencement to the termination of that state ; and that at others a diminished ve-
locity in the circulation marks the rise, the progress, and the close of the inflammation ; but that this
latter state is much more common during the progress of the affection than during its first stages
(See Thomson on Inflammation.) Dr. Wilson Phillip says. ' In short, inflammation seems to con-
sist in the debility of the capillaries, followed by an increased action of the larger arteries.' (See Dr.
Phillip on the Vital Functions.) It will thus be seen that the experiments made by Dr. Thomson
and Dr. Phillip, to determine the contended point of increased or diminished strength in the capil-
laries, led to different results and conclusions, and that, unfortunately for the medical art, we are
still somewhat in the dark on this interesting point : but, as before stated, we are authorised from the
best conducted experiments, as well as from the evidence of observation on the phenomena which
occur, in concluding with Dr. Thomson, that under some circumstances the capillaries ate in a state
of increased action, and at others are affected with actual debility in inflammation.

X Mr. Hunter denied any increase of temperature to an inflamed part, but the experience of every
day demonstrates the contrary. From the time of Celsus, this has been universally admitted : ' Notse
vero inflanmiationis sunt quatuor, rubor, et tumor, cum colore et dolore." — Celt. lib. 3, chap. 10.
The supporters of Mr. Hunter's assertion attribute the «e»«n<ton to an increased sensibility of the
nerves, which convey false impressions to the sensorium. It is sufficient, however, to apply a ther-
mometer to an inflamed surface to prove the fact. (See .Hr. Percivull's Hippo-patholoi^v, p. 53, 54.)

§ Tlic water farcy of horses subjected to violent general inflammatory action is an instance of this,
where the vessels pour out a serous fluid, which lodging in the interstices of the cellular membrane,
occasions that dropsical pitling-in of the skin which is observable in such cases.

Class 1.] diffused op general inflammation. 281

the chronic or slow is apt to occur. This leads to a further division into the
hValthii and unhealthy inflammation. When a wound is inflicted into a muscular
art heat, swcUing, and eff-usion quickly take place; the results of which are
either immediate union, or granulations, which finally restore the parts ; such is
healthy inflammation. Tumours in other parts less organized, or under unfa-
vourable circumstances, submit to many diseased changes of unhealthy inflam-
mation Inflammations are also called co7nmon, when only the ordinary processes
oo on ; and specific, when the common phenomena are not observable, but are
superseded by others, as in rheumatism, rabies, &c. &c. It has also been at-
tempted to divide inflammation according to its seat in elementary tissues*; from
our observation that a difference in structure has a great effect, not only on
the particular and general inflammatory phenomena, but also on their future
effects and terminations. A still more general and characteristic division of
inflammation is into phlegmonous, or the inflammatory affection of the skin and
membranous parts, accompanied with heat, distention, redness, and an inclina-
tion to effusion when deep-seated or extensive: to suppuration when more su-
perficial and circumscribed. And into the erysipelatous, which is seldom accom-
panied with much tension, is not uniformly red, is early attended with serous
effiision in the form of small blisterings and future desquamation, but which js
a state by no means weU defined in the horse ; nor is it much more distinct in
cattle, but is more so in the dog.

When the usual phenomena of inflammation have lasted a longer or shorter
time, according to their intensity, the parts they affect, or the age, constitution,
and condition of the horse, another series of symptoms present themselves, and
the inflammation terminates. These ordinary effects or terminations of inflam-
mation, are resolution, adhesion, suppuration, ulceration, and gangrene. Reso-
lution occurs when the overcharged and distended vessels not having been excited
either into effusion or suppuration, recover their proper caliber, leaving the tex-
ture and former state of the parts entire. To effect this termination the efforts
of the veterinarian ought to be principally directed ; and it wiU stimulate his
efforts to know that a complete resolution may take place in whatever part of the
body the affection is situated. Adhesion, or the adhesive state of inflammation,
appears to be dependent on a disposition of the capillary arterial branches to pour
out the coagulable parts of the blood ; or, in other words, what has been known
by the coagulable lymph, and which process may be healthy or diseased, accord-
ing to circumstances. (See Local Inflammation.')

When the continuance of the inflammatory action prevents either of these
effects, the general affection of the system becomes increased ; the pain, which
probably before was duU, becomes now darting and severe : and suppuration fol-
lows. These appearances are principally observed when tumour forms, and the
pus or matter is poured into a circumscribed cavity. When suppuration takes
place on extensive mucous surfaces, the usual symptoms of great vascular action
are less, and the pus seems to be poured forth from the arteries with little or no
abrasion or ulceration of substance. Gangrene occurs when the arterial action
has been so extreme as actually to produce death in the inflamed vessels by a
derangement and breaking up of general tissues. Blood is occasionally extrava-
sated ; but more frequently an excess of irritation consequent on the violence of
the inflammatory stage destroys the animalf .

In addition to the foregoing terminations, there is another that now and then
takes place naturally ; at other times it is brought about artificially. Two dis-
tinct inflammations are seldom found in parts situated near to each other ; but a
part in proximity may become susceptible of the increased action in a superior
degree to the part first affected ; in which case, as the latter takes on the inflam-
mation, it very generally produces the effect of removing it from the former ; and

• This method of division is sanctioned by the names of Dr. C. Smith, Bichat, and Pinel. — See
also observations on the different species of inflammation, by Mr. James, of Exeter, 1821.

■f Mr. Pcrcivall witli great truth observes, tliat gangrene as it exists in tlic human subject is not
often present in the liorse ; l)ut tliis does not arise because liis system is incapable of it. I have seen
spliacelatcd lungs, liver, kidneys, and bowels ; but though these cases arc rare, because, as he justly
remarks, the general powers usually fail before the morbid organ arrives at this state, yet they do
occur.

282 DIFFUSED OR GENERAL INFLAMMATION. [ClASS I.

this termination is called metastasis. See the following, Hippo-patliohgy, vol. L
^.G2- Veterinarian ^o\. u, p. 15 and p. 185. Mr. Castley also, on the saraJ
subject, should not be overlooked; Vet. in, p. 159. Many other useful hints
thereon inay be gained from this valuable periodical. Nevertheless, from the
horse being httle liable to erysipelatous and arthritic inflammations, in which this
anomaly is most observed, it was, therefore, presumed it was rare. A more
extended held of observation has, however, shewn that it is not so ; on the con-
trary, many instances of aquine metastasis of inflammation occur, as from the
lungs, &c. to the feet, and occasionally from the feet to other organs Ophthal-
mia also is frequently relieved by metastasis ; and it has been likewise brought
on by rehevmg other organs of then- inflammatory burthen (see Veterinarian, vol.
m, p. 159)^ An artificial metastasis is indeed one of our most active auxiliaries
in combatting inflammation : and thus we inflame the skin or other less important
parts by stimulants, to promote a translation of the morbid vascular action goin<T
on m some essential organ. The termination of inflammation by indolent tumour
is sufficiently common in the horse ; but it is very seldom that such enlargements
present any scirrhous or steatomatous characters.

The liability to these various effects or terminations of inflammation, it has
already been stated, is not the same in all parts of the body ; on the contrary,
some are more prone to one, and others to a different one. Deep-seated parts',
and the great serous cavities of the body, appear peculiarlv liable either to the'
adhesive effects of inflammation, or to that modification of it which produces
effusion. By the former, bands of coagulable lymph form adhesions in the chest
and disturb the respiration, or obstruct the trachea and produce roaring : by the
latter, serous effusion takes place and produces dropsy. In mucous canals and
on mucous surfaces, on the contrary, suppuration most readily occurs ; and, as
in parts supplied only with exhalent capillaries, ulceration and an abraded sur-
face must accompany the formation of pus, as already noticed ; it is here pro-
duced as a pure secretion from the surface without ulceration, dependent on
structural peculiarity. It is to this cause we attribute the tendency of the nasal
membrane to produce pus in catarrh, strangles, and glanders, but very rarely to
take on gangrene. If bone become injured, its inflammatory process is ulcerative,
but slow, and granulations form very tardily ; for its structure is but little vas-
cular, compared with skin or muscle, which being torn off, inflames, granulates,
and is reproduced quickly.

^ The causes of inflammation are said to be remote and proximate, but which
distinctions are by no means easy to define. Such occasional causes as act by
their outward effects as stimulants, whether they act chemically or mechanically,
we can readily comprehend : but the more remote agencies of heat, cold, miasma,
and deleterious gases, we are at a loss to explain, and they may be proximate
or remote causes according to circumstances. Inflammations, local and confined,
and febrile affections generally, were wont to be attributed principally to the effect
of cold. Modern pathologists have been led to consider this as erroneous, and,
on the contrary, they attribute more inflammatory affections to the alternation, of
heat with cold, than of cold with heat. But it is probable that, in attempting to
prove too much, as is usually the case, they prove too little ; for daily observation
of plain facts convince us that the application of cold, under various forms and
circumstances, is an active agent in the production both of general and of local
inflammation*. The proximate cause of inflammation, as already stated, is de-
fined to be the state of the vessels, and of the relations between them and the
circulating blood withm themj.

• On this subject Dr. Thomson most ingeniously remarks, that ' No subject 'is. more deserving of
attention, than the effects whicli are produced in the human body by the operation of cold applied to
its surface; but the subject is at the same time exceedingly extensive, complicated and dirhcult.
These effects differ according to the degree in which the cold is applied, the state of the sy>^tein, the
part of the body to which it is applied, and tlie mode of its application. So diversified, indeed, are
these effects, that it requires no mean confidence in theoretical reasoning to believe, that the opera-
lion of cold in producing them is explicable upon any single general principle." (Lecturet on Injiam-
malion, p. 58.)

f Here an evident difficulty occurs: If the state of the vessels be an inflanunatoiy one, Is intlani-
mation a cause or an effect of this state ? If it be a cause, it cannot be more proximate than that
which promoted it, whether cold or other ; if it be an effect, no cause need be assigned to it.

Class I.] diffused ok general inflammation. 283

In iuflainmation, cither some change actually takes place in the blood itself, or
it becomes altered by the vessels themselves, for its disposition to coagulate is
retarded and its fluidity is apparently augmented, by which means the red glo-
bules fall to the bottom of the blood drawn, and the gluten or coagulable lyniph,
caUed the buff, appears on the top: and thus, when blood drawn exhibits a white
surface and sizy consistence, it has been usual to say, there is an inflammatory
state in that habit. (See Pulse, p. 133, 134 ; see also Nature and Properties of
the Blood, p. 204.) In local inflammation the vessels of the affected part only
arc in this state, unless such part be of great magnitude or importance in the
system ; in which case general inflammation sometimes accompanies it, and this
state is called symptomatic fever. General inflammation produces inflammatory
fever : nevertheless, there appear states or circumstances in fever which are not
dependent on increased action alone, and it is this something that forms the
very great obscurity in our theory of fever, and which is, in fact, the very essence
of the disease. That increase of vascular action which accompanies fever should
be distinguished from simple increased action arising from the affection of parti-
cular parts : the former constitutes a disease ; but the latter is merely sijmptom-
atic, and sometimes even a salutary effort : it may, however, ui some cases, rise
to such a height as to wear out the patient. Most extensive inflammatory ac-
tions in the horse proceed to their termination sooner than those of the human,
which is thought to arise from the greater quantity of muscular coat found in his
arteries, but is probably equally dependent on the vast quantity of blood in the
system. This rapidity gives a peculiar character to inflammatory diseases in him,
and renders it dangerous to form either a diagnosis or prognosis on the doctrine
of similar affections in the human. The prognosis, or the being able to give an
opinion as to the probable effects or terminations of extensive inflammation, must
be formed from an attentive observation of the foregoing circumstances ; and such
attention must of itself form the diagnosis. In the resolution of inflammation not
only the affected parts return to their former state ; but the system at large be-
comes less irritable, the vascular action moderates, and the arterial beat softens.
If the attack has been purely local, and not excessive, it is sufficient that the
sensibility of the affected part, the redness and the tension, gradually subside.
Effusion is indicated by a remission of the increased action, the pulse usually be-
comes smaller; but if the effused fluid be considerable, the pulse may be observed
to be likewise irregular : there is also frequently an obstruction to the flmctions
of some of the organs in the neighbourhood of the eff"usion. When suppvu-ation
takes place, the symptoms of pain and irritation cease, the pulse becomes sensibly
softer, and fluctuation soon follows. When that breaking up of vascular texture
and debasement of the blood takes place , which characterises the gangrenous
tendency in the horse, there is a mitigation of pain, and the pulse becomes softer ;
but it likewise becomes weaker and weaker, until death closes the scene.

The treatment of general or diffused inflammation— In attempting the reduc-
tion of diffused inflammation, whether existing in the specific form of inflamma-
tory fever, or in that of the idiopathic inflammation of some vital and important
organ, the first remedy usually employed is bleeding, because of aU other remedies
this tends most to lessen the morbid increase of circulation going on. In general
inflammation it is prudent to abstract a large quantity of blood at once, and as
quickly as possible, by making a large orifice, for reasons detailed in page 205 :
and if the state of the pulse and other appearances (see Pulse, and cautions relat-
ing to Bleeding, p. 133), as those of the blood drawn, &c.* betoken a continuance
of the undue arterial action, repeat the bleeding as long as the muscular strength
continues unimpaired ; and this more particularly if the horse be of due age, and
in fuU condition ; ever keeping in mind that one or two early and copious bleed-
ings are more effectual in combating active inflammations, than numerous subse-
quent abstractions, which frequently weaken and impair the general strength,

• It is not the huffy state of the blood drawn, neither is it the cupped appearance of the coixgnlum,
from wliieh criteria of ttie propriety of a repetition of tlie Ijleeding only can he drawn ; tint also from
tlic adhesiveness and tenacity of the coaffnliim as a mass. Ilojvever hulTv the liloiid may remain,
provided the coaunluui he soft and easily liroken, a continuance of bleeding will not he advisable.
Sec Nature una Properties of the Blood, \i. 20-1.

284 DIFFUSED OR GENERAL INFLAMMATION. [CLASS I

and thus often add to the disease. The practitioner must not however ho ho
trayed mto too mdiscriminate a use of the lancet, in some sScfrStions of
a.i mflammatory nature. The peritoneal inflammation of tS bowef w X^^^^
repeated bleedings; but that which affects the viUous surface m^t beTeneSpH
with caution. One bleeding is frequently useful in .the early Ttafes o^^^^^^^^
but more IS seldom admissible: while the inflammatory attacks or the mren
chymaof the lungs wiU bear numerous venisections. When phle Jonous
mours are forming, and in strangles also, unless the symptoZtl fSTSVZ
Weeding must be cautiously attempted. Purgatives, in L humaSject^fom
the next active agent in combating arterial elcitement; but there are some n™
culianties in he .structure and functions of the horse, which render S les
eligible than in man. To produce active purgation in he horseTs a source of
great irritation frequently, and one that calls forth more of the powers of the
constitution than under some circumstances can be spared. (SeeSXl )
It also requires so much time to effect it, that our dependence on it h lSZ'i
Nevertheless, we must not neglect attempting a soluble state of the bowels by
such means as tend the least to irritate them^ In some cases, repeated smaU
doses of aloes or a watery solution of them (see Veterinary Materia Medica\
may be properly substituted; in others, neutral salts, &e. and in aU bran mashes

H^lri^f-'^-f?- '''*'']^^^°^'^^*^i°°^"P<'^^^ to further the end, without any
danger of irritation. OccasionaUy cases occur which require a more active pur-
gatory practice by the croton tiglium, or a full dose of aloes at once. BiapLre-
iic^n& immeating remedies are among the principal means available to thf great
end of combattmg vascular action. Antimonials given in sufficient doses, and
lepeated at proper intervals, have unquestionably a considerable power over the
arterial system; and this without operating very sensibly, either in nauseating
the stomach, or greatly relaxing the skin ; but apparently by a direct action on
the heart and arteries, as soon as received into the circulation*. If the anti-
monial powder be used, it should be given as a baU twice a-day, in two-drachm
doses. If the tartrate of antimony be employed, it may be in doses of a drachm
and a halt three times a day, dissolved in water, gruel, or other Hquid. In dif-
lused inflammation, accompanied with great prostration of strength, a good arte-
rial sedative will be found in the acetate of ammonia, and a stiU better one in the
acetated hquor of ammonia. (See Vet Mat. Med.) Nauseating remedies are
certainly available in the horse, in lessening arterial action, and the pulse will be
tound to lessen under the action of all such agents as tend to produce this sensa-
tion in the stomach. But this effect so much under our command in the human
system, and in most quadrupeds also, is not, from structural peculiarity, so readily
nor so ehgibly exerted in the horse. It is true he may be nauseated ; and during
the effect, when confined within certain Hmits, the circulation wiU be diminished
and the skm relaxed; but when the nausea is pushed into unavailing efforts to
vomit, great irritation follows, and the pulse increases in frequency, often becom-
ing intensely hard, and sometimes irregular also. Under such circumstances, I
have seen profuse perspiration, which, in every instance, has left the animal greatly
prostrated in strength. When, however, a nauseating effect is found to be readily
excited, without producing extreme distress (and these aptitudes are very differ-
ent in different subjects), it may be advantageously brought in aid of the other
means of attacking inflammation. The articles which may be employed for this
purpose are various : when purgation is required asoneof the intentions of lower-
ing arterial action, two drachms of aloes, given every sixth hour until eight
drachms have been given, will often conveniently fulfil both intentions of nauseat-
ing and purging. In the same way I have employed, with great advantage, the

• I am fully aware that I am combatting the opiniens of aome of our best veterinarians, by recom-
mending antimonials as active agents in lessening arterial action; but repeated direct experiments,
united to twenty-five years' attentive observation, have convinced me of the fact ; and 1 am borne
out in the recommendation by the opinion also of many other ingenious and eminent veterinarv prac-
titioners, in whose practice antimonials become a powerful antifebrifnge remedy. (See Proyvssor
Peal's e.vcel/ent /Fork, p. 83 ; and Clarke's P'et. Phar. p. 28). With Mr.' Youatt also, whose
observant habits and acuteness of perception are well known, it coutinues, I believe, a favourite
febrifuge.

Class I.] epidemic catarrhal fever in horses. 285

sulphate of masncsia (Epsom salts), in doses of four or five ounces, every three
or four hours, largely diluted, and this particularly where an ii-ritable state of the
bowels has forbidden the administration of aloes or other powerful cathartics.
Active nauseants will be found among henbane (hyoscyamus), nightshade (bella-
donna), wolfsbane (aconitum), tobacco (nicotiana), and the root of white helle-
bore (veratri album). Each of these will produce nausea, in repeated doses of
fifteen to thirty grains, but they all require much watching (See Nauseants, Vet.
Mat. Med.). The white hellebore root, powdered, is employed for this purpose
by many veterinarians, and it is now much used by veterinarians, whose accounts,
however, vary with regard to it. It still continues, I believe, to find a warm
advocate in Mr. Percivall, who recommends it in doses of twenty grains, twice
or thrice a-day, and even considers it as the only diaphoretic with which we are
yet acquainted. Diuretics are also serviceable in allaying inflammatory action,
under the cautions detailed in that article. Diluents are likewise assistant febri-
fuges ; as tepid water, hay or bran tea, thin guel, &c. &c. in considerable quanti-
ties, by promoting gentle diaphoresis and a soluble state of the bowels. As heat
is known to increase arterial action, so a cool temperature is generally advisable
in these cases, with a thorough access of fresh air. AU exercise should be
avoided except such as the horse is inclined to take himself in a loose box :
strong muscular action greatly increases the circulation. Stimulating articles, as
spices, ale, &c. should be avoided, unless indicated by peculiar circumstances.
As regards clothing, circumstances must direct the quantity : some slight guard
to the skin, which is now more than usually sensitive to the actual contact of
cold air, is proper, except the weather be very hot and the stable or box close ;
but woollen or other hot coverings assist to keep up vascular action. In this
way it should be the aim to avoid likewise all other general and local causes of
irritation. These form the more general indications of cure of diffused inflamma-
tion, in the form of general fever, and in that of internal and essential organs ;
and we shall now proceed to speak of the several kinds separately.

EPIDEMIC CATARRHAL FEVER IN HORSES.

I purposely commence with this fever as being one of the most frequent which
attacks horses, either fi-om the inhaling of some miasm ; or otherwise fi"om being
exposed to a very variable temperature when labouring under the effects of fa-
tigue, and probably of privation also ; which, be it observed, has a more injurious
effect on horses than is generally imagined, particularly on young ones, and more
so in a variable spring, when heat and cold, drought and moisture quickly alter-
nate. It sometimes is prolonged through the summer, and into the autumn also,
when the predisposing causes are continued. It is a true epidemic, and, as I
believe, makes its attack under a peculiar or specific influence, and is not infre-
quently accompanied with the leading features of asthenic bronchitis.

The distemper or influenza, as it is sometimes called, is singularly prevalent in
some seasons, and rages more under some circumstances than others ; and al-
though it exhibits general characters in common, yet the epidemic of one year
will be marked with some particular symptoms in most of those it attacks, which
will not appear in the epidemic of the next. Horses of large cities and crowded
towns are more obnoxious to it than those of the country ; and than those less
confined. Occasionally, however, although the liability to its attack is almost
universal among all varieties, yet the young, and such as have been lately brought
under stable management, are in general observed to be more liable to it than
the older and worked horses. The spring months appear particularly favourable
to its production, and the prevalence, as already observed, is materially increased
by a variable state of the atmosphere, as great and sudden changes from dry to
wet, and from heat to cold, and still more certainly if accompanied with a long-
continued easterly wind. Now and then it is found to occur in wet autumns
also. It has been disputed, whether it be contagious or not, and both the nega-
tive and affirmative may be maintained. In some seasons it exhibits little or

286 EPIDEMIC CATARRHAL FEVER IN HORSES [Cl\SS T

horsr*!'^'*'"' "'^'"'•^ '"S'^'y particularly among your.g

_ It is of great consequence to distingidsh this complaint from pneumonia or simnle
mflammat^on of the lungs; for, if bleeding and other parti of tfe deXSg sS
which are essentiaUy necessary in pneumonia, be carried too far n^this the
consequences are pernicious. To an attentive observer such a mistake s'not
however, hkely to happen ; the early defluxion from the nose, and tslende" cy
to become purulent; the tenderness and swelling of the submaxillary glands^
with the early prostration of strength which accompanies it, compared with the
violence of the other febrile symptoms, all sufficiently characterize catarrii he
pulse in this IS that of irritative fever, and although often small and frennent
yet It has not often the wiry, oppressed, and indistinct feel usual in pneumonia.
_ Catarrhal si/ jnptomsf .—The disease usually commences with a rigor, or' shiver-
ing ht, but which IS frequently not observed; to this succeeds increased heat
with hurried respiration ; a defluxion from one or both nostrils, which become
quickly heightened in colour, the defluxion therefrom being at first of a thin and
serous nature ; the eyes appearing at the same time heavy, red, and moist The
serous exudation from the linings of the nose, however, soon loses its thin, wa-
tery character, and becomes mixed with flaky coagula from the Schneiderian
membrane ; and if an early resolution of the inflammation does not take place
cough comes on, the suppurative process next succeeds, and the discharge be-
comes purulent. The general tendency in mucous surfaces in continuitv, and
even in contiguity, to become similarly aflTected, extends the inflammation into
the pharynx and larynx, from which the tonsils frequently become tumefied and
tender. Sore throat is therefore a very fi-equent accompaniment to the com-
plaint which shews Itself by a difficulty in swallowing water, which is rather
sucked than gulped. The hay taken also is chewed, or ' quidded; as it is termed
and then thrown out of the mouth. The inflammation extending itself throuc^h-
out the larynx makes cough a usual system also, and which is more harsh, Avy,
and frequent, as the inflammation passes the rima glottis and enters the trachea
or less so when it confines itself to the larynx alone. From the tumefaction'
about the rima glottis, the cough is often almost incessant, as well as deep and
sonorous, and is frequently so painful as to occasion much impatience and vio-
lent stamping in the horse during his efforts. When the inflammation extends
itself into the bronchial passages, pneumonic symptoms, as oppressed pulse, and
intensely red nasal linings, are added to the catarrhal affection. In its progress
throughout the extent of Schneider's membrane it often aflTccts the frontal sinuses,
in which case the head is pendant, the eyelids are nearly closed, and even s\i<^\\t
appearances of coma present themselves. The general affection makes it very
common for the maxillary glands to become much tumefied, extremely tender,
and sometimes to suppurate, and not unfrequently the parotids also are affected!
The same tendency likewise produces phlegmonous tumours in various parts of
the head, which greatly protract the disease. In some nistanccs also swellings
appear on the chest, belly, or legs, but which seldom prove critical, and termi-

• Mr. Wilkinson, of Ncwcaptlo, vvha appears to liavc appn much of tlip epidemic catarrh, desciibes
It as ilecidedly contagions, and marks the dillerences between tlic two varieties on the frame. Gibson
who Rives a very excellent account of its ravages in London in the vear 1/32, informs us that it proved'
Itself hi^'hly contagions. His description of the syinptonis are well detailed; and we are informed
that lie found benefit from lileeding wlien the irritative felnile symptoms ran high; neither did he lind
that such a plan stopped the purulent secretion, but, as he thinks, rather prevented it running into
gangrene. In 1734, we learn from him that it appeared again, and was accompanied with vesicular
eruptions over the body, and which are, he observes, peculiar to the catarrh in the epidemic form
Osmer is no less particular in his description of it, as it raged in 1/50 as an epidemic. He advises
bleeding in the early and highly inaammatory stages : in all others, he observes, it does harm.

■j- As this disease may be considered as principally seated in the.inucous linings and dependencies of
the nasal, pharyngeal, and laryngeal cavities, so there are certain catarrhal symptoms common to all
its cases ; hut as these several parts arc often aflfected in unequal proportions, the prcdoininaiif symp-
toms of such individual affections arc found by experience to give great variety to the com)daint.' To
this we arc to attribute the discrepancies in the symptoms detailed and treatment pursued between dif-
ferent practitioners, as well as its variations in different seasons and different districts. This is a matter
it behoves the prudent practitioner to keep in mind; and also that in some cases it presents most of the
inflammatiory type, and in others is mixed « ith typhoid sylnptoins.

Class I.] epidemic catarrhal fever in horses. 287

nate the disease. Neither do they, unless they suppurate, aggravate it ; on the
contrary, I have remarked, that when they appear early, they formed rather a
favourable prognostic than otherwise. The pulse varies in different subjects and
under different modifications of the disease : it is, however, quickened in most
instances, and the breathing is usually accelerated in the same proportion ; but
unless the febrile symptoms run very high, it is not often that the pulse is very
full, or very hard. A remarkable prostration of strength soon follows the forma-
tion of the fever, and the suppurative process. Thus about the third or fourth
day, the horse, on being moved from his stall or box, will usually be found much
weaker that the violence of the accompanying symptoms would give reason to
expect. This is so generally observed, that the attendant debility alone is a
marked characteristic of the disease, and I think of the specific nature of the
fever which accompanies it.

About this time, if the complaint be of the mild kind, and if the treatment
have been judicious, although the purulent discharge may rather increase than
diminish, yet the severity of the other symptoms maybe expected to abate. The
cough and soreness of throat will lessen, the pulse moderate, the heat of the
body will become equable, the countenance more lively, and the horse will now
probably be disposed to eat some favourite food. The dung, which has been
before dry and in small quantities, and the urine, which has been also spare and
hio-h coloured, return to their natural states, and the horse recovers gradually,
but seldom rapidly. The disease, however, does not always take this favourable
turn ; on the contrary, by injudicious treatment, or by the violence of the attack,
or by a translation of the inflammatory action, the respiration sometimes becomes
greatly disturbed, occasioning much heaving at the flanks ; the legs, ears, and
muzzle become cold, the pulse is found greatly quickened, and the weakness ex-
cessive. The nasal membranes now often look in some parts livid, and in others
of a fiery red : the discharge from them also is tinged with streaks of blood. In
these cases, unless relief be speedily obtained, the pulse will proceed to falter,
cold sweats appear, and the animal often sinks on the fifth, sixth, or seventh day.
In other cases, these fatal symptoms are not so rapid ; but, eventually, the horse
becomes tabid, and dies after ten, twelve, or fourteen days. Not unfrequently
also, when the inflammation has extended to the lungs, serous effusion takes
place, as in pneumonia, and suffocation closes the scene. In some instances a par-
tial recovery takes place ; but the horse remains thick winded, or he proves a
roarer, or the disease blocks up the air cells, and he becomes altogether broken
winded ; which several terminations are more fully detailed in Pneumonia. Ca-
tarrh sometimes takes on a chronic form, after its more prominent irritative symp-
toms have disappeared ; in which cases the discharge from the head continues for
weeks, and even months, and unless put a stop to by active tonics, and a com-
plete change in the system, may end in glanders.

Games. — These have been described as principally dependent on a variable
state of the atmosphere, acting upon a peculiar liability or aptitude in the con-
stitution to become affected, more particularly at the vernal and autumnal equi-
noxes. In some years, this liability is more general than in others ; and if to
these be added an unusually variable temperature, with atmospheric moisture,
the disease assumes a severer and more epidemic type.

Prognosis. — This must be drawn from the mildness or violence of the general
symptoms, as the quickness or moderation of the pulse, the state of the breath-
ing, and the early and kindly discharge of a moderate quantity of healthy purulent
matter from the nose. When the patient coughs strong and without much dis-
tress, eats moderately, and remains tolerably free from weakness, there is little
danger : but if, on the contrary, the local and constitutional symptoms are in-
ordinate, and the prostration of strength very great, particularly when these are
protracted beyond the fifth day, the danger is considerable.
_ Treatment of the Epidemic or Catarrhal Fever. — According to the degree of
violence exhibited by the symptoms, so must the treatment correspond in ac-
tivity; and before this is detailed, it is proper to remark, that when a cold fit
immediately precedes the attack, and such is detected, similar means to over-

288 EPIDEMIC CATARRHAL FEVER IN HORSES. [ClASS I.

coinc this premonitory symptom may with propriety be tried as are already de-
tailed under Simple Eevcr ; but they must not be persisted in. Commence the
treatment by abstracting blood to the amount of three, four, or five quarts ac-
cording to the age, size, and condition of the subject; but should a practitioner
be called to a case of this kind the third or fourth day from the attack, ho ought
well to examine the state of the pulse before he proceeds to bleed. It would
also be prudent to examine the general strength of the horse by walking him out
a few paces ; for if the pulse, though quick, should be small, and the horse stag-
ger in his gait when taken out, then by no means draw blood. But, having em-
ployed one sufficient bleeding, unless urged to it by the intensity of the irritative
symptoms generally, or by any appearance of topical affection of the lungs, do
not repeat it ; our best practitioners are decidedly against it, and, according to
my own experience and opinion they are right. The bowels must early be at-
tended to : if any actual costiveness is present, back rake, and open the body
by laxative clysters and bran mashes ; and if these do not succeed, give some
mild aperients by the mouth also (see Laxatives, Mat. Med.), but actively
purging the horse is not prudent, but the contrary ; and also observe, that
should spontaneous purging come on and not appear critical, by its affording
almost immediate relief, check it by opium, starch, or catechu, these indica-
tions fulfilled, proceed to give the following ball twice a-day : —

No. 1 . — Antimonial powder two drachms

Nitrated potash (nlire) three drachms

Supertartrate of potash (cream of tartar) two drachms
Honey, sufficient to make a ball.

Should the cough be distressing, or the throat be too sore to admit a ball, then
the following drink may be substituted with advantage, and may be repeated
twice or three times a-day, according to the urgency of the symptoms : —

No. 2. — Tartarised antimony (emetic tartar) two drachms

Nitrated potash (nitre) three drachms

Simple oxymel (see Mat. Med.) four ounces.

First dissolve the antimony and nitre in six ounces of warm water, and then
add the oxymel. It may also, in case the febrile symptoms do not readily yield
to the treatment, be proper to try the effects of nauseants : if costiveness be
present, mild but repeated doses of aloes may unite both intentions ; if the bowels
be already in a soluble state, other active nauseants may be used.

As the debility usually present in these cases must be an especial object of the
practitioner's notice, and should be judiciously combated by such mean as will
not irritate, linseed tea, made moderately thick from infusions of hay or malt,
or oatmeal gruel, should be horned down, if not voluntarily taken ; and if the
soreness of the passages be so excessive as to make the horse obstinately refuse
his own efforts to swallow, or those used to horn him, then use the stomach
pump (see MM. Med.) to introduce it. These matters may also be thrown up
as clysters. Tepid water should be frequently offered the horse, and it should
be placed nearly on a level with his breast, and suffered to remain so, the sore-
ness of the throat often preventing the horse from stooping, though he might
otherwise be inclined to drink. Malt mash'es, in cases where some appetite re-
mains, are good. Green meat, if it can be procured, is particularly, desirable.
Hand-feeding with choice picked hay (clover hay will be often preferred) will
frequently entice a sick horse to eat. If possible, try either of the following, which
I used in these cases with much success : —

Nitrous aether (sweet spirit of nitre) one ounce

Acetatcd liquor of ammonia (Mindcrei-ns' s spirit ) sL\ ounces

Or,

Carbonated ammonia (spirit of hartshorn) six draclims

Warm ale a pint.

Class I.J malignant catarrhal fever in horses. 289

When the sore throat is a predominating symptom, apply a mild blistering ap-
plication to it, and do the same also to the tumefied submaxillary glands, or the
parotids when similarly afi'ected : infusum lytta;, or the mild sweating blister a8
it is cidled, will prove a convenient application for this purpose (see Mat. Med.)
Early in the complaint, of course, our endeavours are directed to obtain a per-
fect resolution of the inflammatory attack on the mucous membranes ; but these
havin" failed, proceed to assist the maturative process, to which end warmth
tends" as one means to apply which, a hot mash should be constantly kept in
the manger, or, what would be much better, when the state of the horse is such
as to bear it, to hang it to the head by means of a nose bag, the mash being put
in hot, and renewed every hour or two, which wiU greatly tend to bring the ves-
sels to a suppurative process, terminate active inflammation, and prevent the .
throwing out of coagulable l^-mph either in the trachea or bronchia ; which should
be, to the practitioner, a desideratum of the utmost consequence : for, if catarrhal
fever be early brought into a suppurative state of the nasal membranes, and the
discharge from the nose be kept up without check from cold, the disease will
rarely terminate in broken wind, thick wind, or chronic cough. 'J'his early dis-
charge will be likewise promoted by clothing the head in a wooUen hood ; the
body should also be warmly clad, and the legs also watched, that in case they
become cold they may be hand-rubbed and wrapped round with flannel or hay-
bands. In cases where a difficulty in swallowing indicates that sore throat is
present, stimulate the parts around with a terebinthinated tincture of cantha-
rides ; or rub an ointment of a similar nature over the submaxillary localities,
I am also disposed to strongly recommend Mr. Youatt's plan of keeping up a
surface warmth by clothing ; but at the same time to allow a free admission of
pure air ; and, if possible, let it be in an open box, or at least in a loose stall,
which is a good nursery, and is further beneficial, as it renders all other exercise
in protracted cases unnecessary, beyond that which the sick animal will take
himself; for in walking horses out who still labour under iUness, it should be
remembered that exercise hurries respiration, and thus increases the circulation.

The malignant state of the epidemic catarrh. — It has been doubted whether
horses are subject to any fever which can be called either malignant or putrid ;
but whoever has observed a horse apparently first attacked with the mild or com-
mon epidemic, which then proceeded through all the stages of morbid debility
to throw out the most foetid sanies from the nose ; the alvine, the urinary, and
nearly all the secretions betraying the same foetor, and, at last, to present the
whole cellular membrane affected with serous effusion, termed water farcy, cannot
then doubt the existence of a putrid affection in them ; and this the less when
we remark their liability to it, which is such that they have received it from
homed cattle, of which many authenticated records are before us. All the French
veterinary authors describe this disease. Bourgelat treats largely on it ; and
La Fosse, among other symptoms of putridity, notices the existence of aphthae
or thrush throughout the mouth, throat, and alimentary canal. Other authors,
hkewise, mention an epidemic among horses, accompanied with a phlegmonous
tumour, similar to the human anthrax, which did not proceed to suppuration, but
fell immediately into gangrene*. Lancisi, an Italian veterinary writer, describes
a putrid epidemic that destroyed many horses in that country in 1712. Osmer
also, a well-known English veterinarian, notices an epidemic among horses, that
had evidently some putrid appearances, and was undoubtedly of a malignant
kind, from what he terms the critical abscesses, and which distemper, he says,

• 'Lestumetirs charbonneusea, ordinairement uniques dans le cheval, ? e lencontrent quelqiicfois
multiplifcea chez le bceuf et la vaclie : cette espice de tumeiir dans Ics bites & comes est en gfeniral
moins proinpte, ansi que dans le cochon, roais ausi furveste que dans le clieval.' A'jf Charbon, M.
Hurt. d'Arbovul. En 1/12, on observa, parmi les cbevaux, aux environs d'Augsbourg, une autre
tpizootie du typhus qui se communique aux boeufs," &e. ^rt. Typhus loc cit. A communication
of Professor Brugnone to the Academy of Turin, describes a malignant, pestilential, and contagious
epidemic, of March 1783, which communicated among almost the wbole of four troops of dragoon
horses in garrison in Fossano, and proved very fatal. Inoculation with the venous blood of the infected
on sound horses produced the symptoms of the same disease in twelve hours. The sceptic on the sub-
ject of malignant and putrid febrile affections in the horse would do well to read the full detail as it
appears in Hurt. d'Arboval, under the article Typhui ; ai well the article* Epizootie, Charbon,
Anthrax, and Aoginn, Gloisanthrax, Bronchite, &c.

290 MALIGNANT CATARRHAL FEVER IN HORSES. [CLASS I.
had raged for more than fifty years, at difFcrertt periods*. It appears to have
been known also to the ancients ; and we learn from history, that they were in
the habits of sacrificing to their deities to avert the calamity. Franciscus Fan-
tasti, and John Baptist Mazzini, who have written De Peste Bourn, inform us,
that the horses of their country became, in like manner, infected with it. Have
we, therefore, any room to doubt, that not only is the horse subjected to an epi-
demic, but that it is very frequently in a catarrhal form ? and further, it is occa-
sionally so malignant in its type, and so completely destructive to the tissues it
attacks, as to fully estabUsh the presence of gangrene and mortification.

When the catarrhal epidemic assumes the mahgnant type (which fortunately
is now not frequent, although formerly, when woods prevented a free circulation
■* of air, and ere drainage had lessened the morasses, it raged with destructive ha-
voc) it presents all the symptoms already detailed in an aggravated degree. The
abscesses, if any have formed, send forth a sanious discharge, and appear gan-
grenous ; every secretion is foetid in the extreme, the prostration of strength is
very great, ulcers line the nose and even the mouth, the pulse is greatly quick-
ened, but small and wavering, and a fatal termination, unless averted, is at hand.

Treatment. — Whenever the common epidemic rages with peculiar violence,
carefully abstain from bleeding in such cases ; and as soon as any symptoms of
- malignity present themselves, the most active means must be employed to sup-
port the strength and destroy the putrid tendency. The temperature around
should be rendered cool, fumigations of hot vinegar frequently used, and the dis-
infecting processes be put into practice (see Bisinfectors, Mat. Med). Green meat
should be given, malt mashes also, and nutritious clysters ; and when the weak-
ness is extreme, or the appearances of putridity great, give port wine, ale, or
cider, and in case of diarrhoea throw up starch clysters. The following may with
great propriety be administered every four hours : —

Nitrous aether (sweet spirit of nitre) half an ounce

Mindererus's spirit (see Mat. Med.) four ounces

Infusion of chamomile six ounces

Beer yeast six ounces

Tincture of opium three drachms.

SYMPTOMATIC FEVER OF HOUSES.

By this is to be understood those general febrile appearances which accom-
pany great local inflammations ; that is, when any one or more of the vital organs
are extensively deranged, the system at large participates, and the intensity of
the vascular action is diffused throughout the system, which constitutes sympto-
matic or compounded fever. It is evident, therefore, that fever, in this instance,
is not to be regarded so much a disease per se as a prominent symptom ; and as
such it is to be considered in practice also : medical attention to it being usually
but a secondary indication ; nevertheless, as it sometimes runs so high as greatly to
aggravate the other symptoms, wearing away the strength of the animal, so as to
render him unfit to struggle with the real disease, it must still be regarded as a
subject worthy of consideration. It is the jnost frequent fever of horses ; be-
cause it is an attendant on all serious topical attacks of the more important parts
of the body. The medical treatment of it will naturally mix itself with the cura-
tive practice employed in combatting the diseases hinted at. We must, never-
theless, acknowledge that a diSiculty presents itself at the outset, which is this,
that frequently it is not easy to determine whether the febrile disposition be an-
tecedent to the local inflammation which then becomes a consequence of it, or
whether it be produced from it in the nature of metastasis; but, I beUeve, from
what I have observed, that local inflammation originates in both these ways. On
the first attack of most fevers, there appears to be a particular disturbance in the
action of the capillaries : perhaps the application of a peculiar morbid stimulus,
which first increases their action ; by which excitement the blood is driven into

• Memoire sur nne epizootic qui se inanifcsta sur Ics elicvaiix du depot dii 20lli regiment de chas-
seurs en garrison A Mctz ; siiivi d'un apcr^u de cellc qui a rcgii6 en I'an 2 sur les lietos a comes de la
commune de Tramois; par J. li. Uoliicr, hyon.

Class I.] fevers of horned cattle. 291

tlie veins, aud tliis state probably forms the cold sliivcring fit. W'^^" this first
effect is completely over, these vessels, before excited iu their contractility, now
become preternaturally enlarged, by the heart and larger arteries overcoming the
resistance, and propelling an unusual quantity of blood into them, and more than
ordinary heat is the consequence. It is probable that when all the organs arfe
acting in concert to overcome this contraction of the extreme vessels, some one .
part may be more weakened than another by the exertion, and its minute vessels
rendered less able to contract on the distention that follows upon the hot fit, by
which the weakened coats may remain permanently distended, thus constituting
local inflammation of that part ; the irritation and derangement of which will
keep up that fever as symptomatic, which before the local attack was primary :
thus much must take place, to account for local inflammation arising from the
attack of fever, and proceeding fi-om it, which I believe is very frequently the
case. It likewise is not difficult to suppose one organ in an accidental or even
natural state of weakness, and which, in such cases, will be the one most likely
to suffer ; and daily experience convinces us, that such is the origin of many local
inflammations.

The treaiment of symptomatic fever, as a febrile affection, requires to be con-
ducted on the curative principles indicated under Diffused Inflammation, which
see : but the existence of the topical affection will frequently render it necessary
to superadd to generals such particulars as are pointed out under the various
local affections of individual organs. When we have been, during the prevalence
of catarrhal affections, called to inspect a horse just attacked, we have sometimes
paused under a suspicion that it might be only a transitory rigor, and that a sti-
mulant might overcome it, and at once set the horse to rights. We will not
affrqnt the veterinarian by dictating what stimulant he should choose among the
varied articles so employed, but will leave it to his own judgment ; hinting only
no time should be lost, and that a good drench of sound ale warmed, and having
in it a toast well sprinkled with ginger or nutmeg, or both, will offer a temporary
substitute until more active medicaments can be procured*.

THE FEVERS OF HORNED CATTLE.

The diseases of the other of our domestic quadi-upeds, particularly of the
horned ruminants, in a national point of view, can hardly be considered as less
important than those of the horsef ; yet they had hitherto met with little atten-

• During the memorable exijeditiori to tbe Holder, under Sir Ralph Abercromhie, I was stationed
in the .idvanced lines as surgeon to tbe second battalion of the 40th regiment. Tlie troops so sta-
tioned were usually underarms every moining by break of day, to prevent surprise : and, in that
unhealthy country, the standing exposed for two or three hours was found to occasion many inter-
mittent aitacks ; the first rigors of which always took place while thus in line and unemployed. At
first, as .soon as an attack took place, the man vvas ordered out and retired ; in which ease, when I next
saw him, though only two or three hours afterwards, tbe hot fit had supervened, the disease was
formed, and usually ran through its course. This began to be so frequent, that our ranks were likely
to be thinned, and I resolved on attempting at prevention in preference to cure. In future, therefore,
whenever a man beg<in to complain, I was instantly informed of it; and, instead of allowing him to
retire, I gave him on the spot from two to three grains of opium, nipped from off a piece I kept in my
pocket for the express purpos-e. I then ordered him to be walked briskly for half an h ur between two
men, and afterwards to fall into the ranks again. So efficacious was this plan of combatting the inci-
pient disease, by a stimulant greater than tbe morbid one, that not one in ten of those iu future at-
tacked on the spot had occasion for medical assistance afterwards.

+ When we are told that there are five millionB of cattle, thirty millions of sheep, four millions of
swine, and two millions of dogs in our island, we cannot but feel that there is an imperative call made
for us to inquire fully into the means of sustaining in health, and of remedying tbe diseases, of such a
vast and valuable mass. In this almost untrodden field, a harvest of credit and emolument presents
itself to the veterinarian, and one without chance of disappointment. It must, however, be entered
upon on sure grounds. What arc they? We answer, a competent knowledge of tbe immediate struc-
ture, functions, and economy, of tbe animals in question. For even on a supposition that these prin-
ciples are already well understood in the horse, it is still essentially necessary that we. l)ecome ac-
quainted with the physiological and pathological difl'erences which result from the structural devia-
tions from the ffiquine type; and also what specific or jiecnliar diseases belong to these animals un-
known to the other ; and what arc the different effects of medicinal agent!! on them. To the increased
dimensions of tlic vascular system of the ox beyond that of tlie horse we attribute tbe disposition iu
him and his kind to greater inflammatory diathesis, and to the increased rapidity of its course, which
consequently calls for a still more prompt and active treatment in tbe one than the other. IlnminatioTi
makes much difference between the homed and whole-hoofed tribes, both as regards runction and dis-
eased aptitudes; while the more numerous metatarsal and metacarpal bones of the foruu'r at once
decrease the comparative tendency to some derangements, and increase it to those of others. ' Ifarnv
glanders, strangles, grease, and thrush, arc peculiar to the horse; the hoove, inflammatory fcviV'

292 FEVERS OF HORNED CATTLE, [ClASS I.

tention among us ; and even the continental rays which illumined the horizon of
our neighbours, our ignorance and prejudice intercepted. But at length a new
era, has sprung up, and schools are now established to remedy this sad deficiency •
and It IS also promised that we shall henceforward look to our alma mater at
Pancras for instruction on the curative treatment of all our domestic animals
generally. If that indefatigable and excellent veterinarian, Mr. Youatt, and cer-
tain of his coadjutors and correspondents, had done nothing more than promote
a scientific inquiry into this important subject, they would yet have left an impe-
rishable monument to their fame.— The prominent fevers of cattle I shall con-
sider as simple inflammatory fever, puerperal fever, and fevers mixed or typhoid,
exhibiting either malignant, epidemic, or contagious characters, singly or com-
bined.

_ The fevers of neat cattle have many absurd, though, under some points of
view, expressive names, as Hose, Distemper, Black quarter, Joint felon. Quarter
evil. Quarter ill, Shewt of Blood, Joint murrain. Striking in of the ilood. Black
leg, Blainofthe tongue, Sfc. See* In some years these febrile aflPections rage as
an epidemic, either from too luxurious pasturage, or from meagre feeding in bad
pasturage, and sometimes it seems to arise from a sudden remove from meagre to
a more nutritious one, and hence it is very common among the droves brought
from the north into the luxurious pastures of the southern, midland, and west-
ern districts. It is sudden in its attack, and rapid in its progress, presenting
highly inflammatory appearances in its early state, but which are very apt to
degenerate into a low and putrid tj'pe ; as, indeed, do most of their inflammatory
affections. The first symptoms usually betrayed are general stiffness of the limbs,
a dull heavy countenance, red eyelids and nostrils, pulse sometimes quick and
hard, at others not much affected, breathing accelerated and sometimes difficult,
which is further evinced by the open mouth and outstretched head ; stools slimy
and usually of a drier consistence than natural. It is often attended with great
stupidity and disinclination to move, but occasionally there is much restlessness ;
debility comes on early, particularly in the hinder quarters ; and by the second
day the animal cannot remain standing but a short time. Rumination and in-
clination for food ceases ; the breath emits a foetid exhalation, and frequently
on the second day a critical deposit takes place, which terminates the inflam-
matory action. This deposit, in some, proves an universal diffusion of bloody
serum throughout the cellular membrane ; in others, inflammatory phlegmonous
tumours form on the joints, or on the back or belly. From the putrid tendency
in the complaint, a quantity of gas is likewise let loose within the cellular mem-
brane in some instances, which produces a crepitation or crackling under the skin,
similar to that which appears in veal when blown up by butchers. The secre-
tions are grumous, and emit a horrible fcetor ; under which symptoms, unless
speedily relieved, the animal sinks ; and it may be remarked, that after the cri-
tical deposits have formed, the disease usually assumes a more putrid tvpe, and
proceeds in its malignity in the same degree of rapidity that the early stage ran
in inflammatory action.

Wood-evil, pantas, and moor-ill, may with propriety succeed the above as
congenerous members of the list. Variable symptoms, however, will, without
doubt, mark each of these diseases, but their grand febrile characteristics will
bear similar features, and the ailment will require a treatment based on the de-
gree of morbid malignancy present, the strength of the animals attacked, their
age, and the organs principally aflTected. It is not the local names that should
be attended to by the practitioner ; nor can the localities themselves, as woody

foot-rot, to cattle and sheep: the scah and lotto sheep; that tuberculous affection of tlje skin and
cellular membrane, termed measles, to the hog ; and distemper and canker to the dog.' Of the differ-
ent effects of medicinal agents on our domestic animals, enough will appear in the introductory
chapter to the Materia Medica to shew that an intimate acquaintance with them Is likewise essen-
tially necessary.

• It must be observed, with regard to these names, that as they were most probably derived from
the leading symptoms of vei y distinct affections, as topical attacks on individual portions of the
aerating and alimentary passages, and of the viscera themselves, so our further acquaintance with the
diseases of these animals will hereafter separate and widely disperte them, leaving, probably, but few
under the departmen| of aynocha.

^LASS. I.] I'liVEIlS OP HORNED CATTLE. 293

districts or the open moors, have such decided power over these aihnents as
are stated. The herbage of the lowlands, particularly in wet seasons, may some-
what vary the symptoms ; nor do we deny that the eating of the willow leaves
and hedge browsings may not, in a certain degree, alter the complexion of the
complaint ; but the more important symptoms will remain, and the proper treat-
ment also must be persisted in. A cold wet season has much influence m engen-
dering these latter diseases : nor, from what I have seen of them, is marsh mias-
mata without a powerful influence thereon. Thus it is, that in the lofty moor-
lands of the north they prevail equally as in the lower and moister grounds of the
south. The diseases to which we aUude often commence with rheumatic synip-
toms, and may then be successfully combatted in this instance with No. 1 mix-
ture, and in the next with No. 2. In fact, each patient should be liberally sup-
ported with mild antiputrescents, and with sound ale and ginger in powder when
the powers flag greatly.

The Treatment. — When the disease is detected before the skin crepitates, or
before swellings have formed, bleed to the amount of three quarts, and immedi-
ately give a mild purge : but if critical deposits have been made, be more sparing
of the lancet, and also of the purging, unless the pulse should still remain very
full and strong, in which case the purge may be administered ; and when that
has operated, proceed to give the following night and morning : —

No. 1. Nitrous aether (sweet spirit of nitre) an ounce

Acetated liquor of ammonia (Mindererus' s spirit')... six ounces
Strong decoction of chamomile six ounces ;

Or,

No. 2. Beer yeast six ounces

Powdered ginger an ounce

Ale or cider half a pint

The swellings may also be rubbed with yeast or beer grounds ; but the punc-
turing of the emphysematous tumours, unless they be enormously large, is not to
be-a.dvised.

The infiemmatory fever of sheep called Sheep fever, Higham striking, or Blood
striking, present similar symptoms; neither does the proper treatment differ from
that of neat cattle, making allowance in the proportions of the medicaments for
the different proportions in bulk and strength of the animals.

TYPHOID FEVER IN HORNED CATTLE.

This fever, which is little more than an aggravated state of the former, pre-
sents itself under several varieties, very commonly as phlegmasise; the local
affections, however, usually soon blend themselves with a general typhoid or
asthenic type of disease. The inflammatory attacks by which the complaint in
its epidemic form is hurried in, are also various, but more with reference to the
type manifest in different seasons than of the groups of animals attacked during
any one of the periods in which it rages. In some years, the accounts describe
it as commencing with glossanthrax or blain, or with pharyngitis, oesophagitis,
gastritis, or enteritis ; shewing that the alimentary canal is the local object of
attack. In others, the aerating passages exhibit marks of general affection, in
the shape of catarrh ; or individual parts, by symptoms of laryngitis, bronchitis,
pleuritis, or pneumonia. The viscera also are sometimes the primary object of
attack ; and sometimes it is the cellular tissues, which then throw out pustular
eruptions, carbuncles. &c. Its destructive characters have fixed on it the names
of murrain and pest ; as its occasionally more mild ones have that of distemper.
My limits will not allow of any lengthened detail of its ravages ; but I would
recommend that reference should be made to the pages of The Veterinarian,
throughout ; an attentive" examination of which will afford every facility to a just
knowledge of this putrid or typhoid affection, and the curative means employed
thereon. I must content myself with an outline of its history, and a sketch only
of its medical treatment. It was not unknown to the ancients ; but the accounts

294 TYPHOID FEVER IN HORNED CATTLE. [CLASS I

they left of it were neither numerous or precise. Anions the moderns but Uttln

trfiTsfhXVwSid'^f '^'""''^^ '''^'''r^ of theeij.teenrcttu\5:dur g
1710 711 i??2 t^'5l^'T' '''ir^^^t^' ?? l^uropean Continent.
years' 730 ^nd l??f S vlf r ^^"Tf Italy, and Spain. The
iuna UM and 1731, 1740, 1744, 5, and 6, were also memorable for its destruc-
tive visitations over various and extensive portions of the continent Of its Ed
uig eharae ers an exeeUent account is lift us by M. Sauvages? the lustriou^
professor of medicine at MontpeUer. lie described it as veiT fa h and as com!
inencmg by loss of appetite, dejected air, head held low, sight indi' in^t res"
les ness, trerabhngs, staring coat, cold exremities, and deflulions from the nose
and eyes which excoriated the parts they came in contact with. The respiration
became laborious, the pulse accelerated, and disposition to lie down ■ e^ cos-
<!uohT:J soon succeeded by diarrhoea of green foetid evacuations, of

such frequency as often to destroy in twelve hours : tenderness about the withers
with emphysematous swellings, were common.. Dissection presented, we are told'
marks of inflammation, but seldom of gangrene; which serves as another proof-
how vanab e are the characters of epidemic diseases : and, perhaps, bespeaks
some httle leaning in this professor to a favourite theory : for the account states,
that the paunch was generaUy fiUed with undigested food, .and that the other
stomachs and the intestines were inflamed and livid also ; whUe the gaU-bladder
was usually distended with acrid, dark, thick bile. An early bleeding was recom-
mended, but It was not to be repeated; purging was to be avoided ; an excite-
ment to salivary secretion, shght cuticular punctures to let out the emphyse-
matous air, drinks acidulated with vinegar, and mild astringents, to arrest the
diarrhoea, were the other curative formulte.

England, we are told by Hurtrel d'Arboval, was visited by this fever in 1714
and which proved with us as fatal as on the continent; in some cases expending
itselt in a most virulent defluxion from the pituitary membrane, with little other
morbid appearance: in others, by an equaUy morbid diarrhoea or dysentery,
borne of these cases were marked by the Main on the tongue, as weU as bv car-
buncles over the rest of the body. In 1756 and 17o-7 it again made its appear-
ance among us, and the press gave several accounts of it, one of which by Dr
Lf^ard, deserves attention, His account described it as first appearing by a
diffaculty in swaUowing, itching of the ears, involuntary motion of the head, and
staggering gait ; to these succeeded extreme debUity, and desire for rest ; much
cough, and exacerbations of fever which were greatest at night : there was con-
stant diarrhoea, the perspiration had a disagreeable smell, and smaU tumours
were felt under the skin in passing the hand over the body : these symptoms
were seen to be aggravated usually on the seventh or ninth day, at which time,
if the body became covered with large pustules or tumours, M'hich proceeded to
suppuration ; if the faeces became less liquid, and the urine thicker or less pale,
the prognostic was favourable ; "but if, on the contrary, the diarrhoea continued
beyond this period, if the breath continued hot and the body cold, and the dis-
charge from the eyes and nose increased, the animal appearing in pain, then
death was usually near.

The treatment of the complaint under its most malignant types our practitioners
are fortunately but little practically acquainted with ; but we learn from various
sources, that its rapid progress to a fatal termination renders it necessary that it
be as prompt and decisive as it must be judicious : the general view taken of it
being, that it is an affection equally malignant and contagious : the particular \ieyf
must, therefore, be regulated by the immediate circumstances of the individuals
attacked, as well as by analogies drawn from previous cases. It is very common
for it to make its appearance by glossitis or Main under the tongue, and which is
often succeeded by glossa?tfhrax. This, however, is not a necessary connexion ;
glossitis appearing sometimes in pharyngeal angina in horses, cattle, dogs, and
swine, as a phlegmasia without malignant or contagious characters. But when
blain does appear with it, it is usually as a malignant epidemic : we should pur-
sue the plan reconunended by Mr. Youatt in his excellent paper on the subject, in
the 4th vol. of The Veterinarian, to freely lance the glossitic vesicles from end to

Class I ] typhoid fever in horned cattle. 295

ond • or if ulceration is already estabUshed, ' to wash the mouth with a diluted
1 l-Z of r hloride of lime (one part of the saturated solution to eleven of water).
Ss S act aTa -d likewise as a useful stimulant to the

f Vn^ Indolent ulcer.' Hurtrel d'Arboval also recommends opemng of the
and further o scarify the tumid portions around them, cauterismg
'STsarTla^rt^^^^^^^ of sif r (lunar caustic) or the hydrate

of potash (caustic potash). If deeper-seated angmas prevail, the local appbca-
Ss must vary, and external stimulants and interna acidulated or soothing lo-
on will be indicated, with fumigations also: the inflammatory symptom , if
acute, must be likewise attacked by one or two early bleedings, particular y if
?here be any visceral affection; and when the type of the complaint of that
period has not generaUy ended in diai-rhcea, it will be prudent to promote mild
pur-^ation. In such cases, on the contrary, as indicate diarrhoea as a part of the
Affection, the most active means must be resorted to to arrest this most fatal
symptom (see Diarrhoea). The carbuncles or tumours of the body at large,
which form so frequently a prominent feature in the epizootic epidemy, must be
an obiect of attention : the continental veterinarians scarify them deeply, and
treat the ulcers which they produce with active escharotics and antiputrescent
washes. Internally they exhibit various medicaments, among which bark and
sulphuric acid may be noticed. I would recommend the following every four
hours : —

CascariUa bark in powder two ounces

Nitrous aether half an ounce

Acetated liquor of ammonia- four ounces

Beer yeast • eight ounces.

The prevenHve treatment must consist in first separating the infected from the
healthy, and strictly preventing their future intercourse. The unhealthy dis-
tricts should be put under strict quarantine, and such as are yet healthy should
destroy the germ of contagion if possible, by repeated and extensive fires ot
green wood throughout the country : particular care should also be taken to
house the cattle when the weather is intemperate ; neither is it improbable that
a mild purgative every ten days might do much as a proplujlactic. The houses
in which the afiected may have been, and all their appointments, should be dis-
infected. (See Disinfectors, Mat. Med.) The bodies also of the animals who
die from the disease should be buried suflEiciently deep to cover them from dogs,
&c. ; and their skins should be buried with them*.

PUERPERAL FEVER IN CATTLE.

This affection is much more common in cows and sheep than in mares, which
is a singular deviation from the ordinary rule, that the dangers attending the
grand work of reproduction are multiplied in the degree that animals recede from
a state of nature, as is the case with the mare, which is very seldom attacked
with this fever, however highly bred animals recede from a state of nature. —
Dropping after calving, or milk fever, as it is called, occurs at an early period
after deUvery, as from the first to the fourth day, and may be sometimes traced
to violence, at others to exposure to either cold or wet, and more often the cause
is altogether hidden from us. Mr. Youatt says, ' that cows in high condition
are most subject to it. Their excess of condition disposes them to affections of
an inflammatory character at aU times, and more particularly when the constitu-

• For the agriculturist who may wish to prosecute his inquiries on this subject further, it may not
he uninteresting to note the Continental works which contain tlie best information thereon :— Examcn
dc la notice sur I'epizootie qui r6gna sur le gros betail, par MM. Oirard ct Dupuy, Directeur et Pro-
fcsseurs a I'fecole Vfcterinairc d'Alfort.— Essai sur les cpi7.ooties, par M. Guersent, Paris.— Marasmc
(du) epizootiquc, dc» fourragcs extraordinaires & dc I'emploi dcs matiferes aniinales pour restaurer les
herbivores, ou instruction sur les moyens d'arretcr la mortaiite du bfctail qui perit d'epuiseinent : par
CoUaine.— iMemoirc sur la maladie fcpi7.ooti(|ue rfcirne en ce moment 1814, sur les betes a coriu>s, dans
le dfepartenient du Rhone et aillturs, par .F. B.CJohier, liyon —Rapports et observation sur r('pizo(ilic
contagiense rngtiant sur les bfites k comes de pleusieur departemcns de la Krauce. It will also l)0
found very fully detailed in tlie excellent Veterinary Dictionary of Hurtrel d'Arboval, under tlie articles
Hpizoolif, 'I'l/iilius, Anifinil, &c.

PUERPERAL FEVER IN CATTLE. [ClASS I

7u 1 ""j'^'-'^^ t"is disease; and especially if, on account of their
calving, they have been moved from scanty to luxuriani pasture or from W
keep to high stall-feeding. A great deal depends on the qrntitJ'o^ nUk whkh

■ fre noT "'""^ ^'!}^\ S''^' ""Ikers are the most subjeSto 1^3^(1 thev

are not always in the best condition. If from some affectio^ of the system th^
secretion of milk is stopped (and the stoppage of the milk is an early iym^tom
and one of the most frequent), it i« easy to see that the violence of thrsubsT-'
quent lever may bear a near relation to the quantity of the suspended secredons
It has often been observed that the udder has been enlarged and become hot and
ender a day or two before the attack. This enlargement and inflammation of
the bag IS generally attended by partial or total suspension of the milk '

least bmTh"'"7ff " pblegmasi^e, in the early stages at

least but they differ according as other viscera besides the uterus partike of
nalw nf°tl; 7 • ? "'"/^^^ restlessness, irritability, shifting of situation,
pawing ol the feet, quickened respiration, mouth hot and dry : the pulse Mr
liing observes, is usually slow ; and in some cases it certainly is so ; in o hers!

r..^r'V •"^'''^^ "'^'^y ^^^S^ ^'^'^^'^^ it J« considerably accele-

rated, l.xcessive uneasiness and prostration of strength succeed to these; the
cud IS lost, and all appetite ceases : the hypogastric region, before only hot and
tender now begins to sweU, in which at length the abdomen generally partici-
pates, by the extrication of gas from the contents of the paunch It is now that
It assumes its typhoid type, and after this it runs rapidly the remainder of its
fatal course in most cases. *

The treatmeiit in the early stage calls for bleeding, and that liberaUy ; but the
practitioner must make himself well aware that it is an early state of the com-
plaint to which he IS called, or bleeding may not be so proper. Mr. King fs un-
favourable to b ceding in it at all. Mr. Youatt thinks a copious early bleeding
proper, and other successful practitioners have done the same ; nor are there
wanting proofs of its absolute necessity in the outset of the complaint, and a Mr.
l^ythe a practitioner of much experience, expressly states that he has seen many
cows lost from neglect of early bleeding, but which we also beg to obsene can
seldom with safety be practised beyond the second or the third day at most ;
alter which, even spontaneous evacuations from the bowels must be checked.
1 o promote, however, early evacuations from the bowels, to try the following is
good practice : — ^ o

Epsom salts six ounces to eight

Powdered croton seed half a drachm to two scruples

Powdered ginger half an ounce to six drachms. Mix these,

and give in three or four pints of substantial gruel : repeat the same in six hours,
doubling the quantity of ginger, but omitting the powdered croton seed, unless
the costiveness be very obstinate. If the belly swells much, foment it actively.
Some practitioners afford benefit by drawing off the urine every four or five
hours ; nor can Ve do other than to laud the practice. If the morbid symptoms
continue, horn down plenty of substantial gruel, with mild ale and treacle inter-
mixed. We recommend this from accidentally witnessing its beneficial effects
on a valuable Norman cow. In all cases of puerperal fever, therefore, combat a
strong pulse with Uood-letting and purging; but as the pulse. softens, and the
other active inflammatory symptoms lessen, be careful that active purgation is
not longer promoted ; as well also be aware that spontaneous diarrhoea, uu-

• Mr. King, of Stanmoic, an experienced and observant veterinarian, lias informed us that this
affection seldom occurs at the first or even second calving, hut is peculiar to parturitions subsequent
to this ; it does however occasionally liappcn at the first calving. It appears fully as probable that the
stoppage of lochia may he an excitant, as that of the milk, which though an occasional cause, is, I
think, more often an effect. Mr Goodwin is not of opinion that the disease is of an inflammatory
nature, but, on the contrary, he considers it rather a diminntion of nervous energy, and connected
with an atonic state of the abdominal viscera. It certainly in its early stage presents inflammatory
symptoms, and it is equally so that in its later it assumes typhoid marks, and sometimes oven epidemic
rharacters, and appears under such circumstances contagious also.

TtassII inflammation of the uddkr in cows. 297

1 chmilrl he checked The strength must be supported by hberal
less ';'-}t'<^'^Vioundale wUh aromatic bitters intermixed ; malt mashes may be
Sd S S itV^ftrfollowing drink twice or thrice a-day, accordmg
to the urgency of the symptoms :—

Powdered cascarilla bark two ounces

T^orJl tTlh: .:^f^^^ P'ecM, Bimair, bat U must be remem-
bered tmt the prolong/d and typboid stage the identity not ,0 stnctly p.«-

served.

PUERPERAL FEVER OF SHEER

The Duerperal fever of sheep seems even more fatal and rapid than that of
cows an^d consequently it requires more prompt treatment ; but it is not essen-
tTaUv difierent, except that less that half the quantity of the medicaments will be
required. Should the weather be either cold or stormy house both cattle and
Teep, which we strongly recommend, as they can be foddered if any symptoms
of hunger manifest themselves.

MAMMITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER IN COWS.

This subject may with much propriety follow puerperal fever in cattle. It is
certainly not a very common complaint, but as it usuaUy attacks cows with the
largest udders, and the best milkers, so it deserves our notice. A French author,
M Pierre Lecoq M.V., has treated of this affection with much credit to himselt
somewhat after the foUowing manner in The Veterinarian, vol. xiu, p. 665:—
' The mammillary glands of the cow form an unique mass, composed ot two sym-
metrical parts, simply united to one another by a ceUular tissue, lax and very
abundant. These are divided into two other portions, which pathological ana-
tomy demonstrates in the clearest manner, and which are connected together by
a compact laminous tissue. From each of these glands many tubes proceed,
which unite to form a common excretory canal opening outwardly by means ot an
elongated mammillary body caUed a teat. At the back of each of these larger
teats is generaUy a small one ; but which, as it never furnishes milk, nor is the
seat of any peculiar affection, we shaU pass over in silence. These organs, des-
tined by Nature to secrete the milk necessary for the nourishment of the httle
being to whom the cow has given birth, become the seat, at the period of partu-
rition, of an organic process for the secretion of milk, and more active than at
any other period of lactation ; therefore, it is that, at the approach of this period,
they are more subject to inflammatory affections than at any other time : and
any cause which, at another time, would produce only a slight degree of irrita-
tion, now almost invariably gives rise to considerable inflammation. The cows
most apt to contract this disease are those which have large udders, in whom the
secretion of milk is most abundant, and who are, consequently, the best milkers.
The season of the year, and the locahty of the animal, seem to have little influence
on the disease, whether they are at liberty in the pasture, or inclosed in the cow-
house.' , . .

Mammitis, like other inflammations of distinct organs, may terminate in re-
solution, suppuration, or gangrene. We saw an instance of this latter termina-
tion in Hampshire during our sojourn for a few hours in Southampton. It was,
however, as we learned, almost a solitary instance. The practised veterinarian
will attempt to produce resolution by a very mild and somewhat spare diet, by

298 EPIDEMIC CATARRH IN CATTLE TClASS I

mile lits been of^S;ice If ilo " told tha a tepid decoction of caino-

veins of the part around^^^ T^^^^^^^^^ by opening the subcutaneous

ESS S^iST."^^^^^^^

b'l'igrtne supervenes without being instantly arrested.

EPIDEMIC CATARRH IN CATTLE.

I beg to premise, that untU the Influenzas, the Epizootics, and the Epidemics
n aU their varieties, are each individually characteriied and appropriatdf named
It wiU not be an easy task to describe them satisfactorily. I fLr tha In mvTwn
detail now entering on, I may in my descriptions mvst^ify the Intended iub-
tions to hose who have not had much practice on each of the diseases I shall
enumerate; for be it observed, that during the same season, hoTever ci/tS
ma.y be the account rendered of an individual attack of any prevalent comS^
It IS bu little likely that it will correspond entirely with^ofherfthatZve^^^^^^^^
ceded It, or those that may foUow it. I shall, however, in candour state that
my own_ expenence, though limited, fuUy accords with hose wrconsider in
fluenza in cattle as more frequently produced by a deleterious atmosS than
by any other agent whatever. Hence certain winds are apt to produce k as a
north-easter, particularly when it blows from marsh lands This disease how-
ever, presents many anomalies of type, of conflicting symptoms, &c. Its stronl
S7 f occa^ona ly seen in the hOls of Cumberland: and Ihen aga n S ?he
wealds of Kent No situation that will present cold and Moisture is exempt from
It, and Its virulence is m general commensurate with these two causes I have
seen it m the marshes of Essex and the fens of Lincolnshire committing g^eat
fo^rr^nTfi"" north-easterly wind predominated together, two,Mree,

toui, and five sheep have been seen to mark the mortalitv of one night : bJt such
cases are rare. Cows not being usually liable to. such extreme exposure, do not
often remain to die thus neglected, although young beasts pasturing some dis-
tance from home do get thus overtaken ; in which cases the disease soon assumes
an acute form. As_ regards its prevalence, and its virulence also, when it attacks
cows and oxen grazing on sea marshes, I can bear witness, having on one occa-
sion seen a cow and her call lying dead on one pasture. I was grieved, for I had
on the previous morning seen these same cattle then labouring under an acute
attack of this prevailing influenza in its most virulent form, and I gave informa-
tion of the same; but a country fair had abstracted those that should have at-
tended them, and I presume they died where I left them.

The symptoms of the acute form of the disease, as far as I have found them, are
as follow. If an attendant is on the spot, his first notice is directed to a shiver-
ing fit, under which the ears, the legs, and feet become first cold, to which heat
m most of these parts succeeds. The nasal membrane, at first paler than natural
becomes intensely red, and from it there exudes a watery secretion which, being
at first thin, gradually thickens, and presents flaky masses. On the third day
the strength of the animal decreases, and it is probable that it may in the inter-
val have had alternations of hot and cold fits, with a teazing and even painful
cough, as is evinced by impatience and stamping during the efforts. If the at-
tack be very acute, the nasal discharge will, on the second or third day at most

Class I.] epidemic catarrh in cattle. 299

hJomc muco-purulent; all appetite will be lost, and even drink will be avoided
W the beast, from the pain which swallowing it occasions. Swellings of the legs
n,Ccommon in these cases, and of the glands of the throat also We have lu-
rerto sa nothing of the pulse, and our reason is, that it is seldom the same in
mftwo cases. It", however, in most instances, commence? by being somewhat
; Ikened and that it increases in rapidity as soon as the catarrhal symptoms
E fu lv developed themselves. We will suppose a judicious medical attendant
o be eaSy called in, and that he will without doubt commence by a moderate
bleedin' which he wiU repeat or abstain from, according to the strength and fre-
mienc? of the pulse, the appearance of the blood, and the leading symptoms ge-
erdW, whether they bespeak a highly inflammatory state oi the circulation, or a
endency to an asthenic type. An irregular suifusion of the nasal membrane a
hot mouth, and a constant drivelling from it, with a vesication of its waUs
?hrou<^hout are common, and interfere much with mastication, rendering the
brealh of the animal extremely oifensive. A discharge from the nose and eyes
dso s an accompaniment, and sloughing of the gums, when the disease is v^ry
malignant, is common. It was so seen in 1839, when the cows ceased to rumi-
nate and exhibited also a convulsive affection of the hmbs Either through
weakness or from some morbid attack on the feet, the affected beasts are usually
found Iving down. Respiration is, in most cases, somewhat quickened, and each
exph^tion is terminated with a grunt. The urine has usuaUy in these cases been
very high coloured; and we were told, by a cow-keeper who sought our opinion,
that the faeces were ahnost invariably very dark, and often tinged with blood.

The remaimng treatment must be conducted according to the progress ot the
complaint, its duration, the age and strength of the animals attacked, it the
practitioner be called in on the first appearance of the disease while the affected
beast is yet strong, commence with moderate bleeding ; but unless the pulse rises
whUe the blood flows, by no means continue or repeat it, particularly if the beast
is not in good care, or of an age to bear depletion ; for however moderate, should
the vital powers flag much under it, the animal wiU be lost. This disease is re-
marked for its effects on the hide of the beast ; the hair stands erect, or even points
directly contrary to its usual state. A universal tenderness over the whole body,
but particularly along the spine, from the head to the tail, is present in most ; and
it arrives to such a degree of tenderness, that should the back be pmched, the
poor beast will ahnost fall. If the cow be a milker, she wiU day by day yield less
to the pail, although at first the quantity was probably increased. One who has
seen infinitely more of this epidemic than ourselves describes it as appearing both
under a chronic stage, and also under an acute one ; and as the distinction is rni-
portant in practice, we will offer his account in his own words, trusting to his libe-
rality and his zeal for the public good for forgiveness for the liberty taken. Mr.
Evison, a respectable veterinary practitioner, in a very ingenious Essay on _ln-
flucnza, read at the Veterinary Medical Association (Veterinarian, yol.-xm,Y>-
123), after a well detailed description of the general features of the disease, thus
proceeds with its portrait as it is seen both in its chronic and its acute stages :—

'In the chronic stage— The pulse is not accelerated, but is slow, and rather
indicates debility. . The mucous membranes are of a yellow colour, particiilarly
the lining of the eyelids, plainly betokening a Hver affection. Constipation is
present, and much fever of a low type. The skin graduaUy becomes very yellow,
and adheres closely to the body ; the muzzle is dry, the ears and extremities are
cold, the urine highly coloured, and rumination is partially suspended. If it is
a milch cow, the milk is also yellow, and of a bitter taste : should a diarrhcea pre-
vail in this stage of the disease, the patient is generally lost.

' Treatment of the acute sta^e.— Bleeding is not recommended, unle.ss the pulse
continues to rise after the flow, and the breathing becomes very laborious ; then,
perhaps, I should abstract blood, guided by the character of the pulse during the
progress of the venesection, and, perhaps, I should be a little influenced by the
age and condition of the animal. There is nothing so important as to husband
the vital fluid at the commencement of these diseases in the ruminant. I would
next insert a scton in the dewlap. The ointment of hellebore will produce the

EPIDEMIC CATARRH IN CATTLE. [CLASS I.

speediest and most abundant discharge. If the hoose or cough is severe I should
bhster the throat I have covered the whole of the trachc^a S a '^si<^ato^^^^^
and with beneficial effect. ^eaicaiory,

'As to the remaining remedial treatment, I usuaUy commence with a draught
composed of nitre, camphor, emetic tartar, sulphur, gentian, and ginger in a
quart of common water. The animal should be housed, yet have plenty of air •
succulent food, and that which is easy of digestion should be given, as carrots'
grass and a httle oil-cake, which will serve to keep the body in a relaxed state'
tJhould the animal experience relief from the medicine, I would repeat if but if
the disease should appear disposed to run on to the chronic state, I would not
bleed, but 1 would give half-pound doses of sulphate of magnesia and sulphur
with ginger and gentian ; and, after having evacuated the bowels, I would exhibit
smaU doses of calomel with tonics. When abscesses make their appearance I
would advise the application of a mild blister, so as to promote suppuration. As
soon as any suppuration appears, the abscess should be freely opened, and when
the pus has been nearly evacuated, some tow, saturated with digestive liniment
should be inserted, in order to keep the orifice open. I have frequently seen the
orifice heal up when this has been neglected, and the abscesses in such case are
apt to form again as large as the first, and then prove very troublesome to get rid
of. The iodine ointment, I should remark, has often proved effectual in causing
the dispersion of these tumours ; but I confess that I am not an advocate for the
absorption of these enlargements, for they appear to me to be foreign substances
thrown out, of which nature seems to want to rid herself; and if they can be car-
ried off externally, it is far better than to allow their absorption into the system.'
Such are Mr. Evison's directions.

THE PARTICULAR CATTLE EPIDEMIC OF LATE YEARS.

We hardly need to inform our readers, that an affection of somewhat singular
characters has raged among our cattle for some past seasons, particularly during
the summers and autumns of the last few years. Many intelligent observers at-
tribute the complaint to the effect of acrid plants, particularly those of the ranun-
culus kind. _ The herb crowfoot is also supposed to be an agent in its propaga-
tion. Foreign authors have likewise borne testimony to the acrimonious and
poisonous properties of the ranunculiaciae. The water hemlock also lies under
this opprobrium, particularly the roots of the plant, but which, although poisonous
to horses, are averred to be wholesome and even fattening to cattle. Of our own
knowledge, we cannot affirm either one way or the other; but we do suspect that
much disease is engendered by these promiscuous browsings, particularly among
aquatic plants, or, at least, such as grow in the moist and splashy corners of low-
land meadows. The aethusa cynapium, or wild parsley, is known to purge horses
that have eaten it with great violence, and also to excoriate very extensively their
lips and nose. See Veterinarian, vol. xii, p. 673. This cattle epidemic shews
itself by an early loss of appetite, and inversion of the hair. However, in stating
that a loss of appetite was an early symptom, we should have quahfied our
langua-e by observing that, in many eases, we have seen, in the commencing
periods of the attack, it was rather the soreness of the mouth than any disin-
clination to feed that occasioned the refusal. The feet also present a singular
feature, inasmuch as they suffer as well as the mouth, by becoming ulcerated
between the claws, and the same ulceration spreads over the soft parts of the
foot as the coronet, &c. It is this soreness that inchnes the beast to lie on the
ground as much as possible ; sometimes, indeed, so tender are the feet, that an
unlucky step on a very hard surface will bring them down as though they were
shot. So extensive is the disease in its attacks, that the udder is even affectejj,
the teats being beset with pustules. Rumination is usually stopped, and very
little milk is yielded. We judge that inflammatory action is' going on wnthin bv
the colour of the urine, the loss of the milk, and the darkened and hardenecl
faeces which pass from the animal. However, in its early attack, it may put on
the appearance of synocha, or mild fever : it usually passes on, and soon assumes

Class II.] inflammation of the brain. 301

. k whiol, nnnroximates to the typhoid state ; and then it passes
^'f' "UlCfonf beariS less, septic or putrid characters, with its

luto a ^^XlnVsrSsened appetite, and great prostration of streng h

concomitants as du ne^^ its early stage, nnload the

As regards the w nnf drastic oiWive. To prevent the aggressions of
bowels by bespeak a truly putri! tendency,

\t Xtlo'rremeSFes l cT^e^k^ as antiputreseents The sweet spirits
Tni^e wTth so^nd yeast worked from strong ale is an excellent one = g^ve also
^mphoVrcombination with the compound powder f ^P^^^^^^^l^.^v. ^^/^^^^ ^
iSise recommend the white antimonial powder to be superadded, if the pulse
be hurried. It is with some cattle masters, we know, a custom to give salt dis-
solved "n gruel as a very sanative treatment, and in very mild cases it may prove
so.

CLASS II.

INFLAMMATION OF ORGANS ESSENTIAL TO LIFE.

Br this is meant those internal inflammations, which though local and con-
fined, yet affect organs of such magnitude and importance, as to form themselves
each into a peculiar and marked disease.

PHRENITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN IN HORSES.

Our neighbours, the French, who refine much, but probably in this case justly,
have divided phrenitis of the veterinary catalogue mto aracMoidttes and ence-
vhalitis* : but as it appears from various sources that they have not jet been
Se sati factorily to define those features by which we are to distinguish the at-
Uck made on the envelopes of the brain fi-om that which affects the cerebral
mass we may at present content ourselves with considering mad staggers as an
inflammatory state of the brain generally. A division of it, of much more prac-
tical importance, presents itself; which is into idiopathic or primary, and symp-
tomatic or secondary. , , p j ^

Idiopaihic phrenitis has been popularly known by the names of mad staggers,
sleepy staggers, and phrensied fever. The two former it was common to consider
as £tinct diseases ; but morbid anatomy and a more extended field of observa-
tion have taught us that they are only modifications of the same affection, pro-
duced principaUy by the different stages of the complaint : occasionaUy also by
the different degree of inflammatory action going on, and possibly by some varia-
tion in the irritability of the organ attacked. The sleepy staggers of farriers, and

• In mv own opinion, if a distinction were at present to be entertained, it would lie mere proper to
do so by the terms m^Aine-.7<» and encephalitis. Morbid anatomy does actuully sbew us that m
some cLes the neninees or envelop.nents of the organ are the principal seat of the complaint ; and
X^f;h an 'acrua? "'flamed state 'Lf the Aum»„ b,ain is denied bj,-a^y;„Klr,r:'"l'jv;gard!

• of Dhrenitis published by M. Lessona, will present a fair summary ot the coniinemai opm.ons
he sSS 'ffious delirium, extreme agitation, convulsions auA spasms, indicate, general y
fkinr n these affections, that the membranes in particular, and above all the nracAnoirf, are the
seat of t'^e di ease ; whilst stupor, coma, collapse, lejhargy. ''''J'5''-,t^'°."f„":"Vn'?h;
cially to those cases in which there is alteration of the proper tabstance of the brain. In the
Xve case the alte nation of furious delirium and lethargy shewed, as was af erwards proved on
dissection that <Ae 6r^^^^^^ U> membranes were both affected at one time, and that eneephahti,
wh ch^r k^del became subsequently complica^^

the latter did not make thtfir appearance until after the manifestation of those ot the (mmet. And m
re'peTto symp oms of agiution or collapse, the remarks already made are founded upon facts
"sSlt'ng rom observation, Ind I repeat, that such symptoms no more belong to the acute than to the
chrZr ?orm of disease ; but that the former, viz. those of exaltation, denote that the membranes are
X?el whereas tho e of annihilation of the functions of voluntary motion and sensation, on
the other band, proclaim the morbid alteration essentially to exist in the sulntance of the bra.n
itself.'

302 INFLAMMATION OF THE mum. K lASsII

breathing IS not m the early stage usually much affecters e tSouf^Lthi^^

visceral phlegmasias are not present likewise °*

«nl -'/r^^fff^f * andj;Ar6'7«y/ei,er of farriers occasionally makes its annear
ance without the lormer stage being prominent or observpH • h,7t fn ^PP^^r.
of cases the lethargic, state i! foUo^S by ph.^nSct^pt'oms of moS
the pulse rises, there is much watchfulnels\and irritabihty o^malr occas^^^^^^^

tamping of the feet, and a delii-ious look. The mouth is hot aSy \he p S
and conjunctive membranes are much heightened in colour, and th^ breathSl
greatly quickened : as the disease advances the pulse is ful and frequent some

ZtV ^%l]f^"l'^rfy hard and irregular, scarcel/ remaining the sam^e for Ln h"ur
together: the horse bounds from side to side; dilirious fits%ccur, which make k
dangerous to approach him; the violent convulsions which suddeXseize him
making it no uncommon for him to rear and strike out his foreleet wSh jea^
violence ; or he will sometimes in so doing fall backwards, in which state he^wm

L7£d'dunrhlfir"'/PPT"*'^ pain fe suk'r^

smaU haid dung-baUs are forced out at such times, or a smaU quantity of hiffhlv
coloured and sometimes offensive urine is expeUed, from which he may ixpeSnce

Srri?ationJ ""'^ ^^^^a"^^^^^^^^^^^

r..:c^|.:^ :;ni;if 7;^?^:!^^ 'A^t^r^r^^r-^^' p '"1

sequence ,.f direct rupture of the vessels of the brain bv an aoeidpn .nnr^ V a 8'"*'i'i"y t.''^

apoplcv}^ is even a more questionable term for V a^g^s than t ?^^^^ 'V'

so conunonly known among the French veterinarians vt^t,go, by which it was so long and

syts^ir cfur;':^ r io!;^s!i !>nt^::^';,'^n^":: t^r^rX^f^ r' t

mechanical (iisteiitioii of the alimentarv canal • or bv thnt m n-ll^^ . f f • """^ brought on by

oeiwien me iw 0 In the » niji/ ^j/u cj/f^i* the symptoms ev tlentlv betoken iiot oulv a fi-inii.. h„t
decidedly ,mschtrvous disposition, which prompts him purpose/l ^attack ever hing "ivh^
dead: all around him suffers; rack, stall, and manger are all Hid nrnlw/ I?, „
a,^*!;;,7. f l^ina appears : the horse is wild, and^elu" 'imse ? aV^ i^'al d en an ' i^" e%"?S
•aioundhim.butnot by premeditated design: on the contrary, he simnlv la lours indci m .

^a:z 1?™^:; i:;'i;:i^^r^ ^'-"^-^ rearj.'i^i!;:!;;;:;'-

Class II.] inflammation of the brain. 303

■Post-mortem osamimtion will not uiifrequently present an altered Btructure in
..Xnl mas^ itself Mr. Perci^■all notices his having seen a remarkable yel-
ot^r oftr sub^^^^^^^^ cerebellum. Ilurtrel d'Arboval has-' Le ea-

ract" re amatomique principal qui uppartieut en propre a I'mflamma .on du cervcau,
Sfle ramolhssement (« softening) d'une partiede la substance deja se peu eon-
sistant epar eU-m6me, dc eet organe.' In some instances, particularly where deat
ha Tarly succeeded to a very violent attack, the cerebral pulp has been tinted
tith an inflammatory blush; the membranes, but particularly the plexus ehoroides
S e dso been intensely vasculai-. In protracted eases, and particularly where
serourefFusion has taken place, the whole eerebra mass has been found more
pale han natural, as weU as soaked and tender also with serosity. See four
o/lggers, by M. C. Lessona, veterinary professor at Tnrm, zn Nos. 4 and 7
of Tki velcilmrzL It is remarkable that in aU these, as well as in very many
other instances which have been examined, there has been visceral affection

^The canses of phrenitis are varied and obscure; and this the more, as the
morbid appeai-ances oceasionaUy are so connected with local visceral affection as
greatly to bewilder our judgment. It may be produced by metastasis. A pre-
disposition favourable to its attack is engendered by plethora suddenly attained.
The late Mr. PercivaU used to find the disease very prevalent m July, August,
and September, among the troop horses, which were usually turned out in an
emaciated state into the luxuriant salt marshes around Woolwich. Whatever
determines blood to the head, as exposure to the heats of a mid-day sun without
the means of shelter ; violent exercise also, which, by congesting the chest, pre-
vents the return of cerebral blood through the carotids. A singular cause we
know to exist now and then in an inflammation of the Schneidenan membrane
of the frontal sinuses, extending itself to the cerebral coverings.^ Tuniours also
w-ithin the substance of the brain, increased serous deposit withm the lateral
ventricles or the spinal canal, have all been known to produce it, as hkewise ac-
cidental lesion. „ , . r i. j

Theprognosis is favourable when the redness and flushing of the eyes decrease,
when the horse becomes more tranquil, the pulse soft, uniform, and in proper
number ; when also the dung and urine appear in sufficient quantity, and symp-
toms of appetite return : but when the secretions continue small, the impatienCe
increases, the teeth are heard to grate, and particularly if a sanious discharge issues
from the nostrils, the termination will prove unfavom-able.

The mre of staggers.— As this disease appears the consequence of an in-
creased determination of blood to the brain, joined to an inflammatory state of
its vessels ; so it is evident that the cure should be first attempted by lessening
the quantity of the blood generally, and on diminishing the increased action of
the vessels of the part particularly. Both these indications are equally promoted
by bleedirfg ; and whenever this is done early, and the quantity abstracted is large
and suddenly taken away, a rational hope may be entertained of aiTesting this
rapid and too fatal complaint : proceed therefore immediately to draw off six,
seven, or eight quarts, or even more, according to the age, size,_and condition of
the horse, and repeat it every two or three hours, in such quantities as the urgency
of the symptoms and the state of the pulse indicate ; for as long as that rises on
the flow, so long it is salutary*. It will however be often found very difficult to
draw blood in this complaint, from the furious impatient state of the ammal:
under these circumstances patience must be exercised, and the practitioner should
not be deterred, but must wait the momentary cessations of the violence, when
he may boldly open one or even both jugulars, and suffer the blood to flow until

• If wc could sufficiently distinguisli such cases (is were comnlicated with visceral phlegmasioe of
the thorax and abdomen, and nnrlicnlarly of such as were dependent on the inflammation ot mucous
nutfaces, from those of pure idiopathic phrenitis; then we might in the latter case blcca without
restriction almost ; but in the former instances, however salutary an early and very i u i Diecaing
might be excellent practice, repeated abstractions might not prove so. It also becomes ot l ie utmost
consequence, not only to he able to satisfy ourselves on this point, but also to clearly nislmguisli
between a prostration of strength rc^iulting only from interruption of vital energy, and that brought
on by a total failure in tlio means of its supplies.

•^^"^ INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. [CLASS II

something like the above quantity may be supposed to have escaped. Should
the violence of the horse prevent the application of a pin to the vein no danger
need be apprehended from suffering it to bleed as much as it wmrpart^ufarTi f

fident ^ fn ^r"""^ ' 'l"^"*^^^ flow is not s-i;-

' l/h K ought to be given by a ligature passed round the

Weed frl r '"T^'^ recommended, from very respectable authority, to

bleed from the temporal artery m preference to the jugular vein ; but although I
can see no particular objection to it, if enough can be^btained, my own experi-
ence does not justify any such preference, but rather the contrar}: some eminent
J^rench veterinarians practise revulsive bleedings from the feet, with thev sav
great advantage. When it is impossible to accomplish bleeding by the iu-ulaV
the temporal artery may very properly be opened, as pointed at in pi. 4, letter b
and as further described page 138. In the living horse the artery may be de-
tected between three and four inches below the root of the ear, in a line from its
base towards the nostril. An opening of it should not however be made by di-
viding it across, for, if so done, the ends would probably retract under the skin
by the muscular power in the vessel : but it should be operated on by puncturing
It in the same manner as is practised on a vein, and it may be afterwards secured
It necessary, by division or Ugature ; but neither of which will often be requisite,
lor the hrst bleeding can hardly be too considerable: on the contrary, if it be
even pushed until the horse be faint, it wiU be so much the better, and then the
vessels will collapse as a matter of necessity.

Having bled the horse, the next indication will be to unload the bowels, pre-
paratory to which back-rake, and throw up some cathartic mixture as a clvster •
for the torpidity of bowels is usually such that it will be most difficult to'move
them ; but that once thoroughly done, great hope may be entertained. By the
mouth endeavour to introduce a liquid purge, as more speedy in its action ; as a
strong solution of aloes (see Cathartics), or croton seed in powder a scruple •
either of which may be repeated in diminished doses, at first every four and after-
wards at intervals of every six hours. At the same time may be exhibited also
any of those remedies on which we rely for diminishing the force of the circula-
•tion generally, as digitalis and tartarised antimony ; one drachm of the former,
and two drachms of the latter every four hours. Volpi recommends digitalis and
mtre. It becomes next a question what counter-irritants are proper : the head
has been blistered, and I used to retain the blister there by means of a pitched cap,
lined with the blistering plaster ; but I confess I should, in this case, now prefer
to remove my counter-irritants further from the immediate seat of the disease ; and
to stimulate the throat, breast, and fore extremities in preference. Ice to the head
IS a most difficult application to retain, but cold water can be dashed over it, and
a current of cold air may be directed towards it. Rowelling and setons, unless
made to act immediately, offer but feeble aids ; but they may be employed pro-
vided they do not supersede more active means. There will probably be little
necessity to offer any caution with regard to food in this complaint, for in aggra-
vated cases there is little appetite ; if, however, from a false sympathy, the horse
should be inclined to eat, it should not be encouraged. Mastication is unfavour-
able to the return of blood from the head : a full stomach is equally so ; not to
add, that the collapse occasioned by fasting would be particularly salutary here.
When the delirium and frantic symptoms are very great, it might be attempted to
sling the horse, as is done on board ships, which would effectually secure him from
injuring himself, and render him more approachable by the operator. It can
hardly be necessary to hint, that the stable should be kept as cool as possible by
means of a free current of air through it. When amendment does occur, it is
necessary for the practitioner to bear in mind that he must use every prudent
means to guard against a recurrence of the complaint, which is very usual, as well
also that it is apt to leave congestion and chronic disease of some organ. Chronic
hydrocephalus and amaurosis are also not unfrequent sequelae of this affection.

Oxen and sheep are occasionally objects of phrenitic attack, which is called
by graziers, farmers, &c. as in horses, /euer of the brain, phrensy, staggers, Sic, in

Class IT.] symptomatic phrenitis. ^uo

which there is little difference in appearance, consequence, or necessary treat-
ment It is however to be noticed, that idiopathic staggers in thera, particularly
in cattle,- is much less frequently observed than symptomatic staggers, dependent
on acute attacks ou some of the. thoracic or abdominal viscera.

SYMPTOMATIC PHRENITIS*.

Symptomatic or secondary staggers may exist under several forms, according
as the original seat of the disease may be diversified ; it being understood, that
in this case the phrenitic type is not derived from a primary attack on the brain,
but on a local one of some other organ ; usually on one or more of the contents
of the chest or belly, or both. And if, according to the present prevailing theories,
inflamniation be principally dependent on a connexion between the nervous and
sanguiferous systems (see Angiology, p. 127), then our experience that nervous
agencies may be transmitted as well from the organs to the brain, as from the
brain to the organs, explains to us many appearances at present very obscure,
and opens a new and wide field for our research, and an enlarged sphere for
our curative exertions. It will also lead us into a conviction of the propriety of
further division of symptomatic phrenitis under the_ view detailed in the note;
particularly of preserving a distinct niche for that variety known as stomach stag-
gers with us, and vertiginous indigestion among the French. The subject is im-
portant and interesting, but ray confined limits will not admit of more detail than
is embodied in the note : I would, however, strongly recommend it to the student's
notice as he finds it in the works of Gilbert, Dupuy, Volpi, the French periodical
journals, and the Dictionary of Hurtrel d'Arboval. My present inquiries will be
directed to symptomatic staggers generally, and to the theory of stomach staggers
as connected with it particularly ; but which latter I shall again notice hereafter
as -mechanical distention.

Encephalite secondaire, mcningo-gastrique., vertige abdominal, and indigestion
vertigineuse, are names by which this particular symptomatic phrenitis is known
among the French, which was with them, as with our older wi'iters, attributed to
a primary attack on the head ; and it remained for Gilbert among them|, and for

• In substituting the term symptomnlic phrcnitit for that of specific inflammntion of the
stomach, wliieh appeared in former editions, I have been influeni;c(t by a conviction that the speci-
fication of anv local seat for this disease exhibited too confined a view of the subject ; for the united
testimonies which have been, and yet remain to be given, will render it apparent that this is not
always an affection of the stomach, characterized by symptoms of cerebral affection, but is extended
to other viscera also, whose derangements arc now observed to be equally capable of affecting the
sensorium with symptomatic coma or phrenay. My opinion of the immediate »0<u»-c of the inflam-
mation itself remains the same ; but after much deliberation, my view of its localities being much
extended, it becomes necessary to use such a term as did not take a part for the whole, but was in
itself comprehensive. The change, however, cannot even now be advocated as one of strict noso-
logical accuracy: it is only a choice of evils, in which our present ignorance of the subject forces us
to an accordance with our French neighbours, who have so long noticed and so largely treated on it,
hut who appear to me to set an example of error before us, when they unite the description of
symptomatic cerebral affection produced by mere distention (whatever its ultimate effects may be)
under the same head with acute and direct attaclci of phlegmasia!, not of one, but of different viscera ;
and [ enter my protest against this palpable breach of system, although in so doing I publish my own
delinquency. In the last edition I placed the affection to which I am now principally directing ray
attention (stomach staggers) in Class V, as Acute Indigestion ; and in my opinion that is the most
proper place for it ; but as its symptoms are nearly allied to, and many points in the curative practice
of it are the same with the inflammatory affections hinted at, which alone ought, in strict nosological
arrangement, to he entertained here ; so I continue an error, forced on me as well by the example of
previous authors, as by my own confined limits. On the immediate nature of the phlegmasiae which
ought to form the principal and in fact only part of my present inquiry, I entertain the same opinion
I have ever done ; and if I concede tlie term specific inflammation to the fashion of the day, or to its
hacknied sound, 1 am even more tlian ever convinced that the visceral phlegmasia which are accom-
panied with either phrensy or lethargy, as pathognomonic symptoms, do not own the common cha-
racters of inflammation, usually recognized among us as such; but that they deviate from the
ordinary course, in not being necessarily comlnned with ccreliral affection, by which, there-
fore, a specific difference is occasioned, and a specific disease is formed. I have before asked,
are either gaittitis, enteritis, or hepatitis, as visceral inflammation, marked with great cerebral dis-
turbance f if not, then there must be some speciality between them and these phlegmasia!, which are
invariably so marked.

+ A vant la publication, en Vendemiaire an 4 (Octobrc 1795), du traitfe de Gilbert sur I'iiidigcstion
Tertigineuse on ne croyait pas que la lesion primitive d'oii rcncfephalite gmane pflt avoir son si6g«
ailleurs que dans les organes cferfcbraux. Gilbert changea a cet egard la plupart dcs idfees ; leg
autopsies cadaviriques lui diniontrtrent que les principales alterations pnltiologiques accaslun6es

V

306 SYMPTOMATIC PIIRENITIS. [ClASS II.

the acuteness of Mr. Coleman with us, to point out its true seat and origin. Mr-
C. has expressively named it stomach staggers, by which, as well as by his reason-
ing, we learn that he considers it as a state of acute indigestion. My opinion co-
ncideswith that of Mr. Coleman, that acute indigestion is present in many instances,
and that to it the intensibj of the plirenitic symptoms, in most cases, owes its ex-
istence ; but I also believe that there are many other cases (where somnolency
but not phrensy is principally present) which are not altogether gastric, nor pri-
marily dependent on mechanical distention. It is, on the contrary, in some in-
stances an inflammatory attack on the mucous surfaces of both the stomach and
bowels, and is frequently also complicated with biliary affection ; in such cases
constituting hepatic gastritis*. This view of it does nothing to lessen Mr. Cole-
man's claim to having first drawn our attention to it ; nor to the justness of his
opinion of the existence of the disease in one of its prominent forms,. and that
which the early state of the art among us was most likely to be seized on as the
type of the whole. I have heretofore stated that I considered the basis of the
disease founded on a specific inflammation of the stomach. I am still of opinion
that the phlegmasia; observed does not own the common characters of either local
or diffused inflammation. But further inquiry has taught me that its seat is not
confined to the stomach only, but that it is sometimes extended to other of the
abdominal viscera also.

The causes are various, but that to which it is generally attributed, and to which
it can be frequently distinctly traced, is, that of mechanical distention of the
stomach, and more particularly of one in a state of atony, either by long fastingf,
or in that which has become habitually so from age|, bad condition, or repeated
lesser attacks of indigestion§. It appears also to be brought on by injudicious
turning out a stable-fed horse into a field with hoar frost on it||, as well also by
the nature and quality of the herbage they meet with^, an instance of which I met

par la maladip se trouvaient'dans Ics organes digestifs, et il en eonclut trop eKclusivement que le
veitige n'etait, dans ce cas, que sccondaiie ou symptomatique, qu'uiie indigestion piolongee en etait
la premiere cause. 11 nomma cette y&rSklk vertige abdomitial ou indigestion vertigineuse, eti\
alia jusqn'a niettre en question I'cxistence, la reality d'un vertige autre qui cclui qu'il designe ainsi,
celui dont nous avons traite sous Icnom d'encephalite primitive.

• II nous serait facile d'etablir que I'enceplialite secondaire ne dfepend toujours de rinflammation
de la niemlnane muqueuse gastrique, et de faire voir que le meme effet peut 6tre produit par des
plileginasies aigues de vesi^res de la pectrine, &c.

■f Accidental circumstances will sometimes force a horse to fast for many hours; tlic stomach has
also perhaps lost its energy, not only from inanition, but fatigue also. Suddenly he finds before him
grass, hay, or corn, particularly when bran is mixed with it, or forms a principal part of the meal.
' Le son' (bran) 'est de tons des'alimens celui qui produit le plus sonvent cct accident." — Huzard, Of
this many examples occur with us also, the dry and indigestible nature of this cortical part of the farina
rendering it particularly fitted for tins injurious purpose ; eating voraciously, and without due insaliva-
tion, as the hungry horse will be apt to do, of food which requires little mastication.

X Mr. VVHiite observes, that it usually attacks old, weak, and hard-worked horses. M. Berger
Perriere informs us, that in the neiglibourliood of Bourgoin, where the inhabitants arc very poor, and
their horses very irregularly fed, this disease is very common. They work the whole of a long day
without any food, and even then are shut np some time to rest, when they are removed for a few hours
to graze ; and as their experience informs them that they shall soon be again called for, they .swallow
quii'klv all they can browse.— RecMetV do Med. yet.

§ Ce n'est jamais une preniifere, one seuis; indigestion, dans un cheval d'aiUeurs bien portant, qui
pent occasioner Chez lui I'encephalite secondaire, mais hien plusieurs indigestions qui se succedant a
courts intervalles, et dont le devellopcment successif favorise par une certain predisposition de
I'estomac qui long-temps avant que ces troubles aient lieu, est tombe dans un 6tat tel. que ses
fonctinns 'ne font r)lusavce-la n-eme regularite —Diet. Vet. Hiirt.d'Arboval. art. Fertile. We
are led by what precedes not to understand that liorses are never summarily attacked with acute in-
digestion but that horses either in a total state of inactivity, or otherwise inordinately worked, but
being usually fed with massive mixtures of the hull or chaff of the farinaceous seeds, or from hay and
straw chair which require much power to extract even a small share of nutriment from, are peculiarly
liable, from a slight occasional cause only, to fall into this state, and the trutU of which I can bear

'"^huliVifepartment of L'Isere 'the abdominal vertigo' is very prevalent ; and it is observed that it
is most so when the ground is covered with hoar frost, from whence it is common to call it the hoar
frost colic. As is well known, out-door feeding is little practised on the contineiit ; grasses are mostly
cut and taken to the animals, and they are most of them cattle and st.iU-fed. It therefore happens that

he

ficien

healthy digestii

f • -riiit in.:; of Zll^^:t Z^e must be very liable to produce it. from the avidity with which
they ea and froin tl e readiness of grass to run into a fermentative state when not at once stopped by
h7proccss of as m lation, whethef aucli be delayed by the state or quality of the vegetable maUer, or

Class II.] symptomatic phrenitjs. 307

with some time since. There are reasons for supposing that the forms I have hinted
at as not traceable to distention as a cause, although they sometimes accompany
it are occasionally found endemial, epizootic, and even contagious*.

'The characters'of symptomatic phreuitis, as frequently first observed, are slight-
ly lethargic; the horse dozes, takes little notice of any thing around him; and
when distention, if such be the cause, is not yet considerable, he will be found
often eating slowly, alternately masticating and dozing. As the disease pro-
ceeds, and the head becomes congested, either by accumulated matters in the
stomach, or by a morbid translation of disease to the brain, the coma produced
inclines the horse to press his head against any fixed object, or to rest it in the
manger, or hang it between his legs ; occasionally it is elevated and placed be-
tween the rack-staves. If it occurs to a horse at grass', he is either found this way
resting his head against a tree, stupidly fixed to one spot, or otherwise is em-
ployed with feeble step tracing one determined line, be it backward, forward, or
circularly. The breathing in the early stage is not materially disturbed. As it
proceeds, it first becomes low and rather protracted ; and when the symptomatic
attack on the membranes of the brain has produced phrenitic symptoms, it then
becomes more hurried than natural.

The pulse also varies in different eases. I have observed it very early oppressed
and at other times quickened, particularly when the pain from distention has been
acute, and also when active inflammatory cerebral affection has come on : but,
except under these circumstances, the coma keeps down the pulse, which often
remains to the last considerably under the natural standard ; and as the disease
increases in intensity it sometimes intermits. Until visceral inflammation is esta-
blished, or until a mechanical distention is considerable, the complaint is not
intensely painful, but under these circumstances it becomes so : the horse then is
seen looking round at his flanks, stamping with his feet, hanging back on his
collar, lying down and quickly rising again ; occasionally he rolls. To these are
superadded more violent symptoms in those cases where the sympathetic irrita-
tion injects the membranes of the brain highly, when all the frantic scenes noticed
in idiophatic phrenitis are witnessed. The greater number of cases, however, oc-
casioned by mechanical distention, are more marked with apoplectic than phre-
nitic symptoms ; and here, instead of an excess of nervous excitement, there is
altogether a want of it, and great debility is often present. Spasmodic twitchings
of the cutaneous muscles are not uncommon ; and in such cases as have acknow-
ledged an extended phlegmasiae as a part of the affection, biliary suffusion takes
place, and the mucous membranous surfaces of the eyes, nose, and mouth, pre-
sent a yellow tinge. Under these symptoms, unless relief is promptly obtained,
either the vital energy becomes so totally suspended that the animal drops to rise
no more ; or the distention ruptures the stomach, or it produces such congestion
that he sinks apoplectic, or otherwise is worn out by the violence of that phrensy
which results from the disease taking on the form of meningitis. Every case is
not, however, of necessity fatal, although, when I wrote a former edition of
this work, I had in own my practice met with no fortunate termination, but since
that period the knowledge of several has reached me ; these, however, compared
with 'those which end fatally, are yet sufficiently rare.

Post-mortem examination. — The appearances of subjects which have died of

by «ome want of power in the digesting organ. It must, from what is staled above, be e\'ident that
the continental stall-fcoding must make it peculiarly prevalent there, as it really is. ti'Encfeiilialitc
sccondairc tcconnalt un grand nombre de causes, dont les principalcs sont: Ics suraboiidances d'ali-
mens apr6» de Inngues privations j I'usage dos fourragcs excitans, dcs fourrages nou vellement recoltes
qui n'ont pas encore jcti: Icur fen, qui sont dispos6s a la fermentation ou deja avarics ; I'usagedu
Iiriflc mal recoltfe, do la luzcrne engrange.e trop tut, du foin poudieux; celui des feuilles de vigne,
d'if, des honrgeons du jeiine hois, de I'avoiiie trop nouvelle, ou qui a geruife, ou qu'on a humect6c
uncertain temps d'avance pour la fairc gouller ct en augnientor le poids.

• In the neighbourliood of Swansea, .Mr. White informs us, it has existed in somewhat of an ende-
mial as well as epidemic form, and one season proved fatal in seventy-six cases out of eighty. It was
most prevalent between .July and September. It attacked all ages, both sexes, in stable or at giass,
or underground in mines, all were equally obnoxious to it; and moreover it was very generally con-
sidered contagious. ' Oft dit cettc affection tr6s commune en ccrtaines annees dans les auimaiix mo-
nodactylcs, et paiticuliArement chez le clicval, aurtout dans nos departemcns de I'est, de la Manche
ae la Aleusc, de la Moselle, des Ardennes el dans la Beauce.' Numerous other continental notices
have appeared, which tend to exiiibit its epizootic and contagious characters.

U 2

308 SYMPTOMATIC PIIRENITIS. [CLASS II.

symptomatic phrenitis in its extended sense, usually exhibit traces of inflamma-
tory action in the abdominal viscera, and less- frequently marks of the same kind
are seen in the thoracic cavity, particularly throughout the aortic system gene-
rally. In the head, be it purely sympathetic, or be it idiopathic by translation,
there is mcreased vascularity of the meninges of the brain, and occasionally of
the medullary matter itself. In the true stomach staggers, in addition to more
or less of these appearances, there is usually found a vast quantity of hardened
undigested matter in the stomach*, vv^hose mucous membrane, particularly to-
wards the pyloric extremity, is studded with inflammatory streaks, which some-
times extend into the duodenum, as the hardened and undigested matter is some-
times found lodged in the large intestines, which then also participate in the in-
flammation. The quantit/ of gas let loose is sometimes great, particularly when
the having has been occasioned by green food; and though much of that wh'ich
has escaped during life is often reabsorbed after death, yet sufficient always re-
mains to attest the distress which must have been felt from the tympanites. Oc-
casionally there are marks of peritonitis, and sometimes serous eflFiision has
taken place ; but such appearances usually accompany the mixed cases already
hinted at. In many instances some traces of hepatic inflammation are present,
from whence occurs the biliary tinge noticed in the symptomatology.

The Prognosis is seldom favourable, but, when dependent on acute indiges-
tion, our extended researches may probably hereafter afford us some means of
mechanically removing the obstructing mass. The cases in which the disease ad-
vances to its intensity in a regular and unbroken course are seldom otherwise
than fatal ; but if called in sufficiently early, so that the obstinate costiveness can
be removed, and a passage be opened for the gastric contents, by which the tone
of the stomach can be regained, and the head relieved from its plethora, a for-
tunate termination may be expected.

The Treatment of symptomatic phrenitis ought to be xindertaken promptly,
but not until a careful inquiry has been made into the true seat of the disease,
its nature, and the length to which it has proceeded. Is it really secondary ?
is a question of much moment, but extremely difficult often to answer ; and
again, — If secondary, is it truly a case of acute indigestion ? Fortunately, cir-
cumstances here will much assist us : has the horse previously fasted long, and
has he had a superabundant quantity of food set before him ? Has he been
exposed to singular privation, or has he been newly turned into pasturage of
clover, sainfoin, or other artificial grasses, or been soiled with such in the
stable! ? If none of these causes appear, is it simple visceral phlegmasia ? If
it is so, then bleeding mxist be determined on, and counter-irritants applied in
the neighbourhood of the parts affected, proceeding to unload the bowels
manually only ; for should the alimentary canal be the object of phlegmasia,
and not of simple distention, then active purgatives ought to be avoided : in all
other respects follow the course directed under Diffused Inflammation. But,
on the contrary, if there be reason to conclude that acute indigestion is the
cause, are we to endeavour to remove the cause, or are we to combat the effects ?
which of themselves are sufficient to lay the strongest constitution prostrate. If
we were called in to a horse already delirious and frantic, we should not hesitate

• The quantity that has been taken from the stomach of horses after death is immense for the appa-
rent size of the organ. Mr. Percivall mentions upwards of tliii ty pounds weight in one case. I have
myself seen ne'ar twenty pounds abstracted. Hurtrel d'Arboval informs us, ' On a menie vu I'cstomac
d'nn cheval mort dc I'affeetion qui nous occupe peser vingt-six kilogrammes ou cinquante-quatre
livres. La membrane niuqueuse de I'estomac offre des traces de I'irritation dont elle ete le sifege. Le
gros intestine contient aussi des matieres alimcntaires mal digerfes ; on rcmarque parfois des traces de
phlogose au pylore et dans tons toute I'cntendue de la membrane muqucuse intestinal, sur dn gros in-
testine *

+ When it so happens, that although our suspicions are raised that true stomach staggers is present
from distention but no fact of this kind can be gained to assure us of it, we must in such cases trust
to the few distinguishing marks that offer themselves. In this complaint it is seldom (at least in the

of itself assist the decision

Class II.] symptomatic phrenitis. 309

to commence our treatment by bleeding largely ; but if there was a mild lethargy
only, with a subdued pulse, soft, slow, and but little vibratory, and particularly if
the" vital powers were ebbing fast, we should, as a preliminary step, endeavour to
prevent further distention by the generation of gas from the stomachic or abdo-
minal contents, and which indication we should more particularly follow if the
distention had been occasioned by green meat. Vinegar has been found useful
for this purpose, and other means to this end may be seen under Hoven, Class V.
If dry food has been the cause, it will be prudent rather to attempt to stimulate
the organ to contract on its contents, or by promoting a healthy digestion to dis-
solve them, as aloes jiij, pimento 3ij, ol. terebinth. Jij, ammoniae subcarbonatis
liquor (spu-it of hartshorn) Ji. Infuse the aloes and pepper, after finely powder-
ing them, in half a pint of ginger tea, and give. Repeat it also in an hour's time,
if no relief is obtained. Mons. Gilbert prescribes the supertartrate of potash
(cream of tartar) — quantity not mentioned — with ' emetic antimony' Jss. Dur-
ing the operation of these stimulants, let the body be very briskly rubbed by two
or three sturdy attendants, which will aid the flagging powers, and may prove a
revulsive process, from the cerebral affection ; and having done this, further sti-
mulate the breast, sides, &c. with a terebinthinate tincture of cantharides {sweat-
ing blister). In such cases as are known to originate from bran, pollard, barley
meal, or chaff, taken in large quantities, the injecting syringe offers much hope,
by introducing a suflicient quantity of liquid matter to float the impacted and
hardened mass, by which it may pass off at the pyloric extremity ; and as an
instance has been known of a vast quantity of grains having been returned by
vomition, it might at least be worth the trial again to produce the same by
filling the stomach with fluid. There is little fear of doing more mischief ; if
the mass be suffered to remain, death must ensue ^ therefore even desperate re-
medies may be tried with propriety. Neither is it altogether hopeless, after the
distending aliments have been rendered fluid, that they may -be removed by
means of the stomach pump, now made by Read, Weiss, &c. purposely for the
use of the veterinarian. It has already been partially used with success, and pro-
mises, I think, much more, as skill and experience become employed in the use
of it. No veterinarian should be without it, nor should any case of this kind,
that had resisted two or three hours' other active treatment, be suffered to pass
without its being used. It remains to observe, that when a remission of the
symptoms has been obtained, the care and attention must not relax. Health sel-
dom becomes quickly established ; but atony and vitiated digestion, with all the
symptoms of want of condition, hang about the horse some time, and amaurosis
has also been remarked as one of the sequelae of this affection, by the morbid
effects it has left on the sensorium ; which is an additional reason why the prac-
titioner should be prompt in his attempts to relieve the symptomatic part of the
complaint connected with disturbance of the cerebral function by the methods
noted under the idiopathic phrenitis.

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS.

Peripneumony, or inflammation of the lungs generally, was long a great stum-
bling-block to the practitioners of the old school; the devastating effects on
these organs, seen in such as had died of it, being usually mistaken for the effects
of some chronic affection of a rotting tendency. A more extended'acquaintance
with the art has not only taught us the true nature and progress of the disease,
but it appears also to have produced a conviction in the minds of many veterina-
rians who wavered on the subject, that pleurisy, independent and distinct from
pneumonia, may and occasionally does exist in the horse ; and that therefore, in
a systematic point of view, it is proper to consider it under the distinct heads of
pneumonia and pleuritis, to which also I would add that of pneumo-pleuritis, as
no one will deny that the character this implies is by far the most usiial form of
the disease* ; and he who is fortunate enough to treat this successfully may
leave the other two to his neighbours.

• When the third edition of llie VerEaiNAny OuTLiNEswas In piogrcss, this subject was a dis-

310 INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. [CLASS IT.

Pneumonia, or irfammation of the substance of the lungs. Under this I shaU
treat in detail on the causes, symptoms, and cure, as a type applicable to the
three varieties; and premise the account by observing, that when we consider
how totally we have removed the horse from a life of nature to one of art in
wbich the lungs, although more important than most, and certainly more vascillar
than any other organs, are subjected in an extraordinary degree to the extremes
ot exertion and temperature, we cannot be surprised that they should in a creater
degree form the seat of acute inflammation.

_ Causes.— The predisposing may be looked for in constitutional plethora, occa-
sioned by high feeding, hot clothing, stabHng with high temperatures*, and con-
stant accelerated exercise, all which render the lungs more susceptible to con-
gestion, and less able to resist the effects of it. The proximate are numerous •
among them alternations between heat and cold are probably the most com-
mon ; and we have more reason to believe that it is the alternations themselves
as we find that horses bear the extremes of both heat and coldf, by their geogra-
phical distribution, with equal impunity. Under this view we are led to conclude,
as well by reason as by fact, that the alternations being the active agents, the in-
jurious consequences are likely to result from either changej. Heat suddenly

puted one among us ; and though our neighbours the French, in their love or division bad drawn
two distinct portraits of pneumonic inflammation, yet snch distinction was by no means fully recog-
nized here, altliougli, yielding to authority, it was not altogether denied. Mr. Percivall at the >ame
time that he appeared inclined to admit the existence of genuine pleurisy in the horse, yet observed
• I know of no dilTerence in the symptomatology of plenrisy and peripneumony." A reference to the
third edition of my work will shew that I there observed on the growing opinion; and that I had
myself seen among the numerous subjects destroyed by pneumonia, wbich some seasons brings before
us at the knackers, some in whom tlie inflammatory marks were greater in the substance of the lungs
and others where tlie membranes were most affected ; but I there stated, what a still more exten-^ive
experience than I then h.id has further convinced me of, that the number of capes marked by
pleuritis, sep.irate from pneumonia, and vice versd, are very few. And now, not only would my
reliance on the accounts of well-informed veterinarians on the subject fully satisfy me of the ex-
istence of the two affections in distinct forms, but I have certainly, myself, also seen them so exist.
It was not, however, my acutencss to the symptoms as they existed in the living subject which
taught me this, but the post-mortem appearances ; for the symptomatology was equivocal, and though
1 do not deny, but on the contrary believe, that some distinctive marks during life do occur, yet that
they are obscure, and can he seldom defined with certainly. The practitioner, however, need not
fear to do much mischief, provided he pursues the beaten track, for the proper treatment of both is
the same, or does not materially differ in any essential particulars. We are too apt to think meanly
of the acuteness of observation in the older authors, and we therefore lidioule their statements, but
how frequently we afterwards adopt them I The antient farriers, both in England and on the conti-
nent, described pleurisy in the horse, which later authors denied, less probably, however, from direct
observation than a suspicion that the older opinion was rather analogically than inductively formed.
It is now proved, that, in this instance, a parallel drawn from the pathologv of the humau subject has
not erred.

• In winter the hunter lives 23 out of 24 hours of every non-hunting day in a temperature 20 or 25
degrees beyond the natural temperatuie of the atmosphere : the lacer frequently passes whole weeks
thus, in one even 30 degrees beyond it.

+ I beg it to be understood I use the term cold here in its popular sense, as a negation to heat : ab-
stractedly cold is notbing positive ; but we become sensible of a rapid transit of heat, and we call the
sensation produced by it cold.

t Mr. Coleman is of opinion that the application of cold, even suddenly applied, is never productive
of this disease ; and that although turning horses to grass without preparation may emaciate them,
it will never produce pneumonia ; but, on the contrary, that most young horses first taken from grass
and stabled, are attacked with pneumonic symptoms more or less. The ingenuity of Mr. Coleman's
arguments usually carries conviction with them, and his opinions are in general well based ; but we
must be careful in this instance from adopting them in toto. It must be acknowledged that the
removal of a horse from an habitual cold temperature to a warmer will very frequently produce
inflammation in some of the air passages ; but it is the sudden alternation that does it, and not the
Artft(Y!(a/ residence in eitlier the one or the other. All who are accustomed to observe the sale of
horses, must be aware that it is seldom that one can be bought out of a dealer's stable and removed
to that of the purchaser, although probably a very good and welt-managed one, without contracting
a cold. Here it is neither the application of a material quantity of either heat or cold, but the sudden
exposure to a small variation only; That the sudden application of cold is an equal, if not a more
efficient agent in producing pneumonia, 1 think we have many proofs. We know the vast sympathy
and parity of action between the skin and lungs as exhalcnts of frecal matter from the blood. See
anatomy and physiology of these organs. Can we therefore suppose, that when the skin is in
full .action to pass off the serous exhalation by which the superabundant heat is to be kept down and
the lungs relieved, that a sudden application of cold, which immediately throws on these important
organs, now particularly susceptible by exercise or the rarefaction of the air, the additional bur-
then of the office of the skin ; — can we suppose, I repeat, that this can be done witli impunity ? We
know it cannot from the experience of every day. Cold showery weather, with wind, are well known
excitants of this disease, because the increased evaporation occasioned by the breeze on a wet sur-
face abstracts the heat rapidly. The London knackers always expect a glut of dead pneumonic horses
in sharp frosts. The fox-hunter can witness how frequently swimming across a river in the ardour
of tlie chace is followed by inflamed lungs. In many such cases an immediate rigor follows the

Class II.] inflammation of the lungs. 311

nnnlied may be supposed to heighten the circulation and produce con-

Sion within the lungs. Cold suddenly applied may irritate the

bronchial aerating vessels ; or it may act on them by disturbing the functions of
the skin In both these Ws, drinking cold water when the body is hot may
nroduce it A very fertile source of it is also occasioned by inordinate exercise,
either as regards its quickness of progression or the continuance of it ; thusitfre-
nuentlv follows severe runs in hunting, and thus also horned cattle are liable to
it who in a high state of condition, travel great distances to markets or fairs.
A cause which partakes both of the nature of predisposing and proximate, is ob-
served to particularly operate in some seasons : cold moist springs are often
marked with pneumonic attacks, which rage in an epidemic or epizootic form

Sumptoms.— This disease sometimes attacks the horse very suddenly and he
exhibits, after one or two shivering fits, all the intensity of the complaint; at
others, it steals on, and is almost unobserved for two or three days ; but whether
the approach be sudden or retarded, the general functions will appear disturbed.
One that first shews itself is the unequal distribution of heat, the legs and ears
bein<^ much colder than the body. The coat stares, the horse loses his appetite,
his lively air, and is evidently uneasy, and occasionally looks gently round to-
wards his flank. In the early stages the nasal linings look paler than usual tre-
quently; but as it advances they become of a pink-like hue, and although the
general surface of the trunk may vary in its temperature, the extremities, as the
Ico-s ears, and tail, and sometunes the muzzle, will be found uniformly cold, often
intensely so. Cough is by no means a pathognomonic symptom ; many cases are
without it, but when it does exist, it is at first short, dry, and frequent, but be-
comes eventually heavy, thick, and painful, and occasionally some mucus with
bloody strise is thrown up in coughing, particularly when the bronchiae participate
in the afiection. The respiration becomes disturbed as soon as the disease is
formed ; the first febrile attack will hurry it, but, the exacerbation of that over,
it returns to its natural state. The local inflammation having pervaded the pa-
renchymatous substance and lessened the caliber of the air cells, respiration now
becomes permanently quickened, the flanks are found to heave, and the breathing
is carried on with labour and irregularity; the inspirations being delayed to re-
tard the pain produced by the distention of the chest, while the expirations are
more hurried to relieve the thorax from the distress. The cavity is, however, no
sooner emptied, than a new source of distress in the congested state of the heart
forces the horse to renew the efibrt. The state of the pulse is variable in this
disease, according as the parenchyma or the reflected membranes bear the great-
est share in the complaint, or as the thoracic cavities are unequally inflamed. _ It
is, however, almost always quickened, sometimes to 100 even, from the irritative
state of the aortic system ; it is also in most well-marked cases small and op-
pressed, the puhnonary congestion preventing the free passage of blood through
the right side of the heart. I have, however, occasionally found it moderately
full and bounding, dependent probably on the membranous attack being greater
than the parenchymatous. The horse is now seen to look more anxiously round to
his sides, the whole body also seems stiff and sore : particularly elevating the head
occasions great pain, and he is altogether disinclined to move ; on the contrary, he
stands fixed with his head extended forwards, his nostrils outstretched, his fore
legs* somewhat apart and forward, and he seldom if ever lies down, or if he does,

exit from the water, from which the unfortunate animal cannot be equably and universally warmed any
more; here, at least, heat cannot have supervened on the attack of cold. Mr. Coleman has
rendered an easontial service to the army, and almost got rid of the lial)ility in cavalry stables to this
disease, by introducing a thorough ventilation. The favourers of the impunity of cold consider
they have here a proof of it, as well as tliosc who consider impure air as an excitant ; but my own
opinion is that the cliange is l)cneficial, not in the removal of heat so much as in the lessening of the
liability to extensive alternations of temperature. In mv own experience, the impurity of the air in
stables, although it may generate glanders and other malignant affections, will never produce topical
inflammation of the lungs.

• The disinclination to lie down Is a peculiar feature in the complaint, and strongly serves to
characterise it ; being occasioned as well by a fear of strangulation from the prone situation, as to
gain an additional power to expand the clogged chest by means of the assistant respiratory muscles
of the fore extremities, which be spreads wide apart as fixed points, to enlarge the arcli of llie ribs
which liangs between them ; for in tliesc cases the sensibility of the thoracic linings prevents the neces-

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS.- [ClASS II

as to present, at the region of the heart, nothing but'thi fainteS ruttS^ ^hl w

trcaTclr^S^t it -^^ -^--i^r^^ 'although tiz^n; lis

1^ °'*"^f ''^''"g^ ^° ^ "t^" "i^^*^ li^^d hue, and the air thev ex-

Et he br'easT n. becomes eold and pale ; 'convulsive twitcJings

Wp. !i^T;T ' fndfece; the teeth grate, and death ensues earlier or

he 4coni' 5^' "''''■^ ^^^^ '•"P^'^ ' "'^^^g sometimes as early as

the second or thu'd day, but more often between that and the ^eventk and being
sometimes prolonged to the fourteenth or fifteenth. ^
The terminations of pneumonia are more varied than in most othet complaints •
resoluizon is that most to be desired, in which the symptoms gradualKuSe'
either spontaneously, or aided by the curative treatment, the texture of the
tT. H their ceUular.structure. Congestion is the termination most

to be dreaded, and which sometimes suffocates the patient on the fourth or fifth -
day, by fillmg up the air cells with grumous blood. In the epidemic pneumonia,
where a considerable degree of malignance is occasionally present, instead of
blood, the air ceUs often become choaked with serosity. Hydrothorax, or serous
effusionwithm the cavities of the pleura, is another fatal terminetion, and is
either acute and rapid, or more protracted. In the former it occurs from the third
to the fourteenth day ; the exhalent vessels of the pleurae begin their serous se-
cretion, which they continue to pour out until they completely fiU one or both
thoracic cavities and the animal dies from suffocation. This termination is
usually betokened before death by ayeUow serous discharge from the nose, with-
out fcetor, and may always be detected by the stethescope : the pulse in these
cases IS irregular,^ but the general symptoms are so little intense as frequently to
deceive the practitioner. The less acute hydrothorax frequently does not occur
until the third or fourth week, and sometimes even a longer period from the
pneumonic attack, and is even more deceptive than the other, for it seldom com-
mences until there has been for a considerable time, perhaps two or three weeks
a perfect apparent remission of all the inflammatory symptoms, and it is only by
an examination with the stethescope, or the critical eye and fine touch of the ex-
perienced observer, that any remaining disease can be detected. To such a one the
disposition to effusion will manifest itself; the pulse will give a peculiar vibratory
stroke, with some hurried irregularity ; and as soon as only a moderate portion
of fluid IS collected, this pecuUar state of the aortic system may be more dis-
tinctly felt by means of the hand applied to the region of the heart, which will
then evidently convey the sensation of a pulsatory stroke through a watery me-
dium. A smart rap also given by an assistant on one side of the chest will pro-
duce to a hand of the observer, held on the other, an undulation simDar to that
received from a tap given to a bladder filled with water ; and if the like experi-
ment be at the same time made on the sides of a healthy subject, a still more
satisfactory proof may be obtained; which double examination should more par-
ticularly be put into practice where the stethescope is appUed to assist the exa-
mination by percussion. (See Stethescope, Mat. Med.) The hydrothoracic state
of the chest may be also suspected from the staring look and harsh feel of the
hair, as well as from a yellow serous discharge from the nostrils usually present,
at first thin, but afterwards thicker and glutinous. Any sudden exertion also
alarms such a horse ; he avoids turning, and resists holding his head up from fear
of strangulation, by altering the direct course of the trachea. In this state he
will continue, without much variation, to eat and perform the functions of a horse
slowly recovering from a serious illness, and will thereby deceive his attendants ;
at length, however, he will be suddenly seized with renewed pneumonic symp-

em y expansion by the usual agencies of the diaphraif ni and intercostal muscles, while the congested
lungs receiving but little air, and acting but imperfectly on that little, endeavonr to remedy the defect
by an increase in the quickness of their action. The deteriorated blood likewise not being sufficiently
oxygenated, stains the nostrils with a purple hue, and the obstruction to its circulation keeps the ex-
tieinilies in a state of deadly coldness,

Class II.l inflammation of the lungs. 313

/ which though seldom, so acute as, at first, yet hurry the poor brute out of
toms, ^-"^^^^"""Sj^y^ Now and thert some accidental but sudden exertion
rhelm the KSa an^raohea, and he faUs, drowned in a fluid of his own
overwhelms J^l""^^^ state, if a horse be taken into deep water, the

Soment t stuirjfoa\ he"s^ver*arnW^ and invariably drowned. See Para-

''^MfrmcaHon is not a frequent termination of true pneumonia ; the irritation
orf£ c^nsestion usually destroys, the ,nimal before the tissues are completely
Soken w The grumous black blood effused into the air cells has been mis-
taken for^a gangrenous state, but which state is rather marked by a mixed serous
and bloody effusion of extreme factor, and is more common in those cases which
appear epidemical, and are marked with typhoid symptoms. I must here be
Zarked^ that, although rare- a gangrenous state of the lungs is occasionaUy
™t in pneumonia proper; it is, however, a much more frequent sequel of
?hL Ssease among cattle: Suppuration is occasionaUy one of the sequelae to
ineumS! in whi^ch instances there is also a deceitful rem ss ion of the symp-
toms but i^t so great as in hydrothorax ; it is further marked bv an imtating
cZh, a purulent discharge from the nose, and a hurried irregular pulse. In
S cases a'speedv termination follows, by suffocation, or a more protracted
one in which the animal dies tabid. Hepatization is also not an untommon
termmation, - in which the parenchymatous substance of the lungs becomes so
blocked up and solidified as to make them, contrary to the usual state, sink in
water* When the condensation is only partial, the states called thick wind and
broken wind are the consequence ; or an increased irritabdity of the lungs them-
selves, or of the mucous membranes of the bronchia and trachea, may be left,
which subiects the horse to a long-continued or permanent cough. It is also
the parent of the tuberculated state, which brings on phthisis pulmonahs or pul-
monary consumption. Sometimes also the lungs themselves are left free from
organic affection, but coagulable lymph is thrown out across the trachea or wind-
pipe, which narrows its caliber at some particular part or parts and the air, rush-
ing through these strictures, produces a sonorous noise called roaring, as here-
after detailed. , , . . ...

On the subject of symptoms, it remains to guard the practitioner against mis-
taking pneumonia or inflammation of the lungs for sxich other affections as it may
be confounded with, as with catarrh, bronchitis, or other phlegmasiffi of mucous
membranes. In the catarrhal epidemic, the extremities do not continue inva-
riably cold ; the distress of countenance is not so great ; sore throat is comnionly
present ; the breathing, though quickened, is less laborious, and the pulse seldom
oppressed. The cough in catarrh is generaUy deep, sonorous, and very painful :
a weakness, not corresponding with the violence of the symptoms, is very early
seen in the complaint ; and though the lining of the nostrils may be inflamed m
catarrh, it is seldom so much so, unless pneumonia be coming on, as to present
a purple hue. The principal necessity which exists for making a careful distinc-
tion between the two diseases, arises from.it not being found prudent in catarrhal
affections generally, particularly if partaking of the epidemic type, to push the
bleeding, and other parts of the depleting system, so far as in pneumonia ; and
also from the greater necessity of placing the horse in a cool temperature in the
latter, to what exists in the former. Inflammation of the lungs has also been
mistaken for colic, from the horse sometimes expressing considerable uneasiness,
and often looking round to his sides ; but in colic the horse evinces acute pam,
by stamping with his fore feet, or kicking at his beUy with his hinder : by turns
he lies down and rolls, and then suddenly rises ; while, on the contrary, m pen-
pneumony, he never lies down, but stands stupidly quiet, except now and then,

• L'hftpatlsation est un mode partlculier d'iiiduration qui transformc la substance dupoumon en
une masse rouirc, inor«anique cn apparcncc, mais qui nc I'est pas toujours, et qui ottrc plus ou
moins dc resistance. Le poumon alois n'offre plus une frame ceUuleuse, lamclleusc ; il presentc une
• substance grcnuc, qui sc casse facilemont, ct qui a les plus grands rapports avec la substance du foie.
Les signes qui dfccfelcnt ccttc induration rouge sont I'accroisscmcnt de la dyspnfce, la respiration plus
frfeqnentc ct plus courte, lo son du tliorax percute plus mat qu'auparavant, la faiblcsse, la petitesse,
I'irr^gularitfe et intermittence du pouU.

314 INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. fCLASS II

beiCfSrfhemTernT'r'^^^'''' ^^P*^'^^ ^"^^ terminations, vary,

^,T3 "'^^„*^^™' dependent on circumstances connected with the nature anH

wmcn mnammation of the lungs occurs, so it will usually be fonnd' thnf fi.^
S3 r ''""'^i i. '""''"^ '•^fl^^^^"^' P^^ti-P-te wis the pareth vmat
Th. Sll Y'''^ ?td^«^^«e i« severe, it destroys within the first threidavs

Jnd r ''""^r of the organ will be found choaked with dark venoiL blo^d

and u-regular spots or patches of inflammatory colouring on the surface if nrn
tracted longer there wiU be superadded adhesions of the ple^ur^ ^^increased
interstitial fluid mixed with masses of coagulable lymph, the sur^^cTof he W

froThVfluM-Tr^'sl'r "^^'^"^ inti§eainga sero^anguil^^^^^

irothy fluid, or it sometimes pours out a purulent matter. In the fatal cases of
hepatization, lymph appears diffused through the ceUular texture, sol d fies and
glues up the bronchial ramifications, and gives to the lungs the granulS aspect
of the bver, with its weight consistence, and incapacity ?o float^in water aS

The prognosis must be formed from the progress the disease has made and
he intensity or mildness of its symptoms : when the pulse rises on bleSj and
some warmth can be restored to the extremities by friction, when the nasal Z-
ings do not approach a livid tint, and the horse can bear t^ be turned or do^
not obstinately maintain oiie extended posture, but on the contrary shews an in-
clination to he down ; if his blisters rise or his rowels matm-ate, we^a e warranted
in offering hope to the owner, and more particularly if the disease does not
increase m intensity by the fourth day. But if, on the^ contrary the pulse doe
not rise on bleeding, but continues indistinct both at the artery and heart if the

tial cold sweats, a fatal termination may be expected. It is always k most un-
fovourable sign when the skin proves insensible to external stimuknts ; that is,
when the bhsters and rowels remam inert; and I hardly remember to have seen
a horse recover where such has been the case: it bespeaks at once the intensity
of the inflammation, and the diminution of vital power to cope with it

Ihe treMment of pneumonia must be prompt, and involves two principal indi-
cations ; first, to lessen the sanguiferous distention of the lungsf and next bv
counter-irritants to set up an artificial metastasis. Proceed to draw blood to
the full extent which the age, size, and state of the complaint require, which in
a recent case and full habit, may be properly continued until the animal evidently
teels the eflFects of it by becoming faintf, and also as long as the pulse (which

• II est assez difficile, dans Ic commencempnt, de bicn distineuor unc nleiire«ie d'unc nncumonie •
ICS symntomes sont alors p. esque les mgmes ; I'une ot I'autrc aUoctions d6butent par des K atWos
decliaudct de f,o.d l',r, effularite du pouls, la gene de la respiration, la d.aleurde l"i? SI la
seolieresse de la bouche et cellc de la peau : niais quand la plcuresie est biet. deela. 6e elle Je ,K ni. e
par qnelqiies symptOmes moins difficilcs A saisir. Ainsi, la difficulte de respire est diffrrcnte de 4 e
qui ahcudanslapneumonie; clle est beauco.ip moindre dans cctte derni^ re et es i m.i.vem^^^
flancssont plus libreset plus aendus. au lieu 'que, dans la pleur^sie! es mouv m^^^^^^^
de^f'^lTT""' "'/^''•"'^.'"It P ?»'■«.. PreBsent cont.e lescStes, et orcasionnent des douleurs q i ren"
dent la respiration penible i'mspiration courte et cntre coupfee. I'expiration lente et prolonifee Par
la mfeme raison, la toux est s6che, rare, avec pcu ou point d'exneeto'ation dans lapleuresie et le peu
qu'il pent y avoir de mati^reexpectoree presentc rarement quelques stries de sang, tandis mi'on en
remarque beaucoup dans I'expectoration de la pneunionie, qui est tr6s abondante —Diet Vet art

t The nractitioner may delay, but not wholly stop the flow, if the horse becomes faint ; such a state
hL nL'inTi^ on the arterial system. Another hint may not be amiss Met

him not, in the outset, mistake the oppressed pulse for one of true debility : the vessels are here cloRired
with a «;fper(jA;<«rfaHce of blood. • ic uciv nuggm

Class IL] inflammation of the lungs. 315

should be carefully watched the whole thne) becomes softer and rises on the
fow and with the exception that a momentary and sudden famtness is now to
SeTeVj dcd, it may be considered a general rule, that bleeding may he continued
as lo'?K as it does raise the pulse, hut not longer It is also to be remembered,
that one full and early bleedhig is principally to be depended on, and is of more
mpo?tance than several subsequent ones. From a modera e sized horse, five,
or seven quarts, or even more, may be drawn ; and should the symptoms in-
Sc'ate a neceSty for it, in three or four hours take three or four quarts more ;
aid as long as the breathing continues laborious, the extremities permanently
S and tSe pulse oppressed, but rising on the flowing of the blood ; so long the
blee'dings should be repeated to the amount of two or three quarts at a time at
intervals of six or eight hours. This is recommended under a supposition that
Ihe treatment commences soon after the attack : but, if otherwise, and symptoms
of great intensity have existed thirty-six or forty-eight hours the bleeding must
be repeated with more caution, and the pulse most attentively watched; or the
opposite extreme may.be fallen into, and such debility succeed as may produce
the very event we wish to avoid, by hastening gangrene or effusion. It is of con-
siderable importance to draw the blood quickly by means of a large orifice, made
with a broad-shouldered fleam or lancet, as directed under General Inflammation,
and to sufier the blood drawn to cool graduaUy without disturbance ; the alter
appearances of which will assist in pointing out the propriety or otherwise of re-
peating the depletion. The first bleeding over, proceed without loss of time to
folfil the second indication of making use of counter-irritation, the extent and
de<Tree of which should be propoi-tioned to the degree of inflammation exhibited;
and under this view the agent used is immaterial, there being no specific virtue
in one vesicating article more than another, beyond its stimulating property :
none succeeds quicker or better than cantharides. (See Blisters, Mat. Med.)
And as an extensive surface of skin can bear the uritation better than any other
part, and as one here presents itself whoUy unconnected with the organ, save as
an independent covering, proceed at once to bUster the breast and sides , first
shaving or otherwise closely clipping the hair. If the spnptoms are very urgent,
or a prejucHee exists in favour of rowelst, one may be inserted between the tore
legs and another ten or twelve inches behind ; but, in my own opinion, rowels
should never supersede the more speedy action of blistering. The less active
revulsive means are such as tend to restore an equal circulation over the body
generally ; we therefore use very brisk, frequent, and even severe hand-rubbing
of the legs, and which, when not under the friction, should be very warmly clad
with coarse woollen cloth, or hay-banded. It has been proposed to scald them,

• With some pathologists, Wisterins istliought to increase arterial aotion, and hence to be unad-
visable here : but when sedative remedies are employed, the stimulating effects of proper counter irri-
tants confine their effects to the skin, or parts to which they are applied, and prove most salutary.
Many French authorities likewise are not favourable to them. Hurtrel d'Arboval says, S.ins
bannir absolumentles revulsifs du traitement de la pneumonic aiquii, on ne peut s'empecher de recon-
naitre nu'ils sont aouvent inutiles, et qu'employes trop tot ou trop tard, lis sont nuisiblcs. lies vesi-
catoires aux faces latferales et un peu declives du thorax, le seton 4 la pointe du sternum, sont les
moyensde ce genre qu'on applique le plus frequemment; nous pourriona citer un grana nombre de
cas oil ils ont determine des tumefactions gangreneuses. Dans ce caa. et quelje que soit sa torme,
I'cxutoire subsiste d'abord sans engorgement et sans suppuration pendant trois ou quatre jours ; la
mjiti^re qu'il rend ensuite est sanieuse et decomposee, bien differente du pus brun, qui n'cst quelque ■
fois sanguin que parcequc I'animal se frotte ; puis il survicnt, a I'endroit oii I'exutoire est place, une
tumefaction ccdfematcuse, qui devicnt promptement gangreneuse, ct gagne quelquefois le dessous de
la poitune, le ventre, les membres, &c.' The owners of horses, particularly of such as are on sale,
object to blistering frequently, because it disfigures the animal for a long time .ifterwarrts ; but it
should be represented to them, that no substitute gives an equal chance of saving hfe. It must be
evident that, for the cure of an inflammation which extends through the chest, the counter-irritant
must be extensive also, and there is none sufficiently active that will not raise the cuticle and separate
the hair. If the objection be persisted in, then insert a rowel in the brisket, another opposite the
elbows, and a third about ten inches behind that, quickening their action by smearing the plug witli
una. XyUa: (blitti ring oinlmenl). „ „ . . r ,11

+ Those who prefer rowels and setons to blisters, gain a host in Mr. Sewell, who is favourable to
them in these cases, observing that, as being deeper seated, their action is more intense, permanent,
and harmless; and that by their insertion some of the subcutaneous vessels must be lacerated, and
effusion produced, but blistering soinetimesfaila altogether —Fei!eWnrtrirt«, vol. li, p. '61-2. Osmcr's
plan, which was compounded of botli plans of counter-irritation, was not an ineligible mode ot raising a
quick, active, and pcrmment stimulus to the integuments of the chest. It consisted in making nu-
merous small openings in the skin, and introducing pledgets of tow smeared with blistering ointment.

316 INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. fCLASS II

over the croup and Thkhs hut TrlH ^ ' P'^'^ ^"^••ter picces

now prevails, and with the best resu ts therefore let T. ^^^ T '^T*'°'

Sirrd'th'^ttiS tt'^r^'^^v^^^ provrvarbS^r'a

^eudi ves, ana tHe article first extensively employed by him for the Duroose wa<i

L bow^ls'the'; r P'^. ' aetiv'el7pur Jnl

ine Dowels, the^ do good. But as they are very apt to promote active and sad-
den purging, when not expected so to do, they cannot be altoeSer deoended

th^e'hlf rT"". '""^'"'^^ ^« a derivative, we\t Tn er?:r^1^

the horse it is found that any irritation of the alimentary canal is sure to extend
ts influence to the contiguous viscera, particularly if anV of thei are n a state
to favour the metastasis! Veterinary'^practitioners of^the preTenrda? there

A more certain nauseant has been brought into use by Mr. PercivaU the
ve^^trum album, ov white hellebore, and explrience seems to eSend Tts use it
stm has opponents and It stiU has rivals in digitalis, antimony, nitre, ipecacuanhf
and camphor; but under such testimonies as now crowd on us in Us fatw
particularly as o its effects in pneumonia, I would recommend t to the notke
of the veterinarian, assuring him that I have witnessed its efficacy ; although I

t When we reflect that horses which have once been affertpfl win, n^,. tr.a, , . ^

r^ag^ir sur le pou.on enfla,n„,e , leur usage nous 'para^rdiV';^,. iTre baZ dr/^^arte'mLrdV.it.Ve^t

Class TI.] inflammation of the lungs. 317

r ^ Innir pvnerience remained favourable to the remedies yet to be
whTch i^ theJe ^iU be found many cases wherein the more active
f J r.nnoi be persisted in, and as the milder sedative effects to be gamed
r*''^" -lit nntimLv &rhave, in my own practice, and that of many others,
^"■^pJ^snSssfu ra^^^ recommend them According to the following

LTd. obset ng that^I^^ in bad cases in the later years of

nrMPt'icV successfuUy united them with heUebore and other more active
"iseants Tn derate doses, being of opinion, with Dr. Geo. Fordyce that the
Son of several medicaments under a unity of intention act more advantageously
often than any single article.

No l.—Antimonial powder two drachms

Bm\U\is (powdered foxglove) two drachms

Nitrated potash (nitre) three drachms

Supertartrate of potash (cream of tartar) three drachms

Mix with honey to make a ball, and give every four, six or eight hours accord-
ing to the urgency of the symptoms. Consistently with what has been just
stated, in cases of great urgency, and where the practitioner has been early
called in, while the vital powers are unimpaured, I would recommend the tol-
lowing : —

No. 2.— To ball No. 1, add of Pulv. verat. alb. (white hellebore) 10 grains

Pulv. ipecacuanha 12 grams.

In cases where cough is a predominating symptom, indicating some tendency
to bronchitis, and soreness of the chest, nasal discharge, &c., bespeak a general
catarrhal tendency, the following formula is to be preferred, as more immediately
calculated to relieve these symptoms : —

No. 3.— Tartarized antimony two drachms

Powdered foxglove one drachm and a halt

Nitrated potash three drachms

Simple oxymel (see Mat. Med.) four ounces

Liquor No. 3, p. 318 eight ounces.

I have in some such cases, where the active inflammatory symptoms were not
such as utterly to forbid it, added tinct. opii, half an ounce, with much relief to

the cough. . 1 /. • X- X

With regard to food, no anxiety need be entertained for a pneumonic patient,
at least for the first twenty-four or thirty-six hours, during which time, even

• As in this inflammatory affection I am more favourable to the use of this medicine than I am to it
in many others, as not acting on the remainder of the alimentary canal usually, so I quote Mr.
Percivall's own account of its effects. ' He has used it ' he observes, ' twelve years and reposes on
it with considerable confidence. It acts as ipecacuanha does in the human subject; it will excite
nausea, and if carried farther, produce efforts to vomit ; it diminishes the force and frequency of the
pulse with singular efficacy ; it abates all the inflammatory symptoms, and it influences, I believe the
action of the perspiratory vessels. Although it is a remedy of the most active kind, and one whose
operation demandl unremitting vigilance, it is one that we have most comp ctely under our command.
I commonly give it in the dose of a scruple or half a drachm, and repeat it every four, six, or eight
hours according to the urgency of the case. Watch continually the symptoms of nausea, as extreme

very
■ the
in-
im-

perativelv necessary on the practitioner, that he carefully and frequently examine the pulse duru.g
Its exhibition, as often as every hour, if possible : if he cannot do it in person he ought to have an
assistant at hknd to whom he could entrust it ; for such extreme prostration will sometimes steal oyer
the frame by a continued use of it, in pneumonic cases especially, and that particularly where the
nausea has been great, or accompanied with long-continued efforts to vomit (which is here a most in-
jarious consequence), as to collapse the system beyond all recovery. As soon therefore as the pulse
is found to lower by the use of it to an Indistinctness not before present, dcs st immediately, and, as
the debility is more or less considerable, combat it by cordials, as sound ale with opium, ammonia or
other proper stimulants, until the pulse again rallies, when pursue the treatment with the milder seda-
tives, ami refrain from further stimulants, unless called on by renewed debility, or any symptoms of
a gangrenous tendency.

"^IQ INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. [ClASS II

be given hot, or hung round the headfas in eatarrhal fev^r brreSuis L On
the contrary every tlnng that heats the air inspired by the lungs iSat; th^ir
action, and the disease can only be properly treated bv a «trE '"f'^^'^'*" ^^^'"i
whatever tends to diminish the 'inflaSinroTy Shlis' In tS poinTr^few
though, as before noticed, we must carefully 'abstain from produdnHurSn^ w
shoidd also as studiously avoid costiv^ness, which is best donny^SSinT
or by aperient clysters ; and, in case of failure in these, a more efficient laxa ive
may be given by the mouth (see Laxatives). As an indication of g ea iWt-

to ;h ^'''^ ^^^^^'^'^ be striftly atScd

to; the body and extremities should be frequently examined, and whenever any
part IS found to be getting cold, the means beforedctaOed should bl resorted to
^ promote a return of the circulation. During the continuLe of thTcom:
?hi t rS'l ^l^g?! y ^^^'"^d, may be givin to drink frequently; and if
this be refused, give chilled water, and, occasionaUy, horn down the tea- or
ofents' ' ^^^'-^ particularly ifthere be cough and much ches^

No. 3.-Linseed and liquorice root, of each four ounces

^'^ll^^^ twohandsful.

that as ht le disturbance and force should be offered the horse as possible in
this comp ain , therefore horning down fluids should never be praSd bS
w"th? t ' ^ %''r'y- , ^t^^dily pursuing this mode of treatment for the
first thirty-six or forty-eight hours, it may be expected that the distention and
inflamed state of the pulmonary vessels will subside into resolution, M'hich wiU
be indicated by the appearances detailed in the prognosis; and any favourable

IZZZ T P "^'f' ^PP'y^"g ^'^^t termed cordials,

suppoi t the strength by thick gruel or malt mashes. Should more direct debi-
lity notwithstanding make rapid advances, substitute the following for the other
medicines : — °

No.4.— Powder of ipecacuanha two drachms

lincture of opium half an ounce.

V^^Pbor two drachms

Acetated hquor of ammonia (see Mat. Med.) . . . four ounces.

Rub the camphor with the tincture and powder, and then add the acetated liquor
ot ammonia, and give with half a pint of gruel, or liquor No. 3.

Let it be remembered, however, that direct stimulants are admissible only in
cases where the seventy of the inflammatory symptoms has relaxed, and when
from the existing debihty sanious discharge from the nose, &c. there is reason
to fear a gangrenous termination, as will now and then occur. In such cases
some veterinarians, as Mr. Proctor, of SoHhuU, have boldly and even success-
fully administered ammonia, sulphate of copper, and brandy. See Veterinarian,
vol. lii. '

But when, on the contrary, there is more reason to dread a fatal termination by
congestion, and the intensity of the inflammation does not seem to abate, continue
to push with vigour the arterial sedatives, particularly No 2. Should the first
bhstering not prove cflective, either rub in more ung. Ivtta;, or proceed to scald
the chest by means of cloths dipped in water nearly boiling and held closely to
it. If the breathing becomes very laboured, place the horse's head towards, or
even without, an open door or window, but, as before observed, by all means
avoid a current of air through the stall or box. In the more early stages, care-
fully avoid all medicaments usually considered as cither sudorifics or expector-
ants, which is but another term for stimulants: it is the active inflammatory
symptoms which are to be combated, and these are best subdued by full and

Class II.] pleurisy. 319

Parlv depletiiiff and sedative means. The only stimulants admissible in the in-
Enatory state are external ones, as counter-irntants; these never lose s,ght o^
Be t™ rther remarked, that when a favom-able termination seems to have taken
nlace be care should not relax : it is a disease very liable to reeur ; and is very
S leave for some time such a state of lung (if it do not destroy by recuiring
uneumonia) as any imprudence will fix into a ruinous chronic affection as thick
Kd bioken wind, or even phthisis. It remains only to add, hat in those cases
marked with symptoms of serous collections within the chest, although the treat-
ment is seldom fortunate, yet that we should always evacuate the fluid by an
operation. (See Paracentem and Hydrothorax.)

PLEURISY.

Pleuritis, as a distinct disease, will not occupy much of my attention, as the
treati'^e on pneumonia embodies most that is practically necessary to note in it.
In what is there stated it will be seen, that in an unmixed state it is a rare dis-
ease in the horse ; but that, combined with pneumonia, it is a very frequent one.
As causes of pleuritis proper, one of its most frequent is external violence, parti-
cularly of punctured wounds, which injure the costal pleurae without disturbing
the inteo-rity of the lungs ; as is not unfrequent when the injury is inflicted by a
blunt instrument entering in a slanting direction, as a goad with a cow's horn. In
such a case, the affection may continue confined to one side only, but in most
others it extends to both sides, though not always in an equal degree. It may be
occasioned also by any of the causes which produce pneumonia : exposure to
wind, rain, or snow, I believe to be one of the most common among these.

The symptoms, like those of pneumonia, make a rapid attack, or they do not .
arrive at then- intensity for three, four, or five days. A disturbance in the respi-
ration is usually first remarked; where, contrary to what is observed in pneumo-
nia, the inspirations are quicker than the expirations, but both evidently give pain,
and the expired air is usually hotter than natural. Cough is here more invari-
ably present than in simple pneumonia, which, h priori, might not be expected ;
but it is short, suppressed, and painful : sometimes the horse stamps, as in the
cough of catarrh or bronchitis. Mr. Field's excellent account of it, as it appears
in The Veterinarian, vol ii, notices a trembling folded appearance of the in-
teguments, produced by the cough. The nose is dilated, as in pneumonia, to aid
the difficulty in respiration ; but the nasal membranes are but little tinged. It
is particularly characterized by the pain which pressure on the sides produces.
'L'animal temoigne une tres grande sensibiUte sur tout la surface des cotes, d'un
cote on de I'autre ; quand on percute cette partie, la percussion ne fait entendre
qu'un son sourd, si meme on en obtient cette sensibilite du thorax, I'un des
signes pathognomiques de la pleuresie denote bien une douleur dans une partie
quelconque de la plevre costale.' Hurirel (TArbovaL— The pulse is usually hard,
full, and but slightly accelerated in the first stage. From this detail of symptoms,
as well as from what has already appeared in the account of pneumonia, the dis-
tinguishing marks between pleurisy and inflammation of the substance of the
lungs may be gained. The further progress of the disease is not dissimilar to
that of pneumonia. If the sjmiptoms quoted do not become aggravated by the
fifth or sixth day, a favourable termination may be expected; but if, on the con-
trary, the pulse becomes much quickened, small but wiry, and indistinct, and
great restlessness with irregular sweating come on, it will prove fatal, and the
post-mortem examination will detect extensive inflammatory marks over the costal,
lateral, and diaphragmatic pleurae, with numerous adhesions and coatings of
lymph : sometimes a considerable effusion has taken place, as in pneumonia.

The treatment does not differ from that of pneumonia in any other particular,
than that we may, with greater safety, here caU in the aids of purgatives and
diuretics.

INFLAMED LUNGS IN NEAT CATTLE.

Homed cattle are also subject to pneumonia, but not by any means in an
equal degree with horses. Cowleeches and graziers call the complaint rising of

320 INFLAMED LUNGS IN NEAT CATTLE AND SHEEP. [ClASS II

VnS*' ^''^ ^""^ ^^''^ P'^"' P'-«^i»^i<'il names unnecessary to be noticed here'
Various causes may occasion it ; as exposure to inclement father ovrdn\Tn£;
on fvf ""' ^'^^^h t'^^ vicissitudes of temperature they ui deZ act nf

on their plethoric state, distend the pulmonary {issues : I have also seerh^n

of n'^H-ff '1/^"'"^'"^"^'^ '^^^ thepneumoni^f horsesTknow

of no difference, but that there is a discharge by the mouth, which from necu
hanty of structure, admits both the air to pass by it and serous eya'cSn^Hke

bases'- Td^haT from'r- '"^V'''^^ I' to ^reTauT:; tt ;
aiseases , and that, from the increased volume of their aortic system their in-

f™rr'fc >''"'''™^^^^^^ soonL than those of

the horse. Hence it is more common for pneumonia to end in gangrene in cattle

than in horses. The treatment also differs in no other respect but in that the de^
pie ing system must be prompt, and can with proprietj only be pushed in the
first stages. It may also be remarked, that structural peculiarity in the aliment-
ary track makes it proper to give aU their medicines in a liquid form.

INFLAMED LtJNGS. IN SHEEP.

Few of the writers on horned cattle notice peripneumony as a disease affecting
sheep ; but I have seen it weU marked, and'^in them alfo its origin could be

t^l T '° '° ™y °°tes of practice, I find

that the disease was rather prevalent among the few sheep that were kept near
London in February 1808. Among other cases that fell under my notice were
some m he flock of Mr. Adams, of Mount Nod, near Streatham. From the
shepherd s account I gained, that all the sick were attacked nearly together im!
mediately succeeding a very stormy cold night; five of whom were dead when I
arrived, and five others al ewes and within a month of their yeaning, remained
yet alive, but extremely ill. The symptoms in all varied very little The first
appearance was loss of appetite, which was soon succeeded by a fixed stare the
head was elevated in the air, the mouth opened, the flanks heaved violently' the
conjunctive and pituitary membranes were much injected, and a fluid distilled
from the nostrils, serous in some and purulent in others. They were occasionaUy
seized with epileptic fits, would faU backward, and when recovering from it the
teeth would be heard to grate together. The examhiation of the five dead ones
exhibited the parenchymatous substance of the lungs highly inflamed in all of
them ; m some, the whole of the lobes, in others those of one side only, were
affected ; but wherever the inflammation reached, that part was condensed almost
into a so id mass by the congestion ; some of the air cells also contained pus :
the costal and mediastinal pleura; were little affected. In two, the hver was also
shghtly inflamed, but which was not a primary but a secondary effect, brought
on by the participation of neighbourhood. It is somewhat remarkable that each
of them contained two foetuses. The five that were living I immediately bled
and blistered; and, as soon as it could be procured, a drink was given to each
composed of nitre and tartkrised antimony, which treatment appeared to arrest
the disease, as the whole recovered ; and all, except one, went their full time
which one yeaned while I was standing by : and in despite of her illness, which
was excessive, yet made feeble efforts to suckle and cherish her young one, and
appeared rather amended by the event: both mother and young lived. 'The
treatment of the peripneumony of sheep in nowise differs from that of neat cattle:
bleed from the amount of half a pint to a pint, shear the sides and blister, and
give one-third of either of the recipes directed for kine : house the sick, but not
too warmly ; and if the cud be lost, drench with gruel.

CHRONIC INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS, ENDING IN
TUBERCLES AND PULMONARY CONSUMPTION.

Phthisis pulmonalis is not a very uncommon disease in the horse, deriving its
origin from a tuberculated state of the lungs, left as a sequel of pneumonia, &c.:
now and then, it is probably a primary or purely constitutional affection. It

Class n.] inflammation of the heart and stomach. 321

first attracts notice by a sliort dry cough and an unthriftincss of coat ; the
strcu"th <lags under exercise ; tlic pulse, at first but little altered, as the disease
advances becoiues quickened, somewhat smaller, and very singularly hurried on
exertion. The appetite is now alFected, and pus mixed with mucus is passed
from the nostrils, which in the latter stages is mixed with clots or coagula:*, which
escape both by the luouth and nose in the act of coughing. In the still more
advanced stages the discharge increases and is very foetid, the hair falls off, the
body wastes, "and the complaint ■ either degenerates into absolute glanders or
farcy ; or the animal sinks under the hectic irritation, or is suffocated by the
accumulated pus.. If a horse be destroyed in the early stages, the tubercles
appear Uke small hardened masses, dispersed throughout the parenchymatous
substances of one oi' both lungs, varying in colour and size fi'oni that of a pea to
that of the largest hazel nut. In a later stage, these soften internally, and pus
is secreted within, which, eroding and absorbing the walls, escapes, and more
e.xtensive ulceration follows.

As the disease is invariably fatal, it is useless to prescribe an uncertain treat-
ment for it.

INFLAMMATION OF THE HEART.

Idiopathic carditis, as an imcombined disease, is very rare in the horse : but
combined with pneumonia and pleuritis, particularly with the latter, it is not
so rare ; indeed it is not easy to conceive how the mediastinal pleura can be af-
fected without the pericardium participating, and then transition to the heart is
almost a natural consequence. Hurtrel d'Arboval says it more frequently exists
■with pericarditis, but that as a primitive affection it is not yet recognized (' n'est
pas encore constati/e') among veterinary nosologists : it does not enter into the
nosology of M. Iluzard. Hurtrel d'Arboval notices a case that occurred in an
ass, in the veterinary college of Lyons, in which there was carditis, but accom-
panied with pleuritis, and which was particularly marked by vertigo. I have
myself seen two cases, but which were neither of them uncombined with peri-
carditis and pleuritis, and both terminated by hj'drops pericardii, or serous ef-
fusion into the pericardiac bag. Mr. Percivall has also met. with cases of car-
ditis, but all of them combined ; and he notices that he found the pericardium
coated with lymph, and in one instance thickened into a semi-cartilaginous sub-
stance. The"symptoms in the cases which fell under niy own notice difl'ered so
little from those present in pneumonia, that I considei'ed them as such, and treated
them accordingly. There was, however, 1 well remember, a peculiarity in the
pulse in both cases. It was marked by oppression,, as in pneumonia; but supei--
added to that, a peculiar wiry yet fluttering feel was observable, totally distinct
from any other I had ever felt. The countenance and manner were also marked
by an expression of. anxiety and alarm ; but acute pain did not appear present:
both cases terminated fatally. The treatment of carditis, thus combined, would
in no respect differ from that of pneumonia; but were we assured of its true
idiopathic character, we should blister and rowel the under surfaces of the chest
principally ; and we might push the nauseants to their full extent, purge the
bowels, and, as a revulsive drain, bleed from all the toes, as well as from the
jugulars,

INFLAMMATION OF THE STOMACH.

Gastritu is also a rare disease, thovgh the stomach of the horse is certainly some-
times primarily attacked with inflammation*; but the cases in which it occurs are

• The above sentence in italirs is tlie same with that in which this sulyect appeared in tlie two la^t
edition» of tliis wmV ; yet M . H iirtrel d'Arboval is led liy some error into the lolhuving iiiiss-tateinent •—
'On a fetfe juscHi'A prfctendre que la gaKtrite ne ce prfiseiitait jamais seulc, telle est ilu moins I'opinion
de Delabere Blame: mais c'est inie crrcur, qne cet auteiir n'anrait saremcnt pus commive s'il avail
oiivert beancoiip de cadavros, car on trouve sonvent, aux autopsies cadavferiqucs, non senleraent
restomac seul enflammfe, mais encore la membrane mnqneuse de ce viscire, indt'pendaininent de toule
autre de ses tiiniqucs. Cela n'cmp6cbe pas que, dans d'aiilres circonstances, lu rnaladie ne soil fort
Miivent compliquee de rinnammation de I'intestin, dn mfescntire de I'epiploon, ct quclquefoi, d' iutro«
viic«r«( abdominauz.'

X

322 INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES. " [ClASS II.

very difficult to detect, the symptomatic appearances being so' nearly allied to
enteritis, with which it is usually combined, and to which it is rather a seauel
than a precursor. By gastritis proper we should understand an idiopathic inflam-
matory attack on the nmcous surface of the stomach, whoUy exclusive of inflam-
mations produced by poisons or acrid substances admitted within it or of that
consequent on mechanical distention, called stomach staggers: the former remains
to be treated ot, the latter has akeady occupied my attention. The symptoms
of idiopathic gastritis, as far as they are noted, are extreme distress and restless-
ness, a loathing of food, and if any thing be given by the mouth it creates in-
creased pain for a long time afterwards. The animal breaks out into cold sweats
lies down and quickly rises again, as in inflammation of the bowels- becomes
early and greatly prostrated in strength, and has a pulse usually quick and much
oppressed. If the disease can be clearly detected, treat it in every respect as
directed under Enteritis, except as regards internal remedies: of such it is evi-
dent that those only of the most sedative kind ought to be tried; as the follow-
ing:—

Dissolve two drachms of superacetate of lead fsugar of lead) in eight ounces
of water, to which add four ounces of very pure olive oil, and give every
three hours.

In a well marked case, pouring iced water into the stomach might not be an
improper experiment.

INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES.

Enteritis, or the red colic of farriers, is a phlegmonous inflammation of either
the peritoneal or muscular portion of the intestines; or it has its seat in both
these portions, which is, I believe, by far the most frequent occurrence*. Ob-
servations on a great number of cases will also shew that the villous coat is not
unfrequently a participator in the affection: in fact, the abdominal inflammations
in the horse, as well as the thoracic, seldom exhibit exact lines of demarcation ;
but are very liable to stray by continuity, and even by contiguity ; hence we have
some characteristic symptoms or signs; many more which are mixed and indefi-
nite ; and some altogether anomalous in all acute visceral affections. There are
however, suflicient grounds for a general division of the iuflammtitions of the
bowels into enteritis, or that which principally affects their external coats, and is
generally accompanied by costiveness; and that which primarily attacks their
villous surface, and is productive of diarrhoea or dysentery. Between these
states there is a sufficient mark; but between inflammatory and spasmodic
colic the distinctive lines are familiar only to the experienced observer. \^Tien
the gripes, gullion, or fret, as spasmodic colic is called among farriers, attacks a
horse, it is usual and useful to give him powerful stimulants, active motion, and
strong friction, all which would be baneful in the extreme in red colic. A care-
ful distinction should therefore be made between the two diseases, which may
be readily done by attending to the characteristic marks of each, as particularly
detailed in spasmodic colic. Its progress is rapid in the extreme, and its fatality
very great.

The Causes are various : the application of cold is certainly among the num-
ber, and I have distinctly traced it to that source in several instancesf, as

• Professor Peal observes, on enteritis, ' tliat it is an inflammation of the peritoneal coat of the
intestines,' p. 181. Mr. Percivall, on the contrary, avers ' that tlie nmsciilar and cellular structure
intervening between tlie peritoneal and mucous coats, is primarily and principally affected,' Mr P.
further states, that tiie post-niortein examination of these cases will shew the peritoneum little bhi'od-
shot : but it is the muscular portion which is g-orst'd with red blood, shininsi through the other, which
produces the external tinge.' As far as my own observations on the subject extend, I have remarked
that both these iiorlious have participated in the inllammation, hut principally the peritoneal ; and the
complete similarity between enteritis and the acknowledged cases of peritonitis gives much weight to
this view of it. Hurtrel d'Aiboval gives, as the French view of this disease, a division into enteritis
acute, chronic, dianhosic, and dysenteric.

f In pneumonia either transition of temperature appears capable of producing the disease ; but in
enteritis, I believe, it seldom occurs but on the sudden transition from heat to cold. Mr. Percivall con-

•Class li-J inflammation of the intestines 323

washing when hot, or plunging into a river; the drinking of cold water has
likewise produced it, though more frequently this occasions spasmodic gripes.
A loii'T retention of impacted fjEces, from improper feeding with dry food and
little water; worms likewise may, now and then, bring it on, as also hernia or
intussusception, occasioned by one part of a gut becoming invaginated within
another; or it may be produced by metastasis, or the translation of the inflam-
matory state of another part, as of the feet and of the neighbouring viscera.
Spasmodic colic neglected or improperly treated is not an unfrequent cause, and
calcareous concretions have occasioned it.

The Si/»ij)toms. — It is known sometimes to commence by a shivering fit, to
which succeeds heat of skin, restlessness, loss of appetite, the mouth being par-
ticidarly hot and dry, and the inner membranes of the eyelids and the linings of
the nostrils rather redder than natural. As the inflammation advances the pain
increases, so as to force the horse to lie down and get up again frequently; but,
unless the pain be very acute, he seldom rolls on his back as in the gripes ; but,
as he will occasionally do so in particular cases, this should not be considered as
an infalhble criterion between this and gripes. He will kick at his belly, stamp
with his feet, scrape his litter or stall with his hoofs, and look wistfully round
towards his sides. The pulse in most cases is frequent, as 90 or 100, and usually
small and rather wiry*. The breathing is accelerated, but is not usually labo-
rious: the belly is painful to the touch, which does not occur in colic: it is also
hot to the feel, and the pain, instead of remitting as in colic, is constant; and the
extremities are cold, while the surface of the body is often hot. The bowels are
usually constipated, and if any dung be evacuated, it is in small, hard, and dry
masses, and is most likely that which had been accumulated prior to the attack.
The anus, if examined, will be found very hot, and sometimes even internally
inflamed; it also, in many cases, quivers with the intensity of the general afiec-
tion. Frequently there is some tympanitis or distention of the belly, which
much aggravates the general tenderness evinced on examination. The urine is
painfully evacuated in small quantities, and very highly coloured ; sometimes it
has much mucus suspended in it. In the progress of the disease these symp-
toms increase in intensity: the distress of the horse is expressed by his groans,
his violent eSbrts to change his position, as if to fly from his malady, while per-
.spiration, partial or general, breaks out, and is then succeeded by a chilly state,
with muscular twitchings ; the pulse becomes more and more hurried, intermit-
tent, and at last nearly imperceptible: and the respiration is as hurried and irre-
gular as the pulse, and occasionally interrupted by a convulsive sigh. The vital
powers are now fast ebbing, and the animal sinks after a few feeble struggles, or
he parts with life with more violent convulsive movements.

Post-mortem examination of these cases presents inflammatory marks, some-
times confined, sometimes general. In some cases the large and in others the
small intestines are the principal victims ; the external surface of the affected
parts is always heightened in colour; sometimes the redness is intense, at others
it assumes a purple hue, as the approach to gangrene is nearer or farther ofi';
and occasionally is black and nearly dissolved, when fully established : in some
cases an internal haemorrhage from the inflamed vessels has filled the tube, parti-
cularly of the smaller intestines, with blood.

The Prognosis. — If the costiveness be early removed ; if the pulse become
softer, more full, and less frequent ; if the pain remit, and the heat of the body

sWers cold as not a frcniipnt a^cnt, and remarks, that were he to turn out a hundred horses, he shonld
not anticipate one attack nf enteritis. I also should fear pneumonia more ; hut if ninety out of the hun-
dred were aged horses, some of them light-carcassed, ami such as are termed washy, whicli are often
horses of much irritahility, tlie balance would rather he turned towards the liability to enteritis ' La
cause la plus frfequeiite de I'entfiritie sur-aiguce>t I'eau froidc etcrue, surlout cellc nouvellenieiittirec
dn puits qu'on laisse prendre a discretion et tout d'un trait aux chevaux qui out chaud, dont la sueur
a fete exi itfee par une course rapid et v6li6meute on pardes riides travaux.'

• A very rapid and contracted pnl«c is, however, not by any means constantly present In the first
stage; but, on the contrary, it is tlien often hard and full, and not increased beyond fiAorfiO Indeed
as far as my own experience goes, it commences in this wavin most cases: it is the rarity of our sceinir
our patients until the full torce of the disease is present, that fixes our opinion of a vcrv freoueni and
contracted state of the artery as a pathognomonic symptom. '

x2

324 INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES [CLASS II.

and extremUies appear equal, it will terminate favourably. But if the costiveness
remain obstinate, or, otherwise, a voiding a black foetid matter appear • if the
pulse become more quick, and waver also; and if the extremities continue inva-
riably cold, the danger is great. And when added to these, if there be a peculiar
earthy cadaverous smell from the mouth, with cold sweats, delirium, and extreme
debility, and particularly if the belly become more and more tense, the termina-
tion will be, almost to a certainty, unfavourable ; and as soon as the pain ceases
m such a case, gangrene may be known to have commenced.

The Treatment in enteritis should be singularly prompt and active, as an in-
stance of recovery seldom occurs where the remedial means have been delayed
beyond the second day : indeed it often destroys in twenty-four hours. Bleeding
IS the first indication, and if the subject be young, large, and plethoric, six or
seven quarts may be safely taken away ; and should the symptoms continue un-
abated, the same may be repeated in four hours, to the amount of four or five
quarts more ; nor should even a third lesser bleeding be omitted at the same dis-
tance of time, if the inflammatory appearances have not become mitigated. The
bleeding may be known to have a salutary effect by the pulse becoming softer and
fuller, particularly if it shev/ a disposition to rise as the blood flows. Here also
it is proper that the blood be abstracted quickly and from a large orifice. As
soon as the first bleediug is over, proceed to back-rake, to remove any hardened
dung that may obstruct the passage, and which, if suffered to remain, would in-
fallibly aggravate the complaint, and which indeed in many instances is the cause
of it : the distressing strangury that sometimes accompanies the red colic is also
frequently as much produced by the pressure of hardened excrement as by a renal
participation in the inflammatory affection. It is not the dropping away a few
balls of hardened dung, nor the passage of some thin glairy matter, which shews
that no obstruction exists : on the contrary, when these arc present, a most ob-
stinate costiveness may yet remain forther up in the passage ; and a flow of thin
fjeces may escape by a groove formed by the side of an obstructing portion of
dung, as has happened if a very large faecal accumulation has taken place within
one of the pouches of the colon. Unless there be evidently a free passage
throughout the whole canal, it is always proper to back-rake ; for it must not be
lost sight of, that costiveness in true enteritis is always present, and when not its
cause, is always its most aggravating symptom ; and until it be removed a reso-
lution of the inflammation cannot take place. It is also necessary to bear in
mind, that as the state of the bowels is such as not to render it prudent to allow
of strong purgatives being given by the mouth, so the greater activity is required
to empty them mechanically, and by the assistance of laxative clysters, (See Mat.
Med.) which should be thrown up very frequently, until it is certain that every
obstruction is removed. Injections of thin gruel ot of warm water may be after-
wards occasionally given as a topical application. The quantities composing the
clysters should be very considerable al^o, so as to penetrate beyond the rectum,
and to enter, if possible, the colon and caecum, which intention can be best ful-
filled by Read's patent injection syringe, which no veterinarian should be without.
(See Clysters.) Tobacco clysters have proved beneficial.

The next indication is to raise a brisk external inflammation over the belly, to
lessen thereby the internal affection ; and in this case even the cantharides are
hardly quick enough in their action : but a more speedy determination to the skin
may be made, by first fomenting the belly with hot water for a quarter of an hour,
and then by applying a large mustard poultice farther liquefied with oil of tur-
pentine, or with the liquid blister (See Mat. Med.), which may be spread on
coarse linen, or a horse cloth ; or, what is greatly preferable, the fleshy side of a
newly-stripped sheep-skin may be covered with it, and then applied close to the
beUy by means of flannel rollers, which will retain it in its situation. When this
has remained on for three or four hours, if an evident abatement of symptoms has
not taken place, then proceed to blister in the usual way*. If a situation were

• In human enteritis a very marked advantage lias been received from the use of very large bread
and milk poultices, applied over the whole surface of the belly. The cessation of the inflammation
followed so rapidly after the use of this mode of applying external warmth, that it might be worthy

CLA.SS II.] INFLAMMATION OF THE INTKSTINES. 325

to occur, where nothing besides of a blistering nature was at hand, the belly
mi^ht be actually scalded with boiling water, or a hot shovel might be drawn over
it '"or any other means may be made use of to stimulate the abdominal surface
that ai"e m the reach of the person employed on the occasion. It next becomes
a consideration as to what remedies may be properly given by the mouth, which
must greatly depend on the costive state of the bowels*, which should be a very
principal subject of sohcitude ; and I should by all means recommend that the
most strenuous efforts be made to remove it ; first, by injections, which having
failed, I then without hesitation advise the practitioner to give a di-ink of a mild
laxative nature, as castor and linseed oils, six or eight ounces of each, with gruel,
broth, &c. or otherwise one of six or eight ounces of the sulphate of magnesia
(Epsom salts), dissolved in two pints of water ; and after a lapse of two hours, if
this had failed to operate, proceed to give a second, with five or six ounces of a
watery solution of aloes, which repeat, or substitute even more active agents, and
that particulai'ly in such cases as there is reason to believe resulted from consti-
pation primarily ; for these, it will be found, will always bear active purgation
without irritation. The bowels once opened, give only such mild matters as an
inflamed surface might be supposed to be uninjured by, as hay or linseed tea,
gruel, &c. &c. The temperature of the stable should be moderate ; the same
care should be bestowed on equalising the circulation as prescribed under pneu-
monia, by rubbing the extremities, proper clothing, and a loose well-littered box ;
and as it leaves, like pneumonia, a liability to recurrence, let the animal be worked
or exposed with much caution.

INFLAMMATION OF THE MUCOUS SURFACE OF THE

INTESTINES.

As the former affection consists of a phlegmonous inflammatory attack on the
peritoneal covering or coat of the intestines, this latter is usually an affection of
their villous surface, having for its cause irritations applied in various ways, as by
translations of obstructed perspiration, metastasis of other inflammations, the
continued use of certain aliments, but more particularly the administration of im-
proper purging medicines, either as to quantity or quality ; by which such u-rita-
tion is brought on as ends in inflammation. It is commonly accompanied with
purging, whereas the former has almost always costiveness connected with it ;
neither is the pain so acute in the latter, consequently the horse seldom ex-
' presses his uneasiness by much rolling or stamping ; the pulse is also quick and
small, but is seldom very hard, even from the beginning. If the symptoms of
inflammation be very active, that is, if the pain approaches distress ; if the ex-
tremities feel cold, and the pulse betokens much vascular action, three quarts of
blood may be drawn ; but unless these appearances exist in force, it wiU be more
prudent to omit it. Stimulants should, however, be applied to the bowels, as in
red colic ; the stable and the clothing also should be warm, and means should be

the veterinarian's trial. On tlic contrary, a Dr. McCarthy relates, that, in tropical climates, human
enteritis is successfully treated by cold water exteinally and internally applied. Neither will the ob-
servant patliolo),'isl tind any diffiiMilty in reconcilini| botli tliese treatments to fact or to theory.

• Tlic practitioner should be informed, that there exists much contrariety of opinion on the subject
of purgatives in entcriti--. lUr. Percivall advocates then), and instances the human practice of giving
calomel and colocynth. Mr. Vouatt, I believe, considers that an active purgative would he poison-
ous ; while Hurtrel d'Arbovnl, whose writings are a suuuuary of the best opinions and best practice
of the French veterinary schools, barely notices consti|iation as a sym|itom, and wholly omits any
necessity of removing it; the treatment |)rescribed by him being principally confined, as regards
internal remedies, to mucilaginous dienches, mixed with honey and olive oil, with a small quantity
only ('trfs peu') of nitrate of potash (nitre). I can, from luy own experience, only observe, that
while I have some dread of the elTect of an active purgative on an inllamed bowel, I have much
more of the ellects of constipation. This I have always found fatal ; but I have administered all the
milder, and even the more active purgatives, s:ivc and except the croton (hut which 1 would give
sooner than risk the patient's dying of the obstruction), without increasing the urjfcncy of the
symjitoms, and sometimes with the happiest results. The castor oil, I am aware lies, and very
deservedly lies, under censure as a dangerous purgative ; but I thinU 1 have found it very useful in
enteritis, where it may be supposed even the mucous surface of the canal to be in such a state as
not to he affected by agencies in the ordinary way; and desperate diseases must have desperate
remedies.

326 INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES. [CLASS IT

W^" 'Ph'^'f ^'^'I'VY'^'^^'^" extremities by hand-rubbing and banduLr'

uig. The foUowing drink may be given every four or six hours --^ ^

Prepared chalk two ounces

Powdered gum arable ; half an ounce

Powdered cateehu two drachms

Mix in half a pint of thin starch, arrow root, rice liquor, or tripe liquor- and in
case the purging be considerable, not only give this by the 3tb hn ' ■

f eiX ^1?t£T" 'jp'^ iiquor,'ortiirs!ih

a clyster. If the diarrhoea should be excessive from the first, or should nrov^

Inflamed Bowels in Neat Cattle.

Both the varieties of this disease, already described as common to horses are
also not unfrequen among kmc. The enteritis, or red cohc of horned cattle pre-
sents symp oms which do not materially differ from those ; neither in a l ess^ii-
.al particulars is any variation in the proper treatment necessarv : bleeding, open-

pr^dill mlats of c^ "^"^"^"^"^ ^'^^"^ ^"-^ ^^'Z

_ The w/iamed purgaig state is likewise not unfrequent among them, and de-
rives Its or,gni less from any external irritant than from a diseased state of Se
natural purge of the body, the bile ; and to which form of the disease, from he
greater complexity of their biliary structure, they are found peculiarly hable
I he curative plan must be the same as detailed for the removal of the same com-'
plaint in horses except when ,t is dependent on a mixed inflammatiori, partly
phlegmonous and partly villous, as ,s the case frequently when the liver iJ con-
cerned, and which may be known by the accompanying symptoms, betokening
below foVhcpaiiLt" treatment must be more analogous to what is prescribed

INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER.

True Hepatitis is not a frequent occurrence in veterinary practice for the liver
of the horse IS but seldoni;;m««?-% affected with inflammation; thouHi when
other great abdominal inflammations take place, then this often participates • and
now and then also it becomes the immediate object of attack ; in which case's the
only difference between the symptoms and those of hepatitis are that they are
not quite so violent, and that there is usually a yellow tinge in the coniunctive
nasal, and buccal membranes. When it terminates unfavourably, it usually dis-
organises the hver into a grumous mass. It is mostly occasioned by some undue
exertion : a few years ago several cases fell under my notice at the close of a very
hot summer, in most of which extensive anasarca appeared. The cure should
be attempted by the same means as arc detailed in enteritis, but with the recol-
lection that active purgatives may be administered with advantage. The follow-
ing IS a proper form, and should be repeated every four or five hours, until the
costiveness which is usually present is overcome.

Submuriate of quicksilver (calomel ) one drachm

Antimonial powder two drachms

Powdered aloes three drachms.

Hepatitis is now and then accompanied with diarrhcea, in which case use the
lancet sparingly, and give the following : —

Castor oil.. fojir ounces

Gruel, or linseed tea six ounces

Powdered ipecacuanha a drachm.

Class II.] inflammation of the kidnies. S21

Bv the help of the yolk of two eggs beaten with the oil, and the gruel added gra-
dually a smooth uniform mixture may be made, and which wiU be found pecu-
liarly useful to amend the state of the evacuations, and should be repeated every
other day, giving the following ball also twice every day :—

Powdered opium half a drachm

Submuriate of quicksilver (calomel) half a drachm

Powdered chamomile half an ounce.

Mix with honey to make a ball. No apprehension need be entertained that the
calomel wiU increase the diarrhoea, as the opium will sufficiently restrain it ; ob-
serving, that should the disease be protracted beyond the third day, the calomel
must not be persisted in, for fear of salivation ; but instead, a course of tonics
with steel may be entered on for four or five days, and then again have recourse
to the calomel, &c., as an additional security against relapse. In other respects,
as diet, clothing, &c. &c., treat as directed under Inflamed Bowels.

Intlamed Liver in Neat Cattle.

From the increased complexity in the structure of the liver in neat cattle,
they appear more subject to hepatic affections than the horse ; but these affec-
tions in them are more usually of a slow chronic kind ; nevertheless now and then
acute hepatitis appears, with all the symptoms that characterize it in the horse.
Both varieties of the complaint likewise are observed, but cattle are naore subject
to that which is accompanied with diarrhoea, from the greater disposition in
them to accumulate bile by the presence of a gall-bladder. In either case the
treatment must be similar to the corresponding case in the horse. (See Diarrhcea
and Jaundice in Cattle^.

I have never seen distinct hepatitis in sheep, though chronic affections of the
liver are sufficiently common among them.

INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNIES IN THE HORSE.

Nephritis, as a primary diseaise, is not a very common complaint among
horses ; but by its fatal tendency, it becomes an important subject; and it is ren-
dered still more so from the proper treatment not being understood by the com-
mon class of farriers. It has been said, that mares are more liable to it than
horses, horses being more prone to inflammation of the neck of the bladder : but
my experience has not justified this observation. Small as these organs are, they
are very essential to life, and the quantity of blood passing through them is very
great ; therefore, we cannot wonder at their aptitude to inflame, nor the great
derangement that inflammation occasions in the machine when they are so. I
will commence with a case of nephritis which occurred in my own practice near
thirty years ago, external injuries having occasioned it. A very heavy man, un-
used to riding, was sent express fourteen miles with a letter of much consequence,
which he was ordered to deliver as soon as possible, and farther, not to wait
at all, but immediately to ride back again. He did so, but the poor beast, as
might be expected, was terribly distressed, and within half an hour I was sent
for to see him, and a more pitiable object I hardly ever beheld. He alternately
laid down, rolled on his back, groaned, and then convulsively started up again,
bathed in perspiration, and groaning piteously. liis attempts to stale were in-
cessant, and each produced blood and urine. He did not outlive the night.

The CavMS are exposure to cold ; standing in the rain ; water dripping on the
loins I have known bring it on ; a heavy awkward rider by his motions may bruise
the kidnies ; or even the action of the psoae muscles in great exertion , and me-
tastasis of inflammation*. Mow-burnt hay, musty or even kiln-dried oats, in

• A very valuable Iiorse, whlr.li, notwltlistJinding a sliKlit appearannc of pneiimonia on tlio. 2lRt of
January, 1807, liad boon ridden peverely botli on tlm 22d and 23d in rain, wliidi was fallinff both
days, was sent to my infirmary on tlie 2'ltli, still ridden by the groom who brought him, to whom I

328 INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNIES. fCLASS II

™rhemolti";f ^'""'^^ - continued, u.ay

a- •• , ^"^^^^'™>"^^^'" '•'.solution, Buppuration, or eang'rene^

opi rcsed, and nUeusely quick. The animal stands with his leTw depart
as though gonjg to stale, and shrinks when the loins are pressed" If t b c L n
entn-e horse, the testicles are alternately drawn close to thrbeUy by he cre
master muscles and alternately pendulous and relaxed. To diSuiih it from
nflammation of the body of the bladder, or from that of the ntk of that organ
the horse should be examined by passing the hand up the rectum- when ini e

riirnoTbTr^H" ? ^ ""'t'^'^ ^^^^ -'-^^er it coS,; Tny in V o

he -licZn l I '^'T th\«"™"nding parts, nor more tender: but shSuld
the affection be conhned to the body of the bladder, it will be surely found
empty, but very hot and painful to the touch: if again, the neck of the bladder
as sometunes happens should be the seat of the disease the hea and tender-'
ne s wdl be considerable, and the bladder will be found distended with urine
his ga^t disinclination to move, and when forced out straddlesTn

The 7Veatnie,it must be directed to the lessening the arterial action by liberal
ncceti^;f Wi^'l' inflammation; and^hich should be "epiatedlf

state of bnw J }V l"^ "P clysters; both with a view to promote a soluble
state of bowels, and to^ct as a fomentation to the inflamed organs*; and if any

hr mTrd+ r'.i';.^''" ^^""f''' P^''^^*"'^ any diuretic substanci

naJZnvltVt, 1 ^ k' P'"^'"* *° endeavour to excite an external inflam-
Z IZ T '""^^ confined as to the means of doing this;

for the use of Spanish flies is here questionable, from an aUeged disposition in

Srcomp etelv wa^^ V'f ^'"^ '"^^ ""^o "^'"■e cold than the off

BiiUdcnly ajram li'lt it, and resumed its station in frlip near or Vft ),! Hn,. w „„h h*" i Pf"'!')^'.* a^
stationary there u„til the death of the ani.nai. wl^'cVJook Wa^f o ' tWh^orPH n.^ rv "Abrt":,"?
days before this a coir.,derabl,. re.nission of synptoins took place, and Tente tained bores of ll
veeovery ; hnt this fallacious appearance lasted onlv a few l ours «• en 1." relapredl^to a mo^^^

df?tVr;'otcf;ii: IJur'j^ c':n.r,,,' e '"^""r- '^"^^"^'"-"^ "-••ly -liscernrb'; d^tjuu, came t."Zl
ai.at.i cloMtt tliP i.LCMe. A caieful examination, united to the previous information sained of the
symptoms exhibited on the 21,st. shewed that the luncs had been firsrattacS as tC still hnrp
lb k?dnl':^;"":';;,,';;,!.'"'-lt 7 ^^' f' '.ad%"\istted ufe'-affekro^/'fr^^m^^bem^^^^^

Imd bee so i e^ f ' f it;^ hp n i ''PI"''"-'''' <ii.«<'a'^ed : l«"t in this the iuBammalion

pa, ts around less than usual The paralysis evident in this ease may be accmmted for. bvXsider n?

• The red water in cows has lieen successfully combatted by throwing up of clvsters of cold water.
V\vJ Jf!'^ '"7'' "r,^"' V 'I f 't at least, worth atrial.

,„l^l\lT\rZ " at the fatality which attended this complaint, called by the farriers red-

w,itci seemfr that they, mistakini; an ellect (the suppression of urine) for a cause, set about the
cure by stioiig diuretics, which of course aggravated the disease: even Bartlet, who copies from
Gibson, when treating of this disease directs that if the seciction of urine should continue suppressed,
oKivtMiitre turpentine myrrh, and balsam capivi. Now, as the suppression arises from the con-
tinuationof the inflamiriatiou, this stimulatmgtreatment would probably urge the kidnies into immediate

Glass IT.] inflammation of the kidnies in cattle. 329

thorn to Stimulate the kidnies*. Turpentine, for the same reason, should not
KpHeri no such fear prevents the use of scaldmg fomentations, or of any
dihS caustic: neither can any objection be foi-med to the application of a
Snple mustard poultice without turpentine, ^vh.ch imiy be renewed every two
Ss • and, if the poultice be applied upon a newly stripped sheep-skin, it w 11
inc ease its activityt. Without any attempts at actual diaphoresis, which wou d

• ntTea e the action of the heart and arteries, we should attempt to moderately
etermine the blood to the skin and extremities by clothing, tnction, and ban-
Si- up the extremities; as well also by moderately nauseating the stomach,
Se°by aloes or white heUebore, as the case may indicate. Diluting hquors
are inadmissible, ou account of the distention they produce, for which reason
he animal should be allowed but little to drink. And should it not be deemed
advisable to try the fuU nauseating plan of subdmng the inflammation, give the

Ibllowing : —

Powdered white heUebore two drachms

Tartarised antimony (emetic tartar) one drachm

Powdered opium one scruple

Acetated liquor of ammonia (see Mat. Med), four ounces
Chamomile tea eight ounces.

Mix, and give every six hours.

Red Water in Neat Cattle.

Bed water, which is the cowleech's and grazier's name for what it has been
usual to consider as inflammation of the kidnies, is much more common among
horned cattle than it is among horses: in them it is sometimes primary, and, at
others, connected with an inflamed bladder: while again, in some cases, I have
observed it accompanied with an aflfection of the bowels also. Graziers attribute
it to low damp situations ; or the eating of particular herbage is very generaUy
assigned as a cause, which by theu- acrid quahties occasion lesion in the vascular
secreting structure of the kidnies. It is also known to follow great alternations
of temperature in a marked manner: in some instances it has been attributed to
drinking impure water, particularly that which is found in peat mosses. These
varieties make it not a httle complex to the common practitioners : indeed, these
cases are, in general, to them wholly incomprehensible, for one only circumstance
arrests their attention, which is, that the afflicted animal has a difficulty in
voiding the urine; and they immediately attempt to overcome this obstruction
by forcing diuretics. In a celebrated publication on cattle we find, a quart of
infusion of pellitory directed to be given two or three times a-day. Mr. Clater
recommends camphor, oil of juniper, and salt of tartar: by which stimulating
treatment these inflammatory affections were very commonly pushed into gangrene.

The symptoms A.0 not differ from those observed in the horse: the urine, at
first almost suppressed, soon becomes bloody, from whence its name : and as the
disease advances, particularly if it terminates fatally, the urine becomes darker
and of a brown hue. The treatment consists in bleeding largely, according to
the state of the animal and the duration of the disease; and, if there be consider-
able marks of fever, give antimonials, but no nitre; as the following: —

No. 1. — Antimonial powder a drachm

Powdered ipecacuanha a drachm

Powdered chamomile three drachms.

• The Iniiirioua effect of cantliarides introduced into tlie aystein by the means of blisters on the
kidnies is however denied by M. Bartheleiny, who instituted a set of exiieriments for tlic purpose of
aHccrtaining the fact. (See Canlhariiles, Mat. Med.) Volpi asserts the same : neveitheless 1 nhould
recommend, in preference, the other stimulants to tlie practitioner.

+ A very active external stimulant may be made by macerating the croton ti(flium in spirit, either of
turpentine ni of wine. (,Hoc niislrrt Mif . Mrd.)

330 INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER. [ClASS II.

Make into a ball with honey, and give twice a-day. In some cases cami.hor and
opium have been found very beneficial. tarapnor ana

I have likewise seen this complaint exist in cattle in a less acute form so as
o last some weeks, sometimes originating in over-driving or blows ac"! the
loins, and not unfrequently from the effects of difficult calvings In Uiese more
^ITll^T" ' ^^^'^y ble«i:ng= a wim charge apphed

morning:! ""'^ P^P'""' ""'^ ^"^^"^^"^ '^""'^ '"^y be given ^e^very

No. 2.-Powdered catechu two drachms

Mucilage of gum arable four ounces

Lime water (see ilferf.) six ounces.

_ In such instances a change of diet is also often useful: I have seen great and
immediate benefits arise from being fed whoUy on carrots, and also from a larire
warm charge or plaster over the loins*. ^

Sheep now and then have red tmter also, both of the acute and the more
chrome kind : bleeding housing, and feeding on any sweet root, as carrots, pars-
neps, _or m default of these upon turnips, form the best means of cure, with the
occasional use of one-third of the medicine No. 1, if the inflammatory symptoms

INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER.

The bladder may become inflamed throughout its whole body, or the affection
may be confined to the neck of it only ; and as different sjinptoms arise, as either
the one or the other of these are the immediate seat of disease, so we shall de-
scribe them separately. The diflferent tunics of the organ, as the peritoneal,
the muscidar, or the villous, may either of them be the principal seat of disease!
It is, however,^ rare but that the affections of the two former are conjoined ; that
of the latter is sometimes distinct ; but our pathology is not yet sufficiently
defined to accurately distinguish between the two former : we shall, therefore,
proceed to consider the organ in an inflamed state generally. Cystitis is less
frequent in mares than horses, and may he earned by all the circumstances which
produce idiopathic inflammatory attacks on the other viscera ; but is much more
frequently brought on by active diuretic medicines too long continued, or by
irritating injections thrown up the vulva in mares, to produce horsing. It may
also be produced by a stone in the bladder.

The sjjm2)toms very nearly resemble those of nephritis : the urine is voided very
frequently, and by sympathy dung also is often evacuated ; and when the mu-
cous surface is the seat of affection, the act of staling is almost constantly gohw
on, from the irritable state of the inner surface of the bladder.

The treatment should be commenced by examining the state of the bladder by
the rectum, which if full will give reason to suspect that the neck of the organ,
if it be not the original seat, yet participates so much, that it will, for further
guidance, be necessary to refer to the next article. If it be hot, empty, and ten-
der, the case is clear, and will require the same means, in every respect, as are
detailed in the former article, Nephritis, except, instead of bhste'ring, foment the
pubes very frequently with hot water. If there have not been sympathetic pass-
ing of dung, back-rake first, and then throw up clysters of warm gruel, or water,
to foment the parts ; and as soon as one clyster returns, throw up another. It •
might not be improper likewise, if the subject were a female, to pass up the ure-
thra a decoction of linseed with gum arable by means of a syringe, to sheath the
bladder from the acrid urine.

• A country recipe in repute contains antienian hole, salt, and a strong decoction of ttio common
nettle : but 1 should fear the salt ; and yet a vctcrinai ian observes, that it is often subdued by blecdiny
and Epsom salts.

Class II.] inflammation of the neck of the bladder. 331

Inflammation of the Neck, of the Bladder.
Sometimes the neck of the bladder takes on inflammation alone, and this
occurs more frequently to horses than to mares. It is to be distinguished from
inflammation of the kidnies, because in passing the hand up the rectum, the
bladder will be found distended : this will also prevent mistaking it for inflam-
mation of the body of the bladder : often the distention may be felt in the pubes.
7''he frequent making of a little water will not, however, distinguish either of the
foreToini^ complaints from this ; as, in inflammation of the neck of the bladder,
there is sometimes a small quantity of urine evacuated at different times : for
after the bladder is distended, there will be, by the force of the distention, a few
drops now and then squeezed out. But in this disease the frequent staling will
not take place until the bladder be distended fully, whereas in the former disease
it will come on at the very first : and likewise, in the latter case, the distended
bladder may be felt even by the belly. The causes of this complaint we are in
the dark about ; but it may be reasonably supposed that the spasm of the part is
occasioned by morbid irritation, and our opinion of the probable termination must
depend on our capability of emptying the distended bladder, and recovering the
lost tone of the organ. The treatment likely to attain these ends is by an early
reduction of the inflammation : when that does not take place readily we must
obviate the present consequences. To promote the first indication, bleed very
largely, ahnost to exhaustion ; open the bowels, throw up clysters, and stimulate
ext^ernally, in the same manner as in the last two complaints. But if the inflani-
mation do not subside suSiciently to permit the urine to pass, or the syncope it
occasions do not relax the constriction, it must be di-awn oS" by artificial means,
or the bladder may burst ; or the irritation alone may kill ; or gangrene may come
on. Attempt this by introducing the hand up the rectum, and gently force the
fundus of the bladder forwards, which may open the neck. If this fails, the
urethra must be opened by a catheter. In a mare, from the urethra being large
and straight, a catheter may be easily passed up, and the water drawn off"; but,
in the horse, to effect this, an opening must be made from the perinaeum ; or
otherwise we must proceed to puncture the bladder itself, as detailed below*.

• The introduclion of the catheter by tlie pei inceum may be attempted, if there be but a reason-
able chance of success, which we can best j udge of by the examination of tlie neclc of tlie bladder by
the anus. Has the distention become very considetable ? is the neck itself become very tumid and
hard? and, above all, is the obstruction quite complete ? which is, perhaps, of all other circumstances,
that which should without hesitation determine us to puncture the bladder in preference to losing time
and further irritating the animal by attempting the introduction of the catheter, which it is more than
possible the strict spasm has closed beyond all prudent efforts to open. But of course, when the
circumstances which should dictate this do not exist, we are warranted in trying to introduce the
catheter, the mode of doing which is detailed with the operation of Lithotomy. A puncture of the
bladder may be made above, through the rectum, by the introduction of a trochar ; which should be
one having its handle at a right angle with the penetrating part, which should not be more than two
and a half inches in length; but in all other respects fashioned as troohars usually are. If this be
plunged through the under surface of the rectum into the centre of the distended bladder, it will eva-
cuate the urine without penetrating the peritoneal cavity (see Peritoneal Reflections, p. 21.3, and
Anatomy of Bladder, p. 230) ; and as far as both my experience and my opinion go, this is the most
eligible situation for the puncture. But as my object is to instruct the pupil, and never to lead him
astray, so I would hold up to him every light, from my own feeble glimmer, to the blaze of the best
authorities, I therefore quote Mr. Percivall's opinion, which is favourable to the lower puncture,
to be made through the recti muscles, directly in front of the puhes, where it may be expected to
equally escape penetrating any of the peritoneal reflections, and consequently will not enter the
abdominal cavity. On the.se adverse plans Mr. P. remarks: ' Considering the horizontal position of
the aniujal, and knowing the comparative facility with which these operations are performable, there
exists no question in my mind which ought to be preferred; indeed. I doubt (for I never ventured
upon the operation) that the urine would he expelled through the rectum; whereas the depen-
dance of the opening made in the front of the pubes singularly favours its discharge. Having once
introduced the trochar, I would endeavour to confine it there by a contrivance of tapes and rollers
until I could succeed in passing the catheter.' In the 4th vol. ol The Veterinarian. I observe a
case of cystitis detailed, with observations on tapping the bladder, by Mr. Cartwriglit. As the
paper is evidently the produce of a veterinarian of no mean talent, I quote what bears on the present
subject. ' In what manner,' says Mr. Cartwriglit, ' this operation oirglit to be performed there are
divers opinions: Mr. IJlainc recommends the bladder to he punctured through the rectum, and Mr.
Percivall in front of the puhes; the latter doubting whether the urine would be expelled through
the rectum, but acknowledging, at the same time, that he never operated through the rectum.
Now, for my own part, I do not doubt hut what the bladder may he, in a great measure, emptied
through the high operation; for the bladder would scarcely ever be punctured hut when it was fully
ilistcnded ; and I think that, so soon as the trochar has penetrated the bladder, the urine will begiir to
flow into the rectum through the elasticity and contractibility of the bladder, the usual method the
horse has by contracting the abdominal muscles, thereby forcing the intestines against the bladder, as

332 INFLAMMATION OF THE WOMB. [ClASS II.

It remains to add, that I have seen small continued doses of opium, as fortv erains
every two hours greatly relieve this affeetion, and this in more^han one bSe
bleedmg, also, till fainting was nearly produced, has relaxed the eontractiom "

iNrLAMED Bladder in Cattle.

Jh2 f""^ ^^^"^ '"'■'^ V'' ^""^ ''^'"•>' ^^^'^o"^- I have only heard it de-

scribed, for I never saw the complaint ; but it is evident that a correspo idine
treatment with that we have laid down for horses should be pursued ^ A sin-
gular variety of cystitis is common and destructive to the cattle of the south of
France particulariy to sheep ; and which the French shepherds attribute to their
flocks feeding on broom (genista), from thence they name the disease genestade*.

INFLAMMATION OF THE WOMB.
Hysteritis.—Om acquaintance with the morbid appearances produced bv dis-
tinct inflammatory attacks on the several tissues of the diflPerent viscera is vet
too much confined to enable us, in many instances, to do more, with any de-ree
of safety from misleading, than to treat of a phlegmasia of the organ generallv
A distinction undoubtedly exists between that which attacks its peritoneal and

clearly shewn in this case, and which niav be verv much a«si«ro(1 h<r 1,1 ji

hand; and I think that, when pa,t of the urine is e^Tc .f^^te^^^^^^ with one's

bilitv of contraetin,. and that sufficient will be got r^Tto'.'^f.^^^^^^^^

exciting cause. Even it all these probable means fail, it would be no difficalt fn hoi.t». h /i
Bufficiently on his side or even on his hack, which' wo^rd comple^ei; s"t as dTt^ ol^tt J„ ofThe
nrinc not being able to escape after the puncturing. In puncturintr in front of the SL h T o -
very great risk of passing the trochar thro'ngh the fnt.stinlirXl^I L pr tf ce U^^^^^
been so in the foregoing case, as they piessed np under the bladder to its neck. It naTura Iv mav he
supposed, when the bladder is so much distended, as in this case, that it would have pres id^he in
,-f t p hln^n'r- ' l""} "^'1 ""'f''" "^T- ''^ ' '■"amined it very 'particularly. BesHeri think that
if the bladder could be tapped in front ot the pubes, tliere would be great danger in the ui i le can "in<;
considerable irnta ,o„ at the opening from its pendant situation ; and which if veM known to be "if
ease, even when the perineum has been opened, and which part is not near so li.ble to be so re«* a !
edly irritated with urine as that made through the front of tlie'pnbes. which must be in constant contact
with ,t. Again, Mr. Perc.vall says, that if we puncture the 'hladdir through the recti mnsclerX

r; ^'' ''•'''V*''"^' ••■'^^•"'g abdominal cavity uninj ured • but from-
several examinations, conceive that it is impossible to avoid passing the trochar through the perito
neum ; as think it will be lound that the peritoneum is retiected from tlie abdominal mnscles into the
pelvic cavity, and IS nearly at ached to the two 0 sa iiinomlnala, so that it would be i npossible to pass
the trochar without injuring the peritoneum. In operating through the rectum, these objections I
think, cannot-arise as I imagine there would be no danger of the opening of the rectum and bladder
speedily closing. I do not see any great objection in passing a flexible piece of whalebone up the
IuaI r f ''1 1 V'"";,""'., ^'^l so cut down upon it and pass a female catheter direct into the
h » /ri;";, P''''7""^"'.l"".'^t'V in8 "f 1"'"?^, although I am aware that there

IS great difficulty in getting the opriung m the perineum to grow up; there certainly is gieat advan-
tage in puncturing the perineum ; tor it is a part where we can easily get at, and can at any time in-
troduce the catheter or leave it in, just as we like. Upon the whole, therefore, if it should be found
that the bladder can be punctured above the pubes without injuring the intestines and peritoneum, and
and that the urine does not irritate the aperture, then I should sav, bv all means operate there • blit if
after repeated examinations and operations, it should be found not t6 answer our expectation's then'
I should say, operate through the rectum ; and which, in my opinion, is to be preferred, until the'above
objections ar^■ found not to be well toundcd.'

• ' La cystite passe pour etre epizootique sur les betes 11 laines, dans le medi de la France ou elle
est designee sous le nom de ireneslade. II est a remarquer qn'elle sc umnifeste presnne ton's les ans
dans le cantons ou les coinmunaux soiit plantes de genet d'Espaune, oii les habitans des comi.affnes
sont dans Tusage de recoltor nne assez grande quantite de ce vegetal, et de le donner comme aliment
aux troupeaux pendant I hivor. Le genet produit le meme effet qnaiid il abonde dans les prairies oil
vont paitie les aiiimaux. Les betes a laine aimenl cette plante ; elles sont snrtont friandes des
gousses qui contlenncnt des graines; elles les preferent aux tiges, et se sont paiticuli^rement ces
graines qui occasionent, a ce qu'il parait, la maladie, ou qui lui donnent plus d'intensite Les
moutons inalades, de retour a la bergerie, se retireiit a I'eeait, et font de temps en temps nuelqnes
pas d'une maniere leiite ; ils ne mangent plus, lOs yeux sont morues, les oreilles peiidautes le ventre
gros, et ees animaux se canipent souvcnt pour uriner. II existe, dans quelques uns, a i'orilice de
I'ur^tre, nne hunieur 6paisse et visqueuse qui ne pent conler, a moins qu'on ne glisse la main sur le
canal dans la plus grande partir de sa longueur. Quand la mo t doit avoir lieu, elle arrive ordi-
nairemcnt du deuxieme an troisieme jour. Lorsque les aninuuix perissciit, ce qui n est pas tres rare
puisque la madadie tue le dixieme an- moins et quelquefois le cinqnienie de ceux qn'elle uffecte, oil
remarque a I'Guveture tons les elfels d'une forte intianimation de la vessie, particuli^rement vers le
col. Elle est ballonnec, et commnnement rcinplie d'urine jaunatre et de mauvaise odeur. La mem-
brane miiqueuse presente des traces evidcntes d'inflammation, notamment des taches dites gan-
grenenses, qui ne sont peut-eire que des ecchymoses, et qui se voieiit parliciili^reincnt an sphincter.
Cette phlegniasie paraltrait done interesser specialeinent le col de la vessie. Le plus sur moyen de la
prfevenir serait de ne jias faire usage de genet pendant I'hivei ni pendant I'automne, et, dans le reste
de I'annee, de ne laisscr que peu ae temps les troupeaux dans les champs qui en rontienneiil. Quant
au traitemcnt curatif, il ne diffeie pasde celui qui a fete indinufe precedemment.— /y»r/rr/ d'.irbovnl "
Vict. ret.

Class III.] inflammation of mucous membranes. 333

fibrous portion and that which lines the cavity ; but we cannot define it vyith
precision. We know that the womb is liable to become inflamed by participa-
tion with extensive abdominal inflammations ; with peritonitis, and with cystitis ;
but we know little of idiopathic metritis. It would undoubtedly produce symp-
toms not dissimilar in the mare not pregnant to nephritis, and to cystitis ; and it
must, in treatment, follow the rules laid down for the conquest of diffused iu-
flannnation. We know that it occasionally attacks mares after abortion, after
difficult foaling also, when injudicious efforts have been made to produce de-
livery; in which cases it may "follow as an ordinary phlegmasia; or it may possi-
bly put on the appearance of puerperal fever. In the former case, it will be to be
treated as above ; in the latter, as already detailed under the head Puerperal
Fever. In this form, however, it is very rare in mares, though sufficiently com-
mon in cows.

Inflammation or the W^omb in Cattle.

(See Puerperal Fever.)

It remains only to notice, on the subject of diseases of this class, that the
pancreas, the spleen, the omentum, and indeed any of the contents of the abdo-
men, may, and occasionally do, become the seat of primary or idiopatldc inflam-
mation; but our present knowledge is not sufficient to afford a correct symptorna-
tology. That they become the objects of secondary attacks by participation
vrith^ the inflammations of the larger viscera, we have constant proof. In the
event of a primary attack, the proper treatment would not differ from that laid
down for other abdominal viscera.

INFLAa-IMATION OF THE PERITONEUM.

Peritonitis. — The muscular, cellular, and mucous tissues of the various viscera
can become inflamed, independent (at least primarily independent) of that mem-
branous reflected covering which invests them individually and generally. In
turn the peritoneum is occasionally itself the seat of inflammatory attack, both
acute and chronic. The acute state may be brought on from any of the causes
which produce visceral irritations ; but the most frequent is that of a puncture
or lesion of some of its parts by pressure, extension, &c. In such cases, the in-
jured portion rapidly extends the inflammation to the parts around, sometimes
to the whole peritoneal cavity, as is seen occasionally in castration, in uterine
injuries inflicted in delivery &c. ; but which phlegmasia must not be confounded
with that of peritonitis present in puerperal fever, which is certainly of a different
character, and more common in cattle than horses. The symptoms resemble
those of enteritis in almost every respect, and the treatment involves also the
same general intentions.

CLASS III.

INFLAMMATION OF MUCOUS MEMBRANES.

OF CATARRHAL AFFECTIONS OF THE AIR-PaSSAGES GENE-
RALLY, AND THEIR RESULTS.

Etymologically speaking, catarrhal affections, would designate an increased
flow of the mucus supplied by any of the mucous membranes*, but custom
has applied catarrh to an increased excretion from the membranous linings

• ' Rfeduit A »a veritable acccption, le mot calarrhe ne dfesigne plus qu'iin syinptome de I'inflam-
mation, aigue ou chroniqiie des memhianea miiqucuscs. Ci'tte inflammation, a rejii differens noms,
suivant les parties qui en snnt le siege ; c'est ainsj qu'on Tappcllc angine ou etranquillon, quand
elle occupe la membrane mnqucuse des voies gulturalc et traclifeale; bronchite ou catiirrhe pul-
monaire, quand elle rfeside dan^i oelle des bronclics; coryxa ou calarrhe nasal, quand elle se dfeve-
loppe ii la membrane pituitaire ; urfctrite ou catairlic urfttral, quand elle occupe le canal excrfetenr de
I'urinc ; mAlrite ou calarrlic utfcrin, quand la membrane muqueusede I'utirus en est le sifege ; calarrhe
vaginal, quand c'est ccUe du vagin, et catarrhe vesical, quand la surface interne de la vessie eat
irritfee ou enflamm6e.' '

.j:J4 CATAiiRH— angina phakyngo-laryngea. [Class 111.

of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchia, when tlie effect of inflam-
mation. But in the extent of surface engaged, the variable situations of the or-
gans, and their different connexions, there must necessarily arise diversities in
symptoms, progress, and terminations, as the whole becomes simultaneously af-
fected, or as one portion is principally attacked. A general but slight attack on
this extensive mucous surface, particularly of the pituitary portion, is known under
the popular term of a cold : be it however understood, we have purposely sepa-
rated this complaint from epidemic catarrh, already treated on, considering, and as
we think justly, that epidemic diseases are the result of particular morbid influ-
ences particularly arising from miasm in the air, or taken from the ground under
certain states, as one of constant humidity, or from particular effluvia fi-om decay-
ing vegetable matter, or from pestilential air passing over the grazing grounds of
the beasts. Conveniently it is called among the profession catarrh. If it be-
comes more aggravated, and extends itself further into the air-passages, it receives
other names, according to the principal forces of its attack ; and as most of these
produce sensations of either strangulation or dyspnoea, so we have now cynanche
or angiria superadded to the locality of the catarrh. Our subject may, therefore,
be considered under the heads of catarrhus or common cold, angina parotidea,
angina pharyngo-laryngea, and angina trachealis vel bronchialis.

Catarrh, or Common Cold.

Catarrhal fever, as an epidemic or epizootic, has already occupied our at-
tention ; and it differs from the present subject principally 'in that it has for a
remote cause a constitutional pre-disposition engendered in many horses at one
time, dependent usually on the variable state of the atmosphere as regards heat
and cold, dryness and moisture; and the prevalence of an easterly wind. The
epizootic catarrh is also more severe, and produces constitutional derangement
of more intensity and variety than the common and accidental cold taken at all
times ; the circulation is likewise more affected, the strength more prostrated, and
anasarcous swellings are more common. Caiarrlms or common cold, on the con-
trary, finds no such gregarious aptitude. The direct cause is here some accidental
sudden alternation between cold and heat that is, in this case, either unusually ap-
plied or otherwise when it finds the constitution partially or generally, from cer-
tain causes, incapable of resisting its effects. In very young horses it frequently
ends in angina parotidea or strangles, which variety will be treated of hereafter ;
and when its symptoms assume a more than ordinary intensity, it becomes angina
maligna, already treated on in Class I, p. 289. A simple attack on the Schnei-
derian membranes, known as a mild or common cold, first shews itself by a thin
watery secretion from the nose, and from the eyes also in some cases. The ab-
sorption of these acrid secretions of the mucous membranes irritates and inflames
the lymphatic glands through which they pass, which therefore become tumefied
and tender; symptomatic fever follows the inflammatory action; and the ten-
dency observed in mucous surfaces to take on the formation of pus without ul-
ceration begins, after two or three days, to shew itself, first by a coagulable deposit
of lymph in a flaky form, and next by a regular flow of yellow muco-purulent
matter fi-om the nose : some cough is also usually present. In a few days these
appearances vanish, and the horse is convalescent ; or they become aggravated,
and the detail must now be pursued in Epidemic Catarrhal Fever, from which in
symptoms, terminations, and treatment, this does not differ.

Angina Phartngo-iakyngea, or Sore Throat.

To the above symptoms of common cold there are often added those which
betoken sore throat ; in which cases the inflammation has extended itself to, or
perhaps primarily attacked, the mucous surfaces of the pharynx and larynx,
by which the velum palati, tonsils, rimaglottis, oesophageal entrance, &c. S;c.
become affected also. The mouth is now hot, and at first dry: there is an evi-
dent disinclination to eat, or to swallow what is masticated: he therefore '■qvids

Class 111.] roaring. 33.5

his hay, i. e. lets fall the masticated bolus, and sips his water, and moves it abovit
with his lips rather than drinks it ; or he utterly refuses it, unless held up to him.
The region of the gullet and fauces is exceedingly tender and hot ; the salivary
glands throughout become swollen and tender; and from the laryngeal connexions
the cough becomes frequent and painful. I would now refer for the remaining
symptomatology and curative treatment to Catarrhal Fever ^ Class 1.

Angina Tbachhaiis and Bhonchitis.

\Mien the catarrhal attack on the aerating passages extends beyond the rima-
glottis and affects the trachea, it may, with propriety, be called by the first of
these names*. When it extends into the bronchiae or divisions of the trachea, it
deserves the latter. In both there will be Imrried and embarrassed breathing,
and angina or sense of pulmonary obstruction in a greater degree than in the
former affections alone ; it will be accompanied by a rattling sound or wheezing
noise during the respii-ative acts ; with a muco-purulent discharge from the nose ;
a pulse at first harder and quicker than natural, but gradually becoming still more
increased in fi-equency, but decreased in volume. During the progress of such a
complaint we need not wonder if some diseased alterations of structure in the
air-passages should be the immediate consequences ; or otherwise, that such an
irritable state of them may remain after the more active symptoms have ceased,
as to give rise to ruinous chronic affections. The inflammation of the trachea
may thus leave roaiing as a sequel ; and thick wind may result from angina bron-
chialis. For treatment, &c. &c. refer to Catarrhal Fever and to Prmmonia.

CHRONIC DISEASES OF THE PULMONARY AERATING

PASSAGES,

known bt the popular name op koaeing, chronic cough,
thick wind, broken wind, &c.

Roaring.

The artificial habits of life to which we subject the horse occasion numerous
morbid changes in his organs, but in none more than those connected with his
respiration : and not only do the grand masses of the lungs suffer, but the very
passages to them become altered in structure also, and rendered incapable of
transmitting the air with its proper freedom : and the obstructing matter, on the
principle of wind instruments, produces sounds modulated according to its figure
and extent, which horsemen called wheezing, whistling, piping, i-oai-ing, &fc.;
terms sufficiently expressive, but not sufficiently well defined,, even among those
by whom they are conventionally used.

The causes of roaring, which I shall here use as a type of the whole, are remote
and proximate. The remote causes are mostly inflammation, acute or chronic, in
the tracheal tube itself. Occasionally it is brought on by the efiects of inflamma-
tion on other parts, as of the salivary glands in strangles, or of those abscesses
which not unfrequently occur in violent catarrh in the vicinage of the pharynx.
Structural alteration in the lungs, as hepatization, has occasioned it. (Percivall's
Lectures, vol. ii, p. 256.) Obstructions accidentally formed by exostoses, cica-
trizations, &c., or extraneous substances lodged in the cavities leading to the
trachea, may any of them occasion it. Barriere notices a case of roaring de-
pendent on the lodgment of a piece of riband within one of the nasal fossse; and
Godine another, brought on by a displaced molar tooth. The proximate causes

• I foimerly olijccled to this term, or rather to tliiit of cvnnnelic-tracliealis used by Mr. Percivall ;
but my objection ougbt rather to have been to the want in hum . n no^jlo^y of some specific name
for that variety of anguia or eyiianche-traihealis known as the croup, whiclilniul otiiers rcf^ard as
an iiiHammation ««i ^cjicr/* ; often racing cpidemicallv, and eiitirelv conlii.ed to children, the lead-
ing pathognomonic symptom of which disease is thiit of tlirowiiig over the mucous suifiice of the tra-
chea a tenarious concretion of coagnbiblc lymph, di/Teieiit from the mucous excretion formed in the
common cynanche trachenlis of adults. In my objection to the term cynanche trachealis, as the origin
of roaring, or as a disease unknown in the horse, I should theiefore have more specifically ohiectod
t<(it.-i9 idcntihed with that human variety called croup (which Mr. I', himsell observes is a d'iseaso
of a different type), than to any incongruity In acknowledging its parity with the adult angina or adult
cynanche trachealis, with which it Is essentially similar ; but from the other it is undoubtedly essentially

33G CHiioNic COUGH. ("Class IK.

might, with propriety, inchide these accidental obstructions, but they are mainly
to be looked for in an extravasation, partial or extensive, of coagulable lymph ;
which, becoming organised, forms' a permanent obstruction. When it is exten-
sively spread over the larynx, it produces wheezing; when it constringes the ri-
maglottis, a whistling sound is the consequence, and is often heard in our own
respirations under catarrh ; or in the ordinary respirations of some asthmatic per-
sons. Whoever has handled the throats of many old horses, must have observed
a hardened state of the larynx, which almost resisted all attempts to what is
termed ' cough them.' This ossification of the laryngeal cartilages is not an un-
common cause; and a similar state in the cartilages of the trachea is productive
of it also. A very common cause also of roaring is a band of lymph stretched
across the tracheal tube ; at others, an internal ring of the same matter simply
diminishes its diameter. The obstruction is sometimes so considerable as to ex-
cite piping or roaring on the slightest exertion; in general cases, however, roar-
ing is only exerted when forcible inspirations and expirations are made ; for it is,
I believe, equally produced by the one as by the other. Mechanical obstructions
to free respiration may eventually be productive of roaring: the custom of tiglitlv
reining in our carriage-horses there is reason to think produces it often ; and Mr.
Sewell is of opinion, that the practice of using tight throat-lashes or neck-straps
may lead to it. In furtherance of which opinion it may be recollected, that horsemen
have a vei-y general supposition that cribbiting ends in roaring, in thick wind, or in
broken wind : may not the tight collar strap also here tend to the former of these
affections? The custom of ^ coughing^ horses, and so frequently as it is prac-
tised in fairs, may be readily supposed as a cause. A horse passes from fair to
fair, having his unfortunate throat brutally pinched thirty or forty times each day.
Is it to be wondered at if inflammation takes place, and adhesive deposit follow ?

The treatment must be regulated by circumstances, but the principal indication
is to remove the remote causes in the early stages, and to obviate the effects in
the latter. If active inflammation be going ou, bleed and blister ; and if tume-
faction of the neighbouring parts have occasioned it, attempt their reduction.
Elevate the head as much as may be. Mr. Sewell recommends a seton in the
neighbourhood of the obstruction when known ; and in desperate cases he ob-
serves, that tracheotomy has been performed with considerable advantage ; but
the extreme difficulty of detecting the exact situation of the obstruction will
prevent its being generally adverted to.

Chkonic Cough.

Coughing, considered as an action generally, is a violent effort of the dia-
phragm, intercostal and abdominal muscles, producing a forcible expiration of
the air from the chest, with such violence as is intended to remove anj' extraneous
body that may intercept the free passage of the air. Whenever it accompanies a
general affection of the constitution, it is regarded as simply st/mptomntic, and the
original disease is attended to for its removal. Thus catarrh and pneumonia arc
frequently accompanied by a cough, but wo attend principally to the inflamma-
tory state of the general circulation, as the best means of subduing it. A chronic
cough is often symptomatic of some affection of the air-passages ; it is also a very
usual attendant on the states called thick wind and broken wind : it likewse
accompanies glanders and pulmonary consumption ; and appears when worms are
in the stomach and bowels. But besides these cases, there exists at times, with-
out any attendant difficulty of breathing (the horse at the same time eating well
and thriving), a permanent cough, usually more considerable in the morning and
evening, after meals, particularly after drmking, or on first going out to exercise.
A cough of this description is ver}' common, and it will remain in this state,
without otherwise affecting the horse, for years, sometimes even his whole life.
In other instances it does not end in so harmless a manner, but upon any occa-
sional cold taken, becomes aggravated; and each cold makes it worse and worse,
until at length, by repeated attacks on the bronchiir, the ultimate ramifications
become congested and thickened with coagulable matter, and the respiration or
^wiruT'is&t last permanently affected. An irritable state of the bronchial jias-

Class 111.] chronic cough. 337

sao'es often remains after catarrh and pneumonia, which excites them into action
ou°any change of atmosphere or temperature, and coughing occurs whenever the
horse moves out of or into the stable ; for the inspired air is colder or warmer
than what was before breathed, and hence becomes a source of irritation : drmk-
ing cold water produces the same effect, for a similar reason ; as does any hurry
or irre<nilarity of motion, because it propels more blood towards the chest, which
cannot' bear the increased stimulus. In some cases the irritability of the bron-
chial membrane itself does not seem so much increased, as that the mucus se-
creted from it appears altered, either in quantity or quality. It may become
inordinate in quantity, as is often observed, and such horses, when they cough,
throw o£Fmuch of it by the nose : or it may be more acrid in quahty, and hence
by these means prove a source of continual irritation ; or it may be lessened in
quantity to the injury of the passages : and it is by assisting a return to the ordi-
nary state of the secretions that expectorants act in reUeving this complaint.

The Treatment of Chronic Cough rtust depend on our view of its causes and
consequences. When it appears to arise from a want of mucous secretion, ex-
pectorants which excite such secretion are premised, as No. 1. When a redun^
dancy of the mucous secretion is apparent, tonics are required. When the se-
cretion is acrid, give No. 2. The cough, which is the effect of an irritable state
of the parts, is sometimes relieved by stimulating the throat externally, and by
giving internally opium with bitter tonics. (See Mat. Med.) In horses naturally
of a fuU habit, and grossly fed, without sufficient exercise, our attempts must be
directed to lower their general plethora, by bleeding, exercise, and more moderate
feeding. If at grass, a less luxuriant pasture should be chosen. In the stable,
such a horse should be muzzled at night, to prevent him eating his litter, and his
water should be given in moderate quantities only : all sudden exertions likewise
should be as much as possible avoided.

I have frequently seen chronic cough benefitted by a course of mercurial
physic ; but the affection in such cases was probably dependent on worms ; and
whenever a continued cough exists, with irregular appetite and unthrifty coat,
stools foetid and slimy, at one time loose and another hard and dry, it is more
than probable that worms occasion the affection. (See Woi-nu.) In all chronic
coughs the best efiFect sometimes follow from feeding with carrots. Turnips,
parsneps, beet, and potatoes, may be beneficially used where carrots cannot be got ;
and a mash with bran and Unseed, or malt, may be occasionally given. In cases
of this description, which may be suspected to be dependent on coagulable lymph
deposited within the trachea or bronchite, the rubbing in of mercurial ointment
the whole length, for a week, would be advisable, and then to blister the hke ex-
tent of surface.

No. 1. — Submuriate of quicksilver (calomel) one scruple

Gum ammoniac two di-achms.

Balsam of Peru :-. one drachm

Powdered squill one drachm.

Make into a ball with honey, and give every morning fasting. In some cases
the following has been found ctKcacious : —

No. 2. — Tar water (see Mat. Med.) half a pint

Lime water (see Mat. Med.) ditto

Powdered squill one drachm.

Mix and give every moniing, or try the following : —

No. 3. — Powdered ipecacuanha one draclmi

Camphor* two drachms

Powdered hquorice half an ounce.

Make into a ball with honey, and give every morning.

• Mr. Garland, of Doncastor, informs us, that he has g'^cn camphor with much success in chronic
cough; which, from its sedative qualites, miaht he expected: perhaps, in union with digitalis and
hyoscyamus, it might he even moic successful.

T

338 BROKEN WIND. [CLASS III.

To either of the above may be also added, witli benefit in some instances, as
an additional expectorant, one or two drachms of tartar emetic.

Thick Wind

Is also a common consequence of either acute or chronic pulmonary inflamma-
tions. In some instances, it is the inraiediate consequence of violent or long-
continued exercise, and particularly on a distended stomach and bowels, or after
full di'inking ; or it may be brought on by the application of cold. It is often
connected with a plethoric state, and is therefore very common among gross
feeders, and where the exercise is not proportioned to the work ; and more parti-
cularly in low-bred and thick-set horses. The remote causes are usually in-
creased vascular action ; the proximate^ the deposit occasioned by it, which blocks
up the air-cells, and thus interferes with the freedom of respiration. The post-
mortem examinations of such cases exhibit, in some instances, a slight hepa-
tization of lung, the consequence of repeated congestions in plethoric habits ; in
others, the minute bronchial cells are filled with adliesive matter, or the general
parenchymatous substance may be pervaded with minute granulations of a blue-
ish colour.

The synij)toms of thick wind are sulRciently known to any one at all conversant
with horses, and the rationale by which they are produced is not difficult to ex-
plain. The capacity of the air-cells being diminished, renders it necessary for
the air to be more frequently taken in, because, being acted on by a less surface,
the blood is not sufficiently oxygenated ; and a sufficient number of air-cells not
being expanded, a sense of fulness in the right side of the heart induces the
animal to make hasty inspirations to. remedy the defect, and consequently hasty
expirations : the force with which these are operated, occasions the sound so
well known as the distinguishing mark of thick wind. In this affection, the ob-
struction to both being equal, the inspirations and expirations are equal, which
serves to distinguish it from broken wind, in which there is no obstruction to the
entrance ; and therefore the breath is di'awn in with its usual facility, but is ex-
pelled with difficulty. Thick wind is, however, very apt to degenerate into that
state termed bi'oken wind ; and the post-mortem appearances of such horses as
have been examined under thick wind would readily, by an increase of the dis-
organization, account for the symptoms of broken wind ; but it cannot be the
hepatized lung that is changed into the emphysematous state.

The treatment of thick wind can seldom be more than palliative, as, once esta-
blished, it remains permanent. In very recent cases, bleeding, blistering the
chest, or mildly stimulating the course of the trachea and bronchia by mercu-
rial frictions, to promote the absorption of any deposit, may be tried. These
having failed, a preventive treatment should be adopted, calculated to avoid any
increase of the evil, as in the treatment of broken wind. I have, now and then,
witnessed benefit from repeated doses of mild mercurial physic.

Broken Wind.

This peculiar affection has long excited the attention not only of veterina-
rians but of the curious in general : and as a cure for it holds out the certainty
of a plentiful harvest, both of credit and emolument, it has been a subject of
much experiment and more conjecture. The older writers indulged in the most
absurd and extravagant notions respecting it* ; in the detail of which I shall
not follow them. On the Continent it long occupied, in later times, the re-
search of many eminent veterinarians, but with little satisfactory issue. It has

• These sapieiils, observing tlif flntiilciit state of tlic bowels, suspected tlmt tbc disease itself con-
sisted in the formation of wind there; others, that too much air was received by the lungs; but both
acreed tliat an artificial outlet either by a new anus, or by an enlargement of the old one, was a proper
remedy - and a division of the sphincter ani being made, and the air passing away without nojse, a
cure was supposed to be made, although the wretched animal ever after presented the disgusting spec-
tacle of fajccs dropping involuntarily, ami was as pursive as over.

Class III.] broken wind. 339

been attributed to external and internal eauses ; to a defect and to a superabun-
dance of vital energy ; to altered structure of the heart, of the lungs, of the dia-
phragm, the stomach, the liver, &c. It is lesion with some, nervous with others,
aud simple distention with a third. Among our own writers the discrepancy is
equally great : Gibson attributed it to an enlargement of the pulmonary mass
generally ; Dr. Lower to a rupture of the phrenic nerve; and in later times it has
been mostly attributed by our writers to organic lesion. But to proceed some-
what methodically, we will cursorily inquire into its more probable causes, re-
mote and proximate.

The remote eauses of broken wind are hereditary or constitutional liability, as
well as the remaining sufficiently long under the action of eauses capable of ex-
citing morbid changes in the respkatory organs themselves. A certain form of
body is unquestionably favourable to its production, and it is from this circum-
stance that it proves hereditary. The narrow confined chest, and the pendant
belly, which mark low-bred horses and gross feeders, all of whom are observed
to be peeuharly liable to it, are predisponents, by confining the ordinate action
of the lungs, and affording no reserve for the inordinate. It must be this defect
in form which makes it more common in mares than horses ; subjecting horses
to a long-continued unhealthy course of feeding on dry food, as chaff, bran, bar-
ley meal, &c. &e. brings it on; or working in mills, where much dust is neces-
sanly mhaled. It is seldom the immediate consequence of pneumonia ; but
frequently it results from those states of disordered respiration which succeed to
it, as thick wind, chronic cough, &e. The proximate eauses we are as much in
the dark about : we see that it gradually steals on a horse, occupying months,
and even years, in a slight occasional cough, which ripening into a state of
slightly impeded respiration on exertion, at last ends in broken wind. We see it
. also follow one hard gallop ; and we can leave a horse well one day, and find
bim broken-winded the next. With these facts in our every-day experience, can
we readily name an universal proximate cause ? We may truly characterise 'it as
1 a diseased alteration in the functional capacitij of the bronchial ramifications.

A post-mortem examination, in most of the subjects which have been inspected*
I has brought forward an emphysematous state of lungs, and which, had it been
I universal, we need not to have looked further for the cause ; but, on the eon-
1 trary, it is not by any means uncommon to meet with broken-winded horses
' whose lungs after death are neither emphysematous or otherwise structuraUy dc-
1 ranged; and which, with the exception of their lighter colour than natural, can-
I not be distinguished from the sound lung. It must, however, be acknowled-^ed,
t that It IS seldom they are seen thus free from diseased appearance ; for if not
( emphysematous, they arc hepatized, or congested ; sometimes tubercular. From
ttwo cases cited by Mr. Percivall (and I have heard of others), emphysema of the
F parenchyma of the lungs can also exist without broken wind. If likewise a me-
cchanieal rupture of the air-cells was the universal cause of broken wind, it must
Ibea-ways sudden or nearly so; whereas it gives some years of a warning cough,
r or of thick-winded wheeze so weU known. Although, therefore, an cmphvsenia'
ttous state of the lungs is common, it is by no means constant, and consequently
twiJl not afford a structural solution of this diffieultyf.

'Vhe symptoiiui of this complaint are well marked': the cough and- the mode

l.w.*= '? "'""/I"''' cttravaBated not only throughout tljp parpnrl.ynia, in minutp aerial biil)-

bbles. but •» also Pxtcnded over he pleural covering. i„ vesicles l,o I, la, ^e a,,d sma 1 mHs in mos
^U^' « fl-ociflcally lighter thnn onlinarj', a„,l to Z <e tl em n' V -Ue

.and crackle under the hand They are also, in every instance, ..I a ,n,.re pale colX than It rai n
-.some cases he.ng almost white ; ^vhich may ho acc.Miuted for. eithe, hy tl e lisorirriiza ion hnv inJ'in
J.jnred he.r vascularity, or hy its admiUing more light through it^ gaselu" colls

■(• rhe sunplicityof this theory was so captivating, Ui.it at lirst few hut would helieve th-if «nm«
error had eiept into the accounts, which detailed any'other appeaiau. es tl i o -i no ^^^^^^^^
itions of hrokcn-winded lungs: lint su hsequent ca-es have fi I v ,iri,v,.il ti,.,t «„l.i, i, xa m iia-

llthe true theory of broken wind ii, not yet iltoRether develo. e \h l o ■ ' ' "1'

»t.,at this state best accoiii.t, for that "'cll-kno&t U "i^^hfex^Ifi on ,M i ^ ' "
M. t lie diaphragm has been found ruptuied in some broken-winded horses which h ■« l ed s Ide "
"that al „has e<f some tosnpposc that a partial lesion of this septum existed in n si <■ ^e, • ^ U

Itfana^e'^irtf^t^^^ """" " '-'"«^ "''.ich"roducc« a

Y 2

340 BROKEN WIND. [CLASS 1 II

in which respiration is pcrfonned may be considered as pathognomonic. The
sound emitted by the cough is peculiar to this asthmatic state, and is often
forced out with a kind of grunt through the upper part of the trachea, in a short
but vibrating feeble tone compared with the usual cough of sound- winded horses.
The respiration is conducted with a remarkable difference between the inspira-
tions and expirations. Inspiration is effected quickly and with the ordinary
ease, because, as would be argued by those who favour the opinion that an em-
physematous state of lungs is the sole cause of this ajquine asthma, the air is
supposed readily to find its way into the cellular tissue of the ruptured air-cells, '
where, becoming entangled, it occasions that remarkable difference in the ease
with which inspiration is effected and the lengthened laborious effort of expira-
tion, which, it may be observed, is performed by two distinct efforts, in one of
which the usual muscles operate, and in the other the auxiliary muscles, parti-
cularly the abdominal, which are put on the stretch to complete the expulsion
more perfectly ; after which the flank falls with peculiar force, when these mus-
cles resume their relaxations. An auxiliary symptom is the peculiar flatulence
of every broken-winded horse, which is strikingly characteristic of that disordered
state of digestion so common iu these cases, and of that constant thirst also which
is invariably present.

The treatment of broken wind can seldom be more than palliative. Whatever
increases the distention of the vessels generally, as a state of plethora, or of the
stomach and bowels particularly, aggravates the complaint by increasing the difii-
culty of expanding the lungs. Therefore, avoid stimulants, and promote regular
evacuations by the bowels ; abstain from over-distention of the lungs by too vio-
lent and too sudden exertions, particularly after eating ; for the food, although it
may be supposed to pass the stomach quickly, yet is retained longer in the large
intestines, which equally press on the diaphragm. By carefully attending to these
principal indications, a broken-winded horse may be rendered comfortable to
himself and useful to his owner. The food should be regularly given in mode-
rate quantities only ; but most particularly it should be of such a nature as will
contain much nutriment in a small space : hence corn is more proper than hay,
and, above all, I have found a manger food composed of one part bran, one part
bruised beans, and two parts bruised oats, agree particularly well, given some-
what moistened, as indeed all the food given to a broken-winded horse should be.
On a suflicient quantity of this food a horse will need but very little hay, and
what he does have should be of the oldest and best kind, and principally given at
night as a condiment to the corn. When they can be got, give also carrots, man-
gel wurzel, Swedish turnips, parsneps, or cooked potatoes, which feeding will be
found to combine both medicine and nutriment, and render little water necessary.
Turning out to grass commonly aggravates the symptoms of broken wind; but a
daily run on a very short pasture is generally found advantageous, and a neglect
of moderate exercise aggravates the complaint greatly . water should be sparingly
given, particularly in the working hours ; at night, a moderate quantity may and
should be allowed, but on no account let the broken-winded horse drink his fill
at a pond or trough. Medicinally, it may not be improper to bleed when the
occasional symptoms run high ; aiid benefit has been received from daily doses of
foxglove under these circumstances. I have also administered antimony and
nitre with advantage.

Modes of distinguishing Soundness and Unsoundness of the Wind.

These various affections of the luind are very important to the veterinarian,
nor can he be too well informed of the appearances that characterise each dis-
tinctly • because, as their existence affects the legal soundness of horses, so he
will be very often forced to decide peremptorily on very slight appearances.^ lo
detect thick ivind it is generally necessary that some time be spent with the
horse: and it is often requisite that he should be examined under various cir-
cumstances. Does he bear moderate exercise immediately after eating or drmking
without blowing high ? Does he cough in so doing, or is he observed to do it o.

Class III.] glanders. 341

every change of position, or temperature ; particularly after drinking ? And does
he when in the stable, field, or when completely at rest, occasionally coug;!! short,
hollow, and not followed by that firm effort we caU clearing afterwards ? In such a
case the horse has chronic cough ; and as his breathing is more or less accelerated
beyond the ordinary standard, he is more or less thick winded also. Roaring may
be immediately detected by a brisk gallop ; but the person who is to judge of its
existence should be on the ground, and the horse should pass him several times,
but without restraint ; for I have seen horses whipped into a momentary cessa-
tion of the roaring.

Broken ivind ca.n hardly be mistaken; the cough. accompanying it conveys a
peculiar sound; it is short, vibrates within, and is combined with a grunting
effort, more particularly obsei-vable on any sudden motion or surprise : to pro-
duce which, dealers hold up the horse's head, and then either strike, or pretend
to strike, him suddenly, or kick him, which usually elicits this peculiar grunting
sound. The breathing is hurried in the extreme by exertion, and is remarkable
by being made up of tk?-ee efforts instead of tioo. In the first, the air is drawn in
naturally, and the flanks fill up as usual ; but in the next, the falling of the flanks
again to expel the air is most unusual ; for it is not done with a gradual contrac-
tion of the muscles, but takes place at once by a momentary effort;. and then
a third action takes place, which is a slow but strong drawing up of the muscles
of the bell}', as though to press out remaining air. Broken- winded horses are
also observed to be peculiarly greedy after water : and a little hurried motion
distends the nostrils, and produces evident distress.

GLANDERS.

This fatal and loathsome disease has long been the scourge of this noble
race of animals, as it remains the opprohrium medicorum of the veterinary art ;
and there is yet reason to fear that some time may elapse before we shall find
its antidote ; for we have records of its constant fatality of more than fourteen
centuries' continuance. Hippocrates is said to have given his testimony to its
incurable nature, and Vegetius describes as fatal complaints both glanders and
farcy ; the former as morbus hujnidus, the latter as morbus farciminoms. Blun-
devill, Markham, De Gray, Mascal, Snape, &c. treated of it; some of them
jviewing it in the light of a particular poison ; others as an attack on some of the
viscera, an affection of the spinal marrow, &c. &c. Sollysel, who lived towards
the close of the sixteenth century, was an acute French writer, and described
this disease as consisting of several varieties, including all muco-purulent dis-
charges by the head whatever, which he attributed to an acrid humour invading
these parts. Garsault, following in the same track, attributes glanders to stran-
gles imperfectly cured. Gibson and Bracken appear to have formed no very
distinct notions of either glanders or farcy; the latter, however, denied the con-
tagious qualities of glanders, and recommended stimulating injections for its
cure. In 1749, La Fosse the elder, before the Academy of Sciences, in Paris,
presented a memoir, which had for its object a disproval of the humoral pathology
as regarded glanders; on the contrary, he undertook to prove that glanders
was purely a local disease, seated in the Schneiderian membrane, and proposed
as a cure, to mject the whole surface of it by openings made into the frontal,
nasal, and maxillary sinuses. His son pursued similar investigations, but with-
out mcreased success. Bourgelat combated the opinions of La Fosse, as being
untenable, but returned to the humoral pathology of the blood and humours to
account for it. Dutz and Paulet considered both glanders and farcy as origin-
atmg m a poison of a parallel nature with syphilis. Chabert adopted the ra-
tionale of Sollysel. Gilbert considered glanders in a simHar light witii strangles ;
glanders being nothing more than strangles degenerated and prolonged. Sainbel
took up the opinions and practice of La Fosse; and thus his experiments in
Ltous, detailed here after his death, exhibit a series of nasal injections, united
with antimonial and mercurial preparations by the mouth, wliich only afforded
additional proof of the inveteracy of the disease. When Mr. Coleman assumed

342

GLANDERS.

[Class III.

the academic chair, new inquiries into the nature, causes, and treatment of
glanders and farcy were made ; and the activity with which they were conducted
by so acute an agent gave reason to hope the best results ; and if we do not yet
boast OUT conquest of the foe, we have gained a clearer insight into the nature

Mr. Vines ; in which, though the contagious nature of the disease is not denied,
it is thought as by no means considerable. We gather that its causes are con-
sidered to be debility, previous disease, impure air, cold applied in the form of
a current, or taken by drinking cold water when hot, transition from cold to
heat and vice versa, and infection : from which it is evident that he is no ad-
vocate for the specific nature of the disease. The later French authors who
have written on glanders are principally Rodet, M. Godine, jun., and Dupuv,
whose work excited particular intcrestf. The year 1830 produced a work
on glanders, by Mr. Vines, anatomical teacher at the Veterinary College,
from whose known abilities and opportunities the profession ' were led to ex-
pect much ; and as opposing conflicting opinions elicit just views of a subject,
so we would recommend the student carefully to compare the opinions of Mr.
Coleman and Dupuy (as both are fully detailed in Mr. Percivall's excellent
Lectures) with this work of Mr. Vines', and we venture to predict that he will
not regret his labour J.

• Mr. Coleman considers glanders as divisible into acute and chronic. Acute glavders, like
other acute diseases, runs its "course without interruption, and ends in death: it is characterised hy
ulceration of the pituitary membrane, the consequence of a specific inflammation, and is attended
witli tuniefactiou of the lymphatic glands. It is contagious, and communicable through the medium
of contaminated stables, and l)y inoculation. Though it has occasionally its origin in contagion, it
much nflener owes it to a poison bred and diffused 1n an .atmosphere laden with noxious gases from
(lung, urine, and perspiration, emitted in hot, foul, and close stables ; and which being proved, veri-
ties the assumption that glanders and farcy have a spontaneous origin, and can be produced without
the agency of contagion. Its contagious nature is, however, not denied by the Professor; on the
contiary, it was altogether proved, as well as its conslitutional n.ature, by the celebrated experiment
ofprodu<;ing glanders in au ass by the injection of the blood from a glande.cd horse into his veins.
The acute glanders Mr. Coleman considers, in regard to the nature of the poison, as the same disease
with farcy and chronic glanders ; but his opinion "of the affinity of the last is not so confirmed as in
respect to farcy. Mr. Percivall, however, very justly remarks on this, that their essential identity
appeals )iroved by direct experiment. C/ironic glojiders commonly afl'ects but one side of t lie
head, and ulceration of the membrane is not necessarily present; hut, on the contrary, its absence
tatlier helps to keep up the true chronic character of the disease ; for as long as it remains thus it will
not kill ; and fiom hence it has been likened to gonorrhoea, which will in time cease spontaneously.
The appearance of matter from one side of the head is said to be a strong presumptive evidence of the
presence of chronic glanders, and a proof that such matter cannot come from the lungs, but must
proceed from some part antci ior to the larynx. ' In some cases, however, the flux comes from both
nostrils; here, commonly, both sets of glands are tumefied, the nature of which swellings will serve
to direct the diagnosis ; in addition to which, most probably, the animal's health continues good, and
the discharge is not offensive.' It would appear from this and from what follows, that Mr. Coleman
considers pulmonary affection as the true distinctive difference between chronic and acute glanders ;
and yet, in the previous account which Mr. Percivall renders of the nature of acute glanders, we can-
not gather that pulmonary affection constituted a necessary and leading character of the acute v.ariety,
as intended by Mr. Colem.an ; and as Mr. Percivall is our only authority on the opinions entertained by
this eminent professor, I do sincerely regret that in his account he did not use all his accustomed pre-
cision I would nevertheless strongly recommend the reader who has not access to the fountain head
(the Veterinary College), to study tlie summary of the Professor's important opinions on glanders, as
detailed in Mr. Percivall's Lectures. It only leniains to add, that on farcy, Mr. Coleman's opinion
appears to be that it owns one common poison with glanders generally, and that, of the three affections,
it affords the most conclusive evidence of the production of tlic poison in the absence of contagion. In
nature he considers it an inllammation and suppuration of tlic superficial order of absorbents, the
deeper order not appearing snseeptihlc of the irritation.

■f The public arc principally indebted to Mr. Percivall, also, for bringing this gentleman's writing.*
before the English reader, where they now likewise occupy much attention. M. Oupuy is one of
the veterinary professors at Alfort, and his celebrated work, which appealed in 181/, had for its olijccl
to shew that glanders had its origin in tubercles, which form in the various tissues of the body, and
which he considers to be heieditary. These tubercles first form and multiply, next grow soft, dis-
organize, and ulcerate ; and according to their situation so arc the symptoms of the disease developed.
The miliary tubercle is the most usual, and its ulcer.ativc process in the pituitary membrane is marked
by minute excavations, like pin-holes, but with shallow cavities and indented edges. The septum i-;
frequently covered with them, and the ulcciative process extends thiougbout all the nasal cavitic-
When the lungs arealso tubercular, there are cough, debility, catairhal symptoms, U!dema, with craiK-
in the skin ; and now farcy makes its appearance. Farcy our author regaids as a .ecrophulous affe.
tion, and the buds as scropbuloiis tubercles, which leads him to consider the glanders as a species I't
phtliisis pulumnalis. M. Dnpny insists much on a particular form of body as favourable to the forma-
tion of tubercles, which becoming acted upon by cold and humidity, generate the disease, and whicli
he maintains is the reascui it is unknown in hot climates.

I Mr. Vines prefaces liis own opinions of the n.ature of glanders thus : ' all the symptoms of disease
' which constitute elnii'li'i's in'' fwY, invariably depend tipoii the unhealthy state of the system inlc^

Class III.] glanders. 343

My further account of the nature of glanders and farcy will be short, as the
prevailing opinions on the subject may be gained by a reference to the notes.
Glanders and farcy we have reason to believe are but modifications of each other,
and that both own one common poison : innumerable facts and well conducted
experiments have set this matter beyond doubt ; for horses have been inoculated
with the matter of farcy, and glanders has been the result : glanders has also
been produced by inoculating with the matter of glanders : farcy has been brought
on likewise by inserting the matter of farcy : and, lastly, the artificial introduc-
tion of the matter of glanders has occasioned a true appearance of farcy. The
opinions have long been divided on the claim that these diseases have to the
name of specific afiections, or rather as to being modifications of one specific
poison. Some altogether deny any such claim, and, on the contrary, argue that
glanders and farcy are but consequences of other inflammatory attacks ; and that
these diseases can even be produced artificially, by means foreign to contagion or
any individual poison*. In answer, I would remark, that it is the very essence
of all poisons to be governed by their own laws, and to own only certain modes
of operation. Small-pox, cow-pox, sj'philis, and the rabid poison, the symptoms
of all which, as well as the terminations and modes of propagation, with the ex-
ception of the cow-pox, have remained the same for ages. I have always, there-
fore, myself, felt convinced of the specific nature of this affection, which for
variety in its mode of productionf , continuation, and termination, has no parallel ;
and to which only we can attribute the unsettled state of the opinions concerning
it, but which do nothing to unsettle its claim to the character of a direct and
peculiar poison, which can always beget its like, and its like only. If the matter
of farcy and the matter of glanders could produce at one time grease or stran-
gles, and at another mild catarrh, I might doubt ; but when I find nothing but
the same type of disease follow from the infection, I can only consider such in-
fection as one sui generis.

The forms of glanders have been called aciite and chronic. A very ingenious
veterinarian, Mr. James Turner, has proposed a third, which he would call the

which it is reduced or brought, and not, as is generally supposed, from a specific poison contained
in the blood. And these symptoms of disease are found to depend on, and arise from, a variety of
causes, whether they occur at the latter states or stages of common healthy inflammatory diseases,
which take place, cither directly or indirectly, in different parts of the body, such as strangles, com-
mon colds, distemper, inflammation of the lungs, grease, dropsy (anasarca or oedema), injuries, &c.
or whether they arise independently of such disease. For when the system is brought into an un-
healthy and a more or less debilitated state from neglect, or by the improper treatment of any of these
diseases, and the following symptoms occur, they then constitute glanders or farcy. And as these
symptoms only indicate the unhealthy state of the system when they follow such common inflam-
matory diseases as we have just named, they may be regarded as ending in, or becoming glanders or
farcy. But, nevertheless, there are many instances wheie the symptoms which constitute glanders
and farcy take place totally independent of common inflammatory and unhealthy diseases; but even
then, the symptoms likewise depend upon the unhealthy state which the system is in previous to and
at the time of their appearing or taking place ; and consequently the system must ever he in an
unhealthy state for the symptoms of glanders or farcy to shew themselves. Under this view of the
subject, then, it must appear that glanders and farcy are nothing more nor less than terms indicating
unhealthy disease of certain parts of the body, particularly tliose of the mucous membrane wliich
lines the nose, the substance of the lungs, the skin, and the cellular membrane underneath." In the
prosecution of my subject, I shall have occasion further to notice the most important part of this
work in tlie treatment of the disease : I shall only add here, that the theory is manifestly that of
Sollysel, and is open to much discussion on many of its points. In attempting the complete overthrow
of our present opinions, it may be ijuestioned whether this ingenious author has not, by going too far,
rather defeated himself. Festina lente would liave been proper here.

• In all candour we must even allow tliat the tide of popular opinion is setting against not only
the specific nature of this disease, but of that of other specific aDFections. Gilbert is very scveic oil
those who consider these as specific affections, and affirms that glanders is no more than imperfectly
developed strangles. Mr. Vines is little less so, and says, that 'a specific poison is an imaginary
idea, and founded In error, neither is a distinct disease ;' hut if properly investigated, it will generally
be found to be only the latter stage of a common inflammatory disease of tlie mucous niemhranb
which lines the nostrils, cavities of the head, throat, trachea, bronchial tubes, and substance of the
lungs. Neither does he allow any proof of the nature of a specific poison in the matter of glanders
and farcy, from the fact that introducing blood from a glandered horse into the veins of a healthy ass
will produce glanders in such ass; lor, he observes, he has produced both glanders and farcy by
Introducing the blood of a rabid dog, and that similar effects will follow the introduction of any irritat-
ing fluid into the circulation.

f Allowing that the other poisons alluded to arc now almost spontaneously generated, this we know
can be and is so: in the (^uiberon expedition, close confinement, by shutting down the hatolics in a
storm, glandered nearly all the horses on board the transports.

344 • GLANDRRS. [CLASS IH.

iimdious*. I'liis attempted addition alone shews that the true lines of demar-
cation are not always easy to define ; and even with this additional boundary,
we shall find many cases without the pale. The disease is, however, marked
with different degrees of malignancy, in some cases running its fatal tourse in a
few weeks, and in others continuing for years with little alteration, and perhaps
spontaneously disappearing at last; and under this view there is room for a
systematic division into acute and chronic : that which Mr. Turner calls the in-
sidious, is but a slight modification of the latter; but when we attempt to
draw a distinction from the absence either of pulmonary participation or the
originally innocuous nature of the attack, we find ourselves unable to pursue
the distinctive features with sufficient accuracj\ Acute glanders are seldom
clearly marked but when they are the effect of some extraordinary circum-
stances, acting on a number of horses at the same time, as in a state of unusual
deprivation of pure air. Asses and mules afford the most complete instances of
acute glanders ; they seldom have any other.

The causes of glanders and farcy have occasioned as much diversity of opi-
nion as the nature of the complaints. Both glanders and farcy originate in
contagion ; and infection, in its strict sense, is a cause of the acute glanders, at
leastf. An hereditary defect in the structural capacity of the aerating organs,
there is great reason to suppose, is a remote cause of much importance in glan-
dersj. Whatever acts noxiously on the air-passages for a considerable time,
by its irritation, fits them to receive it also when an occasional cause is applied ;
and thus either acute or chronic glanders may arise, as the cause is active or
insidious. In this way it is that the impure air of close confined situations
probably acts, and in a twofold way, as topically, on the surface . of the mem-
brane, and constitutionally, by depriving the lungs of pure respirable air. In
populous towns and cities, in crowded unventilated stables, we therefore meet
with these diseases in the greatest numbers and worst forms. The debilitating
effects of common inflammations of the mucous surfaces of the air-passages
and their dependencies, is a common source : even wounds of these parts have
brought on glanders. Dry food has been stated as a cause : a remote one is a
cold humid state of atmosphere ; and thus it is more frequent in winter than
summer.

The contagious nature of glanders has been altogether disputed by some.
Bracken was among the number : but many more think it only contagious in a
slight degree. Mr. Coleman, Mr. Sewell, and Mr. Vines are, I believe, of this
class ; and the proofs for and against the degree of its aptitude are so contra-
dictory, that, while we maintain the full effect of contagion, we must admit the
anomalies in the proofs, — How is the contagion propagated ?

• In the clearing off of catarrh, influenza, &c. a protracted gleet remains from one or both nostrils,
watery, with small particles of mncus or pus, sometimes of froth, invariahly in very small quantities,
but constant; and instead of a large submaxillary gland swelled to the size of a walnut, which lead to
suspicion in these cases, it is enlarged only to the size of a pea or liort-e-bean, but is indurated, and
is frequently loose and not adherent to the jaw bone. Another deceptive circumstance is the general
state of the condition, which is that of good health, in coat, liesh, and spirits. In this state no one
suspects glanders, and yet at any time inoculation with this matter will produce glanders in another
horse. Mr Turner deserves the thanks of the profession at large for putting tliem on their guard
against this treacherous disease, whose Protean shapes require all our vigilance ; but, as be candidly
observes it is not a new species of glanders, but the true chronic form in one of its most occult shapes,
of which'wc have too many instances. ^ .

t Although these terms are frequently used synonymously, and that without impropriety, seeing
that in the genera of contagious diseases of J)r. Hossack, and since adopted by Dr. Mather Smith, ge-
nus 2 takes in such as are communicable both by contact and by the atmns|ihere j yet in this instance
I conceive it would be convenient to confine contagion to its etymological sense strictly, and to con-
sider it as characterising such diseases as require actual contttcl for tlieir propagation. And by ih/cc-
/lOM? diseases such as are engendered by miasma or morbid exhalations from the doeoniposition of
animal and vegetable substances (but here principally from the former), and which in the human sub-
ject create putrid fever, and in the horse malignant glanders.

1 Be I'hcriditi dc la moTve. L'influence hfcredilaire n'a pas encore attirfe assez I'attention, dans
le» circonstances du developpement de la morve, pour qu'il soit possible d'en ricn prejuger de positif.
Suivant les autcurs modernes. I'hferfeditfc n'est pas doutouse ; Dupuy a me me fait, relativement aux
iumcns et aux poiilain't morveux du haras d'Alfort, dcs observations qui tendent A prouver que la
morvc'est hfcrfeditaire: cepemlant d'autres pr6tendeut connaltre desexpferiences quiprouvent que non.
Toutce nue nous pouvons faire dans cc douto, c'est de renvoyer aux considerations gfcnerales dtja
expos6es au mot llcrtditaire ; nous pensons qu'ellcs pciivent s'appliqucr au cas dont il s'agit ici.

Class TIL] glanders. 345

Mr White's cxpeiiments would lead to a belief, that the simple contact of
dandered matter, appUed to a surface neither abraded nor inflamed, will not
produce it. It has even been put up the nose, and retamed there, without oc-
casioning any iU effect. I have also rubbed the matter on various parts of the
body, and introduced it under the eyelids likewise, yet no ill consequence en-
sued • but on rubbing some glandered matter into the greasy heels of a horse
condemned to the dogs, farcy soon appeared. On the contrary. Professor Peal
savs ' the glanderous matter is frequently conveyed from the nose of a diseased
hoWe to one that is sound, whereby the effect of inoculation is most commonly
secured;' and a similar result has many times since foUowed the same experi-
ment It must be remembered, that there is a non-susceptibihty m some con-
stitutions, and also in the same constitution at some times to receive it, when
at other times, and in the same constitution, it would be readily taken in, to
which much of this discrepancy of statement is owing. The infectious nature
of glanders has been alleged and denied; but the question is at once set at rest
by the breaking out of acute glanders, as a medium of contagion, among the
horses on board the transports bound for Quiberon, in consequence of the ne-
cessity of fastening down the hatches for three days during a storm: but I do
not admit that a single horse can infect the air around, so as to give the disease
to a healthy one near him; horses have lived thus together for months without
injury : on the other hand, I would not venture to deny the possibility of it,
particularly that a sound horse, shut up in an unventilated stable, where the au-
became contaminated with the respired air of several glandered horses, might
not himself become infected*. In its general character, therefore, it is more
contagious than infectious, etiologically and etymologically speaking ; .and its
contagious nature is principally exerted by the actual application of the morbid
virus to some part of the body of the uninfected, in the production of the dis-
ease!, and that generally to an abraded surface.

The Symptoms of Glanders are, an increased secretion from the membranes of
one or both nostrilsj, which continually flows in small or large quantities. This
discharge is seldom at first perfectly purulent, but is more glairy, thick, and not
unlike the white of an egg, and it sometimes continues thus for a long time ; at
others it hastens to become muco-purulent, and then purulent; but there always
remains a peculiar degree of viscidity and glueyness in it that sticks the nostrils
together, as it were, from its tenacity, differing from all other mucous or purulent
secretions, the very nature of which strongly characterises the complaint. The

• It is a common observiition, that such stables are most prone to it whore grease prevails to a great
degree, and, by some, grease has beftii supposed to be one of its origins; nor can we deny that the
farcied form has supervened on bad cases of grease without known contagion. But what is here meant
is, that living in a foul, putrid atmosphere, incieases the susceptibility to the disease fourfold.

+ The able writer on the horse in the Farmer's Series, Library of Usefiil Knowledge, says,
' Glanders, however, aie highly contagious. The farmer cannot be too well aware of this ; and, con-
sidering the degree to whirh thev often prevail, the legislature would be justified in interfering by
some severe enactments, as they have done in the case of the small-pox in the human subject. The
early and marked symptoms of glanders, is a discharge from the nostrils of a peculiar character : and
if that, even before it becomes purulent, be rubbed on a wound, or on a mucous surface, as the nos-
trils, it will produce a similar disease. Glanders are not communicated by the air or breath. If the
division between two horses were sufficiently high to prevent all smelling and snorting at each other,
and contact of every kind, and they drunk not out of the same pail, a sound horse might live for years,
uninfected, by the side of a glandered one. The matter of glanders has been mixed up into a ball, and

given to a healthy horse, without elfect ; yet in another experiment of the same kind, the poor animal
icd. The mouth or gullet had probably some small wounds or ulcers in it. Some horses have eaten
the hay left by those that were glandered, and no had consc'iuencc has followed; but others have
been speedily infected.. The glanderous matter must come in contact with a wound, or fall on some
membrane, thin and delicate like that of the nose, and through which it may be absorbed. It is easy,
then, accustomed as horses are to smell each other, and to recognize each other by the smell, eating
out of the same manger, and drinking from the name pail, to imagine that the disease may be very
readily communicated. One horse has passed another when he was in the act of snorting, and has be-
come glandered. Some lillics have received the infection from the matter blown by the wind across a
lane, wlien a glandered hoise in the opposite field has claimed acquaintance by neighing or snorting.
It is almost impossible for an infected horse to remain long in a stable with others witliout irreparable
mischief.'

t I believe that no reason has yet been attempted to be offered why a preference Is given to the left
nostril, which is so frequently the seat of the disease in chronic glanders (in the acute form the dis-
charge is bi-nasal), that out of eight hundred cases which came under the notice of M. Dupuy, one
only was affected in the right.- English veteiinarians have not, however, marked a preference equally
great ; hut it is certainly very commonly confined in these cases to the left nostril, and the reason of
this speciality \* well worth the consideration of the pathologist and physiologist.

346 GLANDERS. [CLASS III.

general colour of the Schneiderian membrane becomes changed; first to a violet
colour often a dmgy yellow, and afterwards to a leaden hue. As ulceration
takes place, the discharge becomes tinged with shades of green and yellow inter-
mixed with bloody stripings, and is often sauious and offensive, which is 'always
the case when the bones become diseased. From absorption of the morbid
matter by the lymphatics of the part, the maxiUary glands under the jaws, through
which these vessels pass, become swollen and tender, and, when one side of the
head only is aflFected, the lymphatic gland of that side, and that side only be-
comes somewhat tumefied. The enlargement of these glands, called by farriers
the kernels, is too much relied on as an absolute criterion of the existence of gland-
ers ; for though, when the disease has existed some time, they are very generally
tumefied, yet, in mild cases of some standing, they are not' invariably so: and
again, there are other complaints beside this that will tumefy them ; whatever
mflames the Schneiderian membrane, as catarrh, strangles, &c. may do it. Neither
can a certain criterion be drawn from their attachment to, or detachment from
the bone : occasionally they will remain unaffected, or the whole will form a tumid
mass, tender, but not adherent to the maxilla on either side. It is, however,
seldom, when the disease is fully formed, and always, when it has attained any
virulence, but that a distinct lymphatic glandular knob or two wUl be found in
close contact with the inner branch of the jaw-bone of the affected side. The
disease sometimes remains long without producing ulceration in chronic glanders,
and cases of this kind prove verypuzzHng to the practitioner: at other times, on
the contrary, an ulcerating process quickly appears; in the acute invariably.
The ulcers of glanders have a very pecuHar character, and their appearance can-
not be tpo attentively studied by the veterinarian : they usually commence by
minute limpid bladders, which soon form small ulcers, internally deep with abrupt
prominent edges ; and are seen in greatest numbers on the septum nasi, following
the course of the lymphatics, and sometimes uniting into broad continuous patches,
which spread and deepen until the bones are eroded, the cartilages absorbed, and
the purulent secretion fiUs the ethmoidal cells. Sometimes the ulceration exists
so high up the nasal fossa;, that it is very difficult to discover; yet, with the head
held up to a full light, more particularly towards the sun when shining, it may
be detected if within any moderate distance ; and when it cannot, the varied ap-
pearance of the discharge will bespeak it. The junior practitioner must not,
however, allow portions of the secreted matter which may adhere to the surface
to mislead him into a belief of existing ulceration ; he should, when in doubt,
pass up his finger, or a probe armed with tow, and wipe away such ; and had not
the error actually occurred in the practice of more than one veterinarian, I should
be almost ashamed to insert a caution, that the opening of the nasal duct may
not be mistaken for a chancre. The situation of this opening is found a little way
up the nostril on the reflected skin, and not on the mucous secreting surface.
At an uncertain period of this form of the disease, occurring sometimes much
sooner than at others, the lungs become tubercular, and hectic symptoms follow
the bursting or ulceration of them : large vomicae also form and burst ; and now
the health is evidently impairing fast : there is cough, loss of appetite, emacia-
tion, and weakness in the loins ; the hair feels dry, and falls off on being handled ;
the matter from the nose increases in quantity, becomes sanious, stinking, or
bloody, and is coughed up by the mouth also ; and, in the expressive words of
M. Dupuj^ "the animal has a bloated aspect; the cellular tissue pits, the con-
junctiva is infiltrated, the caruncula lachrymalis discoloured, the eye has the ex-
pression of a sheep suffering from the rot, the gums are paUid, and the under
eyelid of the affected side juts into a prominent circle of duplication. If put to
hard work, such horses rapidly decline in condition ; and yet, should they be de-
stroyed, fat is found in abundance upon the belly and about the heart.'

From the very serious effects which follow the spreading of this disease, the
veterinary practitioner is oflen called upon to give a prompt and definitive opinion
relative to it ; it therefore behoves him to make himself as familiar with the cri-
terise as possible. The principal intricacy that will present itself, arises from the
similarity of appearance that frequently exists between the true disease and a

Class III.] glanders. -rJ*/

diseased and increased muco-purulent secretion which sometimes remains after
a severe cold, or is the consequence of repeated catarrhal attacks.^ Local inflam-
mations also, from various causes, occasionally take place within the pituitary
sinuses, which although in no degree glanderous, yet are accompanied by such a
regular and continued flow of pus as to mislead the practitioner*. In such in-
stances we may be led into a suspicion of the cause by the absence of visible
ulceration, and probably by some tumefaction of one immediate part, and by some
history of the commencement and progress of the case. In present colds the
difticulty cannot be great, for the general health is commonly affected ; there is
some fever, loss of appetite, thirst, and cough, which are seldom seen in the early
stages of glanders ; and those which are more advanced require but little to dis-
tint'uish them : and although in catarrh the submaxillary glands are sometimes
swelled, yet they are in these cases hot also and moveable. But when colds have
been severe, or often repeated, there occasionally remains in the mucous mem-
branes of the air-passages, particularly of the Schneiderian, a disposition to a
morbidly increased secretion of a muco-purulent nature, which will continue to
flow from one or both nostrils. I have seen cases of this kind which have existed
one and two years, and in one instance it had lasted three years, but eventually
disappeared. Glanders may also be mistaken for the results of strangles : we
should hope it must be slanderous, when it is asserted that the actual attack of
acute strangles has been taken for glanders. The age of the horse js usually
some guide ; the fever, sore throat, and cough, and the size and situation of the
tumefied salivary glands and the throat, will prove distinctive guides. But when
the disease degenerates into the bastard strangles, or that called viyes, which are
only aptitudes to continued suppurations, it may be more readily mistaken ; par-
ticularly as there is reason to believe this to be in some cases a true source of
glanders. In both these instances our principal reliance must be_ on the nature
of the discharge, which presents distinguishing characters, that, if attended to,
will prove tolerably sure guides. It is generally tenacious and sticky, like glue ;
it is likewise semi-transparent, and hangs about the rim of the nostrils in a pecu-
liar manner ; but more particularly it is continually flowing : whereas in that state
resulting from catarrh there is not a regular discharge, but the flow appears now
and then, as when the horse coughs, or when he occasionally clears himself by
snorting ; at which times a large quantity frequently comes away, and then perhaps
no more appears for some hours after. And though the matter of glanders may
flow some weeks even, without apparent ulceration, yet in general eases there
wiU occur a more early appearance of chancres, and commonly a swelling and
fixture of the lymphatic gland also ; to all these considerations should be added,
an examination of the general health of the horse, and particularly of the state of
his coat or hair, which I have always observed unthrifty and disposed to fall off
in confirmed glanders. And as cases may stiU occur where there may be room
for doubt, although certainty would be most important, we have always the means
of unequivocal certainty within our reach by the sacrifice of an ass or horse of
little value, which, although not a pleasant resource, is yet one which urgent cir-
cumstances might warrant. By inoculating an ass with the suspected matter, the
truth win be demonstrated in a very few days, by his becoming glanderous, if
the matter he received was of that naturef ; and in these cases, as the ass is more

• An apt elncidation of tliis may be seen in vol. ii of The Veterinarian, wlierc, under the super-
intendence of Mr. Dick, a case apparently glanderous, having for many months a ' curdled-like matter'
constantly passing from the off nostril, but without visible alteration, was deemed to be one of the
same cases with those described by Mr. Dick, as being mistaken for glanders; but which is in fact
only a cyst of matter formed in one or other of the sinuses of the nose. ' A perforation was made,' in
thc'words of the account, ' at once into the nasal sinus, one inch and a half from the inner canthus of
the eye, and about an inch in diameter, with a trephine.' Haifa pint of thick, white, inodorous pug
escaped, and continued to flow for some weeks, until a cure was established ; but from the time of the
operation all nasal flux ceased.

+ The following method of ascertaining the glanderous nature of the virus has been proposed, but
with very limited certainty of proof. Having turned aside the integuments over the dexter or sinister
frontal sinus, as the case may l)e, perforate the bono with a small trephine, making the opening in the
deepest part of the sinus, which will be usually found to be on an imaginary line drawn from one
snpra-oibital foramen to the other, at a little more than half an inch from the central septum. On
waini w.iter being thrown into this opening, a judgment is proposed to be formed liy the appearance
of the fluid as it escapes by the nose : if it he purulent, and particularly if it he in the slightest degree

GLANDERS. [CLASS III

s&T;orr:fcr^^^ ^''^^ ^'^^ ^-^^^^

J?-^ practitioner need hardly be cautioned on the score of the common tricks
practised m horse feirs and markets to conceal the appearance of Kknders I
IS common_ with he lowest orders of these salesmen to gallop a glaSered horse

o Z^off ?h '''TT}^ "'"'^^ ^^'".^^ accelerated re^pirftion and cough

to throw off the collected secretion immediately formed: some powerful astrit
gent, as alum, vitriol. &c. is then blown up the nostrils, or in some cases the dis-
charge IS temporarily stopped by a plug or pledget of tow, cloth, &c. &c thn^st
up the nose But in all these cases the enlarged lymphatics stiU r;main unthriTt
and he coat will in all probability come off on handhng, but particularly Xre s a
tZHTl '"-°"er of the horse, and he Attempts to cough or

sneeze to rid himself of the plug. ^

The Treatment of Glanders.-The philosopher's stone was scarcely sought
tor more earnestly by the ancients, than a cure for glanders by the moderns
by modern veterinarians at least. The great reward it held out has stimulated
many practitioners mto unnumbered experiments, and occasional success still
gives a spur to the energies of new experimentalists. I was myself formerly san-
guine on this head; and from considering it in the light of a specific poison,
there seemed to be, as in syphilis, no reason why a specific remedy for it alsJ
might not exist : but independent of the conviction which forces itself on us that
in origin, progress, and termination, it does not bear a strict analogy with any
known poison, or any known disease originating in contagion, we are but too
well aware, that, were we even to destroy the specific nature of the disease, there
IS reason to fear that the ravages ah-eady committed on the lungs would yet de-
stroy the patient by phthisis pulmonalis. I will, however, cursorily run over the
most reputed remedies which have been or continue to be tried, dwelHng longest
on those which offer most hope. Injections and nasal appUcations, on a view
ot its being a purely local affection, have been too long and too fuUy tried now to
mislead; and had not a spontaneous cure every now and then occurred, and had
not other nasal gleets been mistaken for glanders, they would never have been
depended on for the cure of glanders : as auxiliaries they may be occasionally
employed, however, with considerable advantage. Our neighbours, the French,
have been equally, perhaps even more, unfortunate than ourselves in their cura-
tive attempts*. Internally, mercurials in aU their forms have failed ; nor have
they succeeded better externally, though M. BoUestra, of Turin, professes to
have witnessed benefit from ungt. liydrarg. Ji rubbed into the inside of the thigh
daily until five or six pounds have been used; but how he escaped a fatal saliva-
tion I am not aware. Huzard and Biron were employed by the French authori-
ties to try both the mm-iate and carbonate of barytes, and the exhibition of both
forms produced, in most instances, a remission of symptoms ; but when pushed
to what was deemed a necessary extent, the animals usually died from the effects
of this mineral. Similar results have followed in the practice of many other vete-
rinarianst. M. Moiroud, veterinary professor at Alfort, has given jij of chloride

bloody, it is considered a presumptive proof that ulceration exists within the nasal cavities, although
none could be detected by nasal inspection. °

• ' Bourgelat a 90umis a un examen rigoureux tous les moyens cmplovfes jusqu'a hii coutre la
morve; ecoutons I'lUustre fondatcur des ecoles veterinaires. " ICn fegard'dit-il i la niorve cette
maladie formidable, aussi inconnue a tous ceux qui en dissortent, qu aceuxque nuolques lunii^^ics
contiennent ati moms dans les homes d'une sage timidity, tous les efforts que I'on a faits iusqu'V
present sont dcmeurfes inutiles. Le trepan, pratique sur diffeiens cbevanx, en appliquant deux
couronnes, I'une sur le sinus frontal, Tautre a la pai tle infcrieur du sinus maxillnire • toiites les
injections detersives faits et poussfees ensuite edans la vue dc nettoyer les iiloferes de la membrane
muqueuse ct d'cn retablir le ressort, des traitemeus intferleura delayans, et simplcmeiis adoucissans •
le mercure, administrfe par frictions, en laveinens et dc toute maniere : les purgatifs reitferfes Tad-
ministration de la pervenclie, d'aprfes les ideca de Malouin ; la liqueur distillfee des hois sudorifiques
melfec a Tantimoine et au mercure; les depuratoires les plus actifs, la coloquintc, I'elateiium ic
laurier-cerise, donnfes comme alterans, quolque poussfcs A de tr6s grandes doses ; la poudrc de cicui;
cnfin, rien n'a pu triompher de ce funeste virus." Dupuy also observes, " L'experiencc a en outre
dfemontre, que les sfetons etaient pen cfticaces dans le cas dc morve, que les preparations mercuricUes
accfelferaicnt la marclic de cette maladie, au lieu dc I'arreter, ct que les aiitiuioniaux, rnmme le crocus
et le kermes, qui paraissaient la ralentir, iic parveuaient point a la guorir i adicalemeut." '

f Mr. I'ercivall has tried it fully ; and in vol. ii of The rcterinnriitii Ihc results of thirteen cases

Class III.] glanders. 349

of soda in a liquid form, which he has gradually increased to a very large quan-
tity, and with very flattering appearances of amendment ; but the future cases
did not correspond. Camphor in daily doses of an ounce seemed to benefit a
horse much ; but his debility requiring the sulphate of copper in the latter stage,
necessarily compounded the treatment ; but he was eventually cured (see Veteri-
narian, vol. i). Mr. Coleman has given ' the various preparations of arsenic,
antimony, copper, zinc, mercury, &c. ; hellebore, aconitum, digitalis, hyoscyanius,
cicuta, beUadonna, &c. &c., but all without any specific or curative effect. Mr.
Sewell appears to have been more successful with the sulphate of copper (blue
vitriol) ; but as the benefits received were generally confined to cases not marked
with much constitutional affection, so the value of the remedy is necessarily
much limited. It, however, has proved itself a valuable addition to our few cura-
tive means, a feather in the cap of this active experimentalist, and a source of de-
served emolument. The mode of administration detailed below is gained from
The Veterinarian, which purports to be the opening lecture of Mr. S. to his
pupils*. To increase our remedial means, Mr. Vines also has lately revived the
stimulating plan of treatment, and given it new publicity by his reasoning and
experiments. He observes, ' The remedies which are to he employed in those
cases which are likely to run into, or are akeady become what is usually termed
glanders or farcy, whether following colds or other diseases, or whether accom-
panied with dropsical enlargement of the extremities from general debility or
not ; or when glanders or farcy occurs in debilitated, unhealthy animals, without
immediately following ordinary diseases, are those which possess stimulating and
tonic properties, separately or united]: Of these a reference to Mr. Vines' work
are detailed as follow : 1st, 7tli, 8th, Ilth, and 13tU killed by the medicine ; 3d. 5th, and 12th. destroyed
unrelieved • ca«e 2 of farcv cured ; cases 4th. 6th, 9th, and 10th, slandered eases cured. Mr. P. remarks,
that barytes requires great caution in Its exhibition: he prefers the muriate to the nitrate, and a
solution to a solid form. The solution he employs is made by dissolving one part ot the salt m three
of distilled water, of which lie gives from two drachms to four once or twice a-day. 1 he sum ot Mr.
P.'s experience is, that ' he is not sanguine of success.' ,, . r • ,-j <•

* Mr Sewell observes, that many of the profession give the sulphate of copper in the solid form,
but the «ame quantity which so given would indame the stomach and bowels, may be exhibited
innocuously In a state of solution; and which I would remark is a very judicious and valuable ob-
servation and one which cannot be too strongly kept In mind when exhibiting the more active
mineral agents whose operations being supposed to be effected through the medium of the circulation,
and the stomach being only a part of the load by which they travel there, It is of great importance
tliat they be so sheathed as not to act injuriously on these passages, and yet to ret;\ui their ultimate
activity although thus sheathed ; and which great end it may be expected is accomplished by thus
exhibiting them in solution : and to further this Intention. Mr. Sewell gives them in a solution of gum
arable ' As a general dose he recommends six drachms. dissolved in a quart or three pints ot fluid. He
commonly suffers the animal to drink before, and some, with advantage, also allow him to drink after
the medicine ' The periods of repetition of the medicine arc not meiitioited, hui we suppose they are
daily Given in this mode, the copper is not found to nauseate the animal or take bim off his appe-
tite - in fact the secret (if there be any) consists wholly in giving the medicine in a fluid instead of a
solid' form, p'eteriiiarian, vol. i. It remains tn add, that Mr. Sewell also applies setons in the
neighbouring parts in his cure of glanders, and which it is probable may. In many cases, act bene-
ticially as promoting revulsion, and establishing a new and healthy suppurative action. We never-
theless'cannot yet boast of possessing any certain remedy for glanders ; and it remains, and probably
ever will remain, the ojoproinum m('(i!<;or«m of our art.
" f After enumerating as stimulating ai tides, cantliarides, cancUa bark, capsicum berries, eubebs,
ginger grains of paradise, all the peppers, sweet flag root, and winter's bark ; and as tonics, an-
gu«turabark. buckbean, cascarilla bark, gentian, and quassia, which he observes will any of them
increase the appetite and powers of the circulation, and improve the general health and condition, he
adds that the medicine which he has found of the greatest service, whether alone or in combination
witii'any of these, has been cantharides : and as barytes became a subject of much experiment from its
alleged power, by Dr. Crawfurd. of cure in human scrofula, so cantharides was first tried, from the
remedial quiililies attributed to it in the gleets from mucous membranes in syphilitic affections ; and it
had formerly been tried on these grounds at the Veterinary College, and since had been recommended
by others particularly by Mr. B. Clark. Cantharides Mr. Vines supposes to act on the system, by
stimulating the inner coat of the stomach and Intestines, and promoting a greater formation of gastric
juice; and also that they appear to act by promoting absorption, as they produce, in a short time, a
material change in the mucous membrane, and In the ulcers both of the nose and skin, fiom an un-
healthy to a healthy appeal ance : the coat lays smoother, the swellings of the extieuiitics. Ihc diseased
lymphatics, and their glands, gradually become less: the condition Improves, and the nuickness and
irregularity of the pulse, so characteristic of debility, becomes fuller and stronger : and the blood, if
abstracted, will be found brighter, heavier, and of a firmer consistency. The discharges, likewise,
from the diseased parts, particularly from tlie nostrils, lose their dark colour and gluey or size-liko
appeariince. At first the discharge is somewhat increased by the cantliarides. but at the same time it
is more healthy, and the increase itself is Indicative of the commencement of a healthy suppurative
process. Setons and rowels, as counter-irritants, Mr. V. objects to. on a supposition that they only
add to the general exliau«tion of the system, which he seems to think to be in every case the grand
agent in the disease. Mr. Vines states, that many practitioners, at his suggestion, now five can-
thardes with no inconsiderable success ; and that of alUbc medicines given for the cure ol frlanders

350 GLANDERS. [ClasS 111.

will shew that he places his principal dependence on cantharides : which have
long been before the public as remedies for nasal gleets, but have n^ver received
such ample elucidation as by his means. These he gives every or every other
day, in the/orm of a ball, either morning or evening, (he, however, prefers the
evemng) with ginger, gentian, and caraway seeds. He commences with four or
hve grains of the cantharides, according to size, age, condition, &c. in fine pow-
der which, if well borne, is, after ten days or a fortnight, increased to six or
eight grains, according to the circumstances alluded to. When this increased
dose has been in use a few days, desist altogether from the medicine for four or
hve days, and then recommence it again, but with the smaller dose. As I have
had, ot late years, some experience of the good effect of cantharides in mild cases
ot chronic glanders and farcy, and from thence consider them worthy the trial of
veterinarians, so I have preferred noticing them in this way, involving as it does
both precept and experience from such an accredited source : adding my full con-
viction, that the remedy will receive no improper check in any quarter of that
estabhshment from whence it emanates. If it can be safely and effectively ad-
mimstered, it is there it must pass its probation : it is not less the inclination
than the duty and interest of aU the distinguished teachers at that valuable in-
stitution, the Veterinary CoUege, to foster and promulgate every means likely to
stop the ravages of this malady.

Mr. Bracy Clark's formula of administration of cantharides, in conjunction
with mineral tonics to be given daily, is as follows : —

Sulphate of zinc {white vitriol) fifteen grains

Powdered cantharides seven grains

Powdered allspice fifteen grains.

Since the last edition I have reason to know, that beyond the two remarkable
instances noted in Mr. Clark's practice, two others have been handed to me
where this form of administration was gained from the Veterinary Outeines!
Therefore, with the cautions detailed in the note, of beginning with a minor dosej
I would recommend that the cantharides be coupled either with the sulphate of
copper or sulphate of zinc {blue or white vitriol), and with or without any spicy
or bitter tonic, as may please the fancy of the exhibitor. We cannot conclude
without recommending the reader to turn to the encouraging account of the
effects of barytes in glanders, administered by Mr. W. Pcrcivall. See Veterina-
rian, vol. ii, p. 178.

Disinfecting 2^roperties 0/ chloride of soda lohere the contagion of glanders may
he supposed to lurk. — It is consolatory to be aware that such a preventive appears
from the account of General Lord Talon, who experimented on the comniunica-
bility of the disease through the contact of various infected media. See Veteri-
narian, vol. ii, p. 385.

Glanders conmunicahle to the human subject also. — A reference to The Veteri-
narian, vol. xiii, p. 445, will shew the necessity there is that the human attend-
ant on glandered horses should be very careful to avoid any contact with the
matter of glanders, and particularly with the nasal discharge ; which if by any
means it should reach the surface of any of the mucous membranes, will in all
probability fatally inoculate the individual having so received it. Dr. Barham,
of Truro, in vol. xiii of The Veterinarian, p. 445, relates the melancholy death of

and farcy, none have ever i-qualk-d cantliaridcs, or produced any thing like snch ranid and decided
effects and permanent hencfits. Under these reports, made fiomsiich a source, it liecomcs a duty
witli tlie veterin iriiui to give tliesc active agents a fair trial ; but let him he aware that lie must do it
with tlic utmost caution, as Mr. V. himself candidly acknowledges tlicv are capnhle of producing very
untoward sym|)toms. I can add also, that they have destroyed the liorscs on which they have hecii
tried in a very rapid and unexpected manner. By Mr. Vines's own account they can produce great
disturbance in the system, with all the marks of high vascular excitement, quickened respiration,
inflamed pituitary and conjunctive membranes, greatly increased discharges, and more extended
tumefaction of the already swollen limbs, and sometimes cosli^vcness. These effects, he remarks, are
the consequence of an over-dose, or of using them in the early or inflammatory stages of the disease.
Consequently we should suppose Mr. V. thinks tbem less applicable to the acute than to the chronic
form of glanders. He adds, m confirmation of this view, that when the symptoms of the disease aie
of a chronic or slow form, and when the system is in a state of direct debility, and when there are
nasal discharges, which, without direct glanderous characters, are suspicious, or border on or lead to
the dh-cot complaint, then they can be used with eminent advantage.

Class III.] farcy. 351

a youno- man, who, anxious to conceal the state of his horse, used to wipe the
glanderous discbarge from its nose with his pocket handkerchief ; and in conse-
quence died a terrible martyr to his fraudulent proceeding by using the same
handkerchief to wipe his own nose and face.

FARCY.

From what has preceded on the subject of glanders, it will appear that these
two diseases are fuUy proved to be modifications only of each other. Though
the older wi-iters were aware that one sometimes terminated in the other, yet
they still considered them as two distinct affections ; and this the more, as farcy
was found to be often curable, but glanders very seldom. Farcy was long consi-
dered to be a disease of the veins, which error was natural enougb,_ seeing the
IjTnphatic vessels, in which coiu-se the virus travels, were then considered as a
species of veins. We are now, however, aware that this disease, in its local or
early state, is a specific inflammation of the absorbents of the skin : experience has
also taught us, that as long as its attack remains thus superficially confined, it is
not difficult, in many cases, to cure ; but that when it has entered the constitu-
tion by absorption, or when it originates within, it generally proves fatal, and
almost invariably so when it ends, as it usually does, in glanders : in return, acute
glanders is very apt to end, indeed almost invariably, in farcy. Farcy is, however,
not confined to the superficial parts of the body alone, for it may be occasionally
met with much deeper seated, and in every part of the body ; but the head, neck,
and extremities, particularly the hmder ones, are the parts most generally affected;
by which it would seem to choose those situations most distant from the seat of
circulation, but most exposed to the influence of absorption : it therefore travels
within the course of the larger lymphatic trunks, within the thighs and arms, and
also over the lips, face, and neck. When farcied virus is absorbed by the lym-
phatic pores, it sometimes occasions inflammation in the immediate lymphatic
vessel, which it first tumefies and then ulcerates. In other instances, its progress
seems to be arrested by a valve, which itself becomes inflamed, hardened, and
then forms the lump which is popularly called a farcy bud. The slow progress
of the disease, in many cases, seems to be dependent on this obstruction offered
to the passage of the poison by means of the sweUings of the lymphatic glands ;
and it is probably by arresting the poison at these halting places that we are en-
abled in the early stages more readily to promote the cure. At length, however,
if nothing be done, these indolent tumours increase, become hot and tender, and
then ulcerate, and discharge a thin sanies ; and from one bud it passes on to ano-
ther, inflaming the lymphatic vessels in its progress, and giving them a hardened
feel like a cord under the skin ; and as these vessels run in the course of the
veins, so the older farriers were from thence led to their opinion that the farcy
was a venous disease, and we find in their writings these enlargements are al-
ways described as the ^ corded veins.' The invariable course of the affection is
towards the thoracic duct, as might be expected, seeing it is, during the early
stages, confined to the absorbents, in its passage towards which it inflames and
enlarges all the superficial lymphatic glands it meets with : from whence follow
not only numerous little farcy buds in the skin, but larger and painful swellings
take place in the more considerable absorbent glands of the groin, and of those
between the fore legs and maxilla;. Sometimes the larger lymphatic trunks pro*
ceed to suppurate, when they form extensive sinuses, the farriers' ^ farcy pipes,'
which are found, like most poisoned wounds, very difficult of cure.

Farcy is subject to varieties in "form and character. It has assumed an epi-
demic feature, and it often appears compounded with, and modified by, other
complaints ; but by no means so frequently as the ignorance of farriers would
make it, who call every diffused swelling, from whatever cause, ' farcied hu-
mours.' Two distinct varieties of farcy are very common ; one of which is en-
tirely superficial, and confined to the lymphatics of the skin, and is often called
by farriers the biUtoji farcy. The other commences usually in the extremities.

FARCY. [Class III.

and generally the hinder ones : the capillary lymphatic tubes throughout become
anflamed and mcapable of their usual office, and hence engorgemSTthe whole
hmb takes place, not uniformly, but still universaUy. This farcic^d enlarge!
ment of a hmb is not to_ a partial observer, unlike the %amentary thickenfng
of a gorged leg neither is it much unlike the swelling fron? c^dema or eSon
But these swellings when they arise from farcy, wiU present an uneven sur-'
face; increasing and decreasing suddenly, and are further characterised by much
• tenderness. The lymphatic glands of the skin wiU hie and

there point themselves into small buds ; and it is further worthy of remark that
such swellmgs are more Hkely to exist in definite masses, and between the joints
than OK them or near them; which is not the case in ligamentary enlargements
ansing from over-exertion or strain, with which these cases are apt to be con-
tounded, as the more superficial kind is liable sometimes to be taken for those
integumental smaU tumours caUed surfeit; but which are broader, flatter, and
generally more diffused over the tinink than the extremities; and when found on
the extremities, they are usually situated on the outer side, whereas the farcied
buds are more frequently on the inner side of the limb. In some cases, however
cedema or actual dropsy of the Urab does occur, dependent on the obstruction
ottered to the passing of the absorbed lymph : a horse thus affected is often said
to have wafer farcy, which see : in such a case as this, exercise, by stimulating
the anastomosing tiunks, will take it away, and this sometimes misleads the
observer into a supposition that the case is dependent on a general debility or
want of condition ; or arises from cracks, grease, &c. But in these instance's it
niay be observed, that it is only a portion of the swelling; that is, it is simply
tlie cedema which is removed; the farcied enlargements wiU remain the same
1 he infected lymphatic glands or buds will sometimes also, instead of suppu-
rating, take on a scirrhous induration, and remain thus hardened for a long
time ; but eventually it happens that they either, by absorption, produce tuber-
cles and pulmonary vomicae, or are translated to the nose, or end in a.diseased
thickening of large masses of the .skin, neck, withers, and croup. A variety of
farcy remains to be noticed, which is usually passed over by authors, and which
IS also one wherein the poison is self-generated, probably. It often puts on a
chronic protracted form, and shews itself by the affected horse becoming sud-
denly lame in one limb, the tumefaction and heat of which recede and attack
the other limb in the same manner. In this way he may remain for months
with his health very sHghtly affected ; at length, however, the disease assumes a
more marked character, some of the swellings ulcerate, and glanders eventually
closes the scene._ Old horses are more frequently the subject of farcy than
younger ones, which does not appear to be the case with spontaneous glanders.

The catises of farcy, with the exception of contagion, are of the same com-
plexion with those of glanders, but arc more varied, and numerous also. In-
fection, in the strict sense of the word, is seldom, perhaps never, the source of
farcy. _ It is necessary, for the production of farcy, that there be an actual ap-
plication of the matter at least to a bare surface ; probably also it requires either
a mucous or an abraded surface*. I am not aware that the introduction of the
matter of farcy into the stomach will occasion it. I imagine not. Long conti-
nued grease will sometimes degenerate into it, thus shewing us that the^morbid
poison is dependent on some peculiar combinations. Long continued canker
will do the same : in fact, whatever debilitates and extensively ulcerates the ex-
tremities may occasion it, particularly when combined with neglect in cleanli-
ness and by living in contaminated air, which is supposed, though not equally
so, yet to be of itself capable of producing farcy, as it produces glanders.

The Treatment of Farcrj.— In the very early stages of this complaint, when it
has been taken by inoculation, or has originated in diseased extremities, and,
indeed, in all such cases in which it is confined to the lymphatics of the skin, it
is not always found difficult of cure ; but when it has been spontaneously gene-

• Mr. Pcal smeaied the niiicoiis nienitii anc of tlio iioso of an ass with Tai cied virus, and in eight days
it was highly glaiidcred.

Class III.] farcy. 353

rated in the habit from any of the constitutional causes of glanders, it partakes
of the virulence and obstinacy of the affection generally. It is also almost equally
difficult of clu-e when it enters by means of the raucous membranes of the head,
for in these cases the stage between farcy and glanders is so short as to admit
of little curative attempt. There is, however, a pause in some cases between
the taking on of the full chai-acter of glanders, during which pause a treatment
of it judiciously exerted sometimes proves beneficial : but having once assumed
the ftill glanderous characters, the case becomes nearly hopeless. Nevertheless,
I am not prepared to say that it is never cured when it has even tainted the con-
stitution in this way : on the contrary, I think there is reason to suppose that it
is sometimes eradicated after this ; but when it has propagated its morbid effects
to the lungs, whatever may become of the farcy, the horse invariably dies tabid.
Unless it be accompanied with confirmed glanders, many practitioners consider
every case of farcy as purely a local affection, and their treatment has been ac-
cordant with that idea, bat I now think it most unsafe to trust to such a consi-
deration of it. I formerly was inclined to hope that it might be effectually
arrested in the first instance in the absorbents, by topical means, and that nothing
more than the destruction of these was necessary to effect aU we wish; nor can it
be denied that, sometimes, this has succeeded; but, unfortunately, it is difficult
to do this : the virus has either already been absorbed, or we have not destroyed
aU the poisoned parts, and therefore it is very usual in these cases for the disease
after some time to reappear, and commonly in a more malignant form. I would
therefore recommend to the practitioner always to b-eat it as a constitutional af-
fection. In the acute form of farcy attend first to symptoms and obviate their ef-
fects; which done, proceed to attack the farcied virus. Do the same by that tu-
mefied state into which the limbs sometimes falL In the true chronic form of the
disease, where the superficial lymphatic vessels and glands are the seat of the affec-
tion, the cure should be commenced by destroying all the diseased buds by caustic
or by cautery, and this whether they are ulcerated or not. The quickest mode
is. to divide them with a sharp firing-iron, particularly such as are directly super-
ficial : if deeper seated, an opening may be made into each with a lancet, and
the bud touched efiectually with the lapis infernalis (See Caustics, Materia
Medica). In more advanced stages, when these tumours are extensive, and have
burst, wash with sea water, or with a strong solution of common salt, or one may
be made of nitric acid diluted with water, to a state that does not give incon-
venient pain, and with either of these the sores may be washed twice or three
tirnes a-day. The internal remedies used are various. Nearly all the mineral
acids have been found useful and some of the vegetable ones^ it indeed seems
principally necessary to the destruction of the farcied virus, that some other
poison of greater activity should be admitted into the constitution though with
its acrimony sheathed in some degree ; and in such way only can we account for
so many of the active agents in the materia medica being found useful in farcy.
All the different forms of mercury have been tried with some success : but the
oxymuriate of quicksilver (corrosive svblimatej appears to have answered best;
and, when determined on, should be given to the full extent the stomach and
bowels will bear, without salivation, purging, or symptoms of inflammation being
brought on._ Ten or fifteen grains may be commenced with, ground very finely,
and given night and morning in gruel as a drench, or mixed with butter, lard, or
any other substance, as a ball. If this occasion no distress, it may be increased
to a scruple, and fi-om this to half a drachm, if it be borne with ease; but the
utmost care and watchfulness should be exerted when the dose is considerable ;
for It must be remembered that, with all the mineral acids, they will often exert
no deleterious effect until the constitution is supersaturated with them, when
they suddenly exert their potency in united baneful effects. When the weakness
and irritability of the horse are too great for the exhibition of the corrosive sub-
limate, give half a drachm of calomel twice a-day, or the blue pill, or the sul-
phuret of mercury may be substituted, still carefully watching the salivating pro-
cess. Should the stomach suffer much under the use of these active agents
either jom with them bitter tonics, or alternate them with each other. We \vould

z

^•54 FARCY. [Class 111.

also recommend that they be in these cases given in solution, and further sheath-
ed by one of a mucilaginous nature. See the account of Mr. Sewell's plan of
procedure already detailed in note, p. 349. Mr. Peal recommends the sulphate
of mercury, in daily doses of half a drachm, united with a drachm of gum
guaiacum.

After the trial of mercurials, arsenic ought next to claim the attention, as that
has also proved efficacious, and may he given in similar quantities, in the same
forms and with equal caution. The subacetate of copper (verdigris) was for
some time a favourite remedy at the Veterinary College, in doses of. a scruple
three times a-day, increased to a drachm. I have witnessed also good effects
from this preparation ; but I have found it most efficacious when given in a ball
in conjunction with the sulphate of copper (blue vitriol), one drachm at a dose.
Mr. Coleman, I believe, principally depended on the sulphate or the acetate of
copper, combined with some terebinthinate, and commenced, whichever was pre-
ferred, by doses of jii to Ji every day or every other day, as the stomach would
bear it. Some practitioners choose to employ several articles in conjunction,
and they assert the cure is speedier from the combination than from any one ar-
ticle separately. In this case, give the following : —

Oxyrauriate of quicksilver (corrosive sublimate) eight grains

Oxide of arsenic (arsenic) ditto

Subacetate of copper (verdigris) ,. ditto

Sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) ; one scruple.

Mix into a ball, and give every morning.

Should the subject be small or weakly, begin with a smaller dose of each of
the articles : but in any case, when the quantity is found to sit well on the stomach
increase the dose of each article, daily, one or two grains, carefully watching the
effects produced, occasionally resting a day or two ; and however well the ball
may seem to agree, do not increase the more active mineral agents beyond fifteen
or twenty grains each, without great caution, and the most marked attention to
the effects. It has been thought prudent hy some to divide the dose, and to
give the half, night and morning ; but I have not, in general, found any benefit
from this plan, for the quantity that the stomach and constitution will bear, will
be as well borne at once as at twice ; and it may be also remarked, that some
horses can take three or four times more than others ; and therefore, although
great caution be necessary in proceeding with the use of the mineral agents, it
is equally necessary that the dose should be increased, in all cases, to as much
as the constitution will bear (See Mercurials and Arsenic in the Materia Medica).
During their exhibition it is also absolutely necessary that the patient should be
supported liberally ; nor should the stomach and bowels ever be suffered to re-
main empty for any great length of time.

In addition also to the use of the mineral acids, I have experienced much be-
nefit from the following drink given in conjunction with the baU beforementioned
every day, but not at the same time of the day; the ball in the morning, for
instance, and the drink in the evening : —

The expressed jiiice of the clivers, or goose grass six ounces

A very strong decoction of hempseeds ditto

Essence of spruce ditto

Mix.

Green meat should be particularly sought after, and if the bowels will bear
it, the horse should be wholly fed on it ; but if it gripe, add opium or hyoscy-
amus to the medicinal agents, and to the food a quantity of beau meal or split
beans. Moist and succulent food appears to do much towards a cure : in one
instance, a horse so reduced as not to be able to stand, was drawn into a field of
tares and suffered to take his chance ; the consequence was, that when he had
eaten all within his reach, he was able to rise and search for more, and eventually
recovered. When, therefore, green meat cannot be got, feed on carrots, mangel
wurzel, potatoes boiled, turnips or parsneps : and in the event of none of these

I

Class IH.J dysentery. 355

being to be obtained, spear the corn, or give malt. It remains to add, that I
liave received benefit in two or three instances, from the use of molasses to the
amount of foiu- pounds per day ; but it has in other instances altogether failed.
Sea bathing, with daUy doses of sea water, I have also experienced beneficial
effects from in the long protracted cases of farcy, with enlarged limbs and oede-
ma • and the application of the sea water as an embrocation, several times a-day,
has been attended with singular good effect in the practice of many veterinarians,
both at home and abroad.

DYSENTERY.

Dysenteria, the ^ras/ojzrfw of the French, and the molten grease of our farriers,
is, in itself, one of the strongest proofs of the pitiable state in which veterinary
medicine was so longed plunged. Bartlett says, 'by molten grease is meant a
fatty or oily discharge with the dung, and arises from a colliquation, or melting
down of the fat of a horse's body by violent exercise in very hot weather.'
Bracken and Gibson had held the same before him,. and even later writers have
so described it. Dysentery in the horse is not recognised by some nosologists,
both among the French and English : and viewed principally as contagious py-
rexia it probably does not deserve the title, for we do not see it in that form ;
but if a catarrhal inflammation of the mucous surfaces of the intestines, which
under certain circumstances, seasons, and situations assumes epidemial and also
endemial characters, can lay claim to the appellation, then has the horse dysen-
tery. Others consider it in the light of a diarrhoea ; but in my own opinion its
characters are distinct from a simple increase of the peristaltic motion*. Under
my view of it, it consists in an inflammation, somewhat of a peculiar nature, of
the mucous linings of the intestines, attended with an increased quantity of their
natural mucous secretions ; and as the disease advances, of a morbid alteration
of that secretion, and a frequent discharge of it ,• which from its glairy consist-
ence has been mistaken for the fat of the body melted by heat or exercise, hence
the tenn molten grease ; and being accompanied with fever or general inflamma-
tory action, as the blood when drawn exhibited much buff or coagulable lymph,
this also was mistaken for adeps, and was regarded as a further proof, that the
fat of the body was at these times in a state of general solution, and floating
loose throughout.

The symptoms that characterise dysentery as a. primary affection, are the fre-
quent voiding of faecal discharges in stringy portions, not unlike slimy or loose
fat, and foetid, with considerable uneasiness from the tenesmus, and constant in-
chnation to stool. The mucus is mixed in general with the faeces, which are
not retained, as in human dysentery. If the disease increase in violence, mem-
branous films of coagulable lymph, like sodden leather, are thrown out ; and in
very aggravated cases, the vessels eject blood instead of lymph ; and now and
then the intestines become ulcerated. The pulse is variously affected : as,
when the inflammation is not intense, it is quickened, corded, and hard, but not
wiry, as in peritoneal inflammation ; but when the case is very intense, or it
is about to degenerate into peritoneal inflammation, as it sometimes does, the
pulse does become wiry and oppressed. The mouth is always dry, the appc-

• Mr. Percivall treats of dysentery under the head diarrhoea j yet it is evident that the difference had
not escaped his aeuteness. He says both horses and cattle are, he believes, more liable to dysentery
than diarrhoea; but the variety called molten grease he thinks rare, although he does not deny its ex-
istence. Mr. Peall also unites the descriptions of dysentery and diarrhoea. Hurtrel d'Arboval has—
' Dytentcrie. Ce que nous avons dit de la diarrhfces s'applique dcs formesde I'enterite ;' but from the
following, under the head enterite diarrhfeique, we detect dysenteric characters : ' C'est ce que Ton ap-
jielle encore diarihfce, foire, flux, catarrh intestinal, eoursie ventie. Lorsqu'on s'est attaclie au seul
aspectjdcs matiftres on a admis une.diarrhfee stercorale, muqueuse, streuse !<(inguinolcntc .yetraincn^e,
lientferiqiie, cceliaque, laileute ou chyleuae, purulentc, et ni6me ffruisseuse.' Mons. lluzard, jun.
says of dysentery, • Quelqucfois aussi die n'est que le symptoine d'autres maladies plus ifravcs do
fiftvres de mauvais charactire. par example ; son traitcmcnt est alors suliordnnnfc iV cclui (Te la mala-
die prmcipale.' ; Quelqucfois la dysenteric attaque une grandc (luantitc d'animiiux ti la fois, soits
chevaux, soit betes i cornes ; elle est enrootiquc, et reconnait pour cause Ics iritcmnfiries dcs
•aisons ou la mauvaise qualitfc des fourrages, des lieil)ages ou des eaux.'— Ci.'«7i(i«*c' flc Nnsograph.

z 2

356 DYSENTERY. [CLASS III.

tite lost, the flanks heave, and there is usually much thirst : the legs and ears
are warm. ° "

Cames.— It is usually dependent on an inflammatory habit, acted upon bv
some imniediate excitement; and, as such, it is more often observed in th^
young and robust, from a sudden check to the perspiration, a change of food
cold, tatigue, &c. : acrid substances, as mineral poisons, may occasion it • and!
not unfrequently it is the effect of drastic and improper purgatives, in 'which
cases it commences in diarrhoea. One other cause also remains to be noticed
but which is seldom taken into the account, and that is metastasis, or the tran-
slation of the matter of fever to the intestines; and which is, I am disposed to
believe, a more frequent one than is generally imagined. It has been brought
on by eating of improper herbage ; and also appears now and then the produce of
some low marshy situations, particularly in cold rainy seasons ; in which cases it
partakes of an adynamic type.

Treatment — If the inflammatory symptoms run high, bleed ; and as long as
the pulse indicates strong inflammatory action, repeat venesection in moderate
quantities, weU watching the pulse, and as soon as it becomes softer, although
It may also become fuller, relax the depletion. If the evacuations present scv-
bala, or hard impacted masses of dung, do not hesitate to give a solution of sul-
phate of magnesia, in sufficient quantity to relax the bowels into a true faecal dis-
charge. Much more frequently there will be liquid or mixed evacuations of the
faeces and the intestinal mucus together. It will, in such cases, be the practi-
tioner s duty to form a true distinction between inordinate diarrhcea and dysen-
tery ; and it is from the mucous quality of the stools mixed with membranous
masses that he must assure himself of the true dysenteric character • in which
case, notwithstanding the odium which castor oil has lately obtained, it will here
prove his sheet anchor, with the following accompaniments :

Castor oil eight ounces

Powdered ipecacuanha one drachm

Powdered opium one scruple

Liquid arrow-root eight ounces.

Mix, and repeat once or twice, at intervals of six hours : after which, should the
discharge continue unchecked, for the castor oil substitute thick boiled starch,
and with the other articles, till the discharges have returned to their usual state!
In two dysenteric cases I gave calomel and opium liberally, and with great bene-
fit; but as I lost the next horse I tried it on, I at that time discontinued the
practice : I have, however, since recommended it, and with somewhat variable
success. If green meat can be procured, it should be tried, but with some cau-
tion. I have known it prove the best remedy ; and I have observed the same of
carrots in winter : but I have also known succulent food do harm ; in which cases
substitute malt mashes. When the inflammatory symptoms run very high, the
belly may be properly fomented with a hot decoction of poppy heads, and a' new
sheep skin, if at hand, may be applied afterwards. Or the mustard poultice (see
Mat. Med.) is by no means an improper application when the inflammation of the
bowels appears considerable. Warm clothing is proper, and a moderate tempera-
ture ; and when convalescence approaches, every care must be taken to prevent
a return of the complaint.

Dysentery in Cattle.

In oxen and cows this is called scourhig, scouri-ng cow, hraxy, bloody ray, and
slimy flux. Some of these names, particularly the three latter, are peculiar to this
complaint ; the two former are common to this and to diarrhoea, or common
looseness, with which this is very liable to be confounded ; and few of the prac-
titioners among cattle are aware of the real distinctions between the two, and
hence the same treatment is pursued for the one as the other. The dysentery is
characterised by a peculiar discharge from the bowels of a frothy slimy nature.

I

Class III.] dysentery. 357

with much foetor or bad smell : sometimes it looks red or brown, and sometimes
more yellow, with mucous stringy patches in it ; and if observed when voided, it
is very hot, and smokes. These appearances of the matter discharged should be
particularly attended to, as they will serve readily to characterise the disease, and
to distinguish it from simple diarrhoea, in which there is nothing more than a
liquid discharge of dung, composed of the mere matters taken in by the stomach
in a state of solution. Fortunately dysentery is not a very frequent visitor among
cattle ; nevertheless, enough of it has been seen to render us wishful to check it
as early as possible. The extreme cases were fatal almost without an exception,
but such as were slighter gave way to judicious treatment ; and it was observed
that aperients administered to the unattacked, in most cases secured them from
it, which tended to throw much light on the disease as resulting from morbid in-
gesta. ' The disease,' we are told by Mr. T. Mayer, jun., V.S., of Newcastle-under-
Line, ' was ushered in by a dull anxious appearance, the eyelids and dewlap were
of a yellow tinge, and in dairy cows there was a total suspension of the secretion of
milk; a slight muco-purulent discharge from the nostrils was also observed; the
appetite was indifferent, bowels costive, the dung of a dark colour, having portions
of blood diffused through it ; but the urine was not much affected. The pulse for
the first twenty-four or forty hours, when the disease came on more gradually,
was not much affected ; but afterwards it became frequent, small, and hard, beat-
ing at the rate of seventy or eighty pulsations per minute. In extreme cases the
febrile action set in from the first, accompanied with violent diarrhoea and tenes-
mus ; the faecal discharge being intolerably offensive, and consisting of a thin,
watery, dirty, green-coloured fluid, full of shreds of coagulable lymph, mucus,
and grumous blood. In some, it consisted of a blackish green mucous discharge ;
in others, it was principally mucus, coagulable, lymph, and blood, with, compara-
tively speaking, no portion of faeces along with it. The extremities were alter-
nately hot and cold ; the surface of the nose sometimes dry, at others having a
dew upon it ; occasionally during the cold fit the eyes would become sunk in their
orbits, the features collapsed, the nose, inner^part of the lips, and tongue were of
a deadly pallidness, which would be followed up by reaction, and a consequent
hot fit again. The bowels were affected, in some of the extreme cases, with
colicky pains ; and in every case there was obstinate constipation and obstruc-
tion in the second and third stomachs. If relief was not afforded, the disease
terminated fatally on the third or fourth day.' Veterinarian, vol. v, p. 185.

DXSENTEBT IN ShEEP.

Sheep are also troubled with a dysenteric affection called braxij, in which
there is a frequent stooling of soft dung mixed with blood and mucus. When it
termmates fatally, these motions become dark and foetid. If the inner surface of
the eye be very red, and the animal strong, take eight ounces of blood away.
Give two or three ounces of castor oil, with thu-ty drops of laudanum; or an
ounce of salts, with the same quantity of opiate : after which give, nieht and
morning, the follovnng : — o j o

Powdered ipecacuanha fifteen grains

Prepared chalk one drachm

Powdered opium two grains

Boiled starch four ounces.

S^'completed'''™^^' ^'^^ ^"^^ ^^''^''^ "^^^^ " ^^"""^ ""^^

Rot in Sheep.

c.„W*inH'th!^ is a disease that the public in general, the agriculturalist in parti-
w^ n V , , vetennary students one and all are deeply interested in. Indeed
rn? ""^^J S"'-'"" 'l^^"- ^" assertions-and there is every reason S
considering that he is so-then it is not sheep alone that suffer by this pest bul

358 UYSENTERY. [CLASS fll.

that cows, horses, asses, hogs, deer, hares, and rabbits are also affected by it.
Nor does it even stop here, but, according to the learned doctor, its ravages ex-
tend to geese, pigeons, turkeys, and other poultry. Whether this be actually
the case or not, it does appear that poor clayey and moist lands are most liable
to beget the rot in most of the animals that pasture on them ; for on such lands
the water which falls not being able to soak through, nor yet evaporate there-
from, it remains stagnant, and begets miasm as it exhales, and likewise generates,
as some suppose, the germs of insects, as flukes, fajciolia; hepaticac, &c. &c.
which are received by grazing animals with the food. As most sheep affected
with 7-ot present flukes, it is not an unnatural conclusion that they have much to
do with the diseased symptoms, and the fatal issue which succeeds them. It is
certainly true what Dr. Harrison observes, ' that although there is much diffi-
culty in coming to a conclusion, the rot is, without doubt, the consequence of i-e-
ceiving certain insects into the body. For why,' he says, ' does it happen that
sometimes the liver is injui-ed in its texture, and at other times is not disturbed
in its functions, by these insects ? The hay of moist lands, be it also observed,
under certain circumstances gives a more virulent and dangerous rot than any
other. The contagions of the plague, and of several infective disorders, it is well
known, are preserved for a long time in bales of cotton and wearing apparel, from
which they are emitted with increased virulence. We are, therefore, led by ana-
logy to conclude, that the miasmata are preserved in the bay, which acts as a
nidus to them, like cotton, &c. to human effluvia. On this principle the fact ad-
mits of a ready solution ; though, on any other, we should have great difficulty
in explaining it. To me it seems a very improbable supposition, that any being
is able to live equally in moist grounds, in hay, and in the viscera of animals.
The range of life will not, I conceive, admit of such a diversified existence.'
Farrier and Naturalist, No. 7. Nevertheless, we are constrained to allow, that
human worms, as tinea, ascaris, and lumbrici, are well known residents within our
bodies, nor arc we in a state to deny that the others we have pointed out are
not uncommon in sheep. It appears that this verminous disease, as some call
it, is known throughout every part of the world where this valuable animal is
cultivated. In Egypt it is very common, and is not there confined to sheep, but
it also attacks horses, bovine kine, and most of the lesser animals as well, and is
very fatal to them ; particularly it is so on the whole of the borderings of the
Nile, the immense overflowings of which spread a frightful mortality among the
numerous grazing tribes which browse on the plants affected by this overflow.
The Arabs are reported to affirm, that this pest annually destroys not less than
sixteen thousand sheep. The acumen of these shepherds must be very great
indeed, for we are told that the Arab shepherd readily distinguishes the sheep
affected by rot from others, by the presence of a bagful of water found under the
tongue. As the disease progresses, the affected animals become debile in the
extreme, and are mostly found lying down ; their wool falls off, and a sanious
matter of varied colours issuesVrom the nose. When dead, the body is found
cedematous throughout, and the liver is usually filled with hydatids, and a cough,
accompanied with diarrhoea, are premonitory symptoms of an early death.

All recognise one common cause of this disease, which is low marshy pasturage
presenting certain plants, but which have not hitherto been definitely pointed
out. Indeed, although in every country it is agreed that the eating of vegetable
matter growing in low marshy situations, particularly in such as are only occa-
sionally flooded, is an active agent in producing the rot, yet but few hints of any
certain curative practice has reached us. Prevention is, however, in our power,
by a removal of the animals from the localities specified to others which are dry.
A farm well sheltered is an excellent situation, and dry food their best suste-
nance. ITay is good, and when it is alternated with a few caiTots, turnips, pars-
ncps, such food often proves restorative. Should the owner reside within a rea-
sonable distance of salt marshes, let him by all means remove his flock there.
Conniion salt has also been given as a remedy, and as it is stated has been found
serviceable. Some French veterinarians have recommended that the uifected
ftnimals should be allowed to drink twice a day water of the temperature which

Class IV.] diseases of the brain and nerves. 359

it usually is at the well, whatever may be the kind of food, but never to allow
them to drink to satiety ; and that iron filings should be put in the same water m
the proportion of a pound to a gallon. The iron should be left exposed to the
air when the buckets are empty, which should be fiUed agam in an hour before the
waterino- tune arrives. On every third day there should be given, mornmg and
nio-ht, about ten pounds of dry bran, mixed with half a pound of culinary salt; to
which should be added, six ounces of aromatic plants cut small, as thyme, sage,
juniper, rosemarj', lavender, bay or orange leaves ; to which must be added five
ounces of the green anise, and of fennel, and of coriander. This will be sufficient
for thirty sheep. We are indebted to that most excellent periodical. The Vete-
rinarian, for much of this account. Some of it also we have gained from the in-
genious researches and communications of Dr. Harrison, as they appear in the
Farrier and Naturalist, a periodical of ephemeral duration, but not wanting in
merit or interest, the latter being kept up by the multifarious articles of which it
was composed.

CLASS IV.

DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES.

I sHAiL commence a consideration of the individual diseases of this class by
some general observations on the origin of affections of the nervous system gene-
rally, which is the more necessary, as we here, in some measure, lose our reference
to human pathology, which, whatever may be said to the contrary, has been the
groundwork of all our veterinary attainments. A more extended acquaintance
with comparative anatomy; the symptomatology of the nervous diseases of
brutes ; and the post-mortem appearances which accompany their results, teach
us to attribute to derangements of the spinal cord some of those affections which
human pathology has ascribed, and with justice ascribed, to morbid states of the
cerebral mass ; for as in man the cerebral has a paramount ascendency over the
nervous masses, the cerebral influence may be supposed to prevail in ourselves.
But in the horse, where the organs of sense are the grand media of discrimination,
the nervous mass is greatly superior to the cerebral ; and we do find, in accord-
ance with this, that affections of the spinal cord, and their results, are more nu-
merous. (See Neurology, p. 162.) An apoplectic termination of human life is
by no means uncommon ; in the horse it is little known ; but the frequency with
which spinal affections occur, bear little proportion between the two ; and, taking
all the circumstances into consideration, are more than equal to the nervous affec-
tions of mankind. Gu-ard, Dupuy, and other French veterinarians, have espe-
cially directed our attention to the diseases of the spinal canal ; and our own ob-
servations united with theirs have awakened us to a consideration, that although
many morbid phenomena are yet attibutable to cerebral affection, yet many
others, whose origin remained obscure, are dependent on affections of the spinal
marrow. Dissections of morbid subjects have also shewn, that the causes of"
these are various, but are usually referrible either to pressure on the spinal cord,
or otherwise to a morbid alteration of structure in the cord itself, or in its mem-
branes.

Pressure on the medulla spinalis may be the consequence of either traumatic
or of spontaneous lesion ; or it may originate in the introduction of foreign sub-
stances, as hydatids, &c. Traumatic lesions are very common from fractures of
some of the vertebra, or from luxations : an aneurism of the aorta has occasioned
it; exostosis and poll-evil have also done the same; the one by an osseous de-
posit within the canal, and the other by ulceration through the articular mem-
branes, and an effusion of pus within the same. Spontaneous lesion produces
either sanguineous congestion, or otherwise it is accompanied with an increased
effusion of interstitial fluid within the spinal sheath*. It is said that the san-

• I shall not Attempt the diiicriminatinn of tho locality of the cirnsinn; it U said to he, in Ronoral,
between the pia inatcr ami arachnoidcii : occasionally, wc are informed l)y JVI. rjoiiloy, It existji in llic
tissue which unites the dura mater to the vcrtebrtn, and hut raiely within tlie spinal sheath.

360 JNFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. [CLASS IV.

guineous congestion of the membranes often precedes iuflammation of the spinal
cord Itself, m which cases a rapid paralysis foDows. We are also led to believe
that the membranes of the cord can inflame independently, and the same with the
spinal rope, prodnctive of a scries of symptoms of greater or less intensity as the
rnflammation is nearer or further from the brain. The state of the spinal cord,
called mychtis, is always productive of paialysis, and the parts paralysed, with'
the degree and nature of the affection, are all regulated by the immediate portion
of spinal rope affected ; it being . found to be sometimes confined to tiie upper,
and sometimes to the under part of it. When the substance both mpeiriorly and
ivferiorly is inflamed, then it is usually found that both sensation and voluntary
motion are destroyed ; but when the inflammation is limited to the superior por-
tion, the sensation is principidly impaired ; and when, on the contrary, the inferior
half of the cord is affected, then motion is destroyed. A morbid alteration in struc-
ture also takes place in the spinal rope, and is sometimes consequent to inflam-
mation; and it may have other causes also. It has been found in most of our
domestic animals, and in diseases which do not enter this class, as in rabies in
dogs, stomach staggers in horses, &c. The spinal cord in these cases becomes
soft, and converted into a greyish pulpy mass, losing its original fibrous structure,
where paralysis has always been present. But we must not be misled by this
expos^ to attribute all the affections of this class to the spinal brain : we owe
many of the most important of them to morbid states of the cranial brain, as apo-
plexy, and most eases of complete paralysis. Convulsive and tetanic cases are
some of them immediately derived from irritation on the fountain of nervous
energy. Neither must we lose sight of the retrograde march of some nervous
irritations, which are derived neither from the cranial or spinal brain ; but ori-
ginate in the extremities of the nerves, and are transmitted to one or other, or
to both these sources, which then become secondarily and not primarily affected,
as in the case of traumatic tetanus, &c. &c.* These considerations we recom-
mend to the student; at the same time we inform him, that he will find the sub-
ject more at large in The Veterinarian, vol. iii, particularly when a promise which
followed the last detail ( that the subject was to be continued) is fulfilled. A con-
cise but forcible summary of these disee^ses is also thus expressed in the Farmer's
Series of Useful Knoidedge^,

ruRBNiTis, OR Inflammation or the Brain. — (See Class II.)

APOPLEXY

Apoplexia does not very often occur in the horse ; but as it does take place,
although usually irremediable, it merits a place in our nosology. It appears to
consist in a lesion of some of the vessels of the brain, which, by pouring out
their contents, produce pressure and irritation. Foreign veterinaiians have
divided it, after the human, into sanguineous and serous ; but as far as I have
learned, it is the former which has been principally met with among us. The
usual causes are such as, were it not for the length of the neck, must operate
more frequently than they do : these are cerebral congestions, commencing in
the chest from inordinate exertions ; occasionally but less frequently it may have
other sources. The symptoms are, head depressed, sleepy state, almost inseu-

• This forms, in the words of M. BouU'y , ' a beautiful illustration of the opinions of Bell and Ma-
icndie, respecting the functions of the superior and ivfurior portions of the spinal marrow.' A case
(Ictailc'd in the Recui il dc M6d. Vtl . describes a paralysis of the hinder parts of a horse, occasioned
l)y disorganization of the inferior part of the dorso-hinibar portion of the spinal marrow, where there
was loss of moiion, but sensation remained entire. A cow also which had lately calved, who could
move her hinder limbs with violence, but who had lost M/eeling in them, on post-mortem examina-
tion exhibited the superior portion of the spinal rope red on its superior part, aud the fasciculi pro-
ceeding fiom it injected for the space of two inches.

+ ' The power of feeling and of moving is dependent on an influence proceeding from the brain to
every part,' through the medium of the nerves. In a state of health it is regularly and uniformly dis-
tributea : but it is much affected by disease. It may rush on violently and without interruption, and
we have crnm;; and tetanus or lofked-jaw : the stream may be rapid, but with considerable suspen-
tions and we have Jils, i. e. convulsions ; or it may be quite suspended, and we have pat ft/.

CLASS IV.] EPILEPSY. ■ J 361

•ui liintPfl mmils and an abundant salivation. The breathing is laborious,
sible, ^•l'^Vc^P,"2 indistinct, and the cxtreuiities cold. In the more active
SeroTsuffSion ti^^^ "found prostrate, and wholly insensible, with

n o nartial invol mtary motions, which before death are sometimes conver ed
S vSc t convulsions^. The trealmeut should tend to remove the oppressmg
cause bv lessening vascular distention, and to promote absorption of the extra-
cted flu d. Bleed, purge, and stimulate the extremities; but by no means
Sempt to stimulate the dormant powers by sternutones, which would inevit-
ably increase the cerebral pressure.

EPILEPSY

Mat be considered as a minor apoplexy ftom interrupted circulation ; but
eJeiia cerebralis is without lesion; and is known among farners and horse-men
TiZrims, sturdy, or turnsick. It frequently attacks horses during heir
work particiJarly in harness: it is, however, now and then seen, in hot weather,
T the sSble or at grass. When it seizes a horse in exercise he stops short,
hakes his head, look? irresolute and wandering, and in this f '^te h«, ^^^^^^^^^^^^
a few minutes, and then proceeds as before. In more violent cases he falls at
once tTSe ^ound, or first runs round, and then sinks senseless : the whole
system appears agitated by strong convulsion, the horse dungs and sta es insen-
sMv, is sometimes violerit, and at others more passive, but is equaUy uncon-
scious to every thing around in both : after remaining a longer or shorter period
hi faculties return, and he rises. It is frequently brought _ on by mechanical
causes which produce a momentary congestion of the bram; as tight reming
up or theTressure of the collar in ascending a hill, which obstructs the return
of 'blood from the head. It may also be occasioned by a morbid pressure pro-
duced by constitutional causes. Such are found in the full, plethoric, over-fed
horse; particularly when subjected to long confinement. It may be distin-
guished from gripes by the suddenness of the attack, and by the horse bemg m-
sensible to surrounding objects, which is never the case m cohc. _

The treatment must be regulated by the cause: if it be mechanical, remove
it or the affection may become habitual. If plethora or fiiU habit be the ap-
parent cause, bleed and purge; or commence by bleeding, and next give a
course of mercurial alteratives, foUowed by, or alternated with, purgmg medi-
cines : after which, turning to grass for three months greatly ensures success,
by destroying the habit of the disease.

PARALYSIS.

Palst of the whole muscular frame is very unusual in the horse, except some
actual pressure or irritation be made on the sensorium by blows ofi. the skuU, by
portions of bone forced in, or by cerebral tumours, effusions, or being consequent
to apoplexy : sometimes it is constitutionaUy brought on by agencies unknown
to us Hemiplegia, or palsy of one side longitudinally, is even more rare
Paraplegia, or paralysis of a transverse section of the body, most frequently ot
the hinder parts, is sufficiently common, and is either primitive or secondary.
The causes of paraplegia are often involved in much obscurity; in other cases
they are sufficiently obvious : mechanical injuries are of this kind, as casting in
the stable, turning round in a confined staU, blows on the spine, sudden laUs or
slips may, any of them, luxate, or more likely fracture, the vertebrae; and by
occasioning pressure on the spinal cord, and thus interrupting the nervous in-
fluence designed for particular parts, will occasion paralysis : ulcerations ot these
bones, or exostoses ; or abscesses or tumours may also be the cause. It may be
the result of apoplexy, or it may be altogether secondary, as being denved from
accidental lesions of other organs, or from inflammations in them: it may and

• Two cases are, however, detailed in the Journal de Med. Vet. * C'omoar.!^ which occu^^^^
In the practice of Olivier and Oirard, Jun. ; some particulars of which arc noted in Hurt, d Arhoval
Did. Vel. art. Parnlysii'. Gibson also Iirb met with cpidcmial cases ol it.

' KUMiiEE. (Class IV.

does occur from visceral phlegmasiae of the stomadi Ur^vu^l. r j
particularly from those of^helidnies^bladde^rd w^^^^^^^^^
sidered as remote causes; the proximate is an interruption to ner orfnfluence
either m the bram or an the spinal cord: perhaps the few cases of total nalsv
which occur are derived from the former. Paraplegia may be often looked for
in those affections of the spinal cord we have already noted. The sy^^^ at
total or partial loss of either the moMlUy or the .e«,s.M%, or both, ofTme par?
of the body, usuaUy of the hinder quarters and limbs. The secretions arsomo
imes lessened or ahnost stopped, or the urine flows involSr eonvXJe
twitchings affect the skin, partial sweats present themselves, and anhna e-
mains utterly helpless, although he may fatigue himself with fruitless effbrts to
rise. These are, however, extreme cases.

The treatment of paralysis must, in a great degree, foUow the cause. If me-
chanical inj ury have occasioned fracture in any part of the spinal column hone-
less as he case might be, it would be prudent to raise the integuSs fnd
remove the oose or depressed portions of bone. If the injury be less severe k
IS possible that extravasated blood only, or serous deposit, or coagulable lym^h
are effused into the spinal canal, and disturb the functions of the part • in wbFch
case topical apphcations are requisite, first to allay the increased action excited
by the injury, and then to encourage an absorption of the obstructing deposit.
When the paralysis can be traced to some visceral affection, as in the case bdow ■
or as It occurs in stomach staggers, nephritis, cystitis, &c. &c. our proffnosio is
not necessarily unfavourable. We should, in these cases, primarily a/tendTo the
exciting cause ; next the head may be blistered, and the spine may be stimulated
with warm terebinthinated dressings, and several small setons may be inserted
in the course of the neck and back bone. But when there is loss of sensation
without loss of motion, the hmbs being cold and the horse insensible that he is
in possession of such parts, and moving them only when absolutely forced • or
otJierwise, when they arc entirely paralytic, and yet sensitive, it is probable that
the nervous irritation originates within the spinal canal; and though we may
with propriety use external stimulants, by blisters, setons, &c., yet there will be
but small prospect of success. Of internal remedies, arsenic has been found
spmetimes uselul ; and it may be united with other tonics very properly, as gen-
tian, cubebs, or other aromatics. The strychios mix vomica, vulgarly called the

^^^'^ considerable advantage in paralysis, and
should by all means be tried in morning and evening doses ; commencing with
eight or ten grains, which may be increased to as much as the horse will be
found to bear without depression of pulse or symptoms of torpor, coma, or con-
vulsive twitchings.

THE KUMREE.

This disease, so common in India, as it has been described by ray old ac-
quaintance, Mr. Morecroft, and other ingenious veterinarians in that quarter,
so admirably illustrates the subject of paralysis generally, and the view I have
endeavoured to give of its origin particularly, that I am tempted to intrench a
little on my limits, by introducing the notices we have received on it at some
lengthf. Kumiee, it is evident, is a true paraplegia, or paralysis of the hinder

• Gibson, in 1743, notices an epidemic staggers tlien prevalent, in wliicli tlic leading svmptomB
were those of paralysis ; and what is more singular, of that variety so rare in the Iior^e hemiplegia
It was not very fatal, but, on the contrary, most of those affected' recovered ' bv bleeding and other
plentilnl evacuations, united with the constant use of ccphalics, especially of castor, wliich had the
effect of keeping the horse perspiring for three weeks ; and it was observed, that the omission of the
castor for one day only could not be borne without aggravating the svmptoms.' rt appears also as
an epidemic in France, and moreover as an endemic also ; in wliicli cases it is more particularlv found
on the banks of rivers, in cold moist situations. Now, as these are exactly the same localities in
which the kuniree prevails in India, which is only a paraplegia of the lumbar region, cold and mois-
ture may be a more general agent in nervous diseases than we at present imagine ; and I thiow out
the hint for the veterinarian's consideration.

t Mr. Morecroft'a account, or the mixed accounts of Messrs. Morecroft, Hughes, aud Molvneux.
clearly describe kiiinrec as a mild paralytic alfeclion, very common in India, and particulai-iy pre-
valent in the periodical rainy season, as well as at all limes where the country is very low and

Class IV.] spasm. 363

n-n-ts of tlie body, the effect of serous effusion ; and the knowledge of its causes
nnd effects are usefid to us, in the present instance, as identifying effusion as a
. o iscauence of exposure to cold and moist situations ; and hkewise inasmuch as
U strengthens our attempts both in our preventive and our curative treatment.

Paralysis in Horned Cattle.
Pihv is not altogether uncommon in the cow and the sheep, and is both
idimmtiic from morbid affections of the brain or of the spinal marrow, and also
Zintormlic; from violent derangement of other organs. 1 he causes, symptoms,
and treatment do not essentially differ from those in the horse .

SPASM

^i-tEARS to be a morbid intcmiption of the ordinary movements of the general
muscular fibre, whether it be local or diffused; and as these movements are
onerated by influence derived from the nervous system, so we look to these
sources for the acting cause of all spasmodic affections. Equine spasm bears
the same division as the human, into clonic and tonic. Clonic spasm may be
considered as identified with convulsion, which consists of diseased and violent

but thev have under all circumstances, a decided weakness in the lo.ns in some raore, in others less,
whic unfits them for the whole of the purposes that may be required of them. Mr. Hughes observes
on this di"ea4, ' that it is dependent on pressure of the spinal nerves; the relics of such mflarnnia-
tion of the brkin or its membranes as would in the human produce hydrocephalus ; but tha the
tieculiar structure of the horse prevents the accumulation ot fluid m the head and it passes down
ietween the theca along the spine ; and which inflammation being in a minor degree produces only
slight effusion: were it greater, it would produce phrenitis.' Although his may be true, it appears
to involve too many conclusions. Mr. Morecroft's oiiginal opinion of the disease appears to have
been ' that the immediate cause of kumree is an inflammatory action of the vessels, occasioning a
denosition of pure blood, or of some of its constituent parts, within or upon some very important
Dortion of the nervous system, as within the cavities of the brain, or upon its surface, or upon the
sheath of the spinal marrow, or the sacral nerves, or of the large nerves of the legs soon after they
leave their bony cases ; and that the effects caused thereby are precisely such as might have been
expected from pressure.' This opinion of Mr. Morecroft's was justly founded, as appeared by the
fnllowinff facts. The head of a kumree horse, destroyed for examination of the seat ot glanders, was

very inveterate case of kumree was experimented on; an opening was made into the frontal sinus,
from whence a small hole was bored through the most dependent part of the cranial bones, by which at
least two ounces of fluid escaped, the removal of which relieved the animal so much, that he imme-
diatelv afterwards could ascend an acclivity, which half an hour previously he could not do. With a
view of permitting the exit of any fluid that might have remained, he was now placed with his pos-
terior extremities three feet higher than the anterior, and his head was purposely depressed : the con-
sequence was, that for- ten or twelve minutes fluid continued to escape from the cranial opening. It
appears, however, that notwithstanding means were taken to obviate symptomatic fever, the horse
died on the tenth day. It is further observed, that in neither of these cases were any morbid appear-
ances detected in the brain, beyond the increase of fluid. On these facts Mr. Hughes observes, ' that
the increased fluid presses on the whole of the medulla spinalis in the lumbar and sacral vertebrae,
and affects the nerves thence derived ; and that the weakness is in proportion to the quantity of fluid
in the spinal canal, and which weakness is aggravated in the degree of its descent : thus horses in
kumree, who can go moderately well on level ground, on attempting a hill, stagger, and if pressed,
will frequently fall, in consequence of the gravitating fluid then pressing on the lumbar and sacral
portions of the spinal rope, and thus interfering with the nervous supplies to the hinder extremities.'
The same gravitation, it seems, makes it equally arduous in these cases for horses to descend a hill ;
but here I presume Mr. H. would give as a reason, that the fluid making its way to the brain pro-
duces its paralyzing effects through that source. As evacuating the water appears to be attended
with fatal consequences, so active means of promoting absorption must be the only refuge of the
■ practitioner.

• • The Director of the school at Alfort has described two maladies of this kind among sheep. The
first violent and little known, attacks Iambs only. Al its commencement it resembles the " blood,"
but it afterwards connects itself with " tiirnsick," and speedily terminates in universal palsy. The
functions of digestion are not disturbed : the animal preserves his appetite to the last moment. On
dissection there has appeared inflammation of the membranes of the brain, and some hydatids scattered
on these membranes. In many, the spinal canal contained much serous clTusion, and the spinal mar-
row was softer than in a healthy state. The second disease peculiar to sheep is recognized by the
name nf trembling, or nervous affection. It commences with inflammation, not very intense, which
is quickly followed by general loss of power. A considerable itching or eruption generally announces
the attack; to this succeeds a remarkable weakness in the loins, and that is soon followed by com-
plete palsy. Some of them linger on three or four months or longer before they die.

■ . TETANUS. fCLASS IV.

alternate contractions and dilatations of the muscular masses I wnnlH .1 • .
use spasm distmctively from either clonic or tonic irriTat ons- no7on /f °
indisposition to alternate its contractions with relaxatiW Kn^ i T'"
^?P--l'y'f-- its acting on what I would ^aU muscular a 7he'u"uimT

fibnllae of the muscular coats of the intestines, bloodvessels &c in ,1^1^^^^^^
to muscular masses, as defined muscles, which a^e more usuaUy the seat ofeTtW
conyulsiye or tetanic spasm. Of spasm we have- instances in ^nJ^ lfl
mation is also supposed to be an undue exercise of nervous inCno; on th'
muscular tissue of the vascular system. These various sSLs apne^^^^^^^^
in a morbid excitation of the nervous system- but of wh^t
exactly know We witness the violeneeTf the'mulula^^^^^^^^^ X
influence of the mind in vicious and terrified horses ; we seralso he L"S^
inflammatory states of the organ in phrenitis, rabi'es, &c ; and we know t£
mechanical irritation can produce it also, perhaps by excitin^ an Trnmedirte in
flammation; although the instantaneous spasm which foUows" meraukal nres"
for'thut — ' hardly be accented

In the treatment o{ spasm two indications present themselves: either to aUav
the nervom excitement, oi- to render the part attacked ahove or ilL the disno-
sition to be excited. The first indication takes in such remedies as are S
sedatives, to lessen nervous excitement, as opium, hyoscyamus, belladonna to
bacco, &c.; or such as lower the nervous influence by the abstraction of vital
supplies, as bleeding, purging, &c. The second indication is fSled by usfni
such remedies as act by altering the susceptibility of the part, which aie aL?
bleedmg, purging, and other evacuants, whose action diminishes the excess of
power; such are therefore proper in plethoric subjects, or when the spasm is
nnited with great vascular action. When, on the contrary, the spasmodic affec
tion attacks a debile part, we use stimulants, to bring the "part to a state o resTst
the impressions. (See Antispasmodics and Tonics, Mat. Med.)

TETANUS.

Tetanic spasm differs from the former affections we have lately noticed, inas-
much as here muscular contractions are not alternated, as in clonic spasm or
convulsion, by alternatmg relaxations; on the contrary, here they remdn per-
manent, or with very httle remission. Tetanus, known as the staj-evil of some
farriers from a fancied frequency of the disease in deer; and locked-jaw, from
the rigid closure of the mouth, may be considered as a morbid irritation of the

w ^ 'y'^^^- I" «Pi°io°. notwithstanding

that the tetanic symptoms are not always universal, and notwithstanding that
dissections of cases of both idiopathic and symptomatic tetanus have presented
a softening of the inferior portion of the spinal cord, yet, that the phenomena
of the disease are most satisfactorily accounted for, and the curative plan of
treatment best pursued, by considering it as either directly emanating from the
bram itself*, or otherwise as ultimately reaching the brain, according as it is
idiopathic or as it is symptomatic.

Idiopathic tetanus is the most frequent in the horse, while the contrary is the
case in the human, and its causes are some of them evident, others occult.
One of the most common is that of cold, particularly when the heat of the body
is abstracted by evaporation, or, in other words, when moisture is applied to
the frame : thus it has followed plunging into a river during a run in the hunt-
ing season, or from injudiciously allowing a horse to stand still during a check
after a severe hurst; and more particularly likewise is it brought on by a partial

• Tins vknv apppars coniiidernbly strengthened by the fact, that mechanical pressure on the brain
interrupts the tetanic contractions, but which return again aa soon as tlie pressure is taken off The
Increased fatality in cases of idiopathic tetanus is probably dependent on this primary attack, 'when
it is secondary, symptomatic, or traumatic, it may be considered as moie likely to be niitiirated in the
course of its passage to the source, than when it springs at once, with all its force, from the fountain •
and in either case it may leave morbid traces on the spinal track without detracting from its cciebrine
origin. °

Class IV.] tetanus. 365

h.it continued application of water, as when it makes its way through the roof
of a buUdiuff and faUs in a continued drip on the body ; even the dnppnigs from
the eaves of a hay-rick, standing in the field in which a horse was grazmg, has
Droduced it. It has foUowed visceral affections, and is supposed to be occa-
sionally the effect of worms within the alimentary canal*. Traumatic or symp-
tomatic tei&ims is the consequence of some external injury, and it follows- all
kmds of lesions. Castration, nicking, docking, punctures, particularly of the
feet • lacerations, and even contusions, will bring it on. I have seen it follow a
fall which presented nothing more than a moderate contusion in the shoulder.
In America, it is not an unfrequent result of castration ; and in some tropical
climates compression of the cord in the operation must always be avoided, so
apt is any irritation to produce it in these regions. It is considered as most apt
to follow wounds of tendinous and ligamentous parts; but no experience of my
own has justified this preference ; nevertheless it may be so. A case detailed
in vd. v of The Veterinarian would lead to a supposition that hots in vast
numbers which had actually eaten through the coats of the stomach, were the
direct cause. In another case detailed by the same writer, a number of terites,
so great as to actually block up the small intestines, were supposed to be the
existing evil.

The symptoms. — If a good physiologist were told that tetanus was a constant
spasmodic contraction of all the voluntary muscles, he would describe the fol-
lowing symptoms without having seen the disease, so exactly are they charac-
teristic of such a state. It commences usually by a certain stiffness about the
throat, and difficulty in swallowing, or in turning the head, which soon extends
itself to the jaws, and occasions a contracted state of the mouth, with the usual
inclination to masticate, but painfuUy and imperfectly performed. As this in-
creases, the jaws can hardly be separated at all, when farriers say the horse is
' jaw-set.' By the tetanic action of the retractor muscle, the haw is drawn
partly over the globe, at the same time that the tension of the other ocular mus-
cles gives the eyes a vivid appearance and retroverted aspect, which iU accords
with the more placid effect of a protruded haw. As the disease extends over
the voluntary muscles of the trunk ' and extremities, the appearances are dis-
tressing in the extreme. The head is raised, the ears pointed forwards, the
nostrils dilated, and the nose is carried out. The legs straddle wide, the tail is
cocked, and quivers with the constant fatigue of the levator muscles; and
the abdominal muscles are drawn tight over the belly, giving to the horse an
appearance of having just completed some extraordinary exertion. The com-
plaint presents a few moments of relaxation sometimes, from the extreme and
powerful contractions of over-strained muscles ; while profuse sweats mark the
distress and exertions of convulsion. The circulation is, in most instances, at
first not much affected ; but as the disease increases, the pulse quickens, and
becomes tremulous and irregular. The respiration also gradually becomes hur-
ried and irregular; costiveness is usually present, and the urine is sparingly
made. In this state the suffering animal may remain from six to ten days,
when, worn out by inanition and irritation, he often falls lifeless, or expires
after a short state of convulsion. At others, either remediaUy or spontaneously,
the contractions give way slightly ; feeble attempts are made to eat, the limbs
become more supple, and a very slow recovery ensues.

Post-mortem appearances have often exhibited no change from a healthy state
throughout the nervous system at large, in which cases it must have been an
irritation without lesion or apparent inflammation. In some cases, however,
there have been marks of cerebral inflammation, and in others the medulla spi-
nalis has presented similar features : it has been found soft in structure and with
its vaginal coats injected. I have seen the lungs and stomach both highly in-
flamed ; and a slaughterer of horses told me that he seldom if ever cut up a horse

• Gibion, who appears to have seen many cases of the disease, attributes it frequently to worms.
Mr. Wilkinson also nescribes a case, evidently originating from the erosion of bots on the villous por-
tion of the stomach.

'^66 TETANUS. [Class iV.

which had died of stag-evil, without finding inflamed luues*. The intestincis
also usually present inflammatory marks about them; and, as might be expected
blood""'^ ° P^''"'-'"^^^^^ th'^ superficial set, are turgid with

Treat7nent.— Although the greater number of instances prove fatal, vet still a
sutticient number recover to warrant our utmost endeavours; and the more so
as most of those who do survive appear to do so from the beneficial effects of the
treatment adopted. The very different means which have been successfully tried
might stagger the sceptic, and make him attribute the recoveries under these
discordant medical agencies to constitutional strength ; but there is no reason
whatever for such a conclusion. This is not the only instance by many wherein
very opposite means are beneficially employed for the cure of the same disease in
difterent subjects. Every practitioner is aware of the benefit derived from cold
applications in some inflammatory cases ; and every one is equally aware how
salutary hot fomentations prove, apparently, in similar inflammations, in other
subjects. A curative end is equally produced by both ; the modii,s operandi to
us is not evident. This circumstance should make the veterinary practitioner
not absolutely wed himself to one plan of treatment universally. When any
such has been pursued without appearance of success, let another be adopted.
On a supposition that the case is one of traumatic tetanus, it will be prudent to
advert at once to the lesion. If a lacerated wound be the cause, an inspection of
It will usually shew an unfavourable appearance in it, and a stoppage of healthy
discharge, which must be restored by wann stimulating embrocations, mustard
poultices, or mild escharotics, which may establish a new action, and may pit a
new irritation against the diseased one. In the case of a punctured wound, par-
ticularly of one in the foot, if there be a confined sinus, enlarge it, and apply the
firing-iron or_ caustic matters freely to the orifice ; and as it is found that the
irritation arising from lesion can produce tetanus, even after a wound has closed,
so it would be prudent in such case to open it anew. When tetanus folloM^s
docking, it is advisable to dock anew : if nicking be the cause, deepen the sec-
tions, and actively stimulate the old wounded edges. Where castration has pre-
ceded it, remove all ligature, if any remain, and foment incessantly with strong
poppy liquorf Having pursued this intention, it next foUows to attend to the
constitutional part of the complaint : or if it be a case of true idiopathic tetanus, that,
of course, must at once engage the attention. It was some years ago very usual,
with myself and others, to employ cold as a medical agent in this disease, which
was done by removing the horse into the open air, and dashing him with the
coldest water for twenty minutes, repeating the same every two or three hours,
and in the interim suffering him to remain uncovered, and in the open air if the
weather was not cold. In every instance this was found to mitigate the severity
of the symptoms. Ice also has been applied ; and the relief obtained being
usually in the exact degree of heat abstracted, it was no wonder that it continued
a favourite though generally a delusive practice ; for as warmth returned almost
invariably the convulsive contractions returned also ; and therefore this method
has very properly given place to others which have proved more useful ; though
this also need not be lost sight of, as instances have occurred of permanent be-
nefit having been derived from it. It may, therefore, be still very properly tried,
when the means which follow are not attended with success ; but in that case,
with the cold bath or appUcation of ice should be united any of the other means
pointed out.

The general curative practice in tetanic cases among veterinarians, foreign and

• Mr. Pcrcivail mentions two fatal cases of tetanus, in which the cuticular coat of the stomach was
extensively eroded, and the internal coat injuied.

f Baron Larrey confidently advises the removal of the injured part for the cure of tetanus. Mr.
Brodie in his lectures at the College of Surijeons, in the spriiiif of 1822, confirms this to a considerable
extent. He says, ' that painful and spasmodic alTections, produced by lesion of some nervous fibrils,
are not rcliovcd by a division of the nerve between the seat of injury and the brain ; and that, in a few
instances, an aggravation of the symptoms seems to be occasioned, by the operation of neurotomy.
This led him to tlie removal of the injured portion of the nerve, and which was attended with success.'

Class IV.J tetanus. 367

En'rlish of the present day, leans to the free use of the lancet to complete open-
Sff°of the bowels, and to a liberal administration of opiates, as being every one
of them powerful antispasmodics singly, but in this painful afiection proving
doubly so conjointlv ; to which are added, blistering the spine; and the benefi-
cial effects of this practice, as exemplified by experience, warrant its being at
once proceeded on to the exclusion of every other, until it has totally failed*.
First therefore, abstract blood; a large horse, in full condition may with propriety
lose eight or ten quarts in a desperate case ; and an additional reason why this
ouo-ht to precede any attempts to give internal remedies is, because when the
quantity of blood abstracted is sufficiently large, some relaxation of the spasms
generally takes place, and medicine can be more readily given, and the momentary
relaxation should be seized on to give a purgative. The croton, as acting more
speedily, offers itself first to notice ; it is also small in compass, and may there-
fore be administered in substance, under circumstances of almost entii-e closure
of the jaws. Twenty-five or even thirty grains of the farina of the nut may be
given at first, and one-third of the quantity first administered should be repeated
every five or six. hours, until fiill purgation occurs. If aloes be preferred, it will
be not only more convenient, but they will operate more quicldy and in smaller
quantity also (see note below), if they be given in solution. If a prejudice exists
in favour of a mercurial purgative, calomel may be given previously, to the amount
of two drachms, in a small ball placed on the end of a long probang, in which
case six or seven di-achms of aloes will suffice; but without calomel ten drachms
in substance will not be too much for a strong, full-sized horse (in solution eight
drachms are sufficient) ; and it will probably require two drachms more, repeated
two or three times at intervals of five or six hours, ere a complete emptying of
the bowels is made, such is the constringed state of the intestines frequently at
these times ; laxative clysters (after the back has been properly raked) must also
assist the attempts, which should be thrown up in large quantities and frequently
repeated, which must be retained by pressure on the anus by an assistant, or it
will be thrown out with violence by the intestinal rigor present in these cases.
We know it to be a practice with some veterinarians to unite digitalis and
camphor with aloes, but it does not appear that any marked benefit has resulted
therefrom. With others, extensive vesication over the spine from the poll to
the tail has succeeded.

It will not be wondered at, after what has appeared at the outset of this class
of diseases, if we should make external stimulation of the nervous system a very
important consideration. In idiopathic tetanus I have blistered the skull or
inserted a rowel or two at the nape of the neck, stimulating it with blistering
ointment. In traumatic tetanus I sometimes also did the same ; but in every
instance, idiopathic or traumatic, as soon as the former indications have been ful-

• It must be remembered that a prompt, bold, and continued treatment is required. It must be
prompt, because no time is to be lost in attacking sucb a foe, and tliat if possible before the full rigor
of the jaws is established: let each indication be therefore immediately followed up by another.
It must he bold, nor must we be deterred, by analogy either with the human or with other diseases,
from giving extra doses either of opium or camphor, as sedatives; or of croton, aloes, &c. as purga-
tives, for very large quantities are here borne with impunity. As regatds the modes of adminis-
tering medicines, as long as the muscular contractions of the jaws do not entirely close it, solid
masses may be given from olftlie end of a long piece of whalebone, cane, &c. which being dislodged
from the cane into the baclt pait of the mouth, will at once be swallowed, or will slowly dissolve and
pass down. Liquid medicines maybe given with a syringe passed between the molar teeth aad jaw ;
or as the inferior meatus of the nasal fossaj are in a direct line with the cesophageal opening when the
head is elevated, so we can, under urgent circumstances, introduce liquid matters, not actively stimu-
lating, into the stomach by this way. I, however, merely notice lliese methods as resorts in case of
necessity; for no prudent veterinarian should be witlrout a stomach pump and clyster syringe;
indeed, one article is now made to answer both purposes. IJy the introduction of the cesophagus tube
througli the side of the mouth, airy quantity of liquid matter may readily be iritroduccd into the
stomaoli, the advantages of which are irunrerous and important. It is very painful to elevate the
head of the horse for the purpose of nasal irrjections, and freriuently lil<ewise mcdiciires or other
liquids thus given return, or they occasion painful initatlorr in their passage : it is little less so to at-
tempt it by a bottle iirtroduced between the lips arrd jaw ; hut by the stomach syringe the whole (lifB-
culty is avoided. Another very important advantage is also gained by this facility of giving liquid
over medicines. Purgatives particularly, act much more speedily and with less constitutional

irritation in solution, and it requires one-tliird less in quantity of the actiral purgative article when
in solution than in substance to effect what is required. Lastly, by means of the stomach syringe,
liquid nutriment in any quantity can be introduced into the Btomaoh, and as often as reqiiUed, without
inconvenience to the operator or distress to the animal.

368 TETANUS. [Class IV.

filled, clip or Bhave the hair close, and then proceed to blister the whole spine
beginning at the back of the head, and the sides of the neck, in the course of the
cervical vertebrae which dip down deep within the substance : but a little be-
.yond the withers recommence the blister on the margin, and rub it in most ac-
tively along the spine to the root of the tail, and renew the ointment everv
day. borne veterinarians in preference insert setons in this course- I prefer
vesicants. The spinal track throughout having been stimulated as directed as
soon as a soluble state of bowels is established, proceed to give the following •
It 18 certainly desirable that the bowels should be first opened ; but if the irritl-
tion be extreme, and the back has been raked, clysters thrown up, and an active
purgative have entered the stomach, I should recommend not to wait the opera-
tion of purging, but to give the sedative, and then renew the attempts at unlock -
mg the bowels.

No. 1.— Powdered opium two drachms

Camphor two drachms

Carbonated ammonia (spirit of hartshorn) one ounce

Spirit of turpentine two ounces

Strong ale a pint.

Mix, and repeat either the half or the whole of a similar dose, as the urgency of
the symptoms may require, every two or three hours. Throw up the follow-
ing clyster also after the bowels are cleared, which repeat at intervals of an hour
to two.

No. 2,— Boil twenty poppy heads in six quarts of water to a gallon, add
Camphor dissolved in spirit, one ounce.

On the subject of a repetition of the bleeding to any considerable extent, some
difference of opinion probably may prevail, and it does require a collation of a
vast number of cases to decide peremptorily on the subject. One very full
bleeding, except at the very close of the complaint, I have invariably found to
calm the hurried pulse ; but the repetition, at least to any extent, ought to de-
pend on circumstances. If the case is far advanced, and the animal is neither a
plethoric nor a young one, it might be well to try the full effect of the tonic
plan, without anpther full bleeding ; but when a case the reverse of this occurs,
and one marked with extreme rigor in the tetanic symptoms, the repetition of
bleeding and the continuance of it may be very properly tried, and that as lonc'
as it calms the hurried pulse. The tetanic irritation being confined to the mo-
tive organs, so the digestive faculties usually remain undisturbed ; and if the
horse could eat, it is probable that, in many cases, he might become so nourished
as eventually to wear out the disease without medicine even. Nutriment should,
therefore, be artificially and liberally supplied by means of the stomach pump, in
the form of gruel, or the liquid sediment from malt mashes : now and then small
quantities of the mash itself, if offered, can be sucked in by the hungry animal.
I have also given tripe liquor and gruel as clysters, in which way much nutri-
ment may be thrown into the constitution. But in pursuing the tonic plan, the
necessity of avoiding costiveness throughout must not be lost sight of; on the
contrary, the moment it appears it must be again combated, as it immediately
aggi-avates the tetanic rigors. In all other respects a steady perseverance in the
plan now laid down should be adhered to, and, in addition, the methods recom-
mended by Mr. Wilkinson, of Newcastle, of subjecting the horse to a very warm
temperature, to very active and universal frictions, and, during the intervals,
clothing of the body in new sheep skins, may, with great propriety, be adopted
also, from the very general experience of their efficacy in many instances.

Spasmodic Colic. — (See Class V.)

STRINGHALT.

MR.Feron informs us, that this singular spasmodic affection is esteemed grace-
ful in some continental countries ; at least when it exists in both hinder legs, as

Class V.] spasmodic colic; 369

it occasionally but not frequently does : very seldom indeed is it found in the
fore of which I have seen but one or two instances at the most. It is evidently a
spasmodic contraction of some one or more of the flexors of the leg, which usually
ceases after the animal has been some time in motion, the consequence of local
irritation or of pressure on some nervous fibril, or of some habitual diseased
action such nerve takes on, which the excitement of exercise renders less acute.
It is not hereditary or congenital, and seldom appears until the approach to the
adult age. Mr. Sewcll thought be had discovered its source from finding a cyst
within the belly of the triceps adductor muscle, through which the nervous
tnmkspass; but although this probably was here the cause of the affection, yet
renewed dissections, I believe, have failed to afford us any light on the subject.
It, fortunately, does not injure the horse beyond its unsigbtliness.

CLASS V.

DISEASES OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL.

SPASMODIC COLIC.

Spasmodic Colic is the disease known to farriers by the terms gripes, cramp,
fret, and gullion. The muscular tunic of the intestines renders them very sus-
ceptible of the action of spasm, and the vascularity of their villous surface renders
them very liable to become primary agents in the production of this irritation.
Spasmodic colic appears more apt to affect the small intestines than the large ;
but instances are not wanting to prove that the large intestines also become oc-
casionally affected ; and when the spasm extends to the posterior part of the
caecum and rectum also, the bladder sometimes participates in the convulsion,
and frequent ejections of urine occur. Mr. Peal has observed, that in some cases
the neck of the bladder has participated in the spasm, in which, on the contrary,
suppression of urine would occur. That colic is dependent on a spasm of the
muscular structure of the intestines, we have proofs from the appearances which
present themselves after death, in fatal cases, when different portions of the ali-
mentary track will be found forcibly contracted ; certainly much oftener in the
'small than in the large intestines, but not without instances of the larger partici-
pating in the affection; and in the few instances where much flatus has been pre-
sent (although it is improperly in the horse called flatulent colic), the post-mor-
tem appearances have proved that the caecum and colon were the principal suf-
ferers, apparently from the disengagement of an injurious gas from undigested
herbage, particularly from leaves and hedge browsing.

The causes are various : the sudden application of cold either to the surface
of the skin when hot ; or to the intestines under similar circumstances in the
shape of cold water drunk hastily, and when the horse has been warm ; in which
latter case the attack often soon follows. Costiveness will bring it on. Tumours
in the mesentery and strictures in the bowels are also the sources of occasional
colic : and when a horse is found to be subject to repeated attacks, something of
this kind, or otherwise calculous concretions, may be suspected ; and I have
known many instances where habitual colic was present, dcpcudx;nt on these
causes. Horses long confined to dry food will sometimes get it by suddenly
gorging themselves with green meat ; and with others, a constitutional tendency
from some occwlt cause gives them a predisposition to it.

The symptoms of spasmodic colic are usually sudden in their appearance, and
not marked, as in inflammation of the bowels, by previous indisposition ; but
the horse is observed to be at once attacked with considerable uneasiness, shift-
ing his position from side to side, pawing his litter, and stamping with his feet
impatiently. After a few minutes thus passed, the pain remits, and leaves the
horse tolerably easy ; when in enteritis no perfect remission occurs, but all is
one scene of nearly equable pain and distress. As the colic advances, the rc-

A a

370 SPASMODIC COLIC. [CLASS V.

missions are less perfect, and less frequent : the horse now lies down frequently,
and on rising shakes himself, looking round to his sides, which occasionally, in
desperate cases, he snaps at with his teeth ; but more frequently he is seen to
strike with his hind feet at his beUy, as though determined to remove by force
the cause of his pain. In enteritis this acuteness of sensation or violence of
temper is seldom seen. When on the ground, it is not uncommon for the horse
to roll on his back ; sometimes he will remain in this situation for a few seconds,
or he will roll over ; neither of which are usually done in simple inflammation.
In colic the pulse is seldom much altered from its natural state, unless the colic
have existed some time, when it occasionally presents marks of general irrita-
tion, and is not only quickened, but also somewhat hardened. If felt also dur-
ing the intensity of the paroxysms, it will likewise be often found to be disturbed
even in the early stage, but this is momentary only, and ceases on the remission
of the pain. If, therefore, the junior practitioner should choose this period for
forming his criteria of the disease, he may be misled ; for under the immediate
influence of the existing spasm, it will iu some instances present a full bounding
accelerated stroke, but more often a wiry thready though quickened beat, both
which may, therefore, be mistaken for inflammation. The extremities, as the
legs and ears, in colic are not often much affected, and they never remain in-
tensely cold for a considerable period, as in enteritis ; but the coat stares, and
the horse breaks out frequently into cold sweats. In colic, also, relief is obtained
by friction and motion, but both aggravate the distress in enteritis. Sometimes
he is seen to attempt to stale without effect, at others he stales frequently, with
moTnentarj' relief.

Ti-eatment. — Having reason to believe that the patient is labouring under sim-
ple spasm of the intestines, unmixed with inflammatory tendency derived from
idiopathic enteritis ; or symptomatic irritation from inversion, involution, invagi-
nation, or intussusception of the intestinal track ; proceed at once to administer
such one or more of the numberless antispasmodic remedies as custom and ex-
perience have warranted the use of*. Numerous as they are, there is not one

• At the Veteriiiaiy College, ol. tcrel). is much relied on; and when united with opium, is still
more efficacious. In The Veterinarian, a Mr. Paris recommends, from liis owu experience, four
ounces of the oil of turpentine, tincture of asafoetida, spirit of nitrous aether, and of spirit of harts-
horn each an ounce ; to ho given, and the same to he repeated every second or third hour ; hut, after
the third or fouith dose, to he united with one ounce of laudanum. He has given, he informs us, in
less than twenty-fi'ur hours, a quart of the turpentine and half a pint each of the other articles, and
asseits that the practice is invariahlv successlul. There is no denying (acts, and, under spasmodic
constiiction the stomach and bowels are l)ut little suliject to the influence of ordtiiary stimuli, and
will receive very powerful doses as reuicdics, which, under other circumstances, would prove poison-
ous In the course of my human medical practice, I have witnessed many instances oi this insusccp-
tib'il'itv to ordinarv stimuli : a very extraordinary one is strongly impressed on my memory, where
snasm from procidentia uteri could onlv he calmed by doses of tinet. opn two drachms, jether vit.
three dracluns • which wcie repeated twice within two hours, without the smallest disturbance to the
svstcm either at the time or afterwards. In the horse, also, I have no doubt but cases do occur
Where the^^c (luanlities niiglit not only be given with impunity but benefit also : but woe to the poor
animal which has the smallest tendency to inflammation, and we snould recoinnieud to the advocates
of this nracticc as a safer and e(|uallv efficacious plan, that the quantities be lessened and accom-
nanied from the verv first with tincture of opium half an ounce. From the same source (The J ele-
Uiiariav) we find a recoiumeiulation from Mr. Gregory, of Warminstci , as a colic remedy, powdered
opium ten drachms; horseradish, two ounces; powdered capsicum, one ounce; spirit of nitrous
cether, one pound : macerate fourteen days. Of this preparation, this geiitleinan recommends one
ounce with two ounces of nitrous aither, to be given, and to l)e repeated every two hours as long as
is nece"sarv- observing that his reason for preferring this to turpentine is occasioned by the liability-
in turpentine to blister the month and fauces, and sometimes producing violent purging; and in one
case af or giving six ounces mixed with a pint of oil, although it relieved the pain it inflamed the
fauces ami produced a cough, which has remained ever sirice. It is not stated whether this quan itv
was gi'vci at once, but if so the vesication need not be wondered at. 01. tereb. may be much sheathed
f on, t is "(feet by mixing the other matters intimately with ,t, by means of the yolks of eggs: in

,„e ami steeped in n^^^^^^^-^^^^'^^^r^^^

iVvogi'iVanu'g farn^M^Srd gnule"s\ aiid aUhough in many instances it is without doubt an excellent

Class v.] spasmodic colic. 371

that has not its advocate, and perhaps not one that does not deserve it, so simple
are the means sometimes re.quired; and so much is the constitution prone, in
some cases, to assist itself or our efforts. While, at the same time, other cases
occur sufficiently obstinate and sufficiently fatal to require all our energies and
all our discrimination in the choice of our remedies, I can confidently speak to
the antispasmodic qualities of the following, which should one or either of them
be given as soon as possible, and repeated in one, two, three, or four hours, ac-
cording to the violence of the symptoms, if no benefit be apparent from the first
dose ; for it must be remembered, that what we do we must do quickly, to pre-
vent inflammation, for, of the fatal cases, four-fifths shew evident marks of ente-
ritic attack on a post-mortem examination.

No. 1. — Ground pepper half an ounce

Spirit of turpentine three ounces

Tincture of opium one ounce

Sound ale four ounces.

Mix.

No. 2. — Spirit of vitriolic aether one ounce

Tinctiu"e of opium (laudanum) two ounces

Oil of peppermint one drachm

Common gin, and sound ale, of each a quarter of a pint.

No. 3. — Spirit of turpentine two ounces

Oil of peppermint one drachm

Castor oil, and watery tincture of aloes

{Mat. Med.), each six ounces*.

As a domestic remedy, and one which has relieved at the moment, when other
medicaments were not at hand, I would recommend the following : —

Ground pepper a tea-spoonful

Common gin, and sound ale, of each a quarter of a pint

The juice of two or three large onions.

The antispasmodic having been given, the necessity of bleeding should be
next taken into consideration : if the case be one of very acute features, I would
recommend that it be proceeded with without delay, and, according to the de-
gree of intensity or duration of the coTuplaint, do it more or less liberally. Ex-
tensive bleeding, it should be remembered, is one of the most powerful relaxers
of spasmodic constriction with which we are acquainted; and instead of its being

«)>icy stimulant, yet it docs not appear to possess any specific qualities over other aroraatics. Among
tlie Frencli, the list of medicaments is equally or even more numerous. La Fosse's favourite remedy,
which used to be practised also by the old English farriers, consisted of a mixture of onions, savin,'
and )icpper pounded togetlier, and introduced as far as possible within the rectum, after which the
horse was moved briskly about. We arc inclined to nay much deference to the modern veterinary
therapeutics of the French schools ; but if M. Hurtrel d'Arboval is as accurate a herald of their prac-
tice in this case as in others, it is, at least, not a very active or a very bold one, as displayed by the
following general directions for the treatment under the article Colique : 'J)es le debut, on doit met-
tre en usage les caimans ct Ics delavans, et les administrer en graridc quantite. L'eau ti6de salee,
donnee en assez grandc abondancc apris les premiers momens, est un bon-moyen, dont nous avons
etfe soiivcnt k mcme de constatcr I'efficacite. L'huile d'olive, niclee au vin ou A I'eau-de-vie, le
poivre, I'eau-de-vie et Ic nitre, le vin chaud avcc un sucrc, dc la cannelle, de la tlieriaque, et millc
autres reccttes de ce genre, dont la plupart des marfccliaux abuscnt, ne peuvent qu'exalter I'inflam-
mation, et »ont par consequent toujours nuisibles, surtout dans les commcncemens. II ne faut pas
neghger la promenade au pas, les bouchonncmcns frequens, el les couvertures legercs, qui favorisent
toujours lea etfcts des premiers moyens mis cn usage. Dans le cas oii le mal est plus grave et com-
pliqufc dc colique venteuse ou inflammatoire, le poulscstdur, et unc petite saignee pent le devclop-
per ; mais il est plus avantagcux de la fairc locale, en ouvrant la veine sous-outanee qui ranipe dans
les parois infferieures du ventre. Lorsquc le spasmc parvient k un certain degri, on doit avoir re-
cours aux medicamcns susceptiblcs de calmer les irritations nerveuscs, et un pen toniquos en m6mc
temps tcls que I'infusion de cauiomille, avec dc I'^ther sulfurique. L'fetlicr est, dans ce cas et dans
celui des coliques vcnteuses et d'indigeslion, un me.dicamenl souvent htroVquc ; ou I'administrc au
cheval et on bcouf k la dose d'unc domi-once a trois onccs. Les lavcmens d'eau ti^dc doivent cn outre
eirc prodigufes, et Ton ajoute du nitrate de potassc aux boissons, qui doivent toujours C'tre tiftdes.

riie recipe No. 3 is more paiticularly proper wljen costiveness is present from the beginning, and
when it continues unrelieved after back-raking and clysters have been given, which in every instance
01 violent colic should be done according to the dirm tions laid down.

A a 2

372 CHRONIC INDIGESTION. [CLASS V.-

an antagonist to the antispasmodic treatment usually adopted by internal reme-
dies, its relaxant qualities are found to be infinitely increased in efficacy when
conjoined with large doses of opium. I have had so many opportunities of wit-
nessing the effect of this combination, that I cannot too strongly recommend it* :
and although most of the ordinary cases of spasmodic colic will ^deld to the com-
mon stimulant treatment, and many would even go off without any treatment at
all, yet bleeding in mild cases even is always safe and precautionary against in-
flammation ; and in the more aggravated it is essentially necessary both to combat
the inflammatory tendency, and to promote the relaxation of the spasmodic
irritation on the muscular fibre. It is likewise particularly indicated in these
violent or protracted cases, to counteract the irritative quahties of the antispas-
modics used, which, though in other instances of simple spasm are innocuous,
however large, yet mAy not prove so when reaction is at hand, or already begun.
It should, however, be remembered, that though I advocate bleeding, it is not
that useless and non-medical practice of bleeding by the palate or sublingual
vessels ; and though, with Mr. Peal, I would most strongly condemn violent
and particularly long-continued exercise, yet I have so frequently experienced
the good effects of a brisk trot for ten minutes, that I cannot but recommend
its adoption. Friction to the belly is also to be emploj^ed, by means of a brush,
or if with a heated coarse woollen cloth it will be better ; but the practice of
rubbing with a stick is, I apprehend, worse than useless, and often hurtful.
Fomentations of very hot water are also sometimes singularly efficacious ; and in
every case we should, by means of the patent syringe, throw up considerable
quantities of relaxant clysters ; and where eostiveness is present, until the bowels
be relieved of their faecal matter the clysters should be of a mild watery solution of
aloes, or, by preference, of a solution of sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salts) in
broth, gruel, &c. Afterwards the clysters may be made media of applying anti-
spasmodics to the bowels, as decoctions of poppy heads, or even tinct. opii, largely
diluted with warm water, &c.

Colic in Horned Cattle.

Oxen and cows are subject to this complaint, but which does not differ in
symptoms or treatment from that of horses. There is likewise, at times, a spe-
cies of colic observed among cattle, arising from eostiveness ; in which cases the
hardened faeces accumulate, and the liquid parts make their way through them,
or by their side. This is called among farmers, drovers, &.c., fardal-bound, and is
very dangerous, from the deceitful appearance it puts on, being frequently mis-
taken for purging. It is evident this can only be cured by brisk purgatives ; and-
if the obstructing mass be within the reach of the arm, back-raking should be re-
sorted to. Bleed, also, to prevent inflammation.

CHRONIC INDIGESTION.

Horses are subject to dyspepsia, or loss of appetite, either from some morbid
change in the stomach, some disease in its secretions, or the pisgaence of some
extraneous matter. We have had many occasions to advert (Stuytlie sjinpathy
existing between various parts, and the present is a prominent instance of the
same ; for in every case of stomach affection the skin is found to sympathize ;
and these states are therefore always accompanied with staring hair, dry, and but
little unctuous, from constricted sebaceous glands : it also presents that inelas-
ticity of cuticle termed hide-hound. The horse continues to eat without appetite,
or with one irregular in its desires; and what is taken in is frequently passed
away nearly in the state in which it was eaten.

• The practice of uniting bleedinR with nntispasmodics is now common in both brute and human
therapeutics : and the relaxant qualities of ttiis combination in spasmodic contractions is a pathological
fact well established; it lieing very generally observed, that, under spasm, stimulants seldom hurry
the circnliition into iiillammatory diatliesis. The morbid irritation itself may end in inflammation, and
when that is established, then stimulants are prejudicial; but previous to this our antispasmodic--
must be antlphlnglstics also.

Class V.] -acute indigestion. 373

Causes.— In spring and autumn, when a renewal of hair takes place, the syni-
nathv between the skin and stomach produces the phenomena so usually observed
of faiutncss, perspiration, and irregular appetite. It is sometimes occasioned by
the presence of worms, when their numbers are great : more often, however, it
may be attributed to.improper food, as musty hay or corn, uuveutilated or over-
heated stables, too great a quantity of clothing, the injudicious use of spicy sti-
mulants, as cordials, &c. &c. , , , . . ,

Cure. Its removal must, in a great measure, depend on becoming acquainted

with its cause. In spring, feed succulently ; and in autumn, feed liberaDy ; which
will, in both cases, encourage that particular growth of hair which the season re-
quires. The medical treatment proper may be gained by a reference to Morbid
Condition; io Stomachics (Mat. Med.) ; and to Worms.

Acute Indigestion, populably known as Stomach Staggers.

Horses are subject to an acute affection arising from meclianical distention,
which utterly prevents the process of digestion going forwards ; and the conse-
quence is, a symptomatic phrenitis, which has gained it the name of stomach
staggers : but as other visceral affections occasionally beget a symptomatic phre-
nitis, the disease, as a whole or comprehensive affection, was considered in Class
n. I shall, therefore, here confine myself to a notice of it as a simple state of
having, and refer the reader for the pathology to Symptomatic Phrenitis, p, 305.
Stomach staggers from distention is much less frequent to horses than to cattle,
but it is much more fatal when it does occur to the former than to the latter ;
both of which circumstances are readily accounted for when we consider the
structural peculiarities of the two animals. When this affection was first called
stomach staggers, it was considered that the distention observed was confined to
the stomach only ; but experience has taught us, that though it is there that it
exerts its greatest intensity of symptom, yet that mechanical distention from
enormous eating, followed by indigestion and extrication of gas, takes place in
the intestines also, particularly in the large intestines. In the horse, stomach
staggers is often the consequence of voracious eating after long fasting. It more
particularly follows the eating of bran, chafiF, pollard, or such food as can be
gathered up quickly, when it is swallowed without much mastication, and conse-
quently without insalivation also ; by which the horse increases the calls on his
stomach, and yet lessens its means by depriving it of the aids of the diluting and
solvent saliva, as well as by the existing debihty of the organ from previous in-
anition. In the stomach, it is probable that it is the mechanical distention from
actual material bulk that is the noxious agent, particulai-ly when it follows eating
of dry food, for the extrication of gas is here seldom found to be enormous.
When the distention is found within the intestines, on the contrary, there is
usually a very large extrication of gas, for it is then often consequent on eating
such substances as are prone to an early fermentation, as succulent grasses, new
hay, or injurious browsujgs of hedge-tops, leaves, &c.; in which case, a's'the
collection and mastication of these allow time for the matters to be passed tjuick-
ly through the stomach, according to the usual course into the intestines, it is in
them that tljftwrincipal decomposition takes place ; and the presence of the gas
must be looke^n here as an equal agent in the distention, as the material bulk
of the food itself

The treatment, therefore, of the hoven of horses will be somewhat altered as
we view it in one or other of these hghts; but, as a whole, it will present three
indications : first, that of dislodging the mass ; secondly, neutralizing the gas
evolved from it ; thirdly, combating the symptomatic effects produced by it : for
winch latter we refer to Symptomatic Phrenitis. Th the true stomach stagccrs
we must attempt to dislodge the mass by means of diluting it with the stomach
synnge, by which, when we are caUed on sufficiently early, we may often succeed
in rendering it so soluble as to readily pass off by the pylorus. If gaseous dis-
tention be found to acc6mpany it, that may be treated by the means yet to be
noticed. When intestinal distention is the acting agent, it is, as already observed

'^^'^ ACUTE INDIGESTION IN CATTLE. [ClASS V.

. very usually dependent on the fermentation of green or nearly green food and
less frequently from bran poUard, meal, &e. &c^, whieh commonW Sn^e 't£
effects to the stomaeh. In such cases, our efforts must be directeV to th^ neu-
tiahzation of the gas, even more than to the abstraction of the food Cases
however do occur, where stomachic and intestinal distention are mixed, which can

Ae^dn^m ^TT '^u^^- ^"'^"^'^^ «^ ^'^^ress evinced, a'S

nnr. f"''"" f ^^dommal parietes, which latter is less evident in

pure stomach staggers, but always is a prominent symptom in intestinal ho^•ine
Here we must, m some measure, combine the two indicat!ons.of cure, that of dis-
placmg the mass and that of neutralizing the gas: the former by the patent
syringe, used both by the mouth and by repeated and fiiU clysterings^ the latter
by the neutralization of the gas by such means as have been already detailed
p. 309 ; or more effectuaUy (as it would appear by some lately developed facts)
by c/<Zom'eifo/j3oto«/j, .asdetanedinthehovingofc&ttle.

Acute Indigestion in Cattle, called Hove, or Blown.

When cattle have become fatigued by di-iving or by long fasting, and sud-
denly find themselves with plenty of food before them, particularly of such as
requires little mastication, as chaff; bran, grains, &c. &c. ; and also at all times
when they meet with food they have long been deprived of, as various artificial
grasses, particularly red clover, they are apt to eat greedily, and omit to stop
for the purposes of rumination ; by which means the rumen or pauncli becomes
so distended as to be incapable of expelling its contents. From this, fermenta-
tion begins to take place, and a large quantity of gas escapes, which increases
the distention, until the stomach either bursts, or, by its pressure on the dia-
phragm, suffocates the animal.

The symptoms are uneasiness and distress, with quickened respiration, and
sometimes there is a degree of phrensy present. When it is occasioned by green
food, the evolution of gas is enormous, and the tympanitis gives a drum-like
distention to the belly ; but when dry food, as chaff", bran, &c. &c. has been
taken, the impacted matter does not distend so quickly, and the symptoms are
less acute, and more resemble those of constipation. It is thought to be more
likely to occur in warm and wet weather than in any other ; and if such be the
case, it must arise from the state of the vegetable matter and the surrounding
warmth being both favourable to fermentation.

The treatment will consist in attempting to urge the distending mass through
the alimentary track : if that be impracticable, we must lessen the distention
by evacuating the distending gas, or otherwise try to neutralize it. Purgatives
have little or no effect in this case ; but the stomach pump has loosened the
impacted mass, particularly in cases where dry food has been taken in. See an
interesting account of a case of this kind in The Veterinarian^ vol. iii. The
evacuation of the gases is made by instruments (a probaug usually) passed down
the oesophagus*; or it is done by puncturing the side, for the urgency of dis-
tention or the want of assistance renders it sometimes imperative to evacuate
the gas immediately, to prevent suffocation, or rupture of the rumen ; a puncture
is therefore at once made into it, which, among graziers, is called paunching.
When nothing better is at hand, this may be performed with a lancet, or even a
penknife ; the place of puncture being midway between the ileum or haunch-
bone and the last rib on the left side, to which the first stomach or paunch in-

• That principally in use is the invention of Dr. Monro, of Edinburgh, and which is particularly de-
scribed in the list of veterinary instruments at the end. Another, oonsistinif of a cane of six feet
in length, and of considerable diameter, liaving a bulbous knob of wood, has been invented by a
Mr. Eager, which is a more simple machine, but hardly so efficacious. It is probable that, in cases
(if emergency, even the larger end of a common cart whip, dexterously used, might answer the end.
The introduction of any of thej.e instruments may be cllected by the help of an as'sistant, who should
hold the horn of the animal by one hand, and the dividing cartilage of the nose witli the other, while
the operator himself, taking the tongue in his left hand, employs his right in skilfully and carefully
introducing the instrument ; the assistant bringing the head and neck into such an attitude as to make
the passage ncai ly straight, which will greatly facilitate the operation. Ity these means the probaug
may be icadily introduced, which is known by a large ijuanlity of air iniuicdiately riishinjr out.

CLASS v.] ' i'AMPAS. 375

.lines The veterinarian wiU, however, always perform the operation with a
^rnno; trochar*, which instrument wiU permit the gas to escape cer ainlyand
Sy at he'same time that it will prevent its escape mto the cavity pf the
abS.men, which would occasion- an equal distention. As soon as the air is per-
fi^Vh evacuated, and the paunch is observed to resume its office, the trochar
Sy ^be ren S and the wound carefully closed with a pitch plaister, or other
Ssive matter. It is necessary to observe, that this operation is so simple
and safe that, whenever a medical assistant cannot be obtained, no person
id hesUate a paoment about doing it himself The domestic .remedies for
lessening the distention, by condensing the gas have been various, as oil, and
partTcdarly ammonia prepared, a strong solution of which m water has been
found ser/iceable. The alkalies generally have long been used with variable
success Vinegar, in the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, is strongly recom-
mended- but as it is observed that the elastic fluids developed are not always
alike so the effects resulting from the most reputed agents have too often
faUed- but from what appears below, we will hope that we have yet a strong
hold in reservef. To Mr. Youatt we owe the introduction (as a remedy in
hoven) of the chlorinated lime given in doses of from 31J to. jiv suspended in

water.

LAMPAS.

This tumefaction of the rugae, or bars of the palate, not unfrequent among
voune horses, is sometimes occasioned from the later dentitions, and at others
is dependent on some derangement of the alimentary canal. It is very common
to yount^ horses when first stabled, from the inflammatory tendency of a change
of food! confinement, &c. Farriers are apt to regard these tumefactions of
the roof of the mouth as local evUs of the part itself; they therefore burn or
stimulate them without mercy, not at all looking to the cause. In these cases
examine the mouth generaUy, to see whether teethmg be going on; and if the
gums appear tumid, particularly those opposed to the tushes, or any other un-

• M Chretien a foreign veterinary surgeon, describes an pffective trochar made of tin or silver six
incherin length, and of one common borl ; the tube being pierced w th small holes, to g,ve vent to
the^a, and frothv matters in case the mouth of the tube becomes choaked. A metallic plate, soldered
to it eXnl ly about theThU of an inch below the superior end of the canula, defends the wound
from the eiec ed matters; and through this two holes are punched, one atiove, the other below, to
whlJh tL circular band around the cow is attached, to retain the tube in its place ; which band will
require fg S^^^^^ distention of the belly becomes relieved. When the gas has made

itsTscfape. the mouth of the tube is closed with a cork, to prevent the en ranee of he external air;
and five or six hours afterwards, providing no fresh gas is disengnged, on the removal of the cork, the
canula mav be withdrawn. This precaution is. useful ; for in some mephitic indigestions, complicated
with distention of the paunch, it is occasionally necessary to leave the canula in for se^-eral days, in
ronsequence of a renewal of the fermentation. A lesser trochar, of a similar kind is made for sheep ;
and as the use of tin canulas will obviate the principal expense of the instruments, it would be pru-
dent in everv faimer and grazier to possess himself of them. ~ . ^, . ,

+ My confined limits ill accord with minuteness of detail ; but my wish to aCfoid the student a com-
prehensive vade-mecum of practice makes me regret omitting any thing tliat may be useful : thus I
am forced to enter by a note what would swell the text of my pages beyond their capacity. Tlie Bill-
letin de Pharmncie states, that the gas produced from fermentative matters witliin the rumen, when
analyzed, yielded sulphuretted hydrogen 80 parts, carbonated hydrogen 1.5, and carbonic acid 5 parts.
Mr Plueli in the Edinburgk Journal of Science, gives three-fifths of carbonic acid, and two-fifths
of carbonic oxide gas. These different analyses have awakened the attention of Chabert, Barrier,
Fremi, Lamcyan, and, lastly, of M. Chariot, who, after much apparent inquiry, is led to the conclu-
Bion, that the intestinal gases are principally composed of hydrogen and its compounds ; and lliat the
distentions in which they escape may be considered as recant and chrome. In recent indigestions,
or such as result from the first fermentation of vegetable matter, carburctted livdrogen prevails. In
chronic indigestion, or that which follows the use of dry food, sulphuretted hydrogen predominates.
M. Chariot was next led to a conclusion, that, since hydrogen was predonuimnt m liiese gaseous pro-
ducts, it was only necessary to select a substance wliicli had a strong affinity for that gas (hydrogen),
in order to induce it to enter into new combinations, and consequently to condense it. 1 he substance
chosen was chtorurcC ofpotimh, which is to be administeied in hoving, not only of sheep and cowa,
but of horses also. It is to be given in water, but not in wine, oil, mucilages or decoctions of bitter
or aromatic heibs; but if any mixture be required, sulphuric ictlier may be added williout lear of neu-
tralizing the action of the medicine by the great atlinily of matter added lor chlorine. Ilie dose tor
the horse is one ounce ; for the cow half an ounce ; and for the sheep a quarter of an ounce, in two,
three, or four ounces of water. As far as the trials are detailed in the practice ot several vctctiiianans,
on numerous distinct cases, thev arc highly satisfactory ; and warrant onr hope that this destructive
malady may be hereafter less fatal. For further particulars I would refer to 'J he Velerimirtnn,
vol. iv.

WORMS. fCLASS V.

protruded teeth in yourifror horses, touch them slightly with a lancet or bistonrv-
and do the same to the tumefied bars If it be e^vidently not the relit
teethmg, examine he general condition, and the probable circun^s ance of Hp
rangement of the aUmentary canal. Are there an? appearan esTworms ^ Ha^
there been any late change of food? or has the hoL been lately much confined
ILTa t^^^««/^^«««,^>-e apparent, it is yet more than probabl tC some
lassitude may be detected; that the hair, hide, &c. will indicate some affccHon
of f omach and general want of condition. In all which cases treat as direc ed
under he he^d Concimon (Section vi, p. 67.) Any applicatioT to the ru'^
hemselves should be of the mildest kind: if scarifi^l, do it very and
afterwai-ds touch them daily with the oxymellate of copper (<.gypLm^.^ '

WORMS.

Evert part of animated existence appears subservient to the purposes of other
portions of it ; and therefore every thing living may be considered as para^ ST
chnging around other Imng matter for support. Insects, in an especiaCanie?

within other animals, either as their constant habitation, or as temporaneous
tenants during their existence in some particular state. The intestinTworm
of the horse are Lumbncz, which resemble the earth-worm, and are not uncom-
mon in the small intestines, where they occasionally do mischief by their imtation
Ascarzs, or thread-worms, so caUed from their filamentary figure^, are dlrker and
larger in the horse than n man, and reside in the rectum Ind Lcum occasionaHy
and wben they exist in large numbers may prove prejudicial. The late Mr Per-
cival attributed the death of two horses to their presence. (See Veterinarian,
vol. 11.) Irichocephalus equi, or whip-worm, is now and then found in the
horse; but of its efl^ects I know nothing. Txmia, or tape-worm, is but seldom
found, and its effects therefore have been little noticed. Bots are the larva or
grubs of the oestrus or gad-fly; and our knowledge of the natural history of this
genus has been much extended by that able naturalist and veterinarian, M'r. Bracy
Uark . 1 cannot, however, agree with him that they are always innocuous : on
tbe contrary, I have seen cases of fatahty brought on by them. Mr. Coleman
relates an instance where they had eroded the stomach, and fi-om thence had
penetrated the diaphragm also. Mr. Cartwright, of Whitchurch, in The Vete-
rmarian, gives a remarkable instance of their injurious consequences : these
however, are rare. '

i,.„„,.^„ „,u,c luiMMioii ocu, wiiosc nsiirc is well known as somewhat barrel-Miapod'^
not spotted ; the lorvre of which are winter and smaller than the former.- ffi-si^M* veter nus has also

v^ot M^:, I'.'T'fi- r^"":"^ '"^ ^-"""t"' i"'"''- The fourth, or snM\f"ru^%no\

yet clearly dchned, hut its speciality is marked hy its inhabiting the pylorus. Linnoeus supnosed that

fiVd' "• 'v,'''m. pi'''^''?"'"'''' describes as entering the anus (Mire per anum in-
il- {^J- \ ^ f} satisfactorily proved, that the patent flv of the cestrus

e u . deposits Its ova on the lairs of such parts of the horse a. are within the reach of his mo.ith and
nose, as the shoulders, within the fore legs, &c. ; to do which the fly is seen to hold her body up. isht
when preparing an egg : she rests for a moment on the horse, and fixes it to the hair bv means of a
viscid gluten ; after which she again rises, and prepares another, until some hundreds are so deposited.
I hose ova, or egg bots, form the little yellow granules so commonly observed adhering to the hairs of
horses at grass in the summer. The oestrus hemorrhoidalis, he informs us, deposits her eggs on the
nose o( the luu sc j while the methods of the vcteriiius and salutiforus are not at present understood.
Ihese ova having become hatched, are by various accidents, as by the horse's licking himself, or
nabbing others, carried into the stomach, where they instinctively attach themselves to the cuticular
portion, very few ever roacliiiig the villous or sensible part, to which we must, in a great measure,
attribute their innocuous character. To enable these animals to resist the effects of alinientarv fric-
tion, they are furiiishcd with two tentaculaj, or hooks, of extraordinary tenacity, between which is
situated their mouth, by which they suck up the gastric secretions, as the mucus but not, I believe,
according to Mr. Clark, pure cliyle, for chyle is not the product of .that portion of the stomach,
mid it IS even more probable that chyme alone is found in the stomach. Entering their abdominal ha-
bitation in the summer, the bots soon gain their full size, and continue within the horse until the fol-
lowing spiiug, when instinctively loosening their hold, they are passed along the intestinal canal, and
ejected with the dung, preparatory to their change froh larva- into chrysalides, and from thence into
parent llies.

Class v.] worms. - 377

Sumniojns of wornis.— The most popular is a dry yellow matter under the
tail- but it is not invariably present even when worms are known to exist .
When worms are hurtful, in addition to this appearance, there is unequal ap-
netite and an irregular state of bowels ; at one time costive, and at another
loose 'with o-lair or mucus around the dung-balls. When ascarides prevail, the
horse is much disposed to rub the tail, to ease the itching of the fundament.
The presence of hots is seldom detected by any distinct appearance, except in
the sprin"- when one or more may be detected half protruded through the anus.
The teres ' or tound worm, is probablv the most generally hurtful, hut this only
when it exists in great numbers, or itself becomes morbidly irritated, to seek a
chau'^e of situation, which will apply also to ascarides, in which cases both may
interfere with digestion and the regular alvine discharges ; by which the horse,
althouo-h he may eat heartdy, does not digest healthily. The skin also, sym-
pathisintT with the stomach and intestines, occasions a staring coat and harsh
feel of the hair. There are frequent attacks of slight gripes ; the horse stands
.with his legs wide apart and his belly low. The breath is often hot and foetid,
and it is not unusual for a short dry cough to be present. ...

Treatment of worms. — Nature has endowed these animals with such tenacious-
ness of life, that few matters known to us will effect their destruction. Bots
are so hardy as to survive immersion in oil, in alcohol, spirits of turpentine, and
even powerful solutions of mineral acids. The continued use of salt mixed
vfith the food appears, however, so obnoxious to them, as to make them quit
theu- hold and become ejected. Bitters, purgatives, and the mechanical uti-
tation of pointed bodies, as pewter, tin, &c. filed, have no effect whatever on
bots : but with regard to the other vermiforms, rather more success may be
expected fi.-om medical aid, in the form of vermifuges. It has been attempted
to effect the removal of worms mechanically, by dissolving the mucus they are
supposed to be imbedded in, for which lime-water, oil, solutions of aloes, to-
bacco, &c. have been injected hj clyster up the rectum, and which practice is
most to be depended on for the ejection of ascarides when in the rectum ; strong
purges are given with the same intent, which may remove them also from the
whole alimentary track. Remedies have likewise been exhibited to destroy them
within the body, by the mechanical imtation of their spicuH; under which
view, filed tin, brass, iron, and pevyter, are given. The Cevadilla, or Indian •
caustic barley, Spigelia Marylandica, or Indian pink, are reputed vermifuges
-"against the teres and ascaris. The oil of turpentine has also been strongly re-
commended as an excellent general vermifuge ; but, except for the destruction
of the taenia, it certainly does not appear to deserve that character to the other
•varieties. The following formula may be tried with the double view of removing
the worms and combating the effects produced by them : —

Submuriate of mercury (calomel) eight grains

Powdered arsenic eight grains

Pewter or tin, finely scraped one ounce

Venice turpentine half an ounce.

Mix into a ball, and give every morning fasting for a fortnight, unless it should
prove too diuretic.

Of other worms and parasitic animals which are found in the horse, the
Fitaria may be noticed, from the peculiarity of its situation within the globe of
the eye. (See Diseases of the Eye.') It has also been found in the cellular tis-
sues, and within the cerebral, abdominal, and thoracic cavities. It has likewise
been detected in the eye of the ox. A variety of the Strongylus has been found

• Tliis yollow matter has been generally attributed to an excrementltious production of the worms
tliemselves. Professor Peal, however, questions this, and attributes it to a morbid secretion from the
rectum. Mr. Clarlc asserts, tliat out of three or four species of intestinal worms, this appearance is
common only to one of them, the wliip-worra ; and that, in this instance, it originates noithcr from a
morbid secretion of the rectum, nor from any excrementitious deposit of tlic worm, but is merely the
soft structural parts of the animal itself, crushed by the anus in its passage through the sphincter.
With all my icspcct for Mr. Clark's opinion on the suliject of worms, I cannot agree with him on this
point, for the trichocepiialus equi is too rare a visitant to nroducc this very frequent appearance;
neither will the most accurate examination of it yield any sucn matter.

378 WORMS. [Class V.

.•5'' iT^^.'' '''■^f ^' ^^'^ -^"s^-^o^^ have also been met with in the ileum IIv-
datids likewise, though not very common, are also occasionaUy observed 'in the
horse, presenting aU the characters of the acephalocystes ; and to their presence
within the spinal canal we are to attribute some of his paralytic affections.

Parasitic Animaxs in Cattle.

Of these I shall give a very condensed account. The mtris hovis, one of the
gad-fly species, caUed by country persons wornulls or wormids, punctures the skin
of cows and calves, and deposits its eggs between that and the cellular mem-
brane; the hatching of the larva; matures the nidus, and the abscess formed
thereby is caUed pucheridge, and is ignorantly attributed to a wound inflicted bv
the caprimidgus, goatsucker, or night hawk*. When arrived at their full «izc
the larv« make their way out at the external opening, and fall on the ground.
i?rom the mischief which they do to the hides, their destruction should be at-
tempted, which may be effected by introducing a hot wire, or by pressing the
part. (Estrus ovis lays its eggs on the inner margin of the nose oi sheep, which
becoimng larva;, creep into the frontal and maxillary sinuses, occasioning great
irritation. The contmental shepherds trepan their sheep, and remove therai but
our shepherds have not been successful with this method. Sheep are also ob-
noxious to a worm called the pallisade (strongidus felona), which seats itself
within the trachea and bronchiae. The fasciola hepatica, or fluke-worm, is also
a parasitic insect, whose ravages are supposed to be most injurious. Horses,
asses, and mules, are occasionally found with them also, as well as rats, mice,'
&c. ; but in sheep, goats, and deer, it is very common, and is supposed to occa-
sion fatal dropsies, and a tabid disease of all the abdominal viscera, the effects of
which are thence called the rot. But what connexion the animal has with the
disease is involved in much obscurity : certain it is, however, that both the dis-
ease and the animals are connected with a moist state of the pasturage, which, as
being favourable to the production of animal life in some kinds, would lead to a
supposition, that a particular parasite is thus generated, of such primary tenuity
and hardihood as to resist the effects of digestion, and pass into the biliary ves-
sels, where its presence may occasion the evil. Salt marshes never produce it ;
and salt is supposed a remedy also in the early stages. It seldom attacks sheep
on high grounds; but having once received the infection, of whatever nature it
may be, removal is then too late.

Hydatids, as producing what is known as staggers in sheep, are less common
but sufficiently fatal. This vesicular animal, which intrudes itself into the cere-
bral cavities, produces effects which have received various provincial but charac-
teristic names, being called by the French tournis, by the Welch pendro, by the
English gid, staggers, goggles, sturdy, turnsick, &c. It is very universal through-
out Europe, and, indeed, infests the flocks of most quarters of the globe. Hy-
datids also make their way, now and then, into the spinal canal, when they occa-
sion paralysisf .

• The naturalist will be able in this, as on many other occasions, to recognize the origin of many
vulgar names of our animals. Tlic aerial swoops made by these birds in pursuit of their favourite food, the
scarabeus or beetle, as they are very often made immef'li itely around cattle, might readily he mistaken
by country persons for personal attacks on them. Certain it is, also, that the monstrous mouth of
the caprimulgus is far better adapted to suck gouts, than the pointed porcine mouth of the heignhog
is to eml)rai;c within its tiny expanse the monstrous nipple of the cow.

•|- The vitality of tlie tamius glolmlnix or cmiuriis cerehralis is fnlly evinced on being put into
water, which, if it be warm, excites lively motions in tlie animal, whose size varies from that of a
pigeon's egg to the minntest vesicle. How tocnia; insinuate tliemselves within the head is unknown ;
but tliey are found sometimes solitary, and at others two or tlnee are placed together within the
ventricles of the brain; occasionally within the substance of the cerebellum, but more frequently
immediately on the surface of one cerebral hemisphere: and it is said they arc more common to the
right ventricle than to the left; and that its ellects aie generally produced on the opposite side to that
on which the parasitic animal is placed ; and it is usual to find the hydatid u.n that side of the head
towards which the sheep inclines in his revolutionary gait. When the disease has existed some time,
the ravages it occasions arc very great: one of the cerebral lobes lias been found almost destroyed ;
one of the ventricles has been distended to ten times its original magnititude: while in other instances,
one of the parietal bones has become so absorbed by the pressure oT the hydatid, when situated on the
cerebral surface, as scarcely to oflcr the smallest resistance to the touch. It is mcue frequent in sheep

Class V.j

DIARRHfEA, OR LOOSENESS.

379

COSTIVENESS.

Some horses are habitually costive, which arises either from a defective secre-
tion of the fluid of the bowels ; or, that the absorbents act too strongly, and
take up too much of the hquid contents, by which the fa;cal mass becomes dry,
hard, and difficult to pass ; or it may, and frequently does, arise from a defect
in the formation of the bile, either as to quantity or quality. This we know
from what occurs in jaundice, in which, from a loss of the bile by extravasation,
there is always present a strong disposition to a costive habit. Some food is
prone to occasion constipation, as whatever is stimulant and heating. Corn of
all kinds, therefore, has this tendency, but beans more than all. Habitual cos-
tiveness should not be counteracted by purgatives, as they generally increase the
e\-il; but attention should be paid to the habit itself, and the pecuhar tendencies
of that should be counteracted. Dry food should be remedied by occasional
bran mashes. Green meat is particularly useful in these cases in summer, and
can-ots in winter. When costiveness arises from defective bile, treat as directed
under Jaundice.

Occasional or accidental costiveness must be treated differently. First, baek-
rake, next throw up a laxative clyster (see Clysters, Mat Med.) ; and then pro-
ceed to give a purgative by the mouth, milder or stronger according to circum-
stances.— See Purges and Laxatives, Mat. Med.

DIARRH(EA, OR LOOSENESS.

This complaint is properly an increased action of the peristaltic motion of the
intestines, with a greater secretion of a watery fluid within the intestines ; or,
otherwise it may arise from a want of a proper absorption of the fluid part of the
intestinal contents ; whereby there follows a frequent evacuation of the dung in
a very liquid form. It is distinguished from dysentery by the purging being com-
plete from the very first ; by its being more copious, having all the fajces in solu-
tion without a glairy mucous matter, erroneously considered as the fat of the
body ; and, also, by being seldom accompanied with fever, or any great affection
of the general health, unless it be long continued. Some horses aa-e very liable
to purging on every exertion, and such are temied, by groomfi, washy, having
'tisually narrow chests and lank bellies, by which the intestines have not sufl!i-
cient room for their natural processes, but are pressed oii. and thus forced to a
hasty expulsion of the unassimUated contents.

Causes. — Diarrhoea may arise from mechanical pressure, resulting from the
form ; and thus a light belly is often found with it ; or it may arise from a con-
stitutional debility in the intestines themselves, A weakened state of the
bowels, inclining to this affection, is often brought on by drastic purges likewise.
But besides these, there arises a more active and serious affection dependent on

under two years old than at a later period ; and is Itnown by the staggering gait of the affected animal,
and its separation from the rest of the flock ; the head is lield unnaturally low or higli, and is carried
more to one side than the other, inclining also the general movements of the body to the same side.
As the pressure of the hydiitid increases, the functions become still more deranged ; the sheep staggers
abont almost unconscious, with dilated pupils, and loss of cud; until coma or convulsions close the
>cene. Of the cure I would remark, that, notwithstanding the hopes lield out, it is not often obtained ;
for the situation of the hydatid is so diversilicd and so obscure, that it is only when it directly points
itself out by its elTccts on the cerebral parietes, that we are able to detect it with any degree of cer-
tainty. In such cases it may be attempted to puncture the vesicle by means of any instrument that
will penetrate the bone with safety, after a slight opening has been made through the integuments by
. a scalpel. A rude, but by no means' an ineligible instrument, is a fine sharp gimlet, which will
effect a sufficient opening if passed as far as its screw, or until the hydatid fluid flows, and will prove
elTcctive, by evacuating the vesicle without danger of wounding tlic brain. After the operation, in
whatever way performed, should the symptoms not mitigate, there will be reason to suspect that a
second or third hydatid remains, in which case the trephine must be resorted to. After the operation,
stitch up the integuments, and secure the head from tlic effects of cold, violence, or insects. Con-
tinental shepherds attempt a rude cure by introducing a long pointed instrument up the nose, through
the frontal sinuses, and into the cerebral'cavity, by which means the hydatid is effectually destroyed ;
and ill consequences less frequently result than would be supposed from Mich treatment. As a
previ ntioh, the Marquis of St. Fere disengages oxygen gas into his sliccp-slieds, and he thinks with
great success.

'^^^ DIARllHOiA, Oil LOOSENESS. [ClASS V.

some morbid change taking place in the secretions of the stomach and bowels
inaking them a source of irritation to the organs themselves. The hile occa-
sionally takes on such a change, and worms are another cause in some habits.
1 lie tood itselt likewise becomes, at times, improperly assimilated, and enters into
new combinations with the gastric juice, whereby an acrid matter is formed- this
matter has been supposed to be an acid, and hence absorbent earths have been
much used m this complaint. Horses moving from hay to grass, or even from
grass to hay become affected with looseness ; for the stomach and bowels prove
unequal to the office of assimilating a new food at once, and hence they are irri-
tated to an early expulsion of their contents, as a matter foreign and incapable
ot perfect assimilation. ^ i

It may also be occasioned by the sudden application of cold, whereby the
exhalent arteries of the skin becoming checked, more fluid is necessarily thrown
on the intestines; and which operates not only by increasing their quantity but
likewise by the addition of something foreign, and hence irritating to them.
In these cases, which are marked with thirst and increased pulse, the restoration
of the healthy action of the skin is necessary to a cure ; and as the balance
of power has been in favom- of the intestines, it would be desirable now to turn
It in favour of the skin, by making use of the few horse diaphoretics we know
of, as antimony, warm clothing, &c. &c. ; and by avoiding the use of active as-
tringents.

The treatment, in general cases, is simple, and requires little more than warmth
and a change of diet. If constitutional, we must palliate by a mild but constant
check on the existing causes : a light-bellied horse should not be worked several
days together severely ; avoid too much water, or too early work immediately
after meals. Let the purgings be examined : if the food passes away undigested,
the stomach is at fault (see Tonics) ; but if it be a more recent attack, examine
well the probable cause. Has it followed any undue exposure, any violent exer-
tion, any change of food, any great difference in the warmth of standing ? Is
the water good in quahty ; are the oats, or is the hay new ? If none of these
causes operate, we must first make ourselves aware that it is the fa;cal discharge
which passes, for such appearances have concealed an obstinate constipation.
Being_ convinced of the diarrhoea, commence the cure by mild astringents. It
sometimes happens, when diarrhoea has been long continued, it seems to pervade
the whole alimentary track, so that, at the last, the ctecum and rectum become
equally affected, and then a distressing tenesmus prevails. In these cases it will
be often in vain to give astringents by the mouth, which become themselves irri-
tants, or so changed in their passage as to reach these latter bowels ahiiost in-
ert : here astringent injections will frequently effect all we wish. Commence,
however, the cure of the general cases of diarrhoea by giving the following drink
once or twice a- day, according to the violence of the complaint : —

Prepared opium half a drachm

Powdered catechu two drachms

Prepared chalk two ounces

Sulphate of iron {green vitriol) half a drachm

Starch, boiled thin a pint.

Mix.

In very obstinate looseness, half a drachm, of alum may be added, and the quan-
tity of opium doubled ; and in such case, and also whenever the affection has been
long continued, once or twice a-day give the following clyster : —

Boil six poppy heads in four quarts of water to two, add to the liquor

Prepared chalk two ounces

Boiled starch ■ two quarts.

Mix.

To this also, if necessary, alum may be added ; and should the horse be weak,
boiled starch, or arrow-root, or boiled bean meal, may be horned down the throat
frequently. Give no cold water to drink, but, instead, give thin gruel or rice-

Class V.] diarrhcea, or looseness. 381

water tepid Clothe warmly, encourage a warm temperature also, and carefully'
avoid 'exposure to sudden currents of cold air. I have known green meat check
diarrhcea which had resisted every other attempt. To the more mtnuately un-
derstanding of this complaint, under its several varieties, see the subject of Dy-
sentery.

DlAKEHCEA IM CaTTLE.

Cattle Looseness, Scouring Cow, Scantering, Scouring Rot, are, all of them,
terms used by cowleechcs and persons about oxen and cows, to express diarrhoea,
or alvine flux, which is much more fi-equent in kine than horses, and also more
obstinate and fatal. To a proper treatment of this complaint, it is necessary
to consider it in a different point of view to what it has been generaUy regarded.
There are, in fact, three kinds of scourhg in cattle. A dysenteric (already con-
sidered), having an inflammatory origin ; an acute diarrhoea ; and, a chronic^or
slow. The acute is occasioned by intemperate and long-continued travel in not
weather, or by cold supervening on heat, cold and wet, lying out, &c. &c. There
is ahnost a constant fsecal discharge of slimy, frothy matter, with half-digested
ahments intermixed; with a pulse usually increased in frequency. Remove at
once into a shed ; and if the eyes are blood-shot, the breath hot, but the ex-
tremities cold, with heaving, bleed moderately, and give the following :—

Sulphate of soda ( Glauber salts) two ounces

Sulphate of magnesia {Epsom salts) two ounces

Powdered ipecacuanha half a drachm

Sulphate of iron {green vitriol) six grains.

Chronic diarrhcea in cattle differs fi-om the acute in origin, appearance, and in
the obstinacy that usually characterises it. It may arise from any thing tend-
ing to reduce the animal beyond a certain limit, as low unhealthy keeping, &c.
Cattle having been driven long distances, if fat, become affected with dysentery ;
but if lean, and low in condition, take on the scouriiig rot. Cows suffered to
suckle two calves, or not sufficiently fed when long milked, are liable to it ; and
now and then it follows exposure to bad weather, particularly in impoverished
animals. Bad food is also a common cause of it. The symptoms of this more
slow continued kind are, a frequent stooling of' liquid matter : the appetite is sel-
dom much impaired at first ; sometimes, on the contrary, it is increased. The
evacuations are much darker and more foetid than in the former kind, and as
they drop away, a lighter yellow fluid foUows, leaving a frothy head to the faecal
mass. The animal loses flesh, the eyes look yellow and are sunk, and the graziers
affect to tell the existence of the complaint by the tenderness of the beast across
the loins. These cases, after death, usually present marks of chronic visceral
affection ; but more particularly the liver is often affected, as it were, with chronic
hepatitis ; to which, I believe, we may ascribe most of these cases, as well as the
obstinacy which marks their progress.

The treatment of this kind of scantering, or rot, is complex, for the purg-
ing is dependent on morbid bilious secretion, to check which, first try the fol-
lowing : —

Calomel half a drachm

Alum a drachm

Powdered gentian- two drachms

Powdered opium five grains

Decoction of chamomile a pint.

Give every morning. If by the second or third day amendment is not com-
menced, proceed to cut the hair from the belly, principally from the right side,
beginning at the navel, cutting forward, around and upwards, towards the sides,
making a surface of fourteen or fifteen inches in diameter. Rub into this, every

382 CRiBBiTiNG. [Class V.

day, half an ounce of strong mercurial ointment, and every morning cive the fol-
lowmg, uistead of the former :— J B b

Green vitriol. half a drachm

Powdered opmm half a drachm

1 owdered gentian ., one ounce

Boiled starch one pint.

Feed liberally, and give bean meal in a mash or otherwise ; and, if symptoms of
salivation appear, omit the mercury, but continue the drink. I have used the
prepared rust of iron, half an ounce in a baU, with advantage in these cases; but
the benefit of the mercurial course is apparent in every instance of hepatic dis-
ease, and It IS but very few of these cases which have not their origiu in biliarv
atrection. ° .

ScouBiNG IN Calves.

From a morbid stomach secretion, calves are very prone to diarrhoea ; to re-
medy which, graziers give them chalk to lick. When looseness has appeared
they also give chalk in milk : others give suet boiled in milk, which is a good do-
mestic remedy, as well as starch or bean flour boiled in their food. But when
these fail, give the following, which is almost certain in its good effects :—

Prepared chalk . , half an ounce

Powdered opium five grains

Powdered alum ditto

Suet and milk, boiled half a pint.

Sheep are subject to both the acute and chronic scouring; and La?nbs are also
liable to a similar looseness with calves. In either case, the rules already laid
down exactly apply, making one-third of the quantities of the remedies of the ex-
hibiting dose.

CRIBBITING.

This peculiar action is very generally, but, in my opinion, erroneously, sup-
posed to arise from' a small quantity of air drawn into the stomach : and is hence
called sucking the wind. But, I believe this idea of it to be very incorrect ; and
that, on the contrary, it consists in the simple eructation or forcing out of a small
quantity of gas, let loose from mordid combinations within the stomach, which,
as it proves a source of irritation, to aid its expulsion, the horse applies his teeth
to a fixed point, by which he gains the help of some of the muscles of the fauces
to open and straighten the oesophagus, while, at the same time, by means of the
abdominal muscles, he presses on the stomach, and forces out a Uttle of the irri-
tating air. To prevent the action, it is common to place a tight strap around the
throat, which prevents the horse from attempting the dilatation of the pharynx.
Exactly the same process takes place in ourselves, except that we have no occa-
sion, from the peculiar shape of our pharyngeal opening, to gain a fixed point for
the teeth ; but, in every other respect, human eructation in dyspepsia is conducted
in the same manner.

It is considered a vice, a habit acquired, &c. ; but I believe that it always com- .
raences in dyspepsia, the consequence of long living on dry food, &c. I never
knew an instance of its being contracted at grass ; but turning out to indifferent
keep in a straw-yard is a very common cause. It may be traced to a course of
chaff" feeding, bad hay, musty oats, and long confinement during frosts. Crib-
biters rarely carry much flesh ; but it can never be supposed that the mere action
of cribbiting, were it either a vice or an amusement, could deprive them of flesh.
The faulty digestion at once keeps them thin, and makes them prone to assume
this dyspeptic symptom, which, once acquired, is lasting from habit, even al-
though we could remove the original cause. Under this view, we recommend

Class V.] intestinal iiERNiiE. 383

that the habit be attended to only as far as regards the consequences which are
Hkelv to ensue from the wear of his teeth ; to say nothing of mangers, &c. lo
suppose that the stopping of the action wiU do more, is fallacious; for however
we may succeed in this, the horse remains as he was in flesh. To prevent the
cribbitin<^, nothing more is necessary than to place a strap of two and a half inches
broad around the throat, tightened only to the degree necessary to prevent the
action, which it does by rendering it painful to distend and straighten the pha-
rynx confining the auxihary muscles. A very ingenious collar-machine is now
made, the invention of Mr. Yare, which, I am informed, effectuaUy prevents crib-
biting, and does him great credit : it is far superior to the former methods. Mr.
Stewart also describes an apparatus to prevent cribbiting.

MORBID DISPLACEMENTS OF THE INTESTINES, &c.

Intestinal Hernia.

Heniia, in its strict sense, is a protrusion of any viscus whatever out of its
natm-al cavity; hence we have hernia of the brain, of the lungs, and of the va-
rious viscera of the abdominal cavity. Many of these our confined knowledge
has not yet made us familiar with ; and if we take human pathology as our guide,
there are others which structural peculiarities prevent the appearance of*.
Hernia, as we propose to consider it, is a displacement of the intestines from
the abdominal cavity, either through some of the natural openings or through
artificial ones, the effect of accidentf. When such protrusion takes place
through a moderate opening, and the portion of gut can be readily returned, it is
called a reducible hernia ; but when it occurs through a small opening, and can-
not be replaced, it is irreducible. If the mouth of the sac around the intestine
constringe, and produce inflammation of the gut, it then forms a strangulated
hernia, and usually proves fatal, unless relief be promptly obtained. I here beg
to observe, that for the more complete illustration of what is to follow, I would
refer the student to the anatomy of the abdominal ring and inguinal canal, as de-
tailed at p. 248. The hernia by far the most common in the horse is the inguinal,
of which oscheocele, or scrotal, is most frequently observed in the stallion, and
bubonocele, or that of the groin, in the geldingj. In the former, the intestine
accompanies the spermatic rope by the inguinal canal through the abdominal
ring into the scrotum : in the latter it lodges in the groin. Epiplocele is very
rare, from the confined limits of that organ, and is never hui-tful ; but it is errone-

• M. Girard, in his elaborate Treatise on Inguinal Hernia; in the Horse, ffc., to whom the
veterinary world arc imlebted for a series of systematic instruction on this subject, observes, 'Tlic
resistance offered from the density and peculiar disposition of the muscular parietes of the splanchnic
cavity, explains why injjuinal hernia! are so unfrequent in monodactyles, and why other hernia, such
as crural, opturator, and pubic, are unknown.

f I have frequently seen hernial tumours the consequence of a violent push or goad made with a
blunt instrument, as the knobbed or armed horn of a vicious, cow, &c. Mention is also made by
Mr. Percivall of a horse at the Veterinary College, shewn to him by Mr. Sewell, with a hernia, the
size of a small apple, behind the cartilages of the false ribs, between the fibres of the internal oblique
and transverse muscles. Remarkable as it is, I well remember, when I resided at the College also,
and occupied the same situation, lately so much more ably filled by Mr. Sewell, that one of the first
cases brought there for examination was exactly of a similar kind in cause, size, and situation, and
which resisted all the efforts of M. St. I5el and myself for a long time to restrain within its limits;
until we bad a firm leatbfrn jiad made, which being girthed round with webbing, produced such pres-
sure as completely det.ained it within the abdominal cavity.

J On the European continent, throughout Arabia and India also, hernia is very common, from the
cnstom of using en^jre horses; whereas in the British isles, where castration is so common, the
inguinal canal is too much narrowed by the operation lo make it a frequent occurrence with u.s ; and
when it does take place, the intestine cannot, in general rases, pass beyond the groin, from the con-
tractions of the parts and the adhesions formed. That displacement of some parts through the narrow
openings natural to the cavities, and the actual rupture of other boundaries, do occur, we cannot
wonder at ; on the contrary, when we consider the force of the exertions made by the horse in our
■ service, we are only surprised that they are not more frequent. We are apt to conceive that, in Eng-
land, our method of shutting up the abdominal opening saves us many horses ; but 1 am of opinion
this freedom from hernia, not always a fatal complaint, is gained at the expense of ruptured dia-
phragms, which are always fatal. I therefore believe, that here we have more frequently diaphrag-
matic lesion; and in India, France, &c. hernial protrusion is most prevalent.

384 INTESTINAL HERNI^E. [CLASS V.

ous to think it impossible ; at least, we are informed by M. Girard that it is not
imknown. Enterocele may, therefore, be considered as the principal hernia to
which the horse is liable. It is very rarely seen on both sides ; but, according
to M. Gu-ard, it is more frequently on the right than on the left side ; and
scarcely ever appears in mares*.

The causes which produce herniae are various, but aU arise from violences
offered to the abdominal walls. With us the efforts used in racing, and the
leaps taken in hunting, are causes, as we may readily suppose, when we consider
that the dilatation of the abdomen, restrained as it is by weight and ti<^ht girtli-
ings, must press backwards the intestinal mass. Rearing and kicking also, and
the being cast for operations, particularly the rising up after castration, have all
brought it onf.

The symptoms of strangulated hernia are very similar to those of an acute en-
teritis : there are the same uneasiness, shifting of position, getting up and lying
down again. The horse rolls in the same manner, and in turning on his back,
sometimes seems to get a momentary respite from pain ; yet it is but momentar\ ',
for the suffering is not one of remission, it is constant, which will serve as one
distinguishing mark between it and spasmodic colic, with which it has been con-
founded. In stallions, a pathognomonic symptom is, that the testicle on the
hernial side is drawn up to the abdomen, and is retained there, with only mo-
mentary fits of relaxation ; towards the last the pulse is quick and wiry ; the
horse paws, looks at his flanks, but seldom kicks at his beUy. We assure our-
selves of hernia by an oblong tumour in the groin, of larger or smaller bulk; hard
or soft, as it may contain either faeces or gas, in which latter case it wiU be
elastic. WTien the tumour is raised by the hand, or pressed, a gurgling sound is
emitted ; or if the horse be coughed, whether it be gaseous or stercoral, it wiU
be sensibly increased in dimensions.

The treatment of strangulated hernia. As we derive our best precedents
and instructions on this subject from Indian and continental practitioners and
writers, we will follow in their track, and first consider our hernial patient as
in his entire state, and describe the various manipulations for his rehef in the
following order: first, the examination of the state of the hernial sac; se-
condly, the application of means preparatory to the taxis ; thirdly, the taxis
itself; fourthly, the operation of dilating the stricture; and, fifthly, the appli-
cation of these various processes to strangulated hernia in the gelding. What
I have to offer on these various points will be drawn principally from the above
sources ; where the practice is as common, and the subject as familiar, as it is
rare among us.

The treatment of hernia in a stallion.— First, the examination of the hernial sac :
on this subject M. Girard directs as belowj. But although it may be attempted
to examine into the actual existence and state of hernia while the horse remains
standing, yet as there may be a necessity, in some cases, to cast him for the pur-

• An ingenious translator and commentator on Givard's Treatise remarks, on this assertion, ' Tli:it
its preference for the riglit side is probalily owing to tlie liabit of horses making tlicir preparatory
efforts to progression by the extiemitiea of tlie riglit side ; i. e. tlicy usually lead with the right. Its
rarity in nrarcs is dependent, in all probability, both on the diminished size of the Inguinal canal, and
the elevation of tlie pelvis.

f M. Girard notices, as one cause of hernia, the colics of horses. We cannot see the connexion,
further than that tlie rolling and plunging in these cases, which probably may inlluencc its production
in the stallion ; but we arc not accustomed to observe it as a cause here. I would also observe, that
our want of much experience in this complaint may very probably make us pass over many cases oi
hernia, which we attribute to enteritis, colics, &c. &c ; but in this instance, the heinial ayniptom-i
would not come on immediately ; and the intervening time would probably be marked by a teniissioii
of such symptoms, as the strangulation would be also marked by a train of somewhat new ones, in
which the pulse would be thready, and the pain constant, and at first would he probably without spas-
modic acuteness.

t In this manipulation, which can leave no doubt about the presence of bubonocele, both hands arc
employed; one is introduced into the rectum, the other into the sheath. Tlie one williin tlie rectiini
must seek' the internal ring ; while the other, pursuing the course of the chord on the side affected, i';
to be pushed up to the external ring ; and thus, in the natural state, the opposed lingers may be made
nearlv to meet, and so estimate the size of the opening. However small the protruded portion of gul,
the practitioner will be able to detect the bubonocele, and even to reduce it, by proceeding srcuu'lmii
artem, and taking the necessary precautions, to be liereafter pointed out. T/iis v.rploralion mat/ lir
made in tin: standing posture; but it will In; conducted with more fiicility and ci riainty if
the animal lie cast, whick is the prcfcralilc mode of proceeding.

Class V.] intestinal hkrni^. 385

pose, it will be well to coiimicnce the treatment by a very full bleeding, to tlic
amount of eight or ten quarts, which will relax all the parts, and prevent so much
muscular resistance as might otherwise be experienced. Secondly, the applica-
tion of means preparatory to the taxis: these are the bleeding, already mentioned;
partially paralysing the parts by injections of tobacco ; or lessening the volume
of distention by dashing with cold water ; or, if the horse be already cast, by
spreading ice over the belly, as I have myself practised on the human patient
with great success. Thirdly, the taxis ; or riuinuul efforts to return the displaced
gut. To fulfil this indication, we arc, from the same source, directed to proceed
thus*. If the taxis should be fortunate enough to reduce the hernia, and it be
not intended to castrate the horsef, apply a well-wadded pledget, or folded
cloth, to the part, which may be retained with a bandage crossed between the
legs from side to side, and fastened by one part under the belly to a girth ; and
also passing between the legs, it may be again made fast to the back portion of
the same girth ; the intention of which is, to prevent the protrusion of the gut
by the exertion of rising, and consequently it should be removed as soon as that
danger is over. If a radical cure were attempted, of course the clams would
supersede this, cither in the stallion or gelding. Being turned on the opposite
side to the affected one, the horse should be allowed to lie as long as he chooses,
the straw on that side being removed, and the hobbles unbuckled, which, if
gently done, and the horse caressed while doing, will not disturb him. His
after-treatment must be for some time of the mildest kind : for a week, hay and
bran mashes alone should be his food, during which he should be kept perfectly
quiet ; but afterwards he may be gently walked out during his confinement :
watch the pulse and the state of the bowels, that we may be ready to obviate
inflammation by the lancet, &c., and costiveness, by mild laxatives. It would
be well, to prevent the exertion of lying down and rising up, to tie the horse up
to the manger until the parts have somewhat re-established themselves. Fourth-
ly, the operation of d/ilating the stricture in strangidated enterocele. The means
ah-eady detailed having failed, it remains that we proceed further ; to effect
which, we shall again call our guide, the Professor of Alfort, to our assistancej,

• The liorse is to lie thrown uiioii tlie opposite siJe to tliiit Oisorderoil ; and after one liind leg has
teen drawn and fixed forward, as for castration, he is to be turned npon liis back, and in that position
maintained by trusses of straw, while otlier trusses arc placed under him to raise the ctonp. With
both a'ms well oiled, or covered with some miicilaginnns decoction, the operator will now commence
•Jiis exploration, taking the precaution of emptyiu); the rectum as hp proceeds. As soon as he shall
have ascertained that it is a case of hernia, and assiire<l himseU that the gut protruded throuKh the
ring Is undergoing neither stricture nor strangulation, lie may endeavour to disengage tlie hernial part,
J)y softly drawing it inward within the cavity, at the same time pusliiug it in the like direction witii
the hand within the sheath. Should he experience much difficulty in the-e attempts, he is to desist,
violence being too often the forerunner of strangulation and gangrene. He must bear in mind also'
tliat although the reduction is effected, unless it be followed bv immediate ca<tiation, it does notahvavs
prove to be a cure for bubonocele : the protrusion recurs after a time, and occasionally even the mo-
ment the animal has risen.

f The castration of the horse is intended to render the operation more eflfective, by preventing the
liability of its imwierfiaye recurrence when rising up, or any efforts Uiat may he made ■ and equally
also to prevent its future recurrence. This, which forms the radical cure of hernia, is much iirac-
tised in France, but less so in India. We are, however, to remember, that in the performance of it
we add other chances to the tendency already excited to peritimitis and enteritis; were it not for this
every case of hernia should be accompanied by castration. The special precautions given bv
M. Girard in this case, of accompanying castration, are, ' that, in cutting through the scrotum and
aartos, the hernial sac be not opened ; at the same time, that the separation of the sac from the dartos
fie as complete as possible, to give the utmost effect to the clams. 7olnck should hh fixed c/osr to
the ring. It need not be added, how iinpctative it is that no intestine he included between the cheeks
or the clam.

.1,* .'•'''^ '>«i"e "P"" •"v<'lf. there will arise many advantages if we can manage to pass
the hobble-rope, coming from the hind leg of the hernial side, over a beam or through a ring wherehv
we may have the power of extending it at pleasure, and abducting it from the opposite liinb' lOvei V
thing ready, and the assistants properly posted, the operator retaining Uie most handy of them in
attendance on him, he will extend an incision, begun about opposite to the external ring, down along
the n.id. Ic of the anterior surface of the cord, for the space of two or three inches; at tlie same time
provided there be no intestine actually within the scrotum, the testicle may he-drawn out. The -kin
being thus divided, the operator will next carefully cut through the dartos, by whi<di he will exnose
the vaginal tunic, now the hernial sac. which is recognized at once by its dense albugiiieous texture
I he most scrupulous nicety is rerjuired in opening the sac to guard against wounding tliciiut ami
especially when the parts are inucli distended, -nie best mode „f proceeding is, first, with the ni'idd e
Of the bl.idc, to scrape through some of the exterior fibres, and afterwards, with the fmcei.s dissect
ap, layer by layer, nntil we arrive at the innermost serous laver, immediatelv envelopinir the iriii •
into this a hole is to be made only large enough to admit the director, by the aid of which, (■itiier with

H b

386 INTESTINAL HERNI^E. [ClASS V.

which being concluded according to methods detailed below, brings us to the
treatment of strangidated hernicE in geldings, involving our tifth consideration ;
on which M. Girard observes, ' Inguinal hernia takes the same course, is sus-
ceptible of the same terminations, and requires the same treatment, as in stone-
horses. The taxis is to be employed, and will be done so with most effect by
the operator (the horse lying upon his back) extending the hernial sheath with
one hand, while he manipulates with the other ; or, should this fail, by instruct-
ing his assistant to hold up the hernial mass from the belly, so as to take its
pressure off the ring, and thus give him an opportunity to renew his efforts with
more effect. In some cases, the introduction of one hand into the rectum be-
comes necessary. The reduction of the hernia should be followed up imme-
diately by the application of the clams, if we unite with the reduction an attempt
at permanent cure of the hernia ; taking care, at the time, to draw out the
part of the scrotum to which the vaginal sheath is adherent, and to push up the
clams as close as possible to the belly ; which are then to be closed, as for cas-
tration. Should the enterocele prove irreducible, we must proceed to open the
sac, and having, with the finger, ascertained the nature of the stricture, set about
releasing the gut by incision, according to the rules of practice for recent stran-
gulated hernia. After reduction, the clams are to be applied upon the cord,
with the precaution, that the opening made in the sac be included.' If we con-
template only the relieving the horse from the effects of present strangulation,
we close the wound by the suture ; and after all the cautions detailed with the
operation for the relief of recent strangulation in the stallion, we allow the ani-
mal to rise. We would recommend the student who wishes for more extended
instruction on the subject of herniae to apply to the work of Girard, as well as to
some valuable communications from India, to be met with in various numbers of
The Veterinarian ; more particularly we would recommend the student to a most
able and descriptive account of the operation for recent strangulated enterocele
in The Veterinarian, vol. ii, p. 30. — Of that most distressing event, the hernia of
castration, I shall have something to say when I describe that operation.

Of congenital hernia, my limits allow of little more than the mention ; nor
need more be detailed, as its consequences are seldom injurious. It appears
that ingtiinal hernia commonly exists in the foetus in utero. M. Lineguard, V. S.,
of Normandy, where breeding is very extensively pursued, has ascertained that

a bistoury ov the scissors, the oreninR is to be sufficicnlly dilated. The incarcerated intestine,
evolvinff under the knife, is now to be drawn out of the sac, and maintained extended by the pressure
of a linen cloth moistened with some simple nincilaeinous liquid, in order to facilitate pcltinjc at the
stricture The operator is now to pass one or two fingers into the hernial sac, and carry them
onward to the seat of the striolnre. a^'ainst which he must keep them steadily maintained, so llial
thev may serve as a director to a prolic-pointed bistoury, which is to be passed Hatwise along them,
with its edse turned outwards, and thus insinuated within tlie stricture. Being certain that the
bistoury has' passed the neck of the hernia, he has nothins furtlier to do than to turn its edge forwards,
still keepintf it inclined outwards ; and immediately he finds the stricture divided, the liheratcd gut
slips hack into the belly, either all at once or by degrees. Some cases will be found to reciune au
extension of the incision, or some further division of the stricture: much discretion, however, is
re'inis te in tliesc secondary cuts, inasmuch as the return of the hernia is ahvavs to be less apprehended
after smtill inciMons Should the gut not spontaneously recede, a little dexterous manipulation may
accomnlish its'return: it will never he required, however, to pass the liand into the rectum. The
bowe^hav 1 K retmncd, the propriety of castration will be decided on by the state of tlic cord, epid,-
vinis and testicle Should thev be ingurged, livid, and marked with purple spots, the operation
becomes indispensable ; because it may. performed in time, prove a preventive of c uigestion, pen-
onit r annaiiJ ei^^ It is to be practised only on the side affected, and in the ordinary manner, with
the clanis /< W!rM/e couvcrl. Under other circumstances, although the parts may evince com-
press o still so long as there are no signs of mortification, castration is not called for. VVhenev, .
tl,rtest cle s not removed, the opening in the scrotum is to be closed by suture : and it commonlv

f m to not to enlarge the strictnrcd opening beyond what is actually requisite for

?he e urV f t f^^^ it has happened, from want of due caution in this particular, t lat he

intestines have appeared ane and been followed by fresh protrusions, until they have reached the
Ground This ter ihle evil has hanpeued also from the struggles ot the animal at the moment : the best
nJeventWe to wh ch is, the use of the concealed bistoury . whose sections are regulated by a screw.
See Mr Mo Iv™ account, Veterinarian, vol. ii. The operation finished, he horse should he
^ttirtn vim iln ni ostrate as long as it can be done without gre.at fatigue and irritation o hnn wli ch
made to P'f, J ,7,;,^^^ and the means made use of to soothe him. The limb which

will greatly -^f ''^7, ji Vmay be r^^^^ his body allowed to incline to the opposite side !o that

Terten whic^ win^^^^^^^^^^ lessen ?«tigue and iriit^Uion. The greatest cauti.ui, as already hinted,
w uttquired i'« l-e eneouraged to do it without hurry or unnecessary

effort Hi" future treatment must accord with the views already detailed.

Class VI.] jaundice. 387

(»ntcrocele is invariably present at birth ; even in abortions, and in subjects still
born The cttiigeuilai euterocde, M. Girard says, is an attendant on birth, in-
cicasiu" up to the third or sixth month*, but afitervvards diminishing, and ulti-
mately vanishing. Should it continue beyond a year or eighteen mouths, it is
to be regarded as a chronic or permanent hernia. Chronic or permanent hernia,
it may be remarked, forms a very prominent feature in M. Girai-d's treatise ;
but as regards the importance of chronic enterocele, our observations being so
much limited to geldings, we see little of it, and consequently know httle of it.
It is evident, that neither in the case of its appearing, either here or in a stal-
lion, would it be prudent to resort to any operation for the removal of it, unless
that it either became strangulated ; or otherwise that, by frequent colics, &c.
it rendered the horse (perhaps a valuable one) useless to the owner, and bur-
thensome to himself.

MOKBID DlSPiACEMEKTS OF THE luTESTlNES AMONG THEMSELVES.

The intestines, in consequence of their peristaltic motion, become sometimes
entangled together, and a fatal strangulation takes place ; it also happens, occa-
sionally, from some of the mesenteric folds entwining them : but it is much
oftener the consequence of spasmodic action during colics that these inversions.,
involutions, invaginations, and intussusceptions occur. When thus aifeeted, it is
not unusual for the ileum to become reversed in its peristaltic motion, in which
case a posterior portion, then contracted by spasm, becomes forced into an an-
terior portion less constringed, and an impenetrable obstruction is thence formed.
An io-norant pretender may then taunt the best practitioner with not being able
to cure a disease of every-day occurrence, and which every ignoramus has a
boasted specific for. We may draw a practical inference from this and such
like cases — that in spasm we should attempt an early relief ; and likewise that
we should endeavour, in all cases of failure in bowel affections, invariably to
make a post-moi-tem examination : and this we may do on two grounds— repeated
cases may afford us pathognomonic symptoms, and then, although we cannot
relieve, we may offer a prognosis, which will convince our employers it is not
our ignorance of the case, but our confined means of treatment within important
cavities. It may also happen, that by becoming more intimately acquainted
with the symptoms peculiar to these displacements, we may hereafter attempt,
by introducing the hand, to mechanically free them. Would the introduction
of a quantity of quicksilver, in that spasmodic constriction of the ileum known
in the human as the iliac passion, and which old practice has been lately revived,
have any effect in the iUac spasmodic colic of the horse ? or would it fail, from
the horizontal position of the intestines here ? It would certainly promise more
than the introduction of an eel, to thread the intestinal mazes, as has been done.

CLASS VI.
DISEASES OF THE GLANDS.

JAUNDICE.

Icterus, by farriers called the yelloivs, as a distinct affection, is unfrequcnt
in the hor.se, from his hepatic system yielding only hepatic but no cystic bile.
As a symptomatic affection, it is, however, more frequent ; for whenever any

• Ilurtrcl d'Arlioval observes, ' On nc poiirrait pas ex|iIiquor aiiasi pourqiioi I'oii ne rencontre
jamai? ric licrnics oruralos dans Ic fcetus ue lajuinent, tandis il n'est pas riire (I'y troiivi'r dcs
hernies inguinales, omiiilicalcs,' &c. In the Hevucil dc M6(l. I'l't. 1H28, it aays, ' Tlicc nwellinffs
occa!4ioiialiy appear in tlic scrotum of the cnlt a few days alter tlje l)iitli. Sometimes they occupy
one side only of tlie \r,ifi ; occasionally both are di-tcnded. In a few instances, the scrotum becomes
as large as a child's bead Tbese arc true scrotal heiniin. A portion of llic intestine descends into the
lerotum. Bandages and topical applications are perfectly useless, or produce irritiitioM and pain.
At an nncertain period, the swelling begins spontaneously to diminish, and at length entirely dis-
appears. Wher« it has occupied both sides of the scrotum, it is more slowly reduced; and the
reauction of one side seems to be perfectly independent of the oihw.

II b 2

388 JAUNDICE. [Class V[.

great abdominal inflammations occur, the liver is very liable to participate ; bile
then passes into the bloodvessels, and from thence is thrown on tiie skin. Oc-
casionally also a more slow and primary affection of this organ occurs, and the
biliary secretion appears either increased in quantity, altered in quality, or
obstructed ; and the consequence is, that the evacuations are irregular either iu
quantity or quality. This state is betokened by listlessness, dyspepsia, irregular
appetite, and early fatigue under exercise : there is some biliary suff'usion in the
membranes of the eyes, nose, and mouth.

In our treatment of such a case, we must attempt to produce a healthy action
in the liver, or we must remove its obstruction. To promote these intentions
(as in the greater number of cases costivcness is present), begin by giving tlic
following : —

No. 1. — Calomel (suhnmriate of quiclisiloer) one drachm

Aloes two di-achms

Powdered gentian ditto

Castile soap ditto.

Form into a ball, and give night and morning until the bowels are actively
pm-ged ; and then continue only so much of the same, for a week or ten days,
as will keep them lax, but not in a purging state. If the symptoms be such as
bespeak chronic inflammation or incipient hepatization, bleed, and blister tlu;
sides : a rowel also in the belly may be applied. In cases where costivcuess is
not present, but, on the contrary, a relaxed state of the bowels appears, give
the following, which is also proper as a tonic for the latter stages of the fornu-r
kind of affection : —

No. 2. — Submuriatc of quicksilver (^calomel) twelve grains

Sulphate of copper {blue vitriol) one drachm

Gentian, in powder three drachms

Oak bark, ditto ditto

Chamomile, ditto i ditto.

Make into a ball, and give night and morning, unless the calomel should affect
the mouth, in which case give only one a-day ; and should the looseness increase
on this plan, add powdered opium, half a drachm to each ball. In all cases of
yellows, a change of food is proper, and generally necessary. In winter, spear
the corn, or give carrots ; in summer, soil, or turn out to grass ; but, in such
case, avoid exposure to the night air, and make use of moderate clothing so
long as the calomel is continued.

Jaundice in Oxen and Sheep.

These animals having a gall-bladder and cystic duct, are more liable to bihary
obstructions than horses, and hence this complaint is more frequent among them.
It is very common in some of the cold provinces on the Continent, where these
animals are stall-fed in winter ; from which, numbers of them are attacked with
it in the spring. The cure is promoted, in these cases, by turning them into
grass lands. In England, it is less often the consequence of confinement than
of a slow inflammation of the liver. In such instances, therefore, treat exactly
as detailed under this head in horses, regarding, at the same time, the strength
and size of the beast.

INFLAMMATION OF THE SPLEEN.

I NEVER met with this disease in my own practice, but I have lately heard of
a very well-authenticated one, in which the symptoms so exactly resembled he-
patitis, as to be mistaken by a very observant practitioner for that. An active
and judicious treatment was promptly pursued, but the violence of the disease
destroyed the horse on the fourth day. On examination, the spleen was highly
inflamed and nearly gangrenous, while the surrounding viscera were unaffected.

Class VI.] HiEMATURiA in cattle. 389

\ chronic eulargement of the spleen is less rare, and produces symptoms
not unlike jaundice, even to the yellow tinge of the skin. Rupture also of the
spleen occasionally occurs.

ILEMATURIA, OR RED WATER IN CATTLE.

Red Water, as it is provincially called, is usually described as of two kinds ;
an acute and a chronic. This distinction is not however patronized by many
reputed veterinarians, although Mr. Youatt, a practitioner of much celebrity,
and one who has written well on the subject, treats of it under these varieties.
It appears to be a disease of the digestive organs, more than an afiFection of the
kidneys, and is, as we apprehend, justly attributed to derangement of the hver
and stomachs. It often is ushered in by diarrhoea, to which, in most cases,
constipation succeeds. Although it is not, as we have premised, considered to
be in the first instance a true hepatic affection, yet, when it has taken deep hold
of the digestive system generally, the liver becomes affected also, and its secre-
tions are unhealthy, and morbidly stimulate the intestines, when the early cos-
tiveness often complained of gives place to an obstinate diarrhoea, differing in
its morbidity from the early looseness by which the disease is ushered in ; hence
haematuria as a tenn is by many cavilled at, that being characteristic of a lesion
of the bloodvessels of the kidneys, which certainly may become affected second-
arily, but do not appear to be primarily so. A French veterinarian, M. Drouard,
draws a very distinct picture of the complaint something after the following man-
ner. ' It is rare,' he observes, ' that we are called in at the commencement of
this disease ; but when we do first see our patient, the following lesions usually
present themselves. The pulse is slightly irregular— the urine high-coloured,
or assuming a reddish tint — the animal preserving for a short time its spirits and
appetite — the muzzle is abundantly moistened with its natural dew : but pre-
sently the breathing becomes accelerated— the pulse is small and wiry — the
urine takes ou a bloody colour — the coat stares— the muzzle now becomes dry —
the secretion of milk, if the patient be a cow, diminishes, as does also the appe-
tite, and there are occasional shivering fits, with alternations of cold and heat at
the horns and the ears. The appetite by degrees entirely ceases — the secretion
of milk is suppressed, or a very few drops only are yielded, and they are fi-e-
quently rather of a muddy reddish hue. The urine becomes of a more decidedly
blood colour; and afterwards it darkens even beyond that, and eventually is
almost black : the pulse is small and frequent, as many as 80 in the minute —
the beatings of the heart, however, can be heard at a considerable distance —
the urine is voided frequently, and without pain — the loins vrill not bear pres-
sure— the patient becomes exceedingly weak — the skin and the mucous mem-
branes are deathy pale— the animal moans lowly and frequently— it at length
lies down without the power of rising — the eyes are buried in their sockets, and
the poor creature rapidly wastes away, becomes exhausted, and dies.' — Veteri-
narian, vol. xi.

Treatment of acute hcematuria. — With all due deference to our continental
vets, for an excellent expose of this disease, we will turn to our own schools for
directions regarding its cure. The treatment as pursued by many veterinarians
in the cattle counties is thus laid down by one of them. ' If constipation has
ensued previous to my being called in, and there is any excitement, I bleed ac-
cording to the age, strength, &c., and confine my patient to an open shed or cool
cow-house, strictly debarring all food of a solid nature, but allowing plenty of
whey porridge, oatmeal gruel, &c. as diluents. If the animal will not take
these things in sufficient quantities, I have them horned into her, and, as a
purgative, give the following, — not for any supposed specific effect, but as a more
certain purgative than salts alone, my motive also in giving the carbonate of
ammonia being solely to insure the action of the physic, wliich it cither docs, or
I fancy that it does, — R Magncs. suljjh. Jvi vol viiH- sulph. sublim. Jiv vel vi,
pulv. zingib. Jss, annnon. carb. Ji. Mix and form a powder, to bo administered
as the case may require. Enemas of warm water or gruel should also be admi-

DIABETES— PROFUSE STALING. [CLASS VI.

nistercd. \ have seen hydrarg. sub. given in a pint of yeast produce purgatioti
when other remedies have failed, and saved life where the ca.se wjib apparently
hopeless. Purgation being fairly established, the practitioner must exercise his
own discretion as to the further administration of medicine, although I nmst
confess that I am in favour of mild stinmlants, or, as they are generally called
nourishing drinks.' — Vetcrmanan, \o\. x\u. '

BLOODY URINE IN HORSES.

Farriers term this pissing of blood: here it arises sometimes from pure
topical inflanunation of the kidneys, in which case it must be treated as under
that head : it may accompany a stone in the cavity of the pelvis of a kiduev.
or an ulceration of any of the urinary passages ; but these are unusual causes"
Violent exercise, by rupturing the small vessels of these glands, produces it more
often, and therefore it frequently follows hard riding.

The cure must consist in restoring the healthy action of the parts, and pro-
moting a healing of the vessels ; and, particularly, in avoiding violent exercise
and heavy weights. Diuretics are always hurtful. Mild astringents are proper,
as alum, catechu, dragon's blood, logwood, &e. I have also known great benefit
to be derived from a large, strengthening plaister across the loins. In one in-
stance, the following, given once a-day, produced excellent effects, after many
other means had failed : —

Acetate of lead ten gi'ains

Vitriolated zinc two scruples

Catechu four drachms.

Make into a ball with conserve of roses.

In another obstinate case, permanent cure was effected by turning to gras.s,
having first covered the loins with a strengthening charge.

DIABETES— PROFUSE STALING.

Diabcles insipidus is not an uncommon disease in the horse but diabetes mcl-
litus is very rare; indeed, it is altogether disputed by some, but I believe with-
out just grounds : on the contrary, though rare, we have reason to think it occa-
sionally takes on the true characters of diabetes mellitus*. In its usual form, it
appears as an iuunoderate flow of the urinary secretion, sometimes limpid, at
others turbid, and of a whey-hke appearance ; I have seen it in both these forms.
It usually originates in some extraordinary stimulus applied to those organs con-
cerned in the separation of the urinary fluid from the blood, commencing some-
times with the digestive organsf ; but more generally the effect appears confined
to the kidneys, which become topically affected from some diurectic stimulants
taken into the stomach, either in the form of food, as mow-burnt hay, some vege-
lable matters browsed from hedges and fields, or otherwise from diuretics too
active or too often repeated. In. its worst form, it is attended with an immense
flow of urine, insatiable thirst, and rapid emaciation, with an increase of ap|x;tifc
at first, but a sickly one as the disease proceeds. In stable language it is called
jaw-piss. Ship-oats when heated, and some particular plants in hay, are also sup-

• CJibsnn dcsorilics the ' truf diabetes' as a discaxe difficult nf ciirc, and as the consCf]ueiice of
' loi)(?-coiitinm'd sickness, old snrfeits, or hard labonr." Hnrtrel d'Aiboval desciibcs It thns: ' niii-
h6tc, excictioii d iirin pale, d'nn goflt insipide et doucedlre, sncrfe on mielle. Le diab^te nc doit
pas etie confondu avec I'incontinencc d'nrine, ni avec les linx rt'nrine dans lesqnelles ce liqnide est
niomcntanfeincnt evacne en qnantitfe plus considerable que les boissous prcses medialenient avant on
dcpuis pen.'

■(• When I speak of its originating in the digesting organs, I do not mean that nioiliid state brought
on by structural derangement, consequent to the usual debilitating causes of human diabetes, but to
one )M odiiced by privations of good food and substitution of bad. Mr. Denny has observed moie tlian
a bundled cavalry hoi ses labouring under it at one time, the consequence of bad forage: and it hn»
followed damp and uiiivbolesoinc lying at picqiict : could it be here occasioned by the uiorbid action
of the skin on the stomach ? Mr. {!astley described it as particularly prevalent in the IJritish cavalry
lior.'^es wliieb occupied I'"rance subsequent to the battle of Waterloo, and where it was ascribed to
rotten forage. .Such was the constitutional distnrbance, that the horses rapidly declined, lost their
flesh and appetite, and niiuiy went blind.

Class VII.] dropsy of the head. 391

nosed to occasion it : hard brackish water is also thought to do it. _ Lime water
has been used with effect as a remedy, and other astringents noted m our Veteri-
narv Medical Pharmacopoeia may also be brought in aid.

treatment.— As the cause, in general cases, is not very occult, it would be a
nrudent precursor to review the circumstances connected with the general ma-
nagement of our patient. Has he or she been subjected to any great privation ;
or been brought low by immoderate work, or by strong purgatives, or diuretics .-'
Is the food good ? Examine the hay, the corn, taste the water, &c. ; and if none
of these can be assigned as causes, we may begin to suspect some organic de-
rano-ement If there be merely a superabundance of urine over the liquids taken
in without much constitutional disturbance, moderate doses of catechu and alum,
with oak or willow bark, will be sufficient to cheek the flow; and the same re-
medies may be applied in cases where violent diuretics have been the cause. ' It
wiU also be prudent to apply a warm strengthening charge over the region of the
loins which I have found very serviceable in the urinary fluxes m old horses. _ M
the urine be very turbid, particularly if it have any tendency to a saccharine
taste, and there is evident wasting of the body, loss of appetite giving reason to
suspect much derangement of the digestive and assimilating powers, try the fol-
lowing, given in a strong infusion of chamomile, every day :—

Sulphuretted potash (liver of sulphur) two drachms

Uva ursi, in powder four drachms

Oak bark, ditto one ounce

Catechu, ditto two drachms

Opium, ditto half a drachm.

Feed liberally with wheat or barley, or ground beans, but more particularly
the former given in lieu of oats, intermixing the corn, feeding with occasional
small soilings, or carrots, beet, &c. If this, after a sufficient trial, does not be-
nefit, try the following night and morning, clothing the body warmly. Warm
stabling and sufficient clothing are proper in all these cases ; but in obstinate
jind \'iolent ones, an extra quantity of surface-warmth is medicinal : lime water
has also proved beneficial.

Nitrate of quicksilver ten grains

Extract of belladonna y- ten grains.

Conserve of roses to form a ball.

CLASS VII.

DISEASED COLLECTIONS OF FLUID WITHIN
CIRCUMSCRIBED CAVITIES.

DROPSY OF THE HEAD.

Hydrocephulus internum is a rare disease in the adult horse as an idiopathic
dropsy*, but is much less so as an acquired one : it is also sometimes coiige-
nitalf. It appears, in most cases, to be the effect of some morbid irritation of
the brain or its membranes, terminating in serous effusion within the ventricles,
or between the membranes. Such irritation may be acute or it may be chronic;
as it may be sufficiently violent to produce the active symptoms of phrenitis

• The Frcncli writiniH olTsr, liowpvor, several wctl-nmrked cases of Inic itlinimtliicdropsy of the
head, prinri|ially in coUs Hurtrel d'Arlioval gives the pai ticnliirs of two, one of wliicli fell tinder
his own notice ; the distorted cranium now forming part of his oaliini't, tlip other sent by M. Seurre,
of the r,yon school. He also mentions the case of an adult : ' Un petit nheval de t'ait, vienx, et en
manvais etat, qnisdepnis qnelqnes jours chanrelnit en mareliant : I'onvertnre dii cailavre fnt taite, pt
I'on tioiiva qne les meninges et les grands yent ieules da cei veau tonlenaicnt environ quatrc dtci-
lilres d'une serosiK- transparent.'

t 1 1 appears rongenital in the horse, oceanlonally ; lint is ohserved with considerable freipiency in
calve«. A very detailed account of one born witli a calf protruded in the fionl of the head six inches
in elevation and t IV cnty-lwo inclicsiii circnmferenre ; hut the animal exhibited no si(;nB of constitiilionnl
affection when it was punctured, anil a <|iiantity of fluid (' hnmnifnir ' ) of a liirlit yellow rnliiur,
escaped. The calf lived eight day, and died theii evidently from the ellccts of the operation and the
subsequent examination? and experiments mmie.— Hurt. d'Arboval, Vict. I'd. art. IJydrncfpkdIc.

'^^^ DROPSY OF THE CHHST. [ClASS VII.

01- luud staggers or it may occasion only a slow pouring out of the iiiterstiti-il

shew Itself in paralysis, when the Huid penetrates into or communieates with the
spnial canal. In the posf-morfem exnnwmtions of hydrocephalous subjects there
has been very oftc>n found marks of b<rth thoracic and abdo.ninal infiannnation- the
lateral ventricles have been distended with serosity; the plexus choroides usually
pale soinetimes studded with small tubercular spots; occasionally it has been
much injected : medullary matter pale, and sometimes less cohesive than natural
as though softened by an excess of fluid. On the treatment I have little to offer'
1 would refer to Phrenitis, and to the general description of Class V as leading
to indications of practice. Great difficulties exist in determining when effusion
IS about to commence, when it is established, to what extent it has proceeded
and by what means the effusion can be absorbed or passed off. It is possible
that some bold practice may yet be adopted to draw off the fluid by mechanical
means Absorption may be attempted by stimulating the surface of the head h\
vesicants, mercurial inunctions, and by exhibiting internally nauseants, purga-
tives, and diuretics; as well as by repeated small bleedings, all or any of which
as excitants of absorption, may be tried ad libitum,, at the discretion of thJ
practitioner.

DROPSY OF THE CHEST.

ILidrothorax, as a primary affection, is a rare occiurence, but, as a secondary
one, it is very common : it consists in a collection of serous fluid within the ca-
vity of one or both pleurae. It is said that it sometimes appears encysted, by
being separated from the general thoracic cavity by a membranous sac. Hydrops
pectoris forms a very common termination of pneumonia, and appears to arise in
these cases from a peculiar disposition on the part of the exhalent arteries of
the pleurae to secrete an inordinate quantity of serous interstitial fluid, during
the active symptoms of pneumonia, or towards its close. Many gallons of fluid
have been found so formed within a very short space of time. In some instances
less rapid, the fluid has been discovered mixed with pus ; and in others, coagu-
lable masses are found floating in it. It is remarkable for yielding little or no
monitory sound; indeed we ought not to expect it from an organ which has its
contents filled with fluid. It frequently succeeds to pneumonia, particularly, as
already observed, if pleuritic indications have presented themselves.

The prcvaiUng symptoms are, breathing difficult, and that in the proportion of
the water effused in the chest ; the horse is seldom found lying, and if he does
recline, it is but for a very short time. A few days of suffering reduces the
pulse very much; while swellings, almost universal, are seen over the abdomen,
the sheath, the thighs, and legs.

Treatment. — Mr. Percivall very justly observes, that this is almost an affair of
desperation; and that therefore we must early attack our enemy by the usual
means of combatting inflammatory action, as by bleeding, stimulating the bowels
by aperients, the skin by medicaments that open the cuticular pores, and ab-
sorbents that take up the injurious fluid accumulations. It is, however, seldom
that we can detect the disposition to inordinate secretion sufficiently early to
attempt any means to restrain it; and when formed, we have seldom power
enough over the absorbents to effect its removal through their agency. It is,
however, always our duty to attempt it; and as Nature now and then effects a
natural cure, we may occasionally assist her efforts. There is little doubt, in
acute cases, that it would be the most efficient practice to proceed at once to the
evacuation of the fluid by the operation of tapping the . chest; for it is in the
early stages of hydrothorax only that such operation has been successful; and
as that has been the case, and as other means have usually failed, in all instances
where the accumulation follows as an immediate termination of pneumonia, I
would reconinicnd that no time be lost. In cases of a more chronic or slow
form, we may, on the contrary, first try other remedial ' means; among which it
has been recommended to bleed, if any appearances of inflammatory action ro-

Class VII.] dropsy of the chest. 393

.nain- but it must be taken into the account, that any remaining febrile symp-
s 'are but consequences of the irritation produced by the presence of the
S and may be considered in the light of an hectic or asthenic nature, and as
S'vTOuld but ill bear the loss of blood. Nevertheless, we must not hence be
deterred from the use of other means; as nauseants to promote absorption and
mild diuretics to lessen the serum of the blood, generally bid fairer ; and which
I have tried with apparent advantage; and if they have proved in the end delu-
sive other cases may be more fortunate*. Active friction to the chest, with the
use of mild mercurial agents also, both outwardly and inwardly, may be properly
applied; and rowels also; but when these are made use of, the horse should be
liberally supported by the most nutritive food. Whatever method of treatment
we adopt, we shaU proceed on surer grounds, by first informing ourselves of the
actual state of the thoracic cavity. The means of doing which are, by examining
the pulse both by the heart and the artery; by percussion of the chest (see
Pnmmonia, p. 312), and by auscultation either by the naked eart, «r through
the medium of the stethescope. (See this word m the Mat. Med.) If the ste-
thescope emits no sound, or a very feeble one only, we sha 1 have reason to fear
that the cavity to which it is applied is nearly full of fluid, and our only hope
rests on the state of the other side; which, should it emit more sound, but in a
sh'^ht degree only, although we are warranted in letting off the fluid, or in using
aiiv other means, yet our chances of success are extremely limited.

the operation of paracentesis thoracis consists in first making a slight openm^
throucrh the integuments, which I prefer to thrusting in the trochar, which
may probably wound the lungs. The situation most ehgible for the opening is
that wherein a depending orifice may be gained for the complete evacuation ol
water, without danger of wounding important parts by the puncture. If it be
carried too low, the mediastinal folds, or even the pericardium, may be endan-
gered; but in either of the costal openings, between the seventh and tenth ribs,
neariy as low as their termination into cartilage (see plate of Skeleton), the open-
ino- may be made with an abscess lancet or a scalpel, towards the anterior edge
of^the rib, to avoid wounding the intercostal vessels, which do by first drawing
the skin a little forwards or backwards, to ensure a fiiture closing to the access
of external air. By means of this integumental opening, carefully introduce a
long and large trochar, unless the disseerion with the scalpel be carried quite
through integuments, muscles, and pleura at first; in which case, a canula only
is necessary. But if the trochar be used for the puncture of the pleura, which is,
I think, the best plan, provided it be done in an inclined manner, and with cau-
tion, direct it through the opening in the skin, over the posterior rib, upwards
and backwards. If the hydrothorax be very fully formed, that is, if the cavity
be nearly filled with serosity, less caution is necessary in the introduction of the
trochar: but if the operation be performed more early in the complaint, then it
is necessary to proceed more cautiously, to avoid puncturing the lungs. Having
introduced the trochar only so far as to observe a gush of fluid, push the canula
forward, retracting at the same time the trochar itself; after which fasten the
canula around the horse, to prevent displacement. If both thoracic cavities be
thus affected, proceed, after a proper pause, in the same manner with the other
side I. Coagula, or even the inflated lung, sometimes is found to obstruct the
flowing of the latter portions of fluid; to obviate which, a bougie or piece of
whalebone may be occasionally introduced up the canula, or the canula itself
may have a few side openings. When the whole of the fluid has been withdrawn,
remove the canula, and close the orifice by adhesive plaister and bandage, as it

• Oohier informs us that he haa been successful in hvdrothorax bv the administration of powerful
diuretics, particularly of canthnrides, with turpentine and soda; and it may he also noted, that tho
doses of canlharides he administeis, as he informs us, without serious injury, arc beyond any that our
practice icachcs to.

+ ' Lors qu'on appliquait I'orpiHc au-dcssus du sternum, on cntcndait un bruissement sourd et
traliiant comnie si I'on roulait nn liquid dans un tonneaiL'—IJurtreld'Arl/oval, art. Hydrothorax.

t It w'ill hardly be necessiiy to remind the practitioner of the intcgritv of the division of the chest
into two distinct cavities, and that consequently both must be iiuncluied if the hydrothorax be uni-
versal ; but of the proprielv of openin)t the second cavity immediately, I have much doul)t, and agree
with Uie Prencii veteiinaria'ns, that it had better be deferred until Uie next day, as will be seen by a
reference to nipte on the operation.

DROPSY or THE BELLY. [CLASS VII.

will be better to operate a second time than to admit air within the thoracic
cavity; tor although the same fears are not now entertained as formerly on this
head, yet inflanmiation IS apt to supervene, or external air gain admission be-
tween the lungs and Its pleura. If pus be formed within the chest, its evacua-
voTiiVll2 ^'^"^^ manner* (see Hippopathology, parti,

HYDROPS PERICARDII.

Carditts, or inflammation of the heart, is apt to terminate by an inordinate
effusion of serum within the membranous sac, called pericardium: it is likewise
occasionally consequent on pneumonia. If it admit not of a natural cure or of
one founded on promoting absorption, as detailed for hydrothorax, no mechanical
mean of abstracting the fluid presents itself.

DROPSY OF THE BELLY.
Ascites is to the abdomen what hydrothorax is to the chest, a morbid increase
of the serous fluids which, in due quantity, naturally pervade these cavities
As an idiopathic and primary affection, it is, like hyckothorax, rare in the horsed
but as a sequel of other affections, it is by no means uucommon. The serous
membranes of the horse appear very prone, from their vascularity, to inflam-
mation, both idiopathic and secondary; and effusion into the cavities they
garnish is a common consequence of their increased action: it is not unfre-
queut that this, taking place in one portion of membranous lining, is a signal
lor those of other cavities to take on a similar state, although the original afiec-
tion was confined either to the serous membrane of a particular cavity, or
to the_ viscera of that cavity. Thus it is not uncommon to find with diseased
abdominal effusion that there is also water in both the thoracic and the cerebral
cavities. ^Equine ascites may be brought on by the connexion which the serous
membranes have both with the skin and the kidneys, as secretory organs and
fsEcal emunctories. Whatever, therefore, interferes with the functions, may
prove a source of ventral serous accumulation. It follows also, now and
then, as a consequence of chronic hepatitis, that usual source of human

• BiirtliAlomy, in liis course of Ic'ctuies at tlio Veterinary Scliool of Paris, directs tlic operation to he
pciforined tliiis:— 'On pratiqne la ponction dii thorax, ou sur les parois costalcs, dans I'intcrvallc
()ui separe les eepti^me et luiiti^inc cotes dcs nionodactyles, au-dcssus de la sous-cntan6e du thorax.
On laissc les aniniaux debout, aiitroment \U pourraient s'asphyxier ; ils sont d'aillenrs tellemeiit
einousses qu'ils restent tranquilles. L'operateur- est potirvu dc ciseaux, d'un bistouri droit et d'un
trois-quarts ; il pent se passer de ce dernier instrument, mais la caniilc est nfecessaire : il conpe les
poils, incise la pean parallelement iV la longueur de I'intcrvalle intercostal; denx travcrs de doiet de
longueur suffiscnt. II incise aussi les muscles intcrcosteaux. Ayant rcnontre la pl^vre, et poncture,
le liqiiide sort; niais les deuxlevresde la plaic se rapprochant, il faut introduire la ca'nule ; cellc-c'i
sc bouche, parceque le liquide tienten suspension des malieres 8oconneuses, c'est pourquoi Ton intro-
duit une petite baguette dans la canule, afin dc desobstruer le passage. On a retire jusqn'a deux
scaux de liquide ; mais la prudence dfefend d'en fevacuer autant en nne'seule fois ; le pouuion ainsi que
le coeur et les gros vaisseaux sont coniprimes par le liquide, et, lorsque celni-ci s'^!chappe, la com-
pression cessant tout-a-conp, la sang afflue dans les cavitfes du cocur, il en rfesultc un ^;tat de'syncopp,
et meme I'asphyxie ; on ne doit done retirer le liquide qu'a plusieurs reprises. Si Ton vent opirer sur
la region sternale, il faut pratiquer I'ouverture au-dessons du cartilage xiphoide, avoir un trepan,
couper les polls, la peau et les chairs, ponctuer jusquM la plfevre, et, lorsqne le liquide est sorti',
laisser se rapproclier les deux Ifevres de la plaie, et recouvrir celle-ci d'un plumasseau agglutinatif,'
tnaintenu au nioyen d'un surfaix. On acouseille des injections aromatiques .i la suite de la ponction
dc la poitrine, mais ellcs ne pouvraient convenir que dans Ics hydrothorax causes par le dfefaut de
rapport du systSme exhalent avec le systeme absorbant.' It would be well for us ir we found this
disease as tractable as La Fosse describes it. ' La Fosse pretend que toutes causes cessant, I'hydro-
thorax peut se guerir par cette operation. Lorsque celle-ci peut, selon lui, sauver la vie au cheval,
il plonge le trois-quarts dans le thorax, d'un c6te, ou de I'autre, a la partie inforieure dc la huiticmc
cOte, A sa junction avec son cartilage ; 11 vide A pen pr^;s la nioitic dn liquide epanch^ , cnsuite il in-
jecte dans la cavit6 thorachique environ la meme quantitfe d'un dfecoction vulneraire. Deux lieu es
apr^s, il tire les deux tiers du liquide restant, et nc fait pins I'injectiou que d'un tiers; il met denx
autres bcures d'intervalle, apres Icsquelles il 6vacue, autant qu'il est possible, tout ce qu'il ya de
fluidc, puis il injecte deux litres environ de la ni6me dfccoction, 'leg6reuicnt vulneraire, qu iTlaisse
deux heures. An bout de ce temps, si, en tiraut la liqueur injectC-e, il la tronve diniinuee de quan-
tite, il en inffcre que le systemic absorbant rcprend ses fouctions dans I'organe nialade, et il peine qu'il
yatoutlieude compter alors fur la gnferison. II reiti>re encore une fois la lueme injection, qu'il
*vaene de memo au bout de deux licnres, et il s'en tient la. Ce trnitement. selon La Fosse, est
presquc toujours certain dans I'liylrothorax survcuu a la suite ri'tint itiflnmmation .'

Class VII.] dropsy of the belly. 395

•isfites* The most common origin, however, of ascites, is from acute inflam-
mation "of some thoracic or abdominal viscus; and it may appear smgular,
that it follows more connnonly after thoracic attacks than abdonnnal onest. It
is thus that it appears as what may be called a chronic sequel to such pneumo-
nkuritic cases as, had they been more acute, would have produced hydrothorax.

The symptoms usually first noticed are ojdema of the external parts of the
belly chest, and sometimes of the extremities; and which often bnng to the
recollection some lassitude and disinclination for exertion lately apparent. The
urine is made in smaUer quantities than natural, and some costiveness is present.
'\s the serous accumulation proceeds, the beUy becomes rounder, and, on
striking it, emits a dull tense sound: the pulse and breathing both now become

• somewhat hurried, the former being small and but little developed. The early
constipation gives place sometimes to diarrhoea of foetid stools, and that parti-
cularly where the liver is much affected and the disease is much advanced; at
which stao-e the pulse is often found to be hardly perceptible by the artery,
but to vibrate with a peculiar thrill at the heart. The appetite now fails, peri-
toneal u-ritation produces cohcky symptoms frequently; and in this way, being
occasionally but little disturbed, and at others very ill, a few active symptoms
carry off the poor beast. I would observe here on what may be called a marked
and distinctive sjnnptom of ascites, which is the inaptitude to bear bleeding. It
invariably produces a tendency to asphyxia; the pulse wavers, becomes indis-
tinct; the horse weaves and reels, and this occurring when the quantity of blood
abstracted is small, gives reason to fear ascites as the cause.

The post-mortem examination, as may be supposed, very frequently shews ad-
hesions of the pleura and disorganization of the substance of the lungs ;_ the
kidneys are often pale within ; the liver sometimes much diseased, sometimes
but little so ; but always, I believe, it will be found somewhat altered. The me-
senteric folds are often thickened, adherent, and shew coagulable deposit^ on
them; and the peritoneum is also seen frequently thickened either by original
inflammatiofi, or by subsequent pressure and irritation. The fluid encysted is
serous, occasionally (though seldom) muco-purulent ; sometimes uniform like
the human, but more frequently, like other serous accumulations in the horse,
at least like those of the chest, it is mixed with coagulable masses or flocculent
portions. The quantity varies, but is never enormous, principally because it is
seldom a primary disease, as in the human; but, on the contrary, is secondary to

-some actively fatal affection; or otherwise the horse is destroyed ere the quan-
tity becomes great.

The treatment of ascites, like that of hydrothorax, promises little; because it
is rather a symptom of visceral disorganization than simple irritation on the se-
cretory surfaces : we are warranted, however, in attempting the removal of the
fluid by stimulating the absorbents, as detailed in Hydrothorax; and by
strengthening the system generally by tonics, We must, however, use , no de-
pletion, but by such means as foUow the intention hinted at : it may also be
observed, that purgatives are less admissible here than in hydrothorax: on the
contrary, they may be expected to occasion much constitutional disturbance.
More dependence is to be placed on active diuretics; external frictions, frequent
and long continued: gentle but often repeated exercise, and warm clothing.

• A marked instance is detailed in vol. iil of The Veterinarian, wliicli occurred in tlic practice of
Mr. Kerr, of Sonttiampton, a veterinary surgeon of great apparent observation and intelligence: —
' The liver presented a singular appearance ; w.is of a liglit clay colour, and remarkably soft and
pulpy." In this case we learn that the lungs were also greatly disorganised by internal ulceration.
Hut numerous similar cases in human practice fully proved that the lungs were not primarily dis-
eased, but evidently became so secondarily to the hepatitis ; and which analogy, were it not borne out
by seijuinc observation also, would convince nie that here also vouiiciE were only scquclto of the he-
patic disease.

■f Three ascitic cases, the detail of which followed each other in quick succession, arc to be met
with in the 2d volume of The P'ctcrinarian , of them evidently derived from pneumonia oi
pneumo-pleuritis. Of abdominal plegmasiie, peritonitis is the most likely to produce it. I may t;ike
this occasion to remark, that if any evidence were wanting of the advantage of a periodical dissemina-
tion of the accumulating facts and constant extension ol our art, here Is a prominent one. A disease
hardly before recognised is hrniight into geiiornl notice, and with circumstances which throw n va-
luable ligiit on veterinary pathology.

f DROPSY OF THE SKIN. [ClASS VJII

But as soon as fluctuation is distinctly perceived, at once proceed to the onnr.
ration of because it will not'ijiterfere ;ith auxiiry remed c^^

S;;eii;trtK;!s ' '''' ^ 'hCf Xn^p^

openmg should be one that will avoid wounding the stomach the K or Z

IS tne middle Ime between the umbihcus or nave , and the sheath Tn fhn m^ll
any portion of the linea alba between the umbilic'us and pubeTthat £ ' an™
of the median line of the belly situated between the bag ^nd nal^l m^rbe
chosen for the puncture, which may be done under cxaftly similar ' cTrcum!
stances; and in both the operation must be conducted, and after treated as7n
hydrothorax with the exception, that here only one uniform cS's to be
emptie^ and that the whole may be evacuated at once, and Tuo'S rther to
or' nh,v;^^ ""l'^! "'"P^^ application of a linen bandage withou t pading

Should any prospect of benefit be derived, endeavour to prevent a recurrence
hy strengthening the general habit. ' recurrence

DROPSY OF THE SPINE.

Hydrorachitis may be idiopathic, or it may be connected with the former dis-
ease; and we owe this knowledge to the recent inquiries and examinations into
the anatomy and physiology of the medulla spinalis. The discovery of an e, -
cepha o-spmal fluid by Majendie, and since confirmed by Dupuy and other,
have led to very extended pathological views of the diseases dependent on dis-
turbance in the flow of nervous influence; and it becomes us, in reference to
many diseases m which an appearance of fluid in the cerebral ventricles is sup-
posed to furnish a rationale for the symptoms which present themselves, to be
aware that such fluid may probably be furnished by the spinal canal; or that
the niixed symptoms which characterise all the diseases of Class V, may be de-
pendent on a diseased increase, mutually spread over the cerebral cavity and
the spinal canal. I am disposed particularly to caU the attention of the veteri-
narian to this circumstance in his consideration of the paralyses of the horse-
and more especially to the view that has been taken of the cause and origin of
kumree, so indigenous to India. It is not uncommon as a congenital disease,
and has been observed in foals; now and then in the calf; but more frequently
in the lamb. _ Cases of the congenital and the adult affection are found in the
French writings; and the effects, as may be supposed, are paralysis. (See

CLASS VIII.

DISEASED COLLECTIONS OF FLUID WITHIN THE
CELLULAR MEMBRANE.

DROPSY OF THE SKIN.

Anasarca, (Edema, and Water Farcy.— Synonymously we need make no dis-
tinction between tliese terms, particularly the two first. As generally accepted
oedema carries probably rather a more local habitation with it ; and thus we say
an oedematous swelling: but anasarca is more frequently used to designate an
extensive dropsy of the cellular membrane. Both, however, have the same ori-
gins, are accompanied by the same symptoms, and require the same curative
means. It differs from ascites principally in its external seat, which is some-
times partial and sometimes general. It Jiiso appears under different forms, as

Class VIII.] water farcy— swelled legs. 397

it has different origins, 6r according to the nature of its continuance; and its
ter inations are also under the influence of these circumstances. A debility oi
he absorbing system generally is usually observed in the spring and autumn ;
and at these times either there is a superabundance of fluid poured out, or the
absorbents want energy to carry it off: certain it is the balance of power be-
tween these acts is not equal. There is usually, however, some atony of the
whole system, and the oedema, which in these cases consists of pure lymph only,
disappears as the constitution establishes itself At other times anasarca and
oedema appear as accompaniments or sequelae to acute diseases which have dis-
turbed the functious generally, and the secretions particularly, in which case the
absorbents become irritated: to the oedema is added tumefied lymphatics; and
the affection becomes an anomalous symptom of the farrier's

WATEE FARCY,

That Protean complaint beyond definition. At the close of long febrile affec-
tions the oedema is such as not only to tumefy the lymphatics, but sometimes to
make its way through by ulceration or by rupture of the vessels of the skin, and
which proves, in some cases, a parent of the true farcy, and consequently of
glanders. The latter case, by a very easy transition, can degenerate into cracks
or o-rease, as we frequently see. (Edema, as a symptom, is both favourable and
mortal.^ When partial in epidemic catarrh, it offers a prognosis of recovery ;
when universal, in diseases of an asthenic type, and such as border on malignity,
it is very unfavourable. Its treatment involves all we have already detailed on
hydrothorax and ascites. Internal tonics; external stimulants, by friction, and
by sustaining bandages; liberal feeding; mild but continued exercise. The free
use of green food, as being at once diuretic yet nutritive, is indicated ; or in
winter spear the corn, or give carrots, &c. &c. ; for succulent vegetable matter is
of much consequence.

Water farcy, therefore, has as much to do with anasarca as with either true
farcy or glanders. Gibson is not very wide of the mark when he_ describes
it as of two kinds; one resulting from febrile attack, the other partaking of the
nature of dropsy. A limb in these cases is often suddenly seen to be gorged,
and often so much so, as to press out the diseased accumulations, which are
seen around it like dew drops. Mr. PereivaU considers it as of an inflammatory
^character, as did also Professor Coleman. One singularity of it, which is
noticed by Mr. Percivall, and must have been also observed by others, is, that it
often confines its attack to one limb only. It will sometimes break out in a
state of grease ; and sometimes it wiU extend itself to the opposite limb also.

The treatment of water farcy should be prompt, or true farcy may follow.
Mr. Percivall recommends to take two gallons of blood from the horse, and to
follow that up by a mercurial and aloetic purge : bleed again in two or three
days, and continue a ball daily of a mild kind, composed of aloes, calomel, digi-
talis, and Venice turpentine; and follow this treatment with tonics, as blue
vitriol, gentian, &c.

SWELLED LEGS.

Partial cedema of the extremities, more often of the hinder, is too well known
to need much description. What has been said already will apply here: debi-
lity, partial or general, is the cause, and it becomes either proximate or remote,
according to circumstances; but it is still the grand agent, as we know by the
phenomena occasioned. At the close of long continued diseases that weaken
much, the legs always swell; and it is reasonable to expect tliey should do so,
when we consider how far they are removed from the source of circulation, and
that their fluids have to rise perpendicularly, which certainly increases their dif-
ficulty in propelling their contents, and also excites the secreting capillaries to
an increased deposit within the cellular membrane. The abs<.irbcnts may also be
themselves affected, but it is more than probable they are the least part of tlie
cause, for wc find them, in these cases, fully ecpial to taking up tlie fluids on

398 SWELLED LEGS. [CLASS VIII.

the increase of stimulus, that is, a little exercise soon removes the whole swell-
ing, budden changes in the temperature of the atmosphere that horses are used
^^^'^^ ^'^^^^^ clothing they wear, or hasty alterations in the nature of
their food, may any of them occasion swelled legs; and such effects may occur
either hy these causes diminishing the means that keep up life, and thus pro-
ducing a general debility; or, they may act by adding to such means as are used
to promote life, by which a general plethora may ensue, but still equally pro-
ductive of a par/zaZ debility: for the balance of power being unequal here the
legs cannot resist the pressure on them, and swellings appear. Thus it is, that
when horses removed from grass, or from a straw yard, are brought at once into
a hot stable, and fed highly, theu- extremities swell immediately ; for the powers
of life are unduly pushed before the parts have taken on a capacity for this in-
creased action, that is, before the transporting vessels are able to act on the
increased secretion : therefore arises a necessity for bleeding and physicking in
these cases, to keep down the plethora, but which are found to be less necessary
when this alteration is gradually brought on. Standing in the stable, with a full
allowance of food, and little exertion, acts in the same way, and from the same
cause; and hence exercise is doubly useful ; first, by promoting other excretions,
and secondly, by the increased action it excites in the absorbents. On the con-
trary, turning horses out to a straw yard from full feeding, warm clothing, and a
hot stable, may likewise bring on swelled legs, by occasioning a general debility :
but so much do horses improve as they approximate a state of nature, that
though this is an equal change with that of removing them hastily into stables,
yet they comparatively seldom suffer from this treatment; but when they do
suffer, it is, in general cases, acutely. It is thus that standing in snow, or in
long-continued wet, produces swelled legs, by weakening the parts, and by being
unfavourable to absorption. It is very usual also for horses to have cedematous
extremities in autumn, at which period the powers of life are unequal; there being
an increased action in the skin to produce new hair rapidly, and those parts most
remote from the seat of circulation are consequently unequally suppKed with
vital energy.

Ctire. — This will not be difficult, when we make ourselves master of the cause.
In removing horses from grass to the stable, with the precautions mentioned, it
may be prevented ; but when it has occurred, it must be combatted, in plethoric
full horses, by lessening the general action of the vascular system at large, at the
same time increasing the individual strength and tone of the affected parts in
particular. For this purpose bleed ; reduce the diet, if too full ; give bran
mashes and alteratives, with three or four hours' loalking exercise every day, and
sufficient friction to the legs, and bandaging if much gorged. Intervene between
the alteratives one or two doses of active physic ; and, if the swelling prove vcrv
obstinate, insert a rowel in each thigh to alter the action : in general cases, how-
ever, these are unnecessary. But when swelled legs occur in a horse that is thin
and impoverished, the general debility must be counteracted to promote a cure,
by feeding somewhat liberally, particularly with a mixture of the edible roots, as
carrots, parsneps, mangel-wurzel, &c. &c.; it is aided also by giving mild diuretics
united with tonics, as prescribed in ventral dropsy. Purging in this case, though
it may lessen the swelling momentarily, by carrying off the w'atery parts of the
blood, yet it will probably increase the enlargement finally, by further weakening
the system in general. Apply friction to the legs ; use gentle exercise, but not
to produce exhaustion. The weakened vessels having been long distended, will
perhaps not readily regain their tone ; thej' may therefore, in this case, be as-
sisted by bandages moistened in astringent solutions. When it occurs among
cart horses, haybands may be used for this purpose, dipped in cold w-ater, at
which some grooms and carters are very expert. In other instances, strong
woollen of any kind may be made use of ; but flannel forms the best bandage,
when evenly and firmly applied, by means of a roller of three yards in length and
four inches in breadth. Occasionally we meet with cases wherein the legs ap-
pear to become habitually enlarged, or where the recurrence of the swelling is
so frequent as to occasion continual trouble : in these a permanent bandage is

Class VITI.] extravasation of blood and air. 309

best nroduced by firing, and which, in this case, should be done in nearly pcn^en-
dicular Unes; for, by corrugating the skin, and in some measure lessenmg its
elasticity it becomes itself a bandage to the weakened vessels ; but if the firing
be done in any other than a perpendicular or nearly a perpendicular direction,
the effect is in a great measure lost.— See this subject farther pursued in Grease ;
see also Condition.

EXTRAVASATION OF BLOOD.

Ecchymosis is a pouring out of blood into the cellular membrane, either the
consequence of spontaneous or of accidental lesion. In the former case, it is
usually symptomatic of inflammation, and as such must be attended to in
common with its cause. In the latter, it usually results from external vio-
lence, and comes under the popular term of a Bi-uise (which see). An injury
of this kind may so affect the organization as to render it impossible for the
extravasated blood to be re-absorbed ; in which case both the extravasation
and disorganized parts become involved in one common sphacelus, and_ either
a healthy ulceration and granulation restores the portion, or the constitution
sinks under the process, and life is destroyed (see Inflammation). In lesser
injuries, the extravasated fluid is absorbed ; or, if it remains, it becomes either
fully organized, or it continues as a hardened tumour, its aqueous portion dis-
appearing.

EXTRAVASATION OF AIR.

Emphysema is the escape of gas into the cellular membrane, from morbid com-
binations within ; it is, therefore, sometimes seen in the pestilential epidemics
which occasionally rage, though fortunately but seldom, with us. Emphysema
is also brought on by the entrance of the atmospheric air into a wound, from
which it makes its way more or less extensively throughout the ceUular tissue.
When it happens vnthin the cavity of a joint, it often confines itself to that only:
but in other cases, it permeates through the whole cellular surface, from the
head to the tail, rendering the unfortunate animal one' bloated mass ; and which
soon destroys him by its irritation, unless it be carried off by proper means. It
was formerly a custom to make a slight puncture into the integuments of the
elbow or arm, and by means of a quill to blow a quantity of air into it until the
whole shoulder became distended, as a cure for a shoulder strain. It is also still
a custom to make veal emphysematous, by blowing air from the mouth of a butcher
into any point of the carcass of the dead calf, which plumps up the cellular
tissue, and takes off that flaccidity common to the young animal. The most
common origin of emphysema, however, arises from lesion of the aerating organs,
as wounds of the trachea, bronchia, or substance of the lungs : a broken rib, by
being forced inwards and puncturing the pleura, is a common cause : it may fol-
low ulceration of the lungs also ; but this is rare. The presence of air within
the cellular membrane is always a source of irritation : when, therefore, it is very
extensively diffused, it may so irritate as to affect the powers of life ; and it does
80 by producing all the symptoms of asthenic disease. Two indications, there-
fore, present themselves, — to remove the air by small punctures, and to support
the constitution by stimulants and tonics. If a re-accumulation takes place,
force it out by moderate pressure and gentle frictions, and endeavour then to
keep it out by bandages to every part where they can be applied : if possible, cut
off the communication also with the inlet by establishing adhesive inflammation
in the part.

CLASS XI.

CALCULAR CONCRETIONS.

Stony Concretions have long been noted in some parts of the body of the
horse; and a more intimate acquaintance with sequinc anatomy and that of other
domestic animals will probably shew us that they are almost as universally

INTESTINAL CALCULI. [CLASS IX

foi-med within the various organs of their bodies as in man. Cerebral calculi ar
occasional y detected as well in the horse as n.ost other domestic ani l^f 11
vary calcuh are more common, and are now and then met with in the substan--
or the ducts of all these glands, but principally in the.parotid, wLre they occa-
sion tumefaction, and from whence they should be dextrEusly extracted aJoidin;
as much as possible wounding the larger salivary dutft, and unitingThe parts a!
quickly as possible afterwards by establishing a healthy inflammation*
calculi, from structural peculiarity in the hepatic system of tlie horse and his con-
geners, are not frequent ; but in horned cattle, in consequence of the^eater
complexity of the biliary flow, in them are more often found. Gd.tHc E S
rmiinants'' ^''^ ^""^ frequently in the

Intestinal Caxcuu.

Stones in the intestines are suiliciently common in the horse, but are less so in
the cow, where the hurried passage of the food would be likely to ijrevent the
accumulation ; while in the blind pouch of the cajcum or the vast pockets of the
large intestines of the horse they are safely lodged and form enormous concre-
tions, and often occasion dangerous colics, by accidentally altering (heir situa-
tions. \^ henever, therefore, colics occur frequently without any apparent cause,
they may be often proved after death to be refemble to irritation from these dis-
placements. I have, myself, met with several suchf.

It is evident that this is an evil we have little power to combat; if a horse by
passing a stone with his faeces indicated a constitutional disposition to separate
sabuLus matter from his food, and afterwards to concrete it by the mucus of his

• Le pi ocfedfe operatoire conaiste a faire .une incision sur la tumciir formee par le calcul doiit on
obt.ent la so,t,e au moycn dc a pression oxecree avcc doux doigts places dc cl,an„c cOt.^ <l" IMinlion^
Apr^s cette opeiafon, la salive s'econle, et les conduits degorKent UmZ^ h'V^^^^^
persistc- prosriue toujcun s, et entretient ..>,.■ ,>uvert,>rc <iuc I'on a de la pei e " «mer m6me o i v
parvient. Pom- prevcn r cct ac. ident, to,>jo..rs faclicx. on doit, dfe que I'oTeS.rc tVm^^^
otquc les canauxsontdegorges.rappiocher les deux bonis de la plaie, et le mSenir e , cet
par un emplatre agglutn.atif, ou ™6me par quelques points de suture ; afin de favo is" la eicatrisa
nffl, H 1 "."""t? ""? P™^^i«" '« '^="'•■'1 excretreur, du cote de la glande' pour arrTtcr
1 afflux de la salive. Dans le cours de ce traitenient, on doit prendre tontos les precaution' nt-res-
nwl/r'"" e'"P«'-'''"."'f.'>'"»v<'m<'"^'l''s machoires, et donuer a I'nniu.al des aLen Hcmides gu

exigent aucune masticalion. l\ ne faut cepcndant pas le tenir trop a la di6te ; car le enti int
de la taun excte une secretion abondaute dc salive. Mais tontes les incisions pna queersol t ur le
cana parot,d,en, so.t par sur le corps menie de la parotide, uc donuenl pas lieu a I'itabl sse ment de
fistules, o/est ce que quelqnes faits pronvent. Vieillaid jeuue a extrait des oalculs salivai^ i trois
ebevaux dc troupe sans quMl en resultat de fistule. (iirard a vu aussi une incision fa^^ rs i toute la
longueur de la glande donner lieu il un ecoulement considerable de salive, et par "enrr nt^ m^^^^^
Sf.pln^-'f'"™'" n r^^-^f'^f io" complf^te. Du rcste, I'extractiou des calcuN don iV 'ag rs'o, ere
quelquefois On a mis sous les ycux des professeurs de I'ecole veterinairc de Lvon un cafcul exliait
du canal saliva.re d une vacljc : ce corps etait de la grosseur et de la longueur du doigt I a t
compose de e.nq i s,x p>6ces qui formaient entre elles'autant d'esp^ces d'afticu at ons fl s4 a j
forme sur le contour de la macboire posterieure. dont il genait le's mouvemens. Un autre calc^
saliyairedu poids de quatre-vu.gt-bult grammes (deux oncos six gros), a ete envo\4 a la in6me
ecole, apres avoir ete extrait. par Cbristin, d'un des canaux paiotidieus d'uu .Hue,' qui le po.S
depuis environ cinq atis. Ce calcnl etait forme de trois pieces ar iculees, dont la plus i.et e ocouoait
e milieu. On aauss, extrait du canal de Stenon, A I'^cole de Lyon, d.'ux a.itre ca cu I s^vX
tr^s volurauieux, I'un sur une mule I'autre sur une anesse. Le premier dc ces calculs pesait deux
decagrammes (six grosse): le second, quatie decagrammes et quatie grammes (tieize gros) - I ' n
eta.t assez uni et perce d'un cote de quelques petits trous, eommc on en voit sur certains cailloux :
Tauti-e etait rabotcnx dans toute son etendue. ^-amuui .

t Tlie composition of these calculi varies, but most of them exhibit sabulous matter, which first
collecting around some accidental nucleus, as a nail, a small stone, &c. &c., increases il. concentric
lame lie, each strata differing in colour as the various ingesta yield matters of various deposit, or as
the state of the alimentary canal tonus various chemical decompositions. Some are so dense and
oompact as to bear a polish ; while others are more soft and fi iable. In some instances they ani.e.ir
principally composed nt inspissated mucus, mixed with indigestible matter, agglutinated into a hard-
ened mass or masses, taking on the shape of the dung, from their lodgment in the sarciili of the
colon, or other large intestines. Sometimes several exist, in otlicis one alone of great size - or two or
three of considerable magnitude have lieen found with sides adapted to each other ; bv which it would
appear, that, notwithstanding the peristaltic motion, they were principally in a state of comp.irative
rest; to which circumstance we must attribute their remaining altogether innocuous in some hoises-
for they are found after death in some tli.it have never been knoaii to have li.id a fit of colic in tlieir
lives. When we consider the habits of this animal, whose everv moiithriil, whether tiikeu in the field
or stable, must be pregnant with siliceous matter, we need not wonder at the aggregation of the
particles so soon as they meet with a rallying point. It has been obseivcd, that thev are verv com-
mon among millers' horses, as supposed from feeding much on bran, &c. ; the mucilaginous nature
of which food, it is thought, concretes the minute siliceous pa'ticles detached fiom the grind-stones
used to break the various farina;.

Class IX.] vesical calcull 401

bowels ; by restraining him to a diet not leguminous, as well as by accustoming
him to eat salt, we might somewhat alter this habit ; but the removal of a stone
. actually formed, unless it could be forced into the rectum (by a hand introduced
i into the cavity of the abdomen), and from thence be extracted, is hopeless : and
even this remedy would be a most hazardous one.

Ueinaey Calculi.

Stones in the kidneys, though not frequent, are not altogether unknown in the
horse; and as we know these animals are much subject to disturbances in their
. urinary secretion, we might, li priori, think it very probable that the siliceous
1 matter which is separated from the blood might aggregate there en masse, as well
; as collect in the bladder ; but we have stronger evidence than supposition, for
! renal calculi have been found in horses who have died under sjnnptoms which
I might have been mistaken for very acute enteritis. We may also suppose, that
1 the early accumulation would occasion irregular and diminished secretion of
! urine ; followed, at length, by a bloody purulent mixture with the urine, until
! more active symiptoms would arise, and carry off the horse. Renal concretions

■ might be removed in their early state by remedies tending to decompose them in
I the lu-inary pelvis, or with more probability by such as, by relaxing the passages,
1 might wash them away while smaU. We can suppose also that the passage of
: a calculi from the kidney may be arrested within the ureter : such cases are
; described by French authors* ; but hitherto, I believe, have been not remarked
« on here.

Vesical Calculi, or Stone in the Bladder.

The presence of stone in the bladder has long been acknowledged as a disease
1 that has occurred in the horse ; but it was always considered as a very rare one.

• Our more extended knowledge has brought many cases to light, and we now
: rank it among the fixed and ordinary members of our nosology ; it also exists in
! homed cattle ; and swine are not exempt from it. It is by no means improbable
I that it does occur more frequently than we are aware of, as would appear when
1 we recollect how many horses are parted with on account of being subject to what
i is considered habitual strangury, the supposed consequence of a strain. Here-

■ after, therefore, all cases of this kind which have resisted the ordinary treatment,
! and are not based on a known cause, should be subjected to examination per
! anof.

• ' II se font pentir, suivant CLabert, a. la main qu'on introduil dans I'intt'stin rectnm. Lc prin-

■ cipal symptomc est le ralentissement et menie la suspension du cours de I'nrinc. Dans le cas do
< suppression de ce liquide, file est complete on incomplete, scion qne Ics corps oalcnleux oceupent les
i deux nret^rea on un seul. La diagnostic est toujoui s obscur, et lc pronoslic grave. Les rtjinedes
•sent tons insuffisans. Cliabert pensc qu'on doit tenter de faire couler les calcnis dans la vessie ; si

I'on n'y parvient pas, il assure qu'on pent inciser Tinte'^lin et I'uret^rc, et faire ainsi I'extraction du
c corps ^■tranprer. Gattoin a en envoye a la Societe royalc et centrale d'agriculture I'bistoire de la
- maladie et de I'ouverture d'une vacbe dans I'uretfere gauche de laqnelle il trouva plusieurs calculs

qui avaient occaaione une dilatation considerable du canal, une retention d'uriue an-dessns d'eux, et

■ toiH les arcidens qui avaient precede la mort. Ces calculs, de la nature do ceux qu'on trouve dans
la vessie et dans Turitre dcs boiuls, avaient nne coulour metallique bronzee tr^s brillante ; ils

•• etaicnt lissecs, irreguliers et pcsans: I'un d'entre eux, pins volumineux, et compose de plusieurs
1 morceaux rfeunis, avait une forme triangulaire assez bizarrt.'

■f ' Altlionph tbe same constituent principles enter into the composition of the calculi found within
: the bladder of the horse and other monodactyles, still the stones themselves dilfer in many respects.
I They possess a urinous odour which time slowly dissipates, but which exposure to the fire renews;
s and also a disagreeable flavour, partaking of that of the urine of the animal from which they have

■ been extracted. In four horses and one ass we have met with the noft s'.oncs, of the consistence of
paste, growing harder towaids the centre; also becoming so by exposure to air, and at the same time
friable, and easy of reduction to powder. Commonly these vesical concretions form petriOrctions

■ more or less corhpact, mural, tuberous, or grained ; of varied form and magnitude, possessing ireither
uniformity of colour, consistence, nor iirtcrior structure ; they may lie either loose or cncvsted wilhiu

I the bladder. (Jenerally, they have a yellowish tint, inclining to a white. Some arc ovoid, others

• elongated and flattened ; some, again, spheroid. Some are less compact in the centre than towards
the circumference ; a smaller portion possesses a nucleus of some substance dilfer erjt from that of the
stone itself. In some the component material is confusedly heapcil up together, without any dis-
coverable arrangement ; in others, it is so amassed as to form distinct concentric layers, whose
number is regulated by their thickness. Altogether, vesical calculi may be conveniently' classed

C C

402 VESICAL CALCULI. [CLASS IX.

The symptoms which denote a stone in the bladder are various. M. Girard
the learned Director of the Royal Veterinary School of Paris, in his Memoir on
Vesical Calculi in Horses, on this point observes, ' Generally speaking, a stone
may exist for a length of time, and acquire considerable magnitude, before it is
productive of any perceptible disorder, or at least such as to direct the attention
of the groom to the complaint, or make it certain that such is its real nature.
The sedlmentous depositions which we have ranked in the first class of vesical
concretions, are indicated by the urine gradually becoming thicker and whiter ;
by frequent desire to stale ; by the difficulty and pain with which these desires
are executed. In one case, the penis being in a state of paralysis, hung down
out of the sheath. A calculus may lie over or within the neck of the bladder,
creating more or less difficulty in the expulsion of urine, or inducing complete
retention. In general, however, its irritation occasions frequent staling. Some-
times the urine is bloody, and voided with distressing and painful efforts. The
irritation may run so high as to give rise to colics, which may be either inter-
mittent or continued. It is always an easy matter to distinguish between these
colics and common intestinal gripes. So long as the pain is not very acute, the
subject of cystic colic paws, makes efforts to strike the sheath with his hind
feet ; looks back at his flanks, even reaches them with his teeth, and every now
and then shakes his head. Should the pains increase, the animal will lie down
and roll, experience occasional relief, and, in fact, display the symptoms of com-
mon gripes. The sweat the animal breaks into diffuses a strong urinous odour.
In this paroxysm of pain, mares have been known to expel the calculus, and
thereby obtain momentary relief, and from that time to recover.'

The treatment of stone in the bladder may either be founded on attempts to
dissolve the massj on chemical principles, within the sac ; or to promote its
expulsion by pressure ; or to extract it by section. From the composition of
the vesical stones of the horse being found soluble in very weak acids, it was
thought possible to dissolve them within the bladder; and a fortunate case,
wherein vinegar mixed with water and thrown up the urethra did so act, raised
hopes that this method might be equally fortunate in other cases. But not only
has the bladder been found in some instances unable to bear the m-itation, but
the solvent power itself has proved inert, so that this practice has been much
abandoned. An attempt, therefore, may be made to force it out from the blad-
der through the urethra, to which we should be more particularly led when we
found it already lodged within or near the neck of the organ, in which case we
should attempt it by a judicious pressure by means of a hand within the rectum,
assisted by the other in the line of the urethra : if the stone be small, it may be
brought forward, and made to turn the ischial curvature hy lowering the penis
as much as possible ; from whence it may be guided still farther until a forceps,
introduced from the point of the yard, may reach it. If it can be passed no
farther than the curvature, it must be cut down on. When a larger stone is
found within the bladder than can be extracted this way, it is evident that, unless
we attempt to crush it*, we must proceed as detailed under Lithotomy, among
the Operations. It happens that calculi are occasionally of themselves forced
from the bladder into the urethra; such a case is related by the late Mr. John
Percivall, in which the methods just detailed apply. In the female, this method

into four kinds or varieties: 1st, The soft species, whose consistence increases inwardly; 2d, Those
yellowish or whitish stones whose surface is asperous, or simply giaincd, and whose interior di; -
covers an irregular amassment of saline matter, more or less coherent : these form the friahle concre-
tions which Lafossc alludes to when he directs us to crack the stone (if too large to be extracted)
with the forceps. The 3d kind includes those wliicli display concentric layers, but possess no
nucleus: thev are commonly grey, grained, and harder than the preceding kind. The 4tli class is
formed of those possessing nuclui ; of which those composed of concentric layers exhibit a mur:il
surface, and a hardness approaching to silcx ; others, less compact, display a granulated exterior, aiul
are areolated within.'— G!)-rt)v/'« ^Vt'moi?-. ,, ,,

• An ingenious artist invented a machine by which a stone might be crushed in the human blailUor ;
and if it have been made applicable tliere, it might here be made doubly so, from the increased dia-
meter of the urethra admitting of a machine of much more power. It is, however, unfoitunate, that
we must even then make an ischial opening is the urethra for the introduction of the instruiiieiit.
which would leave us onlv these benefits, that our danger of wounding the artery of the bulb would
be avoided, and u risk of burrowing sinuses forming afterwards.

I Class X.] rabies. 403

of extracting the stone will usually succeed by dilating the urethra mechanically ;
and it has been also proposed by a proper instrument to attempt tlie same
method in the horse, but which could only be done when the stone was of a
I moderate size.

CLASS X.

ANIMAL, VEGETABLE, AND MINERAL POISONS.

RABIES.

~ The rabid malady, or madness, as it is popularly, and with characteristic truth
! 80 called in the horse, is never spontaneous, but always acquired, from the appli-
1 cation of the rabid virus (the saliva), and, as more generally believed, from a
: member of the canine or feline tribe only. Usually the inoculation takes place
i by means of a hite.

The symptoms of rabies in the horse are various* ; it usually, however, com-
I mences rather suddenly by some sjnnptoms of uneasiness, and sudden breaking
" out into profuse sweats : I have known it attack a horse at work, who continued
' to alternately draw his load and stop distressed and impatient : in a few hours,

however, he becomes completely unruly, he stamps and paws violently, and
: attempts to disengage himself from his halter. Though madness be a complete

misnomer in the dog, it is by no means so in the horse ; for within twelve hours

• from the attack he is commonly frantic : and I have seen one that levelled with

• the ground the whole of the internal fitting up of a six-stall stable, himself
: sweating, snorting, and foaming amidst the ruins. The disease follows the

inoculation, or bite, at the same periods as in other animals ; that is, from five
weeks to three months : but I have observed, as in dogs, its attack is always
' quickest when the bite is received in the head. On an examination made by
myself of the morbid appearances after death in two cases, there were great
inflammatory marks in the lungs, as weU as in all the thoracic viscera; the sto-
mach and bowels also, particularly the latter, participated in the affection. The
meninges of the brain were likewise suffused with blood. In a case related by
M. Dupuy, to this last symptomatic appearance was added ' a softening of the
spinal cord, while the medullary mass resembled a thin caseous matter. The
salivary glands, and particularly the parotids, were exceedingly red and infil-
trated with yellow serosity.' Here I suspect is a strained analogy to connect
this case with the hydrophobous character which is attributed to it. I make
no doubt but that all the parts of the head would be rendered highly vascular
from exertions, such as it is impossible that any one can conceive without wit-
nessing them : but no engorgement of the salivary organs beyond the surrounding
parts existed in the cases which I examined, nor have they appeared in those
detailed by others ; and as my attention was particularly directed to this point,
it could not have escaped my observation. The whole muscular system was
discoloured and softened, and the cellular texture studded with ccchymosis.

• In a case related by Dupuy, llie animal rollnd and kicked incessantly, and craV-f/ plaintively!
and 11 is related in this case that the water offered him caused convulsions and the most de-
cided horror : on which subject I am somewhat sceptical. I l)elieve hydrophdhia to be a. pnlhngno-
monic symptom to man alone ; and out of liundreds of rabid animals I have seen, I never observed it in
one. I must, however, own, that M. Dupuy's account is somewhat borne out by Mr. Voiiatt, who
says in two cases, 'I fancied [saw sometliini; very much reseml)ling hydrophobia. Tlie thirst was
excessive, but the act of swallowing was performed with a forced gulping effort, and suddenly was
snatched from the pail willi a strange contraction, a kind of ristia sardoniens of the lips.' Asa proof
of variety in rabid symptoms, in one of this gentleman's cases, a horse belonging to Mr. Kent, whieli
had been bitten in the near leg behind, IVIr.Youalt observes, ' wlienever I appioarhod him on that
tide, he was agitated and trembled, and struggled as well as he could (lie lieing slung); and if I
touched him with my finger only, the pulsations were (|uicl<ened more tlinn ten beats a minute.
When I went round to the off side, he permitted me to pat him, and even sought my notice.' Contra-
dictory as this account is with the violent and furiously vicious habits noticed as common in these
cases, it is, however, strictly coircct. I accompanied IVlr. Youatt to sec this extraordiiuu v case, and
can vouch for tlic truth of bis account.

c c 2

404 THE BITE OF VENEMOUS REPTILES. [CLASS X

Mr. Youatt has also observed inflammation at the back part of the mouth, and
at the top of the windpipe ; but he does not notice any engoreement of the sa-
livary glands.

Rabies in the ox, sheep, and swine, produces also phrenitic symptoms ; the
harmless sheep is changed into so ferocious an animal, that I have seen him'butt
at his own shado-w reflected by the sun on a door. In sheep, the general ap-
pearances after death also resemble those usually present in the horse : it must,
however, be remembered, that in no two cases of any animal whatever are they
exactly similar ; but in all, marks of violent and almost universal vascular action
predominate. Mr. Youatt appears to consider inflammation of the glottis, epi-
glottis, and usually of the trachea also, as almost constant rabid post-mortem
appearances in the various quadrupeds which he has examined. Inflammation
of the stomachs, however, is not always present in the ruminants, though seldom
absent in the horse.

Treatment. — Our efibrts must be principally directed to a preventive plan ; for
nothing we yet know of will arrest the disease when it has actually appeared.
When a bite has been received, first well wash the parts around the wound with
soap and water; next wash the wound itself with the same made strong and well
rubbed in. It would be well now to shave the hair, that any other lesser punc-
ture might be detected. If the wound or wounds be deep or penetrating, dissect
it or them wholly out ; and if in the neighbourhood of important parts, as the
eye, &c., apply afterwards any caustic matter. If it be where no danger is to be
apprehended, apply the actual cautery, and which, in one small puncture, may
alone be sufficient, taking care to allow it to reach to the bottom of the wound
in either case. In a lacerated wound dissect the whole sxiperficies out, if possible,
and then apply caustic to the whole surface of the excavation. If the complete
destruction of the inoculated part be effected, no fear need be entertained for
the safety of the animal ; but it is very difficult often to decide that no other
bite has been received. Under such circumstances, any antidote at aU, possess-
ing but questionable efficacy, should be also given. I formerly had a great de-
pendence on the prophylactic efficacy of the buccm or box ; and I still think it
deserves a full trial, according to the form in which it is administered in several
of the midland counties, which is as follows : —

Box leaves (if possible, the tree box) eight ounces

Rue eight ounces.

Cut very fine, and boil in three pints of milk in a close vessel- for one hour ; then
remove and strain off". Again boil the ingredients another hour in three pints of
water ; when again strain off", and mis the liquors. Of this mixture give a third
every morning fasting. A cow may take the same quantitj^ and a sheep one
third of it. In my Canine Pathology the subject of rabies is very fully con-
sidered, as regards its origin, symptoms, and treatment, whether under a view to
its cure or its prevention. See also article "Rabies" in The Veterinarian.

THE BITE OF VENEMOUS REPTILES.

Many of these, in warmer climates, inflict fatal wounds both on man and beast.
In the East Indies, the cobra di capello will occasion death in the largest animal
in a few minutes : fortunately we have none of the serpent tribe whose bite or
sting is poisonous but the adder ; which now and then wounds horses and oxen
while grazing, and sometimes dogs in hunting. This accident is not often at-
tended with fatal consequences ; and country persons, as a remedial treatment,
merely rub the part with an onion, and force another, mashed, down the throat.
In more serious cases the following will give relief :

Spirit of hartshorn (liquor 0/ carbonated ammonia )... one ounce.
Olive oil a pint.

Mix.

■ — To a horse, ox, or cow, the whole, to a sheep or large dog a third may be given,
and some of the same may be well rubbed into the bil^ten part.

Class X.] vegetable and mineral poisons. 405

In case hartshorn cannot be procured, substitute oil of turpentine two ounces,
or a double or treble quantity of any of the spirits, as brandy, rum, or gin. The

- stings of hornets, wasps, and bees, may be successfully washed with vmegar,
. or rubbed with the blue (indigo) used by washers, which is often found to be

an instant specific.

VEGETABLE POISONS.

The stomach of the horse is sensible to the deleterious effects of many of the
narcotic and acrid stimulating vegetable matters, which prove destructive to the

r hmnan. Of some of these, however, it takes an immoderate dose to seriously
disturb the functions ; of which opium is an instance among others : while a

. moderate dose of the prussic acid in the form of lauro cerasus kills him in a

- short time. The taxus baccata, or yew tree, is very poisonous to horses, stealing
,1 away life speedily, without raising convulsion or commotion. Digitalis purpurea/"

or foxglove ; cenanthe crocata, or dropv.'ort ; phellaudrium aquaticum, or water
, parsley ; nicotiana, or tobacco, are hurtful ; while conium maculatum, or hemlock,
i and cicuta viroso, or water hemlock, are reckoned poisonous by some, and in-
nocuous by others. Vegetable narcotics appear to produce their effect, through
; the medium of the stomach, on the sensorium : the stomach, however, is found
.( after death to bear but little marks of affection, nor are more to be perceived in
: the head : the lungs are found in many cases very highly inflamed. The more
I acrid vegetables leave very powerful marks of their ravages, by deep inflamma-
: tory spots over the villous surfaces of the stomach and intestines. In these
. cases we cannot hope to effect the removal of the noxious matter by vomits in
; the horse ; but we may do it in the cow, sheep, or dog, by considerable doses of
I emetic tartar, or of white vitriol. We must therefore, in the horse, counteract
; the effects of such as are narcotic by active purgatives, as the croton nut ; and
. also by a liberal use of acids and demulcents, as oil,^butter, &c. : but in such
; cases a caution is necessary with regard to vinegar, which in doses of a pint has
I destroyed ; half a pint may, however, in urgent cases, be safely given, or a drachm
V of oil of vitriol {sulphuric acid) may be infused in a pint of water, and poured
i down. However, if it can be procured, the stomach pump should supersede
( every other means.

MINERAL POISONS.

These act usually by their caustic quality on the coats of the stomach and
1 bowels ; but the horse is an animal whose power of resisting the effects of the
1 more active mineral agents is remarkable ; much of which capability is unques-
i tionably dependent on so great a portion of his stomach being insensible. But
there must be an inherent structural power in the other parts of the alimentary
' canal also to resist their effects, or otherwise how comes it that the caustic
mineral acids do not, when they have passed the cuticular portion of the stomach
— which they naturally do in common with other matter — how comes it that
they do not then exert their baneful influence, except in quantities which bear
no proportion to the mere bulk, or bis general constitutional powers, compared
I either with man or other animals ? Tartarised antimony (emetic tartar), to the
i amount of four ounces, creates little disturbance in the horse, and proportionate
j doses of its sulphuret (crude antimony) and oxyde (antimonial powder) are equally
innocuous*. The acetate of lead can also be borne by the horse without dis-
turbance in very large quantities : and although arsenic and the oxymuriate of
quicksilver (corrosive sublimate), the acetate of copper (verdigris), cannot be
borne in any thing like equal doses, yet quantities that would astonish the in-
i experienced are given every day medicinally.

• It lias been erroneously argued, that because a borne can bear this <iuantity of antinionv, that
tlierefoie hi moderate doses it must be inert. Analogy teadios us tliat repeated sinull doses of many
»rticlf » cffert that whirh one large dose cannot do ; and fact fully evinces that the power of antimony
in lessening vascular action Is cou«ldctable.

'^^^ LOCAL INFLAMMATION. [ClASS X

The symptoms which arise from the imprudent* or malicious administration
of tlie more common mmeral acids do not materially differ. I'hc is fi 1

observed to be uneasy and impatient, which ends in his lying down and roUi
or stampmg with his feet, as in gripes: he also looks round%t his sides in he
same manner; so that these cases might be readily mistaken for colic, wereU
not for an appearance which is almost constant here, and is very rarely seen in
spasmodic colic. Tnis is the presence of a viscid, ropy, or frothy mucus whic
continually escapes from the mouth, is singularly hot, and at length become
foetid to the smell In some instances there are frequent attempts to stale and
dung : now and then bloody evacuations pass. Profuse cold sweats break out •
the weakness becomes extreme; the pulse, from the first quick and smaU, now
intermits, and the animal sinks to rise no more.

Dissections of these cases, as far as I have observed them or been informed
ot, do not always present appearances commensurate with the violence of the
symptoms. In some, the whole alimentary canal has presented gangrenous and
sphacelated portions of great extent, when the suflFerings were not apparently
intense, and where even hopes were entertained of amendment. In others spots
ot an inflammatory hue have been dispersed over the villous surfaces of the
stomach and intestines, at considerable distances from each other ; and yet the
sufferings during the disease were extreme.

No treatment we can offer promises much, for a veil is commonly drawn over
the case ; and when otherwise, the time usually lost before assistance is sought
for precludes much hope. If an early application be made, and a stomach pump
be at hand, it ought to be at once employed: but under other circumstances our
efforts should be first directed to dilute the poisonous matter, and then to weaken
Its potency. Alkalies have been supposed the best means to fulfil the second
intention, as an ounce of potash in thin gruel. Orfila, however, recommends in
these cases, particularly such as arise from corrosive sublimate, entangling the
poisonous matter in the albuminous (i. e. the white) matter of eggs. Back-rakc,
clyster largely, and otherwise act as the symptoms direct.

LOCAL INFLAMMATION.

The principles and doctrine of inflammation have been so fully treated on at
the commencement of the Pathology, under the head General Liflammation,\\\i\X
we shall only introduce the practical inferences to be drawn therefrom, with
such particular observations as immediately connect it with the surgical part of
our subject. A very attentive consideration of these principles is necessary to
a successful practice of horse surgery, as many, nay most, of the local and ex-
ternal diseases of the animal have their foundation in inflammation.

Local inflammation is characterised by heat, redness, tension, or swelling, and
by pain or tenderness in the part affected. According as such inflammation is
considerable or inconsiderable, the circulating system universally participates,
or it is unaffected. The general circulation is also affected or not affected^
according to circumstances connected with the structure and functions of the
inflamed part.

When the general circulation is increased, the horse is said to have symptomatie
fever; but in every instance the vessels of the inflamed part are in a state of
distention t or swelling. The timid state of the part in inflammation is a well

• By tlic term imprudent, I mean the continued Bdmlnistration of even moderate doses, without
onrefully watchini; tlicir effects, and of occasional cessations from tlic administrations of them • for il
is remarkable, tlint a horse will continue to take 30 or 40 grains daily of the most potent of these,
without apparent ill effect. All at once, however, symptoms arise, and consequences ensue, as tlioneli
the united (piantities he has taken had been given at once.— CScc Treatment of Farcy.)

+ ft seems doubtful whether an indamed part is always in a state of increased strength. On tlie
contrary, it may, under some circumstances, be considered as in a state of increased debilitv ; for the
inflammatory action, paiticnlarly of the larger arterial trunks, may carry the distention of the capil-
lary branches beyond their contractile power to overcome; or, what is equally likely, it may alto-
getlier stop the nervous intluence by which these vessels are acted on ; in both these ways debility
may be the consequence of long-continued or inordinate distention. These views of the matter arc
very important in practice, and deserve the most attentive examination and consideration : as on a cor-
rect judgment lorwied of the one or the other of these ns the immediate cause, our prognosis as well
ns our practice will juuch depend.

Glass X.] local inflammation. 407

known svmptom, and, as connected with our immediate subject, is dependent on
the distended state of the vessels themselves ; to which is sometimes superadded,
an effusion or pouring out of the contents of these vessels ; in which, either the
serous parts of the blood, or when the inflammatory action is very considerable,
coagulable lymph, or as it is now caUed the fibrin of the blood, is effused into
thecellular tissues ; and which further increases the tension, and embarrasses
the recovery (see Tumour). Thus the effects and terminations of local in-
flammation are varied according to the nature of the part, the state of the patient,
and the violence of the attack. If the inflamed vessels be enabled to reinstate
themselves by getting rid of the distending column of blood within them, and of
recovering thek tone and contractility, resolution takes place. But when this
does not occur, and the same vessels have poured forth the coagulable part of
the serum, a more protracted process is usually necessary to the cure. _ But that
effusion which in spontaneous inflammation would protract the cure, in healthy
inflammation consequent to abrasion, incision, laceration, &c. formed of the
coagulable or albuminous part of the serum, and thus poured forth, is the very
pabulum for the new formed parts, and the cement by which the breaches are
to be repaired. This inflammatory effect is called adhesion. If the morbid
attack be still more active, or longer protracted, or if extensive injury have been
done to the surrounding parts by pressiu-e, laceration, &c., then the same vessels,
instead of the albuminous part of the blood, secrete fi-om it a homogeneous fluid
called pus or matter, with which process ulceration or lymphatic agency in the
absorption of the surrounding edges is united ; and these actions are called
suppuration. Occasions wiU, however, occur when the inflammatory action is
inordinately violent ; or when it is long protracted ; or when it occurs in a con-
stitution generally debilitated; or when a part has suffered great accidental
violence : in any of which states, the inflammatory congestion may rupture the
vessels, and destroy them, and the effused blood putrefying in and around them,
sphacelus, gangrene, or mortification, is said to have come on.
^ The treatment of local inflammation must be varied according as the tendency
to these different kinds of termination exists ; but when it is in our power, there
are but few instances in which we should not choose the termination by resolution ;
the first indication to produce which is, to restore and equalize the balance of
power between the parts ; and this must be done either by bringing the system
at large down to the level of the affected parts, or to raise the tone of the in-
'flamed parts to the level of the system. The former is only to be attempted
when the general plethora is very great ; in which case we make use of general
bleeding, purges, and diuretics (see Diffused Inflammation). In most instances,
however, topical bleeding is to be preferred, where it can be practised, by which
the distended vessels are at once freed from their load. When blood cannot be
drawn from the immediate part, still it is often practicable to open a vein in the
neighbourhood of it, which shall return the blood from that individual part im-
mediately. In violent local inflammations, both topical and general bleeding may
be usefully employed at the same time. Topical applications are among our
most active agents in dispelling local inflammations. In phlegmonous inflamma-
tions particularly, cold powerfully promotes resolution, and also in the in-
flammatory actions which follow those injuries known by the name of strains ;
which it is probable is effected by its action on the caliber of the vessels, and
thus reducing the distention. With the coldest water mix the acetate of lead
(see Vei. Pharm.), and renew the application frequently in the wettest state, by
which means constant evaporation will decrease the temperature still lower. Or
a still colder application may be formed from the muriate of ammonia with vine-
gar (see Vet. Pharm,.). As cold proves itself an active agent in some local in-
flammations, so also heat, or rather warmth, in many other cases, proves no less
so. It is in vain to theorize on the seeming incongruity of curing the same disease
by two such opposites : the facts are so, and all the theoretic arguments in the
world cannot overturn them. In many cases, therefore, we reap the most de-
cided advantages from the use of warmth, in the form of poultices or fomenta-
tions, which appear to act by unloading the vessels of the part in the form of

'^^^ LOCAL INFLAMMATION. [ClISS X

sweat or exhalation : but as actual heat increases inflaminatorv action anri
herefore promotes other termination than resolution, we should be carlf to
avoid applying either of these means too hot. On th^ otherXnd as in thV«^
immediate instances cold would prove injurious, so we shou d be caJe Jin the
use of fomentations that we do not leave the p^rt afterwards wet and exposed
trS" :T For th^r evaporat J (see Poultices and J^^lroTaZt
h^nSl^'^' ^ moderately warm poultice frequently applied

becomes, in many cases, one of the best applications in promoting resolu on
and perhaps It is peculiarly eligible when the 'inflammation's somTway remS
from the surface, as ,t tends to unload the vessels near the part, with little Ad-
dition to their temperature. When the inflammation is situated sdU deeper we
frequently use rubefacients or actual blisters, which create an artificial meiastasis
(J^^ General Inflammation and Blisters). But when, notwithstanding all our
talS place'' tenderness of the part increase, suppuration will

When suppuration becomes unavoidable, it is then our duty no lonc^er to
attempt to_ retard, but on the contrary we should promote it, to prevent the
worse termination (by a continued irritation and debility) into gangrene If the
inflamraation have been confined to a mucous surface, we may expect the tran-
sition to take place without trouble, these surfaces changing their secretions
from a mucous mto a puriform fluid, without gi-eat increase of effort. If the
inflammation be situated within the cellular membrane of the integuments or
the muscular tissues, &c. &c., more active symptoms will supervene The heat
and pain may lessen, but the actual sensibility of the part wiU commonly be
augmented. It must be our care now to avoid depleting the system; a moderate
warmtli should be constantly applied to the part by means of warm poultices,
bhould the suppuration be deep seated, or when it becomes prudent to hasten
the maturation, solid turpentine may be added to the poultices, and which poul-
tices should be frequently renewed. Almost constant fomentation might possibly
be better, as renewing the heat oftener ; but in these cases the part must for
reasons already stated, never be suffered to cool, by remaining uncovered, nor be
left wet. When neither poultices nor fomentations can be used, the part should
still be kept warm by means of an adhesive plaster over it, or with cloths ; or it
may be thickly greased over, which promotes heat, and prevents the effects of
evaporation. In this state it is still to be remembered, that if the general action
of the system should be very inordinate, it is to be repressed ; otherwise the
inflamed parts may, instead -of falling into a healthy suppuration, be hurried, in
the end, to such debility as will produce an entire loss of their tone, when
mortification must ensue. When suppuration has been long continued, some-
times the vessels become so habituated to the action, that it is not easy to pro-
mote a healing process : in this case setons and rowels are introduced, to promote
a new action.

Mortification.— Yfhen the congestion in the capillaries is extreme, or when
debility to a great degree takes place in a part under inflammation, it falls into
mortification. If the adjacent parts likewise are equally debile*, they frequently
participate, and become gangrenous also ; but if they are strong, the absorbents
are equal to the removal of the edges of the sound part, and by this means a
separation of the dead from the living takes place. It is, therefore, our duty to
prevent this extension of death to the sound part, and to promote the removal
of the dead from the living. To effect this, we must attend to the system gene-
rally, as much as to the parts individually, for upon a salutary effort of the con-
stitution at large we are principally to hope for this; particularly when the
inflammation is extensive or deep seated. Constitutional remedies are peculiarly
available, because the immediate parts are already dead, and no topical applica-
tions can restore them : the constitutional means of this nature are such as tend

• Mortification is lii<ewise oonseriiient to a defect in the nervons influence which should be distri-
buted to the vessels, and which defect nmy arise eithei from a morbid cause actin^r on the nervous
ti unlt which feeds the part, or on tlie flbrilltB by whicli such influence should be distributed : thus a
paralytic limb becomes cold, and often mortittcs witliout much apjiarent vajculat action.

reduce the living parts into tHe same state as lue uuau uuco.— », ^ oi.<.xx x.>
proceed to apply these doctrines to a consideration of the several subjects
wowuls, vlcers, tumours, inflammatory, indurated, and encysted, and to tt
inflammation, both healthy and diseased, which affects the bones.

CLASS XI.

WOUNDS.

A WOUND is a solution of continuity, or a division of some of the parts of the
body ; and as wounds frequently occur to all the animals domesticated to our
use, it becomes a matter of great importance for the veterinarian to be equal to
the' treatment of them. The surgical treatment of wounds differs in the horse
and other domestic animals from the human, from peculiarities in the constitution;
but principally it differs in the mechanical parts of the treatment : therefore
teteririary surgery cannot be perfectly learned from the most intimate acquaint-
ance with the practice of human surgery. A wound occurring in any of the
subjects of our care, should be treated according to the particular circumstances
which take place, as the nature of the wound, the part in which it happens, as
well as the immediate structure of the substance divided, and the constitution
and habits of the animal. When a wound occurs, it undergoes several states
before the part is again made whole : hemorrhage first takes place, which if very
considerable must be immediately attended to. It is, however, to be remembered,
that the vital resources are so much greater in the horse, that the division of an
artery which in the human would require pressure to stop the flow, in the_ horse
may be allowed to remain unattended to ; and that when nothing but taking up
a human artery can secure life, moderate pressure will be sufficient in veterinary
practice. When, however, a very large artery is divided, it should be secured
with a tenaculum, if possible ; or if not practicable by these means, a ligature
should be passed around it of fine strong silk (see Wounds of the Arteries').
The next circumstance to attend to is, the removal of any extraneous matter
which may have insinuated itself ; and if this can be done without washing the
cavity, the chances of early union will be increased. But when dirt, dust, &c.,
render washing out the wound absolutely necessary, tepid water is all that is
requisite. All powerfully stimulating applications, unless to a contused wound,
are, in most cases, hurtful, and always act against an immediate union. We, on
the contrary, hope to gain a prompt union by the medium of the albuminous
part of the serum which is poured out in these cases ; ' and which Mr. Hunter
caUed union hy the first intention:'' supposing, however, that such union was not
that of the two parts to each other, ' but the union of the broken parts to the
intermediate extravasated blood.' Modern surgery defines it to be brought
about by the vessels of each side of the wound inosculating with each other: the
divided vessels, having first poured forth their adhesive coagula, prolong them-
selves through the extravasated matter by their own vitality, the adhesive fluid
gluing the surfaces, as the inosculating vessels interlace and dovetail the union.

410 WOUNDS. [Class XL

Some veterinarians deny that this union ever takes place in the horsp ; but which
IS certainly erroneous. I have seen many instances to the contrary; and although
the force of the arterial circulation in the horse usually hurries on the sup-
purative process, yet it is more owing to the difficulty arising from his restless-
ness in maintaining an approximation of the wounded surfaces together than to
any constitutional speciality, that it does not more frequently happen. It is,
therefore, the duty of every veterinary practitioner to endeavour to promote the
adhesive union by a perfect adaptation of the sides of the wound together, and
by a careful retention of them in this situation. In any wound .beyond the
most superficial, assistance, is derived from the use of sutures : with them, how-
ever, we cannot always succeed ; but without them we have still less chance.

Sutures are stitches made in a wound with needles, armed with either silk,
cotton, thread, worsted, or fine tape ; and the arming is of the filamentary or
thread-like matters : it it usually many times doubled, that it may not cut the
parts, and is also waxed to increase its tenacity. There used to be many kinds
of sutures, but modern surgery has reduced the number to three ; at least, the
interrupted, the twisted, and the glovers, are those principally in use: of which
the first is by much the most useful and general in its application. The inter-
mpted suture is nothing more than an indefinite number of distinct stitches
unconnected by the threads with which they are made. For deep wounds, and
for such where the substance of the integuments is to be brought into union, the
needles used are curved, with their substance somewhat flattened, which form
best adapts itself to the penetrating of the substance of the divided edges of
such wounds*; the lips of which having been cleansed from clots of blood, or
any extraneous matter, should be carefully brought together in exact opposi-
tion : but unless there be danger of dirt, or other extraneous substance inter-
vening, much washing or wetting the part had better be avoided. The needle
properly armed, is now to be carried from without, inwards, to a sufficient
depth to prevent the ligature tearing away the flesh ; when having penetrated
one lip carry the needle through the other, from within outward. Cut it away
from its ligatijre, which leave untied ; again thread or arm it, and if more
stitches be required, repeat the operation in the same manner for each stitch,
the distances of which from each other must be regulated by circumstances, as
the depth of the wound, its being exposed to much or little motion, &c. I have
seldom, in wounds of the integuments, found it advisable to put them nearer
than an inch to each other ; but oftener I have allowed an inch and a half or
two inches between each. Having inserted as many stitches as are requisite to
sustain the parts in their just position, begin to tie each ligature, an assistant
carefully holding the edges of the wound together ; bearing in mind that, if the
wound be considerable, it is prudent to fasten the centre stitches first. The
disposition that is observed to ulceration in the horse and other quadrupeds,
greatly lessens the advantages which are often derived from sutures in the
human subject. It is very seldom that the veterinarian can depend on any
suture remaining beyond the third or fourth day, after which it ulcerates out,
and more particularly, I have observed, where the stitches have been drawn too
tight : in my own practice, therefore, I always avoided it, being confident that
it greatly increases the inflammation, and hurries it on to ulceration.

To obviate this inconvenience to the stitches it is important to add to the
sutures the assistance derived from adhesive plaister made from resin, pitch, or
cobbler's wax, and spread on leather, strips of which should be passed across
the edges of the wound (prcAaously shaved or shorn), of sufficient extent to
reach beyond the exuding moisture, the whole being secured by a proper
bandage. Wherever the uniformity of the part wiU aUow it, the bandage in
human surgery called the uniting is the best, which consists of a long roller
having two heads or rolls, by which means the central part can be first applied
to the portion of limb or body opposite to the wound; by then drawing each

• The veterinarian may furnish Iilmself with these needles of various sizes, degrees of curvature,
&c,, tit llic shop of the lute Mr. Long, Higli Holborn.

Class XI.] wounds. 411

roU forward, the divided edges arc brougbt into contact by the pressure, and
the completion of the bandage will retain them there. The corneal form of
some parts of the extremities will, in some measure, prevent the permanent ap-
nlication of any bandage, unless retained in its situation by supportmg ends
parsed in the fore legs over the shoulders, and over the loms for the hmder.
This form of suture is applicable to most wounds, and is even now practised
on the intestines in lieu of the glover's suture, which having been thought to
micker the wound and increase the inflammation, has been brought into dis-
repute (See Wounds of the Intestines.)— The twisted suture, though popular m
human surgery, is not frequently applicable to the horse. I have however
occasionally used it; and think that in wounds of the eyehds, lips, nostrils, &c.,
it may in s6me cases, be advantageously employed*.— The glover's suture, as
before observed, is in disrepute ; and though still used by many older surgeons,
is certainly superseded by the intemipted, which, it has been- found, is fuUy
equal to producing adhesion in the intestines and other thin membranous cavi-
ties! All straight surgical needles are made with a triangular cutting edge,
which greatly assists their entrance into the substance of a wound, particularly
of membranous parts. It still, however, remains a doubt, whether the irritation
occasioned by stitches or ligature does not sometimes rather retard than pro-
mote the adhesive union : and yet it is prineipaUy as a promoter of this union
that they are advisable, but it being seldom that the ulcerative process allows
them to remain beyond the third, fourth, or fifth day, at the utmost ; at which
time the inosculation of vessels being not firm, the part usually again divides,
and must then be filled up hy gramdations : neither is it unusual for the irritation
of the wound to occasion the horse to rub or bite them out before even this time,
unless both horse and wound be very carefuUy secured. It is also necessary to
remark, that in some cases, particularly where any foreign body has been incau-
tiously allowed to remain within a wound, the irritation becomes so great that it
is prudent to divide the stitches, which will sometimes give immediate relief:
and the same occurs often when the mere inflammation of the part runs high.
Here, therefore, are evils and benefits mixed up, the selection of which must de-
pend on the nature of the case.

The adhesive inflammation may, however, and certainly does in some cases,
appear to be promoted by the judicious use of sutures : in all wounds it 19 clearly
our duty to attempt the present or future union, by a close application of the
divided parts to each other, but we must then be guided by circumstances as to
the best method of retaining them so applied until structural union binds them
indissolubly. The adhesive union will be also greatly promoted by moderating
the inflammatory tendency which may be expected to arise from an extensive
wound, by general bleeding, low diet, cool temperature, &c. : but it is proper to
remark, that until this union be despaired of, no moist applications should be
applied.

Suppurative process. — When the adhesive union cannot be brought about, a
greater inflammatory action takes place in the part ; it tumefies, becomes hard,
painful, and tender, and a thin fluid is poured out ; to which succeeds either
death in some of the parts (see Gangrene), or more frequently the fluid formed
becomes purulent. The secretion of pus is usually followed by a cessation of
the inflammatory symptoms, and is succeeded by a formation of granulations,
to which the suppurative process seems essential ; and as they rise, the chasm
is gradually diminished until, reaching the surface, exsiccation of the part takes
place, and the cutis is formed over it. — Cicatrization is the process of forming
new skin, but which is never so ample as before, by which means the surface or
scar of an exten.sive wound is puckered. It also becomes hard and ligamentous
when fully formed, though at first it is thin, very vascular, and highly sensible ;

• When I was in Holland, acting as surgeon to the 40tli Regiment of Foot. I was requested by a
field officer to look at a valuable cbarger which bad the right nostril divided by a sahro wound, and
whic h had penetrated througli the lip into the mouth. I conceived the project of retaining these parts
in their situation by means of needles, which I supposed, as being tbin, were not so likely to ulcerate
out; and the event justified my view of the matter.

412 WOUNDS. [Class XI.

to the formation of skin succeeds the growth of hair, if the injury have not been
extensive ; but if it liave, this is not replaced. In the process of forming granu-
lations, the wound should be kept from exposure, but the applications used should
be simple; tor whatever is appHed, is more for the purpose of defending the
part than trom any peculiar operation on the sore. Great stress was, by the
older farriers, laid on heaUng ointments, driers, digesters, and innumerable
others. Modern surgery has discarded nearly the whole ; but as occurs in other
improvements, in correcting an evil, too much has been attempted probably ; for
experience shews us, that it is not equally indifferent to every wound what is
apphed to it. I have seen an ulcerated human leg that would bear no application
with comfort but the old compound called black basilicon : the yellow, which is
so httle different, tortured the feelings to madness. Many apphcatidns certainly
promote a formation of granulations, as all the terebinthiuated ; but these are
seldom necessary, for in the horse the flesh is apt to sprout too fast, except in
very deep wounds, or those of glandular parts, in which instances we cannot
promote their growth too much by means of mild terebinthiuated stimulants,
by tincture of aloes with myrrh, &c. &c. In other cases of luxuriant growth,
applications called desiccative, as ointments of calamine, or minium, &c. &c.,
are proper, as they defend, without promoting the too rapid growth of parts.
When the granulations have extended beyond the level surface of a healthy part,
they may be deemed diseased, and the wound will never heal while they remain
so; on the contrary, it frequently enlarges : for the pressure the luxuriant granula-
tions make on the edges produces an absorption of the healthy parts, and thus
increases the surface of the sore. This luxuriance must, therefore, be kept down
by mild escharotics. (See Mat. Med.) The firing-iron is often an excellent
means.

It is the practice of many farriers to plug every wound with something of
the nature of a tent., under an idea of keeping it properly open, by which the
healthy processes of nature are frustrated, and simple wounds are rendered
complicated and tedious, by this introduction of tow, sponge, candle, &c. &c.
In this way also sinuses form, and the edges of the wounds, by being in con-
stant contact with foreign bodies, become hardened and callous, and are for
ever incapable of union until they are removed either by caustic or the knife.
The only circumstances that can justify the use of tents are, where a very deep
wound exists, with a very small orifice; in which case it is certainly not prudent
to permit the external opening to heal until the granulations have filled the
cavi1;y from the bottom; likewise when any extraneous body is suspected to be
within a wound, as thorns, splinters, gravel, &c., or when a bone has been in-
jured ; in which case its exfoliation being slow, if the muscular parts healed up,
the exfoliating bone would become a foreign body, and occasion continued irrita-
tion and repeated new abscesses. In such cases of protracted suppuration, we
have a powerful auxiliary in rowels ; and which, in full plethoric horses, may be
likewise inserted in every case of extensive local injury, as near the wounded
part as is convenient, by which the inordinate action will be greatly checked.
But when, on the contrary, from the nature of the wound, the peculiar circum-
stances of the patient, &c., the action of the parts is really below the ordinary
standard, stimulating applications must be made use of Among which, warm
fomentations stand foremost, assisted by terebinthinated dressings, or by pledgets
dipped in tincture of myrrh with aloes, or the tincture of benjamin (called Friar's
balsam) ; or one part of oil of turpentine with three parts of oUve oil will answer
the end. But it is only on such occasions that these apphcations are necessary,
and only in those particular cases before noted that tents can ever be at all pro-
per ; for it should never be lost sight of, that it is our business to watch and
assist Nature, and not to interrupt her ; and it will always be better to lea\'e her
to herself, than to interfere injudiciously, which it is the express intention of
these instructions to prevent.

CLASS XI.] WOUNDS. 413

Wounds or particular Parts.
VVouMh of the head should be treated according to the part they happen in :
in most cases, the first step is to ascertain whether any injury has been done
to °he bones underneath, which, if found to be broken, must be treated by
Such means as are directed under Fractures. When aay part of .the is
much lacerated, it may be advisable to remove the whole ear and its fellow.
T have however, succeeded by fine sutures and supporting the tube internally, .
in maintaining a shapeable ear; and which, as cropping is now out of fashion,
may always be attempted, as we have still the other as a later resource. When,
from accident, either the parotid or other salivanj glands become wounded,
every attempt should be made to produce a speedy union or the continued
flow of saliva will occasion a fistulous sore.— (See Salivary FtstulcB, Class Xil.)
In wounds of the eve, or of the eyelids, the parts should be replaced as critically
ouposed as possible, having in view their future functions, so that their motions
may not be impeded: in such cases, it is evident no irritating appbcation
ou-^ht to be used; but that every means should be made use of to avoid in-
flammation. In divisions of the evebd, neat small stitches of the interrupted
suture may be inserted near together, and the horse secured from rubbing, by
ulacino- him in a box or barn, with his head tied to a beam in the ceding, at
the usual height, by which means he cannot rub the wound with his knee or
his hind leg ; nor wiU there be any rack or manger to rub against : he should
also have a cradle constantly on his neck. I have, in one or two instances of
wounded eyelids, used the twisted suture with success. (See Sutures.) In
wounds of the nose, care should be taken to replace the bones if any be dis-
placed, and to retain them in their situation, by the putting any firm substance
up the nostril weU guarded with soft tow or rag ; or the fingers may be used if
they can reach so high, and the external wound should be afterwards closed to
prevent the unnatural access of the air.

Wounds of the ?iecA.— When the suspensory ligament becomes wounded, a
depending orifice should be immediately made, and the wound dressed with
terebintbinated or other warm applications, by which The ligamentous substance
may be stimulated into an healthy inflammation, and sinuses prevented from
forming. (See Poll Evil.) When the oesophagus is divided, treat as directed
under CEsophagotomy : and if the trachea have suffered in the same way, refer to
the treatment under Bronchotomy. The integuments of the neck are not un-
favourably situated for the insertion of interrupted sutures ; but to prevent their
being rubbed out, a neck cradle should be worn, and the horse's head should be
racked up to the manger day and night. When it is necessary to perform opera-
tions in the neck, by dilating an already existing wound, the longitudinal direc-
tion of the muscular fibres should direct the section, and due regard should
also be paid to the nerves and bloodvessels around.

Wounds of the chest, when they take place in the muscular and integumental
parts of the chest, must be treated like other external wounds ; but when they
penetrate the cavity, the treatment must be regulated by the extent of the in-
jury, and the nature of the parts penetrated. When the lungs are punctured,
the danger is always great; for should the hsemorrhage not destroy, fatal in-
flammation is likely to follow. These wounds are distinguished by the air rushing
out at the wound, and by the scarlet hue of the ha;morrhage. Having ascer-
tained that no foreign substance is left within the thorax, carefully close the
wound by any of the means already directed, enveloping the chest in a circular
bandage. From the consequences which usually result from openings made into
any of the visceral cavities, it is expedient to close such as speedily as possible ;
and therefore, where no other circumstances interfere to prevent it, as wounding a
viscus, and where the figure of the wound will admit, no means are more simple,
ready, or efficacious than the firing-iron. In wounds of the chest a principal
indication is, that the force of the circulation must be also immediately restrained
by copious bleeding ; and if blood becomes effused into the cavity of the diest,
it should be suffered to escape by the opening already made ; and if it will not

, [Class XI.

do this, the operation for empyema mi.st be perfonned. (See Dromv of fh.
Chest). If emphysematous swellings take place in the parts aVound tl^ ope{i^t
wlneh may be known by the crackling noise and peculiar feer they wi7be ac-'
companied with, the extravasated air should be let out by small Secures with
a lancet. (See Extravasation and Emphysema) punctures with

Ruptured diaphragm.-A lesion of this important muscular septum is a more
^^T^^i t^^nation of the ife of many horses than is suppo eS r^ni appears
to be the finale of broken-wmded ones particularly, when pressed beyond their
powers. It has also_ happened by the violent abdominal contractbns i^foalhr

i£:s:::^Lr''''^'' ^« ^ speedy-^nf -s

Wounds of the aMowze^.-These, when external, must be treated after the
manner of wounds in general, observing that if it be simple punctSe or stab of
the mere cavity only, and that none of the viscera be wounded, and no protrusion
of parts occur at first, that no means are more likely to shut up the opei W
efi-ectually than the budding-iron applied to the integumental lips of tL wound
and to those on y. But when the cavity has been more deepl/^enetJated and
there IS reason to fear that some viscus is injured, the treatment must conse-
quently be rendered more complex, and the danger proportionate: when such a
wound has occurred, the extent of it should be carefuUy examined, that we may
learn what viscera are likely to be injured; in which examinatio;i we shaU be
aided much by a previous know edge of the diiferent regiom, as already taught,
and the viscera that occupy them. (See Splanchnology, p. 212) If anv of
these be protruded, carefully replace them; unless they should have become
mortified or frozen, in which case remove the injured and replace the sound part
\\hen the intestines are wounded, the opening of the gut must be neatly united
by suture, {^^e Sutures). It has been recommended, in case the external wound
be large, to stitch the intestine to it, in preference to letting it float loose in the
abdomen, which, as ^ylll be again noticed, particular circumstances may render
ehgible. When an intestine is completely divided, the chances of union are
small; nevertheless, I should not hesitate to invaginate one portion within the
other; when fastening them with suture, I would return them into the abdomen
The external wound may, if possible, be drawn together by sutures, but much
more dependence is to be placed on a firm supporting bandage. For forty-eight
hours offer neither food nor drink, and then only thick gruel in smaU quantities;
and if the wound be in the small intestines, apply wet cloths around the body
instead of drmk, and nutritious clysters instead of food by the mouth; employ-
ing bleeding as a means to combat irritation and fever. Sometimes, from very
large openings made in the abdomen by staking, or from the gores of oxen there
follows an extensive protrusion of parts, which wiU often require much force and
more dexterity to return. I have first placed close to the wound a very firm
bandage already di-awn moderately tight, and then have replaced the parts with
my fingers under it, gradually drawing the bandage onwards as I returned them-
the integuments should, in such case, be carefully and firmly sewn up, and an
adhesive plaister placed over aU, to keep a permanent pressure on the protrudins
portions. The internal state of the bowels also should be particularly atteudcd
uu^li'^^^ distended ; for this purpose, food should be at first

withheld, or given very sparingly in a liquid form only ; but nutritive clvsters
may be more freely administered. It hkewise happens, that with all the cffo'-ts
we can make, the parts cannot sometimes be returned ; or it occurs that by long
exposure they may have become sphacelated and unfit to be returned ; in which
cases, what is to be done ? If the bowels protrude, and the return is totally
impracticable from flatus, but that they are not gangrenous, it is prudent to
minutely puncture them ; and I prefer this to any attempts at enlarging a very
smaU abdominal opening, as is top frequently done ; but which almost always
gives passage to a still larger quantity of intestines, equal to eventeration, and
which no future efforts can replace. The return must be attempted by means
already mentioned, or by the fingers of one hand gently introducing portions of
the intestines within one side of the opening, while the other hand is employed

Class XL] wounds. 415

;n sustaining the portion introduced; an assistant supporting and gently pressing
on the remainder: aU this is best done with the animal cast and placed on his
back when the eventeration is considerable. Having returned it, if the opening
be a defined one, and not immoderate, it should be stitched up with cross sutures.
When extensive injury has been sustained by the intestine, and the discoloura-
tion shews that sphacelus has proceeded, excise the mortified portion, and sew
-the edges to the external wound in the abdominal parietes. If omentum have
protruded, by all means excise it if discoloured from strangulation ; and do the
same when it is too tumid to return. In aU such eases it is evident that a well-
informed practitioner is left greatly to his own resources : but the knowledge
that the animal must die without assistance, will embolden his practice ; and the
recollection that greater liberties may be taken in brute than in human surgery,
will "-ive a wider field to his exertions, and enlarge his chances of success.
Wounds of the abdominal viscera are not, of necessity, fatal, and large portions
of most of them have been excised at these times, or lost by mortification, with-
out destroying life. The omentum particularly has sufiered excision of large
portions with impunity : considerable portions of intestine have also been cut
away, and being stitched up in various ways, but leaving the integrity of the tube
entire, the resources of nature have saved the animal. In other cases, fastening
an opening so made to the abdominal pai-ietes has made a temporary anus, but
which the same animal resources have at length closed up, and have by re-
establishing an internal continuous canal, at length resumed the use of the
old one.

WOUNDS OF ARTICULAR AND BURSAL CAVITIES.

The ruinous efi'ects of these wounds to horses render a due knowledge of the
nature of the parts they injure, the consequences that ensue therefrom, and the
curative means the most hkely to obviate their effects, most imperative on every
veterinarian. Neither, in the whole round of the art is there a subject that will
afford a more strikmg display between the well-informed practitioner and the
ignorant pretender than this ; which has been well exemplified by the fortunate
issues which now occur in very desperate cases ; and by a compai-ison between
those attempted by a mild treatment compared with the sad results which
formerly occurred from one which was too often marked not more by its fatal
termination than by the tortures inflicted under it. The frequency of these
occurrences, the fatality of their consequences, and the erroneous practices pur-
sued, made it a judicious choice in Professor Coleman when he selected this
subject for the first number of Tlie Veterinary Transactions. Of the method of
treating it, as there displayed, it is not too much to say, that it would, even in
our advanced state of knowledge, be considered a masterly performance ; but as
the art then stood with us, it fills us with admiration, but unfortunately, mingled
with regret, that it should have been at once the alpha and omega of such a
writer. My anatomical detail is replete with notices of vascular secreting mem-
branes which pour out fluids on surfaces or within sacs, appropriate in qualities
to the several parts they frirnish. The membranes which line the cavities of
joints and of the bursae mucosae thus secrete a semioleaginou.s mucus or glair,
known popularly &9 joint-oil, which is of the most slippery nature, and admirably
formed to resist the effects of friction. To secrete this in constant and due
quantities, it is necessary that the membrane should be very vascular ; we can-
not, therefore be surprised at the great irritation which occurs on so vascular, so
sensitive, and so extensive a surface as an open joint, when it becomes exposed
to the action of the external air* ; and when to this we add the effects of attrition
between the ends of the bones, or between the sides of tendons and their sheaths,

• I am aw.ire that it is doubted whetlicr llio introduction of air witliin cavities is tlic source of sucli
irtitatior., and some experiments liave seemed to favour tliis denial ; but a greater number of otliers,
and tiic usual result of tliese openings, give reason to suppose tliat tfie action of the air is prejudicial :
at least we are certain that the entraucc of air is a measure of the exposure of the cavity, and wc may
use it as such at least.

416 WOUNDS. [Class XL

and between ligaments and their connexions, we recognise in a union of these a suf-
ficient cause for tliose violent symptoms which arise and are commonly seen to
accompany broken knees, punctured hocks, or even the accidental or purposed
opening of a bursal capsule or wind-gall as it is termed*. If the simple effects
of attrition, and the exposure of the secreting membrane which lines these cavities,
is of itself sufficient to create a symptomatic fever that will endanger life, or
sufficient irritation to produce tetanus, how much more certainly are these con-
sequences to be dreaded, when to the effects of the accident are added the in-
jection of the most acrid substances within a cavity already inflamed bv exposure ;
and yet this was the practice formerly, and the event, as might be expected, was
usually accompanied either with a train of fatal symptoms, or at best there fol-
lowed a complete anchylosed joint ; and the knacker was called in to hide the
error of the farrier, and end the misery of his patient.

The articular cavities most subject to exposure are those of the scapula with
the humerus or shoulder joint ; of the knee ; of the pasterns, before and behind ;
of the stifle; and of the hock: of all which the knee is the most liable to this
injury. Of the bursce mucosce, poll-evil sometimes opens important ones ; the
semi-cartilaginous cap of the flexor radiahs anticus, which runs over the point of
the shoulder, furnishes another whose cavity, when exposed, is apt to be mistaken
for an opening into the shoulder joint (see p 2.53). The elbow presents others
also : a considerable one is situated behind the knee, and lesser ones are found
belonging to the various ligaments and tendons which surround the knee ; an
opening into which is sometimes mistaken for one made into the great articular
cavity. The thecal sheaths of the flexor tendons or back sinews are bursal sacs ;
large ones furnish the pasterns before and behind, whose dilatations are called
■windgalls. A bursal cavity, which is sometimes exposed by disease as well as
accident, is that furnished between the navicular bone and tendo-perforans. Be-
hind, we find bursse in the stifle : the point of the hock presents one sufficiently
known, as being the seat of a dilatation called capped-hock, and around this joint,
as around the knee, individual bursal cavities exist also. '

The symptoms, prog7-ess, and consequences of openings made into these cavities
as regards the first are nearly the same ; they differ only in degree : the progress
and consequences are likely to vary according to circumstances. I shall take a
general view of the whole, and then individualize particular cases that require
such notice ; for it is on broad principles and under general views, that the practi-
tioner is best taught. An opening is made into these cavities by falls, by blows,
by stabs, or punctures often inflicted by the action of kicking, &c. &c. ; and these
cases appear in the form of a simple incised wound, or as a lacerated one ; or as.
one mixed with contusion, &c. ; but in whatever way it happens, such inflam-
mation takes place as first increases the synovial secretion, which thus increased,
would force its way out of the cavity, even without the aid of gravitation or mo-
tion : how much more certainly, therefore, must it appear with these aids. Its
presence is detected by the glairy white-of-egg-like appearance of the exuding
moisturef ; which if the escape takes place immediately, may not be considerable,
the flow depending much on gravitation or motion ; it may possibly also, in this

• We must again remark, that \vc ought not to confine our notions of the dangers resulting from
open cavities to broken knees or wouuds of the hock ; on the contrary, wo shall find that the opening
of any of the bursal cavities prodnces similar effects, and equally requires the most prompt and judi-
cious treatment : the opening of a windfall has occasioned death ; and the common result has been an
anchylosed joint. Within they are tilled with a mucus as necessary as that of the joints; and their
secreting membranes arc equally vascular, freijucntly very extensive, as in tliose of the hock, knee,
and pastern, where there are also not only individual thecal sheaths to individual tendons and liga-
ments, but frequently circumsciihing ones, wliich envelop several ligamenlary and tendinous attach-
ments, within one common cavity : an opening into any of which is productive of the same local
irritation, and the same disturbance of the system generally as would result from the exposure of
a joint.

f Very young practitioners sometimes find a difficulty in distinguishing an open joint from a badly
lacerated wound of the integuments, particularly where the synovial opening is n)inute ; but a little
attention will detect the smallest quantity of it, from its yellow tinge, glib smooth feel, and its general
resemblance to the albuminous glair of an egg in colour and consistence. The junior practitioner is
exposed to the danger of another mistake, which may arise from the accidental division of some
mucous capsule surrounding a tendon, inserted into the circumlerence of the joint, and which he may
mistake for the cavity of the joint itself. This latter error is mo.e particularly likely to happen to the
knee, to the shoulder-joint, and to the hock, where mucous capsules are so numeroiis.

Class XI.] wounds. .417

fflrlv sta<-e have sonic blood mixed with it. If that, according as tiie degree ot
inflamnmdon which ensues, is moderate or is intense, so cither will the synovia
continue to flow at first in somewhat increased quantities, but still in its original
state of mucus, until the adhesive inflammation around, by forming a cement
over the orifice, wiU stop the flow, and a cicatrix will establish the fuU integrity
of the cavity. Or otherwise, the intensity of the inflammatory process will con-
vert the synovial secretion into one, first muco-serous, next bloody and muco-
purulent, until the synovial membrane being destroyed, the cartilaginous articular
surfaces, if it be a joint, are absorbed ; the denuded bones inflame, and ossific
■accretion forms a complete anchylosis ; or the horse sinks previously by the symp-
tomatic disturbance in the system generally.

Treatment. — When an accident has laid open an articular or a bursal cavity,
the exposure of the surface, together with the escape of the synovia,* will ex-
die' a very his:h degree of inflavimation. In such case, the grand indication of
cure is to close the opening made as qidcJdy as possible, which by restoring the
integrity of the cavity, and stopping the synovial discharge, will arrest the morbid
inflammatory action, and place the parts in a state for a healthy restoration
throughout. We learn, therefore, that in these cases we may regard inflamma-
tion a°s our most dreaded foe ; but it is equally certain, that we must, view it also
in the light of our best friend, and most active agent ; and that if it forms the
disease, it is equally necessary to the cure : without it we can do nothing ; with
it, provided we judiciously regulate. its degrees and its mode of action, we can do
every thing. In prosecuting this indication we, however, must first consider the
time that has elapsed from the accident ; the extent and form of the opening made
into any of these cavities ,• and the degree of inflammation . that is present. It
frequently happens that we are not called in until several days after these acci-
dents ; perhaps also not until very injudicious means have already been employed,
and we find the part excessively tumefied, hot, painful, and tender in the extreme;
accompanied, probably, with a high degree of sympathetic fever. Here we must
temporize and delay the principal indication, until, by bleeding and general
relaxants to the skin and bowels, as well as fomentations or cooling lotions, as
the case may indicate, we have abated the inflammations, general and local. In
this case we combat inflammation as our mortal foe ; for were we now to act
with that, and attempt to close the opening by means of it, we should either
destroy the joint or extinguish life. The inflammation having been sufficiently
subdued, so as to act in future under our guidance, we then proceed to close
the orifice.

■ In a recent ivound viadc into a synovial sac, the size and form of the opening is
a very material consideration. I will suppose it to be a penetrating wound, pre-
senting a circumscribed opening without laceration : in such we are warranted
in immediately calling in the aid of adhesive inflammation, which, by throwing
out coagulable lymph, will agglutinize the edges of the orifice together, and thus
prevent the further escape of the farriers' j'omi-oz'Z. ' The necessity of this, being
attempted by artificial means is rendered imperative, because it is_ but seldom
that nature is herself equal to it, except by a lengthened process, which, although
it may eventually close the orifice, docs it often at the expense of the mobility of
the joint; for from the extreme difficulty of keeping our patients in a state of
absolute rest, the synovial mucus continues to be forced out by the inquietude of
the animal : and as long as that flows uninterruptedly, it acts as an effectual ob-
struction to the approximation of the sides of the opening through which it
escapes. Our next inquiry is into the means to be employed for raising the
proper degree of adhesive inflammation ; which are either effected by the actual
cautery, or by such other applications as act powerfully on the surfaces to which
they are applied. Whcnqver it can be conveniently applied, the former method

♦ ' So long as any fluid continues to escape, a foreign body is placed between tlie lips of tlie wound,
and prevents tlie union. In the lininan subject, tbe parts may be kept .in a great degree at rest; but
In hoiseg, every motion of tbe limb forces out the oil,a» it is secreted, wbicli tends as niucb to prevent
a union as injecting water, or any otlier foreign body, between tbe lips of tbe wounded cavity.' —

clcrinnry Trantacliona, No. 1.

D d

WOUNDS. [Class XI.

appears the most effective ; it is also, altogether, the most humane. To a stab
^ -cture, or other clean-cut wound, the budding-iron adapts itself well for this
purp. According to the method and under the views so well detailed by Mr.
Coleman. ' '''he temperature of the iron should be moderately red. If it be
black, the hea t will not be sufficient to produce a proper discharge of l^Tnph to
close up the wound ; and if it be white it will destroy too much of the sur-
rounding parts, and perhaps do mischief to the ligament. Although the opera-
tion in itself is very simple, yet some knowledge of the structure and economy of
the parts, for the purpose of applying the cautery with the best possible effect, is
necessary. The object in view is to produce a glutinous substance' to close up
the cavity, and before the slough is removed, for granulations below to supply
the place of the lymph ; but if the ligament itself be destroyed by the cautery, it
must, like other dead parts, separate from the living, and come away ; and then
the joint will still be opened. It is, therefore, of importance not to destroy the
ligament of joints with the hot iron, but confine its application to the external
soft parts. In these cases, it is generally proper to cauterize the whole external
surface of the wound ; and if the discharge is not immediately stopped, the iron
has probably not been applied sufficiently deep, or too cold to produce a proper
discharge of lymph. Where a cure is possible to be effected, the actual cautery
will frequently close the cavity and stop the discharge. Sometimes, however, in
the course of one, two, or three days, the discharge appears again by the sides of
the lymph, and then the same operation should be repeated.' In some instances,
the Professor has had occasion to apply the hot iron five or six times, and, never-
theless, succeeded ultimately without the least lameness.

If there be some slight laceration productive of such edges as a simple applica-
tion of the budding-iron will not suffice to unite, make use of another of a different
shape, so as to pass over all the wounded cavernous portions, and repeat it on
the second ov third day, if the synovial discharge be not completely stopped.
Some practitioners, having applied the iron, immediately lay on a blister over
the part, which in some cases is advisable by its tendency to lessen the synovial
secretion as well as that by its revulsive properties it may tend to lessen inordi-
nate action within the cavity ; but where there has been extensive bruising of
the part, although there may not have been extensive laceration, it might prove
injurious : neither does it usually answer where the synovial opening is at all
elongated. These wounds are also sometimes treated wholly without the appli-
cation of cautery or escharotic ; which is attempted by first well cleansing the
wound ; next shaving or clipping off the surrounding hair, and then drawing the
edges of the wound closely and evenly together, further endeavouring to retain
them there by the application of strips of adhesive plaister, which should extend
from side to side, and be again supported by an outer adhesive envelope or cap
of the same : this method, if the animal can be kept quiet, and prevented from
much inflammatory action, will sometimes close up the ca^'ity promptly, and pro-
mote a complete union of parts.

In wounds of these cavities, attended with extensive laceration, and such also
as are accompanied by so much contusion as to give reason to expect sloughing
and loss of substance, it is evident that we must either remove such irregular and
such contused portions by surgical operation at once, as recommended by some
practitioners (see note *** p. 419), or we must delay the application of either
actual or potential cautery until the edges become more clear and defined, or
the injured portions are thrown off, and the wound brought into a state to be
acted on by any of the means applicable to a recent lesion. Having, there-
fore, very carefully washed such a wound, to remove all dirt, gravel, &c., com-
pletely incase the contused surface in some soft mass, so that there may be as
much as possible an obstruction offered to the entrance of the external air and
the escape of the synovia : this end is best answered b}' means of a sufficient
quantity of an adhesive poultice, as of linseed meal, &c. with armenian bole ;
which should be suffered to remain on as long as it may be supposed it can be
done without irritation, and when renewed, the utmost care is requisite to
guard the wound from more than a momentary exposlire. A state of absolute

I

Class XL] wounds. iiy

nuietude in the part is essential, by splints if the wound be in a limb ; and also
by neck-cradle, tying-up, slinging, &c., as will be again noticed. Nor must
the constitutional means of keeping down symptomatic fever be overlooked.
Previous to the application of the poultice, I have, where the contusion has
appeared to be considerable, applied a pledget of the compound tincture of
aloes and have also renewed it when I again dressed the wound, which I did
not usually do until the second day ; and when the marks of irritation were not
great, and general irritative fever did not come on, I omitted doing it until the
third' day. Under judicious treatment, the injured portions on the third or
foarth day will usually be prepared to leave the healthy, when it will be the
veterinarian's duty to proceed to such means as he deems proper to excite
healthy granulations to close the cavity and fill up the gaps. ' If nature is
working well, his assistance must be merely directed to produce a sufficient
plug to the opening, derived either from the coagulation of the synovia, or from
the albumen furnished by the vessels of the part. His own judgment, and the
circumstances around him, must guide him here ; my province is to furnish him
with directions as to processes themselves***.

Of the other exitmts (i. e. other than actual cauterization") to a healthy ad-
hesive inflammation, and of such as not only fulfil the former intention, but also
act on the albuminous matter of the synovia itself (which by converting it into
a solid, mechanically close the outlet, while the healing process is going on around
and fi-om the under edges of the wound), it yet remains to take some more
notice than the bare mention. It was formerly the custom, as already hinted at,
to apply the most powerful escharotics not only to the surface of the wound,
but often to introduce such into the very cavity of the joint or capsule. I would
hope that the practice is now obsolete, and buried in the grave of its martyrs.
We are sometimes forbidden to use other than the means I am now detailing,
from a mistaken humanity in the owner of the animal, who is not aware that
less pain is inflicted by the iron than by the successive application of even the
mildest escharotic. There are also circumstances which make this course eligible
and even imperativef. Under this view, I would first recommend among these

••• Mr. Dawson, V.S., late of Cbiswell Street, Fiiisbury Square, has ably described his method of
acting on this piinciple in vol. iii of The Veterinarian ; observing tliat by it, such cases as he used
to think hopeless he now commonly succeeds in curing. ' I have,' he says, ' in a variety of instances,
directly after the accident, dissected out several inches of partially divided or much lacerated sinew or
ligament, and still the patient has done well, in becoming sound and as workable as ever. It is my
uniform practice, to remove by the scalpel every part, whether sinew, ligament, skin, or whatnot,
that Nature would herself remove by the sloughing process; by which, I conceive, several days, or
probably a week's treatment, is saved, besides the inflammation necessary to produce that separation
of dead from living parts. I then foment, say for half an hour, for the purpose of cleansing the
wound, as well as encouraging the discharge of as much blood as can be by that moans obtained;
after this I dress simply, and bind the joint up by a flannel bandage of some yards in lengtli ; this
dressing I repeat daily, till synovia appears, when I discontinue fomentations, and use a saturated
lotion of bichlorate of mercury in spirits of wine ; or a lotion made by flrst dissolving the salt in
muriatic acid, in the proportion of two drachms of the former to four drachms of the latter and one
pound of water. This dressing may be used twice a-day until synovia has ceased flowing, after
which the wound may be treated in tlie ordinary way. In a few instances the foregoing liquids will
not be sufficiently strong of the corrosive sublimate to coagulate the synovia as it issues from the
joint; you may then use the sublimate in the form of a fine powder, either mixed with some descrip-
tion of farina, or even alone, taking care that it does not find its way into the joint, and as much as
possible applying it only to the soft parts, and, in a manner, avoiding every thing but the coagulated
synovia which will be found about the opening through which the liquid flows. In punctured wounds
of joints, the introduction of the powdered sublimate a little way into the opening is the best way of
applying it.'

T this line of treatment is called for where the living principle in the surfaces may be supposed to be
destroyed, and where the external wound daily increases ; and also to such as exhibit indented and very
irregular edges ; and a totally undefined limit of the external wound, to which there may be supposed
to be added a very considerable opening of the synovial membrane itself. In these cases it is evident
the actual cautery does not so well apply ; neither does it usually benefit those where an unhealthy
aspect of the whole surface occurs, and where abscesses, large or small, are continually breaking out.
I must, however, make one decided exception in favour of the actual cautery, which occasionally
happens, from the extensive ulceration going on, which, eroding some of the small bursiE around any
of the larger joints, particularly of the knee and hock, occasion new sources of irritation: in which
lastances, it is always prudent immediately to touch them with the budding iron. It may be asked,
how are such to be distinguished from the flow which takes place from the general articular cavity ?
to which I would answer, that I never found any difficulty in doing it . the mucus proceeds from adis-
tlnct spot, is sudden in its appearance ; it is also characterised by its clear hue and insipid smell; as
well as that the articular synovia which appears at this stage of the complaint has a yellow tinge, and
'» usually rather muco-purulent than glairy. Other exceptions will also occur, wlicre the use of the

Dd 2

420 WOUNDS. [Class XI.

various applications, a solution of nitrate of silver alternated with tincture of
cantharides or oil of turpentine, as a method which is calculated to fulfil both
the above intentions. The compound tincture of aloes, and the saturnine ex-
tract of Goulard, are also amongst the moist preparations in use. The mineral
acids, as the sulphates of zinc, iron, copper, &c., in mixture with some mild
powder, are all of them occasionally employed with advantage ; but it is never
to be lost sight of, that their action is to be confined to the surface, and to that
only. They are, at least, never to enter further within the cavity of the wound
than the mass of integuments, thecas, and tendons intended to be stimulated,
avoiding the inner edges of the capsular ligaments, or such extensivfe inflamma-
tion will ensue as will frustrate all hopes of recovery. To aid this method, the
surface must be further guarded with adhesive pastes or poultices properly
secured by bandages, that the coagulation of the synovia may be rendered more
perfect, and the plug so made kept within the outlet. An ingenious and bold
practice, which is to act on this principle, is detailed by Mr. Thomas Turner in
The Veterinarian, vol. ii ; and as the name of both these ingenious practitioners
entitles whatever comes from that source to our especial attention, it will be
particularly noticed in my observations on the practice of opened knee joints.
I have said, hitherto, little on the attention necessary to be paid to the consti-
tutional symptoms ; not because they will not require to be carefullj^ watched,
but because the requisite treatment maybe referred to the directions on diffused
or general inflammation in Class I. It also yet remains to notice another
indication of cure applicable to openings in any important joint of the ex-
tremities, which is, the maintaining a perfect quiescent state of the Umb. So
long as a horse is at liberty, he will move an open joint, and as long as he does
that, he wiU delay his cure : and in most cases, if fatigue forces him to lie down,
the injury will be greater. Mr. Percivall justly observes, that slinging is very
inconvenient, and in some cases occasions much irritation and resistance; he
therefore recommends instead, a partial suspension by a very broad piece of sail-
cloth under the belly, by which he may rest himself or not as he pleases, and
which is all that is required in many cases ; but I have known others in which
actual slinging was necessary to fully meet the curative treatment. It, however,
should be dispensed with whenever it can ; for, in addition to the evils noticed
by Mr. Percivall, it wrings tender-skinned horses ; it impedes digestion, and
prevents the due action of the bowels ; and some horses will not stale at aU in
this way. A very good modification of sling suspension is also that described
by Mr. Turner, in his treatment of opened knee joints about to be noticed.

The penetrated Knee Joint particulablt.

There are some practical remarks connected with this subject which require
to be noticed, independently of the same accident to other articular cavities.
The hnee joint is pecuharly liable to very extensive laceration, from the hard state
of our roads, and the exertions we put our horses to, whose tired limbs, making
often a feeble effort to recover the effects of a trip, bring them on one or both
knees with a violence proportioned to the impetus of the speed they were mov-

aetual cautery will be found to be properly united, or alternated, with mild and simply palliative
means ; for in the progress of a wound in parts so different in structure and powers of life as skin, se-
creting membrane, tendons, thecas, ligamentous connexions, &c., it must naturally be expected thai
it will assume such irregularities in states and appearances as to call for every variety of treatment.
One part will be often running into phlegmonous inflammation, and abscesses large or small will
follow one another, and which disposition we must check by one means, as we must also •'top the
luxurious sprouting of integumental granulations by another ; while the tendons, thecas, and assistant
lii'amentary expansions, will require to be roused from their torpor by stimulants, or to have their dead
portions separated by the use of powerful escharotics, as the nitrate of silver (lunar caustic) or the
caustic of potash (lapis infcT7ialis), which, as being solid, may pick out the immediate parts which
require this treatment ; or sucli parts maybe delicately painted over with a feather dipped in the mu'-iate
of antimony (butter of antimony). Or it happens that we may mix up with their use the occasional
aid of the firing-iron, of different shapes and surfaces, the effects of which in some instances, as of
hardened edges, exfoliating cartilages, &c., no other treatment will equal. In fact, the requisite at-
tention to these cases must he as varied as the nature of the parts. Is it, then, a wonder that under
ignorant management so many fail ?

Class XI.] wounds, 421

ill" at the weight of the rider, their own iuclination of form, or the nature of
the crround they come in contact with. Whenever a practitioner is called to a
horse with a hroken knee or knees, it is a natural supposition that he is sent for
for one of two purposes,— either to ascertain the state of the case, or otherwise
at once to set about a cure. If he be not told as much, he at least ought so to
act ■ and therefore he should first take into consideration the kind of horse he
has'before him ; the length of time and the probable expense that will be in-
curred in the cure ; and the state the part wiU be in after it is healed. _ It is
evident, however, there are circumstances which make a cure worth our trial, at
any expense of time and money ; as in the case of stallions and brood mares of
considerable value ; and also when a great favourite is injured. In all others, if
the laceration be considerable, and the synovial opening large, involving the
prohaule loss of mobility in the joint, it is always the veterinarian's duty, and
commonly his ultimate interest, to inform the owner of such probabilities, and
of the chance that the value of the animal, if saved, will not meet the expense
and trouble of the treatment*.

The curative treatment determined on, two indications present themselves, one
medical the other non-medical, but important in a horseman's view : these are,
fivsi, restoring the integrity and pliahility of the joint; and secondly, rendering
the remaining blemish as small as possible. In these indications the second is
very much connected with the first ; it therefore is more imperative on us to set
out on the first under proper views. When called in soon after the accident,
we must commence the treatment by very carefully washing away any grit, dirt,
or other matter which may have been forced into the wound, and would occasion
future irritation. If no synovia appears on the surface, it is more prudent to
avoid probing to satisfy ourselves, but instead immediately envelope the whole
knee in a poultice : indeed, in my own opinion, it is prudent to do this under
every circumstance ; for even if the synovia has already shewn itself, should any
extraneous matter yet remain, it may thus be forced out, and, at all events, the
state of the wound will be best seen by such means. The synovia being detected,
and the opening it flows from being such as to admit of the application of the
cautery, proceed to the use of it as already directed under open joints, and
repeat it until a complete stoppage of the flow is eSected. If the case be at-
tended with extensive laceration, or much contusion, adopt such treatment as
is likewise detailed under such circumstances, avoiding in these cases any ap-
plication of cautery until the slough be thrown off, the opening be more defined,
and until all the cavernous edges come within a fair application of the iron.
To cases of this complicated kind, which are calculated to harass the practitioner
much, Mr. Thomas Turner appears to have paid great attention, the results of
which were read at the Veterinary Medical Society, and afterwards made public
through the medium of The Veterinarian; in which are detailed the outlines of
a bold, and, as we informed, a very efficient, line of practice ; and if so, too much
publicity cannot be given to it, and that it meet a fair trial. Sufficient abstracts,
therefore, are given in a note belowf : but the reader is recommended to a perusal

• On this a well known and ingenious writer in the Farmer's Scries of Useful Knowledge ob-
serves, ' If it is low down, and opposite to the bottom row, a small opening into the joint will be
easily closed ; a larger one need not cause despair, because there is little motion between the lower
row and the bones of the leg. If it be high up, there is more danger, because there is more motion.
Tf it be situated opposite to the union of the two rows, the result is most to he dreaded, because be-
tween these is the principal motion of the joint, and that motion would not only disunite aTid irritate
the external wound, but cause dreadful fiiction between the bones brought into actual contact with
each other, through the loss of the synovia.'

f Mr. T. Turner's Method of Treatment of opened Joints, and particularly the Knee;
rend at the Veterinary Medical Society, April 1, 1829 : from ' The Veterinarian,' — Mr. Tur-
ner's method of treatment is after the following manner: ' Having,' says this gentleman, ' washed
the extern il wound of the knee with a sponge and luke-warm water, a silver probe may he gently in-
troduced, for the purpose of removing any particles of dirt or gravel within the wound. A paste is
then to be prepared, composed of wheaten flour and table-beer only, which are to be well stirred to-
gether cold, and afterwards boiled for about five minutes, until the paste becomes of the consistence
commonly used by paper-hangers. It may be then coloured bya small (piantity of. bole nrmenian, and
appli-'d moderately warm to the knee ; being spread with a spatula as tliick as it will lie, not only on
the wound, hut all round the joint, and for gome space up the arm, as well as about four inches be-
low the knee on the cannon. A very thin light pledget of tow, sufficiently extended to encompass the

422 WOUNDS. [Class XI.

of the whole, as it stands in the second volume of that useful miscellanv of
veterinary practice.

To render the remaining blemish as small as possible is, of course, an object of
great importance ; for if from the extent of the wound, or from some irregularity
in the process of the healing between the various parts, there remain hardened
callous edges with much enlargement, forming what is known among farriers as
a bumpij or capped knee, the blemish itself will not only be considerable, but

knee, is to be applied in front of the joint, upon the paste ; then nearly half a sheet of stout brown
paper in a similar manner, and a large cotton stocking, with the foot off, drawn well up over the whole
On the outside of the stocking another layer of the pasts is to be applied, and a calico bandage six
yards in length and from four to five inches wide, is to be rolled round the part with very moderate
but regular pressure ; another six- yard roller, of the same description, is then to be applied but with
a less degree of pressure. As the horse cannot be suffered to lie down during the process of cure
great pains must be taken to procure him rest, and the most attentive nursing is indispensable. He
must be suspended from the ceiling or joists over the stall by a hroad piece of sail, cloth under the
belly. A cart-horse breaching may be also made very useful; and, with the aid of a well-contrived
and cushioned head-collar, with reins, the animal's head will assist materially in supporting his weight
This is a very simple mode of slinging, as it allows the horse either to stand or recline mmself as he
feels disposed, and is not apt to occasion such severe wringing of the skin as when the patient is com-
pletely suspended.

' I have now arrived at the point on "^ich my dependence is placed for the cure, viz. never re-
moving the dressing just described until the joint has closed, and the synovia ceased to flow.
But you will fear the irritation, pain, and symptomatic fever, which must ensue from the pressure of
the bandage on the swollen and inflamed part. I will presently detail my resources to meet this evil;
but must, first, beg leave to offer a few remarks on the modiis operandi of this treatment. Closing
the aperture in the capsular ligament in the shortest possible lime, I apprehend to be the first indica-
tion of cure. The call for this is imperative ; the abatement of inflammation, although of very great
importance, I conceive to be a secondary consideration. Hy the second or third day the bandage be-
comes hard, dry, and as harsh as a board, owing to the heat of the inflamed limb having ccmpletely
dried the paste. There is then usually a considerable tumefaction both above and below the bandage.
The animal evinces much pain ; his respiration is hurried, his pulse quick, and perhaps the appetite'
impaired. But the time is now arrived at which ease may be afforded the patient without in the least
obstructing the process of cure. This resource consists in making four longitudinal incisions through
every layer of the bandage, a notch above and below on each side, and leaving the bandage entire
both before and behind. The relaxation from pressure, by the length of these notches or incisions,
must be as limited as the urgency of the symptoms will allow ; but in every case I make it a rule to
afford this relief in some degree. From this period the constitutional disturbance comparatively ceases,
the appetite returns, and respiration is tranquillized, although the pulse may remain quick. But now
we are possessed of a substitute for the injured capsular ligament — a compress, closely adhering and
encompassing the joint, of the exact shape of the joint, which never varies its position, is as hard as
a tanned hide, and yet flexible. If by the sixth or seventh day, owing to the large size of the aperture
in the capsule, the compression has not had the effect of closing the joint, and there should be found
a considerable lodgement of fl uid (a mixture of pus and synovia) in a depending part of the compress,
another incision must be made in the compress to give exit to this fluid, beginning in the front at the
inferior part, and continuing it upwards, but no higher than necessary. It is in this stage of a bad
case that great nicety of treatment is required : and we are not to be at all disjieartened if the joint be
not closed ; for there will be found a coagulum filling up the mouth of the wound, and extending to
the orifice of the capsular ligament, though scarcely sufficient to close it. The nicety I allude to con-
sists in taking care not to remove or disturb this clot or plug ; for it is this coagulum, when sufficiently
organized, that becomes, as it were, the cork to the bottle. This is the material point on which the
success of the case depends, and which differs from the ordinary mode of treatment, it being customary
to remove the bandage every day or every second day, in order to give the inflamed parts the benefit
of warm fomentations, and cleansing the wound, as it is called, which in reality is the greatest act of
violence that an open joint can receive in the shape of curative treatment; and just as often as it
is repeated, are the efforts of nature opposed by the removal of this jelly-like substance. The next
thing to be done is, to spread another dressing of the adhesive paste over the outside of the compress,
and to apply another six-yard calico roller with gentle pressure upon it. In this stage of the case,
regular pressure will be found rather to diminish than increase irritation ; but there is some skill re-
quired even in the simple act of applying a roller to an inflamed part. This last bandage should
remain undisturbed as long as possible, with the expectation that, by the next time the fluid is eva-
cuated from the compress, the capsular ligament may be found closed, and the discharge of synovia
ceased, but whether so or not, the same treatment should be continued.' Mr. Turner may be deemed
a bold practitioner, by the following, which I quote without comment : — ' There is one curious cir-
cumstance that not unfrequently attends the process of cure by this treatment, and which 1 hail as a
good omen, but which many writers have remarked upon as indicative of the total destruction of the
joint. I allude to an irruption and discharge from another part of the joint, perhaps the back of the
knee, and which they describe as the bursting of an abscess within the joint. I merely mention this
fact, to shew that these irruptions do not always communicate with the joint, and that I do not make
a practice of indulging my curiosity by introducing a probe to ascertain that point, although a fluid
may be escaping looking more like synovia than pus.' The following is consolatory to the possessor
of broken-kneed horses, though it is in direct opposition to the language held by less sanguine practi-
tioners, who recommend such horses to be destroyed : but we have already shewn that there are cases
where a cure should be attempted under every circum.stance. ' I deem it requisite to observe, that
some cases of opened knee-joints are so appalling, not only from the magnitude of the external wound,
but likewise from the aperture in the capsular ligament being equally extensive, that if I were called
in, even at the moment of the accident, I might despair of success by this or any other mode of treat-
ment. But the case in which I least hesitate to condemn the unfortunate subject, is the opened joint,
accompanied with a complete division of both the extensor tendons, the animal being thereby deprived
of the power of extending his foot, and such a complicated ease is not an uncommon occurrence.'

Class XL] wounds. 423

there wiU be some reason to fear that the elasticity of the surrounding integu-
Ss will be so interfered with as to prevent fuU flex on of the limb and thus
S to aRain bring the horse down ; and if in the early state of such a wound
here has been any injudicious application of violent escharotics to stop the syno-
Sl discharge, this will be still more likely to happen. Such a termination is,
however, grlatly in the power of the veterinarian to prevent during his treat-
men? by stimulating the tardy parts, and checking the luxuriant, so as to produce
^uniformity in accretion and growth. A moderate hhster oi c^nth^riAe^ only
over the whole, when the wound seems to corrugate in the healing, considerably
promotes absorption of the prominent edges ; and if a very mild one be repeated
Ko or three times during the cure, it will tend greatly to stimulate the growth
of hair and further subsidence of the irregularities, ^hen also the whole is
healed over, a knee-cap appUed and held down by bandage wiU still further pro-
mote absorption and a proper position of the hair. Mr. Cherry, a gentleman
weU known in the veterinary world, has offered his brethren an ingenious method
of lessening the blemishes (which wiU sometimes remain spite of our best en-
deavours), founded on true surgical principles, which ought not to pass un-
noticed*. The method maybe seen at length, with engravings in exempbfacation
of it, in Nos. 15, 35, and 36 of The Hippiatrist.

Beoken Knees without Penetration of the Articular Cavity.

OccasionaUy we find that what has been called broken knee or knees turns
out to be a simple contusion, in which case tumefaction, heat, and tenderness,
ensue and which inattention, undue exercise, or heating applications, may force
into permanent thickening of the part, with blemish and injury to its motion ;
whereas a Uttle rest, with fomentations, until the heat and tenderness are gone
off with astringent lotions and bandaging afterwards, will complete the cure.
When laceration has taken place without injury to the cavity of the joint, having
washed and dried the parts, bring the edges of the integuments as closely to-
gether a« possible by strips of adhesive plaister, as already directed ; or it may
be attempted by fine sutures, carefully guarding the knee from flexion by splints
behind it ; and if the wound be extensive, it would be weU to partiaUy suspend
the horse, as akeady noticed, to prevent aU motion in the limb. A cure by the
first intention or adhesive process can only be hoped for in this way. If heat
and tumefaction come on, envelope the whole in a poultice ; if not, apply
bandages around the plaisters, and keep the whole cool by a saturnine lotion : in

• • The numerous cases,' says Mr. Cherry, ' that occur, induced me some years ago to direct my
attention to the devising of some means whereby the appearance of a broken l<nee might be got rid of,
where the injury done extended to appearance only. Cutting round the edge, and dissecting out the
blemished portion of skin, has been tried, and has failed ; because there \vould still be a large cicatrix
left on the wound filling up : and when the edges of the skin have been brought together by sutures,
no better success has followed ; because the skin, being on the stretch, the sutures have given way,
either from the swelling which always takes place, or from ordinary flexion of the knee m walking, or
still more especially in lying down. Indeed, these means have rather increased the evil than dimi-
nished it It i« well known, that a long narrow wound cicatrises much quicker and more pertcctly
than a circular wound ; it therefore occurred to me. that this kind of wound might be produced by
disscctine out a portion of skin that should be included between two curvilinear incisions, both com-
menciuK at a point some distance above the blemish, and extending to a point some distance below it :
this would leave a wound in the shape of an elongated ellipsis, the edges of which being brought to-
Ily making two other incisions equidistant, one on each

the gaping wound were brought together, and held nearly in contact by sutures. There then were
two' wounds to fill up, but each was of only half the extent of the former : and there were four
healthy edges, from whence granulation would go on, instead of two. As to the linear wound m the
centre, it might be expected to partly unite by the fiist intention, which it did, and partly to fill up by
granulating. The wounds granulated in the most favourable manner; the sutures were taken out in
due time, and very soon the knee had the appearance of three straight lines, similar to those produced
by the fire-iron. These scars continued giaduallv to diminish, and in the course of a twelvemonth,
when I shewed the subject of experiment to my friends, (ioodwin and John Percivall, we could only
discover the lines by carefully separating the hair and seeking for them.'

424 WOUNDS. [Class XI

which way a cure may often be established, without much injury to motion or
blemish m appearance. J j '■^ muuou or

WOUNDS OF THE ARTERIES.

An intimate knowledge of the course of the large arteries is essentially ne-
cessary to every vetermary practitioner, by which ho may avoid their division in
operations; or, when such an accident has occurred, such knowledge will assist
him in tracing the course of, and enable him to stop the divided trunk 13v the
elasticity of the external tunic, the divided ends of moderate arteries and of
such as would occasion fatal hemorrhages in the human, are in the horse
attended with no danger; the ends retracting within the cellular substance and
closing their orifices. It is to this that tearing out the testicles, as practised bv
castrators, is not attended with fatal haemorrhage ; the arteries withdrawing
alter the violence within the cellular tunics, where coagulum seals up their
mouths. We make use of this knowledge in our surgery, by treatino- many hse-
morrhages, which have occurred from a partial division of a vessel,°bv dividino-
the remainder, which stops the flow. Haemorrhages are, therefore, stopped bv a
complete division of a moderate vessel ; by styptics ; by compression ; by firina •
or by hgature. Styptics, in their usual acceptation, are seldom applicable in the
horse ; they act by mixing with the blood, and either form it into a fine paste bv
means of pufl" ball, flour, cobweb, &c., or they coagulate the blood within the
vessels, as with alum, vitriol, &c. Compression is proper when the vessels cannot
be easily got at, and may be made with a piece of sponge or a pledc^et of any
other kind pressed immediately on the vessel. The tourniquet is an mstrument
much in use in human surgery, for effecting compression ; but it is not readily
appUed to the horse, from the superior resistance of his parts. In docking
nicking, and sometimes in wounds of the legs, it may, however, be occasionally
applied with advantage, particularly in the form of twisted ligature. Firiiiff is
proper when an artery or vein remains undivided; in which case the ha?morrhao-e
may be often readily stopped by the application of the budding iron to the
bleeding orifice, which either destroys the tubular cavity of the vessel, or plugs
up the orifice by coagulation of the blood. It is also the means in general use in
veterinary practice for checking the flow on divided surfaces : thus, in docking,
nicking, castrating, &c., it is generally resorted to, and is found, by experience!
to be the safest styptic. In deep-seated wounds this cannot be put into prac-
tice ; but must be done either by means of a tenaculum or hook-hke instrument,
which being applied to the bleeding end of a vessel, draws it out sufficiently to
pass a double thread around it : or when it cannot be got at in this wav, some
of the surrounding substance should be included within its curve, and a ligature
passed around it. A ligature is also appKed in a similar manner, by means of
appropriate needles. In taking up very large arteries, it is prudent to secure
both ends, or the anastomosing branches may furnish the end remote from the
heart with blood sufiicient to destroy Hfe. The ligatures with which blood-
vessels are now tied, are not thick, as formerly, but are found to act best when
rather thin than thick.

WOUNDS OF THE VEINS.

When a large vein is divided, it should be secured by a ligature above and
below, or the anastomosing branches may continue the bleeding : when smaller
veins are divided, the ha;morrhage soon ceases spontaneously. A divided vein
will unite, and become again pervious ; but an artery will not.

Infi/Ammation of Veins consequent to Bloodletting.

Phlebitis, or inflammation of the veins, is usually a traumatic affection, and is
often of very serious nature : in the human it is very commonly fatal ; in whom ^
it is observed that the course of the disease progresses towards the heart, whereas

cuss XL] WOUNDS. 425

in the horse it directs itself to the head ; but which distinction is not probably
founded on any structural or constitutional speciality*. Previously, however, to
enterinK on the subject, I must premise that occasionally phlebotomy is foUowed
bv simple inflammation of the divided integuments and cellular substance ; and
Jh\ch is apparently brought on by the mere effusion of blood during the act ;
or bv some escape of it afterwards ; or, perhaps, from spontaneous inflammation
and serous effusion in the divided integuments and membranes themselves. 1 he
thrombus or ecchymosis thus produced is frequently occasioned by drawing the
skin away from the vein in pinning up the orifice. I have also observed it to
occur when the lancet has been employed by operators not long used to that in-
strument, which has occasioned the integumental and venous opening to be not
exactly opposed to each other. Whenever, therefore, an early extravasation of
biaod follows bleeding, first carefully press out the effused blood with the fingers,
havin<T previously removed the pin ; which, if there appear no likelihood of more
hajmorrhage, do not again put in, but tie the horse's head up that day and the
following night, watching him often during the day. Should the ecchymosis
not be observed immediately, or when it happens that tumefaction from in-
flammation has already taken place within the integuments and cellular mem-
brane, known by the circumscribed nature of the tumour, and the absence of a
corded state of the vein itself, first treat by rest and frequent bathing with a
cold solution of muriate of ammonia and vinegar to the part, or a solution of
acetate of lead ; or apply a mild blister. If the tumour suppurate, as soon as
fluctuation is felt, make a depending opening, or introduce a seton through it.
We will now consider something further than the mere integumental inflamma-
tion, and come at once to the point we set out at — the inflammation of the
suhstance of the vein itself which is either communicated from the integuments,
or originates there immediately from the puncture, which is supposed to occasion
a peculiar inflammation of the inner or membranous coat of a wounded veinf.

• Mr. Percivall, in treatinp; on this subject, has been at much pains to account for this peculiar
dispoKition in the inflammation to extend so seneially towards the head when the jugular is punc-
tured and towards the heart when it tates place in anv other vein ; being in the one instance against
the course of the circulation, and in the other with it, as is invariably seen in the human, lo recon-
cile these seeming discrepancies, Mr. P. observes, that although the olislructed state of the vessel
i« not the exciting cause of the inflammation, it invariably directs the course of it. It therefore
lemained to inquire, in what manner the obstruction was prevented in Vlk previous course ol other
veins similarly affected, as the saphena and plate vein of the horse, and the basilic and cephalic of the
human. Now these veins, Mr. P. ingeniously argues, freely anastomosing with contiguous trunks,
preserveacontinu.il flow of blood up to the obliterated part; but above this, such anastomosis does
not exist, the communicating branches being few and small; consei|uently the blood remains to
coagulate and to continue the disease. The jugular is similarly situated upwards, for it has no anas-
tomosis to cany off the obstructed blood above the puncture, in which direction, therefore, the inflam-
mation proceeds, the obstruction being prevented downwards towards the heart; for, having once
emptied itself, the inflammation and tumefaction will prevent its receiving more blood, by which
means no offending coagulum remains. Thus Mr. P. argues, that the deviation from what is con-
sidered as a fixed law in human pathology, that this inflammation always occasions oblitera-
tion in the vein towards the heart, is thus reconciled, and that ' the same (?ause is operating
under dillerent circumstances.'— Aeciurci, vol. i, p. 103. The immediate cause of the course of the
inflaiiimation mav. therefoie, be referred to the direction in which the coagulation is formed, which in
tlie jugular of the horse must be upward, but in man downward, owing to structural difl'erences
between these vessels.

i Dr. Duncan, jun., who has paid much attention to this matter in the human suliject, is not of
opinion that it is proved to be exclusively an affection of the tunics of the vein, but that it exists
frequently in the cellular membrane which envelops the vessel, and which agrees with my own ob-
servations, and with that affection which 1 have previously traced. The disposition, in a punctured
vein observed on to become inflamed is a subject involved in much obscurity. It must giow out of
circumstances not mechanical; for as it only takes place in one case out of many hundreds,.it is not
likely but that most of those causes we assign as its probable origin have taken place in very many of
tho'-e wliich escape. It therefore exhibits many proofs of its being produced by agencies peculiar to
the then st.ate of the vein ; or to some combinations not in ordniary existence ; fiir Mr. Percivall, who
is disposed to attribute a mechanical origin to this phlebitis, yet has not succeeded, but on the con-
trary has failed in every Instance to induce such inllammation, when purposely attempted with rusty
phleams, irregular punctures, and even escharotics. Mr. Cherry also was not more Buccessful by
passing packthread llirough them, &c. &c. Mr. Coleman, in a communication to Messrs. Cooper and
Travers, wliich appears in their Surgical Essays, seems to attribute it principally to the circumstance,
' thalthe most simple wound through the integuments of horses is scarcely ever healed by the first,
intention, and which Is the cause why the punctured orlticc in horses does not at once unite by ad-
hesive union as the human.' But if such were the case, the disease must happen much oftener than
it does. Independent of which. It appears to me that few Instances could be brought forvviird of non-
union by the first Intention in the horse, so Inapplicable as the punctured orifice ol the divided vein ill
bleeding, which, when carefully performed, commonly heals In this way, or why do wc direct the pin
to he removed the next day ?

426 WOUNDS. [Class XI.

It is probable that a predisposition to a certain form of inflammatory action is
inherent in veins, and that this is either called forfh by some peculiarity or error
in the method of bleeding, or by some state in the parts themselves, which at
one time confines the affection to the integuments, and at another carries it
upward within the cavity of the vein. Of the various mechanical causes as-
signed for this evil, a caution is given with the directions for the operation of
bleeding, to which I would therefore refer. , '

The symptoms of the injury appear about the third or fourth day usually,
when the hps of the cut begin to gape, and a little lymph is thrown out ; the
next day the edges are more everted, as well as more red and expanded; a
sanious discharge issues, or perhaps haemorrhage occurs : the tumefied vein now
feels corded, hot, and tender ; and. if the progress of the inflammation be not
stopped, the tumefaction extends along the course of the veins : if in the jugular,
it proceeds towards the head ; and if it occur in any of the other veins of the
body, as the saphena and plate vein, it proceeds towards the heart, hardening
the vessel into a cord-like substance throughout all the diseased track, which
appears as well the consequence of the inflammatory action, as by its forming
the contained blood of the venous trunk into a firm coagulum, from which such
trunk becomes impervious, and therefore all attempts to save it afterwards fail.
Suppuration of the tumour now often appears, though sometimes the immediate
punctured part, although much enlarged, will present little more than a spongy
mass, from which grumous ichor distils, whUe abscesses form in various situa-
tions around. As the morbid action extends upwards, it frequently involves the
whole neck, and often the affected side of the head, in tumefaction, from which
results diificulty of motion ; and often some difficulty is experienced in eating
and drinking likewise. There is commonly constitutional affection also : in
some cases the symptomatic fever runs very high. I have witnessed the pulse
at upwards of ninety ; and tlie excess of irritability brought on has even de-
stroyed life.

Treatment. — The course to be pursued wUl much depend on the state of the
disease and its previous continuance. In the early stages, our efforts should be
at once directed towards closing the venous orifice, which is best done by the
budding iron applied to the outer edge of the wounded orifice, but of a moderate
heat only, sufiicient, however, to occasion a slough : with some an eschar is
formed by escharotics, as oxymuriate of mercury (corrosive sublimate) ; but I
generally prefer the iron, as occasioning less after-irritation. The cautery some-
times at once stops the ichorous oozing, and saves the obliteration of the vein,
which is of considerable consequence, as, when lost, it is some time before the
vertebral (the horse not having an external jugular as the human) can return the
blood sufliciently to support the functions of the parts properly : it %vill, however,
be sometimes necessary to repeat the cauterization every two or three days, to
ensure success. It is of importance to keep the horse as quiet as possible, and
to restrain the neck from all motion ; which latter is best effected by tying up
the head. It is also recommended to apply a blister upwards, in the course of
the tumefied vein, and which seems to assist the action of the cautery materially,
by lessening the general inflammation above : this, in fact, is an indication never
to be lost sight of.

When, however, we have no hopes of saving the veins from obliteration, but,
on the contrary, a disposition manifests itself to form abscesses in various situa-
tions of it upwards, we must psoceed to more active measures ; one of which is
to take up the vein altogether : by this, in some instances, the morbid action
has been checked ; and either the vein has become absorbed, or has sloughed
away as dead matter. This may be effected by inclosing it within a ligature both
above and below, to the extent of its disease : or if preferred, it may be at once
dissected out. But this plan is only to be recommended where the horse is
situated at a distance, and not immediately under the practitioner's eye. Nei-
ther is it at aU practicable, when the tumefaction and the morbid action extends
itself to the cellular substance and to the integuments around, forming in them
large abscesses and extensive sinuses. In such cases, it is more prudent to pass

Class XL] wounds. 427

setons through them, or to apply escharotics, as the case may indicate. When
the lips of the wounds ah-eady throw out pus, I have not found benefit from
the iron ; but have preferred injecting it with a moderately strong solution of
sulphate of zinc. Farriers often introduce a solid piece within the opening.
When the irritation is very considerable, both this and the iron had better be
suspended until that has been lessened by cold applications. The practice of
the farriers in coring out the sinuses with corrosive sublimate is commonly too
violent ; yet I have sometimes found these ulcers get into such an indolent state
as to require very active means to bring on a healthy action in their sides.

Another morbid consequence of bloodletting ai'ises frequently from injudicious
bleeding in the plate or in the thigh vein ; in which- cases, from the force used,
or from an improper part being chosen, the phleme passes through the vein into
the fascia which covers the muscles, and over which these veins pass. In these
cases the fascia inflames, and a formation of matter or pus takes place within it,
which, as it cannot escape, insinuates itself to some depending situation : an
opening should, therefore, be made to evacuate the matter, or a seton may be
passed through it for this purpose, having first premised fomentations to relax
the inflammatory tension : if a rowel be inserted into the same limb, it increases
the evil; but if in the opposite limb, it is frequently beneficial.

GUNSHOT WOUNDS

Present some considerable difference in appearance and effect from other
wounds, particularly in their first stages ; and though wounded horses in battle
are not often much attended to, yet, when circumstances admit of it, by proper
treatment, many hundreds of those might be saved that are generally abandoned ;
for, even if they should not prove afterwards altogether fit for troopers or
chargers, they may make excellent bat or draught horses, which is a matter of
great moment in an army. I have been witness to the abandoning of numbers
of wounded horses, which in any other situation than a precarious one, or in an
enemy's country, or where a blameable indolence prevailed, might have been
cured" and rendered useful. In consequence of horses not being impressed with
anxiety, from the hopelessness of their situation when wounded, it is surprising
how little irritability they shew until the constitution becomes affected. I stood
in Holland by a horse which had his hinder leg taken off by a cannon shot,
above the hock, but the blow did not throw him down ; whereas, in a few seconds
after, an officer, who was struck with a spent bullet in the back, that penetrated
only through the integuments, was rolled over by the shock. Gunshot wounds
are a species of bruise, in which, from the velocity of the ball, the parts become
pressed together and lacerated, sometimes in a very peculiar manner. Any one
acquainted with these wounds is aware, that nothing but an attentive examina-
tion can discover the track of the ball : there is no reasoning upon its probable
course from its entry but what may prove fallacious, for sometimes the slightest
substances will turn its path ; while at others it penetrates every thing it meets
with in its passage : neither can a simple view of such a wound enable us to
judge what parts are injured. The laceration and bruises are such in these
cases, that there is seldom haemorrhage at first ; but it occurs sometimes un-
expectedly in a few days afterwards, as soon as sloughing commences ; the vessels
therefore should always be secured when they can be got at to prevfent this, for
we cannot keep a tourniquet conveniently on a horse. We must not judge of
the extent of a wound by the simple appearance, for the injury may be such as
to kill many parts that are not discoloured : this may be particularly remarked
in spent ricochet balls. The blackness observable in this kind of wounds does
not arise from the balls burning them, nor must the application be conducted
under this supposition.

The complexity of the treatment of gunshot wounds arises from the degree of
bruise received not bearing any comparison with the external wound ; from the
uncertainty of the direction of the ball ; and from the introduction of foreign
substances, as the ball itself, harness, clothes, &c. It was formerly deemed so

428 OV PHLEGMON AND ACUTE ABSCESS. [CLASS XII.

essential to remove these, that every gunshot wound was dilated and tortured
till the suspected substances were found ; the consequence was, that many
horses were lost from the irritation unnecessarily occasioned : but it is to be
remembered that extraneous substances are a less serious evil than the increase
of the original mischief, by too great an enlargement of the wound to hunt for
them ; yet when it is absolutely necessary to do it, as when the ball can be felt
or when there are substances known to be left, wliose continuance would in-
fallibly irritate, then it should be done at once. In the sloughing stage we should
promote the separation of the living from the dead parts by warm stimulatiag
applications (see digestives, Mat Med.). When the suppurativa process is,
however, too great, it should be checked by astringents, and the general strength
must be supported by tonics and liberal feeding.

CLASS XII.

OF PHLEGMON AND ACUTE ABSCESS.

By phlegmon we understand an inflammatory tumour*, which attacks the
cellular tissues or membranes, with their connections, throughout the body; bat
more particularly it is frequent in the cellular substance which connects the
cutis with the adjoining parts. This inflammation, it has been already noticed,
has seve7-al terininations ; but it is its suppurative one only that I here propose
to treat on, as bemg the parent of abscess : / shall yet have occasion to return to
the others.

By abscess, in its most extensive sense, we include every collection of fluid
(not encysted) which interrupts the integrity of a part to make room for itself:
but in its limited sense, as I now propose to use it, it characterises a collection
of pus formed by a quick or by a slow process of suppuration, and which va-
rieties have occasioned abscess to be divided into acute and chronic : to the first
of which I propose now to confine myself. When an abscess forms, the follow-
ing process takes place : — ^The minute vessels of the part are stimulated to effuse
or pour out coagulable lymph, or, as now more often called, adhesive matter,
within the cellular tissue, the consequence of which is distention or swelling,
which here, as elsewhere, produces uneasiness and tenderness, as the reaction
occasions throbbing, heat, and, when the hair allows us to detect it, a blush on
the superficies of the tuinour. Arrived at this state, the tumour may take on
various changes by peculiar pi-ocesses within it : the suppurative one is supposed
to take place near the centre of the effusion, where, by a change in the action
of the inflamed vessels, pus begins to be secreted, which, as it increases, pro-
motes absorption of the solid sides of the tumour ; and it is fortunate that, by
an apparent conservative law of animal life, such absorption is most active
towards the surface of the body, by which evacuation of its contents can be
made" without prejudice to the constitution. There are many diflicidties to
combat in veterinary practice which almost vanish in human pathology : thus, in
the formation of human abscess, the cessation of pain and of the universal rigors
mark almost the moment of commencement of the suppurative process, and
point out the necessary stoppage of a discutient treatment, the continuance of
which would now prove injurious. Neither is fluctuation or direct prominence
in the suppurating abscess so clear in our subjects, from the thickness and
tenacity of the integuments, as in the human, though some little pointing, soften-
ing, and separation, as well as denudation of hair, may be observed : it therefore
becomes us to make our examinatious the more closely, that we may inform
ourselves, by more occult signs, of the actual state of the part.

The treatment of phlegmon and abscess. — In the early stages of such tumours,

• Tumour is here used in its popular signification only ; for the strictness of modern nosoloiry con-
fines tumours to distinct enlargements witlinut inflammation: but this limit involves many inconve-
nicnciea, and some inconsistencies, in classification.

Class XII.] of phlegmon and acute abscess. 429

a discutient plan of treatment, as detailed under Local Inflammation, should be
nursued but, as already hinted at, it should cease immediately as suppuration
commences. When I was in France, I saw at Alfort two cases then under treat-
ment for large phlegmonous tumours, where active stimulants had been first
tried ■ and not being attended with advantage, two or three deep scarifications
were carried down to the bottom of the tumour, and the wounds treated with
warm stimulating dressings ; which treatment was then considered as one which
offered very beneficial results ; but as I meet with little subsequent notice of it
throughout the continental writings, I presume it was not continued. In human
sur°-ery it is not unknown, nor yet abandoned by some practitioners. Being
assured that maturation is completed, whatever doubts may exist in the human
subject between the propriety of a natural or an artificial opening, the thickness
of the integuments, and the fear of the extension of the suppurative process
inwards, or in the course of the gravitation of the fluid in our large domestic
animals, makes it always prudent to form an artificial opening in the more de-
pendent as well as prominent part of the tumour. This may be done either by
direct section, insertion of seton, or the cautery. Incision is effected by the
abscess, lancet, bistoury, or scalpel* : but in every case the opening should be
sufficient to give a ready exit to the matter which has formed, and that which
may continue to form. In some situations, as where the natural outlet would
have formed had it been suffered to proceed, and that which would be the most
dependent do not accord, it may be prudent to make an incision in the former,
and insert a seton into the latter : a seton may also take place of incision alto-
gether, where the blemish of the latter would be an object, or its extent fearedf :
but where a full incision is made, the cure is usually quicker, and less likely to
be followed by sinuous cavities. It is, however, necessaiy to be careful in mak-
ing it when it dips downwards, that it is made in the course of the muscular
fibres, and not in the direction of considerable branches of nerves or bloodvessels.
Caustics, or in preference the actual cautery, are now and then admissible, as
means of forming the outlet; instances of which occur when the maturation has
been tedious, and the parts around may be suspected of being unhealthy. A
healthy abscess requires httle subsequent attention ; and it is presumed that it
is not necessary to forbid the revival of the old custom of stuCBng up these open-
ings with tow, &c., and still less with hard plugs or tents, which are apt not only
to pen up the pus, and give it a disposition to burrow, but, by introducing a hard
body between the hps of the opening, produces hard unhealthy edges and a fis-
tulous outlet. If from the state of the part any stimulant be required, let it be
such as mild solutions of zinc or iron, or the compound tincture of aloes or
myrrh, or it may be sprinkled with resin, or the unguent, resin flav. may be applied,
if a prejudice exists in favour of unguents. A dependent part, where a lodge-
ment of matter appears forming, should be daily injected with a solution of zinc,
or tincture of cantharides ; and moderate pressure should be made by pad and
bandage over the most depending portion of it, and should be so managed as to
force its contents towards the outlet ; on which will greatly depend the non-

• ' L'incision convient dans un grand nombrc de cas, notamment dans celui d'abcfes inflamniatoiics.
EUe se (irati(|uc en plongeant d'abord dans la tumoui- la pointe d'un l)istouri, dont le tianchant rcgarde
les patties qu'on vent diviser, de manieie 4 couper de dedans en dehors les tegumens qui les recouv-
rent. La grandeur de l'incision doit fctre proportion6e au volume de la collection. On I'cxecute
suivant Ic trajet des fibres mnsculaiies, des vaisseaux et des nerfs sous-jacens, et, autant que possible,
41a partic supreieure de la tumeur, parce que li seuleinent elle presente le point le plus aniinci dea
tfegumens, au lieu de la prolonger juB(iu'au bas, convient do pratiquer une contre-incision dans
cette dcrniire partie, et quebiuefois il est avantagcux de passer un sfeton dans les deux ouvcrtures;
c'est le moyen d'feviter une incision trop tonsidfcrablc, d'ou rfesulterait une cicatrice fetendue et sou-
vent difforine. L'abcis etant ouvert, on pent presser Ifeg^reinent la poche, et nieme y introduirc dou-
cement le doigt, pour reconnaltre si l'incision a suflisainmpnt delruit les obstacles A I'ecouleinent du
pus; mais il importe de ne point romprc les Aruit-s (|ui s'fttcndent d une parol i\ I'autrc. Ces brides
sont produites paries vaisseaux et les nerfs qui entretiennent la vie des tfcgunicns j leur section |)0ur-
rait causer la flfctrissure de la pcau qui couvrc I'abc^J, et I'enipocbcr de se rfeunir il la base du luyer.
liorsqu'il s'agitd'un abcfes profond, on pratique l'incision en le fond du foyer, et I'on prolonge jdus au
moins I'ouverture en degageant I'instrument.'

f In making a seton, avoid the custom of tying the two ends of the tapes together: wrhen this is
done great danger is incurred, that. In the movements of the horse he may catch the loop In some hook
or hold, and by that means tear out the seton and greatly lacerate the integuments.

STRANGLES. [ClASS XII.

formation of those states consequent to abscess, which are vet to be de-
scribed.

STRANGLES.

This disease, so caUed from its interfering with respiration occasionally* one
should be led to suppose must be enveloped in some extraordinary obscurity
since It has given rise to so many discordant opinions concerning its nature and
essence. Hurtrel d'Arboval notices more than twenty authors whose notions
regarding it are as opposite as the poles. Many of these, as might be supposed,
have hinged on the locality of the affection, as others have been formed on i^
appearing about the adult periodf. It has been very generally considered as a
constitutional affection ; because, like measles, small-pox, &c., it was found that
few escaped it altogether, and that, having had it once, the aptitude was sup-
posed to be then destroyedf. It has also been almost as generally believed that
this animal poison, or innate disease, had arrived at its maximum, was thrown off
by maturation, and that it was attended by a favourable change in the constitu-
tion§. John Laurence tells us it was formerly called the straiigullion, which would

t It 19 certainly not altogether confined to the adult age ; colts have hadMt at three months old • and
at every period between that and puberty ; its attack is also protracted, in some horses, until the'y are
aged, when the process of maturation is apt to be imperfectly formed, and a solidification of the Ivmoh
thrown out leaves those indurations which are called vives.

t Hurtrel d'Arboval, with many others of the French school, ridicules the idea of its being a con-
genital and constitutional affection; observing, ' Attribuer la gourme, puisqu'on pcrsiste a I'appeler
ainsi, a une espece dc levain qui se mele avec le sang, au moment de la conception de I'animal k un
virus existant dans la masse, au changement de nourriture, a une fermentation chimique eomp'ar^e i,
cclle que toutes les liqueurs eprouvent pour se clarifier, i une depuration du sang et des humeurs &
(les humeurs crues, a une lymphe visqueuse, etc. n'est-ce pas paler vaguement, s'egarer dans 'un
labyrintbe, reculer les progrfes de I'art, et jusqu'il un certain point montrer'd'ignorance ?'

§ Mr. Castley, a very ingenious writer in The Veterinarian, favours this opinion of the perfect-
ing of strangles, as producing a favourable constitutional change: he observes, that the common no-
tion, when a young horse is sickly or thriftless, is, that he is • breeding the strangles,' and that he will
not be better until he get over that complaint : and he inclines to think that there is much truth in the
remark, for he himself noticed young horses in unfavourable condition for months : but, the period of
strangles once passed, he has been struck with the remarkable change that has taken place in them for
the better. Tbis is a very common opinion among breeders, and we have many other proofs where an
occasional disturbance in the system, or where an acute attack, has carried off a chronic one • and
although I am not prepared to deny that such may be the case, this latter fact will account for the
benefit without the former. It was common with the French also to maintain a similar opinion
Gourme, the French name for strangles, stands thus in the celebrated Dictionary of Terms in Hum &
Vet. Med. ' Gourme struma; fecoulement d'une mucositfe plus ou moins 6paisse par les naseaux
desjeunes poulains. On la distingue en benigne, maligne et/ausse. On dit que le poulain jette
sa gourme par les narines, par les jarrcts, par d'autres parties du corps.' By which it is evident that
the strangles is yet regarded by some as a strumous or scrofulous affection, inherent in the constitu-
tion, which it is necessary to throw off by some outlet. Professor Dick is also said to observe in his
instructive course of lectures, that strangles is probably a much more complicated disease than is
generally supposed j and that abscess under the jaws is not its constant termination, for it on some
occasions gives rise to collections of matter in other parts, &c. Mons. Rodet's opinion, on the con-
trary, is at variance with the complicated nature of strangles, and with its specific constitutional qua-
lity ; and he attempts to refute both by observing, ' the horses of warm countries, such as Arabia, the
coasts of Africa, Spain, and even Italy, never have the strangles, a disease only known in the middle
and northern parts of Europe. Now, have we not a right to ask, by what privilege the horses of the
south are preserved from strangles, if this affection were solely to be attributed to the existence of a
particular poison? And also, why the Barhary horses (we cite them as an example) are less sickly
and more vigorous than those of our own country, as they do not go through that purification, that
cleansing, which is here considered so indispensable to the health of our horses?' Hurtrel d'Arboval also
observes, ' On a avance que la gourme 6tait non seulement inevitable sur le plus grand nombre des
chevaux, mais encore nfecessaire et salutaiie, et que les chevaux qui I'avaient eut en acquferaient plus
de valeur, en ce qu'ils devenaient en gfeneral moins sujects aux maladies. De telles assertions ne
sont soutenables qu'autant que I'exactitude en est demontree jusqu'a I'evidence ; or, rien n'cst
moins prouvfe que ce qu'elles renferment, puisqu'il est des pays oil la gourme n'est pas coniuie, et
que, dans ccux meine oil elle passe pour commune, il est possible d'en prfevenir le developpement par
une bonne Education, un regime bien ordonne, des soins bien entendus, etc. On lit dans Aristote que
Ica chevaux qui vivent en tioupes dans les hois sont exempts dc la gourme. Xfenophon n'en fait
aucune mention, bien qu'il ait parle de beaucoup d'autres maladies beaucoup moins interessantes que
DC paroissait I'etre la gourme de son temps et meme depuis. Tous les auteurs Italiens et Bipagnols
qui ont 6crit sur I'hippopathologic n'ont rien dit de la gourme, pas meme Ruiny, qui a si bien ecrit de
toutes les maladies, et qui n'efit pas omis celle qui nous occupe, si elle avait et6 connue au temps oii
il vivait. D'autres auteurs assurent qu'cUe n'existe pas dans les regions du Nord, telles que la Nor-
v6ge et la Russie, ni cn Arabic, ni en Afriquc, pas plus que daus les pays chauds. Parmi les mo-

CLASS XII.] STRANGLES. 431

«nnear a corruption of the French word e'trajiguUion, derived, as we may suppose,
S e^angler, to strangle. It is evidently of febrUe origin. The late Mr.
Castley whose death every veterinarian mourns, thus notices this singular equine
affection ■ ' Often when a young horse is looking sickly, delicate, or thriftless,
farmers or breeders will say, " he is breeding the strangles," or that " strangles
hangs about him, and that he will not get better until he gets over that com-
nlaiiit " There is much truth and quick-sightedness in this observation of its
anproach, and some breeders are particularly expert at catching the first pre-
monitory symptoms. I myself knew a shrewd farmer and breeder of horses in
Lincohishire who was thus gifted. I was admiring some young horses of great
beauty and promise, and was congratulating him on his chance of making a con-
siderable sum of money of them. His reply was, he also hoped so, but he must
wait until the strangles which he said ' was breeding in them would shew them-
selves.' Such were his own words, and as I had an opportunity of making a
future inquiry, his prognostic I found from his friend's account was verified, and
that this Mend had been directed to call on me, and thank me for a warning hint
to separate three high-bred ones, but very delicate, from the rest ; and to protect
them from cold, and feed them nutritiously : for I had long before made up my
mind that the strangles, though a febrile complaint, bore, in the high-bred colt,
more of the character of synochus than of synocha. These theories, every one
of them, admit of such apparent corroboration from occasional anomalies, that it
is hard to arrive at the truth : but, in my own opinion, we view it most correctly,
when we consider it as a peculiar constitutional disposition to throw off morbid
accumulations, and which appear to render young horses circumstanced as we
have stated liable to a phlegmonic attack of the cellular substance between the
angles of the jaws which envelops the submaxillary glands, and often extends it-
self to the parotid also, and is usually productive of abscess. The affection has
been divided into mild or malignant, and true and false, or bastard strangles :
but these definitions are not clear; for though there are cases in which the_ symp-
toms are milder than in others, it is not proved that any specific virus is ever
left, fi'om which future depositions are formed, called vives*. _ Neither is there
reason to suppose the strangles inherently infectious, though it has been said to

denies, tons ne parlent pas de la gourme, ou n'en disent que cequi a e.tfe d6ja dit. Volpi n'en dit pas
un mot dans son. Abr(%e de Midecine Veterinaire Pratique, publie en 1813, et traduit de I'ltalien
en 1819. II paraU que les chevaux de ces pays, ceux du moins qui ne mangent presque jamais que
dea hcrbes et pas dc grains, ce qui suppose, sous tons les rapports, un grand rapprochement de I'fetat
de nature, ne sont gufere sujets a la gourme. Ce qu'il y a de certain, c'est que, dans nos departement
meridionaiix, la gourme eat beaucoup moins commune et moins facheuse qu'ailleurs. Sans meme
chcrcher au.ssi loin, tons les chevaux du nord de la France n'ont pas la gourme ; ceux qui ne changent
las de nourriture, qui sont toute I'anilfee au meme regime, qui ont une bonne hygifene, n'ont point
e gourme, et n'en jouissent pas moins d'une sante constamment bonne. Au contraire, les poulains

Sue I'on change de lieu d'habitation, de temperature, de nourriture et d'habitudes, qu'on transporte
'un lieu dans un autre, qu'on tient tantot a I'ecurie et tantot aux herbages, qu'on engraisse et qu'on
laisse maigrir allernativement, ont tons les ans, quelquefois plusieurs fois, des catarrhes qu'on ap-
pellc gourme. II n'y a pas un cultivateur, un menagcr, dans les pays d'el^ves, qui ne sache ce que
nous disons, et qui n'en soit convancu d'aprfes sa propre observation. C'est une epreuve que nous
avons faite nous-meme sur plusieurs chevaux de prix, felevfes par nos soins, et nous pourrions citer
beaucoup d'autres fails a I'appui. Nous niontons encore en ce moment une jumcnt de race Normande,
Venice, au nionde dans notre ecurie ; elle est trfes vigoureuse et n'est jamais malade, elle s'cst tir6e
tr^s heureusement et sans reliquat aucun de la gastro-enterite, dite 6pizootique, de 1825; elle ap-
proche de dnuze ans aujourd'hui, et cependant elle n'a jamais jetfc sa gourme. Sa m^re, qui nous a
servi pendant dixsept ans, a effort le m&me cxcmplc ; elle rendait encore de bons services i I'agc de
Tingt trois ans, dans une ferme oii elle avait les invalides, lorsqu'clle refut dans les paturages un
coup de pied qui lui cassa la jambe, ce qui obligca de la sacrifier. II est done pas vrai que la gourme,
ou I'alTeclion i laquelle on a donne cc nom, soit une maladie inevitable ; il n'est pas plus vrai qu'cUe
soit nfccessairfe et salutai^e, puisque, en admetlant meme, contrc I'expericnce, qu'cUe n'arrive qu'une
•eule-fois en la vie de chaque individu, les partisans dc sa realite lui rcconnaissent des suites capables
d'alterer plus ou moins, et pour un temps indeterniinfe, la sante des animaux qui I'ont eu.'

• Few terms in farriery .ire more Indefinite than that of vives. I have scarcely ever met with any
swelling of the head, which has not been attributed to vives, or, as I understood the matter, to the
stranifles not ' cleared off.' If the inflammatory attack of strangles had left any enlargement in the
parotid or submaxillary glands, then it was as impossible to deny the existence of vives as to con-
vince fariiers they were not the occasion of bad eyes, lampas, and even glanders ; and as though well
' drained 8tr.inglcs' were to render these glands invulnerable to any accidental tumefaction afterwards,
when such did take place, the ' undrained strangles' had degenerated into vives. When oMcr horses
have strangles, it often happens that the tumid glands do not suppurate so readily as those of younger
horses, and here some enlargement is often left. These are sure to be called cases of ' rank vives,'
which is or are (for I know not whether vives be singular or plural) the very spectre in the imagioa-
Won of the farriers of the old school.

Si

432 STRANGLES. [ClASS XII.

have been given by Inoculation*. A number of horses having it together is not
a proof of its contagious properties ; any more than some escaping and others
having it is a proof it is not sof. The strangles, in many instances, produces
so little interruption to the health, particularly in mild weather, and at grass
as to inflame, maturate, and heal, without the matter being hardly noticed. In
some cases, however, it reduces young horses to a state of considerable emaci-
ation ; and is said, when very long protracted, to degenerate into glanders :
and, by a reference to that subject in Class III, it will be seen that the transi-
tion from the one to the other does occasionally take place. The exciting camea
appear to be those which are productive of catarrh ; thus it is most prevalent in
the spring and in damp cold weather than at other times. Hurtrel d'Arboval
connects it with dentition ; but the circumstances that it is not confined to that
period, nor is indigenous to every climate, weaken such supposition.

Symptoms. — The disease usually commences with the common symptoms of
mild catarrh, or, as popularly expressed, of slight cold and fever. The horse
is somewhat dull, has often cough, some soreness of throat, a slight disinclina-
tion to food, but still more to water. The under surface of the throat between
the jaws swells, and is hot and tender : sometimes the tumefaction extends to
the ear of one or of both sides. On the second or third day it is not unfrequent
for the nostrils to throw out a muco-purulent discharge; and if the affection be
considerable, his mouth is suffused with a mucous discharge also, or his saliva
is slabbered out in great quantities];. Now and then the lungs become shghtly
inflamed, and heaving at the flanks, with oppressed pulse, are present. In most
instances the pulse is somewhat hurried.

Treatment. — When the inflammatory symptoms are considerable, treat exactly
as directed under catarrh, with this single exception, that the bleeding is not to
be pushed, nor even to be attempted at all, unless there be some urgency in the
case ; that is, unless the pulse be hard and much quickened, with hurried respi-
ration ; or that the extremities be cold, the cough very painful, and the nostrils
red ; then bleed without hesitation. Clothe the head with a hood, and, if it can
be done without distress to the animal, apply, by means of a nose-bag, a warm
mash, which should be frequently renewed : if it cannot, give a warm malt mash
frequently. I formerly advocated the use of poultices much in these cases ; but
they are very dilBcult to apply, and the air is apt to get between them and the
skin, and produce cold ; I therefore, of late years, have preferred to direct the
use of a stimulating ointment rubbed over the whole tumefied part, composed
of half Venice turpentine, and the other half of blistering ointment, which I have
found to answer the grand end of stimulating to the formation of pus. There
is also another eminent advantage gained by blistering here, which is, that the
local consequence is hastened, while the constitutional disturbance is retarded
or altogether subdued. The tumour having suppurated, sometimes bursts in-
wardly, in which case the future cure must be left principally to nature, and
nothing more, in general, will be requisite than mild food, as green meat, if
procurable, and gentle exercise. But when the tumour points outwardly, as
soon as the matter is felt to fluctuate freely, but not before, it should be opened
with a lancet, which will tend to shorten the complaint considerably. It is cus-

• M. Toggia, jun., has inoculated colts both with the matter of the abscess, and the purulent
secretion of the nose, by which he produced true strangles (proved by future non-susceptibility) of a
mild type, By this he also proves, as he thinks, both the contagious and specific nature of the
comvi\Mnt.— RccueildeVct.Med.Vch 1828

f ' Ce qui a sans donte porte regarder I'alfection ditc gourme comme contagieuse, c'est qu'on I'a
vue se manifester en meme temps sur toutes les betes chevnlines d'une exploitation rurale, quelquc-
fois d'une commune ou d'un canton ; raais cela vientd'une eg.ile participation A des causes communes,
ou tient au resultat de I'action permanente de certaines localites, ou aux alterations passagferes de
I'air, des boissons, dps alimens de toutes les choses necessaives a la vie des animaux.'

1 This nasal discharge appearing before tlie suppuration of the salivary glands, is called by farriers
the bastard strangles ; but which symptom has little to do with the specific inflammation of the
strangles, but is rather a common symptom of the catarrhal affection which accompanies the disease,
and which I am disposed to think is, in many instances, merely the exciting cause of the specific
action That is, that such colts in many instances take cold, and catarrh follows ; the predisposition
to strangles existing is now brought into action, and accompanies the catarrh, which is itself purely
accidental. This view of the matter will serve to explain the diversity of syinptoms, and the great
difference in intensity in the disease.

Class XIIl ] chronic abscess and ulceration. 433

toniarv to squeeze the abscess violently with the fingers to press out the matter,
which" is wrong: a very slight pressure for this purpose is proper, but only a
slight one; and if a natural opening have «pccurred, and it should be small,
either introduce a pledget smeared with digestive ointment to keep it from clos-
ing up, or, what will be better, enlarge it. If the disease runs its course in the
usual manner, finish with a gentle dose or two of physic ; but if it be protracted
in its maturation, or that abscesses do not heal kindly, or the nasal gleet con-
tinues, immediately enter on a course of tonics, with liberal feeding and a pure
but mild air. It is in this state that it is sometimes mistaken for glanders ; and
as, when greatly protracted, it does certainly sometimes become glanderous, it
behoves the practitioner to compare all the appearances present with the distin-
guishing features of this disease as ah-eady fully detailed in Class III.

Wabbles.

These are small tumours, consequent on saddle or harness pressure. In the
adhesive state of their inflammation, attempt to reduce them by saturnine washes,
with vinegar, &c. &c. If suppuration appears inevitable, promote it by stimu-
lants ; and as soon as it appears ripe, open with a lancet, or carry a very small
seton through the tumour, which I have found to be an effectual preventive of
the induration called sitfast. Sitfast is either formed after maturation, by re-
peated friction delaying the granulating process, or it is formed before by an
indolent state of the tumour, by which the adhesive matter thrown out indurates.
When a sitfast is formed, do not tear it out with pincers, after the manner of
some farriers, but first blister it ; and if it still remains prominent, dissect it out
without removing any integument.

Poll Evil, Fistulous", Withers, Wakbles, are but so many abscesses, in
their recent stages : yet, as it is more common for us to see them under a state
of aggravated idceration, and as they not unfrequently assume a tardy process
and unhealthy inflammation from the beginning, the consideration of the former
is referred to the next class, while the latter are grouped with Diseases of the
Feet, Class XX.

CLASS XIIL

OF CHRONIC ABSCESS AND ULCERATION.

The process of healthy inflammation is verified in acute abscess ; in chronic
abscess it wants life, either from the nature of the constitution generally, or
the nature of the part individually. As there are peculiarities in the nature of
inflammations themselves, this may have some influence ; but it must be sub-
ordinately, for it is to phlegmonous inflammation that my attention is parti-
cularly directed in the present instance. In these cases the effusion of adhesive
matter is slow itself, or, if quick, it makes little difference to the case ; it is the
tardiness of the suppurative process commencing. In some cases the adhesive
effusion remains in a state of induration, and suppuration never commences :
at others, the suppurative phenomena are imperfectly developed, and, when at
length, it is somewhat established, and an outlet, natural or artificial, is made,
which is often not done until other parts have been affected likewise, it then
happens, that, instead of a healthy granulating process, unhealthy ulceration
follows.

Ulceration is a process directly the reverse of granulation ; for as that huilds
upi so ulceration breaks down parts which become absorbed through the medium
of the lymphatics ; the surface thus acted on producing at the same time a pu-
rulent or other discharge. An abraded surface thus circumstanced is called an
■ulcer, for the cure of which we must endeavour to remedy the morbid action

£ c

434 POLL EVIL. [Class XIII.

by exciting a new and more healthy one ; by which the part being then brought
to the condition of a simple wound, will heal. When ulcers have continued for
a long time, it is often necessary to employ constitutional remedies to establish
a cure. In full habits we increase the other secretions, as those of the bowels
the kidneys, the skin, &c., by purgatives, diuretics, and such remedies as act on
the skin. We also lessen the excess of morbid secretion of pus, by establishing
a new and artificial drain in the neighbourhood, which is done by setons or by
rowels. In some cases, instead of existing plethora, the ulcer has occasioned
or is accompanied by great irritability of system, which must be combated by
opium, and other sedatives; or if debility become very apparent, tonics must
be given, together with a liberal diet. In general cases, stable soiling, a course
of carrots, or other total change of food, assists the healing and restorative pro-
cess greatly. Ulcers are often found of a greater extent internally than ex-
ternally ; and when such cavities extend in different directions, they form the
sinuses of the surgeon and the pipes of the farrier : when the edges of the
external opening are hardened, it is said to be Jistulous. In general cases, the
longer an ulcer has lasted, the more obstinately will the vessels have gained a
diseased habit, and the more difficulty there will be to bring them back to a
healthy state. The external means employed for this purpose are usually three ;
stimulating injections, seton, or incision ; which operations it will not be neces-
sary to enter upon here, as we shall proceed to describe the more common and
important ulcers, with their treatment, separately. It remains, however, to
state, that ulcers in general are apt to be treated by farriers erroneously, by
plugging up the sinuses, by which the matter formed penetrates farther, bring-
ing into its own action all the neighbouring parts. They likewise dress them
so seldom, that the pus frequently takes on a process of decomposition, and
becomes acrid ; and, lastly, they are apt to neglect to gain a depending orifice
for these collections.

POLL EVIL.

This so called complaint, from its situation at the poll of the head, is the
consequence of an abscess forming within the cellular membrane of the part,
and extending downwards : sometimes it may form underneath the cellular
attachments of the cervical ligament, or fix- fax of the farriers. In either case
it is usual, unless it be very early checked, to extend to the ligamentous con-
nexions of the articulations and mucous capsules which surround them. It is
most common in large coarse horses, and is not unfrequently brought on in
them by irritation of the skin around the bulbous roots of the hair of the mane,
which occasions them to rub the head against the manger continually, and some-
times so violently as to inflame and produce abscess in the parts underneath,
particularly where a mangy disposition is present. It is also, sometimes, oc-
casioned by hanging back in the stall, and thus forcibly pinching these parts
between the collar rein, or halter, and the cervical bones : blows also act in the
same manner, given either by the horse himself in rising, or inflicted by brutal
chastiseTnent. Inflammation is the result, in a degree proportioned to the ex-
tent of the injury : if moderate, resolution maj'^ occur ; but if it have been great,
and the ligamentous parts have become injured, resolution is less likely to hap-
pen : on the contrary, from the living powers of these parts being comparatively
small, an unhealthy inflammation follows, and a double action is the conse-"

quence, a suppurative one in the integuments, and an ulcerative one in the

tendinous and ligamentous parts which surround the attachment of the cervical
ligament ; from which circumstance it is that we so seldom meet with healthy
pus from poll evil; but, on the contrary, a thin sanious discharge, or sometimes
a more glairy one, when any of the mucous capsules are affected.

Treatment of poll evil. — This regards its nature and its extent. If it be pure
phlegmon or the early state of abscess, whether it be deep or superficial, we must
endeavour to promote resolution ; but the means of so doing will be somewhat
different as it is one or the other. U superficial, that is, if the inflammation be

Class XIII.] poll evil. 4^0

confined to the integuments of the part, apply discutients, as saturnine washes,
or muriate of ammonia, with vinegar and water, which should be kept constantly
wet and in contact with the part. If it be deep, that is, if the inflammation
have extended to the ligamentary connexions underneath, applications of a more
astringent and tonic nature will best promote resolution in these torpid parts,
as pure vinegar, or rubbings with terebinthinated tincture of cantharides. When
all hopes of promoting resolution of the tumour have ceased, we should then as
actively hasten the maturation : if there is reason to consider it as superficial,
this will be best efiected by hot fomentations or poultices, keeping the part also
smeared over with some unctuous matter : but if it be supposed that the evil is
deeper seated, the end will be best answered by a mild blister rubbed in every
other day, until the fluctuation is felt either on one side or the other, when the
next indication is to procure a speedy evacuation to the contents, and a depend-
in" orifice for its future passage, that no sinuses may form ; this may be done
by°the introduction of a seton, first inserting the needle in the centre of the
tumour at the root of the mane, passing it out at the most depending part ; and
in case the tumour is a central one, and its limit extend equally over the neck, do
exactly the same by the other side. But when, from improper management,
matter has not only formed, but has been suflered to remain, or has only evacu-
ated itself by a superficial opening, either natural or artificial, and not from one
in a depending situation, by which the accumulation extends under the cervical
li<jament, leaving it hollow below ; in such cases, the healthy secretion of pus
always ceases, and instead of it, a thin ichorous or a glairy discharge succeeds ;
the ulceration also extends still further ; sinuses form in every direction ; some
of the bursal cavities open, and not unfrequently the cervical vertebrae become
carious*. Under any of these appearances, a very strict examination must be
made, which is best done when the horse is cast, having his head elevated by a
bundle of straw, and turned towards the light. Enlarge the lateral opening so as
to admit of a free examination, by means of both probe and finger, of the whole
extent of the evil, and of every part liable to be injured. Carious bones must be
laid bare, scraped, and then exposed to the escharotic effect of the red oxyde of
mercury. Hardened callous edges must be removed, and the smaller sinuses laid
open, so as to form one continuous cavity. If aU this be not thoroughly done,
it will happen, that, when the whole seems on the point of healing, a new
tumour will suddenly appear, and frustrate all our hopes, which renewed abscess,
in every instance, arises from some carious bone being left, or some diseased
ligamentous portion remaining. In this way the expert operator, well acquainted
with the anatomy of the parts, will combat the worst cases. We must, however,
avoid an injudicious use of the knife, by which much mischief has been done.
I have seen a direct crucial incision at the summit of the neck which divided
the cervical ligament, and allowed the skin and muscles to recede beyond the
power of surgery to unite them : and although it has been said that the ap-
plication of our caustic means cannot be effectually made in very desperate
cases without a division of the cervical ligament, and that this may be done
with perfect safety, for that its principal attachment being to the dentata or
second vertebra, so the head can be supported without it ; this, however, is
dangerous doctrine, and such division can only be warranted as a last resource ;
for a close examination of the head will shew, that this ligament does in some de-
gree extend itself to the occipital bone also, where it evidently acts as a suspend-
ing agent to the head, and cannot therefore be cut away without some injury to
its mobility and support : I would, therefore, recommend the junior practitioner
particularly to avoid so wide a range, and first to try two moderate counter-
openings, after the manner recommended and practised by French veterinariansf,

* Tlie ravages tliia disease makCB are sometimes extreme ; it has been known to disease tlic occipital
and parietal bones, burrowing around the ear, and has insinuated itself into tlic parotid gland. But
some of Its most direful effects arc displayed when it eiodes the articular ligiuiicnta, and effuses tlic
purulent discharge within the spinal canal, and then produces paralysis, llurtrcl d'Arboval details a
remarkable case of this kind, under M<il. ile Taupe, Diet, l-'iturinaire.

's Hurtrel d'Arboval is so explicit on the Trench method of operating for poU-cvil, that I have in-
troduced his dcsciiption ; and as that language forms a part of the education of almost every one now-

£ C 2

POLL EVIL. [Class XIII.

which being made, should be kept open by means of large bands inserted seton-
wise within them ; and which should be well soaked at each dressing with the
same matter with which the internal wound is injected. This injection of the
internal cavity should be made, if possible, twice a-day, and every second or
third day a full examination should be made by casting the horse, and renewing
all the former processes : but, of course, this only alludes to cases of great ma-
hgnancy. One full examination and operation ought to be sufficient for all
ordinary cases. A very mild case is often sufficiently stimulated into healthy
action by fully injecting into it the terebinthinated tincture of cantharides, or,
as it is called, liquid sweating blister. A more active escharotic than this 'will
be found in either of the following : — •

Nitrated quicksilver {lunar caustic) one drachm

W^t^^ two ounces.

a-days, I do it in his own words :— ' Dans toutes ces circonstances, il s'agit de procurer issue a la
matiere, en oiivrant le foyer ou les foyers oii s'est amassee ; il est mSme i-propos de la faire aussitot
que la collection est bien evidemment forniee, attendue la facilite avec laquelle le pus fuse dans le
mal de taupe. II ne faut pas cependent operer trop tot, avant que I'abc^s soil mQr; on s'exposerait
ivoir survenir des accidens analogues a ceux qui ont et6 signales pour un cas semblable k I'egard du
mal de garrot. En supposant I'operation indiquee, on s'y dispose en se munissant des instrumeng
nfecessaires, qui sent un bistouri droit, line sonde en S, un trois-quarts courbe (curved trochar) deg
pinces anatomiques, des aiguilles, des fils cires et des etoupes; I'animal etant ensuite abattu oii lui
appuie latete sur une botte de paille enveloppee d'une couverture, et on la lui place au plus haut
degi-6 d'extension possible, afin que les muscles extenseurs ou superipurs de I'encolure ne soient pas
tendus, et permettent I'fecarteinent des levres des plaies que Ton doit faire. On est oblige ici de
8'6cartei- un peu des principes ordinaires ; il est de regie genferale d'ouvrir un abcfes de maniere a ce
que son ouverture corresponde au point le plus declive, faute de quoi le pus ne s'ecoule pas, I'abcfes
continue 4 presenter une esp6ce de cul-de-sac, et la matiere se trouve retenue ; mais, en ce qui con-
cerne le foyer qui nous occupe, on ne peut pas ouvir i la partie la plus inferieure, les vertebres s'y
opposant, on ne peut le faire que lateralement. La premiere incision se fait en plongeant le bistouri
perpcndiculairement sur la surface qu'il doit traverser, de manifere que le tranchant soil du cote du
g-arrot, suivant la direction du ligament cervical ; on I'enfonce derriire I'apophyse transverse de I'oc-
cipital, dans I'intervalle qui e xiste entre la corde de ligament et le tendon du muscle dorso-occipital
c'est-4-dire a vingt-six millimetres ou un pouee de la crinifere qui va gagner le toupet, car on ne peut
se guider que sur cette distance pour I'incision premiere, puisque I'cngorgement de la partie ne laisse
plus sentir cet interstice. La lame de I'instrument <!tant ainsi enfoncee dans le foyer du mal, on pro-
longe I'incision de trois A quatre travers de doigt, ou autant que la circonstance I'exige. Si I'on a
penetre dans le foyer, une partie du pus s'ecoule au dehors; dans le cas contraire, ou penfetre plus
avant. Ou en vient ensuite a introduire le doigt indicateur dans le foyer purulent, pour juger da sa
profondeur, de I'etat des parties, et reconnaitre, s'il en existe, le notnbre, Vetendue et la direction
des sinus et des clapiers ; s'ils sont en arriere, ils sont bien moins graves. lis exigent des contre-
ouvcrtures, pour que le pus puisse s'6coulcr libremeut, ce qui ne pourrait avoir lieu autrement, la

Sremifere ouverture etant pratiquee superieurement. Pour <!tablir ces contre-ouvertures, on intro-
uit la sonde en S dans le foyer, on la fait agir afln de soulever la peau et reconnaitre la place ou I'oo
doit inciser de nouveau, et cette nouvelle incision doit aussi etre parallfeic a I'encolure, et avoir une
certaine etendue, pour que I'issue qu'on procure au pus soil large et facile. 11 est quel'quefois avan-
tageux de se servir de trois-quarts pour penetrer a la profondeur convenable et operer les contre-ou-
vertures indiqufees, qu'on agrandit engiiite. Cela fait, on dfeterge le foyer et les conduits, au movea
des injections ; mais si I'on s'en tenait la, les 16vres de la plaie ne tarderaient pas 4 se rfeunir sang
que le fond du foyer se cicatrisat, le pus s'amasserait de nouveau, et I'on n'aurait rien fait ; c'est'pout-
quoi il importe de s'opposer 4 la cicatrisation de ces solutions de continuite, et I'on y parvient en en-
gageant une mftche d'etoupes, qui doit sortir par les deux ouvertures, et qu'on renouvelle A cbaque

Sansement. On cn etablit autant qu'il est necessaire j cette methodc, comnie celle des setons, a le
ouble avantage d'empecher la cicatrisation et de servir de conducteur au pus ; elle est incomparahle-
ment preferable 4 celle de prolonger les incisions dans toute I'etendue de chaque sinus, mode opfera-
toire dont nous avons signals les iuconvcniens 4 I'occasion du mal de garrot. Mais si les sinus sont
sur les coles de la tete, sous les parotides, les contre-ouvertures sont tr6s difficiles, et quelquefoig
impossibles 4 (aire, parcequ'on peut risquef- d'attaquer la glande (ce qui determinerait une fistule pa-
rotidienne), de gros vaisseaux ou des nerfs ; on est alors reduit 4 user d'une sonde elastique, telle
que nous I'avons indiquee pour un cas analogue dans le mal de garrot, et si I'on n'en retire aucun
bon effet, il faut considerer le mal comnie le plus souvent incurable. On voit que I'cxfecutiou de ce»
operations demande des attentions particuliSres et de bonnes connaissanccs anatomiques. Si deg
parties ligamenteuscs, teudineuses ou musculaires, sont cariees ou en 6tat de suppuration, il est de
tout necessite d'enlever les portions ainsi desoreanisecs. S'il y a caric de I'os occipital, on est
fegalements oblige d'enlever cette carle, ou d'cn determiner I'exfoliation. Pour parvenir 4 ces r6-
sultats, quelques praticiens conseillent la cauterisation, mais la cautferisation s'est applicable que sur
les tissus OBseux, encore avec la plus grandi! circonspection, puis qu'il s'agit d'un os qui concourt k
former le crane : la cautferisation des parties mollesoccasionnerait une tumefaction inflanimatoire consi-
dferablc, que am^nerait tres probablement la gangrene. II est done prudent de recourir A un autre
moyen, celui de I'ablution ; mais en supposant qu'on ticnne 4 I'application du feu, il scrait indispen-
sable de so servir du cauterc 4 entonnoir, afin d'eviter d'otfensir le muscle atloido-occipital, attendu
son union 4 la capsule de I'articiilation de I'occipital avec la premiere vertihrc cervicale. Souvent le
mal de taupe existe deux cotes; alors, quand on a pratique I'operation dont nous venous de parlcr,
on n'a fait que la moitie de I'ouvrage ; mais eomme, dans la premiAtc operation, I'animal perd beau-
coup de sang, et qu'il est extremement fatigue, tant par la perte de ce sang que par les douleurs
cju'il eprouye, il est prudent de ne I'opeicrque d'un cute a la fois, et d'attendre quelques jours pour
reprendre I'opferation,'

Class XIII.] fistulous withers. 437

Or, , ,

Muriated quicksilver {corrosive sublimate) two drachms

Water three ounces.

It cannot be denied that some cases which have foiled the veterinarian have
been afterwards cured by a common smith or farrier, by the old method of scald-
ing ; which, though somewhat out of date in the new school, is but applying the
cautery. When other means have failed, this, therefore, may be tried as a last
resource ; and although there is much apparent violence in it, yet humanity is
less outraged than by continued escharotic dressings, cutting, and the poleaxe
at last.

No. 1. — Arsenic, very finely powdered one drachm

Cerate of resin (yellow basilicon) four ounces.

No. 2. — Muriated quicksilver (corrosive subli- \ drachm.

mate), very finely powdered )

Cerate of resin (yellow basilicon) four ounces.

No. 3.— Caustic potash one drachm, rubbed down with

Oil of turpentine four ounces.

Either of these may be melted to a scalding heat, when, having secured the
horse in a favourable position, pour it hot into the cavity, so as to penetrate all
the sinuses. After the scalding, wait for the sloughs to separate, which will be
in three or foiu* days ; then dress with any mild ointment ; and if, after this,
healthy matter shews itself, and granulations arise, a cure will proceed : but if
the discharge again becomes ichorous, and the sore look unhealthy, at the end
of a week or ten days from the first scalding, repeat it as before.

FISTULOUS WITHERS.

When a saddle has continued to press on the withers, either by its ill fitting,
its too forward placing, or other improper management of an incautious rider
for a whole day, and the evil has, perhaps, been repeated the next, the conse-
quence is fi-equently an inflamed tumour, which should be dispersed in the manner
recommended in the former case : but if the heat and swelling remain stationary, or
the swelling and tenderness should increase after discutients have been applied,
then proceed to encourage maturation by the application of poultices, and as
soon as fluctuation and softening of the tumour denote full maturation, do not
wait its bursting, but open it on the affected side in the most depending part ; or
what will, I conceive, be preferable, pass a seton fi-om the top to the bottom of
the tumour : if it appear on both sides, place a seton on each of them. Should
the attention be called to a case that has proceeded to a fistulous state, treat
exactly in the same manner as with poll evil. Instances have occurred where
the matter has penetrated under the scapula, and made its way to the point
of the elbow or shoulder : in these cases a dependent orifice should be made,
and a seton introduced through the whole extent of the sinus, for which purpose
seton-needles of sufficient length are manufactured. This disease has also in-
jured the dorsal spinous processes forming the withers : in any such case, ex-
foliation must take place before the wound can heal. Mr. Percivall is not any
more than ourselves favourable either to caustic injections, or, as he justly terms
it, ' the barbarous scalding :' but he advocates the propriety of laying open the
cavity and exposing all the sinuses. ' Sinuses,' he further observes, 'may be laid
open by incisions from without or within : the former with the scalpel, the latter
with a bistoury, adapted to the wound and its course. On some occasions the
bistoure cache will prove the most convenient instrument.' In Mr. Percivall's
mteresting and instructive description of these fistulae he does justice to the
treatment of these lesions by a method advocated by Mr. Alex. Gray, V. S.
Edinburgh, who with a scalpel opened the sinuses, presuming there miglit
be two, one on each side of .the neck. He next dressed the wound or

438 SALIVARY fistul;e. [Class XIII.

wounds, first by warm fomentations, and secondly with tincture of myrrh and
aloes. Likewise in order to apply pressure, on which Mr. P., with great justice,
rests much of his hopes of success, he had made for the purpose two pieces of
wood, twelve inches long and three broad ; each, be it observed, being thicker*
in the middle than at the edges, by which they appear to have been rounded off
and then wrapped up in a long flannel bandage, four inches in breadth. Pledgets
of tow were then applied over the wounds, and next one of the armed pieces of
wood was placed on each side, and the whole was tightly bound over the fis-
tulous orifices. The open sores were also dressed night and morning. by foment-
ing and rubbing over them the tincture of myrrh with aloes. See Hippopatho-
logy, vol. i, p. 198.

Fistulous sternum. — Occasionally the point of the sternum also becomes so
much tumefied by blows or pressure, as to proceed to suppuration ; when here,
likewise, a fistulous state of the wound is not uncommon. The treatment of
this must be regulated by circumstances, but, on general principles, must follow
the rules laid down for fistulse in general.

SALIVARY FISTULA.

Salivary fistulae are so little known in the horse, that, when a solitary case
has been met with, it has been thought a monstrosity, and, as such, hardly
admissible in our nosology : it is true that our indefatigable neighbours, the
French, had some time acknowledged it ; but as it became fashionable with them
to introduce into their veterinary system parallel cases with every human disease,
and which, by the by, has turned out to be not far from the very fact (so fast do
they multiply on us), we were not always inclined to attend to their details so
much, probably, as they deserved : but since communication has proved the fre-
quency of occurrence of these lesions, as well among us as among them, we
are surprised how they should so long have escaped particular notice. In the
course of a long practice, however, I am not aware of having met with more
than three or four cases of the kind : the first of these, I well remember, was
consequent to a sabre cut received by a charger in an action on the continent,
which I saw a few days afterwards. The second, I believe, was the result of
strangles ; and a third, if my memory serves me, was derived from the same
source. These being seemingly but rare occurrences, led me to do little more
than notice the existence and probability of future recurrence of those cases in
my former edition. I have no minutes left as to what line of practice I pursued
in either of them ; I do, however, recoUect, that I recommended the farrier-
major of the regiment to fire the fistulous orifice in that originating from sabre
cut, which succeeded ; that in another I was altogether foiled, and the horse
was sold in Smithfield. The third was taken from my care to go a journey into
the country, and I altogether lost sight of him. I will now attempt to make up
the deficiency of instruction on this subject, of the last edition, by offering the
result of my own observations on it, vrith such as I may derive from other
sources, particularly from that to which Mr. Percivall also owns he is indebted
for much of a most valuable paper on the same, given in the first vol. of The Veteri-
narian, to which I would refer the reader for a more ample detail than my limits
wiU allow of.

A fistulous parotid presents an unnatural salivary outlet, either in the substance
of the gland, or of the duct itself, in some parts of its passage along the pos-
terior angle of jaw, or in its ascent over the face. A fistulous orifice, where it .
is the effect of local abscess within the gland itself, or of the duct also when it
has burst from obstruction, wiU be accompanied with ulcerative marks, as ragged
edges, &c. But a recent wound in the gland will present, if it be a lengthened
cut, a smooth wide gap, with serous moisture exuding from its general surfaces ;
and a flow of saliva from one or more of the salivary communicating tubes. A re-
cent wound of the salivary duct itself will shew little more, at first, than the mere
opening bedewed with limpid moisture, except at meals, when it will pour from
it : this appearance soon changes, first to ulcerous edges, and at length into a

Class XIII.] salivary fistula. 439

true fistulous orifice; which wiU be minute as it extends up the face, but which
becomes larger when the opening is in a dependent part as the angle of the
iaw- an old orifice attains an almost cartdagmous hardness. The saUvary
fistula may always be distinguished from any other by the nature and circuni-
stances of the discharge, which is particularly plentiful after fastmg, and will
then be forced out in a minute stream ; at other times it merely drops, or runs
occasionally down the face. The fluid itself is semi-transparent, and slightly
viscous - but, as observed by Hurtrel d'Arboval, not unfrequently, from ulcera-
tion in 'the gland, it becomes tinged with pus, and stained with a little blood
now and then. These cases are usually the consequence of either accidental
iniury of or abscesses resulting from strangles, angina, or catarrh. The cure,
in most cases, is within our power, though it is a painful one for the animal ;
and as the saUva from a single gland, seeing there are three pairs which furmsh
this fluid, cannot be of much importance, and as by it we get rid of an incon-
venient and unsightly appearance, we gain something and lose little : lor in con-
firmed cases, as will be seen, it is only by the loss of the glandular functions and
structure, and often of the substance also, that we are most likely to get rid ot
the blemish ; in which case we only exchange one eyesore for another, certainly
for a smaller, but, some blemish must still remain. It is not, however, certain
that we shaU lose the secreting office of the gland, for it can granulate and
repair itself, both in the formation and the transmission of the salivary fluid ;
and when this can be done, there will remain then no question whatever on the
propriety of attempting a cure. Such cases present themselves either when a
simple punctiu-e has been made into the glandular substance, or when an open-
ing, the result of abscess, is left small and well defined, though evidently
saUvary and fistulous. Here the budding-iron, heated to a dull red, and forced
into the orifice, will excite adhesive inflammation; and while the eschar is
plugging up the salivary outlet, the granulations underneath will form, and make
good the integrity of the whole. Should it not succeed at first, repeat it, and
each time with a little more severity. A recent wound of the duct itself may be
treated in the same way, bearing in mind, that though, in both cases, an adhesive
plaister over a shaved surface with a compress will be useful, they will be here
imperative. A salivary fistula likely to result from a recent wound of lengthened
shape, or being irregular, or torn, may be treated by drawing the edges together
by numerous fine sutures, placing immediately over the line of junction a strip
of lint or tow moistened with compound tincture of aloes, the whole being then
covered with an adhesive plaister*.

But when a fistulous opening in any of the salivary glands or their ducts has
existed some time, let its origin be traumatic or phlegmonous, we must in vain
look to union by other means than granulation ; we should therefore proceed to
excite these by the application either of escharotics, or of caustics so called, or
of the actual cautery or fire, according to circumstances. In the use of these, an
eschar is attempted to be formed which serves as a temporary stoppage to the
fistulous opening, and also to a breaking up of such diseased and callous sur-
faces as have hitherto stood in the way of a new formationf, and which treat-

• ' On doit d'abord apporter la plus grandc attention, a la plus petite division arrivfee i la parotide,
ets'attacher 4 obtenir la reunion par premiere intention, soit sV I'aide d'un emplatrc agglutinatif, soit
au raoyen de quelnueB points de suture. II estensuite nfecessaire d'exercer une compression assez forte
sur le corps dc la glandc pour empechcr la salive de se porter au dehors. Cctte compression nest
pas trfts difficile i obtenir avec une bntile un pen forme d'etoupc ou dc filasse, soiitentie par le ban-
dage propre aux parotides, et dont on trouvc la description et le dcssin dans I'ouvrage de Uourgelat.
The difficulty of fixing any plaister is considerable, from the moisture exuding ; but as there arc periods
of comparative dryness of the parts, as when the horse is not eating, a pledget of tow dipped into any
adhesive plaister, melted and fjuickly placed over the whole surface, might be retained ; but the em-

+ An important caution may be gained from Mr. Percivall in this attempt, who observes, that, in
making it, we are sometimes ' foiled in closing the fistulous aperture, in consequence of obstruction
existing at the natural outlet of the saliv.iry canal; at least, this was the case in the instance of a
horse of my own, in whom the parotid duct discharged itself through an opening on the outside of
the cheek, which we failed in healing up, in consequence, as it afterwards appeared, of the closure
of the natural lermindlion of the duct: In human surgery, as observed by Mr. P., an attempt
to remedy this would be made by passing a seton ' from the external lislulous opening through the
cheek into the mouth, retaining it there until the internal as well as tlie external orifice had become

440 FISTULA IN ANO, &C. [ClASS XIII.

ment, united with a compress judiciously applied, occasionally succeeds • but
the continued flow of saliva is too apt to frustrate all these endeavours, and we
must advert to other means. An ingenious method to meet these difficulties
was put in practice by Hurtrel d'Arboval, which consisted in attemptinir to
destroy the secretory function hy parahjsation of the gland; and which, though
unsuccessful, deserves to be recorded in his own words*. Foiled, however, as
he was in this, he attempted and finally effected a cure by cauterization, making
use of an iron of large size at a white heat, which was so applied as to destroy
the parts to a great depth, to produce extensive sloughing ; the operation being
again and again renewed ufltil the end he wished for was obtained. Mere, then,
there appears a mode of cure, certainly violent and painful in the extreme, as
well as somewhat hazardous also, but always effectual. Mr. Pereivall has more
lately succeeded in two cases wherein he acted on the principle of destroying the
structure of the gland altogether (which was tantamount to M. d'Arboval's at-
tempt at paralysation, but much more certain), and which, as before hinted at,
may be dpne with little fear on the score of salivary supplies. To this end, he
injected into the fistulous opening, in the direction of the duct leading to the
parotid gland, a. mixture of argent, nitrat. (lunar caustic) 3SS, acid, nitric. 31,
water Ji. This, in one case, produced a hardened non-secretory mass, but
little larger than the other parotid, with, of course, a perfect healing up of the
fistulous orifice. In the other, the end was equally gained, but it was by a
lengthened process of sloughing, which eventually removed the whole gland,
yet left only a ' trifling eyesore.' In France, a complete excision of the gland
has been practised also with success: the operation is detailed in the Recueil de
Med. Vet. vol. i, p. 133, as well as in the first vol. of The Veterinarian ; the perusal
of which, although it will probably leave the practitioner more favourable to the
method of Mr. Pereivall, will nevertheless afford much instructive material.

Fistulous maxillary and sublingual glands. — These cases are infinitely more
rare than the preceding, but have certainly happened, both from phlegmonous
inflammation of the substance of these glands, as well as stoppage of their ducts
by the entrance of stones, oats, and other seeds, within the mouths of their
ducts. In such a case, therefore, to effect a cure the obstructing matter should
be pressed out of the duct, when the fistulous opening may be proceeded with on
the principles laid down.

Fistula in and abound the Anus.

Fistido in ano, though not a frequent affection now, yet does occur ; and when
the barbarism of making a secondary anal opening in broken-winded horses
was in fashion, must have rendered these fistxilae much more common than at

fistulous also; and finally healing up the latter by caustic' There would he little difficulty in
passing the seton, but a very great one was observed in retaining it, from the horse biting off what-
ever was placed as a knot: the ingenuity and perseverance of Mr. Pereivall, however, overcame it,
by the attachment of a flat metallic button without a shank to the inner end of the tape, which being
confined close to the side of the cheek by a knot on the outside, prevented its being taken between
the teeth. Tliis certainly is an effectual method of introducing an establislied seton into the mouth ;
yet I much doubt, as docs Mr. Pereivall also, whether it might successfully apply to many of these
cases.

• ' II nous Vint dans I'idee de cliercber i atrophier la glande, i y feteindrc la vitalite, et a la rendre
impropre 4 la sfecretion de la salive, en imaginant un mode de compression tel que, en embrassent
isolement la parotide en entier, on ne fut pas oblige de ceindre la gorge par un bandage qui scrrat
cette partie, ce qui aurait en de I'inconvenient sous d'autres lapports. En consequence nous pas-
sames verticalement dans I'fepaisseur des tissus, de chaque cote de la glande, contre ce corps, et
jusqu'a Ic profondeur qu'il doit occuper, une tige en fer, de la grosscur d'une plume ordinaire,
contonrnee en arc et asscz longue pour que, au moyen des bouts depassant au dehors, nous pussions
operer la compression i I'aide de plusieurs tours de lisse cirec qui cernait ue toutepart Torgane.
Des monvemens convulsifs de la tfite et des etourdissemcns nous avertirent que nous avoins intfiresse
des cordons nerveux ; tandis que nous observions ces phenom^nes accidcntels, et que nous avisions
a y rcmedicr, nous nons aperjumes qu'ils s'apaisaient, nous ne flnies rien de pins, et une bcure apr^s
I'animal fetait commc auparavant : la tempferaturc de la partie s'abaissa, et il ne s'fecoula pas un
atome de salive tout le temps que I'appareil resta en place. Mais la partie situee au-dessous, du
cote de latfito, s'engorgea au bout de quclques jours ; clle devint chaude, douloureusc, et nous fit
bientot craindre la formation d'nn nouvcl abc^s. D'un autre cote, au bout de quinze jours, la lisse
nioiiesait de couper la peau, et ellc nous tit craindre la d^inudation conipl6te de la parotide. Ces con-
•idirntions nous dicid^rent A supprinicrsc mondc dc ligature et a y renoncer."

Class XIII.] fistula in ano, &c. 441

nresent: and the more so, if, as the French think, they often followed the first
S made in forming the W ^ ^ Anglais, but which effect I hardly remember
to have seen from nicking : however, if their frequency is diminished, their noto-
riety is increased, as we now let slip no occurrence^ which the valuable herald
of mutual communication can yield us. Constitutional fistulae in the rectum
are more common in carnivorous quadrupeds, from the constipated state of then:
bowels and the nature of their food. Traumatic fistulas both m the rectum
and around its verge, do occur, particularly from accidental violence committed
bv the ends of the shafts or poles of carriages, stable-forks, goads of horns, &c.
&c • there are also occasional constitutional sources of anal fistulae. In cases
arising from external wounds, the penetrating instrument may enter by the side
of the anus, and end within it, in which case it forms what is caUed a complete
fistula in ano : as it would be an incomplete or a bUnd fistula when it penetrated
the ceUular substance around the gut only*. A case of the latter kind is related
by Mr Percivall in The Veterinarian, vol. ii, which was judiciously and success-
fyiy treated by means of a mixture of sulphuric acid and sulphate of copper
made into a paste, and introduced to the bottom of the sinuses, for there were
two An internal fistula of the rectum itself might pass unnoticed some time, and
would probably be, at last, detected only when too late, by the constitutional
disturbance, constant evacuation of purulent matter with the faeces, and great
pain in ejection of them. , , , .1 . .i, i. ^

As regards the treatment of these cases, it has been seen that the brute re-
sources are such as to requure, in instances of incomplete or external fistulae,
little more than the apphcation of some stimulant to the bottom of the wound,
to encourage a healthy healing action. But when the rectum itself presents a
fistulous communication with the external opening, or itself has an outlet into
the ceUular tissues around it, although similar means with those already noticed
may be tried, there is little hope that a cure can be obtained but by an opera-
tion ; and which will be equaUy unperative when the fistula is incomplete also,
provided it has resisted hitherto all milder treatment. It will be the express
intention of such an operation to lay the fistulous cavity within the cellular
tissues and th£<t formed by the rectum into one, by which we shall have an
open sore, instead of a hollow sinuous one ; and it will be hoped to thus bring
the parts into a stage for general union. A probe-pointed bistoury of sufficient
length, or otherwise one attached to a long handle, must be passed up the
fistulous orifice by means of the right hand, while the left hand, well oiled,
must be passed up the rectum, having the middle - finger sufficiently guarded,
the exploration being made with the fore finger, which will enable the operator
to divide the hollow on the guard of the middle finger, from its utniost extent
to the verge of the 'anus. When there is no opening in the intestine, a con-
cealed pointed instrument may be made for the purpose ; or the finger, forced
against the edge of the bistoury, will make one : and if there be already an
opening, the instrument will find it. This done, introduce some lint or other
light matter between the edges of the wound and into the sinuous hoUow, which
may hereafter, in case union does not go on kindly, be moistened with some mild
stimulant.

Fistula in the perinceum or in the track of the urethra are liable to occur
after lithotomy, and tapping the bladder or passing the cathetei-. The treat-
ment is rendered complex from structural peculiarity, and also from the little
command we have over the horse : many of these cases, however, heal up spon-

• In thii3 using the term fiilula, it is to be understood I am only uniting the cause and effect, for
convenience. When these openings liappen by violence, they are often, indeed commonly, to be
healed up as simple wounds, by adhesion or granulation : I here therefore presuppose that they have
become fistulous by a morbid change, in which a healing process appears still day by day more re-
mote. I must also observe, that we should fall into an error were we to denominate every phleg-
monous opening near the anus by the term fistula; and it would be bad surgery to treat them as such.
Mr. C. Percivall was, therefore, justified in considering the case above hinted at first as phlegmon,
or as called, according to its locality, a phyma ; and ao to treat it. Neither does lit appear to have
altogether altered his views of it afterwards, or lie would probably have proceeded by section ; whereas
he simply stimulated the sinus, and recovered liis patient without risking him by a haiardous opera-
tion, and which distinction! I would impress on the junior practitioner's mind.

442 INFLAMMATORY INTUMESCENCE. [CLASS XIV.

taneously months and weeks after they have been despaired of. On a fistulonR
cavity consequent on the puncture of the bladder through the rectum or bv a
spontaneous opening taking place, Hurtrel d'Arboval observes, ' Autremcnt la
hstule vesicale vient s ouvrir dans Ic rectum, a la suite d'une blessure ou
d une ulceration spontanee. Les sondes de gomme elastique seraient surement
ici d un grand secours, en supposant qu'elles pussent donner issue a une quantite
assez grande du bqmde urinaire ; mais eUes sont d une bien faible ressource dans
les animaux, parcequ on ne pent ni les laisser a demeure, ni les introduire fre-
quemment 1 animal malade nese pretant pas a cette introduction, et ne pouvant
supporter le sejour prolonge du corps etranger ; c'est ce qui fait que ces fistules
sont incurables,

QtJiTTOK, Canker, Thrush, Farct-buds, and Grease, arc examples of
diseases referrible to Classes XII and XIII : but it is most convenient to treat
of them with other morbid affections of their several localities.

CLASS XIV.

INFLAMMATORY INTUMESCENCE, WITHOUT
ULCERATION.

MEMBRANOUS AND LIGAMENTARY LESIONS, CALLED SPRAINS.

Unless we were allowed to destroy a vast number of horses with sprains in
every stage, and of every part, we could never define this injury so accurately as
to defy criticism. It is said to be not an unnatural distention of parts, but
a rupture or division of the cellular membrane which connects these parts, or
is intermingled with their structure : it is at the same time held that the injury
which tears through this does not put these tendinous and ligamentous parts on
the stretch, because we are told that they are not capable of either distention
or contractility. Wood, iron, stone, and even glass, are capable of contraction
and distention, yet ligament and tendon are incapable of it ; so we are told at
least. But, with great submission, we do firmly believe that these organs can
and do suffer extension, and that, during the violence committed in putting
their structure on the stretch, both the internal cellular tissue, and that which
surrounds or connects them with other parts, is ruptured, and, with it, an
infinity of minute vascular nervous and capillary absorbing vessels are rup-
tured; from whence we are at no loss to account for the distention which
follows the effusion ; the pain and exquisite tenderness consequent to the lace-
ration of nervous twigs ; nor the difficulty of promoting immediate absorption,
when the capillaries have suffered in common with the rest of the parts. Such
I believe to be the rationale of ordinary sprains or strains : but there are ex-
traordinary, or rather more severe effects which follow sudden exertions ;
such as violent efforts of the muscles to restore the equilibrium endangered by
a slip or slidfe. Here I can suppose that the fibrous structure itself of the hga-
ments, thecas, and even the tendons, may be unnaturally distended beyond the
power of immediate contractility, or their minute and intimate connections
broken through beyond instant repair. Now and then there is superadded to
these some lesion of the connecting hgaments, or the sheaths of the tendons, or
the aponeurotic expansions, which bind the tendons together in masses and con-
joint actions. We shall now proceed to trace the symptoms^ consequences, and
treatment, under these grades of intensity of injury. It is probable that the
slightest sprain produces some lesion, however minute : and this, of necessity,
causes inflammation to repair the injury, and take up the effusion ; we there-
fore always find heat, tenderness, and lameness as accompaniments of the
slightest affection of this kind ; but which a few days, or even a few hours, of rest

Class XIV.] inflammatory intumescence. 443

;« sufficient to repair the breaches of, mid, the cause being removed, the effects
wiU cease ■ rest is the remedy, and Nature has then time to work her own cure ;
hut work the animal, and much more time, with artificial aids, will be required
to restore the parts. If greater violence has been committed, greater re-aetion
will take place ; the effusion will be considerable, and consequently the tume-
faction trreat ; the heat, pain, and tenderness excessive; and the animal wiU
hardlv put the limb to the ground : he now loses his appetite, falls away, and
oresents every indication of symptomatic fever. If judicious means are, how-
ever adopted, these symptoms gradually disappear, and, after a considerable
interval the parts are reinstated in their original integrity by absorption of the
extravasation; and close apposition of the ultimate fibriUae in their origmal
order If injudicious means are adopted, and the inflammation be increased
bv exercise, or by the application of stimulating oils, &c. &c., as is too com-
monly done, the adhesive matter thrown out is great, and, the engorgement
being too extensive for the work of absorption, remains, and becomes orga-
nized into a permanent induration, which interferes with the motions of flexion
and extension, rendering the future action of the horse imperfect and painful
probably ever after. When laceration has extended itself into the sheaths, all
these evils will, of course, be aggravated ; and although judicious treatment wU
restore a moderate degree of utility to the limb, the repaired parts will shew their
juncture and consolidation by swelling.

The treatment of sprain or strain, in whatever part it occurs, must be essen-
tially the same, and the differences required are rather niechanical than medical.
There are two indications which present themselves, which are, to overcome
the inflammation; and, next, to restore the disintegration which may remain
fi-om want of sufficient powers of life, in such parts as ligamentous and tendinous
expansions. A mere muscular extension will be followed by considerable in-
flammation, the removal of which will often leave the limb sound. But it is
otherwise when the parts we have named (i. e. ligamentous and aponeurotic)
are the principal sufferers : the vascular action itself will less easily give way ;
and even when it does, will yet leave much enlargement and much weakness
in the part. ' Both cases, and indeed every case of sprain, should be commenced
by local depletion (and violent, by general depletion also). If the injury be
anywhere between the knee and foot before, or between the hock and foot
behind, draw blood freely from the toe, and, to encourage the _ flow, place the
foot into warm water. This done, bury the part in a saturnine poultice, or
surround it with cloths constantly moistened with a solution of acetate of lead,
or of Goulard's extract; the constant evaporation of which will carry off much
of the heat and irritation of the part, and thus greatly tend to moderate the
vascular action. Absolute rest is indispensable ; and constitutional means, as
open bowels, cooling diet, and pure cool air, will assist the local means. So
little are we masters of the mode by which medicaments operate, that we find
beneficial results from matters apparently diametrically opposite. It is suffi-
cient that we do know it, to render it prudent that we try these opposites,
carefully watching for the time, when the inefficacy of the one is apparent, to
immediately proceed with the other. It is thus with the treatment of the
inflammatory stage of strains by warm applications, which sometimes succeed
better than cold ones. I have thought of these treatments thus : in summer I
have fancied that the mflammatory action yielded best by the cooling plan;
and in winter to the fomentations with warm water or poultice. I have also
commenced, in violent cases of tumefaction and heat, with the cold, and, after
three or four days, I have fomented to encourage absorption, which I have after-
wards made give place to tonic bathings of muriate of ammonia with equal parts
of vinegar and water. When the tumour is well defined, and some ligamcntary
lesion is suspected, a saturnine poultice aroimd the part, maintained within a
cotton stocking, is a useful application. The active part of the inflammation
having subsided, our attention must be directed first to promote absorption of
the adhesive matter deposited by the inflammation, which, should it remain,
would prove a source of irritation and lameness, by preventing that approxima-

444 SHOULDER SPRAIN. [ClASS XIV.

tion of the ultimate fibres that is necessary to the strength of the part This
indication is best fulfilled by excitants to the absorbents, as mild friction "reeular
and elastic_ bandaging, and bathing with mild stimulating washes, as zinc infiised
in proof spirit and distiUed vinegar ; camphorated spirits ; vinegar in which mus-
tard has been infused; or any other exciting liquid application. Much good
will be derived from bandaging the limb with some matter possessing elasticity
and which should be first only of moderate tightness, but may be gradualiv
drawn tighter as the tension lessens : nothing tends more to ' strengthen the part
or remove the deposit than the proper application of a supporting bandage If
induration and lameness remain, blister, and then turn out with cows or sheep
but not with other horses, or the racing about may do more harm than good!
Very desperate cases of continued lameness and obstinate induration may be
fired, both to form a permanent bandage and promote absorption. Such is the
general treatment of membranous and ligamentary extension and fibrous lesion
which is equally applicable to all the various articulations that become subjected'
to such violences. I shall now only apply them to the individual parts more
particularly liable to these injuries.

SCAPULO-HUMEBAI. EXTENSION, OB ShOTJLDKR SpRAIN.

What is now generally known by the term shoulder sprain, appears to consist
in an unnatural extension of the muscular or ligamentous parts which operate
the niotions of the scapula and humerus, and particularly of those which serve to
sustain and connect the former with the body ; and which parts, it must be evi-
dent, are very liable to this kind of injury, from the great extent of motion the
shoulder-blade enjoys forward and backward, and its close confinement laterally.
Shoulder strains are, therefore, frequently the consequences of a side wrench, or
slip, which, by separating the fore legs too Widely, puts these parts suddenly on
the stretch. The adductor muscles, as the serratus major, are very frequently
the sufferers on these occasions : sometimes, however, the ligaments of the ar-
ticulations, both scapular and humeral, are principally affected. Mr. PercivaU
attributes it rather to an affection of the tendon of the flexor brachii ; Barthe-
lemy, on the contrary, believes it more often exists in the scapulo-humeral arti-
culation ; and as I have known it exhibit its principal seat in that between the
arm and elbow, we may suppose it may take place, according to cu-cumstances*,
in any of these vicinages, but is most observed in the tendinous and ligamentous
connexions of the adductors of the shoulder. Shoulder sprains are, however,
not of such frequent occurrence as supposed; for farriers and persons about
horses are apt to attribute every lameness they do not exactly understand, and
whose seat is not self-evident, to an affection of the shoulder : and when, on
viewing a horse in front, the muscles of -one or of both shoulders appear wasted,

• ' Dans certains cas, suivantla direction dans laquelle le membre a et6 porte, il pcut nrriver que ce
soient les muscles cxtenscurs de I'avant bras qui aient fouffert, qui aient eprouvfe la distension ; il y
a alors bortcrie tr^s forte ; mais les muscles qui vont de I'epaule au thorax n'eu sont pas moins dans
un etat parfait d'intfegretfe ; on, si ce sont les muscles extenseurs de I'avant-bras qui ont souffert, lis
sont dans le relachement. Aussi le bras, bicn loin d'etre tcndu, est demi-flechi ; de sorte qu'il est
inclinfe de haut en bas et d'arriferc en avant. L'animal marche dans eette position, parceque la con-
traction dans les muscles extenseurs est devenue impossible, soit a cause du tiraillement qu'ils ont
6prouv6, soit a raison de I'inHammation qui s'y est devcloppee, soit parceque cette contraction occa-
sionne des douleurs vives, soit peut-etre pour toutes ces raisons a la fois. Si au contraire la lesion
principale existe a I'articulation scapulo-humerale, le membre reste dans son fetat naturel ; mais, pen-
dant la locomotion, l'animal ne flfechit qu'avec peine les articulations, corame cela se fait aussi reaiar-
qiier dans le cas precedent, et le membre est plutot trainfe en avant que porte. Le jcu des articula-
tions de lajambe l&see est encore plus gene, el pent meme etrc regard^ comme nul. Sil'oncon-
traint l'animal a reculer, le membre est alors tout a-fait traine d'avant en arri^re, et quelquefois
l'animal se refuse -i, cette action. L'un et I'autre pbenomfenes sont d'autant plus marques que I'acci-
dent est plus grave ; c'est parceque l'animal ne pent flechir le membre, qu'il lui fait dccrire une arc de
cercle en dehors quand il faut qu'il le porte en avant: on dit alors qu'il fauche. Les autres symp-
tomes sont la douleur que l'animal epreave genferalemcnt quand on comprlme avec force le pour tour
de I'articulation scapulo-humerale, ou les masses musculairps interess^es dans les fosses sus et sous-
acromicnnes, et quand, levant le pied et flechissant la partic inferieure du membre, on fait cxfecuter
aux regions inferieures des mouvemens en tous sens. JJe temps en temps, pendant le repos l'animal
se soulage en diminuant I'appui sur le membre malade, qui se trouve alors parte en avant. Quelque-
fois aussi, aprfts un certain temps d'exercicc, aprfes que la partie est ce qu'on appelle vulgairement
ichauffee, la claudication est moins sensible ; mais elle reprcnd bientdt son degrfc de force apr^s quel-
que« momcns de repos.'

Class XIV.] shoulder sprain. 445

it requires more than usual exertion to make even intelligent persons believe
that the evil did not originate where its effects are so evident. Such appearance
is nevertheless no proof of such seat ; for in all affections of the feet, where
there is much pain and lameness, and the animal consequently indulges in much
rest not only the external, but the internal muscles of the shoulders waste : this
draws the fore legs closer together, the spine of the bladebone becomes pro-
minent, and the whole substance seems lessened, as well from inaction as from
the irritation of disease, which disturbs the healthy functions of the part. It
is very necessary, therefore, to be able accurately to distinguish a xprain in the
shoulder from the numerous affections with which it may be confounded, not
only between affections of distant parts, where only the grossest ignorance can
prevail, but also between the difierent portions of its own vicinage ; for as the
one or other of these are affected, so the leading features drawn from singula-
rities in the lameness, which are much depended on, will vary. In all of them,
however, it appears to occasion extreme pain to the horse to extend and ad-
vance the leg, for which reason he drags the toe along the ground, and having
rested the limb, he drops considerably, and again catches it up quickly Mr.
Percivall says, little pain is felt in walking, which may be sometimes, but is cer-'
tainly not always the case : on the contrary, I have at times found the difference
between walking and trotting, compared with the different exertions required,
not great. These cases are especially characterised by the extreme difficulty
with which a horse moves down the slightest declivity, from the weight being
thrown on the shoiilders ; and also by the rotation of the extremity, in which
the horse, when in motion, swings the leg round in a remarkable manner in
fact, he evidently attempts to move the limb in any direction but that in which
elevation of the shoulder must take place. At rest, the limb is generally thrown
forward in a relaxed position, resting on the point of the foot : and this will
particularly serve to distinguish it from affections of the feet, in which, though
the whole limb may be carried forward and the toe be pointed, yet the leg wiU
be set straight out, and not relaxed ; neither will it rest on the toe, but on the
entire foot. When the injury is principally felt in the muscular attachments of
the scapula with the arm, if pressure be made between the fore leg and chest, in
the direction of the serratus major, and other attaching muscles, the horse will
flinch considerably ; and as a further mode of distinguishing this affection from
those of the feet and other parts, if the foot be elevated forward considerably,
and the whole limb at the same time brought out into a straight line, it will give
intense pain if the shoulder be the seat of lameness. The immediate seat of
the affection itself is in recent cases sufficiently well marked by the heat and
tenderness of the immediate part ; there is, however, not always much tume-
faction present in these instances.

Treatment. — When by the heat, tenderness, and lameness, there is reason to
consider the injury serious, and the inflammation great, particularly when the
case is at all recent, it will be prudent to draw blood from the plate vein. Let
the parts be kept constantly well wetted with Goulard's wash, which, if it fail
to mitigate the heat, change to warm fomentations applied three or four times
a-day, for twenty minutes each time, carefully rubbing dry afterwards. In these
instances, when the heat jyid tension are not very great, although the case is
recent and the lameness considerable, there will be reason to consider the liga-
ments as particularly affected, in which cases insert a rowel in the chest, in addition
to the other treatment : it may be that the ligaments of either the shoulder, or
of the arm or elbow joint, may be the seat of the strain ; and which of them it
is, a careful examination wiU detect. If the affection appear in front towards
the point of the shoulder, invest the whole circumference of that part, as soon
as the more active symptoms arc removed, with a blister. If the junction of the
arm with the fore arm be affected, blister also ; but when the evil is evidently
seated in the muscular parts principally, which, as before noticed, is known by
the inner side of the arm being tumid and tender, I would recommend the fol-
lowing practice, which I have long pursued in these .cases with invariable success.
As soon as the more active inflammatory symptoms are abated, I proceed to

446 SPRAIN OF THE FLEXOR TENDONS, &C. [CLASS XIV.

raise an artificial inflammation by the free use of stimulants, generally of the
liquid blister, in the following manner : Mix six ounces of common oil with two
or three ounces of liquid blister (see Mat. Med.), and with this rub the whole
affected part twice a-day, until the swelling and inflammation it will bring on
prevent the use of more. In two or three days these wiU subside, when it should
be repeated, until the same effects again prevent the application. In this way
keep up a mild inflanmiation for a week or ten days, according to the original
violence of the affection : in general cases, the subsiding of the second swelling
will leave the horse sound. This will be found a much more efficacious mode
of practice than the common blister ; but it must be particularly remembered,
that I know of no affection so liable to return as this ; consequently, although
the horse may appear sound, it wiU be very dangerous to put him to immediate
work : on the contrary, it will be more prudent to turn him out to grass, if pos-
sible alone, or with cows only . otherwise, by playing and galloping with others,
he may renew the injury. Swimming a horse for shoulder strain is a ver}' com-
mon remedy among the old farriers, under a supposition that dislocation has
taken place ; but the opinion and the practice are equally founded in ignorance,
and the consequences must be injurious. Another custom, little less unsurgical,
but not equally hurtful, is the old-fashioned mode of pegging or blowing in of
air around the shoulder, as butchers blow up veal, which, by exciting inflamma-
tion may do good, though less certainly than any other stimulant.

Blows on the point of the shoulder. — These injuries occur more frequently than
strains, and are often productive of more present lameness, and eventually of con-
sequences more serious. Turning suddenly in a narrow stall, running against
a hard body, or being kicked, or violently struck, may any of them occasion it.
There will be great tenderness and heat at the point of the shoulder, some
swelling, and the lameness will be extreme. In such cases bleed in the plate
vein ; insert a rowel in the chest ; foment the part ; and, when the heat and
swelling are reduced, blister repeatedly : combining with the after-treatment
rest and quiet turning out.

Extension of the Flexoe Tendons, theik Sheaths, and Ligamentous

Connexions.

A sprain, strain, or clap in the hack sinews, according to the phraseology of
farriers and horsemen, is a very grave and serious evil. It is probably often
accompanied by laceration of some of the ligamentous fibres ; there is, however,
no doubt but that it may be occasioned by a simple distention of the sheaths of
the tendons, and even of the tendons themselves ; although these latter cases
may be rarer than the former. It is more frequent in the fore than the hind
legs ; but it may and does occur in both. It is the result of some violence which,
acts suddenly on the limbs, as downward leaps, attempts to recover a false step,'
treading unevenly on any hard and prominent substance, &c. It is also occa-
sioned sometimes by lowering the heels too much and too suddenly, by which
they are put unnaturally on the stretch. The injury received brings on inflam-
mation, with its accompaniments of heat, swelling, pain, tenderness, with an in-
capability of extending the limb. The effusion from the inflamed vessels, which
probably at first is more purely serous than adhesive, is therefore more readily
reabsorbed ; but if the inflammation continue, or exercise or improper applica-
tions be made use of, coagulable lymph may be thrown out, which, not being so
readily absorbed, may eventually form adhesions between the tendons and their
sheaths, through which they should naturally slide free and uncontrolled by
means of the synovial fluid interposed between them. It is these effects of
adhesive inflammation that form those permanent callosities around the back
sinews, which so frequently follow these accidents, and which, by obstructing
the freedom of motion, occasion a lameness much felt after very hard work, and
likewise at first starting to exercise ; but which decreases a^he horse proceeds,
motion lessening the irritabihty, and other objects engaging the attention. The
absorbents are by this means stimulated likewise to remove a part of the deposit ;

Class XIV.] overreach. 447

and it beiu<^ therefore observed that he Is not only less lame when exerted, but
also less swollen, it has begat an opinion that horses with old strains may be
worked sound. It would be as humane and as reasonable to drive the crippled
soldier with one leg until the other grew. . i. , ^ ^ n

' The treatment of thecal and ligamentous distention or spram should tollow the
general rules already laid down. The local inflammation must be promptly com-
bated by bleeding in the plate, or thigh vein, according as the injury is before
or behind ; or blood may be drawn from the toe with great propriety. Warm
fomentations, in the very early stages, particularly when the tumefaction is very
considerable, will tend to unload the vessels ; and the same indications will be
likewise followed by large poultices, or by immersing the whole limb in warm
water. In two or three days, change this plan for a Goulard poultice or embro-
cation, and continue the same until the heat and tumefaction have nearly sub-
sided.' Any treatment more stimulant than this in the early stages only tends
to increase the deposit of lymph, and to organize it into a permanent tumour :
how much more erroneous, therefore, is it at once to blister these_ lesions di-
rectly they take place, as is sometimes practised. But when the active stage of
the inflammation has subsided, then nruldly stimulating and tonic applications
are proper, according to the notices already given , and they should be accom-
panied here with due friction and bandaging, which will assist in promoting
the absorption of the lymph deposited, and prevent the cellular membrane from
becoming irretrievably thickened, or the sheaths of the tendons obstructed in
their motions around them. The recovery from a severe case is usually very
slow : the parts being ligamentous, as already observed, do not readily reinstate
themselves ; the after-treatment must, therefore, fully accord with this view,
which is that of giving sufficient time for that purpose, which in most cases ought
to be some weeks even after the horse may, on moderate exercise, seem sound ;
for, except in very trivial cases, it is not often that the parts are really so rein-
stated as to be equal to continued exertion. It is always, therefore, better, even
in the most favourable cases, to give a few weeks' rest, using a roller or laced
stocking round the part, frequently wetted with a cold astringent wash. It will
aid the process, as well as keep the horse in health, if he be turned out without
the company of other horses, aad where he may have a shed to shield himself
from flies ; or the stamping and resistance he wUl make to these tormentors wiU
do more harm than good. Where the induration remains obstinate, repeated
blisters are the best means of promoting a removal of it*.

OVERREACH,

Is a blow inflicted on some part of the fore leg by the hind foot ; frequently
it strikes the flexor tendon, and produces inflammation and tumour, sometimes
of considerable magnitude and consequence. The treatment must be similar to
that just described : in fiiture, place the hinder shoes rather more backward.

• Bliftcring is preferable to firing in tliese cases; for we can repeat it as often as we please, and
both blistering and firing act in the same way; nor is firing ever to be recomniendetl until blistering
has been fully tried, but failed ; then, as a more active blister, it may more powerfully stimulate the
absorbents, as well as, by permanently corrugating the skin, it may become a perpetual bandage to the
weakened parts. A meaical friend of mine had his only and valuable horse injured by a hasty step on
a stone, while playing on the road unridden. The consequence was, some little beat and tumefaction
under the knee and some lameness, for which I directed him to be confined to t!ie stable, and fomented
with warm water. In a few days this was changed for saturnine washes, and then for more discutient
applications. He was also bled and physicked, hut in three weeks little progress was made, and the
lameness, which was never considerable, remained the same, with some heal and very slight tumour,
from whence I judged there had been some slight laceration of ligamentous fibre, but not extensive
distention of tendons. I now recommended him to be blistered, which was done, and the horse
turned out: but at the end of two months was only slightly amended: he was therefore blistered
again, .ind a Oiird time also, with little nlteiation; yet I still requested my friend to persevere, and
the consequence was, that he was kept at g ass and blistered, in all seven times. At the end of six
months, and not before, the limb was perfectly restored, and remained sound as long as I knew him ;
and though there is nothing singul-ir in this, 1 detail it to shew how necessary it is often to continue the
nieans of cure in obstitflttc cases sufficiently long.

448 RUPTURE OF THE TENDONS. [CLASS XIV.

RUPTURE OF THE SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS.

Breaking down is the name given by farriers to this accident, and which now
and then happens to young horses in breaking, and more frequently to others in
training. It has been often mistaken for a rupture of the flexor tendons them-
selves; but it is very seldom, indeed, that this accident happens to the horse:
the immense strength of these organs very seldom indeed admits of their rupture
from the exertions of progression ; but their connecting and suspending ligaments,
and the tendinous thecae surrounding them, being weaker, are occasionally bro-
ken through. The limb, in these cases, betrays its loss of support by the fetlock
being brought almost to the ground; but the horse can flex his foot after he has
raised it, which is not the case when the flexor tendons or back sinews them-
selves are torn through. A perfect cure is very seldom obtained, but, as the
horse may be made sufficiently useful for some purposes, so it should be always
attempted, first by reducing the inflammation by the means already indicated;
which beginning to subside, the toe should be somewhat flexed by an elevation
of the heel by a heeled shoe, or by the application of splints purposely crooked,
within which the leg should be firmly fixed, to prevent the laceration of that in-
termediate substance which will be" thrown out to unite the interstices of the
ruptured ligaments, which wUl greatly assist the limb in regaining its functions.
A laced stocking, or firm bandage, should also be kept on afterwards, until all is
firm and some strength is gained. Firing at this period is very useful, as it ap-
plies a permanent bandage to the part.

RUPTURE OF THE FLEXOR TENDON, OR BACK SINEW.

This, as observed, is a very rare occurrence, the former injury being often
mistaken for this: it has, however, happened from great violences committed:
the general treatment will be that just detailed,. except that, in the rupture of
the suspensory ligament, the flexion or bending of the limb below the pastern
only would be strictly necessary ; but here it would be essential to flex the whole
limb from the elbow downwards, and to keep it constantly in that state for some
weeks, which could alone be effected by partially slinging the animal, and the
use of proper spUnt apparatus, in which case it is probable a tolerable cure might
be effected, and probable only ; for so few horses can be kept in even moderate
quietude by slinging, that it is very seldom we derive the benefit we hope from
it. It would in a case of this kind, were a practitioner so inclined, be of little
use to attempt to approximate the ends, or to retain them by sutures or stitches.
The only method would be to bring the divided ends as near together as possible
by permanently flexing the limb by means of crooked splints, as already hinted
at ; so that the adhesive matter thrown out between the divided portions should
flow in a right line towards each other, trusting to Nature for the rest: and it is
truly surprising to see what efforts are frequently made to repair the effects of
very violent accidents.

Crooked limb from this rupture, and sometimes also from the former, has taken
place from too continued a perseverance in flexing the limb, and sometimes
from the extent of the adhesive inflammation itself ; and in others from con-
traction of parts themselves. Modern surgery has relieved these cases by
boldly dividing the flexor tendons. — See the method of doing this among the
other Operations.

RUPTURE OF THE EXTENSOR TENDONS.

Extensive lacerations have been known to divide the extensors of the pasterns
and feet both before and behind; and in such cases we do not now, as formerl^ys
destroy the horse, but, trusting to the astonishing powers of the constitution m
renairing accidental breaches, we assist nature, not by officious interference, bu^
placing the divided portions in apposition, we bind up the hmb, with due regard

Class XIV.] extension of the ligaments. 449

to the local and constitutional inflammation likely to occur, and thus we effect
a cure.— See The Veterinarian, vol. iii, for cases so treated The following
case, recorded by Mr. Spooner, one of our best veterinary practitioners, will
illustrate both the practice described and the results:— 'On the 16th of Au-
gust, 1829, I was sent for by a respectable farmer to attend a young cart horse,
that 'had met with an accident about three or four days previous. I found a very
large wound situated between the knee and elbow joint, about six inches above
the former, and towards the anterior and external part of the fore arm. It was
occasioned by the crook pf the trace getting entangled in the horse's leg, whilst the
carter was letting his team go out of the road to a pond to drink; and as there
were several horses before this one, every step they made lacerated the arm the
more. The wound was nearly as large as my hand, and the extensor-pedis was
completely divided, just, below the part where it becomes tendinous. About
two or three inches of the lower portion of the tendon were detached from the
neighbouring parts, and hanging from the inferior border of the wound, and the
extensive granulations that had formed must have caused or assisted its protru-
sion, as it was not observed until the day before I was sent for. The horse ap-
peared to be in pain, had great difficulty in moving, and dragged his toe along
the ground at every step. I despaired of ever getting the divided tendon to
unite; but, however, I was willing to try what Nature would do. Accordingly, I
drew the ends of the tendon as near together as possible, and, having connected
them by sutures, supported the lower detached portion with bandages : the wound
was cleansed, and the granulations touched with a mild escharotic. The next
day, finding that the ends of the divided tendon had still further receded from
each other, the sutures on the stretch, and, in short, no prospect of a re-union
taking place, I resolved to excise the lower portion, trusting the functions of the
iimb to be performed by the extensor suffraginis. I therefore' amputated the
protruded portion of tendon, and, having stopped the hemorrhage with the cau-
tery, sprinkled the wound with a caustic powder, the fungous flesh having risen
above the level of the skin, so much so, that no trace remained of the place the
tendon formerly occupied. Cathartic and diuretic medicines were occasionally
administered internally; but the only topical treatment afterwards employed
was an astringent and an escharotic powder, scattered over, as the wound re-
quired. The horse moved better as the wound diminished; and in about six
weeks afler the accident, the parts being completely cicatrized, he resumed his
yrork, with a slight scar marking the seat of injury, but without any lameness or
impediment in his action.' — Veterinarian, vol. iii, p. 73.

EXTENSION OF THE LIGAMENTS OF THE FETLOCK JOINT.

A Sprain of the Fetlock Joint arises from some injury done to the ligamentous
and tendinous connexion of this part, either from long-continued exertion or
from more momentary but violent efforts. The effect immediately produced
is, heat and swelling in the part, accompanied with great lameness, pain, and
tenderness. When it occurs behind, it is sometimes mistaken for common
swellings arising from oedema, particularly when the accompanying lameness
be not considerable. I have seen cases where horses have continued to be more
actively exercised to take down the enlargement; until the increased inflamma-
tion thus occasioned has forced the vessels to deposit coagulable lymph, which,
becoming organized, could never be removed, but what is called a callm re-
mained ever after. The remedial treatment must be the same with that of other
sprains.

EXTENSION OF THE LIGAMENTS OF THE COFFIN.

A Sprain of the Coffin Joint is not an unusual occurrence; and, like the former,
consists of violence applied to the tendinous and ligamentous connexions of this
joint. When a horse becomes suddenly lame, and attentive examination can
discover no injury above, the feet should be closely examined, when it is very

r f

450 LIGAMENTARY SPRAINS. [CLASS XIV.

probable there will be found in one of them some tenderness, and perhaps swell-
ing, particularly at the back part, towards the upper portions of the heels, and in
the neighbourhood of the navicular bone, where the part will be more hot than the
others, and the horse will express pain when the foot is bent or extended, and
he will generally also, though not always, point the foot when in the stable, or,
as it is expressed, will standi favouring*. The treatment, if the heat be consider-
able, would be to put the whole foot into a Goulard poultice for three or four
days : in very bad cases I have thinned the whole crust of the hoof, and have
drawn blood from the toe with advantage. After the heat has in some degree
subsided, blister, as a milder treatment will seldom avail here : frequently it must
be repeated also.

Strain of the Ligaments of the Femur, Whirl, or Round Bone.

As chestfounder covers all the other defects of the fore limbs, so lamenesses
behind are all referred, by the older farriers, to either a strain of the round bone,
or of the stifle, as their fancy leads them to favour the one or the other. Vio-
lence may, however, and certainly does, occasionally injure the Ugaments of the
articulation of the thigh with the pelvis. Here the treatment, from the deep
situation of the part, must necessarily be attended vnth some difficulty. It will
be proper to foment the part, if the pain and tenderness are considerable, or the
tumefaction great, which latter, however, is not often the case : otherwise, apply
first saturnine lotions until the more active symptoms give wa}' ; then resort to
discutients, and next actively stimulate, or at once lay on a blister, which should
be repeated also. A seton, if the blemish be not minded, might be applied op-
posite the articulation with benefit. As a last resource, fire over the joint in a
star-like form : in a few days apply a charge of pitch and crocus metallorum or
minium, and turn out for two or three months.

Sprain of the Ligaments of the Patella or Stifle Joint.

The ligaments of the patella, or of the articulation between the femur and
tibia, called the stifle, may be occasioned by some lesion in their structure, by
over-exertions, or by accidental violence, as blows, &c. As the former affection
may be distinguished by a peculiar di-agging of the limb, this may be known by
the circular direction in which the leg is carried, during motion, purposelj' to
avoid flexing the joint. The heat and tenderness are, however, of themselves
sufficient to guide the practitioner in this instance. Sometimes the muscles of
the thigh, and not those of the joint, are the seat of the injury; in which case,
the tenderness will be found within, towards the groin, and not around the pa-
tella or stifle. In treatment, however, this affection in nowise differs from the
former, except that sometimes a rowel withinside the thigh has benefited this,
but is inapplicable to the other. For the former, repeated blisterings and abso-
lute rest are the best remedies.

Curb, or Extension of the Ligaments of the Hock.

This is usually brought on by some violence offered to the Ugaments of the
hock, or of the sheath of the tendons passing from the hock downwards, as of the
flexor perforans. It is often the effect of leaping, rearing, kicking, &c. and as
such is usually sudden in its appearance. A kind of predisposition to curbs
from conformation is apparent in horses with sickle hams (i. e. distorted). In
these instances, all the parts must be constantly' on the stretch to establish a

• The practitioner must be careful not to confound this with fracture either of the coronary, navi-
cular, or coffin bones ; nor with a more acute attaclc of navicular disease in a horse previously alTeeted
with slight symptoms of groggy lameness ; or with chronic founder. In the first case, the symptoms
will be much more acute, and crepitation may also be felt: in the other cases, on the contrary, the
inflammatory symptoms will be less ; and however lame the horse may be, heat and external tendernes*
will be trifling.

Class XIV.] contusions or bruises — rheumatism. 451

perpendiclar line of bearing, which this form interrupts. The lameness arising
from curbs is not, in general, severe : occasionally, however, it may and does
prove considerable. The treatment must accord with the general rules esta-
bUshed for the cure of other ligamentary extensions or strains, by first allaying
the inflammatory symptoms, and then by counter-irritants, as blisters, &c., pro-
moting an absorption of the deposit, and a healthy re-establishment of the parts.

' Firing, though sometimes practised, can be very seldom either necessary or ju-
dicious ; unless, indeed, in very old cases, when it may be suspected that exos-
tosis of the calcis has taken place, or that the ligaments are weakened to an ex-

i traordinary degree, in which instances, and in which only, is it admissible.

CONTUSIONS OR BRUISES.

These are tumours formed by some external injury, wherein external lacera-
tion is not present, but a rupture of the smaller vessels occasions an extravasa-
tion of blood within (see. Extravasatioti). If the injury be moderate, the parts
will reinstate themselves ; the effused blood will either become absorbed and the
: tumour be removed, or otherwise it wiU become organized, and, with some in-
. crease of dimension, will form an integral portion of the surrounding mass : but
< when the injury is violent, the parts may be unequal to either of these processes,
. when the extravasated blood will become a source of irritation, and suppuration
. will follow. Should a still higher degree of injury have been sustained, the en-
: tire tone of the substances around becomes destroyed, and sphacelus must take
place ; when the living parts will make an effort to remove the dead, and ulcera-
tion and an extensive sore will be formed.
The treatment of bniises will therefore vary according to these several circum-

- stances. We should always endeavour to fully reinstate the part, by promoting
absorption of the effusion ; which may be done by giving local strength by exter-

■ nal stimulating applications, as saline matter with vinegar, verjuice, spirits of
V wine, and camphor, &c. If the blood remain fluid, promote its escape by making
a small depending orifice : if it suppurate, treat as a common abscess. When

- sphacelus occurs, treat as under mortification. Should the tumour remain in-
durated, stimulate the absorbents by mercurials, by friction, or by blisters ; and,
if very obstinate, by fire.

RHEUMATISM

In the horse is doubted by some, who nevertheless cannot account for some
2 anomalous symptoms on any other pathological view. It is acknowledged in
cattle; and no one conversant with dogs but is aware that lumbago is one of the
most prevalent diseases in their nosology. Many French writers of eminence
treat of it. Professor Volpi has particularly and largely so done ; and we are
informed, that in the infirmary of the Royal Veterinary School of Lyons, during
the year 1816, a muscular rheumatism, which affected the fore extremities, was
very common, and was attributed to atmospheric moisture prevalent at that

■ season. There was often considerable engorgement of the affected limb or
limbs, and in one case, in which the hinder extremity was affected, a vast serous
extravasation followed, and destroyed the horse. Rodet, who has also written
on It, observes ' that rheumatic affections are not so rare as the silence of authors
regarding them would lead us to imagine.' The military practice, he informs us,
particularly offers many instances of the affection, of which he has given several
examples (vide Re'cueil de MMecine Ve'terinaire, No. 23). Hurtrel d'Arboval

' has also entered into a full detail of the disease, and he not only notices nume-

■ rous authors of notoriety, who have treated of it, but cites numerous cases.
Ihese, united with my own experience, enable me with confidence to enter this

> as a .standard sequine disease. The horse, then, in common with other of our
domestic animals, is the subject of a disease essentially rheumatic*; that is, of

fnnt^"'^""''^'''^' rlieumatisnie est unc inOammation des miisclCB, commune surtout dans ccux niil
>nnt monvo.r lc» membrcs, ol i\n\ cflToclc CMentl«!llemei.t Ic chcval ct Ic Ixniif. Lcsrefroldisscmcns

r f 2

452 RHEUMATISM. [CLASS XIV.

an attack on the membranous and tendinous aponeuroses of the muscles, more
particularly so of the fore extremities. It appears also to be occasioned by cold
and moisture, and is seen both in an acute and chronic form. Of the former,
Gibson has treated under the designation of external pleurisy, the stiffening ef-
fects of which were known to farriers as chest founder*. Bracken notices the
latter, and has left some formulae for the treatment of it.

Of acute rheumatism I have myself seen three or four well-marked cases, all
which were traceable to cold or moisture as the exciting cause. The leading
characters were alike in all, the attack being ushered in by universal stiffness,
but more particularly of the fore quarters and extremities, with shivering, suc-
ceeded by heat, which was observed to give way, in some, to diaphoresis or
sweating. One case was attended with considerable tumefaction in front of the
breast, which I presume formed the anticor of the old school ; and such deposits
in the chest and limbs also appear not unfrequent on the continent, but are, I
think, more rare with us, or have been less observed; but that they do occur is
seen by the above instance, and I have seen the limbs also tumefied by a local
deposit of a similar kind, and under a like attack. The treatment I pursued, and
which I should again practise, was early and full bleeding; but I should now be
careful how I repeated it, unless the inflammatory symptoms were urgent and
the general vascular action great. The bowels were evacuated, antimonials were
given, with digitalis, I believe: at all events, so I should recommend; and the
more rigid parts were embrocated, as far as my recollection serves, with a cam-
phorated ammoniacal mixture; to which was added, chest rowelling; bat these
I should, in future cases avoid, if there appeared any tendency to large serous
deposits, which themselves might become critical, or if interfered with might,
perhaps, take on an unfavourable action.

Ch-onic rheumatism is the sequel often of the acute ; in other cases it appears
the immediate consequence of exposure to a cutting wind, humid atmosphere,
&c.; and is betokened by stiffness and tenderness of the parts it attacks: when
of the extremities, it is not unusual to observe some tumefaction also, but al-
ways considerable lameness, and great disinclination to move. It occasionally
attacks the loins, indeed not unfrequently ; but I believe it is most common in
the fore quarters. Sometimes one fore extremity and sometimes both are
affected: when singly, sudden metastasis will often remove it to the other, which
cases were not ill characterised by the old term fiying lamenesses "f.

subits, nil exercice force apres iin \ong ippos I'hiimidite du sol sur Ic quel les nniniaiix se couchent,
quelqiiefois les chutes, en soiit les causes. D^.s le debut de I'affection, dit Volpi, il y a fievre, sou-
vent leg^re, douleurs vives dans I'epaule on le bras, dans les reins ou la cuisse ; car le rlicumati'me
d'affecte ordinairenient qu'un seiil niembre: I'aniinnl boite ; la chalenr de la partie maladc est aug-
mentec, et I'on y remarquc une legere tumefaction. L'epaule est-cUe le siege de la malade, les
autrcs parties du niembre ne prescntent alors aucune lesion capable de faire bolter; si Ton fait
mouvoir I'avant-bras en rtilTerens sens, I'animal donne des signcs dedouleur; enfin, la claudication
diniinnect nieme souvcnt disparait par I'effet d'unc exercice prolonge. II cu est de meme a I'^gard
dps niembres posterieurs.'

• Fott«'/cr, from tVie foundering headlong, or tumbling gait it produces, has been applied to dis-
eases totally opposite, as rheumatism in the shoulders, and phlegmonous inflammation of the laminae
of the coffin. It is true that adiptinction was intended by the terms chest founder and body founder
for the owe, xinA foot founder Un the other; but the terms are often found jumbled together in our
old books of fariiery. Exlern'tl pleurisy also as a name for acute rheumatism was derived from
its being supposed to be seated in the intercostal muscles ; and as it was attended occasionally (parti-
cularly during some seasons when it assumed almost an epidemic frequency) with cougli, it gave
occasion to suppose the thorax itself might become secondarily alTected. There is no reason what-
ever to doubt the correctness of the accounts left us: it is, therefore, evident its appearances vary
under different circumstances; for neitlier of the cases I saw exhibited any pneumonic symptoms, nor
are such noticed as common in the continental cases.

■i- Flying lamenesses, as a term, well characterise the wandering nature of rheumatism, and I tlnnk
were never better exemplified than in a black horse which I rode and drove nearly three years. This
horse I bought with the character of being occasionally lame: be would sometimes work a week or
two perfectly sound, and then become lame for two or thiee days. His feet were excellent, he had no
corns, and was wholly without blemish: neither could it .arise from ligamentary strain, for it was
neither better nor worse for vvork, nor was he lamer when he set oil" than when he had gone son e
distance. It appeared to be conlincd principally to the off shoulder ; and it was paiticularly remarked,
that when he returned hot from exercise, and was not immediately attended to, his lameness wa-; sure
to come on. Rvery other practitioner must also have met with instances of faltering gait, retaining
at uncertain periods, of which the cause was not apparent. The older farriers always attribute these
to humours, and, therefore, give physic : and though the cause thus considered is erroneous proba
Wy, yet the treatment is, nevertheless, judicious ; for I have never found any mode that was so cer-

Class XIV.] indurated tumours. 453

The treatment of chronic rheumatism must be conducted on the principles of
removing the peculiar congestion of the membranous and tendinous parts by
warm stimulating embrocations, by mild doses of physic, and by antimonials and
digitalis, if the case is attended with constitutional excitation. If it remains
principally confined to one limb, put a rowel in the immediate neighbourhood.
Friction to the part is also very proper by brush-rubbing several times a-day;
moderate clothing is also beneficial. In very inveterate cases, which are not
uncommon among coarse fleshy horses, purgatives are found singularly beneficial :
salt marshes are also good; but I think other turning out is not attended with
great benefit. We have been informed that this complaint has been removed by
a judicious use of strychnia.

RHEUMATISM IN CATTLE.

This disease is even more common among cattle than among horses ; and is
often observed on by graziers and breeders, who some of them caU it a chill.
The learned veterinary professor of the Lyons school was directed by the French
government to attend to an annual attack of rheumatism which took place among
the cows of the mountains of Jura ; on which it is observed, ' Ce vaches ne
prennent point la maladie a I'etable, elles n'y sont exposees que pendant I'im-
portant travail de la secretion du lait ; le changement, non pas de paturages
seulement, mais de localites et d' exposition, suffit pour les retablir.' The 2d
volume of The Veterinarian furnishes us with a translation from an extremely
well written paper on the same subject, by M. Crurel, VS., of Grenade (Hatite
Garonne)., who describes it as being either a simple disease, or -as sometimes
connected with inflammation of some internal organ : if it affects the extremities,
there is heat, tenderness, and enlargement ; when the loins is the seat, the whole
vertebral column is stiffened. Encysted tumours are apt to appear in the trian-
gular space between the tendon of the gastrocnemius and the tarsus : this is par-
ticularly the case when the general inflammation passes into a chronic form. The
causes are attributed to the variable state of the atmosphere, and to the low and
ill-ventilated stables in which these staU-fed cattle are immured*. The treat-
ment, we are told, was one copious bleeding, restricted diet, and emollient ap-
plications. The cysts which formed in the hock yielded only to the actual cau-
tery, applied by means of a budding iron.

SuB-CliASS.

INDURATED TUMOURS.

Polypus enters the nosology of the French writers. Gohier mentions three
cases, one only of which belonged to the horse ; the others were attached to
dogs. One case, however, well authenticated, determines its occasional exis-
tence. The treatment would of course be simple, either by ligature or excision.
If the pedicle were profoundly buried in a cavity, the extirpation must be effected
by forceps, or more properly by a canula. Levritt's double one is considered
the best.

tainly efficacious as this, though I have tried others : nor is tliis the only instance in which the older
methods of cure, founded on long experience, prove the best, as in other instances they prove very
bad. '

• To us who, with few exceptions, keep our kine without doors all the year, it is a matter of
some surprise when we see the extensive list of cattle diseases which cntei the writings of tlie conti-
nental authors. But when we again reflect that the artificial life they are there subjected to, being
housed for three-fourths of the year, must render them liable to tlie attack of numei ous ailments a
more natural state would free them from, our wonder ceases. There is altogether an enterprise of cha-
racter and a determination in the veterinary practitioners, numerously and widely diffused throughout
the provinces, which is as yet (but will not remain so) unknown among us. It is also there the
fashion for agriculturists to employ accredited veterinarians, and these almost exclusively, on the
diseases of all their domestic animals. Tliev do not call in the veterinarian foi' their hunter only and
the farrier for the rest of their horses ; they do not consult the cowlcoch for their cattle, the gelder
for their swine, and the shepherd for sheep; while the neighbouring huntsman or blacksmith pre-
scribes for their dogs. No: the veterinarian is applied to for all ; and though his individual charirej
arc small, ' mony mickles make a nuickle.'

^^4 VARIX, OR BLOOD SPAVIN. [CLASS XV.

Sitfast is_ a temi not unmeaning, but barbarous ; and were we allowed to pun
on it, we might say it deserved as well to be so called, because some heavy fellow
had sat too long and too hard on it, as that it sUh fast to the horse. I have al-
ready observed on the brutality formerly practised of tearing these tumours out
with pincers. Make a clean incision in the skin, and dissect them out : if the
skin be included in the induration, and is itself a portion of the tumour, remove
it also.

Warts are indurated tumours, not uncommon to old hordes, particularly to
light -coloured and German bred horses. (See Diseases of the Skin.)

Indurations of the elbow are sometimes observed of cartilaginous hardness,
called by old French farriers couche en vache, from the horse lying with his legs
doubled under him after the manner of a cow, so that his elbows rest on the heels
of the shoes, particularly when worn long or with calkens. It would be useless'
to attempt a cure without removing the cause in some way : that removed, by
taking down the calkens and shortening the heels, the enlargement might be
blistered ; or otherwise it might be dissected out.

CLASS XV.
OF ENCYSTED TUMOURS.
ANEURISM.

True aneurism being a dilatation of a circumscribed portion of an artery, forming
a sac, enclosing within it a quantity of coagula, becomes an encysted tumour.
The existence of this affection in the horse and other domestic animals escaped
the notice of all our early veterinarians ; and, if I mistake not, it was not even
mentioned by any of them, until Mr. Feron noticed it, but in a very indefinite
manner. Mr. Percivall, in his Lectures, notices its occasional existence, and
mentions a specimen of aneurismal tumour of the thoracic aorta in the Woolwich
Museum. The first well marked case I met with was in 1819*. It has, how-
ever, been much longer known on the Continent. M. Huzard, jun. shewed me,
if my memory be correct, one or more specimens in the Museum at Alfort; and
he mentioned others in veterinary cabinets. M. Moreau met with an aneurism
of the palato-labial artery, which destroyed the animal. M. Chouard, in the
Journal Pratique for September 1 826, gives two cases of aneurism ; one of
which was found within the aorta of a mare, near the renal artery ; the other
was also found in a mare, near the origin of the crural artery. In both these
cases much surrounding disorganization had taken place. M. Vatel and M.
Pigot both detail a distinct case of this lesion.

False aneurism, or that wherein blood has escaped from a wounded artery into
the cellular substance, where it remains encysted, but still in communication
with the opening in the arterial tube, has, I believe, uot been distinctly noticed
in the horse.

VARIX, OR BLOOD SPAVIN.

A DISEASED enlargement of the coats of the veins is termed varix, but
which is not a common affection of the horse, as his superficial order is compa-
ratively small, and not subjected to such artificial pressure as our own. The

• [n 1819 as 1 was passing over Iloiinslow Heatli, my attention was directed to a country collar-
maker who' was pieparingto draw away a horse which had dropped down dead suddenly. As 1 learned
that the horse was proceeding slowly when it happened, and was before in apparent health, I felt
anxio . to examine into the cause of his death. I therefore brihed the man to open him on the spot,
when vc fonnd the chest filled with blood. After some difficulty from the immense efr..s,on I traced a
rnnture o tl e anterior aorta, immediately as it is given off from the posteiior trunk The collar-maker
heconing i patient, and passengers gathering round hut more particn arly as 1 '"^f '•«""'"^"t
means of cari'ying it, beinrf on horseback, I neglected saving the aneurismal sac, which I have ever
since regretted.

Class XV.] windgalls. 455

only instance usual iu veterinary surgery is that termed Mood spavin ; which
presents certainly something like a varicosed enlargement of the superficial
vein passing over" the inside of the hock; which, however, appears by no means
a spontaneous disease in the vessel, but is the consequence of the pressure of a.
distended bursal capsule underneath, which, itself becoming sufficiently promi-
nent to attract notice, is called hoq- spavin. This dilatation being situated im-
mediately under the course of the vein, occasions some obstruction to the
passage of the blood, and a consequent extension of its coats. Usually, there-
fore, the dilated capsule is the part to be attended to; but when the yein_ itself
becomes so much enlarged as, by its own pressure, to occasion mischief, it
can only be remedied by counter-pressure, or by removal. A bandage must be
so contrived as to surround and take in the hock generally ; hut should press on
the vein moderately only, or we should increase instead of diminish its distention
by interrupting the passage of blood through it. The bandage may be kept wet
with any astringent wash, as an assistant appUcation ; but should it still remain
so much enlarged that its existence proves really hurtful, which, however, is very
seldom the case, then its removal may be efiected by carefully including the
vein, and the vein alone, above and below the varix with two ligatures. Having
done this, the tumour may be opened and the contents evacuated, suffering the
remainder to slough away. But it should be remarked that, in five hundred
cases of what is called Mood spavin, it would not, perhaps, in one of them be
actually necessary to take up or ha?- the vein, as a farrier would call it. It is
infinitely more prudent, in almost every instance, to attempt the reduction of the
dilated bursa, or mucous capsule of the hock, which occasions it, as directed un-
der bog spavin.

DISEASED ENLARGEMENT OF THE BURSiE MUCOSA,
OR WINDGALLS.

The tendons of those muscles connected with or passing over joints are fur-
nished with membranous bags, called brirste mucoscB, from being filled with a mu-
cus to assist the motions of the part. These capsules are distributed about all
the joints ; but, in a. practical point of view, some are more important than others.
The immediate anatomy of these sacs may be learned by referring to Bursalogy;
and for an account of them individually, see Desci-iption of Extremities. The
morbid enlargement of these constitutes the windgalls of farriers : but which,
by the by, never contain a particle of air. Violent and long- continued exer-
tions determine more blood to the extremities, and, from its greater supply, the
synovial secretion is augmented ; thus it is that windgalls are almost the inva-
riable attendant on hard work. While the swellings remain small, they can do
little mischief, and had much better be let alone : but when they become enor-
mously enlarged, they may produce injurious effects from the unequal pres-
sure they occasion ; which, by stimulating the parts around to throw out coagu-
lable lymph, interrupts their motion ; and, also, by a sympathetic effect on them-
selves, their contents become not only increased, but diseased, proving fre-
quently inspissated and thick, by which the obstruction to motion is still further
promoted.

In the treatment of mndgalls we must attend to three particulars ; the
removal of any diseased alteration they may have occasioned in the neigh-
bouring parts; the removal of their own distention; and the prevention of its
recurrence. Stimulating applications are the most likely to produce a removal
of any coagulating deposit ; these are likewise still more proper, as they will
tend to effect a removal of the contents of the windgall itself. The liquid
Mister of the Mat. Med., appHed as there recommended, will be very proper for
this purpose. But simply to promote absorption of the contents of the windgall,
continued pressure will be found the most convenient and efficacious method.
A calico or a flannel roller may be prepared, of two, three, or four yards long,
according to the part affected, and size of the horse : four inches is a proper
width, and, from its superior elasticity, flannel is preferable to calico or linen.

456 BOG SPAVIN — THOROUGH-PIN. [CLASS XV.

In addition to this, be furnished with one or two pads, stuffed with horse hair or
other elastic matter. Begin to apply the roller, and after having made a turn or
two below the swelling, place the pad exactly upon the windgall ; if in the pas-
terns, one should of course be placed over each side : continue the roller firmly
and evenly over all, and fasten off. It will farther assist if either the pad or roller,
or both, are first wetted with any astringent application : nor must it be forgot-
ten, that but little benefit can be expected unless this be continued as a constant
application for a considerable time, duriug the day, when not in exercise. A
run at grass will commonly remove windgalls, if not callous ; but on a repetition
of the original cause (hard work), they are apt to return again, whatever the
means pursued ; the dilated capsule seldom regaining, with its original size, its
original strength. When windgalls are very large, and of long continuance, if
the blemish be not objected to, firing is perhaps the most efiectual means of
relief, and the more, as it tends to remove both cause and effect ; for its stinm-
lating properties excite the absorbents more actively than any other means ; and
by its lessening the elasticity of the skin, it becomes a continued support and
source of pressure to the distended parts. I cannot dismiss the subject without
warning the junior practitioner never to be incautiously led to puncture a wind-
gall, or to evacuate its contents by caustic, or to dissect it out as recommended
by even the best of our old writers, as Osmer, Bracken, &c. &c. Most of those
of great bulk and long continuance actually communicate with the cavity of the
joints they surround, by rupture or extravasation ; and the others are of them-
selves sufficiently vascular to excite similar effects with open joints, when they
are laid open ; and even if no mischief followed, no good could result ; the cyst
would be only momentarily emptied ; for its capacity would commonly remain
the same, and the exhalent arteries would almost immediately fill it up again.
Such an operation is, therefore, not only useless, but usually produces such in-
flammation as either destroys the horse, or ends in anchylosis of the joint.
Bursal enlargements bear different popular names, according to their situations,
and are particularized immediately following ; but in all, the treatment must be
radically the same.

Bog Spavin.

It is evident that hog spavin and blood spavin are one and the same ; or if any
real difference exists, it is, that blood spavin is the effect and the dilated capsule
the cause ; for it is but seldom that the pressure of the vein itself becomes in-
jurious. The general treatment of this bursal enlargement is referrible to wind-
galls : an individual remark only is here necessary; that any bandage framed
for the hock should allow the point of it to be uncovered ; for it is not possible
to apply one with sufficient elasticity as to allow the necessary motion without
destroying the effect of a bandage.

Thorough-Pin.

Is the farriers' term for the bursal enlargement situated in the upper and back
part of the hock, between the tendons of the great flexor of the foot and those
of the geniini ; and, as it necessarily shews itself on each side, so it is a thorough-
pin. From the peculiarity of its situation it seldom occasions lameness, unless
very large. It must be treated as a windgall.

Capci-et, or Capped Hock.

This arises from a swelling of the mucous capsule that surrounds the insertion
of the tendon of the gemini muscles into the point of the calcis or hock. From
its situation interfering with none of the moving parts, it is seldom detrimental :
it is however, very unsightly, and sometimes becomes of a great size, particularly
when it is occasioned by the practice of kicking ; in which cases not only is there
an immense increase of the mucous secretion, but the integuments also thicken

Class XVI.] fractures and dislocations. 457

much It has been punctured occasionally with some success, and the contents
have been drawn off by setons; but the inflammation raised has endangered life;
of which Mr. Feron details a case. It is more prudent to trust to the effects of
blistering repeatedly ; but if a determination is formed to evacuate the contents,
do it by the minutest possible opening, made in a very inclined direction, so that
the inner and outer opening shall not correspond directly, by which the contents
can be partially evacuated, and when the inflammation excited has passed away,
make another puncture. By these means it may be possible to avoid the conse-
quences hinted at.

The Elbow-
Is also subject to a diseased bursal enlargement, which I have seen of con-
siderable magnitude ; occasioned, in some instances, by blows, and in others by
the practice of horses sleeping with'their fore legs doubled under them, when the
hi^h calkens of their shoes injuriously press these parts. Mr. Feron has met with
dropsical swellings containing two quarts, brought on by these means. In one
case, such a swelling was tapped four several times, and in all, eight quarts of
fluid were evacuated. ' This was not, however, it is probable, a bursal, but a cel-
lular accumulation, or serious consequences would have resulted from opening so
extensive a cavity. (See Indurations, Class XIV.) The bursal enlargement
of the elbow may be treated by pressure, or by repeated blisterings ; but the
cause must also be removed, by shortening the shoes, or at least removing the
calkens.

The Knee

Also occasionally presents small bursal dilatations, but which are never found
to produce inconvenience.

CLASS XVI.

FRACTURES AND DISLOCATIONS.

When any important bone is fractured in the horse, from the trouble of
managing him, the expenses attending on his keep, and the risk of his future
usefulness, attempts are seldom made to reunite it, but the animal is usually
destroyed. In France, on the contrary, they attempt the reduction of almost
every variety of fracture*. I have myself always been of opinion, that we
destroy many horses with fractured bones that might be saved ; and, I believe,
it was formerly much more the custom than at present to attempt their cure.
An older writer, of the name of Blount, has given a very good figure, with
directions for the treatment of fractures of the extremities. If this were prac-
ticable then, under the present improved state of the art, there are probably but
few broken bones but what might be again perfectly consolidated by judicious
attention ; and, particularly, if it happened to a beast of tractable and patient
disposition. Even in fractures of the large and important bones, if the horse
was either carefully slung, or partly slung and partly supported by close and

• This 1b exfimplifiod in the following work, which was sent to mc by itsauthor, as a complimentary
testimony, soon after its inihlicalion. 'Tiaitfe (Ics Fractures dans Ics Animaux Doniestii|ucs ; oii
I'on Rapporte des Excmplesdc Fractures Ouerics aux Oa des diverses Parties du Corps des Aniniaiix,
dont un trfts grand Nomhrc dans le Chcval, et des Ohservations »ur cettc Matiferc, tirfecs dc la Pra-
tique de plus dc Boixante Hornmes dc 1' Art.' ParM. Fromage de Feugrfe. Buc'lioz has also pub-
lished, Alemoires Viai!iinairc sur la Man)6re de rftduire les Fractures de Jambe des Chevaux, &c.
It also forms many pages in llurtrcl d'Arboval's valuable Dictionary.

In the theory of bandages so amply detailed by Bourgclat, in his Eaaai sur Ics appnrarcils ct
lei bandages prnpres aux r/nnilrHj>i}ili:s, there are also some complex iron apparatus applicable to
the various fracturex, and bandages for every possible case ; but most of them will l)0 found too com-
plex, and seldom sufficiently convenient for the purpose.

458 FllACTURES AND DISLOCATIONS. [CLASS XVI.

compact littering up by bales of hay or straw at his sides, so that the idea of
restraint was not excited in his mind, a cure would often follow. See this sub-
ject pursued under the head of Restraints. When a bone is broken, and there is
no external wound, it is called a simple fracture, to distinguish it from that pro-
ducing a wound externally, which is termed a compound fracture. In simple
fracture, coagulable lymph is thrown out from the ends of the broken portions
in which vessels first form, and then deposit ossific matter, which consohdates
and forms the callus or cement between them. But, in compound fracture the
coagula escapes, and the union must be the work of suppuration and granula-
tion ; the vessels shooting through which deposit the ossific matter : thus the
same end is brought about, though by a much slower process. Fractures are
sometimes accompanied with dislocation also; in which case it is evident a
reduction of the dislocation must be first effected, before that of the displaced
bones. In the treatment of fractures, it is necessary that our ends be directed
to assist nature, first, by replacing the divided ends as nearly as possible in
their original situation ; and, next, that by proper applications we retain them
there, until union be eflTected. It is to be remarked also, that when bones are
broken into numerous fragments, it is often necessary to remove the smaller and
useless portions, otherwise irritation of their sharp ends will occasion an un-
healthy inflammation : such fracture is discovered by the motion of the pieces
underneath, and by the extreme tumefaction and tenderness present : they must
therefore be cut down on and removed before union wiU commence*. I shall
now proceed to notice the several fractures individually-; premising, however,
that it would not be prudent in the medical attendant to give too early a favour-
able prognosis. The impatience of the animal, and his great powers of resist-
ance, all act against a successful issue from our attempts to bring about a cure.
But if it is determined to attempt the union of the bony portions, commence
by replacing the fractured parts of bone as nearly as possible in their original
position, and next apply such aids as will so retain them until the union is con-
solidated. Carefully, however, watch your patient, that his own irritability do
not frustrate your attempts. If the horse were very valuable, a stead}' attendant
should remain with him night and day, alternating, however, his watch with
some other equally trustworthy attendant. If the fracture is in the bones of
the extremities, then suspension of the animal may be resorted to, which wUl,
in a great measure, prevent the necessity of a constant watch.

Fractured Skidl. — This injury, though not frequent, may happen from a
violent kick or blow on the head. It is most likely to occur to the frontal bones,
when the division made by the frontal sinuses will usually secure the brain from
pressure ; it may, however, suffer from concussion, and such a case should not
be mistaken for the other. The frontal portions may be readily elevated, but

• The Enelish experience of the treatment of fractures is so limited, tliat I sliall stand excused
for borrowing most of what is necessary from otlier sources, lliutrpl d'Atboval enters into a very
useful and considerable detail on this subject, and to him I would refer for much more that I have
introduced. As general instructions on the matter, the following is applicable here. 'Les fractures
dont la reduction offre le plus de chances do succes sont celles d^s os longs, essais, snperficieles,
comnie ceux de la portion etendue et detachee des menibres locoinoteurs, surtout quand ces fracture*
sont transversales, qu'elles existent vers le milieu de la longueur de I'os, et non pr6s de I'une de ses
extremites. Une fracture de cette espece donnant I'esperance d'un sneers fonde, on pratique d abord
une reduction provisoire sur le lie6 meme oil I'animal se trouve et ou il a fete pris de I'accidcnt, puis
on le transporte dans un local convenable. Pour cela, on le rcleve avee precaution, en s'aidant
d'un norahre suffisant de personnes; on sollicite ii marcher doucement de lui-m6me, et on le soutieut
dans ses mouvcmens pfenibles et ditBciles de locomotion. 11 est A propos de le tenir bien assujelti, au
moins dans le moment ou I'on travaille a la reduction et a fixer I'appareil, et s'il est necessaire qu'il
conserve pendant plusicurs jours une position determinee, il est bon de la lui donner d'abnrd.
Quoique la cicatrice de I'os soit assez longtemps avant de s'endureir, il impartc neannioins de ne
differer que le moins possible la reduction, lorsqu elle est reconnue practicable et A propos, ainsi que
I'application de I'appareil, et de donner ces secnurs avant le developpement de I'engorgement des
parties nioUes, qui unit toujours a la manoeuvre. Si I'on n'ctait pas appele tout juste au premier
moment de I'accident, et qu'il se fut developpe une tumefaction et une inflammation plus au moins
intenses aux parties environnantes de la fracture, faudrait-il attendre, pour preccder a la reduction,
que ces phfenomenes morbides fussent dissipes? Nous ne le pensons pas, a moins que les obstacles
apportes par le gonfiement inflammatoirc ne fussent tels qu'ils rendissont la partie volumineuse au
point de rendre toute OBuvrc sur I'os fracture impossible A entreprendre ; on est alors commande par
une invincible necessite. Mais on doitagir autrenient lorsque la circonstancc est differentc ; nous lo
croyons du moins I'

Class XVI.] fractures and dislocations. 459

the symptoms which have resulted will not be thereby relieved*. If external
fenresTion appears in any cranial fracture whatever, or if there, be any doubt
relalive to il, the scalp should be removed by two cross incisions, when the
dcnressed parts will come into view : those that are loose and detached must be
removed, and other portions that are only indented maybe raised by any in -
miment having a firm and safe hold. If this cannot be done without, apply
the trepan When this is effected, the scalp may be drawn together by a stitch
or two but the wound should be by no means exactly closed. No irritating
dressing should be applied, but the part simply kept from the external air ;
and if much blood was not lost when the accident happened, a considerable
bleeding should take place from the jugular, to prevent staggers coming on ;
and otlfer depicting means must follow. . 1.1 . r . f

Fracture of the Zygomatic ^?-c/i.— This bony process is liable to fracture from
kick'' blows, &c., in which case the broken portions may interfere with the
motion of the jaw. In a case, therefore, of this kind it would be prudent, if the
loosened portions could not be replaced through the skin, to make an opening
and remove them ; for should coagulable lymph become thrown out extensively,
the motion of the coronoid or condoloid processes might be interfered with, to
the interruption of mastication. .

Fracture of the Jaiu-bo7ie.s.— These cases are not unfi-equently happening Irom
kicks or other injuries, and the unfortunate animal is almost always destroyed,
' under an apprehension that nothing can be done for him, or that he must be
inevitably stai-ved; but which is not always necessary; on the contrary, one is
surprised how much nature and the docility of the animal umte in forming a
junction of the bones. In jaw fractures, there is frequently a splintering of the
bone into fragments, when, the sharp ends irritating the surrounding parts, a
vast tumefaction takes place. In such cases we must not hesitate to open the
swelling, and remove any such detached portions. It is true, this reduces the
case to that of a compoimd fracture; but it is, nevertheless, in some instances,
absolutely necessary, before the remaining parts can be replaced, or a healthy
action follow. The treatment of fracture of the superior or anterior maxilla
wll involve itself with that of the nasal bones. When it is the posterior or
lower jaw that is fractured, it is fortunate if one branch only be broken ; should,
however, the injury happen to both, there is still no need to despair. In such
case, particularly "if the bones be much shattered, both jaws may be actually
bandaged together for some time, feeding the horse only by the nose, which is
not altogether impracticable, but is, however, to be much better done by means
of the stomach pump, for the use of which the bandages may be loosened and
re-applied two or three times a-day ; and such method of feeding may also be
greatly assisted by nutritious clysters : but when one branch only is fractured,
the jaw can be let loose, and the animal himself suffered to drink and eat, or
rather mumble up a mash. In a fracture of the lower jaw, I once succeeded
very tolerably by making a strong leather frame that exactly encased the whole
jaw, which I made to adhere by means of pitchf.

• For the treatment of cranial fractures, which may be supposed either by the symptoms or by
examination t,- have depressed some portion of the cerebral bony case, I n ould refer to the author
already quoted: my limits will not allow of the detail, if my own experience on the piihjeot were
sufficient for the task. These cases, with us, are usually treated on the spot in a very summary man-
ner by the London knacker, the country collar maker, or the huntsman. Several succcssfnl cases ot
cranial treatment of fracture are scattered through the French veterinary writers. ' Bicn que le traite-
ment dei fractures des os dii crane soil loin d'avoir sonvent une issue heureuse, on pent cependaiit
citcr qiielques cxcmples de reussite. Une jumcnt attel(:e an cabriolet s'etant bnse I'os frontal en se
henrtant violcminent contro la poisnec de I'espagnolette d'une porte-cochftre entr' ouvcrte, Oougis
lapansatrfes mfethodiquement, ct observa qu'au bout de quatre mois la reunion de i'os etait com-
plete et parfaitemenl consolidee. fiuinet dit avoir liaite et gueri tin clicval d'uii pared accident, par
suite d'un coup de pied ; mais la reunion de I'os n'cut lieu qu' aprfes la cicatrice, et il resta un troii
de vingt-cinq millimetres (iin pouce) de diamfetrc. Oougis il Ini-meme observe la meme chose dans
une jumcnt liors d'age ; le troii reste au frontal fetait de la largeur du bout du doigt. Berbier fils a
;<ueri une fracture du crane, dans unjeune veau de dix mois, au moyen d'un apparcil poisseux ou
aggUitinatif. Nous savons que llouley jeune a plusieurs observations qui lui sout particulifires, sur
les fractures du crane, mais nous ne les connassious par aucun detail.'

+ 'Un simple bandage contcntif suffit ordinaircment pour la fracture simple et sans deplacemcnt;
daiislecas contrairc, il faut d'ahord procedcr A la reduction de la fracture, et en suite e'occuper d j
maintcnir en coaptation les fragincns osseiix, au moyen d'un apparcil convenablc. La dnection do

460 FRACTURES AND DISLOCATIONS. [ClABS XVI.

_ Fracture of the Nose.— From the brutality of drivers, this accident some-
times happens ; it is likewise not unfrequently occasioned by kicks from other
horses ; and I have still more frequently seen the nasal bones extensively divided
by sabre wounds in engagements. Whenever it happens, the bones should be
immediately replaced as much in a natural situation as possible, and the external
wound carefully closed from the action of the air. In case the fractured parts
cannot be replaced by the nostrils, it would be prudent to elevate them by
means of an opening made with the trepan : but, in general, the replacement of
these bones, when depressed inwardly, as is usually the case, may be effected by
means of something introduced up the nostrils wrapped round with tow, linen
or woollen ; and whenever either the nature of the applications or the extent of
the accident interferes considerably with respiration, we should not hesitate to
open the trachea (see Tracheotomy). After which there may be first tried a
false nostril of pasteboard, covered with wool or velvet, or one made of sole
leather, &c., might be introduced : but it must be remembered, that any such
support is too apt to occasion very considerable inflammation, and ulceration
also of the pituitary membrane, from which glanders may result : it would
therefore be better to replace the nasal bones, and to retain them by means of
external bandages*.

Fractured Ribs. — Blacksmiths are apt, from the effect of passion, to strike a
horse with their shoeing hammer. I have more than once seen a fractured rib
from this cruelty. In other ways, also, the ribs may become fractured. If the
fractured portion of the rib penetrate the cavity of the chest and wound the
lungs, there will be considerable danger from haemorrhage, and also that air will
escape into the cellular membrane, and produce emphysema ; to prevent which
immediately apply a bandage, which will tend also to bring the rib externally
into its place, while the action of the lungs will assist it internally. If, notwith-
standing, air escape and enter the skin, which is known by the distention and
crackUng feel under the hand, evacuate it by small openings made with a lancet. —
See Emphysema.

la fracture cst-elle perpendiciilaire h la longueur de I'os, la surface mentonniere de cet os est-elle
seulement abaissee, il sutiit de rapproclier d'une de I'autre les arcades dcntaircs pour que la defoimite
disparaisse. Si la solution de continuite est oblique et accompagnee de I'eufoncement du menton
en arri^re, on fixe d'une main le fragment posterieur, en nieme temps que de I'autre on saisit le
partie anterieure de I'os, et on la porte en avant, en la rapprocliant de la macboire superieure. Les
divisions qui correspondent k I'angle de la macboire, et les fractures de I'apopbyse eoronoYde,
n'exigent d'autre attention que celle de maintenir I'os releve et en repos. Enfin, dans les fractures
sitiiees au-dessons des condyles, ces eminences etant entralnees en avant, il est indispensable de porter
le reste de la macboire dans le nieme sens, afin d'obtenir une exacte coaptation. Quanta I'appareil
propre a assurer la situation que I'on a donnee aux parties blessees, il doit varier suivant la situation,
la direction, I'esp^ce, la forme, etc., de la solution de continuite. Cet a|>pareil doit etre aussi simple
que possible, et se compose, dans la plupart des cas, d'attelles placees sui les brancbes du maxillaire,
et maintenues par des tours de bandcs. Celui que Bartbelemy a imagine consiste en une teti^re et
une sous-gorge semblables a celles d'un bridon : quatie montans attacbes inferieurement a un
anneau viennent se fixer, I'anterieur a la teti^re, le posterieur a la sousgorge; I'un des deux late-
raux, en passant par-dessus la nuque, vient se fixer A une honde que porte le montant lateral oppose,
ce qui forme une seconde tetiSre ; de distance en distance, le long de ces montans, se trouvent des
muserolles dont le nombre varie suivant la situation de la fracture, et que Ton serre a volonte et au
degre convenable, au moyen de boucles. Pour que I'appareil ne blesse pas, il est indispensable
de fairc usage de coussins, et comme les muserolles n'exercent pas une compression egale, on peut
placer par-dessous des attelles qui transmettent regulierement aux parties la compression determinee
par I'appareil. On alimente I'animal par des bouillies claires farineuses, que Ton injccte au moyen
a'une seringue, ayant soin de diriger la canulc vers la voiite palatine; car, sans cette precaution,
la langue, boucbant I'ouverture, enipecberait le jet du liquide. II arrive assez souvent que I'animal
se defend dans le commencement ; mais bientfit, presse par le besoin, il s'y habitue et favorise meme
I'ascension du liquide. On emploie ordinairement la farine de fromcnt, de seigle, d'orge; il est
necessaire qu'elle soit bien tamisee, s'il y a plaie dans I'interieur de la bouche. Si I'on pouvait
obteiiir que I'animal tint la tete levfee, sans nuire aux disposition faitcs A I'egard de la fracture, on
pourrait aussi lui injecter ou lui entonncr des breuvages nutritifs par les narines. C'est ce qu'on
pratique quelquefois sans que les animaux en soufficnt, bien que ce mode d'iiilroduction les fatigue
ctdfeterminc I'ebrouement."

• ' Si le deplacement a lieu en dehors, on repousse les pieces osseuscs poui les reduire et en op^rer
la coaptation ; on conscille ensuite de les maintenir et cet ^tat, au moyen de liens circulaires qui en-
vironnent la tete. Mais ces liens, en cmpicbant les mouvemens et 1-ftcartement des machoires, ren-
dent I'alimentation impossible, et ils exposiraient I'animal A mourir de faim. Avcc unpen d'idee on
peut eviter ce grave inconvenient: il s'agit d'adapter aux montans d'une bride depourvue de son
mora, et a muserolle, deux attelles auxquelles s'attacbent les liens, ce qui laisse toute sa liberte a
la maVboire inf^rieure. On peut aussi employer le feirement imagine pour Hourgelat, et compose de
deux branches qui dcscendent le long de la cr6te zygomalique, et auxquelles s'altaelient paieillement
los lieuB.'

Class XVI.] fractured bones of the extremities. 461

Frachired Veriebrce.— When horses, according to the phraseology of farriers
and horse-dealers, are what is caUed broken-lacked, chinked in the chine, or go
\rerman derived from atnanege gait, it is sometimes from a rheumatic affectioii ot
the licaments of the spine, or a forcible extension of them : m others, anchy-
losis has occurred. But occasionaUy fracture is present from some violence
offered It sometimes happens to the bodies of one or more of the dorsal or
lumbar vertebra, either in casting, or during the struggles a horse makes to
disengacrehimselfafterheis down. (See Casting-.) As no such accident can
happen "without the spinal marrow becoming pressed on, so paralysis of the
hinder parts foUows, and death ensues. It might, as a matter of experiment in
these cases be worth the attempt to cut down on the fracture, and endeavour
to remove the loose portions of bone, by which the pressure might be reUeved
from the spinal cord. Fracture of the spinous processes of the vertebrae is a
much more common accident, but much less serious, unless accompanied with
laceration, when a wound very difficult to heal is produced. If the bone cannot
be replaced, and an uneven surface is likely to foUow, which might mterfere
with the saddle or harness, remove it if it be not a large portion.

Fractured Pelvis.— When this accident occurs, the owner should well weigh
how much he values his horse, and the veterinarian called in should well weigh,
after due examination, the chances for and against a perfect recovery. If the
fracture be external, it shews itself very plainly ; but when it is internal, the
exact part that is fractured is not distinguishable. If any thing is done, let the
fractm-ed portions be attempted to be extracted; but should it be the spine of
the ileum (the hip bone), and it be not entirely separated, by no means disturb
it, for in all probability it will reunite.

FRACTURED BONES OF THE EXTREMITIES.

Iji fractures of the larger bones of the limbs, the horse is almost always killed,
as being supposed incurable, or that, if cured, he would be utterly useless : but
not only are many of these cases also curable, as has been occasionally proved,
but a horse frequently becomes very useful afterwards ; and it is evident that
the breed of such an animal, at all events, provided it be a mare or stallion,
may be made subservient to our purposes.

Fractured Scapula, or Shoulder-blade, is rare, but does occasionally occur :
even a kick from another horse has separated it from its cervix ; and on the
continent I saw a broken mass of a gun-carriage fracture this bone into five dis-
tinct pieces. In fractured scapula the toe trails along the ground ; but as it
does the same whether the arm or fore arm be broken, so we must look for
other evidences ; and these are gained by attempts at elevating the foot, which
not only give excessive pain, but usually produce a crepitus sufficiently distinct,
particularly if the hand is placed on the part. A cure may be effected by
suspending or supporting the animal, united with the application of some adhe-
sive matter, which can give solidity to the limb without excoriating it ; further
strengthened by bandages judiciously applied, so as to have an equal and ex-
tensive bearing. M. Fromage de Feugre, who, as before observed, has sig-
nalized himself by his collation of cases of fracture, directs that the whole of
the fore parts may be encircled with bandages, to keep the injured bones as
much as possible in their natural situation. After this the horse should be
gently forced on the opposite side, and retained there until the cure be effected.
M. Godine informs us, he made a cure for a stallion whose scapula was frac-
tured by a carriage. He first envrtoped the whole scapular surface with a thick
pitchy mixture, over which was placed supporting bandages, crossed from above
downwards, and from below upwards, making the point of the sternum and the
withers fixed points of contact, by which the fractured part was steadied and
applied to the chest. The horse was tlien turned loose in an enclosure, and
within a month he was able to bear lightly on it, and in four months walked
without lameness ; but some defect was discoverable in his trot. Hurt. d'Arbovul,
art. Fracture.— In another case of the like kind, M. F. de Feugre informs us

462 FRACTURED BONES OF THE EXTREMITIES. [ClASS XVI.
a cure was brought about by attaching the lame limb to the well one for forty
days. I should suppose that something sufficiently soft and bulky was placed
between the fore legs, and that all were then rolled round together : in three
months, we are told, the horse walked without lameness. Bourgelat, in his
work on bandages, gives directions for a very complex iron apparatus for enve-
loping the scapula.

The Humerus is not often fractured. It is very short and thick, and so strong
as to be little m danger; but when it does happen, the plan recommended for
the cure of the scapula would be here also proper.

The Cubitus, or Arm as it is called, is rather more frequently broken and
may be successfully treated as follows :— Having first slung the horse, reduce
the fracture ; that is, replace the ends of the divided bones in correct apposition
to each other. The animal might be partially slung, so that the feet might just
rest on the ground, without taking but little of the weight of the body : fasten
each foot in its natural situation ; that is, in the situation it would of itself fall.
Do this by any ingenious means, as hobbles ringed to the pavement or floor ; or
four strong boots might be firmly attached to the floor, and each leg, being in-
troduced to its appropriate boot, might be firmly laced in. When all is safe,
encase the fractured limb accurately, by making a bandage embrace every part'
and strengthen the whole with proper splints. If slinging in this case produced
extraordinary efforts, it should not be persisted in, but well bedding up should
be preferred. Whenever slinging can be dispensed with, it should ; and without
doubt there are many horses sufficiently tractable to assist in supporting their
own weight by means of the uninjured leg ; but this would be only Hkely°in the
case of a direct transverse fracture, and a just opposition of the ends of the bone
together. In case of an oblique fracture, we must depend on slinging, or on re-
taining the horse on the ground with his fore extremities united into one mass by
bandaging. M. H. d'Arboval advises, ' Quartres attelles peuvent suffire quand
le deplacement n'est pas trop considerable, une pour chaque face : celle de la
face externe, necessairement plus longue que les autres, doit etre prolongee su-
perieurement, afin d'erapecher les mouvemens de I'articulatiou humero-cubitale,
et toutes doivent partir inferieuremeut du milieu du metacarpien (canon). On
place la filasse, disposee convenablement, en commengant au-dessous du genou,
on applique ensuite les attelles sur les quatre faces, parallelement a la longueur du
membre, et on les fixe avec des bandes. Plusieurs, veterinaires sent parvenus a
guerir de semblables fractures.'

_ The Femur is likewise occasionally fractured ; and though the French authors
give us reason to hope for a salutary re-union, and likewise directions for the
management ; yet I never saw a favourable instance, and I doubt much, except
for slow draft work, whether it might be worth the trouble, expense, and pain to
the animal to attempt it. But when it has happened to a valuable stallion or
brood mare, whose future usefulness in propagation would not be materially af-
fected by it, we might then with propriety attempt a re-union either by s'trict
reduction of the fracture, which would require an almost frightful force, or we
might here more prudently leave the bones to make their own junction, applying
sustaining bandages and solidifying applications, after the same manner as to
the scapula and humerus, with suspension, which here could probably not be dis-
pensed with.

Fracture of the Tibia is more common than that of the femur, to which it is
mostly exposed at its inferior part, where the resistance of the muscles, and its
obliquity, render eff"orts at reduction generally unavailable. Union, however,
will take place between the bones, and the deformity will be lessened, as well
as a more favourable position of the pieces for future action will be gained by
bandaging and by splints ; and also by support to the body from the ceiling,
either wholly or partially : by these means the animal may be rendered useful
for heavy draft- work or for breeding. Bourgelat invented some iron machinery
for these cases, which embraced the bottom of the foot, passed up the cannon,
made a contour at the bend of the hock, and directed itself along the front of the
tibia, or, as popularly expressed, the thigh, which it cradled as it were. Tolivet

Class XVI.] fractured bones of the extremities. 463

and Imbert simplified this by a plain iron bar, which extended along the tibia
and entered a hole made in the point of the shoe. Many notices of cures ol
fractured tibias (we suppose of such as were sufficiently perfect for the purposes
of drawing) are quoted in French authors. To cattle, these means are particu-

^'^^TheOlccraiioit, or Elbow, has been fractured by violent efforts of the muscles;
but the tendinous attachments render it extremely difficult to apply means to
retain it in its situation. It is only by preserving a state of absolute relaxation
of the limb that any attempt can have a chance of succeeding*.

Fractured Cannon— This bone, when fractured, provided the accident be such
as to separate the broken portions from each other, is of difficult treatment ;
otherwise it is by no means so : the very muscular action which resists the re-
duction in the former case, serves here to keep the bones steadily applied ; and
I have seen such a case treated successfully without sUnging, by a stiff frame of
leather, resembhng splints for human fractures, only more extensively apphed.
In Blount's Farriery there is a plate representing some ingenious machinery for
the cure of these cases. Mr. Bass, V.S., near Barnet, is said to have had se-
veral of these cases, which have terminated successfully, by the application of
proper splints and bandages, and which instances are now so common, that no
practitioner would be warranted in condemning a horse with a simple fracture
of one of these bones, unless the fracture were near to or within the capsular
li<Tament ; in which case anchylosis, I beUeve, always takes place in the horse.
The French method of treating fractures of the cannon is thus detailed by
M. H. d'Arboval : ' La reduction n'est pas toujours facile dans les grands animaux,
mais une fois quelle obtenue, les extr^mites fracturees sont en opposition, la
retraction des parties tendineuses tend a les faires appuyer plus fortement I'une
sur I'autre, le nouveau d^placement est ainsi prevenu, et en effet il n'a plus lieu.
La reduction s'opere, comme dans toutes les fractures des membres, par la con-
tre-extension, I'extension et la conformation ; les deux premieres de ces actions
sont souvent de la plus grand difficult^ a executer dans les grands animaux ; il
faut souvent que des forces plus qu'humaines y concourent ; c'est pourquoi on
est presque toujours obhg^ d'avoir recours a une espece de moulinet. Pour
s'en servir, on appuie et arrete le corps de I'animal centre un corps volumineux
et solide, tel qu'un arbre ou une poutre invariablement fix^e par les deux ex-
tr6mit6s,'dont les deux extremit^s soient engagees dans une direction diagonale,
sur le sol, aux deux angles d'un batiment carr^, on a un seul angle et contre le
seuil d'une parol de muraille ou de placage ; la region du membre au-dessus
de la fracture se fixe a cette piece par diverses attaches, dont une des plus
essentielles est celle qui part du dessous du genou ou du jarret, afin qu'on ne
tiraille par les articulations superieures et qu'on ne s'expos6 pas a les luxer ; on
attache ensuite le membre au- dessus du boulet avec un fort trait qu'on enroule
par I'autre extremity sur un treuil au moyen de leviers. En faisant agir ceux-ci
petit a petit et avec management, I'alongement s'opere sans secousses, et la
facility qu'on a de la maintenir au point ou il doit etre laisse tout le temps de
proc^der a la coaptation et a I'apphcation du premier appareil. Quand celui-ci
est bien fixe, on lache peu a peu le trait jusqu'ace qu'il soit tout-a-fait d^tendu ;
alors on le d^tache du membre, et on releve avec beaucoup de precaution I'ani-
mal. On s'occupe en ce moment de I'appareil definitif, qui consiste dans une
espece de fourrcau de filasse, les attelles et des bandes fortes. Les attelles doi-
vent etre au nombre de quatre, une pour chaque face, et avoir asscz de longueur

• 'L'apopliysc oli'-crane, qui ne tiont (|ue faiblemciit A rextr6mit6 aupferieuic du cubitus, pent nussi
itre fracturfee, ce qu'on reconnalt au defiiut de snillfte i'l I'endi oit du coudo et aux aigiics pi opics des
fractures. Les muscles extcnseurs de I'avant-bras rcinoteiit I'dlficrane, I'animal lioile trfts fort, et ne
■pent Mendre le membre; »i on le fiiit rnarclific, il ne B'apiniie pas sur ce membre ct traine le pied.
Cette fracture evt difficile I'l rednire, parccque les mii!.cles extcnseurs tiennent I'apopliyse dont il s'agit
relevfec; ellc est ordinaircment incurable qiiand elle est cnmplfete ; dans le cas coutrairc on a quel(|ue-
fois olitenu des 8ucc4»; Tnillard, Laimande, Li-pinard, R(-M\t et Iluzard I'ont eprouve. II s'agit
rt'abordde porter I'olecrane en dehors, en plafant une pelote ou une csp6ce de coussiii entie cet os et
les parois du thorax, le deplacemcnt ayant toujours lieu en dedans. Dn applique ensuitc des attelles
pour empecher les mouvemens des articulations voisines, et on les fixe par des tours dc bandc, qui
doivcnt maintenir le tout en embrassent le cubitus alnsl que la poitrine.'

464 FRACTURED BONES OF THE EXTREMITIES. [CLA.SS XVI.
pour empecher les mouvemens des articulations voisines ; elles doivent par con-
sequent partir du dessous du pied, et se prolonger en remontant jusqu'au-dessus
du jarret ou du genou. Girard, qui a employ*^ avantageusement cet appareil,
le dispose de maniere que le point d'appui que peut prendre I'animal se fasse au-
dessus de la partie fractur^e : pour cet effet, il emploie des attelles de diff^rentes
longueurs, et laissc excdder inf^rieurement les plus longues, de maniere qu'en
se prolongeant au-dela du pied, I'animal s'appuie sur elles ; ces attelles dtant
d'ailleurs fix^es par leurs extr^mitds sup^rieures autour du membre, le point
d'appui est partag6 et se trouve rdparti partout, et les mouvemens des jointures
inferieures sont annul^s par ces memes attelles, qui compriment assez fortement.
Cette disposition est tres ingdnieuse ; elle n'est malheureusement applicable qu'a
des animaux tres doux, tres dociles qui restent volontiers dans la position qu'on
leur fait prendre, sans se livrer a aucun mouvement. 11 nous semble qu'ou
pourrait la perfectionner encore en fixant les attelles longues, par en bas a une
espece^ de fer de patin qui poserait sur le sol sans toucher a la sole, de laquelle
il serait isold de douze a quinze millimetre (cinq a six lignes) seulement ; de
cette faqon I'appui se ferait a plat sur une surface correspondante a ceUe du
dessous du pied, ce qui serait mieux que s'il avait lieu sur des extremites
d'attelles.'

Fractures of the large and lesser Pastern Bones are not unfrequently occurring.
In case of the large pastern becoming so, the fetlock approximates'the ground
when in motion, and the broken bones crepitate on taking this part in the hand.
A fracture of this bone is less likely to anchylose than one of the small pasterns ;
for as these fractures in both are apt to be oblique, and particularly so in the
lesser pastern, so when it happens to that, it is more probable that the fracture
will extend into the capsular ligament, in which case anchylosis is very likely to
follow. Hurtrel d'Arboval observes, that these cases were not at all uncommon
at Alfort, and were treated, after reduction, by enveloping the pastern, in some
adhesive matter, from the coronet to the middle of the cannon, over which
pasteboard supports wetted with spirits of wine, were moulded and made fast
by bandage. Over this four splints were then placed and bound, having the in-
terstices filled up with wool, tow, or other matter, so as to make the whole into
one solid, firm mass. It is justly observed, however, that this will not always
prevent motion between the fractured portions ; in which case our author further
directs : ' On est souvent oblig^ d'ajouter par-dessus quatre autres attelles plus
grandes et assez larges, en bois de chene. II faut auparavant avoir bien rempli
ce qui peut rester de la depression qui existe entre le boulet et le pied et jusqu'^
leur niveau, et envelopper toute cette region de filasse agglutin6e, jusqu'k for-
mer une enveloppe assez saillante pour que les longues attelles trouvent un
point d'appui. Ces dernieres attelles, au nombre de quatre, une pour chaque
face, tant lat^rales (fu'anterieure et postdrieure, doivent aller jusqu'au genou ou
au jarret, et etres enduites de tdrebenthine ; on les fixe par des tours de bande,
et, afin de les maintenir k une distance convenable les unes des autres, on fait
un tour de bande autour de chacune d' elles, a mesure qu'on les place succes-
sivement. On fait ensuite tout ce qu'on peut pour empecher I'animal d'appuyer
sur le pied de la jambe malade, sans toutefois se permettre de tenir le genou
fl^chi, s'il s'agit d'une extr^mite ant^rieure, afin de ne pas s'exposer k un rac-
courcissement tres grand dans les tendons fl^chisseurs du pied ; il en resulterait
que I'animal resterait avec la jambe arqu^e. La claudication persiste quelque-
fois assez long-temps, ou meme toujours, aprfes la guerison.'

Fractures of the lesser Pastern, or Coronai-y Bone, are even more frequent,
and usually more extensive, than those of the large pastern, which can only
arise from the nature of its connexions, and tl^ mode of implantation of the
various tendinous and ligamentous expansions mserted into it. Violent exer-
tions have been known .to pull it into fragments ; and perhaps nothing shews
the extreme power of the motive organs of the horse under great excitations
than these fractures. These accidents arc seen in both feet sometimes. Fromage
de Feugre mentions a case wherein both coronary bones of the hind feet were
broken, each into three pieces, and another into four pieces. Henon even re-

Class XVI.] fractured bones of the extremities. 465

lates a case where the four coronary bones were fractured at once, one into four
divisions ; and in another instance, the force had been such as to comminute
this solid mass into seven portions. This fractm-e is somewhat difficult to
detect from those of the coffin and navicular bones: there is, however, usually
a greater difficulty in moving, a greater prostration of the limb ,■ the tenderness
is considerable around the coronet, and motion made there detects the crepita-
tion immediately under the fingers. The treatment will consist in supporting
the parts : merely setting or reducing such a fracture is a fruitless attempt,
and the pressure around it usually prevents much separation of the broken'
portions, as the very nature and extent of the fracture, which usually com-
municates with the articular cavities, prevents any other than an anchylosed
union, and consequently an imperfect cure. The coronet and the fetlock may
be filled up with pitch or paste ; bandaged also, and afterwards further sup-
ported by padding the fetlock, in such manner as to take off some of the
weight of the limb, by being connected with different points of bearing, which
should be distributed over the limb, across the withers, and again down until
it is brought again round to the limb of the other side. However, I would re-
commend bleeding by the toe, thinning the hoof all round, and immersing in
water by means of wet cloths around until the actual inflammatory symptoms
were abated. It should then have a supporting bandage derived from the fet-
lock, after the same manner as the last ; and foot, fetlock, and all, should then
be immersed in pitch, &c. &c.

Fractures of the Coffin. — The coffin bone is not frequently fractured ; how-
ever, numerous well-marked cases are on record where, in most instances, the
accident arose fi-om some violent action of the muscles, which forcibly pulled it
into several pieces. I have seen two or three museum preparations of fractured
coffin bones ; but I have seldom met with a case in the living subject. M
Hazard directs the foot to be immersed in a mass of pitch and resin, which, he
assures us, will effect a cure.

Fractured Navicular Bone. — This accident, though rare, is, however, more
frequent than the fracture of the coffin. La Fosse has very circumstantially de-
scribed it ; Osmer also notices it ; and, in later times, it has been met with.
I do not here confound an accidental fracture of this bone from violence with
those lesions which occur to it and its ligamentous attachments, which have
been so much the object of inquiry of Mr. Turner, under the name of navicular
disease. This accident is betokened by a considerable and obstinate lameness
following an apparently trifling accident ; and the treatment of it must be very
similar with that of coffin fracture*. In some cases, however, of navicular
lameness, it is not the bone which has become broken, but its ligamentous
attachments, which proves equally incurable. Mr. Field has also two prepara-
tions of this fracture, as we are informed by Mr. Percivall.
_ A Fracture of the prominent portion of the Ilium, or Haunch Bone, some-
times occurs, and when it is of the simple kind, the adhesive inflamniation which
follows readily unites the parts; but from the action of the muscular fibres im-
planted into the disunited portion, it is drawn aside, and no surgical efforts
can retain it in just opposition with its fellow portion. These cases are called
hipped, or let doion on the hip.

The Patella is likewise occasionally fractured by violent kicks, when the action
of the tendons inserted into its surfaces disunites the fractured portions, beyond
the power of veterinary surgery to bring together ; and the limb is useless, 'hav-
ing lost the antagonist to undue flexion and extension : it will be therefore of no
avail to attempt a fruitless treatment.

fn' '^""■'■'f''''''^''*"""'' """sually concise nml meagre on this fracture, and seems to have altoitptlier
lorgoltcn La Fosse, with whom the first notice of its existence originated. After descriliing frnotnrc
oi iiie coffin bone, he continues, ' Ce que nous venons de dire do la fracture du dernier nhalangien,
>appli'|iie parfaitcment A cellc t\a pletit s^sainoide. os place a la partic postrrioure de la surface arti-
cniaire de I'os du sahot. .Tolivct a vu cette derni(\re fracture arrivce pai nii clou il liiindr qui trn-
versa la sole ; les accidens qui s'cnauiviient firent detacher Ic sahot et oldiKi-rcnt de sarrilier I'animal ;
dp f"". [cconnut la nature de ['accident. Bastlen assure avoir gueri un clicval a ta suite

ccHc iracture ; cUc etait sans doutc accompagnfec de moins d'accidcns.'

O g

466

DISLOCATIONS OF THE BONES, [CLASS XVI.

DISLOCATIONS OF BONES.

The articular surfaces of bones are sometimes displaced from their proper
situation, when they are said to be dislocated or luxated. In human surgery this
forms a very important branch of practice, but is less so in the horse : not that
these separations do not sometimes occur, but the immensity of the resistance
is such, and our surgical machinery at present is so little calculated to make an
equable counter-extension, that few reductions of dislocation have been at-
tempted. The inquirer will meet with a full detail of the subject in Hurtrel
d'Arboval. I must content myself with noticing that of the patella, as being not
altogether uncommon, and easily reduced.

Dislocated Patella. — This dislocation was almost unknown in our art, or at
least it was passed over as one of those cases which the resistance of the ani-
mal and the contractions of the muscles would prevent any probable reduc-
tion of. In my early days of practice I confess I should have thought so ; nor
might I have readily been convinced to the contrary, until I met with a case,
which I myself saw occur in hunting, where a gate which was closing caught •
the stifle of a horse as he attempted to pass through, and immediately reduced
him to a pitiable state of helplessness. As I was directly' behind him and saw
the blow, I readily entered into the nature of the case, and with a very mode-
rate share of assistance, and comparatively with little force employed, the
patella slipped audibly into its socket, and the animal was led away slightly
limping only. The situation and attachments of this bone ai-e such, that it is
only some very extraordinary violence that can dislocate it inwards*; but it
can be displaced outwards more readily ; in some cases with more ease than the
strong mechanism of the general articulations of the horse would lead one to
expect. In colts, from the general suppleness of their limbs, and from the
articular prominences and depressions having not yet acquired their full extent
of adaptation, this dislocation happens frequently, and in some instances re-
duces itself by the motions of the animal. In The Veterinarian, vol. iii, a case
is related where the low state of condition was connected with the frequent dis-
locations of both patellae in a pony, from vei-y trifling causes, at such times,
and at such only. It appears much more common in India than with us, which
is accounted for by the mode in which the horses are there confined by each leg
to the flooring of the stable.

The Signs of a Dislocated Patella are the rigid determination of the limb
backwards, exactly as might be expected from the loss of the moving pulley
into which the extensor muscles of the thigh are implanted, from which, the
flexor muscles having no antagonists, the limb downwards remains firmly flexed,
the toe dragging on the ground. The displacement of the patella itself is less
a guide than might be imagined ; but the complete determination of the limb
backwards, and the flexion of the pasterns and foot, will serve to distinguish
it from a fracture of the femur, with which only it is possible to confound it ;
but which can at once be set at rest by grasping the condyles of the femur and
rotating them, which will render any crepitus distinct. An examination of
both limbs will however detect the loss of the protuberant patella in its natural
situation, and will also detect it towards the outer edge of the thigh, but
sometimes so deeply imbedded within the muscles of the part, particidarly
in coarse fleshy horses, as to almost escape cursory observation. This occurs
from the powerful actions of the extensor tendons implanted within it ; to which
cause we must also attribute the pain which is sometimes observed in these
cases.

The reduction of the dislocation is not usually a diflScult operation, particu-
larly in young horses, in such as are in low condition, or in recent cases : but
when otherwise, and more especially when it has been done many days, it may

• The only fnse we have recorded amonft us of dislocation inwards comes from Mr. Cherry, in the
Farrier and Nnt Hralist, No. 8, wliere it is described as drawing tlic limb upwards, being attended
with mucli pain, and requiring mucli exertion to lednce it.

Class XVTL] exostosis. 467

be attended with some difficulty. The grand object when we attempt the re-
duction, is to relax the extensor muscles to the utmost, to which end the stifle

■ sliould be raised and brought forward by assistants, or by a firm bandage applied
around the 4etIock and carried over the fore parts ; by tightening of which, and
drawing the pastern upwards and forwards, the extensors themselves will then
assist in the reduction, provided the outer angle of the patella be depressed,
which will raise the inner angle from its bedding within the soft parts, which
forms much of its resistance. While the hands are employed in this depression,

: they should also force the patella forwards, when the reduction wiU be effected.
The practitioner must bear in mind that this dislocation having once happened,

: the Uganients have been thereby put so much on the stretch, that it is liable to

• recur by a very slight cause ; the part should therefore be sustained as much
as possible by a bandage. Mr. C. Percivall in such a case very judiciously
blistered the stifle, when the inflammation secured the parts, at first by tume-

I faction, and afterwards by its stimulating property on the relaxed fibre. Mr. W.

i Percivall recommends firing the part in case of recurrence, which would cer-

I tainly have the effect of a permanent bandage.

CLASS XVII.
DISEASES OF THE BONES.

CARIES, OR MORTIFICATION.

Bones are subject to inflammation, which terminates, like that of the soft
i parts, in resolution, suppuration, or in mortification. The living powers of parts
: being generally proportioned to their vascularity, bones, as having less blood
; than some other parts, are weaker, and their actions, both healthy and unhealthy,
. are slow : consequently they do not readily fall into disease, but, having so
done, the morbid action fretjuently produces death in them. A loss of the
; medium by which bones are covered and partially supported, will also produce
I mortification : thus, when the periosteum becomes torn off, or otherwise ex-
1 tensively destroyed, the bone under it usually dies : it is however necessary to
^ observe that the restorative powers here, as in other quadrupeds, are more active
t than in man.

Exfoliation. — When death has taken place in a bone, the process of its re-
1 moval is called exfoliation, and such process is effected by the absorbents ; for
I the dead bone becomes a stimulus to the absorbing vessels belonging to the
1 Hving bone with which it is in contact, stimulating them to remove so much of
' the living as forms the union with the dead ; by which means the decayed por-
1 tion, losing its attachment, comes away. In caries, therefore, it must be our
t endeavour to assist this exfoliation by any means that will further stimulate the
absorbents of the living part. Sometimes, from an actual want of power, the
. caries spreads ; in which case we must rouse the living bone into greater action
' by forcible stimulants; as, oil of turpentine, tincture of myrrh and aloes, brandy,
. or other spirits ; but the most effectual mode is, by the application of the actual
i cautery, in the form ot small heated points applied around the outer edge of
I the decayed part.

EXOSTOSIS.

The osteological detail in Section VIII, shewed that bones were organized
hke the soft parts of the body, from whence it might be supposed that they are

■ also susceptible of disease, the most prominent instance of which is exostosit or
' bony tumour, the consequence of a morbid increase of the secretion of bony
5 matter either within the medullary membrane and cancelli, or otherwise de-
1 posited on the surface immediately under the periosteum, and thence denominated

Gg 2

468 EXOSTOSIS. [Class XVII.

by Sir Astley Cooper, periosteal exostosis ; as the former is called by him the
medullary exostosis, which occasionally degenerates in the human subject into
an osseous fungus of a malignant and fatal character : this, as far as our pre-
sent information extends, the horse is fortunately not subject to. It is to the
periosteal exostosis, or cartilaginous exostosis of the periosteum, as further dis-
tinctively named by the same eminent surgeon, that those bony swellings we
call splints, spavins, &c., owe their origin*. But these exostoses are not limited
to any individual parts, but are as numerous as the bones themselves : the spine
exhibits them throughout ; the extremities have them from the semi-ossified
cartilage of the senile scapula to that of the- coffin bone, and its once car-
tilaginous alae before ; and from the almost anchylosed tail in some subjects, to
the semi-petrified toe behind. The knacker s repository will furnish the seeker
with ample store of exostoses of the cranial and jaw-bones, and of costal also,
morbid and accidental. I hardly know a bone I have not seen thus diseased,
and those who have viewed the morbid bones in the museum at Alfbrt will
probably remember their variety and number. The causes of sequine exostosis
may be characterised as remote and proximate, mediate or immediate. Pressure
is the principal remote cause, and iniflammation the proximate : in the human
subject, although these causes operate also, yet a constitutional predisposition is
superadded to them, from whence the varieties of the affection arise, and its
occasional malignancy. A reference to Osteology (Sec. VIII) will shew that
pressure in due quantity is the cause of the formation and consolidation of bony
matter ; hence young animals naturally pursue exercise for this purpose ; and
thus also, when, by overworking them before the frame is fully established, we
hasten the consolidation of the bones, and thus stop the growth of the frame.
If the exertions are pushed greatly beyond an ordinate degree, then ossific in-
flammation follows ; commencing occasionally within the periosteal lining, but
more often within the ligamentous connexions around, which become the subject
of lesions or strains : inflammation is the consequence of these, and communicates
itself to the periosteum, with which it is in contact. Here, then, pressure, in
the form of a distended state of the vascular system, is the agent ; for it is
thereby roused to an extraordinary deposit of ossific matter from immediate
ossific inflammation. But exostosis may be, and unquestionably is, the eSect of
mediate inflammation occasioned by mechanical pressure acting in some in-
stances on bones connected together by ligamentous matter only, as the meta-
carpal splint bones to their appropriate cannon bones, and by which splints and
some spavins are formed : in others it is done by direct pressure on periosteal
and peridesmial surfaces, as in the, exostoses of vertebrae, spavins of the cimei-
form bones of the hock, and in the ossification, or, according to modern physi-
ology, the displacement of the cartilages of the feet. In these cases of mechanical
pressure, the earthy matter of bone is, by the stimulus of pressure, _ deposited
between the periosteum and bony surface ; the periosteum itself is thereby
thickened, while the exostosis or tumour becomes cancellated and structural,
like the bone to which it adheres. In these cases the stimulus of pressure is
constant ; it results from the form, combined with the uses made of the machine.
But there are, as already hinted at, cases productive of exostosis where the
stimiilus of pressure is accidental and momentary, or it is inordinate and often .
repeated ; that is, it is the result of one violent efibrt or repeated lesser efibrts
of over straining the bodily machine: here we have reason to suppose that t..e
foundations of the most ruinous exostoses are laid within the ligaments, which

• Thp cartilaninous exostosis between the periosteum ayid bone arises from inflammaUon of
the Derio^tomn, and subjacent part of the bone, and a deposition of firm cartilage, adherent to both
H>^,rVnrfacPS takes place. In this substance bony matter is secreted, which is first thrown out
from tre or'KiAal bone. As the cattilaRe increases in bulk", the quantity of phosphate of lime aug-
rnnn s and fre" cartilage is constantly deposited upon the outer surface of the tumour. On dissec-
t^of Isr tlc pe.iosteuTn is found thicker than natural; 2dly, immediately below the periosteum,
rartilaec'- ami ' 3d v, ossific matter deposited witliin the latter, from the shell of the bone, nearly to
the inner 'surface of the periosteum. When the growth of such a swelling ceases, and the disease is
of I n- staiidl^R the exterior surface consists of a shell of osseous matter s milar o that of the
oriKinal bonerand communis with itscancelli, inconsequence of the primitive shell having been
abaoxhed.-Surgicul Sssa}/s of Cooper and Travcrg.

CLASS XVII.] SPLINT. 469

inflaming, extend the affection to the periosteum, and from thence to the bone
under it • ossific inflammation follows the ligamentous, and the result frequently
is that the lio-aments become themselves iufccted, and a bony union takes place
between them and the contiguous bone, of which bad curbs and spavms are
instances. Some exostoses appear to be accompanied with ulceration ; and
these I believe, always commence in the ligaments : the most fatal instances
ai-e those which commence by erosion of the capsular Ugaments. That speciep
of exostosis observed widely spread over the bones in old horses, is the effect
not only of- long-continued pressure, but is dependent as well on the unequal
forces of deposit and absorption in the latter periods of life ; and probably is
connected also with a stimulus of necessity, by which the absorbing acting more
than the secreting vessels, a slow process, unaccompanied with active symptoms
of inflammation, goes on ; from whence the articular cai-tilages particularly ex-
posed to the effects of pressure, as those of the spinous processes of the verte-
bra, those of the lateral parts of the feet, and some others, in almost all cases
present bony enlargements, the consequence of the deposit of a more solid
matter within a new cartilaginous matrix ; or the original cartilages may be
themselves the nidus for the bony deposit, as we find to be the case with the
ligaments sometimes : after which the cartilage may become absorbed, leaving
the osseous matter. A morbid disposition to ossific deposit likewise appears to
pervade other parts than those immediately connected with the bony base ; as
within the coats of the large arteries, in the cartQaginous rings of the trachea,
the internal parts of some glands, &c. &c., by which nature appears to endeavour
to renovate the constitution by consolidating the whole mass ; thus warring, as
it were, against the universal and inevitable decay of the machine. The cure of
exostosis must consist in whatever stops the disposition to farther deposit, and
removes what has been akeady produced. In the human subject, these effects
have been attempted by constitutional means, intended to act on the absorbents
generally ; but in the horse, these have not been found to answer any end : local
means only are, therefore, resorted to in veterinary practice, and which are
principally of a stimulating nature, variously modified, as will be seen under the
individual exostoses.

SPLINT.

Splint, or as some call it splent, is the farriers' term for a very common exos-
tosis* situated upon or about some part of the metacarpal bones, usually com-
mencing ia the semi-cartilaginous substance which unites the great and smaU
metacarpals, and much more frequently of the inner than of the outer sidef .
When a -splint was attached to the superior extremity of the cannon near the
knee, the older farriers called it osselet; and, when two small bony enlargements
were found near each other, they then named them /jtzee. One osseous tumour
at the upper part of the shank, or cannon, is universally known by the name of
splint, or splent. This species of exostosis is common to the young horse, from
the greater plasticity of his frame, and to his organization being not yet inured
to continued ex-ertion. It is usual to consider the consequences of a splint as
principally dependent on its situation, and this is generally correct; but a sphnt
may prove painful, and otherwise injurious, although it should not interfere with
any tendon or ligamepf, for the periosteum becomes exquisitely sensible under
inflammation and distention; consequently, until it either becomes disorganized
or absorbed, it is both tender and painful. This inflammation, fortunately for

• Bracken, the father of the Eneish School of Farriery, derives splint from the circumstance of its
serving to strengtlicn the lione, as thin pieces of wood or spl^ntB would strengthen other matter.

+ Splint ami spavin ate both exemplifications of the fact, tliat tliesc exostoses arc principally occa-
rioncd by pressure. The small metacarpals and metatarsals, which articulate, one with the knee,
and the otiicr with the hock, by means of a cartila^to-lii^ainentous union of an elastic nature, are
intended as spriues to resist the forces of action and tlie elVects of concussion. Hut as even elastic
springs of every kuid will deteriorate by undue stress laid on them, so these interpositions take iiii
ossific uillammation from continued pr('«««»-« in tlie form of /ia; f/ and violent ;oorA-; by whieli con-
Mlidation takes place in lieu of the clastic medium, and the part acquires strength at the cxpeuec of
it« elasticity.

"^J^ SPLINT. [Class XVII.

the am.nal, ,8 seldom very acute, and the increase is generaUy slow which ei.a
bles the peno« cu,n to aceouunodate itself to the distention : gei^Vrih he 2

ore, when a «phnt is not situated immediately under a tendon, or c^^it iuous to
hgan.entary matter, ,t occasions but little uneasiness, nor doe it Tften lame
But when it enlarges suddenly, or presses on any tendinous or S^Lmoui^
moving mass. It occasions not only irritation but lameness also. TheCeriC

le h -HI-' consideration of the come^juencel in 271

ca es, be gmded, ,n a great measure, by the situation of the splint. If placed
anteriorly, that is, when it exists at the fore edge of the small metacarpal or spUn^

?oi as airefn "'-'r/'""^^ ^^^'^^ its posferio edge

loi, as ah-eady pointed out, in this latter case, the sweUing may press on the liL-

Xc d aT?h"f ''''' ''IVl' ^'^""^ --'^ rL'son also, a spfent

p aced at the lower end of the cannon is stiU more prejudicial than when situated
n gner up the leg. It is, however, necessary to remark, that it is not uncommon
to attribute that lameness to a spbnt which is dependent on other causes; for,
as before observed, sphuts do not often occasion lameness, unless incipient, o^
very unfavourably situated ; it would be well, therefore, to examine every othej
probable cause of lameness before pronouncing on the evil as arising from a
splint. But a splint may, by its situation, or by the extent of inflammation ex-
ci ed within. Itself, excite also inflammation in the ligaments and tendons them-
selves; it then, of course, loses aU its harmless character, and is not hurtful only,
per se, but becomes a source of great evil from these aggravations. As the ge-
neral nature of spbnt is that of a conversion of what was before ligament into
bone so it IS evident, in this point of view, that a splint can seldom^ if ever, be
wholly removed: but from the process of absorption in the machine in the later
periods of life being greater than the deposit, so it happens that the extra deposit
beyond the simple ossific union, and which extra deposit is that which constitutes
the bulk of the splint, is removed in old horses, or, as grooms express it, they
wear away. For the same reasons it may, with equal truth, be said, that every
old horse dies with sphnts; as, in almost every instance, the union between these
bones consohdates by age, when the stimulus, of necessity, being lost, a hurtful
addition to these natural splints seldom occurs in them. These observations
will be best understood by duly considering what has been urged on the patho-
logy of ossific inflammation.

Treatntent of Splints.— Although, as before s.tated, we cannot restore the car-
tilaginous union to the bones, yet we can, particularly in the early stages of the
disease, promote an absorption of the hurtful and prominent portion of the ex-
ostosis; or otherwise, we can hasten the consolidation of the whole, when its
tenderness and pam wiU cease, and its further increase be prevented. The ap-
pearance of splints, as much as their hurtful consequences, has occasioned such
varied attempts to remove them. In olden times very rough means were used
for this purpose, which sometimes succeeded, but oftener left matters much
wdrsethan before. Such were thumping the swelling with a hammer; rubbing
it violently with a stick; piercing it with a gimlet, &c. An attempt at removal
was also made, and is still occasionally practised, by dissecting away the liga-
ments, when, with a mallet and chisel, the prominent part of the exostosis was
chipped off. _ There is no doubt that, when a splint is very prominent, it may
readily be laid bare and removed by means of a very fine saw. This method has
been successfully practised; and it is probable that the numerous successful ex-
periments which have been made on human exostoses, by saws expressly adapted to
cutting away bony tumours at any depth, without endangering the other parts,
will extend this practice also to these exostoses in the horse more universally;
and we have also the high authority of Sir Astley Cooper for stating, ' that there
is reason to believe that these structures (i. e. splints) may, with properly con-
structed instruments, become much more the subject of operations tiian they
have hitherto been.' Pressure, by means of lead, &c. &c., is an invention also
of ancient date, and is even yet practised. Blistering and firing are also very-
old remedies ; while ' sweating' with oil of origanum, and other essential oils, is
of patriarchal extraction, and, if not superseded by mechanical removal, will pro-

Class XVII.] spavin. 471

bably last to the eud of time. It has lately been the practice to substitute setons
for blisters; but these do but half the work of blisters in twice the time, and are
apt to leave a blemish intathe bargain (see Spavins), in which it does, however,
appear, that this method has succeeded in some cases fully, and that after other
means had failed. At the Veterinary College, it has likewise been common to
divide the periosteum over the splint, by which much relief is said to have been
obtained. This plan originated in the treatment of the human node, but which
is totally a different affection : it is, however, but likely that where this covering
is put much on the stretch, a division of it will give relief. It has also been
treated by applying escharotics to the denuded bone after the periosteum had
been divided: the budding-iron has also been applied, from both which benefit
has followed; but occasionally much inflammation has succeeded; and in one
instance it extended itself among the tendons, and did irreparable mischief : in
all, the blemish is very considerable. It is, however, seldom necessary to have
recourse to other means than vesication, which, if persisted in by first actively
bhstering, and then keeping up an irritation by milder means (as blistering oint-
ment one part, lard three parts), for three or four, or even more weeks, will ge-
nerally complete all that can he effected. Or one active blister may be followed
up by another, with intervals of a week between. In some few cases, where the
ligaments are identified with the exostosis into one tumid mass, it is necessary
to apply the highest stimulus with which we are acquainted, which is the actual
cautery; and the best method is by a pointed budding-kon.

• SPAVIN.

In the march of veterinary knowledge each of its subjects will afford new
matter for new vnews, as such become illuminated by the lights of anatomy and
physiology, or are rendered familiar by experience. It is to be lamented, how-
ever, that, as each step is made, the progressor halts, and considers himself as
having arrived at the ultima thule ; Johnny Groat could not place a brick beyond
him. For a time all join in his admiration, and see only as he sees, until ano-
ther adventurer raises a new pedestal or gains a step beyond the former, and
the rush of opinion then sides with him also ; until another grade, or rather ano-
ther theory, throws the last also into the same obscurity which has overtaken
the former. It is thus that we are found continually vacillating : not halting
between two opinions, but between twenty : not so much examining theories by
patient research, as receiving them by faith in the theorist.

Spavin, as a very serious aequine affection, may be cited as an example of
this : its destructive attack on the utility of the most valuable of our domestic
animals has made it a subject of much importance in the veterinary art, and
an arena for its disputants. Its nature and seat are not yet settled, although
it has been recognized as a dire horse-evil for more than two thousand years.
Its importance most certainly well deserves an attentive consideration ; I will,
therefore, sketch the prevalent opinions regarding it, and endeavour to extract
truth and practical instruction as I and my reader proceed. The eminent
veterinary writer whose general account of the nature, qualities, and diseases of
the horse, give additional value to the Library of Useful Knowledge, offers his
opinion of spavin in so instructive a form, that I cannot do the inquiring reader,
who has not met with it, a more essential service than to condense it for his
perusal. It is observecf by this author, ' that the bones of the leg, the shank-
bone, and the two little splint-bones behind, support the lower layer of the
hones of the hock. The cube-bone rests principally on the shank-bone, and in
a slight degree on the outer splint-bone. The middle wedge-bone rests entirely
upon the shank-bone, and the smaller wedge rests in a very slight degree on the
shank-bone, but principally or almost entirely on the inner splint-bone. Then
the sphnt-bones sustain a very unequal degree of concussion and weight : not
only is the inner one placed more under the body, and nearer the centre of gra-
vity, but it has almost the whole of the weight and concussion comnmnicated
to the little wedgc-bonc carried on to it.' From this clear exposition he pro-

SPAVIN. [Class XVII.

cceds toremark that we need not wonder that the violent actions of gallonimr
leaping, heavy draught, particularly in young horses, should injure the S
spbnt-boiie us ligaments or the substance which connects it wkh the shank
bone; which pressure.^ further increased, according to his opinion, by calkins
placed on the outer heel. 'The weight and concussion,' he goes o? to add
; which are thus thrown on the inner splint-bone produce, in the Trst place
mflain.nation of the cartilaginous substance which unites it to the shank-bone'
Ihe consequence of this is, that the cartilage is absorbed, and bone deposited*
he union between the sphnt-bone and the shank becomes bony instead of car-
tilaginous; the degree of elastic action between them is destroyed, and there is
formed a splint of the hind leg. This is uniformly on the inside of the hind lee
because the greater weight and concussion are thrown on the inner splint-bones
As in the fore leg, the disposition to form bony matter having commenced, and
the cause which produced it continuing to act, bone continues to be deposited
and It appears generally in the form of a tumour, where the head of the splint-
bone IS united with the shank, and in front of that union. This is called iojw-
spavin. Inflammation of the ligaments of any of the smaU bones of the hock
proceeding to bony tumour, would equally class under the name of spavin but'
with very few exceptions, the disease commences on the precise spot we have
described. In both cause and effect, Mr. Percivall (see Lectures, part 1, p. 359)
and Mr._ Youatt therefore regard spavin and splint as the same ; it is the locaUty
only which alters the name. But is the identity quite so clear? In the last
edition of the Veterinary Outlines I conceive that I also erred in straining
this analogy too closely, by which wrong conclusions on the cause, seat, and
consequences of the complaint may probably be formed. Mr. PercivaU himself
seemingly aware of this, observes : ' If however the inflammation extends from
this cartilago ligamentous substance (i. e. that which connects the inner smaU
metatarsal with the cannon) to the ligaments and bones of the hock, and ter-
minates there in effusion of bony matter; or if the exostosis of the inner meta-
tarsal bone Itself is so placed as to disturb the motions of this joint, then does a
spavin differ essentially from a splint: Mr. Youatt also observes on the spread
of the ossific deposit ; but, as seen, he considers the original seat of spavin and
of splint as the same ; and he evidently does the same by the cause also ; the
niain truth of which cannot be denied : but I would beg to remark, that such
view is too limited both as regards the cause and effect, in my own opinion at
least, nor would I venture to differ from such authorities, did the matter not
appear to be practically important. It would appear to me, on attentive con-
sideration of the subject, that it is not the constant pressure on the inner side
of the bony pedestal that is the principal agent in the production of spavin,
although in splint it may be so considered ; because there the tendency of this
pressure to dislocate the inner small metacarpal from the fore cannon appears
to be in constant action, which is manifested by the innumerable cases we meet
with of splint in young horses. On the contrary, the circumstance that spavin
is most common to the mature and aged horse is a sufficient proof that there
must be some essential difference between the two affections. Spavin appears
to me to result partially only from this uniform pressure on the inner metatarsal
bone, but is principally the consequence of a coiUinuoiis series of violencies pro-
duced by inordinide efforts in supporting burthens, rapid progression, or other
extraordinary movements : in fact, from exertions rendered extreme cither by
their intensity or duration. I would not say that splints are the natural rcsuli
of the form of the limb ; but I would say, that many young horses put out splints
from exertions that would not produce spa\'ins. The extraordinary structural
strength of the tarsus or hock, and the complexity of its mechanism, sufficiently
shew that it had mucli more to perform than the carpus ; consequently the range
of variety in its diseases may be supposed to follow in the ratio of its structural
complexity and functional importance. In justice both to the ingenious author
we have (juoted from, as well as to the reader, who will be profited by the mat-
ter, we must further introduce wliat hnmediately bears on our subject. ' If
spavin continues to increase, the bony deposit first spreads over the lower

Class XVIL] spavin. 473

was 10 ouviiii.t; i-<Ji'<-u^'''""- ^ , •< 1 , . c J i

xvith which the motion of the others is scarcely to be regarded, iS' couhned to
the tibia and the astragalus, and, therefore, stiffness rather than lameness may
accompany spavin, even when it is beginning to affect the smaU bones ot the
joint Hence, too, we see the advantage of these bones having each its separate
ligaments and membranes, and constituting so many joints, since injury may
happen to some of them without the effect being propagated to the rest. When
the bony deposit continues to enlarge, and takes in the second layer of bones,
the larger wedge-bones, and even spreads to the cube-bones on the other side,
even then the lameness may not be excessive, because these two are joints, or
parts of the joint, in which the motion is small ; but when it extends to the
union of the tibia and the astragalus ; when the joint, in which is the chief
motion of the hock, is attacked, the lameness is indeed formidable, and the
horse becomes nearly or quite useless. A recollection of the situation of the
different bones of the hock may, in some measure, guide the purchaser as to the
probable value and use of the spavined horse ; but he must not depend on this,
for deep-seated deposits of bone, which the eye cannot reach, may interfere more
with the action of the joint than any outward enlargement, however great.' _

To pursue my account of the opinions entertained on spavin by eminent
professors of the art, I shall next quote Hurtrel d'Arboval, who also regards
spavin as an exostosis that occurs at the superior internal and lateral^ part of
the cannon bone of the hmd leg. It generally occasions lameness, and is of the
nature of curb and other exostoses ; and the treatment which is employed for
curbs and exostosis generally is equally applicable here. Mr. Percivall's excel-
lent definition of spavin is, that it is an exostosis ' upon or near to the inner and
lower part of the hock. In its origin and progress it is very similar to a splent ;
indeed, it may be, in reality, purely a splent ; although from its situation we
should denominate it a spavin. To explain this, a spavin may, and commonly,
we believe, does arise from an inflammation of the cartilago-ligamentous sub-
stance connecting the head of the inner small metatarsal to that of the cannon
bone, without any accompanying disease of the bones of the hock ; and this, ter-
minating in ossification, may be a splent as to its nature, but is a spavin as to its
situation. If, however, the inflammation extends from this cartilago-ligamentous
substance to the ligaments and bones of the hock, and terminates there in the
effusion of bony matter; or if the exostosis of the inner metatarsal bone itself is
so placed as to disturb the motions of this joint, then does a spavin differ essen-
tially from a splent. To elucidate this point still farther : if the exostosis, in-
stead of making its appearance just beneath the hock, is seated about the body
or lower extremity of the cannon, it constitutes a splent of the_ hind leg ; a dis-
ease, however, of but rare occurrence, owing to the bony deposit commonly ap-
pearing at that part where inflammation is first excited. Although a spavin, at
the commencement, may be confined to the metatarsal bones, it seldom happens
that those of the hock do not ultimately partake of the disease ; and this will
account for the various degrees of lameness and stiffness observable in that
joint : indeed, we have little doubt but the external parts, the vascular lining of
the joint, become eventually diseased ; so that the synovia is unnatural either
in r[uantity or quality, or, perhaps, both, to which is chiefly referrible the ex-
planation of the fact, of spavined horses improving in their action during work.
In almost all cases of inveterate spavin, the cuneiform bones are united together
by a layer of ossific matter, extending upwards from the inside of the large and
inner small metatarsals ; so that there is no longer any motion whatever be-
tween the small bones of the hock and those of the leg : very commonly, also, the
same sort of union renders the os calcis, as well as the os cuboides, fixed in their
places.'

Mr. Goodwin, well known to the veterinary world as an eminent practitioner
and valuable writer, considers the seat of spavin to be ' in the synovial membrcmc

^^'^ SPAVIN. [Class XVII.

that covers the cmwiforni hones:' it is here also, Mr. G. conceives, that spavia
generally con,niences With every deferenee to this gentleman'; opinimf "
Ins vjevv also not too Umited?_ And does not every day's experience'^di ^'oi
Its being confined to this situation, or of its eommencement from such an iridn
in the majority of cases ? Mr. Goodwin has done the profession at large much
service by his researches on this subject ; and there is httle reason to doubt that
many, nay most of the cases of tarsal lameness, ivithovi much eidargement of the
W^and which from thence are calculated to deceive, and become attributed
to strains and affections in the 'round hone' or ' stifle; are derived from this
source. 1 his disease of the synovial membrane of the cuneiform bones,' it is
observed, had not been named by any one : it had been confounded with exos-
tosis, because^ exostosis was an occasional consequence of it. Mr. G.'s opinion
was that spavin did not commence with an enlargement of the hock, but with
lameness from inflammation and ulceration of the synovial membrane. ' Exostosis
was a subsequent affair. Common spavin, however, was, in the commencement
an exostosis. Over-exertion had produced inflammation in the substance be-
tween the metatarsals, and had packed the bones together : over-exertion was
hkewise the probable cause of the inflammation of the synovial membrane of the
cuneiform bones.'

If future researches should prove the frequent existence of these cases, to
derive from the discovery all the benefit the art may expect, it would be much
better not to confound it with the farriers' ' hone-spavin: Such a view would
greatly mystify the pathology of occult hock lamenesses, where spavin is always
supposed to shew itself in the form of exostosis; and without which not only is
spavin disallowed, but also lameness itself denied a station without it, and a hunt
made for it elsewhere. Mr. Youatt's observations on this subject (FefeWwam/?/
vol. ill) are in unison with this view, and merit much attention*. To add to the
varied seats of spavin, it has been asserted to be particularly frequent on the
surfaces of the prominent ridge of the tibia and the corresponding furrow of the
astragalus ; but one or two cases do not establish any speciality in favour of this
habitatf.

Spavin may, therefore, be characterised as exostosis of some one or more of
the tarsal bones, or ossific inflammation of the ligaments which connect them
with each other. It may also be considered, that it has no determinate seat, but
IS more often found on the inner than the outer side of the hock. It also fre-
quently affects the surfaces of the cuneiform bones, whose ligamentous con-
nexions it ossifies, and whose surfaces it ulcerates sometimes. It is equally
true, that its effects are not to be measured by the dimensions of the exostosis,
as these are sometimes great without corresponding lameness ; and that it is a
character of the affection founded oh the lessened irritability and increased ab-

• ' Various diseases of tlie liock had been confounded under the name of spavin; but, in his mind
there was as much difference between the conmion spavin (the bony union between the metatarsals
and the exostosis frequently consequent on it), and ulceration of the synovial membrane of the
cuneiform bones, as there was between the navicular joiut disease and any other disorganization of
the internal structure of the foot They might be connected, but were perfectly distinct. They
might run into each other; one mifrht be the consequence of the other; or each alo'ne niiKht pursue
its course, and produce permanent lameness. He could wish that the term spavin should be confined
to that enlareeinent connected with the bony union of the metatarsals, which veterinary writers and
horsemen had uniformly distinguished under that term; and that some other and appropriate name
should be given to the inflammation and ulceration of the internal structure of the hock, and par-
ticularly of the cuneiform bones, which Mr. Goodwin has so excellently described. This distinction
being made, he was much mistaken if the veterinary public would not soon acknowledge itself as
much indebted to Mr. Goodwin for the discovery, or at least the elucidation, of a frequent, and
obscure, and unsuspected cause of lameness behind, as they will to Mr. J. Turner for the light he
has thrown on as frequent, and obscure, and previously unsuspected cause of lameness before.'

t As tlic invasion extends itself over every portion of the hock, it is evident this will also sonic-
times happen; but that it is a frequent one, or to be considered as the bead-quarters of spavin, is
clearly erroneous. VVcie this the case, all snob spavins would lame a horse beyond any capability of
ordinary progression ; for on the admirable pulley-like adaptation of the tarsal extremity of the tibia
with the astragalus the motions of this joint principally depend : whereas it is notorious that lame-
iiesB is not always the consequence of tarsal exostoses ; ou the contrary, many horses have them with-
out lamendss, at least without so much as materially interferes with progression. The articulating
surfaces of the tibia and those of the astragalus, which mortice with each other, cannot therefore be
one of the strong holds of this parasite.

Class XVII.] spavin. 475

sointion which warmth, friction, and mental excitement occasion, to render the
horse less lame as he progresses, and which will assist to distinguish it trom
ther affections. These affections, however, lame the animal more or less,
iccorcUng to their situation. A spavin of the cuneiform bones usuaUy lames
more than that which is lower down and affects the metatarsals only. Neither
do spavins, when arrived at a certain state, usuaUy increase; consequently spa-
vined horses for some purposes may prove very useful. In moderate and slow
work they are even amended frequently, and last many years ; but in bad cases
the fear of lymg down prevents their thriving. Thus post-masters and stage-
coach drivers are not often willing to purchase badly spavined horses, or any
others with permanent lamenesses behind, although they do not reject the foun-
dered or srocro-y horse. Lamenesses before force the horse to he down ; those
behind often prevent him doing this, from an instinctive dread, that when once
down he cannot rise again; and these persons are weU aware that the horse who
lies most can work most. .i, . r v 4.

Treatment of Bone Spavin.— I^ns does not differ from that of sphnt, except
that as it is much oftener a cause of serious lameness, and occurring as it
commonly does in older horses, from the effect of long-continued exertion, so
it also proves more obstinate; and the treatment required, therefore, should be
more active. Among the older farriers, who, hke some of the moderns, think
nothing too strong for a horse, violent mechanical operations were resorted to,
to remove spavins as well as splints ; as the maUet and chisel to chip it oil,
boring the exostosis with a gimlet, punching it with a hot iron, or applying
caustics; the first removing it mechanicaUy, and the three latter methods de-
stroying its vitahty and promoting its exfoHation. As might be expected, tor
one ca^e which succeeded (and in some it certainly did succeed), in many it
increased the lameness, or ended in anchylosis, and sometimes in death. iJut
the very few successful cases gained by these violent means stiU give the prac-
titioner ^>ithout professional character a decided advantage over the regular
veterinarian ; for should the former, by these violent means, destroy his patient,
he only stands where he did: but if he cure him, all the world is told that he
has effected that which the veterinarian could not do ; that is, what he dare not
attempt. As with splint, it is not unprobable that instruments may yet be de-
vised which will operate on these bony enlargements without risk ; though the
chances are fewer in the hock, from its connexion with capsular and bursal
ligaments, than in the fore leg. The treatment pursued by veterinarians of the
present day varies somewhat ; those bordering on the old school still rub them
with some violence, and then stimulate them with ol. origanum, ol. terebinth.
&c. &c. Those of later date blister and fire. At the Veterinary College setons
are used, by nipping up the skin and pushing a seton-needle armed with tape
through it, so that the tape within the skin exactly opposes itself to the spavin.
If the skin be tender or tumefied, it is more proper to make an opening above
and below the exostosis, and to push a blunt seton-needle, or eyed probe, from
one opening to the other, armed with the tape, which should be daily smeared
with mild bhstering ointment, or common turpentine. In this way, report
says, the College practice has proved very successful, and therefore merits trial.
Blistering I have, however, found, when repeated over and over, and particu-
larly when mild intermediate stimulants have been kept apphed, as a weak oint-
ment of Spanish flies, or oil and turpentine, &e., has commonly proved equal
to all the benefit these obstinate cases can receive ; for when the bony deposit
is fully formed, it is in vain to expect its entire absorption : even its partial ab-
sorption is often frustrated. Our principal hope lies in removing that inflam-
mation which is the existing cause of much of the pain, stiffness, and tumefac-
tion in the ligaments around, and likewise in preventing the increase of the bony
deposit. Our hopes of success must also greatly depend on the time of the
existence of the evil. When it is eariy attended to, before the bony deposit
has gained its full solidity, stimulants act more favourably, and lessen it more
materially. It remains to add, that, when repeated blistering fails, the jnore
active method of promoting absorption by firing may be tried, carefully avoiding

476 CURB— RING-BONE. [ClASS XVII.

to fire too actively or deeply, otherwise the integuments may be penetrated, and
a dangerous inflammation and bloughing of the ligaments follow *.

CURB.

It has been so long the custom to rank curb with exostosis, that in the former
editions I yielded to it, and entered on the description and treatment of it in
this place, and which was not altogether improper, for we have seen that it does
sometimes extend itself to the tarsal bones, when its treatment must follow that
of exostosis generally. But as curb is not originally an affection of the bones,
its fuU consideration is referred to tendinous and ligamentous extensions or
strains, to which it properly belongs.

RING-BONE.

This is an exostosis surrounding the whole, or part, of the circle of the coro-
net. Sometimes there are only two lateral swellings; but, although the situa-
tion is no further varied than this in the different cases which occur, yet the
parts affected are very dissimilar, and the degrees of lameness by no means the
same. In very upright pasterns, either originally so formed, or ha^dng become
so from ligamentary contractions, or from heels allowed to gain a preposterous
height, the articulary surfaces of the bones become so perpendicularlySjpposed
to each other, that great jar is sustained during motion, and inflammation is
either excited in the ligaments, cartilages, or bones themselves; by which an
osseous deposit takes place, either around the coronary ligament, or around the
extremities of one or both pastern bones. When the deposit takes place within
the lateral cartilages, the prominence is not circular, but on each side of the
foot ; and these cases, which are common to aged and hard-worked horses, are
not in general attended with so much heat and lameness as those which extend
around the coronet, and have the pastern bones or coronary ligament for their
seat. Ring-bones are not uncommon among colts at the time of their backing,
from the ruinous weights of a heavy rider over rough or ploughed ground, and
from their being thrown on their haunches during their training, and which effort
is, perhaps, the reason that they are more common to the hind than to the fore
feet.

The treatment of a ring-bone resolves itself into attempts to reduce any con-
siderable inflammation which may exist, by bleeding at the toe, and poulticing
with bran and diluted vinegar around the foot, until active inflammation be
abated. After this, blister the coronet, and keep up the inflammatory action of
the bUster for a month. If the ring-bone be still in the same state after this pe-
riod, proceed to fire; and again blister over it, as the inflammation subsides f.

Exostoses of the Coffin and Navicular Bones are still more conimon ; indeed,
the coffin bones of old horses are seldom seen without them : it is equally com-
mon to see the lateral cartilages absorbed, and their place supplied by bone. It
is curious to observe the vast varieties in these deposits ; in some, the coflSn
is increased to a grotesque form, totally distinct from the original. In a few, the
absorption is greater than the deposit, but this is not frequent. The navicular

• Bv a reference to firing (amongtlie Operations) it will, however, be seen, that occasionally benefit
mav be derived in extreme cases, by extending the cauterization beyond these limits. It is unques-
tionable that desperate diseases will require desperate remedies, and this tlic more as the constitution
will often repair very violent and extensive disorganizations from accidental causes, when it refuses to
do so bv direct morbid affections. , . , . j

V'le feu doit etre applique en raics profondes, avcc des pointes rapprochees ; c'est de cctte ma-
: Oirard (de la Sartlie) I'appliqua a un clieval qui portait une forme plus^ grosse que Ic poing.

-lJurtrvl (fArbovnl, art. Forme.

Class XVIII.] simple inflammation of the eye. 411

hone becomes sometimes incrusted also with osseous matter, and the sensible
Imiiina; do not escape a singular incrustatiou. Can we, therefore, wonder at the
Stiffness and disinclination to unusual exertion in old horses? or can we be sur-
prised that these affections are so irremediable in them? (See Groggy Lame-
. nesses.)

ANCHYLOSIS.

When ossific matter is deposited within or upon the extremities of bones, or
within or upon the capsular and investing ligaments, so as totaUy to destroy the
flexibiHty of a joint, it is called anchylosis. This tendency is manifested m a
very great degree in the horse, as might be expected, from his being so subjected
to continued and violent exertions, tending to put all the parts on the stretch,
and, by the stimulus of exertion, to press all their powers to. the top of their ac-
tion. Few of the joints of the horse escape the chance of anchylosis, as few of
his bones are out of the ordinary reach of exostosis. The joints of the spinal
column, particularly of the dorsal and lumbar vertebrae, are very frequently the
seat of these affections, which seem to be occasioned by the heavy weights im-
posed on these animals. It is this affection which renders pld horses stiff, and
in some instances unwilling to lie down, or when down to rise up again. (See
Osteology.)

Anchylosis of the Knee and Hock is likewise not uncommon from punctures
into the Cavity of the joint, either by accident, or by the lamentable ignorance in
the treatment of their medical or rather non-medical attendants.

Anchylosis of the Pastern and Coffin Joints is also not unusual. One cause
appears to be ulceration of the articular cartilages. (See Navicular Joint Dis-
ease.) Another is the inflammation of the ligaments, from an unfavourable op-
position of the bones of the pasterns, gained either by excess of exertion, and
then called knuckling, or by that malconformation called upright pasterus. In
these cases the tendons and ligaments are ever on the stretch, to rectify the
unnatural line of the limb, and to prevent the shocks of concussion, which even-
tually terminate in a deposit of ossific matter in and around them ; this soon
communicates to the bones, and these joints become finally anchylosed*. From
what has already been said, it will be evident that no treatment wiU be effective
in promoting a perfect cure in any of these instances ; we can only palliate the
symptoms by the means before detailed in Exostosis.

CLASS XVIII.
DISEASES OF THE EYE.

SIMPLE INFLAMMATION OF THE EYE.

This common or accidental inflammation must be distinguished from that
known as the specific or periodical ophthalmia, the course of which ends in cata-
ract : this, on the contrary, usually yields readily to medical treatment : in most
instances it would meet a natural cure. The diseases of the eye have a conse-
quence on the horse unknown to man, who, having one affected, is still able to
perceive objects distinctly with the other: the horse, on the contrary, has his
axis of vision so directed that he sees different objects with each eye; conse-
quently, when blind of one eye, all objects on that side are shut out from his

• Morbid iipecimcng of anchylosis arc met with In sufficient numbers at the London horse slaugh-
terers, and in the cabinets of veterinarians. Mr. Pcrcival! observes, that from IfiO anchylosed spe-
Cimeiii< (if pastern and coffin-joints, lliere were five of coinplotc iincliylosis of the fctlocli ; forty ditto
oflhepastein; eiglitecn ditto of the coffin ; of tliem there are only lour in vvliich the navicular joint
does not participate : seven of complete anchylosis both of the pastern and coffln-jointi); the others
t>r«aent incrustations only, more or less extensive.

478 SIMPLE INFLAMMATION OF THE KYE. [ClASS XVIII.

sight. It is said to be a fact, that a blind horse has a smooth coat in winter
and a rough one in summer. Nimrod says it happens to nine out often We
relate it as we have received it. There is also another evil connected with an
infiammatory affection of the eye in the horse resulting from this division - which
IS, that during any affection of one the horse is startlish and timid in the extreme
from objects presenting themselves indistinctly on that side: when both eves
are affected, he is of course, more so. It is but seldom that this inflammation has
other than a mechanical origin : blows, lesion of the conjunctive coats from the lash
ot the whip, hay-seeds, or other matters falling within the eyelids, and not being
removed by the action of the nictitating membrane, are common causes It now
and then, in a mild degree, is an accompaniment of catarrh; and likewise occa-
sionally appears the consequence of a direct attack of cold centering itself in one
or both of them; such cases, however, are rare, and should always be looked on
with extreme suspicion, as partaking of the specific ophthalmia. According to
Hurtrel d Arboval, the simple ophthalmia has other causes than external injuries
or being symptomatic of eatan-h; for he describes it as epizootic* and as spon-
taneous from other causes also. It can likewise, according to him, degenerate
into the puriformf; a state very rare, if ever known, in English veterinary prac-
tice; while ehemosis, very unusual with us, appears not an unfrequent result of
It in France J. I must, however, observe, that on no disease of the horse is this
otherwise excellent and instructive author so unsatisfactory, in my opinion, as
on this. He multiplies the causes of it and the forms it assumes unnecessarily;
and many of his descriptions, intended to apply to the ophthalmic affection I am
now treating of, ought to be appended to specific ophthahnia.

The appearances of simple inflammation of the eye are principally to be distin-
guished from those of specific ophthalmia by the circumstance, that, except in
cases of unusual intensity, they are such as characterise affection of the conjunc-
tival surfaces only; whereas, in the other case, the internal parts of the globe
participate, and it is probable that they are the parts primarily attacked; whereas
in the most acute cases of simple inflammation, any internal attack is only conse-
quent to the ophthalmic state of the conjunctive coats. Another assistant guide
in distinguishing between the two is, that here there is seldom any disturbance
in the system, as symptomatic fever, impaired appetite, and harsh drj^ skin.
There are, hpwever, the same impatience of light denoted by closed eyelids ; the
same distention of the vessels and reddened hue of the conjunctive coats, as well
as the haw inflamed and protruded: sometimes the pellucidity of the cornea
is disturbed. From that sympathy which is found to exist between double
organs, even when the affection has been entirely brought on by violence done
to one eye, the other will by sympathy become affected also, but in a minor
degree. Of this liability the practitioner should be aware, as a mistake in this
particular might lead him into several important errors.

The treatment must commence by a careful eversion of the eyelids, in case the
cause is not otherwise apparent, and due examination to detect any extraneous
substance which may have intruded itself ; which must be followed by its re-

• ' L'opthalmic dite epizootique n'est pas ti es rare ; ou I'observe !innuel!ement dans certain cantons,
c'est-a-dire qu'elle yreparait prcsqne chaque annee, aiix memes epoqiies et dans les memes circon-
stances. On Ta observee en Flandre dans I'ete de 1781 ; on I'a attribuec alors a la clialeiir excessive
dc la saison, et a, dcs fourrages cliarges d'insectes que les habitans du pays appcUent onningues, et
que nous ne connaissons pas autrement. Elle a aussiregne dans les departemensdu Nord et de I'Eiire
pendant les etes dc 1800 et de 1801. Les symptonics de I'oplitlialinie epizootique observee en Flandre
dans I'lHe de 1781, etaient la ce cite, la tumefaction de la glande lacrymale, la suppuration du buibe
dans plusieurs sujcts, dans tons latristesse, le degout et la lifevre.'

f ' La suppuration, le trouble des liumcurs, des abc^s dans les chambres de I'oeil, I'opacite de sea
membranes internes, et meme la rupture du globe, tout est a craindre dans I'opbthalmie interne qui
s'ajoute a I'oplithalniic cxterne, si Ton ne parvient pas a maitriser I'inllammalion et a la resoudre, ce
qu i est souvent fort difficile.'

I ' Cettc grave ampliation de I'ophtlialmie Cc/jemosi*^ provient, ou de la force de I'irritation des
parties affcctees, ou de la negligence dans IVmploie des moyens antiphlogistiques. Apr^s les
saignces generalcs pratiquees d^s le principe, la difetc ct les boissons delayantcs, ce qui serait le
meux consisterait cu d'abondautes saignees locales; mair la difficultc de les pratiquer, et celle plus
grandc d'obtcnir bcaucoup de sang pendant long-temps des veines qui environnent il'ipil, ne permct-
tent pas dc bcaucoup compler sur I'efticacite de ce moyen. Celui qu'on pourrait tenter pour le sup-
plier serait d'inciser, avec dcs ciseaux courbes sur leur plat, tout le bourrelet, inflammatoire il en
rfesulterait une abondantc hemorrhagic tr^s propre I'l apaiscr les accidens.'

Class XVIIT.] specific or periodical ophthalmia. 479

moval as well as by such local and general bleeding, and such applications as
the in'tensity of the inflammation requires, of which further notice will be taken
in the next article.

SPECIFIC OR PERIODICAL OPHTHALMIA.

This ruinous aflection of the eyes is distinguished from the former by its con-
stitutional nature; it is also characterised by its being deeper seated. Indeed,
I am disposed to think that its original attack is made on the inner structure of
the eve * in many, if not in all instances ; and that from this the inflammation
extends over the conjunctive coats; in which case ophthalmia memhrananim is a
less proper term for it than ophthalmitis, which is applicable as well to inflamma-
tion of the whole bulb, as to that confined to its membranes. A precise know-
ledge of this disease was long withheld : among the French even, it was not until
Bourgelat had been succeeded by Chabert, that it became characteristically de-
veloped. Chabert it was who first shewed its specific nature, and its isolated
state from simple phlegmasise of the organ brought about by accidental circum-
stances. He first distinctly proved that it was a constitutional aSection inherent
in the structure of the organ. Among our own countrymen it was long regarded
as having its origin in occasional causes, as local injuries, &c. : even the protru-
sion of the haw and its tumefaction and discoloirration, though a symptom only
of the affection, were often mistaken for the cause of the disease; and the treat-
ment was more than a match for the error, which was the cutting off the pro-
trudino- portion. It is to Mr. Coleman that we are indebted for the most ample
information on the subject; and it was to his early and exclusive attention to
it, probably, that the art received the benefit of his future researches throughout
it's wide field. It would have been happy for us had his inquiries been crowned
with equal success as regards the curative treatment of it ; but here he, in com-
mon with others, can offer little more than the result of his unsuccessfiil though
ingenious attempts.

The appearances which accompany the affection are not always the same :
those more commonly present are swelled eyelids, which appear nearly closed,
and when separated exhibit a sunken retracted eyeball, giving the eye the ap-
pearance of being diminished. This arises from the retractor muscles acting
to withdraw the eye fi'om the stimulus of light, which appears in every case of
active inflammation to give extreme pain, and the horse is apt to resist every
effort to force open the lids for inspection, particularly if it be in frqnt of a
strong light ; but turn the head away, and the animal will unclose the eye and
exhibit its features. This retraction of the eye at the same time forces the haw
over a portion of its globe, where it is seen swelled and preternaturaUy red,
from its participation in the disease ; and which addition to its size and colour
has, among farrifirs and horsemen, long subjected it to the accusation of being
the cause, instead of the effect, of the disease. The inner surfaces of the eye-
lids will be found highly vascular and hot, pouring forth, in most instances, a
flood of tears, which continually trickles down the face in successional scalding
drops, and the whole conjunctiva will present a net-work of turgid red vessels
over its opaque and naturally white surface : such is the distention of the vessels,
before intended to carry only the colourless parts of the blood, that they not
only tinge the opaque cornea, but are seen obtruding their red lines into the
transparent cornea also, which sometimes suffers an effusion of a dull yellow
colour. If the pupil be not too much contracted or too turbid, we shall discover
the aqueous humour thick and muddy also ; the iris and choroid will likewise

• Mr. Wardrop says, ' This inflammation is sPated in the internal parts of ttio cyc-ball, affecting
more particularly tlic clioroid coal and the iris.' Mr. I'erciv.iU ohservps that 'even the aquoons hu-
mour grows turliid, and that the iris in some cases turns of a dead anilicr line ; the corpora nigra lose
their jetty blackness, and the pupil becomes so contracted as to be with difficulty seen through.'
Hurtrel d'Arboval has, ' Ophthalmio periodiijue se reconnait au trouble dc I'humcur aqueusc, dfcter-
minft lui-memc par I'irritation dc la membrane qui taplssc la chambrc nntirieure, mSmc lea deux
cliamhres, ct sc tcrminc par la cataractc ct la cecitft.'

480 SPECIFIC OR PERIODICAL OPHTHALMIA. [CLASS XVIII.
be found altered from their natural colour. From this state it follows some-
times, that a central yellow patch is discovered at the bottom of the eye iu
which case matter has formed, but not from the usual suppurative inflammation-
for it commonly becomes absorbed again, and sometimes very speedily. In very
acute cases, however, there is a large deposit of fluid, which disorganizes the
eye, or now and then proceeds to evacuate itself by an abscess of the globe •
but these are extreme and rare cases. The rapidity of the changes in the state
of the eye is a very marked feature of specific ophthalmia ; and the transition
from a most opaque to almost a clear state of the cornea, and from a simple
dimness in the appearance to a perfect opacity, sometimes takes place iu a
remarkable short space of time. I have seen an eye opaque within and without
which was merely dim the night before ; and perhaps, within twelve hours, it
would be the same again, without any apparent medical agency. This extreme
activity of both the depositing and the absorbing vessels is pecuhar to the brute
eye ; in the human these changes are less rapid, which has been attributed to
the coagulable lymph in the human eye rupturing its minute vessels and be-
corning extravasated ; but in the brute eye, to its remaining within its vessels.
This, however, cannot be the sole acting cause, since, from our present physio-
logical theory, it is natural to suppose that the fluid must be extravasated,
before it can be absorbed ; consequently it would disappear, under this view of
the matter, quickest in the human subject. It is really dependent on the greater
energy of the absorbing system of the horse under the inflammatory action in
these cases.

In the above detail of symptoms, it is the active inflammatory state which has
been described, and is frequently so sudden in its attack as to gain almost its
maximum in a few hours, which has led inexperienced persons to look for the
cause in blows, irritating matter falling into the eye, as hay seeds, stings of
wasps, bees, &c. It is not, however, in every instance thus violent, nor thus
sudden ; on the contrary, it sometimes approaches more slowly, when the im-
patience of light is not remarkable, and amounts only to a winking of the lids,
and moisture from tears, when brought into the full glare : the globe of the ej'c
looks i-ather yellow than red, and within it is only slightly disturbed with a dis-
coloured muddiness. The haw is here hardly apparent, the eyelids are less swollen
and gorged, and the tears pass in their natural channel , the eye or eyes remain
without much variation many days, and sometimes weeks even. This apparent
mildness of symptoms is not, however, a prognostic of a less formidable disease,
for this proves usually as obstinate and as eventually fatal to vision as the other.
Among the other peculiarities between ophthalmia of the human and of the
horse, one is, that it usually attacks both eyes in the former, whereas it is by no
means unusual for it to attack one only in the horse, leaving the other totally .
unaffected, or at most only sympathetically so, but without specific affection.
Equally worthy of remark, is the complete and sudden metastasis which often
takes place in this I'nonocular ophthalmia*. From being in a verj' aggravated
state of inflammation in one eye, it will suddenly shift its seat to the other,
leaving the original much amended or nearly well : and it must have been this
intermittent type which first gained it the term of a gouty affection from Mr.
Coleman ; a term, perhaps, which is not altogether applicable, but by no means
deserving of the ridicule which has been attached to it. Its specific character
has also been attacked ; but I believe that its general nature, and the singu-
larities it maintains, can by no other term be so justly expressed. It has been
observed, that when the disease is attended with tumefied Uds and much weep-
ing, it usually attacks both eyes ; but I have not unfrequently seen it confined
to one only. It is also asserted, that under ophthalmia a horse rarely sweats,

• This metastasis is not confined to the change from eye to eye only, but from tlic eyo to other or-
gans also, and vice versd. Inllammation of the laminse of the feet lias been thns changed, and the
eyes also have occasionally brightened at the expense of the laminated strnctnrc. Mr. Caslley ob-
serves, in T/ti' Veterinarian , that he has seen periodical ophthalmia supervening on some disturbed
state of the system, as from diabetes brought on by mow-burnt hay, or kiln-dried oats; of which he
had many instances iu the three years iu which the army of occupation remained in France after the
battle of Waterloo, where very many horses went blind apparently from this source only.

Class XVIII.] specific or periodical ophthalmia. 481

and thiit when he does it is not a favourable perspiration, but a cold clammy
6ne which is not unlikely from the symptomatic fever present, which sometimes
run's high. There does also appear a somewhat distinct sympathetic connexion
between the eyes and skin in these cases; which latter is usually harsh, and
' yrhat is called uuthrifly.
• The periodical nature of the complaint is such, that, having once made its
appearance, there is almost a certainty of a recurrence of its attacks at' indefinite
periods, which the older farriers usually estimated at about a lunar month ; and
hence supposed that the moon had some mfluence on it, and therefore named it
lunatic or moon-hlindness* . We need not deny this absurdity — it denies itself;
for it recurs at indefinite periods, as from two or three weeks to as many months.
It is always observed, that the first of these inflammatory attacks, however violent,
having arrived at its height, usually gives way to medical treatment, or the dis-
. ease leaves the horse of its own accord, and the eyes recover neaiiy their
• former appearance : I use the term nearly, because they are seldom so perfectly
: transparent as before ; on the contrary, by a narrow inspection, there will be
. observed either some small opaque spots within the pupil, or the general cornea
will not be so distinctly clear as before ; or even should the centre of the cornea
be perfectly transparent, yet there will commonly remain some cloudy lines
: around its extreme circumference. This latter appearance should always be
particularly attended to, for this is the very last part the opacity quits ; and, I
1 believe, in an eye once aflfected, this hardly ever wholly leaves the extreme
1 edges. The eye or eyes, however, thus far recovered, seldom remain very long
: sound, but something again calls the diseased action forth, and the complaint
I recurs with its former violence and its former appearances. As these attacks
; are repeated, they leave the eye less transparent each time ; sometimes a very
: small white speck is left within the humours, which may be seen thi-ough the
; pupil. This opaque spot forms a nucleus for future and rapid accretion : some-
' times, however, it will remain stationary a long time, and now and then it never
. enlarges. But, usually, repeated inflammatory attacks succeed each other, and
1 the whole crystalline lens at last becomes opaque, when the disease takes the
! name of cataract^ in which almost all these inflammations terminate. It is
I remarkable, likewise, when the process of forming cataract is become fixed and
regular within the crystalline, that active inflammation usually leaves the coats of
the eye, and seldom again returns.

Causes. — It has been conjectured, that the remote cause of this disease arises
from the plethora which takes place in horses at the adult period; that is, when
they have just attained their growth, and at which time it is observed they are
more trequently first attacked with it ; for till this age the blood has not only

■ to nourish the body, but to increase it also by the addition of parts ; but after
- maturity, having only to support the organs it has already formed, there must

be a superahuvdant quantity thrown on the system : at this period, likewise, the
vascular action is strong, and much subject to distention. This theory, however
ingenious, is by no means sufficient to account for the constitutional predispo-
sition so evident to this disease, for it is by no means confined to the adult
period* ; and even barring this objection to its correctness, it yet remains to be
accounted for, why the eyes should be, of all the organs, the only ones attack-

• Ocrvaiso Markham Imo, ' Now they be called moon- eyes, because if tUe farrier do observe tlipin
' he shall perceive that at some times of the jnnon he shall see very prettily, and at some times of the

«e»n he slmtl see nothing at all. Now the signs t,hercof are, when the horse's eyes arc at the best
: they will look rather yellowish and diminc; and when they are at the worst, they will look red, fiery,

and angry,'

+ It is seen in colts and fillies of every age. I have seen it at two years old. Ilnrtrel d'Arboval and

■ other French authors assert similar cases. Mr. Castley saw in Ireland two,blind three-year-old colts,

■ one of which had never been housed ; but both had l)ecome blind by spccilic ojihtliabnia. It is also
worthy of observation, in proof of the hereditary predisposition to cataract as paramount to all occa-
sional causes, that it is more prevalent in Ireland than in England. During my military services there,
where it was common to summon a vast number of cars for the transport of baggage .and amniuni-

' tlon, I was, surprised at the number of blind horses: they are not, I believe, so common now. At
the time I allude to, it was not to be supposed that it was to any artificial uioiles of life that this pre-
volence was observed, but to the usual habit of breeding from blind liorses and marcs. Mr. Castloy
remarks on a blind stallion called Chantieleei , in very great repute, whose disease formed no bar to
his selection as a stock -getter.

li h

482 SPECIFIC OR PERIODICAL OPHTHALMIA. [CLASS XVIH.

ed, seeing the plethora is universally distributed; and why also the complaint
should be confined to the horse, and not take place in any thing like an equal
degree in the mule and ass at their adult periods, even in those countries
where the treatment of them is equally luxurious with that of the horse. It is,
however, in such countries more frequent with these congeners than with us,
which is a sufficient proof that a life of art increases, if it does not altogether
beget, the tendency to it. We have, however, by a source of extensive obser-
vations, pretty clearly established its hereditary nature : the constitutional dis-
position, dependent undoubtedly on structural speciality, does descend from the
parents of both sexes to the offspring ; and this knowledge may be hereafter
turned to account by our breeding only from such parents as have not this ap-
titude ; by which, if we fail to cure, we may greatly prevent*. Colour has been
thought to influence the liability to the affection ; but no two persons agree as
to the shades most obnoxious : the wall-eyed horse, by general consent, is, how-
ever, said to be exempt ; yet Mr. Castley met with two cases of this kind in
one regiment. Size of body, however, has certainly some connexion with it, for
blindness is much more rare among ponies than among larger horses ; and it is
the general opinion, and one which appears founded on experience, that small
retracted eyes, particularly in the heads of coarse fleshy horses, are more pre-
disposed to disease than others. "*
The occasional causes are probably various. A determination to the head
must be the consequence of the exertion which a horse is exposed to when he is
first put to active and laborious exercise, particularly that of drawing ; and this,
as he is unused to it, must act considerably in distendb^ the vessels of these or-
gans. Hurtrel d'Arboval lays much stress on dentition as an occasional cause ;
and in this process it is certain much blood must centre about the parts. Early
breaking horses into harness by collar pressure must also hinder the firee return
of blood from the head, and produce congestion. The French authors are much
impressed also with the tendency of some food, and with the nature and quality
of some pasturage, in the production of this and also of the simple ophthalmia.
Clover seems to lie under this tax. Hard food, they think, by exciting much
mastication, may produce it ; but which is much_ to be doubted. There is,
however, great reason to think that disturbances in the digestive functions, as
we have seen in the case of musty hay and kiln-dried oats, are predisponentsf.
The acrimonious fumes of a hot foul stable, to a young animal that has been

• Too much publicity caniwt be given to this beieditary tendency, nor to the collecting all the proofs
of its existence. Miirtrel d'Arboval observes, ' C'est surtout a I'occasion de certains uiaiix d'yeux et
de leurs suites qu'on a etabli I'heredite des maladies. Hiizard pere, dans son instruction sur I'aiiie-
lioratipn des chevaux de France, publiee en I'an X (1802), et qui n'a pas etfe rfeimprimee denuis,
I'onseille de rejeter des haras les jninens affectecs de fluxion lunaiigne parcequ'on a observe, dit il,
qu'elles coinniuniquent a b-urs poiilains cette affection periodique. Bourgelat avertit de prendre
garde dans le choix des etalons, a tonte disposition nialadive sujette a etre transmise, est il range
dans cette categoric les niaux d'yeux qii'il appelle cssentiels. Gursault pose le ineme principle, et
signa
Cette

ignale particulierement les ycux faiblcs, la fluxion babituelle et a fluxion periodique de ces organes.
Jette derniere est consideree, par Lafosse, comme souvent herfeditaire. Nous savons qu'on a rfe-
forme des etalons, dans les depots cntietenus anx frais de Tetat, par tela seul qu'on a cru remarquer
qu'ils transniettaient a leurs prodnits des predispositions 4 la c6cit6. Plusicurs vfeterinaires nous
out assurfe que des ponlains issns de pfere et de mfeie lunatiques, se sunt monties aptes a contractor
des onhthalmie'i principaienient a I'epoqne de la dentition et surtout de la sortie des crochet.' In the
Recueil de Med. Vet. for March 1829, is a paper purposely written by M. Marripoey, for the
Royal Agricultural Society of France, on tlie subject of the hereditariness of periodical ophthalmia,
where the duect proofs were numerous, and admitted of no doubt that this cause is fully sufficient,
in a ffreat number of instances, to account for the disease. It may be added, that the practical York-
shire breeders will not now breed from either horse or mare which has spontaneously become blmd;
and continued experience, the best teacher, has convinced them that, in their own words, ' bad eyes
vpill run through the stock."
+

par;

Demous

vUle de?a'chataien'eraie,''se"s^ qu'elle offre constanmient I'aspcct d'une belle vfegfela.

tion touiours active et abondante ; or il est bicn reconnu que piesque tous les chevaux qu'on abon-
dante dans cette prairie sont attaques de la ophthalmic periodique apr^is deux ou trois mois an plus
de I'usaire on'ils out fait de I'hfirbe longue, abondante et ties aqueuse qu'elle fouruit. Dcmoussy
rapoortc que les chevaux qui naissent en Espagne, dans les plaines fe.tiles de S6ville et .l^Anduxur,
submergeis par le tiuadalquiver, sont de meme frequemment attemts dc cette affection. Cela porte-
rait i peuser que certains dugrais communiqucnt aux hcrbes qu'iU font croltte des qualitts preju-
diciables aux aiiiniaux.'

Class XVIII.] specific or periodical ophthalmia. 483

only used to a barn and paddock, may call forth the Uahility into action, and
tlius may prove an occasional cause ; but when we see so many horses in the
stables of inns, coachniasters, &c. &c., and farmers'^ horses and others, who are
more naturally treated, still subject to it, this cannot wholly account for the
disposition. There is no doubt also but accidental plethora, however gained, at
any time predisposes to it ; and hkewise inflammatory affections of other organs
may, by translation, prove a cause : and cold appHed in any way frequently calls
the disposition into action.

Treatment. — It is not in general found diificult to remove the immediate at-
tack; but from the specific nature of the disease, and the connexion it has with
the constitution at large, as before insisted on, it proves extremely diiiicult to
prevent the recurrence. Common farriers attempt its present removal, and
usually go no further. More scientific practitioners mitigate the urgent symp-
toms, and then attempt to attack the cause through the medium of the con-
stitution at large ; though it must be owned, in general cases, theu- efforts are
attended with no better success, from the difficulty of detecting the immediate
nature of the constitutional cause. If general plethora be suspected, we can
reduce that ; close stables we can open ; dry food we can change for can-ots, &c.
in winter, and for soiling in summer ; and if our pastures are low and exposed,
these we can alter. Such constitutional means are in our power ; but the pre-
disposition when in action, and particularly when hereditary, will probably beat
us. Unless the horse be very weak, or much emaciated, the treatment should
be commenced by general blood-letting ; in cases of much emaciation, it should
be confined to topical bleeding only. I would also recommend that the first
bleeding be a full one, and very quicldy followed by a second, if the first pro-
duces no abatement of the symptoms ; for it is of the first consequence to arrest
the disease at its outset. K it establishes itself, it will be found very difficult
to dislodge it. The general bleeding may also, on some occasions, be repeated
once or twice afterwards : but when there is no existing plethora, I have not
found a frequent repetition of general bleeding advance the cure. Topical eva-
cuation of the blood may be attempted under every state of the body, and may
be continued as long as any active inflammation exists : but cases will often oc-
cur when no benefit appears to result from even this. It has been recommended
to abstract blood by puncturing or dividing the temporal artery, as a more than
usually effective remedy ; but I have already been at some pains to point out
the error of such recommendation, seeing this artery is not distributed to the
eye, but is wholly assigned to muscles and skin. (See page 196.) Topical
bleeding, however, intended to unload the vessels of the eye, can be effected
from a small venous branch which enters the inner canthus of the eye ; or when
the injection almost approaches chemosis, it may be better done by a division of
the distended vessels of the conjunctiva; which, even in mild cases, will be seen
turgid and full of blood around what is called the white of the eye, as well as
within the lids. It requires only moderate dexterity to do this ; for if the horse
be firmly twitched by the nose, and the eyelids elevated by one hand, with the
other these vessels may be readily divided by means of a small scalpel, lancet,
or very fine scissors. I have now and then scarified the inner surface of the
eyelids in preference, and have sometimes thought I gained more benefit from
it. Considerable amendment has also followed the use of setons placed as near
the eye as possible. In some instances they have been passed through the
under part of the conjunctive coat ; but I believe no great advantage has resulted
from this mode in preference to placing them in the integuments just below the
eye : in some cases the irritation has done harm ; and a great objection to setons
here, is, that they leave a blemish ; but when particularly wished, by the use of
a very small scton-needle, this is rendered trifling. Rowels under the throat
are, likewise, not at all liable to this objection, and, as being a much larger
drain, probably act with more advantage. I have occasionally tried them with
evident benefit; and as they arc not likely to be rubbed out by the horse, so, in
many cases, they arc to be preferred. I have iilso blistered the cheeks with
success ; but much caution is requisite to prevent the blistering matter from

II h 2

484 SPECIFIC OR PERIODICAL OPHTHALMIA. [CLASS XVIII.

being rubbed into the eye itself : it may, iiowever, be done in the following man-
ner :— Spread over a piece of stout but pliant leather, the size of the palm of
the hand, a thick margin of cobbler's wax, an inch in breadtli, which will leave
a central part bare ; over tfiis place some stiff blister plaister, such as is used
for human blisters, wliich is much firmer than that made by the veterinarian.
Apply this, a little warmed, three inches below and behind the eye ; afterwards
carefully tie the head up by each side, when no danger can occur.

The external applications proper in these cases are next to be pointed out ;
previously to which, however, it must be remarked, that the inflammation pre-
sent does not, in all instances, bear the same character, but in some is accom-
panied with a higher degree of irritability than in others. For in some cases
mildly stimulating applications agree best, as vitriolic solutions; tincture of
opium, sometimes the spirituous and sometimes the vinous, according as cir-
cumstances require a more active or a less active stimulant; a;ther diluted;
brandy diluted ; saline washes, &c. : but at other times, and that more fre-
quently, weak solutions of the superacetate of lead are best borne, and relieve
most. In cases of very high irritation, poultices may be applied. I have ex-
perienced benefit from scraped carrots or turnips, and in one instance the com-
mon houseleek also was applied beneficially in this way : the most common
poultices, however, are the saturnine, which may be very properly and generally
attempted, and, when borne, are very useful. But, owing to the irritability of
the animal, it is too often found difficult to retain a poultice ; in lieu of which
fomentations of poppy heads and chamomile or mallow can be conveniently
used : and in every case likewise an apparatus of folded linen, wetted with the
Goulard^ water or other wash, may be kept on with ease. Soft linen cloth,
several times doubled, may be used for this purpose, fastened to the headstall
from the ear of the affected side, as far as the centre of the collar front, hanging
from this down the middle of the face over the affected eye, and then secured
across by tape. This will have the double advantage of shielding the eye from
light, which is always desirable, and of keeping the medicaments constantly
applied. The following recipe wiU be found a good one for the early states of
the complaint ; but, when the irritability is extreme, omit the vinegar* : —

No. 1 . — Superacetate (siigar of lead) one draclim

Rose water four ounces

Vinegar half an ounce

Soft water a pint.

Internal medicines ought next to occupy our attention. In every instance, if
the horse be tolerably full of condition, debar him from corn ; instead of which
give bran mashes : and, if it can be procured, green meat instead of hay ; if not,
give carrots, which will support the condition without heating. Every thing
that requires active chewing must necessarily force mucli blood to the head, and,
therefore, should be avoided. Some practitioners prefer diuretics in these cases ;
some purge ; and others trust principally to alteratives. I have usually prescribed
one or two mild purgatives, and with apparent benefit ; but active purgation is
objected to by some practitioners : Mr. Coleman, I believe, did so. There can,
however, be no doubt on the propriety of a soluble state of the bowels ; neither
can there be but one opinion on that of antimonial alteratives : as already hinted,
there is very often present a constringed state of skin, and other feverish symp-
toms, to combat which warm clothing is advisable : and, as a farther assistant
towards a determination to the surface, give calomel, tartarized antimony, and
nitre, as a general alterative. With these means unite a pure air, and avoid every
source of unhealthy irritation from dung, urine, or crowded stable. Exercise,

• I remember to have been induced to try warm fomentations to one case, from its extreme obsti-
nacy. The amendment was strilving. I afterwards tried it on otliers witb variable success. The
practitioner who meets witli many of tliesc cases, will liavc to remark on the very dill'crcnt degiees of
l)enofit received from remedies applied to cases apparently similar. In some, that which was sanative
in one proves noxious even in the next: it therefore behoves him to vary his mode of treatment, to
meet, by repeated trials, that wliich best suits the case in hand.

Class XVIIL] specific or periodical ophthalmia. 485

for the first few clays after an acute attack, had better be omitted; afterwards it
may be allowed, but by walking only, and not then when the wind is high or the
air cold. In a week or ten days, it may be expected that, hij these means, the
extreme irritation of the affection may have given way, when any of the following
formula; may be tried ; for it may be remarked that, in three cases, all appearing
alike, it is not uncommon, as observed below, to find each require a dafFerent
application : different formulae are therefore given : —

No. 2. — Superacetate (sugar of lead) one drachm

Sulphate of zinc {white viti'iol) two scruples

Water a pint.

No. 3. — Muriate of ammonia (crude sal ammoniac) two drachms

Vinegar two ounces

Infusion of red rose leaves a pint.

No. 4. — Brandy one ounce

Vinegar one ounce

Tincture of opium two drachms

Rose water eight ounces.

No. 5. — ^JEther half an ounce

Infusion of oak bark six ounces.

No. 6. — Rose water six ounces

Mindererus's spii'it (see Mat. Med.) three ounces.

Introduce any of these, by means of a small piece of sponge or rag, withui
the inner angle of the eye, gently pressing in a httle, wliich the action of tlie
nictitating membrane, or haw, will soon carry over the surface. Various other
applications have been used besides those envmierated ; few of them with per-
manent benefit, but many with present advantage. Among them may be
noticed an infusion of solanum nigrum, or garden nightshade, which, from its
wonderful properties of apparently paralyzing the iris, was supposed capable
of arresting the inflammatory action : but the event has not justified the ex-
pectation. Had it proved otherwise, it would have formed a most convenient
application, as it will produce its effects by absirption without actual introduc-
tion to the eye ; consequently an ointment rubbed on the temple would, in such
case, have been sufficient. The cajeput oil has been also tried with some bene-
fit. Gall, common salt, watery solutions of opiiun, of aloes, and of ground \\y
also, have all of them had their advocates. There are other stimulants which
remain to be mentioned as particularly applicable to the inactive chronic states
of the disease I have noticed as one of its occasional forms.

The mechanical means used as remedies in this complaint have also been
various. The removal of a part or of the whole of the haw has been practised
under the most erroneous view of the matter : nevertheless the bleeding and
irritation consequent to such an operation have proved somewhat beneficial,
which has served to perpetuate the barbarism. Taking up the carotid artery
on the affected side has also been tried, under an idea of lessening the arterial
determination to the head. It has, however, failed in affording rehef, and is
altogether an ineligible practice. The temporal and angular arteries have bpen
also taken up. Neither have the veins escaped, but several have been divided
experimentally, and all with equal want of permanent success. The destruc-
tion of one eye has also been practised with lasting benefit to the remaining eye;
and this in so many instances, that it in a degree blunts the natural repugnance'
to its apparent brutality and violence. The benefits resulting from it are
founded on a law in the animal economy, that where organs are double, as the
eyes, ears, &c., the loss of one is sure to throw additional strength into the
other. In correspondence with tliis view, it had been long observed, that,
after both eyes had been affected, if the disease became permanent in one, the
other eye frequently recovered its remaining affection; it has therefore been a
practice with some farriers to put out the worst of the two affected eyes for the

486 SPECIFIC OR PERIODICAL OPHTHALMIA. [ClASS XVIII.

purpose of saving one. If this should ever become general, it is evident it can
only be successful before any considerable disorganization has proceeded in the
eye attempted to be saved. The operation may be performed by introducing a
couching-needle within the globe, and by breaking down its texture to excite
suppuration. Or, in preference, introduce a small, curved, and very sharp-
pointed bistoury within the anterior chamber, at the margin of the cornea; then
pass it into the pupil, and force the lens from the capsule : in retracting the
bistoury, make a sufficient opening to allow of the escape of the lens by gentle
pressure. Totally destroying all functional structure in the diseased eye, would
appear to be all that is requisite to excite in the other the sympathy of necessity
sufficient to ensure its future health *.

To pursue the disease progressively it may be remarked, that consequences
follow the active inflammatory attacks, which have occasioned practical at-
tempts to combat them in particular. The principal of these is the opacity of
the transparent cornea, in either the form of one or more specks ; or other-
wise of a general pervading film, for the removal of which mechanical friction
has been very generally practised by means of rough substances, as powdered
glass, powdered tutty, charcoal, &c. &c. But it should be remembered that
this opacity is not confined to the outer surface of the cornea, but pervades its
whole substance likewise ; so that, when such applications do any good, it is
not by mechanical abrasion, but by stimulating the absorbents to remove the
coagulable lymph, which forms the obstructing matter. This being the case,
other_ substances may be found more efficacious than those that are simply
abrasive and rough. Calomel, acetate of lead, a mixture of chalk and pow-
dered alum, or of white vitriol, calamine and tutty, may aU be used for this
purpose. These matters may be introduced by placing a little of the powder
within the inner angle by the help of the fingers, leaving it to be carried over
the eye by the action of the haw : but it is not prudent to blow in any powder
by means of a (juill, as is frequently done, for it alarms the horse, and is apt to
make him shy about the head ever after. The red precipitate ointment, occa-
sionally alternated with these every third or fourth day, and in very small
quantity, has been beneficial. In protracted cases, when the disease has been
thus far removed, I have recommended, as a matter of experiment, turning out
to grass for a considerable time, and it has seemed as though the constitutional
tendency has been removed by it ; for it did not return so long as I knew the
animals. In other cases it has again appeared; nor do I think turning out
generally proper, so long as the slightest degree of inflammation lasts, although
even here it has done good : in many other eases I have seen it hasten the fatal
termination into cataract. -When it has once occurred in j'oung draught
horses, from the increased tendency such work has to force blood to the head,
I have always recommended that such horses be afterwards used only for the
saddle, and this sometimes with apparent advantage. In some few cases, but
which were probably not originally specific, but might have degenerated into
it, the recurrence appeared to be prevented by permitting horses, which were
otherwise constantly in use, to lie without doors every night, and I have my
doubts whether this might not be often practised with more advantage than any
other planf. Mercurial courses, occasional physic, periodical bleedings, and

• As prejudices guide even those who aCfect to despise them, so the veterinary surgeon mig!;t
hesitate to port'orm sucli an operation: the consequence of which would be, the horse would he taken
to a farrior, who introduces possibly quick lime or corrosive mercury within the lids, and the eye is
destroyed with inexpressible torture ; or, at best, he punctures it with an awl, and tlie eye vacillates
long before its destruction is complete. As the fact is now established, that the purposed disorgan-
ization of one frees the other from the diseased tendency, in a great many cases, the operation is
justifiable, and even to be recommended. Mr. Castley observed that it is very connnon in Ireland,
and that in Tipperary there is a person famed for this operation, whose practice in this way must be
immense, for he was informed that he had performed it twenty-nine times in one week : if it were
half that number, it would prove the faith in the operation and tiie prevalence of the disease.

• One of tiiese cases was a very marked one. I was paying a visit to a medical friend in Buck-
inghamshire, who complained that one of his horses was fre(|iieutly attacked with ophthalmia, which
troubled him, and that he was seldom without a cold, in which his other horse participated as far as
the catarrh. The stable this horse and his partner were couliued in was very small, very snug, and
exhibited much pains to keep it, I will not say waun, but hot. I recommended my friend, therefore.

Class XVIII.] cataract— gutta serena. 487

often-repeated alteratives, have all bee« tried, but have too frequently failed.
Neverthdess it is left to the discretionary judgment of the vetennanan to de er-
Swhkh means to adopt, seeing aU have occasionally evinced some preventive
efficacy.

CATARACT.

The specific ophthalmia just described has too common a tendency to ter-
minate in cataract; which as it never appears, as in the human, as a disease
distinct and independent of the active inflammation of ophthalniia so it can
hardlv be said to merit a separate place among the diseases of the horse.
There is in the cataract of horses, independent of the opacity of the lens ge-
neraUy much derangement of the other internal parts of the eye, particularly of
the ir'is, which sometimes adheres to the lens, at others to the cornea, and m
some cases its pupillary opening is so reduced by contraction as to render the
cataract hardly perceptible. This internal derangement, therefore, greatly
prevents any benefit being derived fi-om the operation of couclimg or extracting
in veterinary practice; add to which, a horse so operated on would be under
the necessity, to reap any advantage from it, to wear glasses ever after. _ It
has, however, been suggested that, even without glasses, so much benefit might
be -rained from it as to prevent accidents, as running against posts, faUmg into
pits° &c. This, however, would be greatly overbalanced by the imperfect
vision of other objects, and a horse so operated on would be sure to become
very startlish. It has however been attempted, both after the manner ot the
human surgeon, and also by an opening made through the great orbitary fossa
by which it may be more readily steadied; but it has never yet succeeded
among us sufficiently to justify its repetition. In addition to the difhculty ot
so steadying the eye that it can seldom be attempted without wounding the ins
or the retina, the adhesions formed render much internal violence necessary to
its extraction. Disorganization has also usually proceeded commonly beyond
the lens and its capsule *.

AMAUROSIS, OR GUTTA SERENA.

This disease, known among farriers by the term glass eyes, from the peculiar
glassy appearance the eyes put on, is generally considered as dependent on a
paralytic state of the optic nerves, or their nervous expansions, the retina: ; and
the remedies that have been made use of with success in the human subject seem
to justify this idea. By others it is, however, thought to arise from the effects
of inflammation, by which coagulable lymph is placed over the optic nerve,
thus rendering the retina inaccessible to the stimulus of light, and wliich may
be an occasional but is certainly not the usual cause. Any irritation on the tu-
bercula quadragemini, as a spiculi of bony excrescence, or pressure on them,
which is hable to arise within the head, of whatever nature, may occasion it; thus
it is found to follow the congestions of staggers and the effusions produced by
itf. The veterinarian should, make himself familiar with' the appearance this

not nnW to throw open bis stable door day and night, hut to barricade about ten yards square around
the doors, and to allow the horses duiing the night to be in or out of the stable as they pleased. Not
only did this put a stop to the ophthalmia, and rendered both but little obnoxious to catarrh after-
wards, but it was observed, that on most future occasions, when his servant was called up to saddle
ahorse for him in the middle of the night, even when it was frosty, one, and usually both, were
resting on the ground without the stable. j ,

• Our enterprising neighbours, the French, have long practised both couc/anff and extraction : m
the Lyons school it has been very fully tried. A Mons. Valet, I was assured by Mons. Huzard, liad
performed both operations many times with much dexterity, by means of an instrument of great
ingenuity and complexity, ami which the curious inquner will find described in Hurtrel d'Arboval,
together wiUi a full detail of the methods, conseiiuences, and individuals who have advocated the
operation. Interest may be derived from the perusal, but no stimulus to renew the attempt: in fact.
I believe Uic operation is now entirely laid aside.

+ It has lately been noticed among our neighbours, the French, where so many observations have
been first made, that amaurosis frequently follows staggers. In the Rer.ucil tie Met. Vet. lor
June 1S28, M. Berger I'erriere published several ceases of slnggors of the kind we doiiominate
stomachic, successfully treated, but which were most of them followed by amaurosis : one person

488 WORM IN THE EYE. [ClASS XVlII.

coiiiplaiiit puts on, otherwise he may lie open to serious hnposition. In amau-
rosis, a horse presents indieations of blindness in his manner^ though but little
in liis eyes; he seems eautious in stepping, lifts his legs high, and moves his ears
quickly, as though endeavouring to make up by sound the intelligence lost by
the deprivation of sight : but, above all, a hand moved close to the eye occasions
no vs^inking, unless held close enough for the motion to influence the air around,
which an artful person might manage with ease. When this kind of eye is ex-
amined closely, the pupil will be found of one invariable size and unvarying hue;
it will not enlarge and diminish as in a healthy horse, when removed farther from]
or nearer to, the light; for the retina, ceasing to be open to the luniinous ray'
no longer influences the contractions of the iris. It is, therefore, from the pecu-
liarities in the manner of the horse, the invariable size of the pupil, and a green-
ish glassy cast in such eyes, that these cases may be distinguished. As it has
hitherto proved incurable, we shall waste no time on its treatment.

FILARIA, OR WORM IN THE EYE.

The existence of a species of flaria which penetrated the cavities of the body
of the horse and his congeners, pervaded its cellular tissues, and even occasion-
ally made its way into the eye, has been long known to those at all conversant
in natural history * ; but that its penetration of the eye was now become one of
its settled habits in India, where it resolved itself into an established disease,
was not so well known ; and the first notices recorded were so vague and indefi-
nite, that I deferred any mention of it until it assumed a less questionable shape.
Through the medium of that excellent source of information, The Veterinariun,
we are now more fully informed on the existence of this new proof of the exten-
sive diffusion of parasitic animals over and within every part of the animal frame.
It would appear, by notices in the French works, that the filaria is almost as
common among oxen and cows in the provinces, as it is among the horses of
India. No accounts of its infesting the ruminants of the last have, I believe,
reached us. This parasite is supposed to be the filaria papillosa, and is described
as nearly an inch in length; the body elongated and cylindrical; in size and
colour corresponding with the finest white sewing thread, but with a semi-trans-
parent lustre ; attenuated at either extremity. Its presence is detected by i^^
effects, which are that of a deep-seated ophthalmia, usually confined to one eye
only. The conjunctive coat is highly inflamed, and turgid with red blood; the
transparent cornea is obscured and cloudy: impatience of light, and closed eye-
lids, are also accompanying symptoms of the irritation. By attentive observa-
tion this minute filamentary worm is seen floating within the aqueous humour;
and although its presence does not appear to occasion acute pain, yet, if it be
suffered to remain many days, it is invariably fatal to the eye. Its removal is
effected by punctiu-ing the cornea in some part. Mr. Twining does it a little

bad, in tlic course of tPTi years, twelve horses affected with stagtrers; of which number ei^lit liad
(lied, and of the four survivors three went. blind of amaurosis." In fouic of the cases detailed the
(iptie paralysis crept slowly on, and was not completed in less tlum nine months: in others vision was
never wholly lost, but the connexion was fully established. M, Bouley and M. Gitard, jun. relate
similar cases.

• Filaria egui, habitat in cquini corporis cavis variis, tclaqne cellulosa. Lin. Syst. Nat, Sir
Everard Home, in this Comparalivc Anatomy, has observed that two species of worm, tlie
strongylns armatus and filiaris papillosa, are found alive in the aqueous humour of the hnrse in India.
Mr. Wardrop, in Essay on the Diseases of the Eye of the Horse, published in 1819, notices,
that a worm in India is said to be generated within the eye, and the natives let it out by making an
incision through the cornea. About the same time an account a))peared in Tlie Traiisaclions of the
Philosophical Society of Philadelphia ' of a living snake in a living horse's eye.' In the Transac-
tions of the Veterinary School of Lyons (or the year \B'2'2-3, mention is made of two thread-like
worms which were seen floating in the eye of a mule, which is all the notice I have met with of the
presence of a>quinc filaria in Europe. Among oxen it must have been suflSciently common, since
M. Cliaignaud, V.S., informs us lie has met with upwards of one iiundred and fifty cases since the
ye.ar ISO.'), which is singular: for that faithful and circumstantial herald of veterin.iry knowledge in
1<'ran<^o, Hnrtrcl d'Arboval, although he notices the filaiia as a variety of the intestinal worms which
has been found in the stomacli, towards the pyloric extremity, where it congregates and forms
tumours, yet makes no mention of it as infesting the eye of either horses or cattle: neith.er is it
noticed in his long detail of the varieties of ophthalmia and its several causes among cither the uiono-
daclyles or ruminants.

Class XIX.] grease. 489

below the centre: by Mr. Molyneux and Mr. C. rercivall, it was dx^ne, with
,uo?c apparent propriety, a li.ie's breadth from the sclerotic niargm l ie horse
s by some operators cast, and by others no^ Mr. PercivaU and Mr. J wining
used a lancet for making the puncture. Mr. Molyneux prefers a very small tm-
ch-ir As soon as the puncture is made, the worm usuaUy escapes with the
•iciueous humour; and if it should not, the operation must be repeated the next
or followin"- day, by which time the eye will have filled again, and brought to
view the worm also. A slow recovery follows the departure of the parasite ; and
the opacity occasioned by it is sometimes not whoUy absorbed in less than six
months 'Observations on this singular attack on the eye have shewn that it is
somehow connected with the /««<mree, a disease (see Kwnree) which appears to
be occasioned by inflammation of the tissues of the medulla spinahs, lor the
horses attacked with the filaria are very frequently objects of the kumree also.
Is the disease propagated from the optic nerve, to the tubercula quadragemini,
and along the base of the brain to the spinal rope? Or does it give one reason
to suspect that the spinal canal is also the habitat of some verminous animal ^

EXCBESCENCBS, &C. ON THE EyES.

It remains to observe, that small polypous excrescences sonietimes form on
tlie ''lobe of the eye, or on the eyelids. Fungoid projections on the transparent
cornea likewise sometimes follow accidental abrasions, or may be spontaneous.
When they are of the nature of polypi, cut them off, and touch the base with
liq. plumb, acetat. in its undiluted state. When of the fungoid kind, the white
vitriol in powder, or a minute quantity of the ung. precip. rub., softened with
oil and painted over it every second or third day, will effect a removal.

CLASS XIX.
DISEASES OF THE SKIN.
GREASE.

This disease appears to be dependent on a morbid alteration in the quantity
and quality of the sebaceous matter secreted by the subcutaneous glands of the
extremities (see page 171). The inflammation which first brings about this
effect exhibits some singularities and some specialities not obsei-vable in the in-
flammations of the sebaceous glands of other parts, which made me disposed to
consider it as of a specific nature; and had the assertions of Jenner and others,
that the matter produced by it was capable of raising a disease by inoculation
which was again communicable, its character as a specific disease would stand
on equal grounds with syphilis or small-pox. But that capability is now ques-
tionable, although not decidedly proved to be erroneous ; and as on this it rests
its main support to the character of a specific disease, the matter must be left as
undecided. I have already remarked (p. 171) that the secretion of the seba-
ceous glands varies according to the nature and the necessities of the part fur-
nishing it : it is ceruminous in the ears, semi-ceruminous in the glans penis, and
unctuous on cuticular surfaces. It canijot be denied, therefore, as probable,
that as the functional office of these glands varies with their locality, so their
diseases may also exhibit corresponding peculiarities, which we find to be the
case here *. Mr. PercivaU notices in this disease its simple form, its ulcerative,

• lluilicl d'.\rhov,il appears to consider greaae as more an alTection of the hair than of the skin,
■ 1/airection dont il o'agit ticnt toujours, dans son prineipe, i\ line irritation locale hicn nianifeste, (|ui
olTre Ics cnractfcrcs d'linc inllauimation aiguc, avee tendance a devcnir chroniqne. Ilcgardee ii tort
par (|iiclii«cs uns cominc consisliuit dans le df\'cloppenienl d'un Itrca grand nomhre d'ulcAres
aloni(iucs, plus gftnisralenicnt cojisidcrfcc coninic one nialadie spfcciale dc la pcau, n'cst-cllc pas
pltitot le re»ullut d'unc lusioii particuliire dcs Imlhcs dcti poils ? Uicti <|ue par snilc cetle lesion

GREASE. [Class XIX.

and its grapy form. In the simple form there Is merely swelling of the skin of
the hind legs, which becomes hot, inflamed, and tumefied; greasy in appearance
and offensive in smell. It also soon assumes an ulcerative character, and cracks
raw, deep, and excessively tender, mark the next stage of the affection. Unless
the further progress of the disease can be arrested, these wide and deeply ulcer-
ated cracks throw up loathsome excrescences called grapes : renewed serous de-
posits continue to be added, and the heels become enormously swollen.

The inflammation productive of grease appears to originate in deUlity, gene-
ral or local. It originates in general debility, when the system at large is debile
from long-continued disease; or from want of proper nutriment; or from long
continued exertion : in which cases these parts being farther removed from the
source of circulation, which itself labours under additional languor, they must
suffer proportionally in a greater degree than those more within the sphere of
the action of the heart; and hence accumulation takes place, which, if not re-
moved, terminates in an inflammation of the distended parts, and an increase of
the secretions peculiar to the part. This species of general debility appears a
natural occurrence in spring and autumn, and is present in most horses at those
times, from the efforts employed to generate a new clothing of hair : it follows,
therefore, under this view, that swelled legs ought to be prevalent then, which
we know to be so.

Grease may be said to have local debility for its cause, when the powers of the
system are not properly balanced, as when there is great general vigour, with
perhaps increased action from plethora, and likewise little waste to the system
by exercise. As fluids press, not in proportion to their diameter, but to the
height of their column, the venous blood must find some difficulty to its ascent.
This resistance, at all times considerable, is much increased by circumstances, as
size, in a tall long-legged horse; it is also increased in plethoric horses kept
without exercise, because, not receiving additional aids from the pressure of the
surrounding parts, accumulation takes place, and in a greater degree, when the
whole vascular system is in a state of distention : debility, therefore, is still more*
certain in those distended vessels remote from the influence of the heart, under
all which circumstances the effects productive of grease necessarily ensue. The
capillaries of the pasterns likewise become unequal to the exertion of pressing
forward the column of blood into the veins, when, to their natural remoteness
from the source of circulation, any additional cause is superadded, either of want
of power in themselves, or of resistance in the veins. For it must not be sup-
posed that by this mode of reasoning we mean to infer any original defect in the
parts. Nature formed the balance of power equal, as she made the functions
equal; but this balance is kept up in some parts by their own force, and in others
by the aid of different powers. Animals being formed always for a life of nature,
have no purposed structural specialities to accommodate them to a hfe of art,
beyond their natural powers of bearing this change; hence, therefore, though
the vessels, at this remove from the heart, must be supposed weaker in indivi-
dual strength, yet, in a state of nature, they become equal from the support and
assistance they derive from surrounding parts, more particularly from the pres-

paraisse avoir iin sifege jiliis 6tendu, que raeme dea points trfes nombieux ot trfes rapproclies des
tegumena se trouvent affectes, ce qui, au simple aspect, pcut rendre difficile la decouverte du
veritable siege du mal, toujours faut-il tenir quelques conipte de I'fetat pathologique despoils, et
particuliferement de cc qu'on reniarque i leur raciiie aprfes leur evulsion. Or, si I'on prcnd la
inaladic a sa naissance, c'est-A-dire avant ce quon entend par son developpement, avant tout en-
gorgement, toute-chaleur, toule doulfeur locale, le premier phfenomenc qui frappc les yeux est le
herissemeut des polls. Les polls sont done primitivemcnt affectes. Si on les arrache apr^s que la
maladie a fait quelques progrfes, ce ^kii d'aillcurs s'ex6cutc sans unc grandc difficulte, on volt,
surtout 11 I'aide d'une fort loupe ou du microscope, leur racine alteree, et assez souvent Ton am^ne
avec eux une gouttelette d'un fluide sfereux ou puriforme, signes du changement qui s'est opcre
dans le mode ordinaire de vitalitfe de ccs petits corps filiformes, indices de I'irritation qu'on peut
presiimer s'etre devfeUoppfie a leur origine. On nc saurait confondre cette matieic avec celle qui
nourrit le pnil et concourt a sc reproduction, puisquc cette derni^re n'est pas sensible ni apercovable,
lorsque, pour avoir un point de comparison. Ton arrache des polls su une surface saine. L'habitude
trop genetale ou I'on est dc n'etudier les maladies des nnim.-vux qu'aii moment oil clles sont
narvenues a unc certain pferiode, fait trop souvent confondre les pbfenom^nes symptomatiques iivec
lea pbenom6nes cssentiels c'est ainsi, pcut-etre, que, dans les eaux anx jambcs, on considerc
coni'uie pathosnomoniques des dfesordic que les progr^js de la maladie propagcnt a toutes les parties
coHstituantes de la peau, et nieme aux parties contigues.'

CLASS XIX.] GREASE. 491

r.. nf the nei-hbouHng muscles, tendons, ligaments, and jnteguments, during
the t4"Zs truriks must derive much assistance from the superficial
exercise; ^^f^' "C" re^ during exercise, the cellular membrane also
"ItLlS^^^^^^^ upon o rS accnmulaLn; and,'lastly, the absorbents by this
. bLome St mulated to greater action to remove any deposit that may have
herfoS ani which is evident from the effect which takes place on swelled
been . exercise In a state of nature, the benefits of exercise

^riaSryTa^^^^^^^^^^ the inherent lov^ of play, as the search

Xr food This propensity is wisely given strongest in those in whom it is most
necessity in the young to enforce the circulation, that the vessels may be stimu-
hted heir deposit for the growth of parts; and in the lusty and plethoric,
that the absorben s may be kept in equal action with the secreting vessels : we,
he efSe see such several times in the day race round a field with aU the frohck-
ome Sk of children. In the debile and the old, in whom the absorption is
'i nud and often greater than the deposit, this would be unnecessary, and they
a?e not equally stimulated by a love of play (See the subject, Exerme.J Ihe
: Sse is therefore, an animal intended by nature for exertion ; and whenever we
dSve hS«xJrm^^ we prevent the proper balance of power being kept up
beU^Tn different parts of the frame; and if to his confinement a generous che
Te added; swelled legs so generally follow : and for the same reason it is that
.withrtwenty-four hours horses taken up from grass or a straw-yard begin to
vishew the effects of cellular distention in their legs.

Over-feeding is one of the causes of grease, for from the superabundance a
' larger quantity of blood is formed, and consequent vascular distention ; and it
:: o ?his plethoric state the want of exercise be added, the legs will be the parts
most likely to suffer from the reasons before given An inflammatory re-action
.will follow the distention, and the sebaceous glands will be stimulated both to
.an increased and an unhealthy deposit : and they being here very numerous
land large, and being required to secrete in proportion it follows that mstead o
•the natu;al unctuous secretion of the skin of the heels they will now pour
.; forth a serous effusion in the form of cracks, or a general purulent one under

• the character of grease. A local stimulus is equaUy an after parent of debility,
:and therefore encourages grease ; from which cause it is, that it so frequently
•: follows blistering; for if a horse be incautiously bhstered in the hinder egs in

• the winter, grease is almost sure to follow. Cold and moisture are likewise
. circumstances favourable to the generating of this disease. Cold is unfavourable
t to absorption ; it likewise weakens the general energy of the parts, and it often

• suspends the circulation ; and, when this has happened, on the return of warmth

• the circulation for a time is always preternaturaUy increased, and the distended
vessels, being previously weakened, are rendered incapable of contracting on
their contents ; and it is perhaps principally to the presence of cold, and its
effects on the constitution, that swelled legs, cracks, and grease, are so much
more common in winter. Grease has even been called a winter disease and the
chilblain of horses*. Moisture is Ukewise favourable to the complaint, tor it

t first produces a determination to the parts, and then, as a parent of cold, it
^ weakens the already distended vessels. I was informed by an officer ot a dra-
. goon regiment, that, when stationed in America, one other officer bemg favour-
able to the custom of washing the heels of horses, was permitted to exercise
it on his own troop; the result was, that this individual troop in three months
: furnished more than twenty greased horses, and the remainder of the regiment
I not more than two or three. It is, however, probable that there is nothing im-
mediately detrimental in the simple washing ; the evil arises from the legs being

• It was well said by the late Profcsi-or Peal, that it was a winter disease ; but I think ho was less
» happy in comparinK it to c/nlblain. which is a simple congestion of the ^'^jl'^l'^.f^ ""'t "I'
* worst for
totally d

the parent of a secretion of a distinct kind. The ulcer ot cliilDlain always croors n.w.»..» ; inu .■■. «>
■ of (cUasc extends ..utwards, and increases tlic dimensions of the patts it occupies Itefore ulceration.

irm produces a,i unhealthy ulcer, simply because it wants life. Oreasc produces an ulcer
ilTercnt in original cause, »ituati6n, and procedure; it is possessed of too nmcli life, and i«
nl of a secretion of a distinct kind. The ulcer of chilblain always erodes ii.waids ; the ulcci-
Kreaso extends ..utwards, and increases tlic dimensions of the parts it occupies Itefore ulcera ion.
tumid skin, the intolerable itching, and Uie evening exacerbations of fever of chilblain, meet no
analogue in the simply swelled leg of tlie horse previously to Its rupture into crack.

GREASE. [Class XIX.

permitted to dry_ without friction, by which means evaporation Kenerates cold
and moisture is favourable to distention. It is seldom, likewise, when there is'
much hair, that the dirt can be effectually removed from the legs • indeed it is
too apt to be altogether neglected in such horses : and it is most erroneous to
suppose that the hair prevents the access of dirt, when it is in constant motion
and continually receiving new supplies at every step; much less can hair guard
the legs from moisture. Hair at the heels most certainly retains moisture It
may possibly prevent the access of dirt in a trifling degree; but I think it is
evident that it does not prevent the access of moisture, by nature having sup-
phedthe surface itself with a defence of another kind from the seoi-eted matter-
on the contrary, it retains it, as may be readily seen when they get once well
soaked. Reasoning from analogy, from the resistance which feathers give to
wet, is fanciful, but erroneous : feathers are supplied with a specific apparatus
for the purpose of keeping them dry. The hair appears in a natural state to
answer two wise purposes ; it keeps the heels warm, it likewise prevents injury
from wood and stones, with which, in a state of nature, most parts of the earth
are covered : that this is true appears from what we observe in blood horses,
who, as being natives of a sandy hot soil, require no defence either from cold or
from stones, and hence have no long hair on then- fetlocks. That it is even
with us a defence from the cold cannot be denied ; and provided horses were
always at grass, it would be well to retain it. Among stabled horses it is in
this way useless ; and as it usually prevents due hand-rubbing, it is worse than
useless.^ As a defence, except to farmers' horses at plough, or to foresters'
horses, it is unnecessary, for our fields are smooth, and our roads are levelled.
The acclivity of the stalls in our stables has been considered as aiding the other
causes of grease, and with some apparent propriety ; for it tends to throw con-
siderable weight on the hinder extremities, and, by the unnatural position of
the heels, puts the parts on the stretch, and hence weakens them. Grease will
often follow injuries ; as halter easting, or indeed any accidental abrasion, may
bring it on. The disease may become serious when it occurs under other cir-
cumstances favourable to its production, as in moist, cold, and particularly frosty
or snowy weather; or when, from previous illness, a horse has been thrown out
of condition ; and, more than all, when such a case has been neglected by the
idleness or ignorance of those around, who, finding a swelled heel, immediately
fly to urine balls, or purging balls, whereas a little local attention would heal the
abraded surfaces at once. Vast numbers of horses are greased by want of at-
tention : it is too much to say, that, under good grooming, horses would never
have swelled or even cracked heels, but perhaps few, if any, M'ould ever run into
that stage of ulceration, distinguished from milder abrasions by the term grease,
as expressive of its oily discharge. It is to extreme cleanliness, to free ven-
tilation, hand-rubbing of the legs when wet until they are perfectly dry, and to
immediate local attention to any accidental abrasion, or to any slight swelhng of
the heels, that grease is now banished from among our cavalry, and so seldom
met with in any well-regulated stable. The states that lead to it may be, and
often are, idiopathic ; but grease itself is, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred,
the consequence of improper treatment of some kind. Grease rarely attacks
the fore legs, for which there are natural and accidental reasons ; the hind legs
are farther removed from the source of circulation, and have further to press
forwards their accumulated fluids : they have also more cellular substance about
them, particularly in the large coarse breeds ; are more exposed to cold all" in
the stable, and more particularly to the ill effects of urinary splashings, as well as
the exhalations from dung and wet litter : they likewise too often miss nmch of
that attention paid to the fore legs. The attendant is apt to slight them,
because the stable is less clean from soil and moisture ; from fear also the hinder
extremities get neglected, as many grooms dare not trust themselves on their
knees, or even employ both hands at once to the hinder extremities ; and I need
not say, that, from one hand being a resisting point to the other, sufficient
friction cannot be obtained without : this neglect the hind legs feel, and cer-
tainly suffer from. Thick flcshy-lcgged horses are the most liable to grease,

Class XIX.] grease. 493

fhercfore it is principally found among cart and heavy coach horses; but as
noach-work is now almost entirely conducted with horses havmg some mixture
of what is termed blood, in whom the cellular membrane is in smaller quantities,
it is little known in the stables of the coach-master, and the same holds good
with re-^ard to the cavalry. Colour, likewise, as it marks debility, so it in-
fluences" grease ; that is, it has been remarked that white-legged and bght-
coloured horses generally are more liable to cracks, to grease, and to diseases ot
the feet, than others which are darker, and such whose legs are black.

TTie Treatment of Grease.

This complaint takes on different states or stages, which being known by
different terms, as sweUed legs, cracks, grease, graped heels, &e., are apt to be
considered as distinct diseases : but the causes producing any one of them may
produce the other, and the treatment of aU must be grounded on the same
principles: nevertheless, for simplicity of reference we shall consider these
several states separately, still blending the character of the specific affection and
the treatment. Swelled legs without discharge have been already fully con-
sidered with dropsical swellings. See Class VIII. See also Condition.

Of Cracks.— As a consequence of general plethora, the capillaries of the
heels are subject to distention and consequent inflammation. This state is fre-
quently the consequence of a sudden change in the habit of life, and therefore
frequently shews itself in young horses, which have been at once removed
without due caution from grass or straw to hot stables and corn. At first there
will be simply heat and itching in the part ; the horse will be observed to rub
one leg against the other, and sometimes to stamp with his foot, the whole sur-
face appearing more red than before, but perhaps without much enlargement*.
If this state be not attended to, there succeeds an oozing out of the serous
discharge from a kind of crack, of which there are sometimes several. Occa-
sionally the suppurative state follows so closely on the adhesive inflammation,
that purulent matter appears to flow from them from the first ; but, if suffered
to proceed, pus always makes its appearance first or last. In this early state of
tumid, itching, scurfy heels, frequently little more is necessary than a saturnine
wash, having first well cleansed them with soap and water, and well dried them
afterwards, removing as much of the cutieular eruption as possible. When the
case has proceeded to form cracks^ it will be advisable to attempt the stoppage
of the discharge by some desiccative powder, as white lead and tutty in equal
quantities. If with an inflammatory state there is an ichorous discharge, the
•saturnine ointment is to be preferred, avoiding stiU wet applications ; but .when
an ulcerative process is fully established, the cracks shewing milth virulence
and tenderness, then something more is necessary; as a moderate bleeding,
with alteratives, and a nightly bran mash; or even one or two doses of physic
may be prudent, if the horse should be of a very gross habit. The cracks
themselves must be carefully washed with warm water, whenever the horse
returns from exercise ; after which, bathe with any mild astringent lotion, as the
following : —

No. 1.— Superacetate (^sugar of lead) two drachms

Sulphate of zinc {white vitriol) one drachm

Infusion of oak bark a pint.

Mix.

No. 2.— Subacetate of copper two drachms

Elder ointment six drachms

Honey sufficient to make it to the consistence of a firm ointment, which should be
ai)plied every morning and evening, by thinly spreading it over the sore surface.

• This stage of grease is the only one that bears any resemblance to Imman chilblain : and this
merely from sulfcring from the irritation of itcliing. Mange is rather general thim local, anil is
hrnught ahoiit by removing horses at any time of the year, but principally during the spring and fall,
from licing subjected to an in-door life of warmth and clothing. Chilklain, on tlio contrary, is purely
local, is a winter complaint, and follows from the inclemencies of out-door exposure, instead of n
removal from them .

GREASE. [Class XIX.

Sometimes the irritability of the parts requires the application of a poultice
previously to the use of the astringent, as of Goulard and bran. I have found
scraped carrots or turnips very useful for the purpose ; after which the astringent
will act with better effect. These cases sometimes prove very obstinate par-
ticularly when they occur in young and rather coarse horses, and have' been
brought on by sudden changes of stabling, feeding, &c.; and I have occasionaUv
tound that nothing would effect a cure, or prevent the case from ending in con-
firmed grease, but turning to grass.

Swelled Legs, with Discharge. — In some instances with a general want of con-
dition, the result of chronic disease, inanition, or of convalescence from acute
diseases, there is a great tumefaction of all the extremities, which is apt to be
followed by serous discharge from several outlets. The curative plan in this
case differs from the former, and is more complicated ; for we have to combat
the general debility by generous diet in the form of speared corn, malt mashes
with soiling in summer, and carrots, &c. in winter. We must also endeavour to
lessen the watery deposit by very mild diuretics, by remedies determining the
serous parts of the blood towards the skin in the form of perspiration, and some-
times also by mild purges ; but the former are more immediately advisable in
general debility ; because in these cases, particularly by mild diuretics, the
watery parts of the blood are, as it were, simply separated : whereas, purging
appears to be more the increase of a secretion, that answers some necessary
purpose in the system ; and, as such, the operation calls more of the powers of
the constitution forth, without any additional advantage. This appears the
proper mode of considering this circumstance generally ; but I must not forbear
to mention, that I have now and then, even in cases of emaciation, witnessed the
good effect of one^ or two mild doses of physic ; by which the discharge has
mended, the horse's carcass has become let down, and other signs of improved
condition have appeared. It was before hinted that cases occur of discharge
from the heels, where astringents, immediately applied, only irritate : every
practitioner must have met with such instances, as they are sufficiently common ;
the cause of which is attributed by farriers to humours. Without cavilling about
the term, we know that in this form of the complaint such an irritative state of
the parts is not an uufrequent attendant, and that it must be soothed and al-
layed before the parts will suffer themselves to be even gently stimulated by the
mildest astringent applications. In these cases the heels, "in addition to the
tumefaction, and the pouring out of ichorous or semi-purulent discharge in con-
siderable'quantities, are stiff, tender, and painful in the extreme ; the horse
evinces the greatest reluctance to have any thing done to them, and when he is
moved snatches up his leg convulsively, while the extent of vascular action is
such that the heels smoke when exposed. This highly irritable, state of the
vessels can only be reduced by poultices. Sometimes it requires those of lin-
seed, at others it most readily yields to those made with bran, and wetted with
Goulard water; while some again are most benefitted by those made of scraped
carrots ; others by mashed turnips, previously boiled (see Poultices, Mat. Med.).
By these means the heat, tenderness, swelling, and redness, will abate : the dis-
charge also from a thin ichorous one will become white, bland, and truly puru-
lent. At tbe same time, likewise, that the poultices are producing this effect on
the discharge, the general determination to diseased action should be counter-
acted by alteratives. The following unites the necessary properties : —

No. 2. — Oxymuriate of quicksilver (^corrosive sublimate),., ten grains

Supertartrate of potash (cream of tartar) three drachms

Nitrate of potash (nitre) ditto

Prepared antimony ditto.

Give this every night in a mash, except the complaint take place in a very ema-
ciated horse ; when, instead of the oxymuriate of quicksilver, substitute the
same quantity of arsenic. On the contrary, if the patient be of a very full ple-
thoric habit, add one or two drachms of powdered aloes to the diuretic, making
the whole into a ball instead of a powder ; watching, however, the action of the

CLASS XIX.] GREASE. 495

' nines that it does not proceed to active purging or griping. In some cases,
when the expense has not been an object, I have found the foUownig an excel-
lent alterative in cases of grease :—

No 3 —Sulphuretted quicksilver (^tJiiops mineral) .... half an ounce
Supertartrate of potash..; one ounce.

Give every nicrht in a mash. In these cases, also, one or two doses of mild phy-
sic arc often useful ; and when the parts have been brought into a proper state
for the action of astringent applications, wash with No. 1 ; or, mstead, either ot
the following may be sprinkled over the sores : —

No. 4.— Powdered oak bark one ounce

Subacetate of copper (powdered verdigris) two drachms.

No. 5.— Alum, finely powdered one drachm

Charcoal, ditto half an ounce

Chalk, ditto two ounces

No. 6. — Subacetate of copper (verdigris) half an ounce

Prepared calamine one ounce

Xar ^onr ounces.

Mix, and smear the parts lightly night and morning, and after each exercising,
havin'' first washed them with warm water. When, also, much tumefaction takes
place," united to the use of any of these, a linen bandage is often beneficial ;
beginning at the coronet, and rolling it more than half way up the leg, being
careful that it is only done with a very moderate degree of tightness at first. As
amendment proceeds, great care is requisite to prevent relapse, by avoiding the
original exciting causes, and likewise by counteracting that predisposition to
these accumulations, which I have known to subsist in many horses, who seldom
pass over a season without an attack. Such had better not, at any time, be
fully iiimed to grass, but allowed only a few hours' run during the _ day. The
general disposition to swelling will be best counteracted by long-continued walk-
ing exercise, with moderate feeding, particularly by the use of green meat in
summer, and of carrots in winter, avoiding much corn, but, in lieu, allowing a
suflBcieut quantity of less heating food, as those kinds already particularised.
Bran mashes, as tending to open the body, should not be lost sight of; and
when it can be conveniently managed, place the horse in a loose box. But when
the complaint occurs in one already emaciated, or debile from any other cause
whatever, of course the plan already detailed should be pursued with more mo-
derate exercise, or with such as a loose box will afford. I. have, in all these
cases, where green meat could not be got, experienced great benefit from spear-
ing the corn, particularly for such as were very low in their flesh and condition.
(See Materia Medica.) Any change of food, almost, is proper ; at least, any
not manifestly injudicious. I once observed the best effects follow the substi-
tuting of beans for oats, and this in a horse not particularly emaciated ; but I
had previously remarked, that oats passed away unchanged, which ground beans
did not do. Before we quit the subject it may not be improper again to remark,
that this species of grease is frequently the result of blisters injudiciously applied
when the legs are in a state of swelling and debility ; and it may be offered as a
caution to the junior practitioner, that he never attempts a blister, particularly
of the hind legs, under such circumstances. For, towards the close of the year,
or during winter, or whenever there is a previous determination towards the
heels, if blisters are applied without considerable precautions and subsequent
care, it will be hardly possible to prevent the legs, particularly the hinder, from
becoming greasy immediately afterwards.

Confirmed Grease. — This is to be considered only as a more aggravated stage
or state of the former; in which the matter that issues has a foetid peculiar
Hinell, which strongly characterises the disease ; so much so, that a person used

496 GREASE. [Class XIX.

to it can at once tell whether a gi-easy horse be in a stable or not. The iiiflam
mation, that was before principally confined to the secreting capillaries and se-
baceous glandular structure, now affects the integuments generally, producing
extensive ulceration, with intermediate dry hardened scabs: the hair stands
erect ; the whole surface becomes exquisitely sensible and vascular, bleeding on
the shghtest touch; and the vessels of the heels not only secrete a peculiar mat-
ter, but some of them take on a peculiar action, and form a semi-corneous sub-
stance; so that, in the advanced stages and violent degrees of this complaint
hardened horny knobs form over the fetlock, intermixed with others more vas-
cular, uniting the properties of pus, mucus, and oil: these protuberant portions
are called grapes, from their figure. The constitution usuaUy sympathises much
with this extreme state of grease, and the horse, unless very well fed, becomes
weak, lean, and irritable.

Treatment. — It becomes a question, whether, in a case of confirmed grease,
even if it were in our power, it would be prudent to stop the discharge at once;
for when secreting vessels have been long habituated to any action, they can
seldom be suddenly checked with impunity ; and in this case also, were the
running stopped without previous preparation for the change, it is more than
probable that some morbid effects would arise. To commence the cure, there-
fore, of confirmed grease, we must prepare some other parts to take on this
action of forming pus. But it is to be first remembered, that the discharge from
grease is seldom a healthy one, and it is hence much more difficult to check than
one that is simply purulent ; therefore, while some other parts are preparing to
receive this purulent action, the heels themselves should be subjected to a treat-
ment that may produce a more healthy secretion in them. The best means I
have ever witnessed for effecting this, has been a fermenting poultice, made with
either barley meal, flour, oatmeal, linseed, or any other farinaceous matter capa-
ble of fermenting with yeast. This should be appUed every day, as soon as
mixed, and suffered to perform all its fermentative process on the leg; when, by
the action of the carbonic acid gas, or fixed air let loose, it is remarkable what a
change is performed on the part, bringing on, from the most ichorous discharge
and irritable state, a mild, bland, pus-hke fluid, with a decrease of irritability.
(See the formulae for these under Poultices, Mat. Med.) Should either the
trouble or expense of these be objected to, a carrot or turnip poultice may be
tried instead, either of which may be applied till it produces a secretion of healthy
matter; but it must be remembered, previously to the use of these means, that
no ulcer shews a favourable disposition to heal so long as its surface remains
above the level of the surrounding healthy parts; therefore it is essentially ne-
cessary to the cure, that these sprouting luxurious portions should be reduced
even with the surrounding integuments. Caustics only render these grapes, as
they are termed, more luxurious ; but the mode best adapted to their removal is,
to scrape off all the horny deposit, and thus level the surface with a very blunt
knife ; having a flat surface of heated iron also ready to pass over the surfaces,
in case the haemorrhages are profuse. It is also to be remarked, that, from the
effects which have followed this intended styptic, there is reason to suppose that
it acts also remedially ; and that in aU cases it should be united with the means
used to denude the parts of the horny secretion and to level the surfaces. The
operations being finished, apply the poultice as directed. To prepare the other
parts to take on the formation of matter; on the first day of applying the poul-
tice, if the horse be large and tolerably strong, put a rowel in the belly, and in-
troduce a seton on the inner side of each thigh; or place two rowels only, one
in each thigh. If the horse be either small or weak, one rowel will be sufficient.
In three days the maturating of the rowel and setons will probably be complete ;
and in this time, by the above means, the heels will have taken on a more healthy
action : it is now, therefore, that we are to attempt the stopi)age of the discharge,
which can only be done by the use of the most active of those applications termed
astringents, which will stimulate the parts to take on the adhesive inflammation.
For this purpose either of the following may be tried as a wash, to be used daily,
or every other or every third day, or as often as the irritability of the parts will

CLASS XIX.] M ALLEN DRRS AND SALLENDEllS. 497

permit : some cases may require either of tliesc applications strengthened, other*
weaker than here detailed : try, however, the weaker first : —

No. 7. — Nitric acid (aquafortis) one ounce

Water eight ounces.

Mix.

No. 8. — Sulphuric acid {oil of vitriol) one ounce

Water ten ounces.

Mix.

No. 9*. — Oxymuriate of quicksilver ( corrosive sublimate ) three drachms

Spirit of wine, or brandy one ounce

Soft water ten ounces.

Dissolve the mercury in the spirit by the help of a mortar, then add the water.

No. 10. — Subacetate of copper {verdigris) half an ounce

Sulphate of alum {alum) ditto

Sulphate of zinc {white vitriol) ditto

Superacetate of lead (5?^ar o/ZeaJ) ditto

Tar six ounces.

Mix.

This may be smeared over the parts daily, and will seldom occasion so much
i irritation as the former; but it is essential to the cure that a considerable in-
1 fJammation should be raised, the necessary degree of which must depend on the
: state of the case and temperament of the patient. The clivers, or goose grass,
! has been likewise extolled as a remedy for bad grease cases: four ounces of the
I expressed juice are directed to be given daily, as a drink, and a poultice of the
1 herb, mashed, is to he applied to the heels. When the discharge has ceased, it

■ will sometimes be found that coagulable lymph has been thrown out, by which
: a hardened, thickened state of the limb remains : blisters may, in this case, be
! first tried, to promote the removal, assisted by a run at grass; but should these,
; as is sometimes the case, fail, the stimulus of firing should be tried. It must
' likewise be remembered, that as this complaint is very liable to recur again,
• from the parts having taken on the habit, and from the secreting surface being
' enlarged, so the recurrence is also best prevented by firing, which lessens the
I surface, and affords strength by corrugation. When 'this is not employed, ac-
' live pressure hy linen bandaging may be worthy of a trial. Nothing has hitherto

been said on internal medicines, nor on other parts of the treatment as regards

■ food, or exercise; in fact, it will at once strike the judicious reader, that exactly
1 the same rules and the same cautions will apply here as have been detailed when
; treating on the other states and stages of this complaint. The constitutional

tendency to disease must be equally amended by the internal remedies there
laid down.

MALLENDERS AND SALLENDERS.

When a disease appears in the follicular openings on the integuments, exhibit-
ing a scurfy or scabby eruption at the posterior part of the bending of the knee,
it is termed mallenders: and when a similar one appears at the ply, or bending
of the hock in front, it is called sallenders. Neither of them lame or do much
harm; but sometimes, when neglected, they degenerate into a more ichorous
discharge, a little more troublesome, and always uusightly. Both of them are

• Ml-. While relates two remarkable cases of confirmed and virulent grease, cured by the application
of corrosive sublimate in ti.e form of a wash, wlieii other monrm had failed. I have also often seen it
benencial The strength of the application >,liould he increased to the full amount that the animal can

n r.'' ,1 . I".'"'--'P'f »" which It acts is that of a i c slow eschiirotic, it i. a question whether

nnf ^ ,' ."m'^^'^i," ^? P':'"/'-''"'^''- ' ""'I "ly notes the subjoined recipe, without aiiy

notice but the followiOK :-' said to be a good remedy foi- grease. Citrine oint. .3 oz! ; lard, 2 o"^
to » glaw mortw ^ ' ""'"'■'"<•'' '"'"tioii of nitrate of copper, 2 .Irachms. To be well blended

X i

498 WARTS— MANGE. [ClASS XIX.

very easily removed by wasliing witli soap and water, and by applying the fol-

Camphor... one drachm

Subacetate of lead (fiugar of lead) half a drachm

Mercurial omtment one ounce.

Mix.

WARTS

Are best removed by tying a ligature round them ; or they may be cut off
with a knife or scissors, and the root touched with any caustic body. There is
sometimes seen a sprouting luxurious species, whose roots are larger than their
heads, so that a ligature is not easily passed around them; these are best re-
moved by touching their surface daily with what is by farriers called butter of
antimony. In the older books of farriery they are called aiibury or ambury ;
and many celebrated recipes for their removal are handed down from one sapient
operator to another. The following application will seldom fail to remove such
as cannot be conveniently got at by the knife or ligature, dressing with it once
a-day : —

Muriate of ammonia {sal ammoniac) two drachms

Powdered savin one ounce

1-'^''^ one ounce and a half.

MANGE.

This is sufficiently known as an eruptive affection of the skin, very highlv
contagious, and accompanied with almost incessant pruritus or itching. It is
found in all our domestic quadrupeds, and extends also to the congenerous
tribes which run wild around us: thus it is no uncommon thing to hunt a mangy
fox in England, or a mangy ^yolf in Germany. In the various animals it affects,
it presents some distinctive lines ; but it possesses one common psoric character,
for the mange of one can be communicated to the whole. We om-selves also
partake of the common susceptibility, for I have witnessed several cases where
the itch has been taken from mangy horses. The constant presence of animal-
culi within the pustules has again revived the opinion with some English and
many French writers, that all psoric affections originate in the attack of acari*.
Our principal difficulty is, to account for the readiness with which mange is
taken and propagated, whether the animal be healthy or unhealthv, provided
he is withia the sphere of contagion ; whereas there is great difference be-
tween the healthy and unhealthy, when contagion is not present. For among
the truly healthy, as far as niy experience goes, it never arises spontaneously;
but it does most readily find a spontaneous origin in the unhealthy\. My first

• ' Aujouid-liiii, IPS iins admcttent un vice psoriquc, sans dire en quoi il consiste ; les autres
oonsidercnt Ic devcloppement de la gale comine du a dcs animalcules nomincs mites on acares.;
d'auties encore adoptent un sentiment mixte, ct discnt que cette plilcgmasie cutanee est tantnt par
acnrc el tmtot orga7tiqiie. Si I'on s'en tient aux travaux de Bnsc. Huzard, Latreillc, GcolTroy de
Saint-Hilaire, Dunieril, VV.alz ct Saint-Didier, il n'cst plus perniis de douter de la presence des
animalcules dont il s'agit; il resulte dcs observation? de ces naturalistes : 1, qu'en enlevant aveo
une brosse ou autre chose les croutes ou plutot I'cspecc de poussierc ecailleuse ijue fournissent les
pustules en se dessechant, ct examinant attentivement cettc poussi^re an solcil ou dans un endroit
chand, on distingue, merae i\ I'ccil nu, cc qui nous paralt bien difficile, dcs petits corps organises,
transparens, Inisans, qui se meuvent avec assez de vitesse, et qni ne sont autre clicse que les acares,
insccte de la memc faniille que le sarcoptc de la gale de I'liomme ; 3, qu'on-remarqne presque
toujours fiV et la, dans I'epaisseur de la pcau, des larves de ces animalcules en plus ou moins giande
quantite; 3, que dans le chcval I'acarc est si gros qu'on observe facileninnt sans le secours d'aucun
vcrre lenticulairo, voyageant en quelque sovtc snr les differentes parties du corps des clievaux
Galeux. Au rapport do Ciohier, les acres out etc observes, dans le cas de gale, sur le clieval, le
chien, le chat, le lapin, et plus tard sur le boeuf ; Walz les avail auparavant signalfes sur le
mouton.'

■)• By unhealthy, I would here include every cause Oiat Is found generally productive of a diseased
state, local or general. In this nay want of ventilation, want of personal cleanliness, and the
accumulation of filth on and around the person, beget glandular affections within and eruptive
affections without, niobt notoriously among ourselves ; and if we allow the attack of parasitid

Class XIX.] mange. 4JJU

practical remark shall be, to warn the junior practitioner that he may sometimes
mistake some cutaneous affections for mange which are referrible to derange-
ments of the alimentary canal, and to those only (see Surfeil and Condition).
He may also occasionally not be aware of the existence of true mange itself,
from the nature of its approach, and its slow progress in some cases; but atten-
tion to the following detail may help him*. Mange often commences at the
roots of the hair of the mane and tail, where a scurfy state of the skin appears,
and which it gives the horse pleasure to have examined, and which alone is
always a suspicious symptom. A few days will extend this beyond the simple
line of the mane and tail: spots denuded of hair will appear, and such will even-
tually be seen to be making their way over the face. A close examination will
detect under the branny scurf small vesicular eminences, watery above and red
beneath; distinct in the moderate state, but confluent and running into con-
tinuous scabby patches in the inveterate. Mr. Percivall has, with his character-
istic accuracy, remarked on the stubborn adherence of some few hairs in the
very middle of the otherwise bare mangy patches. If the observer is inclined to
examine these individual hairs, he will find that it requires a very powerful pull
with a pair of tweezers to dislodge one of them from its cell within the cutis
vera; and when done, he will find not only that the hair itself is enlarged, but that
its bulb is singularly tumid and vascular. As the disease advances, it thickens
and puckers the skin, particularly that of the neck, withers, and loins; and it is
throughout marked by its incessant and intolerable irritation, which forces the
horse often to rub himself raw. Too much cannot be urged with regard to its
contagious qualities: the slightest contact will disseminate it; a hand laid on a
mangy horse will inoculate a healthy one ; the harness, the appointments of
every kind, are the media of propagating the disease; in fact, every thing around
the infected becomes infected also, and must be disinfected by washings or fumi-
gations (see Disinfectors, Mat. Med.), to prevent its sj^reading.

The cure of mange. — The disease is more often to be considered as a local
affection ; but there are cases also where it may have a constitutional connexion ;
as when brought on by emaciation, close confinement, and personal filth. When
it occurs from contagion, in a full plethoric horse, it will expedite the cure to
bleed. In cases either generated or caught, where emaciation is present, feed
liberally with malt mashes and green food of the most nutritive kind. If in
winter, allow carrots, beet, potatoes, &c. ; and if these are not to be had, spear

animals as the cause of psoric, herpetic, and other cutaneous affections here, the accumulating filth
found where crowds congregate in utt«r neglect of cleanliness, personal or domestic, readily oU'crs a
nidus for the more industrious insect, ever on the look-out for a suitable habitation. This equally
applies to our animals as to ourselves: the costermonger's wretched pony, that makes his way down
some blind entiy in St. Giles's, participates in his master's filth and his psora. A certain number of
cows are kept in the purlieus of every town on the refuse of gardens and the scanty browsings of the
higliways; these at niglit are driven to occupy a standing or lying of a few feet each for the niglit in
a place cleansed out only when the animals can no longer surmount the mass of hith. It is notorious
that these coiys are invariably mangy, with a conKtitutioniil denudation of hair, and a scaly cru|itive
state of skin.' Were llieso even worse fed but better ventilated, and allowed sufficient space in tlieir
niglitly bidging, and were they regularly rubbed as in (jermany, cutaneous disease would be here, as
there, a stranger; at least it is so in the well-regulated etable a vache. And yet one of our most
respectable authorities is disinclined to allow that mange is at all derived from p6'r,v0ji«/y/rtA. It is
finally contended not to be parented by dchility, but to be greatly connected with poverty, by
wliich I presume is intended (nniicintion ; and that term would certainly include the principal source
of debility as a parent of contagious mange. Cutaneous affections, resulting from injudicious feed-
ing, which derange the digestive functions, are, as already observed, sufficiently common.

• That cutaneous affection known, under the term surfeit so much resembles mild mango in its
fxternal characters, as to be very likely mistaken for it. Occa.-ionally it is attendeil with much
itching, and the hair falls off in patches ; but the tumnnrs are larger jind solid, they aie also seldom if
*ver vesicular ; neither is the infection contagious, although it has appeared epizootic in somo
seasons. It is very common to horses in the spring and fall particularly, and may bo .at any otbei'
time hi ought on by particular feeding, either witliin or without doors, or by any unusual exertion
il"0, when united with suddenly suppressed perspiration. There is likewise another cutaneous
niflibid state, ap|)arently derived from plethora only, in which there is nuich proritus or itching,
*ithout any apparent lesion of the skin whatever, or other disturbanco of bair, than what is dciived
from fre(|uent rubbing of the parts. We may suripose this to be some excitement of the seliaceous
glands, and lliat therefore where these are most pietitifully distributed, as in the neiglibourbood of Iho
mane and tail, the itching, as a pathognomonic symptom of tlie complAint, would be most observed,
which is the case. lJut these states require to lie treated eonstit/itioruilly ; the mange does not
*»«cn!i/i//j> require to be so treated, although in every case constitutional treatment cxpeilitcs tlie
cure.

1 i 2

500 MANGE. Class XIX

the corn, and give v^^ith bran : for, although not generally taken into the ac-
count, a change of food, and here to overcome the debility, will materially
assist and expedite the cure. Give also alteratives, as the following : —

No. I. — Oxymuriate of quicksilver (corrosive sublimate) ten grains

Nitrate of potash (nitre) four drachms

Supertartratc of potash (cream of tartar) four drachms.

Or,

No. 2. — Sulphuretted mercury (uS^thiop's mineral) half an ounce

Supertartrate of potash (cream of tartar) one ounce.

Either of these may be given in a mash every night, observing, at the same
time, in case mercurials are used outwardly also, to watch the mouth. The
external applications resorted to for the cure are various, and as there are many
fancies in these cases, I introduce various recipes ; but sulphur is, of all other
remedies uncombined, the article most to be relied on. I have used all the fol-
lowing formulae, and can recommend every one of them. The first three are
washes, and are calculated for very mild cases, and where the filth of rubbing
with unguents is wished to be avoided ; but they should be abandoned if they
do not benefit in a week. They may be applied with a sponge, carefully wetting
every affected part. The two latter are ointments, sufficiently efficacious, par-
ticularly No. 4 ; but of course are not so cleanly as the former : these are also
to be applied every morning, accurately rubbing all affected places.

No. 1 . — White hellebore two ounces

Tobacco two ounces

Lime water, strong and fresh made one pint

Water three pints.

Boil the hellebore and tobacco in the three pints of water to a quart ; when
cold, add the lime water. Put the whole into a bottle, and cork it well, pouring
it out as wanted.

No. 2. — Oxymuriate of quicksilver (corrosive sublimate) one drachm

Spii-it of wine, or brandy one ounce

Decoction of tobacco a pint and a half.

Dissolve the sublimated mercury in the spirit, by rubbing in a mortar, after
which add the decoction.

j^o. .3. — Liver of sulphur two ounces

Decoction of white hellebore one pint

Ditto of tobacco ditto.

No. 4. — Finely powdered arsenic one drachm

Flowers of sulphur six ounces

Barbadoes tar half a pound

Train oil six ounces*.

No. 5. — Sulphur vivum eight ounces

Stavesacre, in powder one ounce

Ointment of quicksilver two ounces

Turpentine ditto

Lard, or train oil eight ouncesf.

• No 4 was long my favom itfi fonn of manpc remedy : and, noxt to siiliiliur, tliPic is no individual
annlication so pffective as a torebinlliiiiatcd. Mr. PiMcivnll spealis in high terms of tar and train oil:
thprpfore if siilniiur he a snecilic, and tar little less so ; and if in the mixtnre these do not interfere
u'lth each otlier (and thev do not) : if a slimnlant he nsefnl, which the tar is. then surely it is prudent
tn unite these hcnefits ; and if so, the veterinarian cannot find a better remedy than No. 4.

+ Hurtrcl d'Arboval gives as a favourite recipe for mange in France tlie following: cnido mercury
sixrarts- sublimed ijulphur six parts ; powdered cantharides one part and a half; all wluch are to be
fnco'^M^oVate' with thirty parts ol*^ lard. The cantharides introduced are intended to act by raising •
l^ew iSon m^hrskin^^ which, by the effects of the disease, is frequently thickened and hardened.

Class XX.] hidebound— acute founder. 501

Previously to the application of any unguent, every excrementitious matter
should be removed from the skin, as scurf or scab, by scraping, brushing, or
rubbing This done, wash and supple the surface sufficiently with soft soap and
water which will enable the ointment to reach the parts more efiFectuaUy. Ihe
method of applying the ointment may be left to the discretion of the rubber.
I used to direct it to be done by means of a thick pair of leathern gloves worn,
which wiU enable the operator to work it well into the skin, and to spread it weU
over every part, and to the bottom of any sinuosities. The rubbing for the ex-
posed parts should be repeated every day, and a general dressing should be made
every other day. Where the skin is very stubborn, applying the ointment used
by means of a hard brush is practised with advantage.

HIDEBOUND.

I HAVE had many occasions of noticing that this popular term is erroneously
applied, and that the effect is frequently mistaken for the came. It is very
seldom that hidebound exists as a primary disease of the skin, but as a symp-
tomatic affection it is sufficiently common. It is unnecessary to enlarge farther
on it ; the introduction of it here is merely intended to keep the systematic
order of diseases complete. All that regards the practical consideration may
be seen by reference to page 67.

CLASS XX.
DISEASES OF THE FEET.

FOUNDER, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE FEET*.

As the benefits we derive from the horse mainly depend on his locomotive
powers, so whatever interferes with these in an essential degree is a subject
which merits the consideration of the veterinarian; and how much the de-
structive affection before us does this, we need hardly insist on. The inflam-
matory affection popularly called founder exists in two distinct forms, au acute
and a chronic ; under which heads I shall proceed to consider them.

ACUTE FOUNDER.

This may be characterised as an acute inflammatory attack on the vascular
parts of the foot generally, but on the secreting laminae more particularly ; and
when we consider the extent of secreting surface engaged in the formation of
horn, and the immense force of the extension employed in the support of so
large a machine as that cf the horse, added to the force of his exertions, we
cannot be suiprised that these organs should become the subject either of ex-
tensive primary or the seat of secondary inflammation. Primary phlegmonous
inflammation takes place in them from different causes, as from the alternation
of heat with cold, exactly in the same manner as it occasions other great idio-
pathic inflammations ; but more particularly here, when extraordinary exertions

and wants rousing to enable it to receive tlie full benefit of tlie tpecijic, as the sulpliur may be oon-
•idered. A stimiilant to the skin lias long been applied in the cure of mange among horses and
cattle. Mr. Feron from this was led to recommend ' general blistering modilied and judiciously
applied as a real specific, but which required repetition.' The practice I believe was never resorted
to, as being but little efficacious in comparison with the irritation excited.

• Tlie term founder li.is been olyected to as indefinite, unA involving other diseased states than
•imple plilegnionous inflammation of the laminte. It is most certainly unmeaning as a term, and
should lie Ijanislicd from our nomenclature; but it is not, 1 conceive, iudeftnite with veterinarians in
general: on the contrary, it is very commonly confined to an inflamnuitoi y state of the feet, eithei
' acute or chronic, and the iinmedinte consequences resulting therefrom : I have, tftcrcfore, cuntiuucd
it, nnlll authority oi general ccmseut Iihh affixed a more exptcssive and ciitital one.

502 ACUTE FOUNDER. [CLASS XX.

have already distended and tlius weakened the vessels. It is, therefore, not
unfrcquently seen consequent to any great exertions, as hard driving or riduig
for many hours in suceession, which is found still more likely If it occurs in
snowy weather, and particularly where the removal into a hot stable has fol-
lowed immediately. I once saw it supervene on hard driving, the horse being
allowed to stand afterwards in the snow some considerable time. Anotlier
cause of primary inflammation may be regarded as mechanical, or dependent
on the unceasing strain on the laininaj which the erect position, long main-
tained, occasions, particularly in sea voyages, where it is united with very great
stress alternately laid on one or other of the feet in attempting to prcse.ve
the perpendicular situation during the I'oUing of the ship ; and the same occurs
in a minor degree, when it is necessary to preserve the same position in the
stable, by which these parts may be put on the stretch, and congestion takes
place*. Acute founder may be derived from secondary sources, or, in other
words, it is sometimes not a primary affection, but the effect of metastasis of
inflammation. I have seen the feet receive this morbid state from a translation
of tlie inflammations of many other organs to them, but it is most frequent in
pneumonia and ophthalmia : there is, however, no acute attack, and particularly
such as are protracted to any length, but what may be translated to the feet,
and it is found that occasionally the metastasis operates among themselves
alsof. Founder may be confined to one foot, to two, or it may attack the whole

• If we were not witnesses to this effcut resulting from long standini;, we might be led to ques-tion
it as a direct cause, for wc have many instances of horses never lying down without contracling
founder ; hutinthcse cases the parts liave jirohahly become habituated to the superincumbent wcipht.

f 'I'iiere are circumstances in this disease which put it out of the ordinary range of topical inllain-
mations. llurtrcl d'Arboval, when describing it as an inHammation of the vasculo-nervous reticular
tissues of tlie feet, adds, ' Cettc expansion est !e veritable siege d'une inflammation specinlc, qui
jusqu'ici n'a pas d'analogue connu dans I'homme, et qui, en medecine veterinairc a refu le nom de
fourboure.' Tliis speciality is singularly marked by the variety in its causation. Derange any
vital part in the machine, anil the vascular secreting structure of the hoof may become affected with
phlegmonous indannnation, and which is apiiarently less the consequence of any primary defeit
within the feet tlian of an especial aptitude in them to take on disease, inherent particularly within
this immediate portion of the foot. This origin, of wiiich we have now so many proofs, adds much
to the singularity of the disease, inasmuch as wc have little clue to guide us to tlic nature of that
connexion whicli can possibly translate the inflammations of organs so structurally difi'erent as the
substance of the brain, the parenchyma of the lungs, the conjunctive coats o! the eye, or the muscular
tunics of the intestines, &c. &c., to an organization not in unison with these, individually or
generally; and yet so it is. Huzard thus observes on it: ' Cette maladie (Fievrc inflammatoire
simiilc) d'abord generale a toute reconomic, se termine souvcut par resolution, mais degenere aussj
en all'ection locale, et se change en alfection inflammatoire, soit des poumons, soil de quelques parties
musculaires, soit enfin, et le plus souvent ilans le cheval en inflammation du tissue reticulaire du
sabot.' But which, it may be observed, is not in unison with the majority of the French veterinary
authorities of the present (lay; for we find ilurtrel d'Aiboval, who may be considered as their niouth-
ulecc, ridiculing this view of it, although, in another point, he himself is little less lial)le to criticism.
'Mai's une meprisc plus serleuse, dans laqnelle pourrout tomber souvent ceux qui ne veulent voir
dans boaucoup de maladies qu'nne aflcction generale de I'organisme, sans rechercher cellc de scs
i)arties qui est lesee, ni quelle est la lesion d'ou jirocfedent Ics phenomfenes morbides qui out peu
s'etendre cette meprise est celle de nc voir d.ms la phlegmasie de la chair du pied qu'un phenoniene
secondairc accessnire, dependant de ce que les partisans de cc systeme appellent amjiivreinflam-
maloirc qu'ils definissent une affection d'abord ginirale illoutc I'iconomie, se tcrminant souvent
par resolution mais deg^nerant aussi en affection locale, et se ehangeant en infection inflammatoire,
soit des poumons soit de quelques parties musculaires, soit enfin, et le plus sonvent daus le cheval,
en inflammation du tissu reticulaire du sabot ; cas dans lequel on dit la fomburc tombce duns lei
sal/ols ' We cannot but tax this excellent author with a too confined view, when, although he
thus admits the secondary origin of founder, be appears to confine it principally to disturbance of the
diKC^tive functions. He considers as causes of founder, external violences committed on the feet;
the alternations of cold with heat ; and imprudence in the use of certain aliments. ' An nombre des
uliinens excitans auxquels on accorde la funeste propriete de provoqner le developpe.iient de la
lONrbourc. on range le ble (wheat), le seigle (lyc), I'orge (barley), specialenient, quaml s'lls sont
verts et epi^s, surtout quaiid les animaux en mangeaiit beancoup sans avoir ete amenes de cette
cspfecc excrcent Icur premiere action sans do«tc sur le conduit digestif, qu'ils nntent ; ils deter-
minent des indigestions, et la fonrbonre n'cst alors que seeomlairc II est certain que, lors des
d Kre il^^^^ armeesFran5.aisesoi.tfaitesen E^pagne la eavalcne a toiijours pcrdtt

be^ucoiip de chevaux des suites de ces indigestions compliquees de fourbnre, ee qu'on attnbue a cp
U da IS la peniusule, Torgc est plus particuliferement employee k la nourr, ure des e lievaux ; or.
ce «ral et uit plus sub tantiel et plus excitant que I'avoine, nos chevaux n'y etant pas Ijabitues, «4
les caval e "ne connaissant pas les precautions necessaircs pour en luirc usage son action sur Ics
nttncs disc tifs n est pas suprenaiite. La cavalerio de I'arinee Fran.jai^e qui se trouvait en Pologne
f 1812 eidit a issi beaucouj, de chevaux naicequ'on manqua.t d'avoiiie qu'on reuip a.;a, «^
■1 out na^ d seigle, et une (le fr,M|uentes indigestions compliquees de fourbuies se inaiiifestere t.
W Us la art dfccs indigestions presenlalent des syniptomes verligineux ; ceux qui I'ouvaient.
1^ d oue^- Vxi^tencc de la fomburc etaieiit pen prononcespeu appreeiables. peut-etreinenie i.'ela«;. t.
Is rbicn^eels, c^^ qui expliquerait pourquoi les progr^s de la maladie ota.ent tros rapides quana

Class XX.] acute founder. 503

four,- but it is more common to the fore feet. I have seen it attack all the
feet, 'apparently occasioned by the weight of the body, and congestion from long
confinement.

Symptoms of Acute Founder. — When a horse labours under tins complamt,
the attendants are usually unconscious of the real nature of the disease ; and it
is not unfrequeut that even the medical practitioner, when called in, does not
innnediately detect it, unless much used to these cases : for he finds the horse
heaving at his flanks, with a quick labouring pulse ; and, on inquiry, he hears
th.-it the attack commenced with a rigor or shivering fit ; that the suffering
animal has been lying down and getting up frequently ; groaning with excess
of pain, and occasionally breaking out into cold and profuse sweats. In such
case, unless he be informed that the horse has been ridden or driven with
violence, and afterwards exposed to cold ; or, unless his eye catches the par-
ticular disinchnation to remain on his feet, with their extreme heat, he is at a
loss, frequently, whether to consider it an attack on the bowels, kidneys, or
bladder, or an inflammatory or rheumatic fever. An experienced practitioner
wUl, however, even when called in at first, if the symptoms are not alto-
gether perfectly well marked, still observe, that though the horse appears to
suffer much pain, and to lie down and rise frequently, yet that he neither
attempts to roU or paw with his feet, nor look at his flanks, or kick his belly ;
and that even early in the complaint he betrays a peculiar manner of shifting
and lifting up his legs, or by placing them so as to relieve the superincumbent
pressure, either drawing his hinder much under him to reheve the fore, or
placing the fore under the chest to relieve the liinder, according as one or the
other are the principal seat of inflammation; or, by a marked disinclination to
remain long up, when the whole of them are affected. When the inflammation
exists in the whole of them, the horse usually lies almost wholly on the ground
(this disposition is, however, not quite invariable) ; which will commonly dis-
tinguish it from visceral inflammations, particularly from pneumonia. We
need hardly give any signs to prevent it from being considered as an affection
of the loins, rheumatic or accidental ; for as soon as the complaint has fully
seized on the feet, they will become intensely hot, and the pastern arteries will
be found pulsating very strongly : attention to which circumstance will always
serve to characterise the disease. There is sometimes some little tumefaction
around the fetlocks, and, when one foot is held up for examination, it gives so
much pain to the other, that the horse is in danger of falling, at which times
the sUghtest tap on the feet with any thing hard gives evidently extreme pain,
and is flinched from most sensitively. If the horse be attempted to be taken
out of the stable, his disinclination is so great, as at once to shew the feet to be
the seat of evil : in his taking each limb up and setting it down there is some-
thing so truly characteristic of the intensity of the pain he feels in them as
will not easily be forgotten. The course of the disease is vai-ious : it may end
in resolution, in which case the symptoms all relax, the remains of the con-
gestion become absorbed, and the parts reinstate themselves perfectly. In
others, the secreting laminae diffuse a quantity of adhesive matter within the
horny lamella:, which accretes, and not only destroys the mutual elasticities of
these parts, but it greatly extends and deforms the hoof, which sometimes

die (Hait or-casioiitc par ccttc cause, ct tcls que I'afTection sc terminait bcadcoup plus ptomptcment
que dans Ic cas dcs fouibures doleriniiiees par Ics autrca causes plus ordinaires.'

Professor Dick, of EdinburKli, entertains a similar opinion of the connexion between tbe digestive
functions, and informs bis audience, it is said, Hint lie bas frequently seen tbis complaint arise from
gorging tbe stoniacb witb food; and such is tbn, synipatby, be observes, l)etween tlie stomach, the
alimentary canal, and the surface, that, if we regard the hoofs as a continuation of tbe common
integuments, tbis is not to be wondered at. f-'e<(;r!nr(rj'(in, vol. ill, p. 201. Wc cannot but admire
.the ingenuity of this view: is it, however, equally consistent? The vascular matter, called the
coronary ligament, which corresponds with that cuticnlar portion surrounding tlie root of our nails,
and which wc call tbe quick, secretes, and U itself a continuation of tbe cutis : to establish this
continn'oiis march of inllamnnition, we ought to find that the coronary ligament was the primary seat
of the inllammation, but which is almost totally opiiosite. The inllauinnition of founder is not one, I
apprehend, of continuity, hut resembles more the arthritic nature of gout, which vacillates between
articular surfaces and meinhranous ones. If I am not mistaUen, this view will solve many of the
phenomena othci wise veiled in mist.— St-t «n c^cellcnl punier on thin sulijccl from Mr. t'aitlcy,
in The p'clorinarian, vol. iii.

ACUTE FOUNDER. [ClASS XX.

afterwards comes away, leaving an imperfect attempt at the formation of a new
hoof, but usually altogether useless. This effusion, which may be consider^
as a kmd of imperfect resolution, may be known, before its effects on the
horn become apparent, by the very peculiar gait the horse exhibits when taken
out, and which, once seen can never be forgotten : for in consequence of the
insensibility of his feet, he throws them forward in a seemingly burlesque
manner, and brings them down as oddly on the heel. In other cases of im-
perfect resolution, the lamina;, losing their elasticity and power, vield to the
weight and stress of the coffin-bone, which is pushed backwards,' and, in its
passage draws with it the anterior crust of the hoof, which thus falls in • the
pressure also of the coffin-bone destroys the concavity of the horny sole w'hich,
instead, becomes convex or pumiced, leaving a large space towards the tw
tilled with a semi-cartilaginous mass : this is not an uncommon termination of
acute touuder, particularly in the feet of large heavy horses. When the in-
flammation proceeds to suppuration, the symptoms having raged with much
intensity for six or seven days, a slight separation of the hoof from the soft
parts may be observed commencing around the coronet, on pressing which a
small quantity of either ichorous or semi-purulent matter may be forced out : ■
the purulent secretion soon becomes established, and, totally dissolving the"
union between the soft masses of the feet and the hoofs, they faU off, when of
course the animal is of necessity destroyed, as a perfect hoof wiU never form,
Irom the disorganization which has taken place ; although, should mortification
not ensue, or irritation carry off the animal, attempts wiU be made in the parts
to secrete a new hoof; but here also it always proves a smaU, weak, and imper-
fect one.

Treatment— Ks soon as the disease is discovered, proceed to remove the
shoes, and, while the horse can yet stand, thin the sole and crust around,
allowing him a momentary respite, or he may fall on the operator. If his
state utterly precludes his standing up so long, support him by a temporary
slinging ; for thinning the hoof is so necessary to reheve the internal pressure,
that It cannot be dispensed with. The next point is, by arteriotomy, to
abstract blood from tiie toe of each affected foot (see article Phlebotomy,
bleeding at the toe) to the amount of two quarts from each, if the founder
extends all round ; but take three quarts from each, if the disease is confined
to the fore feet only, as is most common. I prefer this to a- larger quantity,
as it can be repeated again in a few hours, if necessary ; and I have thought
an enormous bleeding has tended to produce such collapse as the feet have
never recovered from : but I would again urge the necessity of a full abstrac-
tion. To encourage the bleeding when it does not flow sufficiently free, the
hoofs may be immersed in warm water, or sm-rounded with cloths, and warm
water poured on them. It has been advised (and any means are to be adopted
to insure a sufficient local flow of blood) that, when any difficulty arises in
drawing enough from the toe, to plunge a lancet, fine scalpel, or seton-needle,
through the cleft of the frog, from which a full flow may commonly be ob-
tained ; for it must be remembered, that sufficient blood should be taken, not
only to unload the vessels of the feet particularly, but those also of the system
generally, to be truly useful : if, therefore, it is found impossible to fulfil this
indication sufficiently by these means, bleed also by the cephalic, or by the
jugular vein: but it must at the same time be remembered, that the local
bleeding is, if possible, not to be dispensed with, and also that it may be re-
peated two or three times, or, indeed, as long as the inflammation is of the ad-
hesive kind only. As soon as the disposition to suppuration has commenced,
which is usually about the fourth or fifth day in very acute cases, then topical
bleeding might be productive of mortification. In general cases, if local bleed-
ing does not fully shew its beneficial effects by the second, or at most by the
third day, it will do no good*. The next indication is the continued ap-

• An excellent prai'tiral romaik to those veterinarians nlio mav be likely to pursne their art nmtcr
a tropical or arid temperature, is olfereil by Mr. Castlev ; « lio inloinis os that tlie wonnd made in the
toe in blecdlnij, was, in the Hot climate of rortngHl, very apt to tiinicfv and jnppmate until it burst

Class XX.] chronic founder. 505

nlication of moisture to the feet, either by wet cloths, or by poultices kept
Sound ?hem; or by the warm bath, if the horse can be made to stand*. In a
Trse that la; almost incessantly, I wrapped coarse cloths around the fee and
dSed an attendant to constantly wet these with the coldest water ; and al-
though the inflammation ran so high as totally to prevent the horse rising and
Ss pulse was at 90, with symptomatic fever, he yet did well. I estimated that
Ws horse lost, topically and generally, little less than forty pounds of blood in
three days. I should also, in all very acute cases where there was much ple-
thora, pn;fer cold applications : where there were age, debility, and emaciation
nresent, I would use those which were warm. ., , ^ ^.^ ■, • a

The Constitutional Treatment should be that prescribed for diffused inflam-
ination, except that, while we unload the bowels by back-raking, clysters, and
laxatives by the mouth, we should avoid active purgation, which would distress
the prostrate horse, and might increase the u-ritative fever, or perhaps en-
coura<^e enteritis by metastasis : but mild nauseants, diaphoretics, or other
febrifuges may be usefully employed, as the foUowing twice a- day, in a pint ot
warm water : —

Tartarised antimony (emetic tartar) four drachms

Nitrate of potash (jiitre) four drachms

Supertartrate of potash Ccreamo/tartor; ditto.

Allow plenty of tepid water to drink, feed very sparingly, and never force
the horse to rise: the recumbent position is the best, as that which favours the
return of blood; and, to encourage it, bed him up well: neither, if amendment
foUows oblige the horse to use more exercise than he is willing to take around
his own box. There is much difference of opinion with regard to the propriety
of bhsteringin this affection, and it is. I think, most prudent to avoid it in the
eariy stage ; but I have never scrupled to employ it on the third or fourth
day when the symptoms have not abated on bleeding; in which case I feel no
hesitation in recommending to blister actively around the lesser pastern, but to
avoid the immediate coronary ring itself Apply a cradle, and also wrap tow
around the blistered part in sufficient quantities to prevent injury to other parts;
and should amendment occur, give a caution as to the liabihty of recurrence on
extraordinary exertions for some months. In cases of imperject resolution, thin
the feet ; and, if contraction have commenced, score the hoofs, blister the coro-
nets, and turn out, or treat as under

CHRONIC FOUNDER.

The late extension of our knowledge, as regards the diseased states of the
feet has taught us that chronic founder and contraction are not necessarily
synonymous : and for two reasons ; one of which is, that every contracted foot
is not morUdly so, ox foundered^ ; the other, that there e%\&is, foundered states

out around the coronet : he was, therefore, in these eases, forced to content hinisclf with such local
abstraction as could be dcrive.l by taking it from tlie veins of the leg or arm ; wind, ve.ns, however
they may be hidden at othef times, become now sufficiently evident from vascular distentmn.

• At Alfort horses acutely foundered were placed in a foot-bath all day, aud ,f they refused to lie
down as some do, they remained all night in the sawe : the liquid winch formed the hath was a
solution of the sulphate of iron (green vitriol). The effects arc very highly spoken of.

t So much arc we the slaves of prejudice, and so much do we form our opinions on t he dogmas of
others that we are apt, in every instance, to connect lameness with contraction of the hoof, and
thence' very frequently, to reject a valuable horse, and one perfectly sound, for the usual pur-
poses /equired of him. The contraction I would designate as ordimiry, in contradistinction to that
which is morbid, or dependent on an innamed state, is of very slow growth, and is an almost
invariable result of the artilicial habits of the horse; and when we examine the comp exity of the
•tructurc of his foot, we arc filled with admiration that the vis vitai or constitutional powers, arc
able during a long life to resist all the evils it is liable to, even under the most advantageous ciicuni-
rtances. lJut such is the case ; and yet, perhaps, no horse whatever reaches old age with his feet
either of the same shape with those of his adult age, or of equal conical dimensions. Some that arc
emnloved in agricultural labour, imprisoned in iron shoes, and in other respects somewhat artillciully
Ueatcd, ncvcilheless iea.:h Ihiity and forty years without injured feet. Some are even driven iii our
carriages to a protracted period, and others arc ridden equally long, whose feet remain as perfectly
•oiiud as the natural solidifying of the machine in old age will allow. How doei this occur r for, on

506 MORBID CONTRACTION OF THE PERT. [CLASS XX.

of tho feet without contraction or, at least, with little sensible alteration in
then- size or appearance. Such are exostoses of the bones, ulcerations of their
articular surfaces, cartilages, and ligainentary capsules; all which being equallv
the consequeuees of inflainniation with morbid contraction, are necessarilV
Joumlcred states, although more usual^' called groggy lamenesses. ContractioJ
ot the feet, therefore, ought to be divided into ordinary and morlid, or into that
winch is the consequence of mechanical causes, in which the internal parts of
the feet, adapting themselves to the size of the outer, avoid injurious pressure •
and into that which connnences in, and continues to be accompanied bv in^
tlammation. buch a division can be strictly maintained, and is, practicallv
very important. It is this latter state which will first occupy my attention • the
other causes of a foundered state of the feet will follow in succession

MORBID CONTRACTION OF THE FEET.

Morbid contraction of the horn of the hoofs, which has been very generally
called chronic founder by veterinarians, and hoof-hound by farriers, is not more
ruinous than common; and, in this country, probably shortens the lives of more
horses than all the other consequences of their artificial habits put together
Lountiful Nature furnishes organs adapted to the natural wants of animals, but
for winatural habits she does not provide ; on the contrary, she always punishes
artificial deviations from her established laws, and has left it to the iu'remiity of
mankind to counteract the evils entailed, by subjecting our animals to*a life of
art. Among these evils, that of our present inquiry must be deemed a very
nnportant one ; but on the operation of what particulars of this artificial devia-
tion the mischief arises, very different opinions have been formed : it is however
clear, that as it is upon a due appreciation of this matter that our principal
means of preventing the evil must be grounded, so it is of consequence that we
examine and compare them separately. It is the most consonant with reason,
and will be found to best agree with fact, to consider that the general tendency
to contraction in the feet of horses is not dependent mainly on any one of the
numerous causes to which it is attributed, but to their united operation. Indi-
vidual eases are dependent on one or other of them, or one or more of them, as
those affected are least apt to resist the impression, or become particularly 'ex-
posed to the operation of one or more among them. The subject is one that
has engaged, for very many years, a great share of my attention, during much
of which time my opportunities for observation were considerable ; and if I have
not thrown that time away, the following will be found active agents in promot-
ing contraction. Perhaps it is better to avoid dictating the several degrees in
which they act, so variable must such action be in different cases, and under
different circumstances. As operating causes of contraction we may state, — neg-
lect of paring away the adventitious growth of horn; the application of artificial
heat ; the deprivation of natural moisture ; constitutional liability ; the existence
of thrushes ; the removal of the bars, and a too great lessening of the frog ; the
effects of pressure, occasioned by long confinement in a state of inactivity, and
in an erect position ; and, lastly, the contracting effects of shoeing.

That a neglect of paring should be considered as an agent in this case will, I

examiiiing tliesc horses, particularly those of the Ijaclcncy and carriage breeds, the heels will be found
almost invariably somewhat contracted, the frog lessened, and the foot elongated. The only reason
that can be given is, that happily the vis vittB stands here as a protector: the horn contracts from the
operation of the causes to be detailed, but the pressure is slight only ; it is, however, sufficient to
occasion slow absorption of the lateral margin of the coffin-bone and the alee of its heels ; and thus
the hard parts within accommodating themselves to the liard parts without, the sensible and vascular
parts interposed between the two escape unequal pressure: no reaction or inflammation takes place,
and thus the feet receive no material injury, although they do not become free from contraction. It
has therefore been observed, and with .jusiicc, that the sound horse witli contracted heels is to be
preferred to the horse with wide, open, ijut weak heels. These practical remaiks, however, must not
mislead us into an indifference to incipient cotitrnctinn ; it must always be regaided with jealousy,
unless it can be made out that it has long existed, and the horse is yet sound, in which latter case
there is, probably, no cause for dread: but when the sole is excavated, the frog lessened, a;id witlial
thrushy, and the heels preposterously high, whatever the present state may bo, lameness is not
far off.

Class XX.] morbid contraction of the feet. 507

make no doubt, be considered by some as a (|uestionablc opinion, the very con-
trary Iiaving been so strenuously maintained* ; but such will, I think, become
i-vicient on considering tlie operations of Nature in general, and the structure
1)1" horn in particular. By Nature a certain portion of whatever is wanting is
e-iven, and a certain portion only. Thus, as regards the horny part of the hoof,
it cannot be possessed in any extra degree in height and breadth too. I will
not say that a high foot may not in many cases have, if critically wejghed,_ more
horn than a lower one ; but, cccteris paribus, as it increases in height, it de-
creases in diameter ; and, as a principle, this cannot be too strongly impressed
on the mind, nor can any rule be found with fewer exceptions. In coach-horse
dealers' stables, where four-year old horses frequently stand for tvvo or three
months, without perhaps having their shoes removed or changed, this complaint
is not only common, but almost every horse so situated becomes contracted in
tlie feet : however, as it is not to such a degree as to cause immediate lame-
ness, so it passes unnoticed; but contraction has commenced, pressure is at
work on the sensitive parts within, and inflammation will follow : it therefore is
not unusual that when such a horse is sold, often before the force of the war-
ranty is expired, he is returned as unsound : but such is the power of habit, and
such is the obstinacy of these persons, that, to avoid the trifling expense of re-
moving the shoes, they risk the loss of the horse. In many cavalry regiments a

• It was the oiiiiiion of the French veteriimviaiis, and of M. St. Bel as theif copyist, thai llie
I tlremc paring of the crust, the sole, and the fiog of the fool, was the leading cause of contrac-
tion ; and, therefore, on the first estahlishment of tlie Veterinary Colletce, all parings of the feet weie
alisoUitely condemned, and the grand agent in tlie business, tlie hiUteris, was sent at once to the d-— 1.
A minute attention to the suliject, and a diligent examination of innumerable horses every year, have
led ine to differ very widelv from the general opinions entertained on tliis head : on the contrary," I
consider the popular doctrine of the evils arising^ from paring the feet generally as having been
productive of infinite mischief; and tliat, for one liorse injured by paring, many more are ruined by
letting it alone. I have watclicd the proceedings in luimcrous forges, as well where lieavy as where
light horses were shod, and I have particularlv marl;ed, that where tlie drawing knife only was used,
to avoid Labour, the workmen arc too apt to'neglect paring altogetlier, contenting tlicmselves with
rasping the horny ciust to a level, opening the heels, and sniootliing the frog. Nor is this to be
wondeVed at ; for if the gentlemen who arc'tanghl to cry out against this operation weie only once
doomed to go through the extreme labour of properly paring out a foot that is hut moderately
grown, thev would agree with me, that there was mucti more danger of its being neglected than of
its being over-done. A dispassionate view of this matter will prove also that the popular outcry
against the bulliris is cariied much too far. Tlie drawing knife is a neater instrument, and, foi-
p!>rticula' parts of tlie operation of paring, is inlinitely most handy and pioper ; and it is much to he
regretted that its use is not more common among country smiths, many of whom never use it hut in
cases of surgical practice. Deprive tliese persons, therefore, of the butteris, and your horse must
go unparcd f nor would tliere be any difficulty in proving, that, instead of being so destructive as
supposed, it is, when Judieiously and dexterously applied, a very useful instrument, as it will do
more work in a minute than the drawing knife can clfect in five: and where there are a number of
large coarse horses waiting to be shod, many of them with high and large feet, this cxpcditiiin must
prove of very great conseqnence. It must iiot from this be supposed that I am therefore an advo-
rate for the old system of treating tlie feet ; on the contrary, in^most of its p.arts I condemn it : for
it is true, that tlic frog has been too often extravagantly pared, and the liars entirely removed, while
the general height of tlie walls and the entire thickness of the sole have been sutfered to remain, with
the accumulated horn of many weeks' growth, over which has been immediately placed in many
instances a thick-heeled shoe. The sole tendency of what I mean to impress is, that extreme general
|i.iriiig seldom occurs ; and that the evils of erroneous partial cuttings bear no possible comparison
to the mischiefs that result from that neglect of snffieient paring ; to which the outcry raised some
thiity years ago has so much contributed, and which has, by its effects, greatly increased morbid
contraction. This prejudice .aised in the minds of the owners of horses was of infinite mischief,
because it was not confined to the removal of the natural (|iiantity of the frog and inflected bar ; but
extended to the accreted horn of the walls also, which, when shod without paring, was much in the
vame state wliich our nails would he with stroi g gloves sewn on our hands at six weeks' end.
Smiths were often forbid to remove even this ; and with both the smith and the owners of horses it is
too prevalent an opinion that paring of tlic feet is never necessary but when a renewal of the shoes is
required; coiiserinently, if a horse wear his shoes lightly, or is little used, he may not want new
ones oflener than once in two months; hut the owner appears utterly unmindful that all this time
the feet arc becoming preternaturally increased in length, and if so, preteriuitui ally decreased in
diameter, for that is the natural and invarhihle con9ei|iiencc of extra perpendicular accretion; and
as the labour of reducing suidi a foot is coni-iderahle, not only from the quantity but also from the
hardness of the substance, so the chance that a proper paring will be neglected is greatly increased.
Instead, therefore, of a slight rasping once in six weeks, and sometiuies even less frequently, for
horses who exercise little and wear lightly the flroes should be removed, wheie the feet grow fast,
at least every three weeks ; at which time the hoof should have a level paring throughout, so as to
hiing it to exactly the natural height of horn. Hut, as befcue observed, so contrary to this is the
usual custom, that after an interval, such as we have noticed, a horse goes to the smith's shop with
an inordinate quantity of it: the extreme ends of which lieing far removed from the surface that
secreted it become so dry and hard that the smith, even weie lie so disposed, can hardly make any
impression on it ; he, therefore, only rmps or burns a smooth surface, and puts the new shoes on the
old horn.

508 MORBID CONTRACTION OF THE FKET. [ClASS XX.

similar neglect used to occur, and every third horse, or even a greater portion
were observed with enormously high feet, and, as a certain consequence, with
partial contraction. The system of shoeing in these regiments is generally good,
and they never stand on litter, or are too hotly placed ; but being shod by con^
tract, the shoeing only was paid for, but not the removes and paring ; conse-
quently these necessary operations were neglected : and it is not too much to
assert, that this evil, when a long time in operation, would destroy as many
horses as an active campaign. But as each regiment is now supplied with a
veterinary surgeon, this is without doubt remedied. It is not sufficiently con-
sidered that the ivear the hoof would experience in a state of nature is prevented
by the application of shoes: but the growth is not stopped; on the contrary, by
inactivity warm stabling, and high feeding, it is probably increased beyond its
ordinary limits.

The application of artificial heat stands next in order as a cause of contraction ;
and when we consider the common properties of hoof, nail, and horn, it will be
found that this cause and the former are closely linked, and that they operate
together. These substances, when acted on by heat, become softened; but,
when cooled again, having parted with some of the volatile unctuous matter
which gave them plasticity, they contract and become harder than before : their
fibrous structure in this contraction necessarily lessens the circle they compose;
and this equally, whether the heat be applied externally or internally. This
action may be easily exemplified by placing a perpendicular section of a hollow
cylinder, or cone, as a portion of a cow's horn, before a moderate fire; or the
natural hoof may be placed in the same situation, when the contractile effects
of the heat will lessen the horny segment on whichever side of it the heat ope-
rates : and in the consideration of the subject of hoof contraction, these particular
circumstances of the operation of heat, either inwardly or outwardly, cannot be
too strongly impressed on the recollection. Thus much being premised, it will
not be difficult to recognise the application of artificial heat, in a degree much
beyond a natural temperature, to the feet of horses in various ways. The stand-
ing for years bedded up in hot litter, heated still more by a stable without venti-
lation, must have some effect on the contraction of the horn of the hoof, and
most of all on feet already high ; as it has been shewn that the longer the trunk
of the hoof, and the thicker its walls, the greater will be the contracting ten-
dency of the horny fibres : consequently here its operation is doubly injurious,
where both cause and effect combine to increase the evil in parts already in-
jured. Heat is also generated in the constitution, in stabled horses, in a degree
beyond that of others less artificially treated. The excitements of corn, of a
heated temperature, &c. must quicken the circulation, and more caloric must be
evolved. By a very slow operation of these causes, many horses, we have proved,
escape so much contraction as to occasion very active pressure : but many more
feel it most sensibly on the internal parts of the feet, which are exactly adapted
to the horny envelopement. These being highly vascular and tender, are by
this stimulated into counter-action, and inflame; which produces an additional
source of heat, and which is increased in a two-fold degree, as the cause con-
tinues to operate. There is yet another link to be added to the connecting
chain between heat and contraction : heat is known to increase the secretion of
horn: if we wash our hands in warm water many times a-day, we shall find an
increased growth of our nails; and, therefore, if this be not counteracted by
paring, &c., the feet of stabled horses will gain an injurious accretion from this
cause. As the oi'gans generally must become heated by the system, so the ex-
ertions of hard riding and driving must evolve more heat, and particularly with
us, who exert their speed so much : it will also happen, that the very friction of
hard roads must have its weight in the sum of prejudicial heat. Another source
of artificial heat has been inveighed against in the bitterest terms, which is the
application of a heated shoe to the sole of the foot, the evils resulting from
which certainly reprehensible practice have been, however, greatly overrated ;
and the more so, I apprehend, as it is used in some measure as a substitute,
though an improper one, for paring; and likewise as in the unequal shoe? of

509

Class XX.] morbid contraction of the feet.

rountrv smiths it may be even necessary to demonstrate the bearing points that
would otherwise escape notice: nor is the practice ever, I beheve, carried to

anv very hurtful extent. ,

The absence of natural moisture must also tend m no small degree to produce
contraction. Moisture has exactly the contrary effect on horn to what heat has ;
its application, therefore, greatly tends to counteract the contractile disposition. ■
It also softens, and thus enables the pressure arising from the weight of the
body to expand the relaxed hoof; but when, by the extreme length and thickness
of the hoof, its resistance is increased beyond even the power of the moisture
to penetrate, even this benefit, when occasionaUy applied, becomes lost. _ In a
state of nature it is evident that the hoofs must meet with much moisture,
of which a life of art wholly deprives them. A stabled horse frequently does
not set his feet once moistened in twenty-four hours: even his only chance
from the splashing of his urine is carefully prevented by the Utter: but in a
state of nature, at least during one-third of his time, these parts are exposed to
the dew, and, during the remainder, are frequently immersed m rivers and ponds.
Horses also less artificially treated than those of the gentry, as farmers' horses,
and the generality of those kept in the country, experience the benefits of mois-
ture to a certain degree ; for they get turned out occasionally (many live out al-
together), and consequently we find they are much less subject to this evil. _

Constitutional liability is certainly likewise a source of contraction, and this to
a considerable degree ; but the remote cause of this tendency it is not easy to
account for, any more than the constitutional liability to cataract. It is pro-
bable that both were originally connected with the life of art we have subjected
the animal to : for it would be an attack on aU-bountiful Nature, which she does
not deserve, to suppose she has originally given so destructive a disease as oph-
thalmia must prove to a wild horse ; and founder would prove scarcely less so.
The long continuance of these diseases has, however, stamped the disposition
on some structural peculiarities; and both are become somewhat hereditary and
indigenous likewise. It is, therefore, common to some breeds, and most so to
the horses of the East. In the arid plains of these countries a small foot was
not only sufi&cient, but also most convenient ; while the moist pastures of the
North required a broad flat support. When, therefore, this breed was intro-
duced to this kingdom, and became universally diffused among us, we cannot
wonder that the small foot became propagated also, which, not being natural
here as there, might easily prove a source of mischief. There are now, however,
very few of the lighter breeds which have not some small portion of what is
called blood in them; and it is in these it is most met with, and most injurious;
while those that are original and purely northern, as the heavy cart horse, and
some of the mountainous or original highland breeds, it is remarkable, are much
less affected with it. Some colours also seem to have a greater disposition to
contracted feet than others : in dark chestnut horses it is particularly common ;
and I think the better breed of blacks are rather more subject than some others:
white feet also, as being weak, are very liable to it. It is possible that the tem-
perament in some breeds tends particularly to it : wherever there is a ready ex-
citement of the system, heat must be more readily evolved, as in the ardent dis-
position of the Eastern horse ; and some colours may possess this tendency also :
thus stallions are very frequently seen with it, in which greater confinement pro-
bably adds to the evil. It is, however, to the accidental causes of increased cir-
culation and the evolution of heat, that we must mainly attribute the tendency ;
for we have ample proofs of its existence long before these breeds were common
among us.

The existence of thrushes is too much passed over among horsemen. I am
fully persuaded that they operate in contraction in a greater degree than is
usually imagined ; and in many hundred instances I never met with a truly
harmless thrush. It is said that they are more a consequence than a cause,
with which I have nothing to do here. I do not deny they are a consequence,
seeing whatever inflames the vascular texture of the foot will disease it through-
out, and by suspending the natural secretions of horn will encourage otlicrs, as

510 MORBID CONTRACTION OF THE FEET. [CLASS XX.

the matter of thrush It is i,, this way that thrushes are so connnon among
young horses too fully fed and too much conHned; originating in a general
inflaunnatory tendency, particularly felt in the extremities, fron^ accumulation
Ihese, tor awhile, may appear harmless; but gradually they spread the action
to other parts, and contraction commences as a necessary consequence Pus
exudes from every thrush : pus cannot be formed without inflammation, nor
inflammation without heat ; and having proved the slow but certain conse-
quences of heat, as promoting contraction, we may add this to the account.'
(See the subject of Thrush).

The destruction of the bars, ami too great lessening of the /rop-.— That both
these errors are productive of contraction there can be no doubt : but I cannot
help thinking that the particular attention to these immediate causes when
veterinary medicine first became regularly studied among us, has been pro-
ductive of considerable harm ; not as being in itself erroneous, but because it
diverted the mind from causes of the evil much more active and mischievous.
In the generality of country-shod horses, the bars are always cut away, let ever
so httle other paring take place ; yet these horses have less contraction than
others : and though the frog also be described as a wedge-like cushion, pur-
posely placed by nature to keep the walls asunder, a very Httle examination of
the parts will shew, that although it certainly does act in this way, yet it cannot
be so all-powerful an agent as has been supposed, having but little solidity and
force : presuming, therefore, on the natural insuflSciency of the frog as a very
active agent in preventing contraction, it is evident that the simple lessening
of it cannot tend greatly to produce contraction : and we are further led to this
supposition, from observing that many horses remain with open heels, who are
deprived of the action of the frog, either by its being cut away, or by the opera-
tion of the calkins of the shoe, which effectually elevate it beyond the requisite
pressure, to enable it to act as an expander. Very different, I apprehend, are
the operation of the bars ; not but that they are often destroyed by the butteris,
in the slashing work made on coarse feet, without much apparent injury ; but
here the predisposition is not great, and, the other causes of contraction not
being in action, the weight of the animal, the moisture he meets with, and,
above all, the constitutional powers, resist the tendency. But in other cases,
we feel assured that their loss must promote contraction^ when we observe that
their mechanical intention cannot for a moment be mistaken as any other than
a counteracting har to contraction, and that consequently their removal is
injurious*.

The effects of pressure from long standing. — This is by no means an uncom-
mon cause of founder, both acute and chronic. In violent inflammations which
prevent horses lying down, it has been already noticed how it produces the
acute kind. It occasionally, likewise, by the effects of congestion, produces the
chronic also. Instances are not wanting where it has taken place in one foot
from favouring the other which was lame. Weeks and months occur, in some
cases, when horses cannot lie down ; under which circumstance contraction
is likely to take place, by an inflammatory action excited : for this reason it
conies in long voyages often, where the heat and confinement must prove very
active agents, as also the immense strain which must be put on the laminae in
the endeavours to gain a firm foothold in the rolling of the vessel from side to
side. It may be argued, that some few horses never lie down ; but I believe
it is not proved that their feet remain always free from contraction ; and even
were it, the tendency so notoriously famihar to us would not be disproved. It

• ' Wp can also perceive wliat protection tliesc bars must form against tlie contr.iction, or wiring in
of tlie quarters. If tliey arc taken away, there will be nothing to resist the falling^ of the quarters
when the foot is exposed to any disease or bad management, which would induce it to contract.
Again, we see the security which they afford to the fiog, and the cjfectual protection which they give
against the pressure of the lateral or side parts of the foot. Then appears the necessitv of sparing and
leaving them prominent when the foot is pared for shoeinir. The horny frog, deprived of its guard,
will speedily contract, and become elevated and thrushy; and the whole of the heel, deprived of the
power of resilience or rc-actiou, which the cuive between tlie bar and the crust affords, will speedily
fall in.'—FiH-mers' Scriv.i, p. -284.

Class XX.] the shoeing of horses. 511

may, in some cases, be resisted by the powers we have insisted on ; but it still
remains an active agent in contraction. — The contracting effects of shoeing come
lastly to be considered, which, from the importance of the subject, I shall do in
a distinct article.

THE SHOEING OF HORSES,

Considered as a Cause, a Prevention, and a Cure op Contraction.

The former editions of the Veterinary Outlines presented, according to
1 long usage, a chapter on the shoeing of the horse ; but it must be evident that
: the curative principles of the veterinary art, which this work professes to teach,
has nothing further to do with the subject of shoeing, than as it may be brought
in aid of the prevention or cure of disease. I shall, in the present instance,
therefore, confine myself to these views, introducing in a note only the form of
shoe which, by its general adaptation and freedom from palpable defect, may
' be supposed to contain as much as possible the united qualities of protection
. and prevention*. An authority of no mean note laboured many years to prove

• The seated shoe, first brought prominently forward by Osmor, next adopted by Mr. Clark of
Edinburgh, and taken up by Moorcroft, is that which has been mucli employed in tlie practice of tlie.
best veterinarians, and extends now to most good forges. It may he modified in various ways: it
may be made wider or narrower, lieavier or lighter; or it may be steeled to meet unusual wear ; but
the principles are probably adapted to the protection of most healthy feet : and no one that ever was
or ever will be formed, will be applicable to every foot. A standard pattern slioe is tlierofore .in
ignis /(itiius, long sought for, but never found; though much ingenuity and research have been
wasted in looking for it. All shoeing must bend to circumstances, as those of form, place of wear,
peculiarities in the method of progression, &c. &c. Even that which is said to be an invariable
principle, that the shoe musi be made to the foot, and not the foot to the shoe, is only so in
degree. For in a diseased foot, or one getting out of shape by injudicious slioeing, the shoe must
adapt itself only in a degree to tlie foot: by a slight deviation from the general principle at each
shoeing, we shall at last bring back the ill-shaped foot to allow of a well-shaped shoe then to be in
future made use of. A well-made sealed shoe should present a loeh of uniform thickness through-
out, .and of a width suflicient to protect the font; but both this and the thickness should be regulated
by the size of the horse, nature of the work, &c. ; but it should in all cases be sufficient to obvi.atc
the effects of occasional hard wear, or the occasional neglect of renewing. To an animal so strong as
the horse, the addition of weight of one or two ounces to each shoe is very inconsiderable ; but this
addition to the support and protection of the foot is very material in many cases. Had the majority
of horses perfectly he.althy well-formed feet, and had the greater numbers of them only moderate
work on level roads to perform, then a shoe altogether lighter in weight and less in frame might be
sufficient. But it is to be considered, that there are very few feet met with but what have undergone
tome unfavourable alteration which makes them somewhat sensible to the effects of concussion ; add
to which, a great proportion of the horses in general use are worked, at least occasionally, very hard,
and often ou very bad roads. It is therefore, under all these circumstances, that I would recommend
rather more thickness as well as width than is sometimes employed for the web ; particularly where
there is any tenderness in the feet, and still more so where corns exist. As some guide also, the web
should be so thick, that when placed on the pared foot, the pad of the frog should be just on a level
with the ground surfaceof the ."hoe ; by which it will be sufficiently protected, and yet meet with that
degree of pressure which Mr. Coleman thought so necessary to the healthy functions of the foot. To
reconmiend that the heels should stand less wide than they usually do, is so greatly in opposition to
the diiections commonly given, and to the ideas entertained on the subject, that I should lay myself
open to animadversion in doing it ; but whoever will attentively examine a shoe, ' well set off' at the
heels, as it is termed, will find often only one-third of the surface, sometimes hardly that, protecting
the heels; the remainder projects beyond, and serves no purposes but those of a shelf to lodge the
dirt on ; a convenient clip for another horse to step on ; or a more ready hold for the shoe to be forced
off by in clayey grounds. So that the shoe heels stand wide enough to allow for the growth of the
foot not to draw the points within the crust, it is sufficient. The length of the heels should be regu-
lated by the nature of the work and the form of the foot ; where the heels are round, and overhang
at all, the shoe should be of sufficient length to receive and guard them; but where hunting is fol-
lowed in a clayey countrv, any extra length is dangerous, as forming a resistance; and some horses
force off the shoe by lodging the hind toe on the projecting heel. The ground surface of the shoe
should be critically flat ; not should any shoe be put on a foot that has not been first tried on a plane
iron, kept for that purpose ; which practice would jirevent the evil of applying a thick club-heeled
shoe to the weakest part of the foot, as is loo often done. This surface is fullered, and is then
punched with cither five nail.< on the outer and four nails on the inner side, or with four on the outer
and three on the inner, according to the oize and weight of the shoe and tread of the animal. This
disproportion is occasioned by the greater thickness and strength of the outer side, which will thus
admit of the principal attachment to it ; and also because, not only is the inside the thinnest and
weakest, but for the reason that expansion probably is greatest there ; at least we know contraction
principally occurs there : the inner heel is the first to wire in, and the inner heel is commonly the scat
of corns, rtis, therefore of consequence, that we put as few nails as possible into the inner side of
the foot, and those should not approach the heel, but reach only to the centre of the wall : the nearer
the last nail-hole is to the toe, provided the shoe is firm, the more room is left for such afoot to expand,
riie foot surface of the sealed.nUuc presents a bevelled portion over two-thirds of its extent, except
at the heels, where it is entire as on the ground surface, which plane portion is intcndeil to icc'eive the

512 THE SHOEING OF HORSES. [ClASS XX:

that all shoeing of horses whatever, whether good or bad, had a tendency to,
and actually did produce contraction ; and this ingenious author had well nigh
persuaded some orderly folk to ride their horses unshod : but on reflecting that

heels. Tills bevel ot seating allows for the deaeont of the sole, which certainly does take place in a
slight degree ; bnt principally it favours the ejection of stones, &c., which lodging there might
injuriously press on the horny sole. The seated shoe is the only one which can be worn with safety
by the flat-footed horse ; it ia also rendered lighter by seating, without detracting from its strength.
An outward seating, according to the plan of M. St. Hel and some later practitioners, presents at
tirst sight an appearance of following nature, and of giving a surer support by a more pointed
pressure downwards, with an equally stable support upwards; and if we could make shoes at once
ductile and durable, this would, for all well-formed feet, be an excellent mode: but, unfortunately,
this outer rim soon wears down, and the expectations raised relative to its utility are not fulfilled •
and what is worse, the shoe must either be rendered improperly thick, or this loss of lower rim will
weaken it. Whenever frosty weather, hunter's shoeing, or heavy draught work, makes calhint
necessary, the utmost caution is required to avoid elevating the outer heel only, as is sometimes
done. If two calkins be not used, at least thic ken the inside heel to an equal height with the outer ;
otherwise great danger of straining the tendons and ligaments will occur. The hinder foot, it may be
remarked, is rather straighter in the quarters, and it is advantageous for the foothold that the shoe
he made a little squarer at the toe than even the toe itself, which squaiiug, by shortening the toe,
also assists in preventing over-reaching ; the tendency may be also still further countcr.actea by bevel-
ling the front lower edge of the shoe away.

A judicious preparation of the foot for the application of the shoe is, in many points of
view, even more important than the framing of the shoe itself ; and the younger practitioner, anrl the
amateur even, will do well not only to consider it so, but to frequently watch the process from
beginning to end. The opeiation is, of course, commenced by pulling olfone old shoe ; for it is better
never to take more oflf at once, otherwise the horse is apt to break away the edges of the horn while
standing so long bare on the roiish ground or pavement. In removing the old shoes, great care is
necessary that the clenches be first thoroughly raised, so that the crust m.iy not he torn, or portions
of the nails left within the horn. This being done, the rough edges of the crust should be rasped,
which prevents its breaking away when set down, and detects any stubs of old nails left behind, as
well as removes loose portions that would hold gravel, either of which might turn the nail that inav
chance to be Introduced there. The next process is to thoroughly pare the sole throughout, until it
can be what is called ' thniiilieci' or felt to spring by a forcible pressure of the thumb. In this
paring the natural form of the arch of the sole should be as closely imitated as possible, and par-
ticular care taken that no part of it be left to protrude beyond the line of the crust : on the contrary,
its concavity ought to commence iinmediately from the line of separation between the crust and sole,
but not from the edge of the crust, as I have seen done- The whole thickness of the ci nst, be it
more or less, ought to be left perfectly flat for the hearing of the shoe. Habit, and a correct eye, can
detect any equalities in this surface, without a momentary application of the heated shoe to try the
bearing parts, as is usually done ; and which, if the shoe be also previously tried with a plane iron,
may very well be avoided, although the outcry raised against this pr.actice is, in a great measure,
unnecessaiy ; for, unless the shoe be very hot, and held on too long, no harm probably results from
its application In coinnioii rough shoeing, also, this error is infin tely less than the application of
the unequal pressure which it is intended to prevent would prove. The portion of sole between the
bars and quarters shoulil be always pared out; and, if properly done, is the surest preventive against
corns. The heels should be an object of great attention, and ought to be carefully reduced to the general
level of position which it may be supposed the hoof was originally placed in, and which may always
be judged of by observing the line of the pasterns with it. (See the remeilial treatment of high
arid contracted heels .) It is of great consequence that the inner heel be not reduced beyond the
outer; its natural weakness gives it a tendency to increased wear : instead therefore of paring both
equally, in such a case pare only the outer, and moreover set the shoe very lightly on that heel. A
want of attention to this circumstance of inequality in the heels lays the foundation for corns and
splents. I have yet made no mention of the frog, which is, in general, almost the very first object of
attack as soon as the knife or butteris is taken in hand ; hut I would, on the contrary, recommend
that the sole, crust, and heels, be tirst attended to, and then a mistake in paring the frog is less likely
to arise : for it may be regarded as a general rule, that when the frog is a very little beyond the level
of tlie returns of the heels and the crust, it is as large as it ever ought to be ; the heels of the shoe
will raise it sufficiently for protection ag.aiust too much wear, but will not elevate it beyond a proper
share of pressure. Smiths are too apt to be impressed with an idea of opening the heels, which,
with them, is nothing more than cutting away the edges of the inflexions of the hoof, where they
turn to form the horny heels, and are continued under the names of bars or binders. In contracted
feet these inflexions sometimes press inwards, and actually squeeze the frog ; from observing which,
smiths cut away the extreme edges of the pressing part ; and as, in such cases, this practice is
observed to give some relief, so it has become a principle in their minds that it is a salutary process
to every foot ; and as it leaves a momentary appearance of widened heel, it is not possible to convince
them but that a refi/ enlargement of the posterior part of the foot is the consequence. It is hardly
necessary to remark, that this practice is founded oii the grossest ignorance, and that, instead of even-
tually opening the heels, it tends permanently to contract them, by weakening the bars : the practice
should therefore, in every instance, be forbidden, except as before mentioned, in cases where the
inflected heels contract or ' wire in' so much as actually to press the frog between the homy edges,
when it is justifiable to relieve the immediate pressure by cutting out the binding portions of the
inflexions; but it must not be forgotten in this case, that the remedy is only palliative, and more
permanent means should be adopted for the healthy expansion of the paits. Although the returns of
the heels are only to be meddled with in such cases, and the continuation of the horny inflexion or
bars in no case, it is yet otherwise with the intermediate portion of born which fills up the angle;
this should be pared out, in every instance, moderately : it is the seat of corns, and if accidental
pressure alight heie, a corn is the inevitable consequence: if a small particle of gravel lodge here
also, each step forces it further, and, as soon as it has reached the sensible parts, inflammation and
suppuration ensue. In every case, therefore, judiciously remove this intersection of horn as a pie-
\ention ofevil. In the course of the remedial treatment of contraction, &C., other uiattert connected
with the preparation of the foot preventively and rcmedially will appear.

Class XX.] the shoeing of horses. 513

constant attrition against silex, in all its unyielding forms, was worse than the
application of a protecting though umjielding ring of iron, horse shoeing was
continued as the lesser evil, and will probably be so as long as horses and hard
roads are brought together. There is no doubt, however, that Mr. Clark was
right in assuming the general tendency to contraction, although it has been
denied, because it is observed to be resisted in farmers' horses, and occasionally
in a few others blessed with a double portion of the capability of resisting the
ordinary effects of art. For if the foot is framed on elastic principles, we may
be assured that it was naturally intended to expand at every step and at every
rest also ; consequently that any imprisonment within an unyielding case frus-
trated Nature's intentions, and necessarily disarranged some of the functions of
the foot. Now deranged functions always predispose to disease, and nothing but
very great constitutional powers can resist the application of constant injurious
causes, or otherwise the vis medicatrix naturcB must be in constant and full force
to repair the breaches made in the organs. Mr. Clark's error, therefore, appears
to have been, that he lost sight of this p)rese7-vative power: his zeal blinded
him to the fact, that thousands and tens of thousands of horses shod on good
principles, and a very great number on bad principles also (at least such as
appear so to us), remained sound-footed to the end of a long life. Convinced
at length that horse-shoes were, although an evil, yet a necessary one, this
gentleman set about devising different methods of attaching them without the
evils of fettering the foot by nailing them to it. Here he was foiled also in his
ingenious endeavours ; and he is now content, with the rest of mankind, to use
an iron ring, and to nail it to the foot ; but though this is recognised by all,
mankind differ very widely on the form of the shoe, and subordinately so, on
the mode of attaching it. Horse-shoeing may be divided into simply protect-
ing— protecting and preventive — and remedial. The simply protecting shoe is
that employed for cover of the feet of agricultural and other horses employed
in heavy di-aught work. A shoe at once protecting and preventive of contraction
has been a subject of much controversy and speculation. Lafosse thought that
by shortening and thinning the heels of the shoe he should leave the heels of
the foot and the quarters at full liberty to expand ; but his shoe was adapted
for very strong feet only, and put the tendons so much on the stretch in all,
that it was not long found applicable even in his own eountry, and still less
here, where our hard roads and our harder riding require a full protection to
the foot. The shoe of Osmer was a vast improvement on the French method,
which was, with some modifications, adopted by St. Bel, and at first found an
advocate in Mr. Coleman also, but whose penetrating mind soon discovered that
much more was wanting to counteract the tendency to contract that domestica-
tion produced in the feet. He first extended the heels of the short shoe to the

Coll shoeing,— I am induced to 'travel out of the record' by two considerations, too little
attended to in tlic early shoeiiigs of our horses. We have no ' H^'hisperer' now ; Sullivan left not his
cloak behind hiui ; and we have too many failures on the principles of Jumper to advert to thern. Of
these notorious personajces see an interesting and entertaining account in the Farmers' Series, art.
Horse, p. 3.31. Prevention is better than cure; therefore, from the moment a colt is taken in hand,
accustom him to have his feet gently taken up ; tap them with something ; affect to rasp as though he
was at the forge, encouraging him at the time. The first time he does enter a smithy should be
marked with every uentleness, and at no time done when any effluvia is present from oils, nor when
any force is being employed on another horse; one fright now will take months or years to eradicate.
Take him with a companion or deld-raate if possible; let the smith approach him with gentleness, and
encourage him, and do this in preference to blindfolding or twitching; rcmembeiing tliat the con-
nexion of ideas is lasting on tlic brute mind, because less likely to warn by ratiocination than in our-
selves; .ilthough they certainly reason, combine, and draw inferences. Let the whole process he com-
pleted witli equal mildness, and, after three or four times thus shod, that horse is insured to he ' quiet
to shoe' ever after. Those who, like myself, have seen valuable colts rendered worthless, and even a
nuisance, from their resistance to shoeing, merely by want of an early initiation on proper principles,
will acknowledge these cautions not to be irrelevant. The second consideration is, that the smith
nave it pointed out to him, that the two sides of the foot are imt formed on the same tine of circle, but
have a very different contour: it has been familiarly but expressively described, as furnishing in
the unshod state more than a semicircle on the outer quarter, and less than a semicircle on the inner.
I he usual shoe being formed on the principle of a regular semicircle, if applied, must occasion the
young foot to be altered to the shoe. Here let the principles already laid down operate ; let the shoe be
made to the natural shape of the foot: (irtificial habits anil cxertiuii will alter it fast enough ; but as
long as the expansive line of support on the outer quarter can be retained, let the web of the shoe be
naimnercd out to it, which will relieve the bearing on the inner and weaker half of the foot.

K k

514 THE SHOEING OF HORSES. [CLASS XX.

heels of the frog, but made them much thinner than the toe part, purposely to
bring the frog to the ground ; impressed with the principle of Lafosse, who
considered the contact of this natural pad with the ground an essential support
to the tendons when in action, Mr. Coleman added to this an artificial iron
frog, which, by its constant pressure on the natural frog, was to keep that in
health, and assist in forcing open the contracting heels. There was also a clip
added to each heel, which, by embracing the junction of the bars with the heel,
seemed to promise an expanding effect on the hoof generally. This plan, with
the addition of the outward bevel, was ingenious, and in my opinion must be
considered great improvements on our preventive system of shoeing.; but as the
method of application got into other hands, and was ill-managed, it not only
failed in good effect, but did harm also, bringing undeserved odium on the plans,
which were in themselves good; and when they came to be added to shoes
with equal thickness throughout, were valuable improvements. Equally in-
genious was the Professor's frog bar- shoe, intended to protect weak heels, to re-
lieve corns, and, by offering a constant point of support to the frog, to diminish the
tendency to contraction. But it was found that, although this was an excellent
remedial invention for diseased feet, it was not of general application as a pre-
ventive of contraction ; and it became almost superseded by the introduction
of the spring-heeled shoe, which is of moi'e general utility, as obviating hurtful
pressure on the heels, and furnishing them with useful elasticity by healthy and
moderate pressure ; and also greatly assisting weak quarters and heels, and en-
couraging the growth of the frog. Of Mr. Bracy Clark's paratrite it is only
necessary to observe, that the principal it was formed on, of applviug a shoe
without penetrating the hoof with nails, was excellent ; but there is reason
to believe such intention will ever be frustrated by the force of the exertions of
the horse requiring such an adaptation as shall make the shoe and the foot one
solid and united mass, and which can only be done by the intervention of nails.
The industry of this ingenious and determined foe to contraction not having
been rewarded in his former attempts by the success his sanguine expectations
led him to hope and his industry merited, he revived and improved, by a con-
cealed rivet, the jointed shoe of by-gone days. The original may be seen well
figured in the Ecole de Cavalerie of Gueriniere. It would seem to promise
much, since the evUs of early wearing away of the joint are much obviated by
the great improvement of a concealed double rivet. Such joint, to be complete,
should, however, have its motion strictly guarded to horizontal expansion only :
any other motion must operate in loosening the nails and breaking the crust.
On such a principle this shoe could not fail to be useful ; but it is much to be
regretted, that whatever its merits, workmen are not readily to be found who
will or can make it so as to extend its benefits universally : it, however, well
deserves a very full and fair trial*. Another eminent veterinarian and practical

* As t have not many opportunities, at present, of inquiring into the merits of this system of shoe-
ins, I must offer what is said of it hy others, who, living in the very scene of action, must be supposed
to I'lave ocular demonstration continually before them. Every thing emanating from Mr. Bracy
Clark is deserving a respectful attention ; but as the very weight of his authority might mislead, that
alone is a sufficient reason why it should be more closely examined. Tlie excellent writer on the sub-
ject of Thf Horse, in the Farmers' Series, p. 319. says of this shoe, ' This is a most imperfect ac-
commodation of the expansion of the foot to the action of its internal parts ; and even this accommo-
dation is afforded in the slightest possible degree, or rather can scarcely be afforded at all. Either the
.ila fix the sides and quarters as in the common shoe, and then the joint at the toe is useless ; or, if

the shoe to me nOOI, nut win Ullfll lUUl iiway ptMiiuus ui nnr uiuat. Alii.? i>. U.....J .

found to be llic effect of the jointed shoe ; tlie sides and quarters of the foot have been broken, until
it has become difficult to find nail-hold. This shoe, to answer the intended purpose, should consist
of many joints running along the sides and quarters, which would make it too complicated and ex-
pensive and frail for general use.' These are certainly drawbacks on the prospect of its permanent
utility but there is another, adverted to by Mr. Turner, that is more than e<iual to them; and,
with all the latitude that we would allow as coming from an opponent, the tax is almost unanswer-
able After a cursory notice of the above defects, he adds, ' Let it, for argument's sake, be admitted.

Class XX.] morbid contraction of the feet, 5l5i

sheer, by birth, parentage, and education, Mr. J. Turner, of Regent Street, has
brought forward a shoe purposely formed to allow due expansion of the foot,
and to combat tJie evils of contraction : and if, in the arduous duties of the
road and field, it is found to be sufficiently secure in its foothold, we have yet a
prospect of combating this foe to horse-flesh. These benefits are attempted by
the use of ' a shoe of moderate substance, and of equal thickness at toe and
heels, to be nailed at the toe and outside quarter, with an extra nail or two at
the outside heel, but not a single nail to be driven or hole punched in the inner
half of the shoe, except one a little inclined to the inside toe.' I must again
remark, that my fear with regard to this shoe is its insecurity under extra-
ordinary pressure or great inequalities in the road or field, on which, however,
Mr. T. is very sanguine*. Still, should it apply only to such horses as are
ordinarily employed as hacknies, and to the carriage horses of the nobility and
gentry, it is yet a great acquisition as a pi-eveniive. Remedially it seems to
promise much more, as we are candidly informed by Mr. Turner that the dis-
covery of its beneficial effects as a remedy for contraction was made after its
accidental appUcation in a case of cutting. — See Veterinarian, vol. ii. It
remains for us to observe that it was some years ago that these remarks were
made ; the intervening time has, however, only served to increase the reputa-
tion of this method of shoeing, at least such is the account we receive from
various quarters. In no part of the different manual treatments of the horse
are the modern practices of shoeing moi-e nearly perfected than in the pre-
sent day.

Chronic T"oundbb [continued from p. SlVl.

Symptoms and Appearances of Chronic Founder. — The hoof, from an almost
circular form (see Description of Foot), becomes, when foundered, much elon-
gated ; and, on taking up such a foot, the frog, instead of a full bold appear-
ance, seems wedged and squeezed between the contracted bifurcations of the
heels, which, in these cases, usually experience the greatest share of the con-
traction, and are then said by dealers and grooms to be wired in. Some con-
tractions operate on the whole circumference of the horn ; more frequently,
however, the heels, as being the thinnest parts, suffer the most ; and the inner
one, as being the weakest of the two, is generally more drawn in than the
outer: nor is it uncommon for contraction to be confined to the inner side only.
Sometimes, however, it affects the whole of the cj'linder of the hoof equally ;
sometimes it is greatest round tlie coronet, and at others it is most lessened
towards the sole: but contracted heels more frequently present their narrowest
surface below. From tiie different degrees of inflammation which have existed
at various times, the hoof is oflen encircled with horny rings, and which are
more common in the weak thin foot than in the strong. The hinder hoofs,
though not wholly exempt, yet are infinitely less liable to contraction, from the
absence of many of the exciting causes present in the fore. They are in the
first place thinner at the toes, and thicker at the heel, which greatly destroys
the contracting tendency. They are much less exposed to heat and to pressure,
and meet with more occasional moisture ; and when they are contracted, it more
usually affects them throughout the whole circumference ; nor does the con-

' cent ctatc, tied iip by tlip head ill his stall twenty-two hours out of the twenty-four, and we shall
I find tins jointed alioc of Mr. Bracy Claik's to he a fetter with a vengeance, under the disguise of
' fT'H- The weight of a horse alone, unaccompanied with action, is i|uite unequal to the ristiaint
' or the nails; and consequently the joint at tlie toe of the shoe becomes a nullity, leaving the heels
• exposed to severe partial pressure, as with the common shoe. Contraction of the foot heins principally

engendered m the stable, this is the period of danger, although exertion afterwards out of the stable

■8 the exciting cause of lameness.'
• In proof of its security, Mr. Turner says, ' I have subjected it to the test of i oad-woik equal to
I postuig. But the fact is, in the majority of instances, no more is necessary than a little extra iiiiiling-
- as to number, in the outside quarter, accompanied with small clips judiciously applied, in older to
■ seciire the shoe during a month's wear. It will hereafter be seen, and I pledge myself to shew that if

the inner wall or half of the foot be duly protected, free of restraint, that the outer wall, or other half

OT the foot, will take care uf Itself, or rather Is capable of resisting the restraint which the shoB and
' Dolls i^ppose to it.'

K k 2

516 MORBID CONTRACTION OF THE FEET. [CLASS XX.

traction of the hinder feet produce such serious consequences as that of thfe
fore. From the causes before detailed, contracted hoofs are ahnost always higher
than others, and the solo is likewise generally concave : it is in general much
thicker in substance also, from an inflamed state of the vessels increasing the
s6cretion of horn : this increase is most painfully felt in progression, and little
less so when standing in the stable, the weight of the body obliging the horse
to relieve himself, by alternately placing each foot forward, which grooms call
fencing, or pointing. Whenever, therefore, this is observed, however free from
lameness the horse may appear, such feet are diseased : and generally on a close
inspection one may detect a shortened step and ' feeling ' mode of going, al-
though at first not in a great degree ; but as the evil increases the tenderness
will likewise, and eventually be such as if the horse walked on hot irons : the
proper sensibility will seem to be lost, and he will often not step true, but trip
and stumble. This state comes on slowly or rapidly, as the contraction is re-
tarded or hastened by circumstances ; and also some feet are so constituted as
to bear much lessening before actual lameness appears, and others very little.
The causes of contraction, be they what they may, are always most painfully in-
creased in their consequences when a neglect of paring occurs, for in such case
the pressure of the increased quantity of unyielding horn stimulates in a greater
degree the highly inflamed vessels to deposit coagulable lymph between the
laminai and over the sensible sole, which, while it produces a morbid sensibility,
destroys the natural one, and occasions these cases to be expressivety called, by
the common farriers, numbness in the feet. The evil does not, however, usually
rest here, but the inflammation extends to the bones and cartilages ; and while
the former throw out bony spiculi around, the latter become almost wholly
absorbed, and their place supplied by osseous matter, when extreme and irre-
coverable lameness inevitably ensues.

Treatment. — From what has been premised, it will appear that contraction
may arise from an inward or an outward cause ; that is, that when a constitu-
tional liability exists, or is promoted by any causes which raise universal ple-
thora or inflauunatory tendency throughout ; or from shght disorganization hav-
ing taken place after acute founder, which has left some inflammatory action
behind ; in such cases it is the internal part of the feet which, becoming in-
flamed and heated, contract the horn inwardly. Here, even the removal of the
contraction will only remove the immediate pressure ; for the permanent cure,
we must also remove the effects which have been occasioned, and prevent the
renewed action of the causes. In other cases, some of the outward occasional
causes have operated the contraction, and the constitution generally has less
to do with the heat which has been wholly or in part generated without, or the
outward contraction has brought on some shght re-action within, and together
increase the evil. It therefore is important to the prognosis and cure, that the
practitioner form a correct opinion of the origin of the disease, as that, if
not wholly, will assist in judging of the internal state of the foot, before he
gives an opinion, or proceeds to act. In some of the former kind, no means
would be equal to a perfect cure ; and, consequently, it woidd not be prudent
to recommend a tedious and expensive process, when a paUiative treatment only
ou<^ht to be adopted : but, in the latter cases, a perfect cure might often follow

tion to appearances i: i a

if it have, and has proceeded very slowly ; and particularly if it can be learned
that the horse, from confinement, neglect of paring, and other artificial habits,
has evidently been exposed to the outward causes producing contraction ; then
there is reason to hope that the internal parts are not irremediably affected. i
To Enlarge the Contracted Hoof, many mechanical contrivances have been
invented • some of them very ingenious, and most of them more or less pro-
ductive of the desired end : but, unfortunately for all of them, as soon as the
cxoandinc processes are laid by, contraction recommences. We are apt, in the
outset to look on contraction too mechanically. It is often an effect only ot

Class XX.] morbid contraction of the feet. 617

disease ; and when it is the cause, it frequently happens, that ere any treatment
is put in practice, it has altered the pnrts within, absorbing some, and occa-
sioning morbid deposits around others ; so that in operating the expansion we
have forced the hoof almost from its attachments, and as it is not often that the
disoro-anization is repaired, particularly the absorbed sides of the coffin-bone
never" are replaced, so the hoof, no longer under the expanding forces applied,
again falls into its old attachments ; again pressure takes place, disease is re-
newed, perhaps in a less degree, but eventually the same result happens with all,
that, sooner or later, the feet are rendered permanently lame. In such cases,
also, as exhibit decided benefit from any expanding means, it seldom happens
that sufficient care is taken to prevent the action of the occasional causes be-
coming again applied. If they were, I am persuaded that the benefits might be
rendered permanent in some : but contraction having once occurred, it requires
the utmost vigilance to prevent it again taking place, from the circumstances
that the alteration within having followed that without, but that within not
readily following that made without, a collapse of the outer towards the inner
will certainly follow the application of the original causes.

The oldest remedy for contraction was drawing the sole; which, as I believe,
is a most ineSective and most certainly a brutal remedy, though even yet ad-
vocated and practised by some French veterinarians. The next remedy was
the old screw shoe, which was little more than a common shoe jointed at the
toe, and having a screw at the heel, by which it might be expanded at pleasure.
This shoe has been in use even lately, but has many objections to it : one com-
mon to this, and to all expanding shoes, is, that in many cases the action com-
mences at the wrong end ; for contraction is found greatest around the coronet
sometimes ; and when in the heels and quarters, one only is probably drawn in :
its action is, therefore, partial and confined, to obviate which I adopted shoes
whose joints were variously placed, according to the contraction ; for a hoof
contracted generally, I framed a joint at the toe in the old way. When the
heels only were drawn in, a joint was made opposite each quarter : and when
the inner heel only was alfected, I used one with a joint on that side only.
These joints were not operated on by the former clumsy method of either slid-
ing bars or heel- screws across the foot; but by small screws within the body of
the shoe, that acted as levers, and forced one limb of the shoe from the other :
each heel had also a clip to embrace the bars. With these shoes I have fre-
quently extended contracted feet, and in many cases, in conjunction with thin-
ning and moisture, their use was marked and considerable : but they, in com-
mon with all other expanding shoes, are but partial and temporary only in theii-
benefits : their removal, particularly when added to, by a re-application of the
constitutional or occasional causes, even in a slight degree only, is too apt to
be followed by a return of the evil, and I have observed that the recurrence is
more frequent after mechanical expansion by the means of shoes, than after any
other of the plans in use.

Other means have also been used for the cure of this complaint, but with
very limited success ; — such as dividing the heels their whole length ; taking up
the pastern arteries ; and lately taking up the pastern nerves has been tried as
a remedy also. Firing and blistering have been employed often, as might be
expected, and immersing in cold and in hot water, and in medicated waters,
has been used in various ways to the fullest extent ; and as the deprivation of
moisture is one of the great causes of contraction, and the presence of moisture
one of the great preventives of it, so it is not to be wondered if the foot bath
flattered the hopes, and gave actual indications of amendment in many in-
stances; some of which received permanent enlargement, while most were
benefitted no longer than it was applied. Turning out at night, or even in the
f day, where there was moisture, has been ftilly tried, and, so long as moisture
was present on the ground, did good ; but as soon as it became dry and hard,
and as a vertical sun increased the temperature of the earth, the contraction
and lameness increased even. Permanent benefit being so seldom received
from these means, occasioned attempts to be made both to enlarge the horny

518 MORBID CONTRACTION OF THE FEET. [CLASS XX.

circle by a partial and by an extensive removal of the old horn, in hopes that
the newly secreted horn would form of its original dimensions. To this end,
experimentalists have lessened the resistance of the envelopment by numerous
deep scores around, operating as so many hinges, on which the hoof, yielding
to the pressure of the internal parts, has certainly expanded. To this was
sometimes added a thinning of the hoof generally : but very seldom were the
heels lowered or the sole divested of its inordinate increase, so that only half
the proper benefit was derived. When Mr. Coleman began his career he
adopted and amended this plan ; and, by his recommendation, it became more
known and practised than it had heretofore been. I also had already made
some trials of it ; but at that time I preferred the quicker though less perma-
nent mode of the expanding shoe, assisted by moisture, which I tried to its
fullest extent, having at one time eight horses under my care, with each a se-
parate process for expansion : subsequent experience and fresh experiments
taught me to depend more on what may be called a natural and voluntary ex-
pansion of the hoof, in contradistinction to that produced by expanding shoes,
which may be termed the mechanical and forced enlargement of it. By the
spontaneous growth a more lasting effect is certainly gained ; for the parts are
themselves brought, not so much to enlarge the materials of the old hoof, as
to form almost a new one ; and which, if the former disposing causes of con-
traction be avoided, will, as being a new fonnation, be less subject to dete-
rioration. Candour, however, forces me to observe, that benefit of a very
marked kind does not remain permanent in a great many cases : occasionally,
however, it does, of which I have seen some very complete instances*; and,
therefore, though the general practice of it be not new, the full detail of it, I
am persuaded, is so ; for hitherto this method of removing contraction has been
hardly more than hinted at ; and of all the means in use for expanding the con-
tracted foot, I think this decidedly the best, though the least tried. By a re-
moval of such portions of offending horn as can be spared, a considerable part
of the pressure of the contracted hoof is at once lessened, and the parts within
enter on the process of forming an enlarged circle of horn, which sufficiently
shews the beneficial tendency of such a proceeding. And it is upon a removal
of the horn in such a way as to lessen the pressure of the contraction as much
as possible, without weakening the support of the hoof, that the nicety of this
operation depends. The mode of doing this will be, to take away such portions
as can be best spared, and yet such as are the principal agents in the injury,
which are the walls of the heels, and the inordinate increase of the sole ; for
experience has fully proved, that a thickened state of the sole, instead of afford-
ing a support to a tender foot, is the most painful addition that can be made to it.
To render the performance of this useful operation easy and intelligible, I have
added a figure representing a hoof so operated on, and which, with the follow-
ing directions, will readily enable any intelligent smith to perform it. It should,
however, be premised, that, when bad thrushes exist, it is proved that they
should be first removed before the full extent of the operation is proceeded on ;
but, if the wiring-in of the heels is clearly the cause of the thrush, proceed to
thin the heels without too much lowering them, but sufficiently to bring the
lessened frog into the line of ground pressure. Ti eat afterwards as directed
under Thrushes^ and, when an evident amendment appears, proceed to complete
the whole of what is intended.

Expanding process. — First, let the sole be carefully pared. I have already
stated that the usual increase of horn here greatly aggravates the painful affec-

• I bouiflit a gip horse of eight years old, with much lameness from contraction ; the consequence,
as I presniiipii, of hard work, stable confinement, &c. When f bought him, lie could not travel ten
miles without inucli iliffli!ulty, faUering at every step : ,a dealer would have called him ' dead lame.'
] submitted him to tlic process described, and turned him out to straw-yard for six months, occ*-*
sionally inspecting him and rasping his feet anew. I then took him up, got him into condition ; and
thougli I do not say that he ever went exactly as a young Ircsli horse, he was sound for all purposes
of draught work, for he was perfectly safe, willing, and nearly as well after thirty miles driving as
in the morning at starling; and was again ready for exertion the next day. I drove him more than
three years ; and when lie left me, although he did not go equally well as at first, Uc was then much
better ihaii when 1 bought him.

Class XX.] morbid contraction of the feet. 519

tion- so much so, that I have frequently afforded instant relief by merely thin-
nS'the 7o\e. At no time can a horse, at aU affected m his feet by contraction,
5 with even tolerable ease without his soles are thin. Having, therefore,
oared the sole all over equally, until the thumb, by a hrm pressure, is able to
Siake it yield, proceed to lower the crust generaUy correspondent with a proper
Une of the sole ; but lower the heels as much as they can bear, without depriv-
ing them of all their horny covering, or reducmg them too much beyond the
general level, to the straining of the flexor tendons In this paring clear away
the horn within the angle of the bars, and along the whole hue ; but leave the
bars themselves sound and full. Do the same by the frog, leavmg it as large
as possible to relieve the weakened heels, cleanng away only the ragged parts,
unless it be thrushy, when all pressing and decayed portions, and aU under-
rmrdiigs, must be cut out clear. Having finished the under surface proceed to
rasp the waUs or sides of the hoof, beginning about the middle of the quarter,
and rasping it to the heel. I have found it, however, useful first to draw a me
neariv or quite around the hoof, immediately under the coronary ring, marked
aaa in the /?<>•. p. 520. This line should be made as near the sensible part as
possible, yet it must by no means touch or wound it; and m domg this the
horse's feeUngs will in general be a pretty sure guide, for as the rasp approaches
near the vascular portion, he will flinch considerably. The Ime proves a direc-
tion to the rasping, which should be carried close to it from the beginning of
the quarters aiovt c in the fig. to the heels, doing it lightly at first, as may be
seen 6;/ h in the fig., but deepening the rasping as it approaches the heels, so
as to remove the substance of the horn in a progressive thickness from the quar-
ters to the heels, rasping the whole surface uniformly from the coronet down-
wards, leaving towards the heels a covering of horn of only an eighth of an inch
in thickness, or in fact so much only as the thumb-nail can mdent by a firm
pressure, carefullv however avoiding to go too deep, so as to wound the sensible
parts underneath: To avoid this danger, as weU as to leave the coronary ring
distinct, and free from the pressure of any more of the contracted horn than is
necessary simply to cover it, the operation should be finished with a small draw-
ing knife, by which all the hard horn can be removed from parts where the rasp
would be inconvenient, particulariy towards the heels, where the thinning should
be carried back quite to the inflexions (vide posterior c in the fig.). The coro-
nary ring should be left quite distinct by a clean angular removal of horn, as
seen at b in the fig. ; and upon a regular thinmng from above downwards of the
whole of the horny portion covering the lateral parts of the heels, except the
thin lamella of covering we have directed, depends the perfection of the operation.
I have endeavoured to make it understood that the rasping having commenced
at the black c in the fig. is there to be lightly done, and a moderate portion of
horn only removed, increasing the quantity as the rasping proceeds, till, haying
reached the centre of the quarters, it is then to be removed to the prescribed
thinness, men finished, the hoof will present exactly the appearance depicted
in the following figure.

5-20

MORBID CONTRACTION OF THE FEET. [ClASS XX.

When there is a very great thickness of horn, I usually also rasp the whole
circumference of the hoof moderately, so as a little to lessen the general re-
sistance without weakening the foot, which should be carefuUy avoided. To
favour the further expansion, let the foot now be taken in front, and a Une of
rasping be carried from above downwards to a moderate thinness ; not however
so thin as at the heels, which would weaken the foot too much. This front
rasping should not be more than an inch over, and its intention miU explain
Itself; for as the centre of general resistance to expansion must be here, and as
even though the heels should be principally affected, yet there is usually also
some lessening of the whole circumference, so the resistance to its expansion is
by this front hinge; materially decreased; and of so much importance is this,
that I have also practised it as a preventive at every shoeing with manifest
advantage. When the inner quarter only is affected with contraction, the rasp-
ing may be performed on that only; it will be very seldom, however, but some
' wiring in' of the outer quarter also may be observed. It is evident that the
above mode, performed exactly as here laid down, is principally calculated for
the benefit of such feet as are contracted at the heels, with but a small lessen-
ing of the general circumference of the hoof But there are cases in which the
horny box is contracted generally ; in such instances I have still rasped the
heels, but not quite so deeply ; nor have I carried the rasping so far forwards,
but I have instead added three additional hinges to each side, by means of the
old method of scores made in the hoof with a fine drawing-knife. These scores
should be narrow and of a moderate depth ; the strongest hoofs wdll allow of
rather more than a quarter of an inch with perfect safety, and the weakest more
than an eighth. One of these scores may be made a little within the heel side
of the anterior letter c; the next a little beyond the toe side of the same letter;
and the third between that and the front of the foot, where another ought to be
placed. Having finished the operation thus far, put on a tip or tips with four
or five nails only to each, and these towards the toe. To complete the process,
if the heat and lameness were considerable before the operation, blister round
the coronet, which greatly encourages the growth of new horn, and also tends to
remove any mischief that the contraction may have occasioned.

The future management must depend on circumstances, and on the conve-
nience of the owner. One thing, however, is indispensable, which is the appli-
cation of moisture to lessen the remaining resistance, and thereby assist the
expansion, as well as to promote the future growth of the horn. The best
means of applying this moisture is to turn out to grass ; but unless this be done
where the situation is wet, less benefit will be derived. A dry pasture in a hot
.summer without rain would be injurious instead of beneficial ; and a moist mea-
dow, salt marsh, or one wherein is a pond to occasionally wet the feet, should

Class XX.] morbid contraction of the feet. 52L

be chosfen When thrushes exist, they need be no impediment to the turning
out- but in such cases it is requisite that the horse be taken up every other day,
and'the thrushes dressed until they heal up. Care should be taken thjit the
tins do not come off unperceived, and the horse remain without them. Every
three weeks the sole should be carefully thinned, at which time the old horn
,„av be sliffhtlv rasped again, and the line of separation between the old and
uew rendeied distinct and angular as at first. If also the bulbous prominence
of the new horn should be very high, thin it a very little by means oi the rasp,
to prevent internal pressure. In about three months the new horn will first
reac'h the heels, and become opposed to the ground, at which time, if the horse
be much wanted, he may be taken up, and may be gentli/ worked in Im?- shoes ;
but if he can be suffered to remain longer without work, it will be advantageous.
The whole of the appearances occasioned by the rasping will not be effaced in
less than six months. When turning out is impracticable, it becomes a consi-
deration as to the best mode of keeping the feet moist in the stable ; and innu-
merable have been the contrivances for this purpose. Boots of all kinds, some
containing sponge, some to be filled with poultice, &c. have been invented ; but
they prove so inconvenient, that they are seldom retained long in use. I have,
however, seen some cased with small iron plates with hinges that answered the
end tolerably. Standing in clay is a common plan, and, provided the horse
stands level, it is not an inconvenient one ; but often the paving of the stable is
pulled up under the fore feet, and the poor animal is tortured by resting the lame
limbs on a descent. On the other hand, I have seen him mounted u^p in a wooden
trough, where much force was required to bring him into it. The best mode
certainly is to cover the floor of a loose box with dung, mould, or day, moist-
ened so as to allow the wet mass to reach over the coronet. In this the horse
can move about during the day, and may be removed at night to a stable, having
the moisture still continued by means of wet cloths around the feet ; and whicn
cloths, when other means of moisture cannot be resorted to, may be wholly
depended on. Two circles of thick woollen cloth, doubled over a tape within,
will form a convenient apparatus, which tied (not tightly) around the pastern
will adapt itself to the shape of the foot, and, being dipped in water two or
three times a-day, will keep it wet : or any of the numerous contrivances now
in vogue may be' tried ; it would seem like teaching a, b, c, to note them. If
moisture be duly supplied, the coronary ring will expand, and the new horn
will proceed downwards in a large bulbous expansion : the heels also will widen,
and this faster than the frog is able to keep pace with them, seeing its growth
in these cases is generally slow. This will leave a hollo wness and excavated
appearance which it will take some time to fill up : and when this exists in a
veuy considerable degree, I have considered it as a mark that the reproduction
of horn is not entirely free from disease, and that the benefits resulting from it
will either be not great, or will not last. I have so much insisted on the occa-
sional causes of contraction, that it would seem now unnecessary to reiterate,
that, to make the benefits of the expanding process perfect, they must be care-
fully avoided in future. To a cool stable it would be well to add the benefits of
a plane pavement, instead of a pebbled flooring : the stones should be grooved,
to prevent slipping. The jointed, or the side-nailing process of shoeing, either
of them could be tried ; and it would greatly tend to prevent a. recurrence of the
contraction, were uniform pressure kept on the whole inferior surface of the
foot. Mr. Cherry's elastic pads are calculated to do this ; or stoppings could
be applied : but I should by all means dissuade from the use of clay or whatever
became dry and hard for the purjiose ; but any firm matter which would retain
.Bomc plasticity would be a valuable acquisition towards this intention. It re-
•inains to add, that, although neurotomy does seldom prove a remedy for chronic
■founder, it will prove a valuable palliative for it, and particularly for incurable
cases ; and when, therefore, an owner has a chronic foundered horse, or one
with any other of those foot affections which injure by the great sensibility they
produce, it would be prudent to resort to neurotomy, which sec : bearing in
mind, that, if it be practised while any marks of active inflammation arc going

522 THE PUMICED FOOT. [CLASS XX.

on, which will be apparent by the extra beat in the part, the hoofs ma^whollv
separate from the feet.

THE PUMICED FOOT.

As this is a very common effect of both acute and chronic founder, an account
of it very properly follows those affections. Pumiced feet are in every instance
the effect of inflammation; but the vascular increase may be an acute or a chro-
nic one. When the effect of the former, the alteration in the form of the foot
is sudden, and is brought about in the manner described when treating on that
disease. But when it is produced by a slow chronic inflammation, its attack is
much more insidious and slow: the front of the hoof is first observed to fall in,
and the sole to become nearly flat; at which time the horse begins to falter, and
is sometimes very lame; at others he can move moderately well. The foot, when
shod, generally presents no acquisition of horn; on the contrary, the sole becomes
thinner and thinnei', and at last bulges out into a surface more or less convex as
the internal derangement is greater or less. The large wide feet of the native
horses of moist counties are most prone to this evil, not being able to resist the
weakening and irritating effect of battering on stony roads, and least of all on
the pavement of the streets of London and other cities. Any kind of feet, how-
ever, may take on the affection after acute founder. The laminae seem first to
become affected, and lose their elasticity and power of support to the coffin-
bone : their vascularity appears also excited, not in the secretion of horn, but of
a considerable quantity of a diseased substance, which, with the weakened struc-
ture of these supports, displaces the coffin-bone, drawing the crust with it, and
greatly increasing the natural obliquity of the hoof. The pressure that the dis-
placed coffin-bone makes on the fleshy sole, occasions sometimes an absorption
of its own edges, but always an interruption to the healthy secretion of horn,
■which accounts for the diminished thickness of the sole before noticed. The
sole, therefore, being unable to resist the superincumbent weight, loses its con-
cavity, and, yielding to the altered form of the parts above it, bulges into con-
vexity. The whole of the parts within likewise become deranged in structure as
well as situation : a large quantity of hardened matter, between the nature of
horn and coagulable lymph, occupies the space in front left by the recession of
Ihe coffin-bone, which now approaches the heels, and rests there in an altered
line of declivity.

The treatment of these feet can be only palliative, as a removal of the deform-
ity has, I believe, never taken place. I have experienced some benefit from
blistering the coronets in early cases, which has stimulated the foot to an in-
creased secretion of horn. Every means must be taken to avoid outer pressure
on the sole, which is not only painful, but actually aggravates the disease ; and
if sufficient rest were now and then allowed in these cases for the crust to grow
level with the sole, such horses might be rendered useful; but instead of this,
it is too often permitted to wear away by repeated shoeings, until the sole is
exposed, and becomes tender, and unable to bear the most ordinary pressure.
Pumiced feet should not be kept too moist, nor can they ever be cured by
turning out without shoes, though I once thought differently ; but they may be
very properly dressed every day, both sole and walls, with a mixture of tar ancj
oil, which proves extremely beneficial to them. The shoe in use for these feet
is sufficiently known, being framed with a very wide web, and either made so
thick as to allow of being bevelled away on the inner surface, to receive the con-
vexity of the sole without pressing on it, or otherwise cockelled generally to the
shape. But lately a different mode has been practised by some persons, and
strongly recommended, which is to apply a shoe so narrow in the web as to cover
the crust only, but of sufficient thickness to elevate the sole above the chance
of pressure from the ground. This shoe is said to obviate the ill effects of
stones, gravel, &c., getting under the wide webbed shoe, which sometimes lamed
the horse; and it is said that pumiced horses even go best in these kind of
shoes. I have, however, no experience of my own to offer with regard to ihoni;

Class XX.] disease of the navicular joint. 6'26

but as it has been so stated with confidence, there can be therefore no objec-
tion to their trial, though, reasoning from analogy, I should be disposed to de-
pend priucipaUy on the older method, which, if j udiciously managed, will render
such feet very useful. In some cases, no shoe answers so well as a strong bar
shoe.

DISEASE OF THE NAVICULAR JOINT.

G/-0O-O-7/ lameness is the term by which this affection has been principally
known'''to farriers and horsemen, and which, like many other names, served to
characterise many evils of doubtful nature and situation. If a lame horse ex-
hibited no appearance whatever of altered structure, he was then shoulder-
strained; but when other circumstances led to a conviction that the lower joints,
somehow or other, were the seat of the evil, then the horse was groggy, or, at
best, he had coffin-joint lameness: when contraction was apparent, the horse
was said to be foundered. The study of morbid anatomy crept slowly among
us; but although its light was at first feeble, yet some dim rays, by shewmg
that disease of the connexions of what was known as the shuttle-bone did often
exist in cases of concealed lamenesses, lit up suspicion in the minds of some ob-
servers that here might originate and here might be found the grand cause of
these occult cases of lameness; and it is but due to Mr. J. Turner to state, that,
by his ample and scientific investigations, these susjpicions have been matured
into certainty, and the navicular joint disease is now united with his name by a
kind of patent right : and if, unfortunately, we have little hope of finding an ef-
ficient remedy for it, we at least do not grope in the dark, and tonnent sound
parts, to the anguish of the animal and the demonstration of our own ignorance.
It must not, however, be supposed that we have arrived at the end of our jour-
ney ; we are, in fact, but just entered on it : at present we are hugging a disco-
very too closely to admit any competitors ; but we must not omit other diseased
affections, which have also their probable share in these_ cases. I do not make
this observation to lessen the value of this discovery, as it really may be called;
but, being old in the world of discoveries, I would offer a caution against too
>tonfined a view of foot lameness, by. considering every occult affection as navi-
cular; and particularly from viewing every case of contraction with lameness as
a disease of the navicular joint. This latter conclusion would lead into consi-
derable practical error : on the other hand, I do not attempt to deny that this
disease, by the irritation and heat it must keep up within the foot, may and
does, without doubt, encourage contraction, and which is known by its not ap-
pearing in some cases until tenderness in progression has been some time appa-
rent. By a reference to Plate 9 and its description, we shall find the perforans
tendon, in its passage towards the bottom of the foot, making an angle to reach
that insertion ; within which angle is included the navicular or shuttle-bone. It
requires but a very little examination to be convinced that this placing is for
important purposes connected with this tendon, and which purpose a mechani-
cian would, at once, own to be, by placing the tendon further from the centre of
motion, to greatly increase its flexing power over the limb. The connexion
between these parts is at once free, but very strong ; opposite qualities, but here
admirably combined, by the extent and power of the connecting ligaments, and
by the furnishing the polished articulary surfaces with a synovial cavity filled
with slippery glair. When we regard all this, we see the most admirable, but
at the same time a necessarily complex organization ; and consequently we can
but be struck with the aptitude, that parts so formed as antagonists to each
other, when subjected to inordinate concussion, either in its intensity or dura-
tion, should have to become diseased.

The caiises of the affection may be remote, or they may be proximate. They
cannot be strictly called hereditary or congenital with so much propriety as
those of chronic founder, unless we consider this as a variety of founder : the
tendency may, however, exist from birth in such liorses as have very upriglit
pasterns, wlicre the rectilinear position of the bones must increase the shock of

524 DISEASE OF THE NAVICULAR JOINT. [CLASS XX.

concussion. Pressure and concussion are, in most cases, the remote causes-
contraction may also operate : the proximate is found in inflammation, ulcera-
tion, and occasionally some ossific deposit*. Mr. Turner lays much stress on
contraction as a cause, which acts by forcing the frog upwards in the hollowed
arch of such feet, thereby pressing injuriously on the navicular bone and its
connexions : other writers, without denying that some displacement is occasion-
ally found of the navicular bone, are not willing to acknowledge this as a com-
mon or very active cause. It is probable that, as an individual affection, it
always originates within the ligamentous connexions of the navicular coffin-bones
with the flexor tendons, which communicating with the synovial capsule, an al-
tered secretion follows, by which the motions of this joint must be impeded from
the want of the lubricating medium : friction ensues, the cartilaginous surfaces
become absorbed, ajid a slow ulcerative process is the consequence, which, if
suffered to go untreated, or that the animal continues to be hard-worked, ends
in anchylosis f.

* Mr. Turner, liowever, limits ossification to a vPry few cases, and, except in extreme ones he
eonfines tlic general extent of affection to a very small space ; and in many cases I believe it is' so
but certainly it is more diffused in many others. ' With regard,' says Mr. T. ' to ossification of the
cartilages ot the foot, and ossification of portions of the ligaments of the navicular bone and other
liony excrescences within the foot, I have to remark, that, liaving dissected so maiiv extreme cases of
chronic foot lameness ot many years' standing, in which I have found all the ravages of this disease
limited to a space within the foot not exceeding half an inch s(|uare, and unaccompanied ivitli the
sliglilest disease of any other part of the internal foot, I am induced to consider them as mere effects
arising out of navicular disease ; and incne particularly, as there arc far more groggy feet without the
slightest ossilication of the ligaments of the navicular bone than with tlieui. In short, I think tho^e
who have called the navicular disease an osMficatinn of tlie joint, have eried very much ; for it is
any thing but an excrescence or exostosis, a gieat loss or absorptinn of l)oue being, in' fact, the
malady ; yet I must acknowledge that I have occasionally seen, in recent cases, a few small eminences
on the infcri(n- surface of the centre hone, about the i-ize of millet seeds ; hut, in the progress of the
flivease, not only would they have been absoibed by friction, hut that portion of bone itself on which
they appear would also have hceii carried away by ulceration.'

f Professor Dick appears to consider contraction and navicular disease as branches from the same
root, lie is of opinion that whatever establishes heat and inllammation in tlie foot, as nneijual
pressure <if tlie shoe-heels, a stone fixeil in the foot, too tight nailing of the shoes, &c., in fact, ' any
iiiimcdiiilv c.vciting r.aitsc of conti aiaion, may cause a continuation and extension of the inllamma-
tion, involving, among other parts, the synovial capsule between the flexor tendon and navicular
bone.' And such, he adds, is most likely to happen ' wlien the foot has alreadv suffered from any of
the predisposing causes before enumerated' (these were the gradual effects 'produced by shoeing,
improper paring, artificial treatment in the stable, heat- of litter, want of stopping, confinement in the
stall, and peculiar formation in the limbs). Another of these predisposing causes to these joint
affections of the feet, Mr. Dick attributes to strains. ' VYliat,' lie says, ' is the cause of the diseases
(windgalls, &c.) which occur in the synovial capsules, the fetlocks, 'knee joints, and hocks? what
but sudden strain, or long-continued exertion of the tendons and ligaments of these parts? If the
idea is not too mechanical, I may observe tliat the continued ai tion produces friction between the
parts, from a deficiency or change in the joint oil, similar to wliat takes place under like circumstances
In any machinery, and similar to what is frequently met with in the hock joints, where the cartilage
becomes at times cither partially or wholly worn off by friction, and the bones take on a bard polished
smf&ce similar in appearance to enamel, of which I have a number of specimens. The consequence
of such friction is (heat), inflammation with an altered state of the secretions- This is materially
augmented by the action of the part, which, from its relative position, is constantly, while the animal
is erect or in motion, supporting a considerable degree of piessure, anri, by the depth of its situation,
little advantage can be deiived trom the application of lemedies. Inflammation once excited in a car-
tilage or bone, or in the membranes surrounding them, is generally followed by a deposition of bony
matter, as, for example, in splints, sprains, ossified lateral cartilages, &c. Thus it is ossific spicula
are deposited on the cartilage on the under surface of the navicular bone, which goes on frequently
until the whole of this surface is materially altered by nevv bony matter being deposited. The motion
and play of the tendon for a time keep up the inflamed action of the bone (which is shewn by the
discolouration observable upon it), till, at length, the continued irritation of such friction excites
the action of tlie absorbents, and they, by absorption of a portion of the bone, produce an ulcerated
surface, similar to a carious tooth. The ragged suiface thus piodnced now acts upon the tendon, the
inflammation is increased, and lymph is effused to allay, as it were, the irritation on both surfaces.
As the lameness must now be extreme, rest is given, during which, adhesive inflammation unites
both surfaces together. In other cases, the ulcerated surface of the bone lacerates the tendon, and
small shreds are found, on dissection, attached to its surface, while others are found coiniecting it to
the bone. And this ulcerated surface, in old or severe cases, is frequently so extensive, that alter the
nerves have been divided (an operation frequently performed to relieve the animal), and the animal
enabled, by the foot being deprived of sensation, to use it with greater freedom, the friction com-
pletely divides the tendon, and the pastcni fulls to the ground. In those cases in wliicli the disease
depends upon injury occurring first in the joint itself, the inllammation is not always confined to that
particular part, liut generally spreads throughout the rest of the foot, producing similar effects as that
already described, such as arise from pinching with the nails, or from a bruise with the heel of the
shoe, which, by llic action and re-action which take place, produces a degree of contraction in the
hoof similar to what occurs fr(nn the more superficial causes alicady mentioned. Hence it will be seen
that the navicular disease (grogginest) maybe either a cause or an effect of contr.action. Thercaic
cases, however, in which, cither from the slight degree of injury, the treatment adopted, or the

•Class XX.] corns. 525

The wnptoms are few, but anomalous, aecording to the degree of the affec-
tion &c It is princiHly distinguished from chrome founder by the horse
8eTd;n.poinlgh sfoot,as in that disease; there is, however, usually a more
eSed d rectfon of the pastern, acquired by efforts to avoid eompressmg the
art cutoY surfa in connexion with the navicular bone, the under surface of
^£ch is commonly affected with ulceration. The groggy horse does not falter
dt^ether like the foundered horse; the latter appears to suffer most pam wheu
he strikes his toe into the ground, which he is apt to do: he goes as is expressed,
as thou'h his feet were benumbed, until awakened into sensibdity by some un-
even surface The groggy horse lifts up his feet with constant sensibiUty, and
S ever fearful of extfndiSg his action, but suffers less from uneven surfaces ; and

his heels are always hot. , , , ^ i „;i if

The treatment, unfortunately, must begin very e^ariy, to be successful; and it
is seldom that the practitioner is eaUed in until disorganization has proceeded
too fxr for permanent benefit. If contraction is apparent treat as directed ; and
provided inflammation of an active kind be present, and is known by the hea
of the part and the shifting of position, bleed by the toe othemise b ister the
heels; for it is seldom but that both fore feet are affected, but never the hind.
Thin the crust around, and particularly the sole, and, after the second blister,
insert a seton, according to the CoUege practice, through the fleshy, or, as it is
called, the fatty frog. It will, in bad cases, somewhat stay the ulcerative pro-
cess, and always ease the suffering animal in progression as weU as give hberty
in action, provided neurotomy be performed, but_ which should not be attempted
whUe any active symptoms of inflammation remain.

CORNS ;

So named, I presume, from the disease of the cutis of the human foot.
Corns, both in man and horse, certainly arise from pressure, but farther than
this the analogy fails : in ourselves, the cuticle is usuaUy increased; in the
horse it is ever after decreased. A corn is the consequence of undue pressure
applied to that part of the horny sole which fills up the angle of the mflections
oftheheels, i.e., that which is between the outer crust and the bars, ^^hen
violent pressure becomes applied, even for a short time, it produces inflani-
mation and extravasation ; when the pressure is less violent, but long continued,
inflammation and extravasation equally result in the vascular secreting sole,
whose vessels becoming ruptured, pour out a sanguineous fluid, which makes
a fresh com present a bloody spot. This vascular secreting portion of sensible
sole, when once injured in this way, unless immediately reUeved and not again
subjected to any pressure whatever, untH it be perfectly reinstated, takes on a
permanently diseased state, and ever after, instead of perfect horn, a morbid
secretion of a thin semi-corneous, and in some of a semi-purulent matter, fills
up the place, the inflamed vessels always retaining an exquisite sensibility.
It is to this that the incurable nature and the great tenderness of corns when
pressed on is owing. Corns have always a mechanical origin : pressure in some
shape or other, acting either upon the outer horn of the heels or on the inner
portion of the bars, or on the point of the inflected angle of the heel,_is the
cause, by its bruising the sensible vascular sole beneath, either by approximating
the outer and inner horny portions of the heels, or by a direct perpendicular
pressure of that part of the arch of the hoof which fiUs up the inflections.
Corns arc verv common in contracted feet, from the falling or winng-m of the
walls of the heels ; and as the inner walls and heels are weaker, and also as
they bear a greater pressure of superincumbent weight, so we learn the reason
why they are so much more frequently in the inner than the outer heel. It is
to the superior strength oftheheels behind, and likewise to the smaller degree

strength of the foot, this chang? in tlie appciirancp of thclioof docs not take ,iIaco so rapidly as in
others, and in wliicli it rcqiiiies all the advant ages of extensive oxpeiieace. and eiirelul observation to
detect : they appear groggy in their action, lint the strcngtli and open form of the feet deceives tliC
inenfeuenQti,'— Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, No. 6.

CORNS, [Class XX-

of pressure on them, that tliey are so generally exempt from corns. When
the heels are sufiered to grow too high, it is evident tiiat undue pressure must
take place within ; and if contraction be added to this, the evil is inevitable •
and this happens equaUy in the shod and unshod state. I have seen very bad
corns contracted at grass, where horses were purposely unshod, but were turned
out without paring, and suffered to remain without attention during a long dry
summer. Too Uttle horn also subjects the feet to corns, because a slight pres-
sure will indent weak feet, which are notoriously subject to them. Of all the
operating causes, the mechanical pressure derived from the shoes is the most com-
mon. Corns may come on even with good shoeing ; but with bad shoeing they
must be fortunate indeed which escape. The best shoe, suffered to remain on a
foot too long, will produce a corn or corns : the bad shoe will produce them in
various ways, but in none more certainly than when the heels are made thicker
than the toe. Some country smiths make a thick clubbed end of the heels, or
they put a calkin on the outer and a thickened clubbed end on the inner, without
lowering the heels to receive the increase of iron. Here injurious pressure must
occur at every step : pressure at rest, and pressure in moderate work ; and vio-
lent concussions in quick progressions must be here inevitable. The custom
also of making the seat of the shoe slant or bevel inwards, is, I believe, some-
times productive of corns, by forcing the crust to press on the sensible sole late-
rally. Neglecting to prepare the foot for the shoe is also a fruitful source of
corns ; for that part of the horny sole which fills up the acute angle between the
crust and bars, the pressure on which is so injurious, is, in a state of nature, pro-
tected by the prominences of the frog and bars, as well as by the inclined direc-
tion of the latter ; but as artificial habits alter the shape of the foot, this part be-
comes exposed ; and, therefore, in preparing a foot for the shoe, this angular
portion should be so pared as to remove it from contact with the iron, without
weakening the horny covering of the sensible sole. For so surely as this part
becomes subjected to pressure for any considerable length of time, so surely ex-
travasation takes place, and a corn i*s formed, and this more quickly when the
heels are weak. Another common cause is the neglect of removing or renewing
the shoes at proper intervals : when a shoe has been long worn, the growth of the
hoof carries it forwards, by which the parts originally opposed to the heels are
carried beyond them, and now press on the sole, often becoming indented within
the line of the crust, and producing a most injurious pressure. Sometimes, also,
either from the original form of the shoes, or by long wear, they become loose
and ' springy ' at the heels, as smiths call it ; in which cases gravel is apt to
make its way between the shoe and foot, and, by the pressure of the heels during
action, is indented into the substance of the horn ; other gravel becomes re-
ceived in the same manner, which presses the first still onward, until at last it
meets the sensible part : inflammation now ensues, which either extravasates
pure blood and forms a corn, or it may proceed to suppuration, as when a prick
is received, under which this consequence will be noticed. The more common
effects of extraneous matters getting between the spongy heel and the shoe, or
of the outer rim of the shoe getting within the rim of the crust of the heels
(sometimes the whole heel of the shoe imbeds itself with the inflected heel gene-
rally), are as already noticed: the extravasation of a little blood, which, on par-
ing away the horn at the angular point of the heel or heels, appears as a black or
red speck, as the blood has been longer or more newly thrown out from its ves-
sels ; it may be followed with the paring knife to its source in the sensible part,
which never after thoroughly heals, but remains in something the same state,
producing a new extravasation on every slight reapplication of pressure : a thin
coat of imperfect horn is thrown out overit, which itself proves a source of future
irritation ; and therefore horses with old 'corns only go well when fresh shod
and newly pared; for as soon as the portion of sole between the bars grows to a
level with the surrounding iiorn, the sensible sole receives a fresh bruise, and
lameness again appears. It is by contemplating this possible termination of
corn, that the law has wisely considered every horse with this complaint as un-
sound.

Class XX.] thrush. f)'^/

Treatment of Corns.— When a corn of moderate extent first appears, it is not
difficult by proper means to remove it completely; but when it has existed
some time, the injured parts become weakened, and the diseased action esta-
bhshed. As soon, therefore, as it is discovered, the cure should be immediately
attempted; first, by removing with a fine drawing-knife every portion of diseased
horn around, and the whole of the extravasation likewise, avoiding, howe«fer,
wounding the sensible sole underneath. Having done this, introduce some
caustic Uquid, as muriate of antimony, into the opening, which will act on the
sensible sole by destroying the unsound parts, and by stimulating the remainder
to a healthy secretion of horn. If any contraction of the heels be present, they
should be slightly thinned to relieve the pressure ; and, without this, it is pro-
bable a cure will be in vain hoped for. A shoe should be then applied, properly
chambered opposite the weak part ; or a bar shoe may be used, laid off the heel
or heels, and taking its bearing on the frog. In a week's time, or less, the part
will have gained sufficient strength, when the horse may be turned out ; but,
during this interval, introduce every other day a small pledget dipped in the
escharotic liquid used, as muriate of antimony, a solution of lunar caustic, potash,
&c. &c. (see Caustics, Mat. Med.) After the horse has been to grass a month
or six weeks, if the meadow be tolerably moist, and the feet be naturally strong,
remove the shoes, pare the horn lightly away from the seat of corn, not however
sufficient to weaken the support, and then put on tips, if the feet be of the strong
kind ; but if it have taken place in heels naturally weak and low, continue the
bar or chambered shoe. In this way corns may be permanently cured at their
outset. But having become habitual and permanent, a palliative treatment only
can be pursued. In the first, place, the pressure of the horn must be guarded
against by a regular and frequent paring out of that portion between the inflection
of the heel ; and if the hoof be very strong, and at all disposed to contract, the
quarters also should be attended to, and not allowed to become too high or too
thick. I have also in very strong feet found the use of a short shoe sometimes
of the greatest service ; but to a weak foot, either a chambered or a bar shoe is
preferable : when the weakness is very considerable, or the corn a very bad one,
a bar shoe is the most proper support, and should be constantly used ; still more
particularly remembering in these aggravated cases to remove occasionally all
the surrounding horn likely to press on the injured part, at the same time taking
care to let the frog rest on the bar of the shoe. And whenever such a horse is
shod, it is proper for the corn to be dressed with some active stimulant, as the
muriate of antimony, in some degree to counteract the morbid action, and to
rouse the deadened part to a new one : by doing this regularly when shod, and
about once a week also in the intermediate times, I have rendered horses, before
useless, able afterwards to work with comfort to themselves and satisfaction to
their owner. In slight cases of corn, the shoe proper to be used is one of rather
more substance than common, with the web a little wider than usual, and its
width equal throughout, that is, as wide at the heels as the toe ; it should also
•extend rather farther back than it generally does, and present a perfectly level
surface. This shoe will afford ease and protection : future pressure must be
avoided by keeping the seat of corns clear from offending horn.

THRUSH.

Some pains have been taken to trace the source from whence this unmeaning
term arose. Two centuries ago it was called running Frush ; and as, before
that time, in some of the very old treatises on farriery, which borrowed much
from the French, we find it named running Fourche, it seems to be probable
that it really did take its name from fourche, the French term for the frog,
gradually corrupted into its present appellation of running thrush. The com-
plaint itself consists in a diseased action of the sensible frog, whereby, instead of
secreting horn, it produces pus, which escapes out between the cleft of the
homy frog. It is very improperly considered by many as a matter of trifling
import ; but a little experience only in the diseases of the feet will shew that it

THRUSH. [Class XX.

is by no means so harmless as supposed. Still more erroneous is it to assert that
thrushes do good by drawing off humours, or tliat there can ever be any danger
in stopping them. On the contrary, there probably never was a perfectly harm-
less thrush, or one that could exist long without doing some injury, by laying
the foundation for contraction of the foot in which it existed, by the inflamma-
tion and heat excited in the parts around. Various proximate causes produce
thrush ; the remote one is always inflammation of the sensible sole. Contrac-
tion, though a very common origin, is by no means the only one, for we obsen-e
them frequently in the wide open feet of very young horses, in which cases they
appear to originate much in the same way as swelled legs, &c., by accumulation,
or a determination of blood to the feet, from general plethora, which, occasion-
ing inflammation, thrushes form, and in which cases only can they be at all.
regarded as constitutional, or as possibly injurious if put a stop to suddenly.
In many other instances their origin is to be traced to the apphcation of
moisture, particularly of amd moisture, as that of dung, urine, &c., wliich,
soaking the horny frog, at last penetrates it, and then becomes a source of
irritation to the sensitive frog underneath. This effect of moisture accounts for
the increased tendency of thrushes to affect the hinder feet in some instances,
while the fore feet remain perfectly free from them. Contraction is notoriously
a common cause of thrushes ; but they are by no means necessary consequences
of it, seeing many contracted feet are without them, though many more are
with them ; which is not difficult to account for, when we consider how likely
it is that the inflammation accompanying painful contraction should extend
itself to the vascular frog, not only by proximity, but also by the pressure it
must occasion on the sensible frog. The different actions of secreting organs
are here strikingly exemplified ; the inflammation attendant on contraction
stimulates the laminae and the arched vault of the vascular sole to an extra
secretion of horn ; but inflammation applied to the vascular frog diminishes the
secretion of horny frog : — are the inflammations themselves different ? It is also
remarkable, that although the contraction may be removed, it is not often that
a full secretion of horny frog readily again takes place. As contraction is a
very common cause of thrush, so it is equally certain that a long continued
thrush is apt to end in contracting the foot ; and which is one of the few in-
stances in which a complaint may be both a cause and a consequence. Neither
can any horse be considered safe that has a thrush, for there is always some
degree of tenderness felt ; and, in these cases, if the point of a sharp stone at
any time should penetrate the cleft, or any of the sinuses occasioned by the
complaint when considerable, he will sometimes come to the ground at once
from excess of pain : but it is not often that this complaint produces any lame-
ness in the general gait. The appearances of thrush are sufficiently known :
at first a moist exudation only appears from the natural cleft of the frog ; when
it has existed some time the frog scales away, and is but partially renewed, but
contracts, leaving numerous fissures : the ulceration extends to the sensitive
sole throughout its whole surface ; all the fissures of the horny frog now produce
a purulent discharge of a peculiar foetid smell ; and such cases, if unattended
to, particularly in the hinder feet, may degenerate into canker.

Treatment. — Thrushes may be in almost every case considered as a local com-
plaint ; and it is not only unlikely to do any harm by stopping them, but it is
absolutely necessary in every instance to do so. In that kind we first noticed
as sometimes taking place in the open feet of young horses, which, fresh from
grass, become suddenly subjected to confinement, it will, however, remove all
danger, and even perhaps assist the cure, if the plethora of the constitution be
attended to, and this more particularly if they e.xist in the whole four feet ; or
that any such horse have exhibited symptoms of ophthahnia, in which latter
case insert a seton or rowel ; but in all other instances the treatment should be
at once wholly applied to the affection. When thrushes are connected with a
contracted state of the feet, it is evident that a removal of the irritating pres-
sure of the walls of the hoof is necessary to a radical cure (see Contraction).
When moisture has been the exciting cause, it should, of course, be carefully

Class XX.] sandcrack. 529

removed, and its occurrence again prevented, particularly that produced by
decomposing dung and litter. Ihit this caution must not operate as a means of
denying the application of other moisture to the feet in ordinary cases, either as
a prevention or as a cure of contraction : it is sufficiently easy when necessary,
to guard the frog against the effects of wet, and yet to apply it to all other
parts of the foot ; for when all the fissures ot the frog are dexterously stopped
with tow, charged with some oily astringent mixture, no aqueous fluid will
penetrate to the sensible sole. The present stoppage of thrush is seldom diffi-
cult, but to prevent its recurrence is not so easy always ; for the parts having
once taken on this action, readily fall into it again. Almost any astringent sub-
stance will check the early suppurative action of the vascular sole, as compound
tinchire of Benjamin (Friars' balsam), tincture of myrrh, solutions of vitriol, alum,
lead, Sfc, which may be either of them usefully applied for this purpose. Tar
and salt mixed is also a good application, or tar and bole armenic : a solution of
nitrate of silver is also recommended ; but perhaps the following combinest he
good properties of all in a very considerable degree : —

Ore of zinc (prepared calamine) half an ounce

Subacetate of copper (ve?-digris) ditto

Sulphate of zinc (white vitriol) one drachm

Tar three ounces.

Mix.

Before the introduction of this, the frog should be inspected, and all the
decayed hardened parts, concealing underrunnings and sinuses, removed; so
that the introduction of the mixture may be facilitated, and the disposition to
harbour filth and moisture prevented. The whole frog may then be very pro-
perly smeared over with the mixture ; but, more particularly, a small piece ot
tow should be charged with it, and by means of a skewer, or other similar
instrument-, pressed to the bottom of the cleft of the frog, and also into every
other fissure that may exist, as at the lateral parts where the frog joins the
heels, where sinuses very commonly form in cases of bad thrush. Care should
be taken, when introducing the tow, to do it neatly, so that no parts hang out,
by which means the dressing will remain secure two or three days; but no ap-
plication simply poured in, without the aid of some other substance, as tow,
soft sponge, wool, or rag, which retains the application and guards against
moisture, wiU answer so well. In bad cases the dressing should be repeated
every day, in others every other day, or twice a week ; but in all it is of import,
as a guard, that the cleft should never be without the intermediate substance
employed. When it becomes necessary to turn a horse out to grass with
thrushes, and which is often the best means of cure, it is of consequence to
remember that this treatment should be equally actively pursued during the
time the horse remains out, otherwise the moisture applied will aggravate the
evil ; but if once a-day, or at least every other day, a pledget of soft sponge or
tow, charged with the mixture, be introduced, so as to leave no hanging parts
without, it will remain free from danger of escape, unless the frog should be in
a very diseased state, in which case the tow should be fastened in with cross
bars, as in canker ; or a bar shoe may be put on, and the dressing applied under
it, These precautions also are necessary when thrushes exist in feet operated
on for contraction, and where the treatment requires continual moisture to the
general horn, but the absence of it for the frog in particular.

SANDCRACK.

Tins is a solution of continuity between some of the horny fibres of the
hoof, generally in a direction parallel to their growth; that is, from above
downwards. Now and then, though but very seldom, these cracks exist in an
horizontal position. The term sandcrach has been said to arise from the dirt
or sand usually observed within the fissure, which is supposed to be its cause ;
but this is erroneous ; for, absurd as are many of the names of diseases in the

I. 1

530 SANDCRACK. [CLASS XX.

old nomenclature of farriery, this has a more significant origin ; and is called
sandcrack, because it was formerly supposed peculiar to hot sandy districts, the
heat of which, applied to the feet, gave them a disposition to crack thus*.
These fissures are more common to the fore than to the hind feet, not but that
the latter are sometimes affected with them, particularly of cart and other
heavy draught horses ; in which cases they are generally observed in the front
of the hoof, from the violent strain put on this part in drawing loads : in the
fore feet they are more usually situated towards the inner and less frequently
on the outer quarters : here, also, the weakness of the inner wall, and the in-
creased weight thrown on it, acts, as in contraction, peculiarly disadvantage-
ously to this side of the foot ; sandcracks are, however, seen occasionally in
the front of the fore feet. In every instance, where it is not occasioned by
some outward injury to the hoof, it is, I believe, brought on by a brittle state
of the horny fibres ; sometimes it is constitutional, like brittle nails ; at others,
arising from the operation of the same causes which produce contraction, with
which it is very nearly allied in origin ; for it is not often observed but in such
hoofs as have undergone some unfkvourable alteration in form, in which the-
horn, having taken on a diseased brittleness, does not readily yield to the daily
contraction of the walls, but some momentary application of force suddenly
disunites a portion of its fibres. Whatever injures the vascular coronary
origin of the hoof, as treads, cuts, or other lesions of the coronet, may also
produce sandcrack. The fissure is not always of a determined depth, being
sometimes so superficial as not to penetrate the whole thickness of the horn,
and occasioning no inconvenience at first. At others, it exactly extends
through the horn, but does not divide any of the sensible parts underneath :
while, sometimes, again a lesion of some of these takes place ; neglect, and
a continuance of work will, however, commonly bring any case from the
slightest into the most aggravated state. When the hoof is completely pene-
trated, it becomes a most painful affection, and productive of extreme lame-
ness ; for the divided edges of the horn are apt, during exercise, to admit the
protrusion of the soft parts underneath; which becoming suddenly pressed
on by the approximation of the horny edges, exquisite momentary pain is
produced. From the injury done to the sensible laminated expansion, there
is often a sprouting of fungus between the divided edges, which greatly ag-
gravates the symptoms. Accidents of all kinds, injuring the vascular origm
of the hoof around the coronet, may occasion a sandcrack also, as treads,
stul)s &c»

Treatment.— A very different curative plan is proper to be pursued, accord-
ing to the state in which the complaint may be found. The grand object must
be, to interrupt the communication between the crack and the sound horn,
otherwise it will extend itself; and when it occurs in a hoof evidently con-
tracted and brittle, a radical removal of the evil will be best attempted by re-
ducing the resistance of the horn, and by correcting its contractile tendency
by the means recommended against contraction, such as a moderate thmmng
of the quarters, and the applications of future moisture, after the edges of the
fissure have been brought completely together. Much difference of opinion
has arisen as to the best mode of destroying the connexion between the
divided and the sound horn. Some prefer the firing-iron, others the rasp.
Mr White's method is that of Jiri7ig the fissure, by which ' a glue-hhe viatter,
the albuminous matter from the vessels of the horn, becomes an artificial and
temmrarii bond of union until new horn be formed, and the opening closed by
ultimate connexion. This plan of Mr. White's is not, I confess, the one I
prefer but I have seen it very successfully practised. When a sandcrack is
the effect of injury done to the coronet, the rising edges of the horn must be
reduced ahnost to the quick, and the whole of the surrounding portion must

• n,„t,ol ,1'Arboval savs that the horses transported from France to serve with the army in Egypt
u 1 LrJ nnmProus^raXcted witli sandcracks, and with such as extended from tl.e coronet
["o'Te^rom^" re"foV; and Bom^ had two or three of them on one foot.-Bee art. Se„ne,.
Diet. Vet.

Class XX.] sandcrack. 531

also be thinned. Here we must reduce a portion of the coronet to the same
. state with the lesion, by which one inflammatory process will unite the whole,
and prc\ ent an extension of the evil. Having done this, draw a line of sufficient
depth, not to penetrate the quick, across the inferior limit of the crack, either
.with a di'awing- knife, rasp, or firing-iron; which will prevent the ftirther exten-
- sion of the fissure. After this, bandage up ; but should any inflammation re-
main in the original wound of the coronet, do not bandage tightly over that*.
In the usual cases of sandcrack from a disjunction of horny fibres, the state of
the opening must be first carefully attended to. When, either from pressure,
: the original depth of the injury, or when dirt has got into the wound and sup-
['puration has taken place, were an attempt made at once to close and bind up
! the opening, very extensive mischief would be the consequence. Instead of
tithis, the hard edges of the horn should be first removed, and the surrounding
I'portions thinned considerably ; after which, the opening should be dressed with
■.any mild stimulant likely to encourage the adhesive inflammation, as a pledget
of tincture of myrrh, with aloes, &c. &c. ; and over this another thick pledget,
> spread with defensive ointment, may be placed ; and if the irritation and in-
^iflammation are considerable, apply a poultice over all. In case of underrun-
; nings and detachments of horn, the separated portions must be removed ; but
. as this will seldom happen, the removal of more than the homy edges is not
often necessary. In a few days, by repeating a similar mode of dressing, the
idirt will be evacuated, and the parts will heal, harden, and become diy; when
tithe process about to be recommended for common cases, without suppuration,
iimay be proceeded on.

When a sandcrack has occurred, and which shews no signs of suppuration,
^although it have completely penetrated the horn, and a little blood or serous
iimoisture shews itself at the edges, but only under the effects of motion, pro-
i ceed to thin the hoof around it, and next, by means of a camel's hair pencil,
i introduce within the edges a small quantity of solution of lunar caustic, as ten
:grains to a drachm of water ; or the chloride of antimony may be used, though I
1 prefer the forrner. Bandage the hoof up moderately tight for two days, then
again examine the fissure ; when, if the oozing be altogether stopped, and no
i inflammation appear, proceed to draw a line of a moderate depth with a shai-p
' firing-iron, a very little above the upper limit of the crack, and another just
t'beyond the lower limit also, and afterwards bandage as directed below. If
; preferred, these lines of separation may be made with a rasp, or fine drawing-
kkuife ; but I have commonly chosen the iron, as I think the seared line of dis-
::tinction stronger and more perfect than the rasped or cut one, and the agglu-
i.tinizing flow binds the parts together better. But in case no moisture at all
lihas appeared at the crack, and on examination with a probe it is clear that the
ti fissure has not i-eached the vascular parts underneath, then the insertion of any
^ caustic matter is unnecessary; the wasting two days for probable consequences
i-is likewise equally so; and the completion of the treatment for the above state,
•:and the commencement of the treatment for this, will be as follows: —

The horse being shod with a bar shoe, and the hoof either pared away in a
line with the crack, or otherwise the shoe chambered, so that the hoof im-
mediately under the fissure may not press at all on the shoe (in a strong hoof
; the former perhaps is proper, in a weak one the latter may be preferable),
\ proceed to bandage up the foot, so as to fulfil the following intentions: — Bring-
the divided edges of the fissure together, and completely retain them there, in
^ such a manner as totally to exclude moisture from entering the opening. What-
ever mode will answer these purposes best should be adopted ; perhaps the
following, though a common one, is equal to any: — Melt some shoemakers'

• These arc among the worst cases of sandcrack, and, at best, require much time for the horn to
r-yrow fair y down. I should prefer firiiiff as the medium of raising the adhesive inflammation: the
iron should be a Hat one, and much nicety is reriuired in the re(|iiisite heat to be employed : it must
as iidore observed, reduce the fissure and the coronary continuous portions into one level, and into
one common adhesive inHammation : too much would destroy the secreting surface altoacthcr ■ too
"iiie would leave the breach unrepaired, and Uie future growth of horn inteirnpted. As soon as the
borny growth is eslablishcd, turn outthe liorsc to grass. '

J. 1 2

532 PUNCTURED FOOT, OR PRICK. [ClASS XX.

wax, and smear all over the hoof; and, before it is quite cold, bind upon the
wax, neatly, evenly, and firmly, about three yards of tape, so as to include as
much of the hoof as may be within the turns ; fasten off with a hard knot, and
again over the whole smear more wax ; and, lastly, smooth it into an even
surface. After all, rub over a little lard or other greasy substance, to prevent
the pitchy matter from sticking. The horse may now be turned out, which will
be particularly desirable ; or, if to be kept in the stable, he may be exercised
every day by walking in hand. It remains only to remark, that, as most of
these cases take their origin from an altered condition of the hoof, so all the
preventive means detailed under Coidraction apply here after the recovery is
completed.

PUNCTURED FOOT, OR PRICK.

The under surface of the horny covering of the foot is unavoidably exposed
to numberless injuries firom sharp bodies penetrating its substance, which may
happen in various ways, from nails, pointed flints, glass, &c. The shoe being
partly torn off, and then stepped upon, may produce it ; but the accidental
puncture by a nail during shoeing is one of the most frequent causes of these
accidents. Injuries of this kind are proportioned in their effects according to
the parts punctured, and not entirely to the depth of the wound : a knowledge,
therefore, of the anatomical structure of the foot is necessary to enable us to
form a prognosis, as well as to establish a proper method of cure. A punc-
ture through the fleshy frog, even to the vascular portion, is not productive
usually of such serious consequences as an apparently more superficial open-
ing made through the centre of the sole, which may penetrate the capsular
ligament, and either produce anchylosis or destroy the animal. Whenever a
puncture takes place of sufficient depth to penetrate to the bony connexions
(which may be ascertained by examination with a probe), and synovia escapes,
the external opening should be enlarged ; but it should be atteqipted to close
the internal opening at once, by the application of the actual cautery, not to
the immediate surface of the capsular hgament, but to the skin directly over it.
If, however, this treatment has been neglected, and suppuration has actually
taken place, the cautery should be omitted : but an adhesive inflammation may
be attempted in the part, by the application of milder stimulants introduced
by means of a brush ; as muriate of antimony diluted with oU may be lightly
pencilled over the outer edges of the capsular orifice, on which may be placed
a pledget moistened with tincture of myrrh, or tincture of benjamin, &c. ;
and any mild digestive may be laid over all as a defence. If the inflammation
be considerable, bleed at the toe, and imbed the whole foot in a poultice. _A
very deep posterior puncture may extend itself into the flexor tendon or its
sheath, and is always productive of very great irritation and inflammation. lu
such case enlarge the opening, and if the wound be seen immediately afler the
accident, introduce any very mild stimulant, as the wann tinctures : but if the
accident' have occurred a day or two, and the inflammation be considerable,
bleed at the toe, and place the foot in a saturnine poultice. When suppuration
comes on, watch its progress, moderate the inflammation, give a free exit to
the matter, and carefully remove the horn that becomes detached at each
dressing, at least so much as to prevent concealment of the mischief, or as
likely to encourage sinuses to form. And as the life of these tendinous parts
is inconsiderable, at each dressing a little of any of the above warm spirituous
applications may be introduced, which will assist the healing, or, if a sloughmg
of any portion be unavoidable, will tend to assist its separation. A puncture
of the sensible sole must be treated in a similar manner, remembering, m every
instance, that caustic or highly stimulating liquids should never be introduced,
as is often done, except under particular circumstances, which will be noticed.
The introduction of tincture of myrrh, tincture of benjamin, or a mild solution-
of white vitriol, &c., at the moment of the accident, is admissible, because it
may gently stimulate the part to the adhesive inflammation ; and if even sup-

Class XX.] punctuhed foot, or prick. 533

puration be inevitable, the mildness of such applications cannot aggravate the
process. ^

But the most usual cases of punctures are those which arise from a wrong
direction of a nail in shoeing, in which it either presses on or actually wounds
the sensible laminae. This is commonly known to the workman at the time by
a peculiai" sensation arising from the different resistance occasioned; or otherwise
is detected by the flinching of the horse; when, if the nail be immediately re-
moved, no ill consequences follow, unless the injury be considerable; and even
in this case, were but a little common honesty practised, the serious evils that
frequently follow these punctures might be prevented. Were the nail imme-
diately redrawn, the opening enlarged, and a little spirituous balsam of any kind
introduced, it would commonly heal directly after ; and even should it proceed
to suppuration, still a depending orifice would be made for the evacuation of the
matter, and the extensive detachment of hoi-n prevented. But when a smith, in
shoeing, considers the horse not actually pricked, though he may be conscious
that the nail has taken a wrong direction, or is driven too high, he is apt, from
laziness, to let it remain ; but he ought to be aware that a slight bulge is made,
which occasions pressure on the vascular parts within, and inflammation will
surely follow if it remain. It does happen that, even when he is aware that the
nail has penetrated the inner surface of the horn, and wounded the vascular
parts, he is often then not sufliciently candid to acknowledge it. The offending
nail being allowed to remain, according to the extent of the injury, the inflam-
mation becomes considerable the same night, or perhaps not till two or three
days after. In such cases, as suppuration proceeds, the confined matter spreads
around, detaching a portion of the fleshy from the horny sole, more or less con-
siderable ; and, at last extending upwards, it finds itself an exit by an opening
at the coronet. In proceeding this course, the inflammation does not always
confine itself to the parts nearest the exterior surface, as the punctured portion
and sensible laminae; but often, when not assisted by an artificial opening, it
extends to parts less vascular, and whose action not being of that nature to
make them immediately throw off" the injury by forcing the matter outwards (as
is done by parts more vascular), sinuses form inwards, and the disease then be-
comes quittor. Fortunately, however, the vascular action of the sensitive sole
and laminae being extreme, the matter usually proceeds outwards, and finds an
exit at the coronet.

It may, therefore, in pursumg this subject, be stated, that at any time when a
horse becomes lame within a week after he has been shod, if the origin of it be
hid in any obscurity, the shoe should be always first removed, and thelbot gently
struck all over with taps of the hammer. If the lameness springs from this
source, and any part be injured by one nail in particular, at that part the stroke
will occasion the horse to flinch. If this fail to detect the evil, pinch the toe
and quarter round with the pincers, which, if the mischief arise from a prick,
wiU readily point out the affected part by the pain felt there; and under this
spot matter will have surelv formed. Proceed in such case immediately to pare
away the horny sole till it be very thin, when on close inspection, if the paring
be made within two or three days from the prick, a dark-coloured fluid will ooze
from one of the nail holes, but, if a longer period has elapsed, a purulent one
will appear; and if the suppuration be limited to the mere puncture only, apply
a pledget of compound tincture of benjamin; tack on the shoe, and inclose the
foot m a poultice if there be much heat and tenderness; if but little, wrap it
externally round with wet cloths only. Examine it the next day, and, if the
oozmg is left, repeat the tincture; again tack on the shoe, and by the morrow
all will be well probably. But should a longer time have elapsed, and there is
an appearance of extensive suppuration, we must not content ourselves with
iiioruly evacuating tlie purulent matter, but must extend the opening, and then
carefully examine the extent of the injury by the probe, as how far the fleshy
and horny soles have become separated from each other, for to the same extent
must the horn be removed; not, however, taking the whole away the first day
but completing the removal the second; ever keeping in mind, that, as the fleshy

534 TREAD, OR OVERREACH— QUJTTOR. [ClASS XX.

sole will never form over the dead or bare sole, so, to gain a new homy secretion,
every portion of the denuded horn must be removed. No greasy matter should
be applied over the fleshy sole exposed; but a pledget of tow or lint moistened
with tincture of myrrh may be laid on. If the case has been a neglected one,
and there has been extensive separation of horn, with a very considerable sup-
purative process, it will require much vigilance to prevent it running into canker.
There must here be an immediate exposure of the whole surface, and a complete
excision of every portion of separated underrun sole, and a mild stimulant ap-
plication made to the sensible sole, to change the purulent into a homy secre-
tion: for which purpose nothing is better than the butyr (chloride) of antimonyj
or a moderately strong solution of sulphate of zinc (white vitriol), either of
which shovdd be applied over the bare surface ; the former, as more escharotic,
should be very lightly applied only. If on the next day the secretion of new
horn, though very thin, is yet moderately complete, dress it dry; but if fungus
appears to be forming, touch such part again with the butyr or zinc : proceed in
this way every day to combat the luxurious sprouting, and so encouraging the
formation of new horn. Dress the surface dry, and apply such cover as will de-
fend the part as well from moisture as unequal pressure; but general and healthy
pressure, in a moderate degree, will be salutary: tack on a shoe lightly over all.
When matter has proceeded to evacuate itself by the coronet, exactly a similar
plan must be pursued with that mild one which preceded this; unless this latter
should proceed to a similar state of intensity, when the same plan must be
adopted for that also: the original wound below should be traced and opened,
so as to give a free exit to the pus. And in all these cases, when the symp-
tomatic fever rages high, bleed, give physic, and treat in every respect as under
inflammation. Perfect quiet is absolutely necessary in every instance of punc-
ture; the slightest exercise irritates, and should be avoided. A shoe should be
made so as to ' lie off' the injured parts, and should only be very lightly tacked
on with three or four nails unclenched, which will allow of a ready removal and
re-application.

TREAD, Oil OVERREACH.

A woTJND about the coronet is a very common accident to horses, from one
foot being set on the other, when the outer margin, or heel of the shoe, wiU
wound the integuments, together with the vascular coronary rim. Or it may
occur from a blow inflicted on the heel of the fore foot by the hinder one over-
reaching it. In the first instance, all these cases are to be considered as simple
wounds, or rather as lacerated bruises, which, if extensive, have produced death
in the surface and adjacent parts of the tread; in which some inflammation must
occur to remove the edges thus injured. In no instance, therefore, should an
early application of irritating or caustic matters in use by the farriers be made,
by which more extensive inflammation and an increase of sloughing are produced.
On the contrary, wash with water to remove dirt, &c., apply a pledget of tincture
of myrrh, or tincture of aloes, or compound tincture of benjamin (friars halsamj,
&c.; and, if the wound be considerable, wrap up the whole in a poultice; if not,
apply over it a simply defensive dressing, and bandage lightly up. Should the
injury be slight, it may be healed at_ once by the adhesive inflammation; but if
not, a moderate suppuration only will occur. Under some circumstances, how-
ever, more extensive mischief will follow, when the case comes to be considered
under the subject of quittor.

QUITfOR.

The various accidental lesions just described sometimes take on a state which,
instead of following the usual course of phlegmonous inflammation by proceeding
outwards, directs its morbid action inwards, attacking all tlic internal parts of
the foot in its progress : this state is called quittor, which, by this shewing, is a
diseased state supplementary to some other lesions of the foot, be it of prick,

Class XX.] quittor.

tread, overreach, bruises, blows, grease, or thrush. Now, when it is considered
of what different materials this wonderful organ is composed, some vascular and
sensitive in the highest degree; some in which the powers of life are very feeble,
and their organization sunple ; while other parts exist which are varied m then
shades between the two ; when this is considered, we need not wonder that any
morbid attack on the foot, having a predisposition to extend inwards instead of
outwards, should in its course present different pathognomonic symptoms, de-
pendent on the differences of its origin, progress, and principal seat of evil ;
whether it be in the vascular cellular tissues, component of or connected with
the skin ; the tendinous, aponeurotic, or ligamentous expansions ; the cartilages
and cartilago-fibrous masses, and the bones themselves. It is from a considera-
tion of these structural differences that the French divide quittor into several
kinds, principally formed on the seat of the disease. In Hurtrel d'Arboval's
Diet. Vet, win be found an elaborate account of them, with the French method
of treatment common to each variety ; and although it is the peculiar faculty of
this ingenious nation to spin very fine, it will be found that these distinctions
lead to a just consideration of the disease, to the forming a more correct prog-
nosis, and to the adoption of a more decisive and appropriate line of practice
than could be gained without them. They are, 1st, javart simple— th&t which
attacks the skin and its cellular connexions ; 2d, javart tendineux, when it forms
itself within and around the sheaths of the tendons ; 3d, javart encorne, is in-
tended to designate that which originates in the lateral portion of the coronet;
and, 4th, javart cartilagineux, which is the state of quittor usually derived from
the former, but having now proceeded to ulceration of the lateral cartilage.
These several varieties are occasionally blended by circumstances*; but the
veterinarian who is familiar with this disease will recognize them, and acknow-
ledge that, if not applicable to the majority of cases, they are, nevertheless, de-
scriptive of very many of them. Mr. PercivaU, however, will not allow these
quadruple states, as described by the French veterinarians, to be genuine; yet
he does allow, that it often happens that two of these forms or states are present
at one and the same time, to which every observant practitioner we believe will
agree. ' The simple form of the quittor of the French school,' says Mr. P., is,
in truth, but a spurious one. Some portion of the skin of the coronet receives
a brmse from the opposite foot ; the cellular tissue underneath it becomes clogged
with extravasated blood, and loses its vitality; and the consequence is, that both
it and the injured portion of skin slough away, leaving a deep circular chasm to
be filled up by granulation. Although, however, this does not of itself consti-
tute what veterinarians in this country are in the habit of regarding as quittor,
it may, for want of cleanliness and medical attention (the matter being allowed
to be in it and buiTow), degenerate into one, and no doubt often does.' — Hippo-
pathology, vol. i, p. 246. Genuine quittor, this acute veterinarian considers as
simply consisting in sinuses or fistula running into the foot ; but we see by his
subsequent remarks, that he, too, considers its progress wiU be very likely to be
attended with many varied symptoms and characters. Quittor has also by other
acute writers been considered as having a Pi'otean character, and as appearing
under many guises : some compare it to the human whitlow, and there are un-
questionably traits of similitude between the seats, pathognomonic symptoms,
and progress of the disease f ; but its description would best unite with the car-

• ' Indfependammcnt dca symptSmeB particuliers a charune d'elles, tons cps javarts en ont do
genftratix qui leur 9ont communs. Dans tous, I'irritation plilegmoneusc commence par la peau ou Ic
tissu lamineux sous-cutane et s'annonce par Ic prurit qni la precede. Bientfit la partie a'enflamme,
se tumcfie, devient tendue, fait 6prouver an malade de trfts vivcs donlcurs, et I'oMige dc bolter.
Souvent l inflammation !>e propagc aux parties environnantes h une certaine etcndue dii itiembrc : clle
est quelquefols assez foite pour r6agir sympathiqucmcnt sur I'economic penerale, ct dfeterminer dc
I'agitation ct dc la fiAvre. Ccs plienomftnes ne cessent que lorsque le hourhillnn (the core) est
formft et prAs de se dfetaclicr.' — Ilurtrcl d'Jlrhoval, Did. Vet.

f ' Furonclc : inflammation compliqu fee d'fetranglcment dc Tnn des llocons de tissn cdlnlaire qni
rcmplissent les arfeoles dn tiasu fibrcux dc la pcan, qni dMermInc la gangrene par comprension dii
paquet de tissn cellnlairc enflamine, et la gangrene p«r iliaiitn.non des parois de I'nrcolc lilnensfc,
d'on rfesnltc leur chute, sons forme d'nnc cacarre lilanrlie et cylindriqne, qu'on nomme le linnr-

billon.'—Dicl. do Termi's drMed. Chir. Jinnl. et Art. Vet. ' Donrbillnn ; corps blanchAtrc,

grnmelcux et felastlque, form6 par le tlssu ccllulaire fetrangl* ct gangrcnfe au centre dn furoncle,'—
Idem.

QUiTTOR. [Class XX.

tUiuriiums quittor. Simple i\mtXov iiiiglit be made to sij^iiify that vacillating state,
when any one of the usual causes of canker, as punctures, treads, blows, &c. &e.,
appeared to refuse to yield to the ordinaiy treatment, but, on the contrary, as-
sumed some one or other, or of one or more of these confirmed states of (juittor.

In the tendinuus quittor we recognize that state of the complaint which origi-
nates in wounds from nails, flints, or other matters penetrating the sole; and in
those also which follow pricks in shoeing. In these cases, when either from ori-
ginal neglect or intensity in the injury received, the tendinous or ligamentous
connexions of the flexor tendon are invaded, perhaps the tendon is itself wounded,
or the coflJn-bone is entered, or the joint is penetrated, we may expect much
derangement to follow, marked by the extreme lameness, and the excessive pain
which is present, compared with the tumefaction. The opening may not of itself
be large, but the discharge is considerable, and a probe passed in will with ease
traverse a vast extent of surface, upwards towards the heels, and centrally also,
where it probably may be made to strike against the carious coffin-bone. The
encorned and cartilaginous quittors may be considered together; the latter being
usually one of the proceeds of the former. Many accidents are liable to separate
the vascular coronary ring: treads from the calldns are a fruitful source; and
therefore it is more usual to see it on the inner than the outer side, and on the
quarter in preference to the front or to the heels; although it does happen here
also by overreaching, &c.* In this case, the vascular cutis or quick of the hoof
is separated by the violence, the early stage being accompanied by adhesive in-
flammation, in which state a little judicious treatment, as a poultice, &c., will often
prevent further evil : but if suppuration follows, and if it extends to the laminae,
the horn becomes disengaged and the evil finally may communicate itself to the
lateral cartilage ; in which, according as the anterior edge and base is the affected
part, or as the posterior portions, which are less hard, more organized, and semi-
fibrous, become the objects of caries, or of ulceration, in that degree the disease
usually proceeds more tardily or more rapidly.

Treatment of Quittor. — This, like most matters of opinion, has varied with
the theories and the customs of the day. Formerly all quittors were attempted
to be cufed either by caustics or by the actual cautery, or by both together.
La Fosse the elder, who was rather fond of novelty, in some measure over-
turned this practice in France, and introduced a new method, founded on an
idea that the obstinacy and derangement that accompanied the complaint ori-
ginated in the lateral cai'tilages becoming carious, which he affirmed were
capable of being thus affected, but incapable either of exfoliating like bone, or
sloughing like ligament ; and therefore, to promote a cure, the whole cartilage
must be removed f. This practice became universal in France, and extended
itself here also, particularly after M. St. Bel assumed the professorship of our
Veterinary College. Here it reigned a little time only ; but in France it con-
tinued until the writings of M. Girard on the subject checked its career, and
brought its practice into some disrepute. This celebrated professor shewed the
superiority of the old method of employing corrosives ; and the success of the
practice at the Alfort school, over which he presided, tended further to bring
it again into use. Perhaps also our own success with it might have hastened
the re-adoption \.

* ' Unc a<<rin<c (oveiiflacli) qui ontame lapaitic postfericure <Iu talon, determine unc plaie sup-
puranle etdecouvie le cartilage dont il s'agit, devieiit une cause de cejavart.' — Hurt.d'Arboval.

\ Cartilages are not, liowevcr, wholly incapable of exfoliation ; tliey are vascular, as our anatomy
will show ; and as such, although their powers of life are small, yet, by active and judicious mea-
sures, they may he stimulated to throw off the dead and reproduce living portions : the process, how-
ever, it must he allowed, is always slow and not always certain.

} Tlic extirpation of the cartilages is not yet altogetlier abandoned in France, and in the reaction of
opinions may yet be furtlier advocated ; altliongli wo augur that it can never again wholly supersede
the milder methods. The Jour, de Mid. fiiir. et Comp. contains an ingenious article on this
subject from M. Renault, V..S., who attempts to prove ' that the espouscrs of either practice
(caustic or extirpation), if they had marked the particular spot where the cartilage proved carious,
if they had also remarked the depth and direction of the sinus, and then had connected these observa-
tions with the structure of the diseased tissue, they would have agreed that each of these modes of
treatment was judicious, depending on the inroad nuidc by the disease, and .-ilso on the situation ol the
caries. M . Renault is led to this reasoning on a structural examination of the lateral cartilages ; an d
ail his view is physiologically, pathologically, and practically iuiportant, I shall <iuolc it. ' Repeated

Class XX.] quittor. 537

The practical part of the treatment of guittor should be commenced by ac-
quaintiug ourselves with the actual state of the parts; and this is the more
necessary, as it will often prevent us from being involved in a fruitless attempt,
which will probably bring disgrace on our practice, torture on an innocent beast,
and ensure trouble and useless expense on our employer. _ When, by the use of
a blunt leaden probe, we meet with a tirm hard body within a quittored wound,
we then detect a bone, which, if extensive, the case cannot be said to be a fa-
vourable one ; but unless the cartilages be also carious, such horses frequently
become sound, therefore our prognosis should be to that effect. If, in addition
to caries of the bone and cartilages, we observe a flow of synovia also, a perfect
cure is hardly to be expected, although even here active treatment and the
powers of the constitution have occasionally restored the foot to a very consi-
derable degree of utility ; and as these cases happen principally to the hind
feet, and very frequently to those of our large and valuable draught horses, the
attempt might be worth the' trial. Caries of the lateral cartilages always be-
speaks a lengthened treatment, and, if accompanied with denuded bone, it is
more so : should the joint be also exposed, the case is nearly a hopeless one.
It- has been before obsei-ved, that the anterior portion and the base of the lateral

examination of it (the lateral cartilage) anteriorly and towards its lia»e only goes to confirm its
similarity to other cartilaees, properly so called: it is white, flexible, frangible, and homogeneous.
As we approach the borders and the posterior part, it loses its homogeneous characters : it is no
longer frangible ; and, in being rent, discovers a fibro-filamcntons texture. Still more posteriorly,
the fibro cartilaginous organization is more manifest, and here, on an attentive view, seem to exist
iioldted carliluginous knobs, surrounded by substance entirely fibrous. Lastly, the extreme pos-
terior end is flbro-adipose, and is confounded with the fatty frog Now, if we recal to mind, 1st, that
the cartilaginous tissue possesses but in a very low degree the vital properties (contractility, sensi-
bility); 2dly, that inflammation excited within it by external irritation proceeds very tardily, and
commonly ends in caries ; 3dly, that caries spreads so long as any continuous cartilage is left, it will
uut be diflScult to explain the first part of the problem. For instance, admit that caries is already
established n-ithin the interior part, or in the base of one of the lateral car tilages, the mortified spot
in such tissue will communicate irritation and consequent caries to all around it. If, with a view to
cut oflT this contamination, we destroy the carious spot with the iron or some caustic, we produce
another kind of irritation, which, in the majority of cases, also ends in caries, even prior to the
separation of the slough ; or else, should the slough first be detached, the cartilage not being from
its nature capable of granulation, and in consequence exposed to the air, speedily takes on inflam-
mation and caries, and we have all our work to do over again. And there will arrive a time even
when one cannot employ cauterization without danger ; when the caries has destroyed the cartilage
down to the capsular ligament which it covers, or when the cartilage Iras become so attenuated, that
the caustic can no longer separate but a thin pellicle from it. What is to be done under such circum-
stances ? It seems to me not to admit of hesitation: the cartilage is the carious part ; it must be
removed ; and especially may be, since the operation does not render the horse so useless as has been
represented. If, on the other hand, the ainus is situated in the heel, although the fibro-cartilaginous
tissue is carious, yet, there being here demonstrable cellular tissue, we can conceive the part capable
of an eliminatory inflammation; and we shall with mor e reason look for this, shorrld one of those
cartilaginous knobs, surrounded by fibre- cellular tissire, happen to he the seat of the caries. Accord-
iirg to this, the solution of the second part of the problem b»conres equally obvious, the salutary
cITects of the caustic and iron being explicable as follows: — In destroying parts contiguous to the
caries, a slougb is produced, the same as in cauterization of caries in the anterior portion of the car-
tilage; but an eflfect that cannot follow there is produced here, in this more vascrrlar tissue: the
character of the inflammation beiomes changed ; it assumes the suppurative form; granulations arise
(though tardily) underneath the slough, which is elevated and detached by the pus; and the wound
now a simple one, sjieedily cicatrizes.' '
Another writer (C. Prevost) on the same subject, in the Journ. Pratique de MM. Vilir.,
informs us that he has met with ten cases in his practice, wherein five were cured by extirpation,
three by caustics, one by cauterization alone: the tenth resisted both caustics and cauterization, and
was not further treated. M. Prevoi-tis led, by his observations on these cases, to conclude Mhat
Oiraid's method (i. e. corrosives) is the least painful and the most expeditious, and that which leaves
behind the least consequent disorganization. At the same time, he agrees with Girard in considering
the practice inapplicable in those cases in which the quarters or heels are in a state of suppur-ation,
the sole under-run, the base of the curtilage and the coffin-bone carious.' He continues:
'That the removal of the quarter and entire extirpation of the lateral caitilage. though a nice and
difficult operation, is not to intimidate us.' The extirpation of the cartilage is, indeed, a nice and
difficult operation. The biemOrrhagc is great, the danger of penetrating the articular cavity is so
likewise ; and the removal lif so large a portion of hoof as Is necessary, and the almost inevitable
destruction of the coronary secreting ring, from whence alone a healthy continuation and connexion
of horn can be expected, and the certainty otherwise of a false quarter, arc very great objections to
the excision of the cartilage ; add to which, that in almost every instance some lameness is the eoir-
sequcnce. There is, however, with some veterinariarrs, a mediate practice pursued, which is that of
cutting a«-ay such portions only of the cartilage as are affected, arrd treating remainder oS SI
together with the sinuses, by escharotics. On the subject of attacking the cartilaginous caries by the
actual cautery, Ilurtrel d'Arboval observes, with great truth, that it onglit never to be attempted
when it exists near the articniation ; and as it is Ins opinion, that to rairterize elfcctnally wo muvt
destroy the whole of the cartilage, it is altogether better to excise; into which orjerulion hc CMtcrn
minutely, and to which I would refer the student.

IB

538 QUiTToii. [Class XX.

cartilages are compact, solid, and strictly cartilaginous; when, therefore we
detect a canes of these parts by a view through the lateral opening, or by exa-
mination by the finger, which is best able to discover its denudation and c-arious
state, we must then be aware that the process of exfoliation is a very difficult
one to promote, in consequence of the small powers of life in the part : if our
efforts succeed, the process will probably be a lengthened one ; but, as these
cartilages extend themselves posteriorly, they become more and more of a carti-
lago-fibrous texture, and thus, as being more highly organized, are more capable
of a sloughing and reproductive process ; so, when a caries of the cartilage is
detected, if it have a backward direction towards the heels, and not burrowing
deep inwards towards the articulation, we are warranted in expecting to succeed
by judicious treatment. In all extensive quittors with much disorganization of
parts, particularly of the cartilaginous and hgamentous, we are imperatively
called on to remove not only the separated and dead horn, but also to intrude
on the living, if it obstructs the operations in our strict examinations and our
surgical treatment, either with the knife, the cautery point, or the filling up
each sinus with an escharotic. In no part of the treatment is judgment more
displayed than this : we must spare, and yet spare not ; we must expose every
particle of the internal part of the foot, be it walls, heels, or sole, that obstructs
our processes ; but we must most carefully avoid removing one particle unneces-
sarily : and it must be kept in mind, that, unless dictated by the circumstances
we have pointed out, all cutting away of horn is to be avoided as delaying the
cure, contenting ourselves with keeping the hoof well thinned, and pliant by
moisture, &c. And, notwithstanding the prejudices against firing in quittor, I
would, whenever a circumscribed spot of carious bone could be got at, without
endangering articular or bursal cavities, apply a pointed cautery ; neither should
I be deterred from toucliing such a spot in the centre of the lateral cartilage ;
but I would lightly apply it only, and not at all when it was carious towards the
base of the cartilage. This will often save much time, even in the worst cases,
and equally in those which are destined to an after escharotic treatment : occa-
sionally it will do more ; for it sometimes happens that this alone will bring
about a new action, when the cartilages and ligaments do not very extensively
participate, as occasionally happens when a nail has penetrated the anterior part
of the sole, and wounded the bone. In all other cases, it will be prudent to
avoid any extensive removal of horn ; but it should in every case be thinned as
much as possible, to lessen the resistance. The general end we have in view is
to promote a removal of the dead parts, if there be any ; if not, our attempts
must be principally directed to alter the diseased action going on, and by so
doing to promote a new one. As the cartilages are in these cases often affected,
and as when separated they are foiind hard, often ossified also, it has given
rise to an opinion among farriers that it was absolutely necessary to the cure
to get rid of a ' quittor hone and likewise as the soft parts are also often de-
stroyed by the disease and slough away, so they have been, in the simplest cases,
not content until such an effect did follow ; if not from the disease, yet, as a
core they think must come out, they set to work to make one. But our surgical
principles now are, that we make use of so much stimulus, and only so much,
as shall destroy the diseased surfaces and the action which produced them. If
it can be done by mild means, as have been lately advocated by Mr. Newport*,
it is by far the most humane and eligible method. But if the sinuses are ex-
tensive, and the disorganization has extended to the cartilages and ligaments,
we must proceed further : indeed, it is seldom that we can stop short of the

• As milder methods, a weak solution of lunar caustic, or of caustic alkali, may be injected with a
syringe, and may also have pledgets dipped in tlie same introduced : hut the plan of Mr. Newport,
which has been adopted at the Veterinary College, is 'to thin tlie sole until it will yield to the
pressure of the thumb : then cut the under part of the wall in an oblique direction from the heel to
the anterior part immediately under the seat of the complaint, and only so far as it extends, and rasp
the side of the wall thin enough to give way to the pressure of the over-distended parts ; and put on a
bar shoe, rather elevated from the frog. Ascertain with a probe the direction of sinus or sinuses, and
introduce into them a saturated solution of sulphate of zinc (white vitriol), with a common syringe
that will hold from a drachm and a half to two drachms of the liquid : place over this a dressing of the
common cataplasm, or ung. terebinth., and renew the application every twenty-four hours.

Class XX.j canker. 539

extent of the farriers' system, and that practised by the Professors of Alfort
(perhaps almost the only instance in which their practice does agree), to core
out the quittor' by a forcible sloughing, brought about by the introduction of
some caustic substance, after this fashion : — When the opening is very small,
and the sinuses deep, but contracted, make a paste with equal parts of resin and
corrosive sublimate, softened with tar. Impregnate small pieces of wool or tow
fiilly with this paste, which place around the end of a probe, and introduce one
by one, to the bottom of each sinus, filling also each up to the orifice with the
same, but not jamming them in with force. When, on the contrary, the orifice
of the wound is sufiiciently large, and one or two straight sinuses only exist, a
bougie may be made with paper, dipped in the paste, and introduced ; or in
case the diseased action be extreme, and, as a farrier would express it, the
quittor is very foul, a powder composed of equal parts of resin, subUmate, arid
verdigris, may be rolled within thin paper, so as to make also a bougie, which
being greased or rubbed with tar to render it slippery, should be introduced to
the bottom of the sinuses ; but it must be remembered, that when these are nu-
merous and irregular in their direction, the first is by far the best mode. The
hoof should, as soon as the caustic is introduced, be put into a poultice ; but
under no other circumstance is an extensive removal of horn prudent. In two
or three days after the introduction of the caustic, there will follow great heat
and tumefaction of the foot ; and, at last, the orifice will burst out, expelling
the slough, together with the application that occasioned it ; after which it may
be expected that the wound will go on healthily to heal. If, however, unfortu-
nately, this should not be the case, recourse must be again had to another intro-
duction of escharotics, and which plan must be persisted in until the amendment
be apparent.

CANKER.

This affection, like that of quittor, has some peculiarities of character ; for
while quittor appears principally to attack the cartilaginous, tendinous, and li-
gamentous parts by a decomposing process, canker spreads over the surface of
the soft parts, particularly of the sensible frog and sole, a fungous excrescence,
having somewhat of a fibrous texture, and exuding a sero-purulent ofiensive
discharge : continuing to sprout with a morbid luxuriance, it inoculates the soft
parts within its reach, particularly of the sensible frog and sole, and destroys
their connexions with their horny covering, so that the latter may be totally
separated in the advanced stages. Canker has been likened to scirrhus and to
cancer, and, in some of its external characters, it somewhat resembles fungus
haematodes : but a true parity cannot be maintained with any of these. It can
hardly be said to have any constitutional origin* ; it is essentially local, seldom
if ever spontaneous, but either accidental or secondary to some other affection,
as grease, thrush, &c. It appears oftener in hot weather than cold, and is more
fi-equently seen in crowded and filthy stables than in well-regulated ones. ' It is
now unknown in the army, and, as we may suppose, were the same preventive
causes applied, would be almost equally unknown elsewhere. The disease ori-
ginates in various ways : one source, as supposed but supposed only, is the high
heels or calkins of the heavy draught -horse, which remove the frog from that

• I would not write too affirmatively, from the difficulty of exactly fixing our notions of the true
characters of constitutional affections. Canker has hcen said to alternate with grease ; and that, when
one foot has been alTcetcd and has suddenly amended, the other has been found to have become-
cankered ; indeed, it is said to have gone all round in this way : these, however, are rare cases, and
do not destroy its general local character, nor give it much claim to a constitutional affectiou. White
legs may occasion a predisposition to it, because white feet are less strong; but though white feet
may he hereditary, we cannot say that canker is hereditary. It may be added, that constitutional
remedies have never doue good; and I am disposed to think it is much more easy to establish its
character as essentially local, than any constitutional connexion. Mr. Vouatt, on the contrary,
considers it constitution.il ; and Mr. Goodwin, according to a report in The Velnrinttriitn, does the
»ame : it is the opinion of the former gentleman that it is hereditary ; and yet his excellent hints with
regard to the prevention, which so pointedly state that, though difficult to cure. ' it is easily pre-
vented,' would seem to assure us lie has little faith citlur in its idiopathic or hereditary tendencies.

'''^^ CANKER. [Class XX.

pressure which seems so necessary to its healthy state. The state of wet and
h th these horses stand in in some stables is a more likely source: moisture ap-
plied to the frogs is a most active agent ; it disorganizes the frog itself and
increases the g.-owth of the horn of the heels, which aggravates the evil, as' hS
heels and a fuU healthy frog are seldom seen together.' Another common oS
IS neglected thrush, in which the suppuration, extending beyond the sensitive
trog, inflames the vascular sole, and extensive ulceration succeeds. Virulent
and neglected grease will often occasion it, and it is no uncommon circumstance
tor qmttor to degenerate into canker; less frequently will the latter take on the
state of the former; but I have known canker disease the ligaments and bones
ot tlie leet. When a canker is the consequence of a wound of the sole, and ex-
tends to the flexor tendon, it is commonly of the worst kind. Treads bruises
suppurating corns, or whatever produces inflammation and an ulceratine nrocess'
may occasion quittor. ° *^ '

Treatment of Canker.— The principal indications appear to be, first, to reduce
the inordinate increase of parts to a level with the surrounding surface • and,
next to restore the healthy secretions. To lessen the disposition to secrete an
inordinate quantity of crust of the walls at the expense of a sufficient secretion
of sole, the plantar arteries were taken up by Mr. Coleman, but without benefit.
VV hen however, he divided the immediate branches furnishing the coronary
ring which cut off" the secreting supplies from the horn of the walls, the horn of
the sole began to form in larger quantities ; and the experiment has been re-
peated by others with the same result. The division of the plantar nerves has
been employed for the purpose also, but with equivocal benefit; but it has
acted benehcially in another way, by removing much pain, and enabling the
animal to bear on the foot, which, by the pressure thus obtained, is important.
V\ hen neurotomy is performed in canker, Mr. Coleman would seem to confine
It to those cases where the disease had its seat principally in the sole, bar and
frog: neither would he, in using it, do more than simply divide the nerve,
because the object here is to destroy sensation temporarily only. When the
fungus extends itself considerably beyond the edges of the horn, it is prudent
at once to remove it to a level with that by the knife. This will occasion a
considerable haemorrhage, which may be checked by touching it lightly with
muriate of antimony, or other escharotic ; after which, the edges of the horny
sole that surround the opening from whence the fungus arises may be got at.
Proceed carefully and accurately to examine what extent of sensible sole is
separated from the horny ; or, as a farrier would say, how much is ' underrun:
Exactly to this extent must the sole of the hoof be removed with a drawing
knife ; for it must never be lost sight of, that the horny sole once separated
never reunites, but becomes a foreign body, and, as such, occasions the same
eflTects that occur from the presence of foi-eign bodies in all other parts, namely,
irritation and an inflammatory process to attempt the removal of the oflTending
substance. Not only must this be done in the first instance, but at every future
dressing the same attention should be paid to examine if any further separation
has occurred, that it may be removed also*.

Having thus fulfilled the first indication, by reducing the diseased fungus,
and having lessened the irritation that occasioned it, by removing the detached
horn, the next process is to promote a more healthy action in the diseased sur-
face : two plans tend to this end — the first by stimulants applied to the surface
of the vessels particularly; the second, by pressure, which strengthens them
generally. As long as there is a profuse secretion of a curd-like matter; and

• It IS the French practice to remove tlie whole horny sole at once ; nnder a presumption that it
will be totally removed in the end, and that, by desoling, the way for future treatment will be more
clear: this plan, however, savours too much of barbarity, and »hould only be resorted to in very
desperate cases. The knife can be employed at each dressing to remove the dead horny portion, and
to thin the living part, so as to prevent its edges bearing une(iually on the fungous protrusion : when
thinned, it may even be made a medium of pressure. We must, on the other hand, never be afraid of
removing sufficient of the sole; for were it even all removed, the laminie would-support the foot
perfectly; and, by a fair open surfac* exposed, we can apply uniform piessurc: expose the surface,
therefore, suffieiently, but not by at onee desoliny , except unperatively called to it. m*,^

Class XX.] canker. 541

as loii<- as the fungus sprouts greatly beyond the surrounding parts, so long the
cankered action is going on, and, during this time, no secretion of firm horn will
take place An unhealthy formation of thin half-formed horn may be observed
over many portions of the surface ; but this will prove an imperfect secretion,
and must not be aUowed to remain ; on the contrary, it must be continued to
be carefully removed at each dressing, until, by the application of escharotic
stimulants, and the benefit of pressure, a healthy granulating surface appears,
that will produce only an ordinate and proper quantity of good pus or matter,
and finally end in the formation of sound horn. After the exposure of the
whole cankered surface therefore, and of its treatment as before dii-ected, let it
be sprinkled with either of the following powders :—

No. 1. — Red oxyde of mercury {red precipitate)... half an ounce

Acetate of copper {verdigris) ditto

Calamine <iitto-

Mix.

No. 2. — Sulphate of copper {Hue vitriol) one ounce

Alum ditto

Carbonate of lead {white lead) ditto.

Mix.

The cankered surface being lightly covered with either of these, or any other
escharotic stimulant judged proper, let it be dressed as dry as possible, first by
a layer of lint, over which place pledgets of tow thickly over the bottom of
the foot, which should be done very judiciously, so as to fulfil the remainder of
the indication, that is, to keep up a firm and equal pressure ; and to insure
a uniform continuance of it, place over the tow a piece of canvass to keep all
smooth, and then introduce over the whole thin strips of iron or steel, slid
under the shoe and crossing each other, which will retain the dressing and keep
up a continual pressure, on which so much depends. This being done, wrap up
the whole in thick sacking or hose, so as to keep the foot perfectly di-y, which
is of the utmost importance, as nothing so tends to the increase of the fungus
and the exclusion of the suppurative process as moisture : nor does any thing
so strongly prevent its future increase, and restore the healthy action as dry
applications, united with firm and regular pressure over the sprouting surface.
A very great fault is often committed by dressing cankered feet too seldom.
I would, however, except the first dressing, where it has been severe : here it is
usual to let it remain two or three days, until sloughing may be supposed to
have commenced and matter to be formed ; but afterwards, no bad case ought
to be dressed less frequently than every day. From a wish to avoid trouble,
this is often neglected, and a cure that might be quickly performed is needlessly
protracted ; and, in the end, proves less complete than it might otherwise have
been : for when the dressing is delayed, every thing that has been done is ren-
dered nearly useless by the pent-up matter extending itself under other portions
of the sole, and by the increase of the fungus. Nor must it be lost sight of,
that it is imperative at each dressing that the luxuriant and diseased slough or
fungus must be first removed, not only to produce a level surface, but also to
procure a complete view of the parts underneath : for it proves often a most
insidious disease, and misleads unless carefully watched : sometimes, while one
part heals rapidly, another is extending as fast, and a third perhaps remains
stationary. The destruction of the fungus, when very high and luxuriant, may
be effected, as before-mentioned, most conveniently by the knife ; but, when
not so prominent, it may be done by the application of any of the caustic and
escharotic matters generally used*. Muriate of antimony is very commonly
applied for this purpose ; and as it can be laid on every part, and between in-

• The vetciinarian should bear in mind that he will often derive great I)enefit from varying the
escharotic used. The parts get habituated to the use of any one frequently, and then resist its
action, hut agaiu submit to a new one. This is so common a case, that it will be prudent to
change the caustic at M-ery third or fourth dressing, nn:l, whenever the effect slackens, it Is impera-
tive to apply a new one.

542 FALSE QUARTEll. [CLASS XX.

terstices, by means of a small brush, where a dry substance might not reach
so in this respect, it is preferable. It has also another advantage, which is'
tha , by turning the surface immediately white, it shews what parts ii has been
applied to, and what are left undone. The lapis infernalis, or caustic potash
from Its quick action, is also a convenient application. I have likewise used a
solution of lunar caustic, but the application of the same in substance is not
sufficiently quick to be useful. The caustic dressing, be it what it may, should
be continued no longer than there is any diseased surface remaining; nor should
the escharotic process ever be pushed to the extent of corroding deeply into the
substance of the vascular parts. Such conduct betrays the grossest ignorance
and therefore can hardly be expected in the veterinarian ; but it has happened'
in the practice of smiths and farriers, to the utter destruction of the foot Yet'
on the other hand, until the cankered matter, from being profuse, thin and
clotted with white masses, change to a thicker, less fetid, and more healthy
discharge, as well as lessened in quantity, the sore is still a cankei-ed one; and
until the cauhflowered white fungus change to a healthy red granulated appear-
ance, the unhealthy discharge must continue : and, in all such cases, a due
degree of pressure, united with the application of some escharotic, milder or
stronger, according to circumstances, may be considered as requisite*. But as
soon as the fungus is completely reduced, the discharge is lessened in quantity,
and improved in quality, accompanied with a sprouting of healthy horn ; then
nothing more is necessary than to watch the parts, to dress dry, and sufficiently
often ; still_ keeping up a moderate degree of pressure till the sore be com-
pletely hoofed over. Horses are often turned out during the process of cure of
canker ; but as the foot becomes unavoidably exposed to moisture, it is hardly
ever admissible, unless under circumstances of a very di-y season and situation ;
and even then, particular care is necessary to guard against occasional moisture,'
by a more extensive application of defensive dry dressing : but mill-work under
cover offers an excellent method of combining pressure with benefit to the
general health ; observing, if the horse has been subjected to neurotomy, that
his insensibility docs not make him injure his foot.

FALSE QUARTER.

This can hardly be considered as a distinct complaint, but, more properly, as
a consequence resulting from some one of the former diseases ; in which, from
the injury done to the coronary vascular ligament at one immediate part, it can
never afterwards secrete horn in a perfect line of continuity ; but the break or
interruption which first originated between the old and new horn continues to
be propagated. Such a blemish is called a false quarter; and it is evident that
it must greatly tend to weaken the hoof. It hkewise sometimes produces the
same unpleasant effects as a sandcrack, by admitting the vascular laminse be-
tween the opening, and, by a sudden approximation of its sides, squeezing them,
to the extreme pain of the animal. The treatment can be only palliative. In
cases where it is likely to happen, thin the horn thoroughly, and apply a blister :
but when already formed, keep the horn of the part always thin : use a bar shoe,
and ' lay off' (as a smith calls it) that quarter ; that is, the portion of crust
immediately under the blemish must not rest on the shoe. This may be done

• Hiirtrel d'Arboval observes, tlmt, when lie has been foiled by the usual CHUstics, which he has
found have sometimes had the elFect of encouraging a new and iinhealtliy suppuration under the
eschar, that has evinced a gangrenous tendency, or wlien the caustic applications, from a peculiar
irritability probably, have exhibited an intensity of operation injurious to tlie parts underneath, he
has had recourse to a method wliereby the degree of cauterization can be limited to the wishes of the
employer. This is effected, according to his account, by dusting over the surfaces with a mixture of
sulphur and gunpowder, which, being touched with a lieated iron, explodes, leaving the sulphur in a
state of slow combustion, the termination of whicli causes a black eschar, which is to be raised by
very careful scraping as much as possible, without exciting htomorthage. The same process is then
to be repeated over and over, until there is reason to judge that the cauterization has been sufficient
todestroy all the unhealthy surfaces, so as to render them incapable of renewing the morbid action.
This metliod, our author assures us, has proved very successful witli him.

RHSTRAINTS, &C. 543

cither by paring the foot, or by an indentation in the shoe ; the choice of which
is letl to the prudence of the operator, with this exception, that, in a weak thin
foot, the alteration should always be made in the shoe.

OF SURGICAL OPERATIONS,

AND THE VARIOUS BESTKAINTS IT IS SOMETIMES NECESSARY TO PLACE THE HOKSB
UNDER FOR THEIR DUE PERrORMANCE.

When it is necessary to perform any painful or unpleasant operation on so
powerful an animal as the horse, it is of consequence to secure both him and
ourselves from the effects of his resistance, by subjecting him to a restraint equal
to the occasion. Horses are very unequal in their temper, and bear pain very
differently ; but it is always prudent to prepare for the worst, and few very im-
portant operations should be attempted without casting.^ To give directions on
such minute points to the experienced veterinarian, might perhaps seem unne-
cessary ; but as this work is intended as a guide to the inexperienced and junior
practitioner also, so I shall not always prove uninteresting or uninstructive when
I descend to these minor matters. Humanity should be the fundamental princi-
ple of every operation, and we ought always to subject this noble animal to pain
with reluctance ; but when circumstances absolutely call for it, we should care-
fully avoid an unnecessary infliction of suffering. The resistance of the horse is
terrible, and it is but common prudence in the veterinarian to guard himself
against the effects of it. The lesser restraints are various : among them may be
first noticed the tioitch and barnacles. The twitch is a very necessary instrument
in a stable, though, when frequently and unnecessarily used, it may have the ill
effect of rendering some horses violent and vicious to resist its future application.
In many instances blind-folding will do more than the twitch ; and some horses
may be quieted, when the pain is not excessive, by holding the ear in one hand,
and rubbing the point of it with the other. A firm but soothing maoner will
often engage the attention and prevent violence ; but it is seldom that either threats
or punishment render an unruly horse better. Inexperienced persons guard
themselves against the hind feet only, but they should be aware that some horses
strike as truly and as terribly with their fore feet : it is prudent, therefore, in all
operations, to blindfold the animal, and the more so, as by this he becomes par-
ticularly intimidated, nor will he often strike without an aim. Barnacles are a
sort of clams used by smiths, into which they introduce the nose in the manner
of a twitch. They are only admissible, when a person is so situated as to be
wholly without assistance. When one of the fore extremities requires a mi-
nute examination, it is prudent to have the opposite one held up ; it may, in
some cases, be tied up by a noose : and when one of the hinder legs is the object
of attention, the fore foot of the same side should be held up, as by this means
the animal is commonly prevented from striking, by the failure of his lateral
support. If this precaution be not taken, still observe to keep one hand on the
hock, while the other is employed in what is necessary, by which means, if the
foot become elevated to kick, sufficient warning is given, and the very action of
the horse throws the operator away from the stroke. Without the use of these
precautions the practitioner" will not only expose himself to much risk, but a
neglect of them is sure to subject him to a suspicion from those around that he
does not know his business. The trevis is the very utmost limit of restraint, and
is seldom used but by smiths, to shoe very violent and powerful horses : when-
ever recourse is had to it, the greatest caution is necessary to bed and bolster all
the parts that are likely to come in contact with the body. On the continent I
have seen horses very dexterously shod in this machine, and apparently put in
under no other necessity than either to avoid labour, or, ridiculous as it may
seem, to prevent the clothes of the smith from being injured or dirtied by the
common method. Horses have been destroyed by the trevis, as well as by cast-

544 CASTING.

ing, or, at least, their aversion to the restraint has been such, that thev have died
under their own resistance ; it, however, has a very decided advantaffc over cast-
ing, as It IS seldom the vertebrae are fractured by it; and it might be so framed
1 am convinced, as to render it a most efficient restraint for the performance of
many operations, and might be further used as a sHnging machine in many cases
requiring suspension, which might here by the adjustment of machinery, be made
to act m many ways favourable to the horse* and the practitioner. The side-line
IS now very generally used, not only in minor operations, but also in those more
miportant. Many veterinarians seldom use any other restraint than this in
which they consider there is safety both to the horse and to the operators. It is
particularly applicable to such horses as are disposed to strike behind; and con-
sists in placing a hobble strap around the pastern of one hind leg, and then
carrying the end of the rope attached to it over the withers, bringing it back again
under the neck, and over the other portion, so as to leave a slipping collar, as it
were, round the neck, by which the hinder leg should be drawn forward as far as
it can without elevating it from the ground. By this displacement of one leg
the horse is effectually secured from kicking with either. Occasionally it is
thus applied :— hobbles are put on each hind leg, and the rope is passed through
each of their rings or D's. Carry this rope, as in the former instance, over one
of the shoulders and around the breast, along the body, and having again carried
it through the hobble rings, pass it once more around the breast. Now draw
both hind legs rather forward, and the horse will be secure.

Casting. — It is the practice with many veterinarians to perform almost every
surgical operation by means of the restraints of the twitch and of the side-line,
abandoning the operation of casting almost wholly : the objections to it arise
from the dangers incurred while forcing the horse to the groundf. Mr. Bracy
Clark simplified easting, by inventing some patent hobbles, having running
chains instead of ropes, and which, by a shifting D, made the loosening of any
one hobble, for the purpose of getting at a particular leg, unnecessary. These
were still further improved by Mr. Budd, so as to render a release from all the
hobbles at once practicable. Hobble leathers and ropes should be kept sup-
ple and pliant with oil, and ought to be always examimed previous to usinc :
nor should the D or ring of the strap be of any other metal than iron. Brass,
however thick, is brittle, and not to be depended on. To this D or ring of
one hobble, in the common method, a very flexible strong rope is well fastened
by a noose, and, according to the side the horse is to be thrown on, ^his hob-
ble is to be fixed on the fore foot of the contrary side, and from that to the
D of the hind foot of that side, then to the other, and, lastly, through the D of
that on the other fore foot. After this, much of the case and safety of the
throw depend on bringing the legs as near together as possible. This should
be done by gradually moving them nearer to each other, without alarming the
horse, which will very much facilitate the business, and is really of more mo-
ment than is generally imagined. A space sufficiently large should be chosen
for the purpose of casting, as some horses struggle much, and throw them-
selves with great violence a considerable way to one side or the other ; and

• A machine of a very complicitcd structure, but well adapted for the purpose of restraining tlie
horse in any necessary position, is detailed at length by Hnitrel d'Arboval. It was originally given
by Fromagede Fengre, who has tendered himself particularly eminent by taking up the subject of
fractured bones in our animals.

\ On this subject there is much difference of opinion : it is well known that the resistance of some
horses is such, that they will die under the hands of the operator, either by the violence of tlie
irritation overcoming the nervous supplies, and at others by tiie rupture of some important vessel.
More frequently disastrous consequences ensue from fracture of the vertebroo of the trunk of cUher
the dorsal or lumbar usually: a crack is heard during some violent struggle, and on allowing the
horse his liberty, he rises before, but is liclnlcss behind. This has influenced many practitioners to
accustom themselves to perform almost all operations in a standing position : by practice they
become expert at it, and then advocate this as the best method, and as applicable to every operation ;
to which many are also led, in cities and large towns, from the want of a convenient space on which to
cast the horse. Wherever it can be safely dispensed with, from the dangers detailed, it may with
propriety be done ; but these dangers arc magnified : I must have been present at the casting of some
hundreds of horses, and never saw it happen. Inmost operations theic is a chance of a dangerous
resistance from the standing horse ; in many It is uttei ly impossible to steady the parts suffiriently,
without the horse is prostrate.

SLINGING.

545

this particularly if the feet have not been h-oiight near tpgether prexnom to ut-
teinpting- the cud. The place should be also very well littered down, (irst with
dung, and next with straw. The legs having been well put together, the as-
sistants must act in concert ; one particularly should be placed at the head,
which must be carefully held throughout by means of a strong snaffle bridle ;
another should be at the hind part to direct the fall, and to force the body of
the horse to the side which is requisite. Pursuing these instructions, the ani-
mal may be at once rather let down than thrown, by a dexterous and quick
drawing of the rope, the whole assistants acting in concert. The moment the
horse is down the rope must be fastened; and particularly, the person at the
head must keep that secure, for all the efforts to disengage himself are first be-
gun by elevating the head and fore parts ; but it is necessary to keep some soft
padding under it, or he will rub the eyelids bare by his struggles. Great care
is also to be taken that the horse be allowed to breathe freely when down ; and
that no more time be wasted in the operation than is absolutely necessary, as
many horses continue to struggle throughout, and waste themselves much ;
sometimes fatally. In all these eases endeavour to insure a sufficient number
of assistants, and of such as are accustomed to these operations.

Slinging is a restraint also which horses submit to with great impatience,
and not without much inconvenience, from the violent excoriations occasioned
by the friction and pressure of the bandaging around his body. Graver evils are
also brought about by the abdominal pressure : some horses stale and dung with
difficulty when suspended ; and inflammation of the bowels has not unfrequently
come on during slinging. It is, however, forced on us in some cases, as in
fractured boues, in the treatment of open joints, and in some other wounds
where motion would be most unfavourable to the curative treatment. Siispen-
sion may be partial or complete. Modes of partial suspension are noticed in
Wounds of the Joints, and in Fractures also. Complete suspension wiU require
the application of pulleys and ropes affixed to the beams of a standing in such
a manner, that the whole body of the horse can be elevated without disturbance
to his horizontal position, with ease and regularity, to prevent his resistance,
which may be further prevented by twitching him when he is in motion. A
sling may be formed by making a cradle with a square of strong sacking, two
sides of which should be fastened firmly to horizontal beams, or pieces of
wood the length of the horse, and reaching a little higher than his back : on
this so formed cradle he is to recline ; it is therefore necessary that it em-
braces the belly from his elbows to his sheath, or her bag. From the hinder
part of this envelopment two strong bands should pass up from the belly, one
within each thigh, leaving the anus free, by directing itself towards the portion
of the sheet-beams opposite the croup : two others ought, in like manner, to
extend out before, one passing up on each side of the neck, to be attathed to
the portion of the same beams opposite the withers. These additional points of
contact take ofi" much of the general strain, and also prevent the escape of the
body either forward or backward. At the four corners of this cradle, a power-
ful cord should be placed, which being passed, each through a pulley in the ceil-
ing perpendicularly above, may be used to elevate and let down the animal at
pleasure : other cords should also pass to the floor from the lower part of the
apparatus, to prevent the vacillation of the body. To obviate the dangers of
pressure, the cradle must be well bedded with straw, and, where the circum-
stances do not actually forbid, it is necessary that he be allowed some respite
from slinging. He should, if possible, be permitted to lie down at night ; if
not, he should be let down occasionally to rest on his limbs : if one limb is
80 injured, or under such treatment as to forbid its approach to the ground,
splint it up, and let him support himself on the other three; and, likewise, as
he gets weary, draw the sling so as to let him partly rest on that, and partly on
the ground.

.M m

546

EMBRYOTOMY.

VETERINARY OBSTETRICS.

The natural process of foaling is noticed in the Physiology of the Female
Organs of Generation, p. 245 : the artificial process is, fortunately for horses,
not often required, although they are so much more the objects of strict domes-
tication than horned cattle, who very frequently require assistance. Protracted
and difficult parturition does, however, every now and then occur, when it be-
comes the veterinary practitioner to be au fait at rendering assistance, or he
will be completely under the lash of the farriers around him. The principal
cases that occur arise either from weakness in the mare from previous illness,
low keep, &c., or from a very considerable disproportion between the foetus
and mother. I have seen a few false presentations also, but of the back and
croup only : that of the back required much labour to change for the hinder
extremities ; and had not the fcetus been a very small one, I must have pro-
ceeded to embryotomy, which was, on the part of the owner, much wished to
be avoided, on account of the mother having been covei-ed by a small Arabian.
When eiiher from debility of the mare, or disproportion in the size of the foal,
a natural birth is despaired of, the practitioner, stripping off his coat, tucking
up his shirt, and having well oiled his hand and arm, should carefully and
gently introduce it into the uterus, expanding its orifice as he proceeds by the
opening of his fingers one after another. Having introduced it completely,
and having ascertained that the presentation is a natural oue, if the feet are
conveniently placed, draw them gently forward, and then endeavour to place
the head between them. If the head only is met with, seize it by the muzzle
and draw it gently onward, searching for the feet, and drawing them one after
the other in the line of the head ; which manipulations are, of course, only to
be attempted during the throes of the mother. When the obstruction is ex-
treme, it will be necessary to introduce both hands, and, as soon as the head
and legs are got near the external orifice, enclose them with a rope : or, a more
obstetrical method is, to use a pair of forceps, although it is often found more
assistant to use a cord round the pasterns of the foetus, because we can get as-
sistance to aid us in our exertions to hberate the foal, which must be done by
steady, but not brutal pulling, at the time of each foaling throe, unless by pro-
tracted labour or excess of debility they have altogether ceased, when proceed
to extract without : to delay it, would be to lose both mother and offspring.
The blunt hook is sometimes used on these occasions, when neither the hand
nor forceps can be introduced ; but when the foal is of as much consequence
as the mother, it is an objectionable instrument ; when otherwise, then it is a
powerful aid in hands that will direct it so that it shall not fix itself in the parts
of the -mother. When the obstruction arises from an unnatural presentation of
parts that is, of other parts than the head and fore feet ; as of the loins, the
croup' and one single extremity, the other being doubled backward, it is evi-
dent here our endeavours must be directed to change the position to the natural
one if practicable ; if not, to bring the hinder extremities forwards, and make
the extraction by this method. Lastly, if all these means fail, we must proceed
to lessen the fatal mass by embryotomy.

EMBRYOTOMY.

When from weakness on the part of the mother, monstrosity on the part of
the foal 'or a very narrow pelvic opening, no efforts can bring the foetal mass
awav entire it must be dismembered. A curved, blunt-pomted, strong bistoury.
Sg th^'bUvde concealed between the fore and middle finger with the haft
IvTng within the hollow of the hand, or directed up the sleeve is o be careiuUy
pissed up into the uterine cavity. We are told that, occasionally, hydrocephalus
El the colt prevents the head from passing. I never myself met with or actually
knew ^instance of the sort ; but the French authors notice it. Such a case
wm detect itself by the volume that will be felt on cxammation, and which will

CASTRATION. 547

be easily lessened by plunging the point of the knife in the forehead, and evacu-
ating the contents by pressing the skull in, when, holding by the muzzle, the
head may be brought through the pelvic opening readily. But it is usually the
natural size of the head which forms the obstructing mass ; in which case the
head itself must be lessened by means of the bistoury, by masses taken from
around, particularly the ears and flesh at their base ; the under jaw may also be
separated. When the head has been thus lessened and brought away, it will be
necessary probably to contract the volume of the chest also, which will not be
difficult, by cutting the cartilaginous portions of the ribs, detaching the thoracic
viscera, and then crushing, or rather moulding, the empty thorax together, when,
by the introduction of the fingers, or by the hook, the remainder of the body will
offer little obstruction. When the head cannot be got at, the limbs must, one by
one, be detached ; after which the body, and at last the head, may be drawn out
either entire, or lessened considerably.

CASTRATION.

This practice, both as regards the deprivation of the male and female animal
of their generating power, is of very ancient origin ; and, as regards emascula-
tion,, is as extensive as ancient. It is founded on the superior placidity of tem-
per it gives, and the restraint it offers to the full development of the form of
the stallion. When we consider that the brute resources are principally con-
fined to, and almost equally centered in, two grand objects, preservation and
propagation, we cannot therefore wonder that, when they become confined to
one of these objects only, very great alterations are to be expected, in both
the moral and physical condition of the animal. The castrated horse no longer
evinces the superiorities of his masculine character, but sinks much below the
level of his fellows, and approaches the softer form and milder character of
the mare. Losing his ungovernable sexual appetency, he submits to discipline
and confinement without resistance ; and if he be less worthy of the painter's
delineation and the poet's song, he is valuable to his possessor in a tenfold de-
gree by his acquired temperance and docility. Grant, also, that his outline is
less grand, that his crest is less high, and his mane less flowing, has he not
gained by the change ? In England, where length in the arms of the wide-
spread angle in the limbs of our horses is absolutely necessary to fulfil the in-
tentions of the rapid travelling so much in vogue among us, the exchange of
the lofty carriage and high action of the .stallion is necessary to the end ; and
when to this is added the lessened tendency of the gelding to some disease's as
hernia, founder, cutaneous affections, &c., we may be content to leave 'the
sexual type with the racer for his breed, and with the drayhorse for his
weight, and the fancy of his owner. It certainly is very poetical to lament
the degradation of this noble animal ; but the finest flight of imagery on one's
tomb, after being worried to death by a stallion, would not repay the loss of
riding through life on a temperate gelding*. Presupposing it, therefore, cli-

• I cannot, therefore, hiit be surpriseil at tlie nbservant Hiirtiel d'Arboval, who in true masculine
anguage, which It wonld rrau^cw/afi; to translate, thus mourns over the atallion'M immolation • 'Si
la castration est (|uel(|ucfi)is une iiecessite, il ii'cnt pas moiiis depl.irahle (lu'on en fasse un abus
suituut a regard du cheval, le plus noble dc nos aiiimaux doniestiqncs, celui doiit on ohtient tout oar
la (loi.ceur et les bons proce(b;s. C'est par la douceur qu'ou le fa(;onne au nienege, aux evolutions
inilitairi-3 4 lagucrre, aux allures et aux exerciccs sans nombre qu'on pent dijsirer de lui Cetti*
'louceur est elle que le cheval ciitier, sous la main d'une feinme, memo celui qui a co'ute des
jouts^aiic^s amouieuses, se laisse monter et conduirc a ineiveille, et obeit a tous les niouvemens au"i
Ini 3i,iit imposes, malgrfc tontes les recontres qui penvent le tenter. Pourquoi done lletrir ce liel et
utile annual par uiic horrible mutilation? pourquoi "lui oter I'ardeur. la force, la Vitesse mame la
«uretcdes.|amlies, et toutes belles qualites que luiassureiit les organes de la gcndrntioii e'tquo ricn
ne pent suppleer, pas nicme I'excellentc nourriture et tous les soins minulieux des Anulais ' This is
an instance how even a great mind may become the slave of prejudice : in the face of s^. manv i.ioofs
01 the necessity of this operation, and in the general practice of his own countrv on saddle horses
Which are those mostimmediatcly the objects of our personal iutci course, it is not 'a little i eniark'ibio
that he should thus further indulge in these false sympathies: I,e cheval hongre n'a nliu des

n!r? ■ ii\^"'r ''"^"^'''""'"l'''' tiiste existence; il n'a pins ee superhe hennisse-

nientqui d6c6le les tlans de sa force et les impressions qu'il refoit d<is I'aiirore de son existe c ■ • il

pourqniconnue^sa^^^^ ' " ^en inlcricme

M m 2

548

CASTRATION.

gible to castrate our horses, what is the proper age for the operation ? and,
next, what are the relative advantages and disadvantages of the different me-
thods of performing it ? The proper age to castrate the young horse must
depend on circumstances, as on his present appearance and growth, and the
future purposes we intend him for ; observing, generally, that the more early
it is done, the safer is the operation : for until these organs begin to form the
masculine secretion, they are purely structural parts, and as such are not so
intimately connected with the sympathies of the constitution. It is otherwise
when they take on their secretory office ; they are then functionally engaged,
their vascularity and volume is greatly increased, and they are largely sympa-
thised with by the system, which participates with whatever disturbs them,
always considerably, sometimes seriously and fatally. On the other hand, a
removal before the adult age has so much effect on the external form, that it
has occasioned, in some countries, a legal enactment to prevent;_^it ; it is so in
France, I believe.)

A reference to our anatomical detail will shew that a partial descent of the
testicles takes place soon after birth, and that in most cases, therefore, they
may be found without the external abdominal ring, closely packed in the upper
part of the scrotum* until the fourth, fifth, or sixth month, and occasionally
even longer. After this time they are drawn up within the inner and outer
I'ings, probably with a view to prevent their too early development, which would
be prejudicial to the general growth of the frame : here they remain until the
tenth or eleventh month. Colts, therefore, can be castrated any time between
the first and fourth month ; and this period is preferred by some persons, from
the little disturbance it occasions in the constitution ; and the little check it
gives to the growth would serve, in some cases, to recommend it, particularly
where there was a remarkably stubborn refractory disposition known to exist in
either parent. Some breeders of horses castrate at twelve months ; others ob-
ject to this period, because they think the animal has not sufficiently recovered
the check experienced from weaning before this new one arrives. In the more
common sort of horses used for agricultural purposes, it is probably indifferent
at what time the operation is performed; this consideration being kept in view,
that the earlier it is done the lighter will the horse be in his fore-hand, and the
longer it is protracted the heavier will be his crest and the greater his weight
before, which in heavy draught work is desirable. For carriage horses it would
be less so, and the period of two years is not a bad one for their castration.
The better sort of saddle horses should be well examined every three or four
months, particularly at the ages of twelve, eighteen, and twenty-four months,
at either of which times, according to circumstances or to fancy, provided the
fore-hand be sufficiently developed, it may be proceeded with. Waiting longer
may make the horse heavy; but if his neck appear too long and thin, and his
shoulders spare, he will assuredly improved by being allowed to remain u^liole
for six or eight months longer. Many of the Yorkshire breeders never cut till
two years, and think their horses stronger and handsomer for it : some wait
even longer, but the fear in this case is, that the stallion form will be too predo-
minant, and a heavy crest and weighty fore-hand be the consequence ; perhaps
also the temper may suffer. Young colts require little preparation, provided
they are healthy and not too full from high living; if so, they must be somewhat
depleted, and, in all, the choice of a mild season and moderate temperature is
proper. When a full-grown or aged horse is operated on, some further prepa-
ration is necessary. He should not be in a state of debility, and certainly not
in one of plethora : in the latter ease bleed, lower his diet, and it would be
prudent to give him a purgative. It is also advisable that it be done when no
influenza rages, as I have found the effects of castration render a horse very

• It is this close attachment to the mouth of the external ring-, where they arc firmly held by the
partial development of tlie chord, which lias led authors, and even M. tiirard, into describing them as
altoiether abdominal organs until the sixth or seventh month; and eases arc not wanting where they
really arc retained there until the time of their natuial descent, as other instances occur where one or
both never appear at all.

CASTRATION.

549

obnoxious to any epidemic. The temperature of the atmosphere also should
range between 45" and 60", and I would recommend the advanced spring season,
but previously to the flies becoming troublesome, for the performance in all
valuable horses ; and that it be not done until after the winter coat has been
shed, which will have a favourable effect on the future coating of the horse*,
independent of the circumstance, that at either period of change the constitution
is not in a state for any unusual excitement, and that also the check to it might
not only prevent a healthy coat that season, but in some measure influence it
ever after. Castration is performed in various ways, but in all it expresses the
removal of the testicles : there are methods of rendering the animal impotent
without the actual ablation of these organs ; for if by any other method the
secretion of the spermatic glands is prevented, from which the uncontrollable
sexual excitements arise, our end is answered.

Castration by cauterization is the method which has been principally practised
among us ; and as it is that taught at our alma mater, we may naturally sup-
pose it has proved worthy of the patronage it has received. It is that I always
practised, and was successful with it. But this by no means proves it the best ;
on the contrary, many of our most expert vetei'inarians do not castrate by this,
method. Mr. Goodwin, as we shall have again to note, never castrates by cau-
tery ; neither would I recommend the junior practitioner to commence his cas-
trations by this method, although I can aver I never had an untoward case in it ;
and the more, as, when I was called on to perform it, it was usually on adult
horses, mostly on aged ones. Other plans may be still better : it is my duty,
assuming, as I do, to be a teacher, to bring them forward to view, that they
may be compared togetherf. A preluninary observation should be made pre-

• It is obser\ed in India, that all horses castrated immediately previous to the cold weatlier, tliat
is, when the constitution had prepared itself for the formation of a long coat to meet the season, such
horses retained the habit, and afterwards in winter became long coated; whereas, those wliich were
castrated at the commencement of tlie'hot season retained a coat throughout the year more like that of
entire horses, which it is known changes but little liy season. The same observations have been
made here also, though, as the ligors of ourclimate are much greater than in India, both the castrated
and uncastrated with us submit to the laws of necessity, and form a coveiing adapted to their wants;
but the constitutional heat of the stallion still supplying him in part, the castrated colt also retains
the habit of his sire in this respect, hut in a less degree here than there ; but he does retain it
somewhat.

\ It cannot fail to have struck most practitioners, that, in all the mechanical operations of human
and brute surgery, there have sprung up individuals, usually illiterate ones, who, devoting themselves
thereto, have acquired a manual dexterity that has misled tlie public to employing them in preference
to the more enlightened professor of the art ; and thus, while human surgery presents its corn cutters
-and its tooth drawers, our art can furnish gelders or horse-cutters and spaycrs, who beat the regular
veterinarian out of the field. Ignorant of probable consequences, they proceed fearlessly, and so
t)rocceding, they become expert, and are thence sought out, to the exclusion of the regular prac-
titioner ot'the art, except npon some extraordinary occasion ; when the prudent caution displayed in
his proceedings, instead of benefitting him, is arrayed in an invidious comparison between his method
and that of lame Jack the cutter, ' who would have done it in half the time, and drunk a quart or two
of hccr into the bargain.' It is really a matter of some surprise, however, when we mark the expe-
dition and adroitness with which some of these persons perform this mechanical pait of the art, as
every veterinarian must have had opportunities of observing, sometimes probably to bis mortification
as well as surprise. Witness the following : in my very earliest outset as a veterinary practitioner, I
was sent for from Lewes to fire a valuable hunter, belonging to J. Bean, Esq., of Alfriston, Sussex.
It was my first essay in firing on my own account; and fired as I was with my wishes to signalize
myself, I laboured to enter my novitiate with all due honour. The farrier of the village was ordered
to attend— a sturdy old man, civil enough, but looking as though impressed with no very high
respect for vl gentleman farrier' s knowledge. The horse was cast, I dare say awkwardly enough,
and secured, as will appear, even more so. 1 however proceeded to shew the superiority of the new
over the old school. I had just then left the Veterinary College, not as a pupil, but as a teach?r,
which I only mention to mark the climax. On the very first application of the iron, up started my
patient, flinging me and assistants in all directions from him, while he trotted and snorted around the
yard with ropes, &c. at his heels. As may be supposed, I was taken aback, and might have gone
hack as I came, had not the old farrier, with much good humour, caught the horse around the neck
with his arms, and by some dexterous manrjiuvre brought him on his knees, when, with a jerk as quick
as unexpected, he threw him at once on his side, where our immediate assistance fixed him, and wo
proceeded. It is needless to remark, I retired ii ortified, and left the village farrier lord of the
ascendant. As regards castration, I am convinced that not only .lie superior expeitncss and great
<iuickness acquired by the frequency of the practice among these persons, but that even the safety of
it is also, in some degree, promoted by it in the ordinary cases which occur ; and so impressed have I
ever been with this opinion, that whcnevei I have been myself applied to to perforin it, I have always
answered, that the country peisons who devoted themselves to it were so much more expert at it,
that I conscientiously recommended an application to some one of them. But there are circumstauces,
fvcn in these almost straightforward cases, which the enlightened few at once see as probable ; and
duly appreciating the importance of, apply in preference to the veterin.irian, of which 1 had once a
nattering instance. VVhilc residing In London, I received a letter desiring to know wliat would be luy

550 CASTRATION.

viously to casting, to see that the horse has no hernia or rupture : such cases
liavG happened ; and as in our method we open a direct communication with the
abdomen, when the horse rises it is not improbable that his bowels protrude
until thej' trail on the floor, on which distressing circumstances see note below*.
As unbroke young horses are the most usual subjects of this operation, and
such often as have not yet been bridled, or even haltered, but really making good
the simile, are ' as wild as youvg colts,'' to direct the younger practitioner to
cast such a one in the usual method, would be much below the regularity of
the cook's directions, as entered by that renowned operator in gastronom}',
Mrs. Glasse, who sagely directs us first to catch a hare, and then proceeds to
instruct us in the dressing of it. After this great pattern, we must say some-
thing about catching and tackling the colt also ; and take a little from our own
stores, and something more from the well-furnished ones of Mr. Percivall, who
seems, like myself, to have experienced the difficulty of the matter. This how-
ever would never occur were the recommendation I have so often given to
breeders and others attended to ; which is that of handling every colt from his
very foaling, by which he might always be caught and readily tackled. If a
colt cannot be enticed with oats, &c., he must be driven into a corner between
two steady horses, where, if a halter cannot be put on, at least a running
hempen noose can be got round his neck ; but whichever is used, it should be
flat, or the struggles, which are often long and violent, may bruise the neck,

rhar^e for taking a journey to a distant county to castrate an aged horse, and to remain witli liim two
days, to watditlie result: I stated my demand, wliicli, as [ was then engaged in a full and lucrative
practice, \va«, in justice to myself, liot small ; at the same time I observed in my answer, 'that in
such a populous and sporting district as that from which I was addressed, I felt assured expert
cutters ciiuld readily he found, who would perform the operation with far more dexterity than
myself;' and I well rememher adding, 'that it had not been found that the practice of regular
veterinarians in the ordinary operation of castration had exhiliited any proofs of greater safety than
that of the country farriers.' I had done what I thought was proper, and expected to hear no more of
the case; a few posts, however, brought nic a letter to the following effect: ' That my charge was
not at all objected to, and 1 was directed, if possible, to put myself in the mail the same evening ; and
that, as to the circumstances 1 had mentioned, I was thanked for my candour, but the owner of the
horse thought there weie many important and accidental circumstances that might occur, both during
the operation, and in the after-treatment of an aged and valuable horse, which all the dexterity of a
country cutter might not lie able to cope with : and further, that if any thing adverse should happen,
he (the owner) should have nothing to blame himself for.' I went my journey, the horse was ope-
rated on, and fortunately had not an untoward symptom. From a non-professional hand I thought
this an excellent lesson ; and most certainly it well advocates the veterinarian's practice, by its
reference to these contingencies. Is the common cutter often a judge of the growth of a foal, so as
to be able to state the proper time for the operation ? Is he the lit person to give directions as to any
necessary preparation he may require, and particularly should the horse be full grown or aged ? Pro-
vided he'should nu-et with intestine as well as testicle in the scrotal bag, what would he do ? Or are
there adhesions, will he dissect them out? and should peritonitis threaten, or extensive outward in-
flammation follow, succeeded by abscesses and sinuous sores, is the case then in good hands? And
yet these and many other evils attend the operation when performed on the young even, and much
more frequently on the adult and aged. j ». v t.

• Hernia as a consequence of castration mav also occur hy the uncoverea operation, which, as
alreadv observed makes the scrotal sac and the abdominal cavity one continuous open hollow. It
is not to he wondered at. therefore, if the violent struggles of the animal should force a quantitv of
intcstMie through the rings into the scrotal hag. Should we be called on to operate on a horse w'hich
alreadv had hernia it is evident we ought not to proceed with it, unless the owner he apprised of the
risk and willing to abide by it, which a diseased state of testicle or uncontrollable vice might make
imperative In «ncb case f would recommend that the metliod of Girard be practised, i. e. to remove
the testicle and then to inclose the tunica vaginalis within the clams (sufficiently tigl't to retain them
and it, but not to produce death in the part) pushed high up against the abdominal ring, very care-
fuUv avnidinc to inclose anv portion of intestine in the operation When a discovery is made of the
existence of hernia n/^-r (in opening has been alronriy made the co»imnn purposes of cas-
tration would the operator continue his process, and castrate? I should say, In; no means; b"t on
the contrary I wo.^^^ greatly prefer the method recommended by Mr. Percivall, to firmly unite the
lips of the external wound bv the quill suture, allowing the testicle itself to assist ,n blocking up
fe nas ge with a hope also that the indammation proi^uced hy the excision might altogether step
p tl e smrt'al communication with the abdomen. But in the appalling case ot immense pro rusion
fintc-tine what is to be done? I would here advise the junior practitioner not to lose l is self-
oisess ut to CO nmand himself, and while he is energetic in endeavours to relieve that he keep ,
r, m I d as f er=^ po^^ from fright and despair ; and above all not to shew what he dreads
Mr C "man In «uch a case, proposes to make an opening into the abdomen near the umbilicus, la ge
enough tr n\ odu e the hand, and draw in the bowels. Mr. Percivall would prefer dilating the
eXnnI rinrhnt wbic from vvbnt I have observed I fear would fail, though in some cases it might
lift el wi b^ncm IB ^o : hut the testicle must be very lirmly retained, and even permanent v

fixed at ,1 the latcd howels would again descend. The intestines probably would

1,ecomc^ late l ii im^^ I «'Ould certainly puncture by the finest possible I'"<nt : I

wonlTtl e e ..cavolir Trl rW»r«'them, as directed in wounds t''%»''t'rL'Xm In^ M «kar^^^^
succeeding, \ would then pursue Mr. Coleman's method, and endeavour to retain them byM.t.irard s

j'lan.

CASTRATION.

551

and produce abscess or poll-evil. When his exertions have tired Inm, lie may-
be then led to the operating spot : here his attention should be engaged while
the hobbles are piat on, if possible ; if not, a long and strong cart-rope, having
its middle portion formed into a noose sufficiently large to take in the head and
neck, is to be slipped on, with the knotted part applied to the counter or breast,
and the long pendant ends passed backwards between the fore legs, and, as
expressed by Mr. Percivall, ' extended obliquely backward, carried round the
hind fetlocks within the hollows of the heels, brought forward again on the out-
side, passed under the collar-rope, and a second time carried backward on the
outer side of all, and extended to its full length in a direct line behind the ani-
mal.' Thus fettered, Mr. Percivall says his hind feet may be drawn under him
towards the elbows ; I have, however, often found that, at the moment the rope
touches the heels, the colt either kicks and displaces the rope, or altogether
displaces himself; but his attention can generally be engaged by one fore leg
being held up, or by having his ear or muzzle rubbed, or even by the twitch :
if not, the rope may be carried actually around each fetlock, which then be-
comes a hobble ; and this rope may be gradually tightened : in this way I have
succeeded with very refractory colts ; but it requires very able assistants, and,
if possible, the man who has been used to the individual colt should be present.
In either way, as soon as the rope is fixed, with a man to each end of it behind
the colt, let them, by a sudden and forcible effort in concert, approximate his
hind legs to his fore, and thus throw him. Before the colt is cast,_ however, it
should be endeavoured to ascertain that he is free from hernia : with an adult
horse this is even more necessary.

Being satisfied that no hernia exists on either side, proceed to east the horse,
turning him, not directly on the leftside, but principally inclining that way;
and if possible let the croup be very slightly elevated: it is usual to place him
directly flat on the left side, but I have found the above rather most convenient.
Next secure the near hind leg with a piece of hempen tackle, having a running
noose, or, in default of this not being at hand, make use of the flat part of a
hempen halter, which should for safety be put on before the hobble of that leg
is removed, as may be readily done if the hobbles having shifting or screw D's,
as described in casting, are made use of. A left-handed operator would incline
the horse to the right side, which is a caution of Hurtrel d'Arboval's, and a
very good one ; for I once saw a young left-handed practitioner, who, not
choosing to depart from the usual rule, was rendered very awkward by the cir-
cumstance, exactly in the same way as the young accoucheur feels himself, both
being thus fettered by the sinister side of his patient, when a little promptitude
on the part of both would convince them that, if their practice was right, the
use of the most convenient side could not be wrong. Every requisite being at
hand, and as Hurtrel d'Arboval, with his usual minuteness observes, the ope-
rator, having his scalpel between his teeth, should place himself behind the
horse, as the most convenient way to perform his manipulations, and firmly
grasping the left testicle with his left hand*, and drawing it out so as to render
the scrotum tense, he should make an incisionf lengthways of the bag, from
its anterior to its posterior part, or, as expressed by Hurtrel d'Arboval, in the
direction of the grand axis of the organ. The incision may be carried at once
through the integuments, the thin dartos expansion, and the vaginal coat of the
testicles, by the dexterous operator, with a sweep of the scalpel: but with one

• This part of the opci ation is somotiinns rcnrlpred rntlinr difficult by tlio force with wliich tlio cre-
mastcr muscle retracts tlic gland towaid« tlie abdomen; to remedy vvliicb Hurtrel d'Arboval recom-
mends tapping bis sheath or penis, striking bis nose or lips slightly with a whip, which diverting bis
attention, allows the testicle to be drawn towards the operator. Mr. Percivall says, to avoid this
great resistance, the testicle and its coverings may be included between the clams; and certainly,
when these are not injuriously pressed, this must he the best method.

■f Some operators prefer the lieated iron for this purpose, on the principle that it prevents the (low
of blood from the scrotum from obstructing the view of the after-operations. The cauterized wound,
it must be observed, inflames most, and is longest in healing ; and if we could snp))Ose the inflamma-
tion might prove a derivative one, it would certainly lessen the tendency to one deeper seateil and
more important, as that of peritouitis, &c., as well also as it obviates any fear of partial union of the
divided scrotal edges by adhesive inflammation, which does occasionally occur. I u niy own practice
I have always used the knife ; and I should certaiiily recommend it in preference to the other.

552

CASTRATION.

less au fait at the operation, it will be more prudent to make the first incision
through the scrotum and dartos only, to the required extent, and then to do
the same by the vaginal coat, thus avoiding to wound the testicle, which would
produce violent resistance, and give unnecessary pain. We however take this
opportunity of noting, tliat cases have occurred when the tunica vaginalis was
divided no testicle followed ; firm adhesions between this tunic and the tunica
albuginca having retained it fast. In such case the scalpel must be employed
to free the testicle. See a case of this kind noted in the first vol. of The Veteri-
narian, p. 275. When no such obstruction occurs, the testicle, if the opening
be sufficiently large, will slip out ; but the operator must be prepared at the
moment of so doing to expect some violent stragglings, more particularly if he
attempts to restrain the contractions of the cremaster, and by main force to
draw out the testicle. Preparatory to this, therefore, the twitch should be tight-
ened ; the attendants, especially the man at the head, must be on the alert ;
and the testicle itself, at the time of this violent retraction of the cremaster,
should be merely held, but not dragged in opposition to the contraction, other-
wise peritonitis itself might be the result from any such violence. If the clam.s
have been put on over the whole, according to Mr. PercivaU's method, they will
assist in retaining the retracting parts ; but I must again offer a caution, that
they be not used with too much pressure. The resistance having subsided,
provided the clams have been thus employed, they must now be removed ; or,
if they have not been previously in use, they must now be taken in hand, and,
being wadded with tow, should be placed loosely on the cord, while time is
given to free the vas defei-ens, or spermatic tube, which is seen continued from
the epididymis, from the grip of the pincers. The Russians, Mr. Goodwin in-
forms us, cut it through when they operate. Ilurtrel d'Arboval does not note
it in the French practice ; but humanity is much concerned in its removal from
pressure, from the excess of pain felt when it is included. It it also necessary,
before the final fixing of the clams, to determine on the part where the division
of the cord is to .take place. To use Mr. PercivaU's words, ' If - it be left too
long, it is apt to hang out of the wound afterwards, and retard the process of
union indeed, I have known the end of it swell into a fungous excrescence,
which greatly embarrassed the practitioner to destroy : on the other hand, if it
be cut very short, and the arteries happen to bleed afresh after it has been re-
leased from the clams, the operator will find it no easy task to recover it from
the retraction of the cremaster. The natural length of the cord, which will
mainly depend on the degree of the descent of the gland, will be our best guide
in this particular. The place of section determined on and marked, close the
clams sufficiently tight to retain firm hold of the cord, and to effectually stop
the circulation within it. There are now two modes of making the division :
the one is to sever it with a scalpel, and then to sufficiently sear the end of it so
as to prevent a flow of blood, avoiding, however, to burn it to a cinder, as is
sometimes done. The other, and in some respects the preferable method, is
to employ an edged firing-iron, which is to divide it by little crucial sawings, so
that, when the cord is separated, it shall not present a uniform divided surface,
but ragged edges, which will moi-e perfectly destroy the mouths of the vessels,
and tend to lessen the chances of haemorrhage. This done, loosen the clams
sufficiently to observe whether there be any flow of blood ; gently wipe the end
of the cord also with the finger, as sometimes an accidental small plug gets
within the vessel, which afterwards is forced out, and therefore had better be
removed by this means and at this time. Retain a hold on the clams a few mi-
nutes longer ; and while loosening them gradually, observing to have an iron in
readiness again to touch the end of the cord, if any blood make its appearance.
Satisfied on this point, sponge the parts with cold water, but by no nieaus. dash
it over them, as has been done ; neither is any external application necessary,
still less any resin seared on the end of the cord, which can only irritate and
will never adhere. On the after-treatment much difference of opinion has ex-
isted, and even yet exists. The powerful evidence of accumulated facts has
now convinced veterinarians of both the necessity and propriety of some motion

CASTRATION. 553

for the newly castrated horse as a preventive of local congestion : such practice
is common in most countries but our own, and seems salutary in all. liurtrel
il'Arboval, thus impressed, recommends the horse, immediately after the ope-
ration to be led out to walk for an hour, and it is a general plan in France to
walk such horses in hand an hour night and morning. Mr. Goodwin, in proot
of its not being hurtful, informs us that whole studs of horses brought to
St Petersburgh to be operated on, are immediately traveUed back a certain
portion of the distance, night and morning, until they arrive at home. 1 have,
tliercfore, no hesitation in recommending a moderate degree of motion in pre-
ference to absolute rest, as practised among us : it is a plan which has long been
followed with success among our own cutters ; and perhaps our not adopting
it before has arisen from prejudice against whatever was practised by ilhterate
persons, without reflecting that, illiterate as they are, then- employers are not
all so ; and that unless success attended their practices, they would cease to be

''™T7ie FreKc/t method of castration is advocated by Mr. Goodwin; and it is suf-
ficient that it receives his recommendation to entitle it to the attention of the
veterinary world ; and it is rendered the more so, as he observes on the method
in general use among us, ' that the operation performed by the actual cautery
always induces, more or less, symptoms that often become alarming ; and that
it cannot be performed on the adult without incurring more swelhng and severer
symptoms than attend any other method of operation. If I ever use the actual
cautery, it is for the sake of expedition, and then only on a yeai-hng, or a two-
vear old; but I am resolved never to employ it again on an adult. These ob-
servations, as emanating from such a source, must be deemed important, and, in
attempting a description of the most ehgible methods, I should not fulfil what is
due to this reputed author and practitioner, as well as to those who are likely to
be improved bv his account of it and his remarks on it, were I not to give it
somewhat in detail. Mr. Goodwin first offers the description of the French
method of operating from liurtrel d'Arboval. ' Castration by means of the
clams is the method in general use, if not the only one now employed; it is the
most ancient, since it M'as recommended by Hieroclius among the Greeks. It
is performed in two ways, the testicle being covered or uncovered. In the for-
mer, the scrotum alone, formed by the skin and dartos muscle, is cut through,
and the testicle is brought out by tearing through the laminated tissue which
unites the scrotum with the tunica vaginalis ; and the clam is then placed above
the epididymis, outside the peritoneal covering, on the cord. In the "uncovered
ojicration, the incision is made through the serous capsule of the testicle; the
tunica vaginalis being cut through, the testicle presents itself, and the clam is
placed well above the epididymis, on the cord. Some persons recommend the
epididymis to be left under the clams, with a view of the animal's keeping his
strength and vigour: in young subjects this may be done without inconvenience,
hut in older it is often the cause of mischief. The operation, performed in either
way, requires us to provide ourselves with a scalpel, a pair of clams, a pair of
long pincers, made purposely to bring the ends of the clams together, and some
waxed string. The clams may be made of different kinds of wood, but the elder
is, nevertheless, the best, and generally made use of. To make a clam, we pro-
cure a branch of old and dry elder, whose diameter should be about an inch, and
whose length should be from five to six inches: of course, the dimensions must
at all times be proportioned to the size of the, chord we have to operate on. At
the distance of half an inch from each end, a small niche, sufficiently deep to
hold the string, must be made, and then the wood should be sawed through the
iin'ddle lengthways. Each end of the clam should be planed, so as to facilitate
the opening of them, cither when we are about to place them or to take them
off. The pith of the wood is then to be taken out, and the hollow should be
filled with a paste made of corrosive sublimate and flour, mixed with sufficient
water to form it. Some persons are not in the habit of using any caustic what-
ever, and, of course, the scooping out of the inside of the clamis not necessary:
notwithstanding, the caustic, inasmuch as it produces a speedier dissolution of

OO'* CASTRATION.

the parts, must be useful, and ouglit not to be neglected.' The addition of the
caustic,_ however, Mr. Goodwin objects to with great reason, remarking, that
unless It be a very strong one, and necessarily dangerous to employ, it cannot
be ot any use to parts compressed and deprived of circulation and life. He fur-
ther mforms us that he has operated in six cases in succession with the same
effect, without any escharotic matter whatever. An experimental case of Mr
PercivaU's terminated fatally: by the use of caustic the cord was greatly in-
flamed, as high as the ring, and which unquestionably produced the unfortunate
result. ' The covered operation,' continues Mr. Goodwin, ' is the one that I am
about to advocate, and which differs only inasmuch, that the scrotum and dartos
muscle must_ be cautiously cut through, without dividing the tunica vaginahs.
It was Monsieur Berger who was accidentally at my house when I was about to
castrate a horse, and who, on my saying that I should probably do it with the
cautery, expressed his surprise that I should perform the operation in any other
way than on the plan generally approved of in France. Being a stranger to it,
he kindly consented to preside at the operation, and, after seeing him perform
on the near testicle, I did the same on the right, but of course not with the same
facility as Berger. After opening the scrotum, and dissecting through the dartos,
which is very readily done by passing the knife lightly over its fibres, the testicle,
and its covering the tunica vaginalis, must be taken in the right hand, while the
left should be employed in pushing back the scrotum from its attachments; and,
having your assistant ready, as before, with the clam, it must be placed well above
the epididjTnis, and greater pressure is, of course, necessary, as the vaginal cover-
ing is included in the clam*.

Castration by excision of the testicle has also been practised in the same man-
ner as it is done in the human subject ; but so performed in the horse, there is
a tendency to propagate inflammation through the rings into the abdomen, and
they frequently die of peritonitis. Mr. Cline lost two valuable carriage-horses
which he operated on himself in this way, and this result is so common, that
Mr. Bell notices it in his Lecturesf. Mr. Goodwin observes, however, that in
Russia he has seen hundreds of horses operated on this way safely; and he re-

• Such is the acoiint of this mpthod offered by Mr. Goodwin ; and he follows it by a very candid
statement of its disadvantages, and its cases of failure both with himself and with others, but which
ends in his preferring the close or covered method, from a consideration of the liability which the
common operation incurs, of occasioning an irreducible escape of intestine from the unnatural position
the animal is trussed in, and the violent efforts of the abdominal muscles at such times; an accident
which, to his knowledge, has occurred in several instances to very able practitioners, when fatal con-
sequences were the result. ' It is the knowledge," continues Mr. G., ' of several cases that have
terminated fatally, through the escape of intestine, and particularly in race horses, that has chiefly
induced me to prefer the close or covered operation. Mr. Jewell lost a valuable race horse of
Mr. Vansittarfs. Crown Prince had an accident of a similar nature occur to him when operated on
by a Mr. Atherton, of Liverpool. Mr. Kield can best inform you of the case of Leopold, a horse
belonging to the late Duke of York; and Lord Kilbourne's Reviewer lost his life last year in a
similar way ' Huitrel d'Arboval's opinion of the close operation is as follows : 'Castration, by the
close operation, is more expeditious, and for this reason is, no doubt, preferred by a great many
practitioners. This mpthod has its advantages as well as disadvantages. It is less painful, and docs
not expose the animal to a hernia, which is but of too frequent occurrence in well-bred horses, that
are consequently irritable, and make violent efforts during the operation, It facilitates the placing of
tlie clam well above the epididymns, a circumstance that is important, for pressure on it Is almost sure
to produce subsequent disease in the cord. On the other hand, this operation is more liable to be t/ie
cause of tetanus, and of peritoneal inflamwation ; and the substance of the cremaster muscle
prevents the compression being made effectually. Nevertheless, we find practitioners who, having
operated in this manner, and without accident, upon thousands of horses, according to their asscitions
at least, do not hesitate to affirm, that castration by the close operation is less dangerous, and merits
the pre-eminence which their experience accords to it.' On these objections of Hurtrcl d'Arboval
Mr. Goodwin remarks, and with much apparent justice, that he cannot imagine why tetanus should
occur more frequently after the covered than tlie uncovered operation; and pressure certainly may be
made as eflicient, if our instruments arc well adapted for the purpose, in this operation as in the other ;
for, in fact, there is but one objection that, I think, has the least foundation for our consideration, or
rather our experience, which is, the statement that peritoneal injiammation is often the conse-
quence of it."

+ ' Fatal Inflamraation is apt to ensue by castrating horses after the method practised by human
surgeons : the reason is, that the peritoneal coat, that coat which the testicle carries down with it, in
the human subject closes and degenerates into cellular texture, but in the horse it Is open, and there-
fore you see the difficulty of that operation. In the case of the horse, in cutting off the testicle you
open the cavity of the abdomen, but you open it in a small extent, yet that extent is sufHcient to
create inflammation ; being once inllatned, that inflammation going on, passes, from the sympathy
I have alluded to, over the whole of the surface of the peritoneum, and destroys the creature.' —
Lancet, No. 207.

LITHOTOMY.

555

marks it certainly produces less pain, the animal loses less flesh and condition,
and is sooner recovered than when operated on by the actual cautery. _

CastraHon by ligature, called among ferriers and breeders twitching, is a painful,
barbarous, and very dangerous practice : and consists in enclosing the testicles
and scrotum within a ligature until mortification occurs and they drop ott. It is
practised by some breeders on their young colts, but it is always hazardous, and
disc^racefully cruel. The substance of the testicle in some countries is also broken
down either by rubbing, or otherwise by pressure between two hard bodies: this
is practised in Algiers instead of excision, and tetanus is a frequent consequence
of it Lastlv, I would notice the simple division of the vas deferens, which has
been performed, it is said, with success on many animals, and is proposed as _a
safe and less painful process for the emasculation of the horse. It consists in
a lono-itudinal section, with reference to the horse when cast, through the scro-
tum, dartos, and vaginal sheath, so as to expose the cord, from which the vas
deferens is to be separated and severed. I should be inchned to view this m
the same light as the retention of the epididymis to retain the spirit, i. e. the
vice, for so it proves. There is a certain consent of parts by which the sympa-
thy of an organ remains after its functional offices are apparently destroyed: the
hmnan castrati has erection, can copulate by the additamentary secretions from
the prostates and vesiculse seminales ; and I make little doubt but the nervous
excitement would continue, in a certain degree, were any portion of the testicle
to remain. There are certain nice conditions of the organ necessary for propa-
gation ; thus the horse who retains his testicles within his abdomen, possesses
all the riggish qualities of him with one perfectly evolved: he is lustful, and can
cover, but°is seldom fruitful. Of the morbid consequences of castration I have
little to say: by early evacuations, green food, a loose box, a cool air, moderate
clothing, but particularly bv walking exercise, swellings of the parts may be pre-
vented: if not, bleed and foment; and should suppuration follow, and sinuses
form, treat as directed under those heads; and should there arise tetanic symp-
toms, refer to that article.

LITHOTOMY.

Although there are a few instances on early record wherein this operation
was successfully performed on the horse, and some within our own times, yet,
until that which engaged Mr. Sewell's attention appeared, the veterinary public
had not seemed interested in it. I have already treated on vesical calculi, where
I made much use of the learned Parisian professor's valuable memoir, as it ap-
pears under review in The Veteinnarian. I now draw on it again as the most
accredited source of information on all abstruse points in our surgery. Hurtrel
d'Arboval's account of the progress of Uthotomy in veterinary practice com-
mences in 1774, although we are led to suppose it had been once previously
practised. This second case was successfully operated on by Mons. Del: in
1794, Pomcelot; in 1808, M. Bouley; and at other periods, Texier, Girard, Le
Gay, Verrier, and Segala, have also performed it. ' In monodactyles there are
two methods of operating for the stone, one through the rectum, the other
through the bladder. The first, which consists in laj'ing open the bladder by
a longitudinal incision made through the parietes of the part of the rectum ad-
herent to it, by means of a straight bistourj', is easily practised, but in its con-
sequences is dangerous in the extreme: in fact, it is an operation never to be
adopted but in a case where the magnitude of the stone precludes its extraction
through the neck of the bladder. In all other cases, hthotomy by the urethra
is to be pursued. For its performance are required, a straight long-bladed bis-
toury, a fluted sound, and a pair of forceps curved at the extremities. _ The ani-
mal should, if practicable, be maintained in the erect posture. It is a good
preparative, inasmuch as it facilitates the operation (though not absolutely a
necessary one), to distend the urethra with warm water. This being done, and
the tail jjlaited and carried round on the right quarter, the _ operator makes an
incision from above downwards, an inch and a half to two inches in length, on

556 TllACHEOTOMV.

one side of the curvature of the urethra, opposite to the ischial arch. Next he
pushes the pouit of the bistoury into the uretln-a, making a small opening
through which he uitroduces the sound, and passes it onward into the bladder
JNow, placing the back of the bistoury within the groove of the sound, by ghdine
the knife forwards, the pelvic portion of the urethra, and also the neck of the
bladder, become slit open; the latter in two places, in consequence of a second
cut being made m withdrawing the bistoury. The opening made being consi-
dered of sufficient dimensions, the operator introduces the forceps into tlie
bladder, and seizes the calculus in the direction of its long axis, which he as-
certams by the other hand within the rectum. The forceps clasping the stone
are now to be withdrawn, but with gentleness, and with a vacillating sort of
niovement of the hand from side to side, in order more easily to surmount any
difficulties in the passage, and the more effisctually to avoid contusion or lacera-
tion.'_ Here the ingenious reviewer remarks, ' The warm water is intended as a
substitute for the whalebone rod which we pass into the urethra; and we are
inclined to augur favourably of the practice, as far as we can estimate it on
paper : to say the least of it, it is worth a trial, the introduction of the rod
being, now and then, an affiiir of no small difficulty.' To proceed, however,
with the operation by incision, M. Girard tells us, ' That the cut through the
pelvic portion of the urethra ought always to be made obliquely to one side ;
tliat the operator should hold his bistoury in that direction, that its cutting
edge be turned towards the angle of the thigh. By this procedure we shall gain
easier access to the bladder, and not only avoid wounding the rectum, but also
the artery of the bulb, as well as the bulb itself, and suspensory ligaments of
the penis.' The parts cut through in the operation are, ' 1st, the fine thin ,ihi7i
of the perineum, smooth externally, and marked with the raphe ; densely cellular
internally : 2dly, adhering to the skin, the faschial covering, derived from the
faschia superficialis abdominis, which is here become fibrous: it forms the com-
mon envelope to the parts underneath, and is closely connected with the corpus
musculosum urethrae : 3dly, the corpus musculosum iiretlira, that penniform band
of fleshy fibres which springs by two branches from the ischiatic tuberosities
embracing the sphincter ani, and concealing the arteries of the bulb ; whence
they unite, and proceed to envelope the urethra: 4thly, the corpus spongiosum
urethra;, the part immediately covered by the muscular envelope, and which
here is bulbous. It is more particularly worthy our remark, from two arteries
penetrating it, which come from without the pelvis, ascending obliquely outward
to reach the bulb; 5thly, //«e suspensory ligaments of the penis, pursuing the
course of, and adhering to, the tendinous union of the accelerators.' ' An at-
tention to the relative position of these parts,' says the translator, ' will demon-
strate the advantages of the lateral oblique incision over one made directly along
the raphe : by pursuing the latter, we necessarily cut through the suspensory
ligaments and into the bulb, wounding thereby the arteries; whereas, by the
former, all this danger is avoided, besides that it renders the operation more
simple and facile.'

TRACHEOTOMY.

Cases occur in veterinary practice when this operation is required ; as in
strangles, when the tuniours threaten suffocation, or when any substance has
remained unswallowed in the esophagus, the pressure of which obstructs re-
spiration. In a distressing case of gunpowder bursting immediately under a
horse's nose, the effects of which tumefied his mouth and nostrils, so as to pre-
sent free inspiration, the animal owed his life entirely to my excising a portion
from the tracheal rings, about six inches below the angle of the throat. The
operation is a very simple one, and may consist either in a longitudinal section
made througli two or three of the rings ; or a portion, occupying about an inch
square, may be excised from the anterior cartilaginous substance, and wliich
latter is by far the best method : the integuments should be first divided in
front of the neck three or four inches below the obstruction, and the iutegu-

ESOPHAGOTOMY. 557

mental section should be sufficiently long to allow of their beuig rctauied back
bv a hook to each side, to which tape should be attached and tied on the crest
of the neck above. This is however only to be pursued when the obstruction is
likely to remain but a few days : when a more lengthened one is probable, a
tube adapted to the size of the trachea must be introduced, having an acute
turn and a projecting rim, which must furnish holes for the adaptation ot tapes
to secure it around the neck*. The operation has been also performed in cases
of roariiia-, under an idea of dividing the stricture which impeded respiration ;
but unles°s the exact situation of this were discovered, it would be but an un-
certain attempt. When an opening is made into the upper part of the trachea,
or larynx, it is called laryngofoimj ; which is not quite so simple an operation,
but is fortunately very seldom requisite. It consists in dividing the integu-
ments exactly opposite the cartilaginous box of the larynx, so as to bring the
cricothyroid ligament into view, which should be sufficiently divided either to
remove any offijnding substance, or otherwise to admit a respiratory tube.

ESOPHAGOTOMY.

It was long thought that a wound in the esophagus must be necessarily fatal,
but we have now sufficient proofs to the contrary on record, so that we are not
deterred from cutting into the esophageal tube when it is necessary ; but only
when it is absolutely so, for it is an operation requiring skill and anatomical
knowledge; and its future results are also often very troublesome, sometimes
very serious. The cases that call for esophagotomy are the lodgement of ac-
cidental substances within it. An apple once so lodged was removed by incision
by a veterinay surgeon at Windsor. Carrots, parsneps, beet, &c., are liable to
produce such obstruction when not sliced. Too large a medicinal mass also
has lodged there ; and a voracious eater has, by attempting to swallow too large
a quantity of insalivated bran or chaff, produced an obstruction which has so
pressed on the trachea as to threaten suffocation. Esophagotomy is also called
for by stricture of the tube, a case of which, very judiciously and successfully
treated by Mr. Cheetham, V.S., is detailed in the 3d vol. of The Veterinarian.
In all cases of obstruction of this kind we will suppose that a probang well
oiled has been previously attempted to be passed, and has completely failed.
The operation determined on may be practised either when cast or when stand-
ing : I should prefer casting the horse, from the necessary caution required in
dissecting among such important vicinages, in which case the choice of side to
lay him on, will depend on the case. As the esophagus is known to incline
somewhat to the left side of the neck, tjie common choice would be the right
side ; but when an obstructing mass protruded itself mostly towards the right
side, it would be bad surgery to open the tube but on that side. We will,
however, suppose the horse cast on the right side, with the muzzle part of the
head rather extended, but not sufficiently to produce any flexure of the neck.
It will also be necessary to command a good light. The part of the neck chosen
for the opening must of course be governed by the obstructing mass ; but should
circumstances not dictate any precise spot, about the centre of the cervical
region is a proper one, the proximity to the thorax lessening the difficulties and
the dangers. A section should be made through the integuments and cellular
tissue, at the inner border of the trachea, carrying it within the track of the
jugular to the extent of between three and four inches. An assistant should
now hold separate the integuments, and at the same time slightly compress the
jugular, which by enlarging it will render it less likely to be wounded. The

• Moderately stout leather, such as is used for calf-skin soles for l.-vdies' slices, might be sewn into
a tubular form, and polished smooth without ; and also be fUtod with a piece of horn. a< tlie angular
portion to adapt to Uie external orifice. Leatlier would lie pliant, and less lil<cly to irntate than any
metal. The powder puffs of former times, which exhibited a leiitliern tubular case stretched around a
spiral wire, would also furnish an idea for a flexible tube of this kind. An ingenious mechanician
might also in two or Ihiee hours make an clastic gum tul»c, similar to the elastic gum catheter, but
of a size nearly equal to the tiacliea.

• NEUROTOMY,
tissues met with in the large space intended for the enlargement of the eso-
phagus during the passage of food are to be dissected through, within which
district he the carotid artery and numerous lesser arterial ranfifications The
recurrent nerve passes between the carotid artery and trachea: about the middle
of the neck, and nearly in the same vicinage, passes the par vagum on each
side. 1 he pulsa ion of the carotid will guide the practitioner as he approaches
that vessel, and that wiU enable him to steer clear of the nerves, and, by care-
tuUy letting his assistant sponge the parts as he makes each light section with
his scalpel, he may reach the esophagus with safety; whicli being done, pass
under It a crochet or any hook-like matter, as a bent horn, which will further
bring It to view for a longitudinal incision through its muscular and cuticular
tunics. Ihe end gained for which the opening was made, is it or is it not to
be lett open ? There are different opinions on this subject : I should prefer
closing It up, from the danger of forming sinuses by the escape of the aliments
taken in ; and it may be closed either by the interrupted suture, as directed in
the last edition, or in preference by a number of small contiguous ligatures
each having, instead of a common knot, a small piece of tow, &c , by which a
pressure would be kept up favourable to union, and preventive of the escape of
the knot by ulceration. The after-treatment should be, to interdict all dry
food; thick gruel may be horned down, or will probably be taken voluntarily, on
which the animal should subsist for three, four, or five days. If the condition
appears to suffer much, allow malt mashes, and when so doing watch the wound;
and if the matters taken in are seen to coze out, wash them away frequenth'
with warm water, to prevent lodgement, which might encourage sinuses to form;
and after each washing syringe with some very mild stimulant, as a weak solu-
tion of sulphate of zinc {white vitriol), &e. &c.

Paracentesis Thoracis (see page 393).
Paracentesis Abdominis (see page 396).

NEUROTOMY,

OB DIVISION OF THE METACARPAL AND PXANTAR NERVES.

That this operation did not at first engage much attention in France oc-
casions some wonder, when we consider the readiness with which this enter-
prizing people lay hold of and enlarge on any real improvement ; and it can
only be accounted for by the want of success which attended the operation
on Its entrance there. Heinian, a horse-dealer, was one of the first who prac-
tised it, which he did on his own horses ; and by an improper selection of cases
he unhoofed as well as uimerved most of those he experimented on. It was
tried also at both the Alfort and Lyons veterinary schools, but made no ground
at either ; and it is asserted, that it was never publicly mentioned by any of
their professors except by M. Iluzard, jun., when reviewing the last edition of
the Veterinary Outlines. Even Hurtrel d'Arboval, whose industry collects
from every quarter, is entirely silent on a practice now so frequent and so no-
torious here. As M. Berger, however, through the medium of the Journal
Pratique, has published an account of what he saw during a visit to this country -
three or four years ago, when the opportunities afforded him were considerable,
as well as of his own subsequent experiments from which a favourable result
ensued, we may suppose it will not long thus remain unpractised by them ;
wliich appears the more Hkely, as M. Dupuy also acknowledges its merits. Our
neighbours, like ourselves, have been led into a fear of the effects of the opera-
tion on the vitality of the foot, apprehending that by dividing the plantar nerves
they should cut off all the pedal supplies, arterial as well as nervous, and conse-
quently that they should render the foot an inorganic and useless mass, which
must necessarily then fall off. And the cases of failure which followed in such
quick succession from its improper application, tended to confirm them in their

NEUROTOMY. 559

suspicions, and to prevent any extensive or even fair trials of it afterwards.
Well as the French physiologists understand the anatomy and functional cha-
racters of the nerves, great as was the avidity with which the new doctrines were
received by them, they never appeared to have apphed them to this subject ;
and while they fully recognised the great features of the new system, which
divided the nerves into three separate and distinct kinds, as those of sensation,
those of motion, and the ganglionic or nutritive, yet they seem not from thence
to have considered, that, in the case of neurotomy, the one might be severed
without other loss than that of feeling ; while it was an interference with the
other which alone could produce a destruction of the structure of the loot.
Distinctly as this was known and acted on with us, yet the native acuteness ot
our nei<^hbours appears here to have failed them, and thus they have been led
to totaUy condemn the practice of neurotomy from confined views, and by the
want of success of a few experiments conducted on wrong principles. Terhaps
we ought not, however, to be surprised at this ; for it was long before we also
were fully sensible of its benefits, although brought before us nearly thirty years
ago - on the contrary, we also allowed the plan to fall into a long and deep
sleep • and exactly the same reasons have influenced both us and them, because
neither had informed themselves on the rationale of its action, and because both
attributed the cases of failure which occurred, not to occasional causes, but to
the principles, which operated on the whole. I weU remember on my first in-
troduction to Mr. Moorcroft, by my old friend Bloxam, at that time residing with
hun, that a very principal subject of our conversation was, his experiments on
the feet, particularly as regarded rendering such as were incurable more service-
able by making them less sensitive ; which he had been before attempting by tying
up the pastern arteries, but was now employed in dioiding the nerves of the same
part. I equally well remember then detaiHng to hun the series of experiments
on which I had been engaged with the late ingenious Dr. Haighton, on the
reproductive power of nerves (see note, p. 162), by which incised portions be-
came first re-united, and next capable of transmitting the nervous influence as
before. How far his future views or practice might have been influenced by
these facts, I am not aware*. Previous to entering further on the operation of

• When we compare the originality of the idea and the boldness of the measure of dividing the
nerves as a remedy for lameness, witli the then confined state of our knowledge of the separate func-
tions we cannot but lament that circumstances should have removed such a man as IVIr. Moorcroft
to a climate whose enervating induenre was calculated to repress that ardour for research which had
characterised his early days. If he did so much when his views of these organs were thus limited,
what might not have been expected of him, had he been then in possession of our present knowledge
on the subject? for a reference to his interesting and explanatory letter, in the year 1819, gives full
reason to suppose that even then the distinction between nerves of sensation, motion, and nutrition,
was not familiar to him. That his early experiments were wholly made under different views is
apparent from his whole letter ; but which is, nevertheless, a most instructive one, and full of
practical truths, as well as valuable infeiences. Its intent is evidently to establish his claim to the
discovery of neurotomy ; which he commences by informing us, that twenty years ago (his letter is
dated 1819) he had been sedulously attempting to detect the cause of lameness in the fore feet of
horses, which was so frenueut and so destructive, and which it had been formerly common to
attribute to an affection of the shoulder, hut more lately to simple contraction of the hoof; to which
Mr. Moorcroft admits he was more instrumental than consisted with future experience; 'for this
experience,' to use his own words, ' shewed, that although the removal of the contraction, in some
instances wholly removed the lameness, in others it totally failed. In some cases it appeared, that a
contracted state of the foot was itself an effect of other injury, though when existing in a great
degree it tended to increase the lameness. The removal of contraction was effected by more than one
process; but no process was found capable of removing, permanently, certain kinds of lameness.
On dissecting feet affected witli these lamenesses, the flexor tendon was now and then observed to
have been broken partially or entirely, but more commonly to have been bruised and inflaured in its
course under the navicular or shuttle-bone, or at its insertion into the bone of the foot. Sometimes,
altliough seldom, the navicular bone itself has be< n found to have been fractured: at others its
surface has been seen deprived of its usual coating, and studded with projecting points or ridges of
new growth, or exhiliiting superficial excavations more or less extensive. It is ircknowledged that
those parts which, in their healthy state are endued with a low degree of sensibility, are greatly
tenacious of sensibility when excited beyond a certain point. A man with a bruised or inllamed
tendon cair place it, wherever situated, in astute of rest favourable to the dispersion of inllamrna-
lion; but this is irnt the case with the horse when the llexor tendon of his fore foot has bcerr injuicd
and inflamed, for this tendon not only supports, passively, a certain proportion of the weight when
the animal is standing and at rest, but actively, whenever the limb is put into the slightest motion ;
and the horse cannot possibly place the tendon in a state of repose and inactivity, except during the
time he lies on the ground, and it is subject to pressure, invariably, both in his lying down and
getting up. This constant exposure to pressure, in addition to the nature of the parts injured,

560

NEUROTOMY,

neurotomy, we will review the sources of the phenomena by ^vhich it acts in
lessening sensihility without destroying mohility or nilality. A reference to the
physiology of the nervous system will shew that there are three varieties of
nerves furnished from the brain ; that two of them are commonly found united
together in one rope, but yet remain unblended either in substance or office-
such are those destined to supply sensation or feeling, and those that influence
motion ; the third are the ganglial, whose office is the nutrition of parts : these
usually surround the bloodvessels in a reticular manner. These nerves are well
exhibited by a correct anatomical figure of the foot, and are characterised ac-
cording to their several and varied uses, by Mr. Youatt, in No. 4. of the Li-
brary of Useful Knowledge, p. Ill, to which we would recommend that due
attention be paid to understand the rationale of the operation and its cura-
tive eflfects. It is worthy of remark, that while nothing is wasted in the
body, nothing is withheld : these varieties of nerves are supplied wherever
they are wanted ; and as long as all these wants, as sensation and motion, re-
main in the same organ, the same nervous rope can furnish ramifications of each
kind. But when it so happens that either of these is unnecessary, that nothing
may be lost in the system, the nervous portion destined to that end is withheld.
On this simple view hangs the theory of the benefits derived from Neurotomy,
or the division of those very parts that heretofore were considered as the main
spring of all the vital supplies. If we examine the leg of the horse, we shall
find that the muscular structure, by which the motion of the limb is operated,
does not reach below the carpal bones of the knee : so far are the nervous ropes
of the part compounded of united fibres of ^ensation and motion, and no further.
They are now not wanted, and therefore are not given, biit the sensation of the
part is yet required, and therefore the continuation of the nervous rope is one
of sensation, but of sensation only. The nuti-iiion of the pan is carried on by
means of the ganglial nervous twigs, which surround the bloodvessels : these we
do not at all interfere with in our operation of neurotomy'.

To render this anatomically as well physiologically clear, let us trace these
nerves from their origin. The radial and ulnar branches, as being derived
from the axillary plexus, are necessarily compound nerves of motion and sen-
sation : as they descend along the radius (the former furnishing the inner, the
latter the outer metacarpal nerve), the motor portion of each is separated from
the sensitive, and are wholly spent on the muscles ; the metacarpal nerves, be-
ing now sensitive only, travel down on the inner and outer edges of the flexor
tendons, in company with the arteries and veins of the same name. Each me-
tacarpal nerve, be it particularly remarked, immediately previous to its pass-
ing over the fetlock-joint, gives off" a considerable ramus, which passes directly
in front of the foot, to furnish sensibility to the anterior parts of the organ.

renders itiHammation permanent, and prevents coffin-joint lameness receiving permanent relief. Tlic
horse, indeed, guided by liis feelings, relieves the tendon temporarily, in a degree, from pressure and
pain, by pusliing the foot forwards, raising the heel, and throwing a large portion of the weight of the
fore part of the body on the opposite or sound leg. By this expedient, however, the heels of the
diseased foot, through not being kept in action by the direct pressure of the limb, gradually approach
each other, and the foot becomes smaller on its outer circumference, and narrower and more hollow
on its lower surface ; whilst the fetlock joint of the opposite leg, distressed by an over-proportion of
weight, frequently inflames and thickens. Foiled in attempts to remove coffin-joint lameness, by
removing contraction through mechanical contrivance, modifications of temperature, and various
actions of medicated applications, I was led to consider some less usual mode of diminishing the
vital activity of the parts injured. It was remarked, on dissecting coffin-joints thus diseased, that
they were surrounded by a much greater proportion of bloodvessels, and that these were much
more distended with blood than the same vicinity of coffin-joints uninjured. It was determined,
therefore, to lessen the quantity and force of the biood supplied to a diseased coffin-joint, by tying at
tlie fetlock-joint one of the two arteries that carry blood to the foot; for by liaving tied one of the
carotid or large arteries of the neck, the progress of inflammation of the brain was arrested, and the
horse recovered ; and before I understood tlic principles on which the cure of the spongy sore in
the foot called canker ought to be conducted, I had tied a fetlock artery in view- of checking
immoderate discbarge of fluid, and with beneficial effect. One fetlock artery was accordingly tied in
several cases of coffin-joint lameness without any benefit. But as I had, in a single instance, tied
both the carotids in inflammation of the brain, and the horse recovered and was as useful as before Ihc
attack, I thought it justifiable to push the principle of diminishing the supply of the material of
inflammation as far as practicable in coffin-joint lameness, by tying both the inner and outer artery of
the fetlock. In no instance, however, were the horses subjected to this operation benefitted, but, on
tlie contrary, contraction of the foot seemed to be hastened thereby, and lameness to be proportionally
increased.'

NEUROTOMY. 561

From this it becomes evident, that, when we excise these nerves above the pas-
tern, we totally deprive the foot of sendUlity ; but when we do it from helow,
we leave sensation to the front of the foot, to the coronet, and lateral cartilages.
Thus, were we to operate for the rehef of ringbone, we should, without flvil, do
it above the pastern, otherwise we should not benumb the pain and tenderness
in the diseased part ; and from these mistakes have arisen many of the failures
'which have occurred : it has also happened, that, in some of these, the cause
being suspected, the operation was repeated below, when the desired insemi-
bilihj was produced, and removed the lameness. The mere division of the
nerve, without removing a portion, was the early practice, and led to unfa-
vourable results ; for in these cases the divided portions pour out a coagulable
matter, which hardens, becomes organized, and not only re-unites, but enables
the nerve again to transmit the phenomena of sensation as before *. As this
nervous power is usually regained in a few weeks, it follows, that horses thus
operated on become again lame ; and this, of course, tended to bring the ope-
ration into disrepute. Extended views and conclusive experiments led to the
separation of these divided ends beyond the reach of union, by altogether ex-
cising a portion of nerve of three-fourths of an inch in length. Such, however,
are the wonderful powers of re-production in the constitution, that even this
space has in every instance been filled up, and sensation has also returned in
most of them, at indefinite periods ; in some of which, the lameness has not
again appeared, a proof that, occasionally, it has a remedial effect. In most,
however, with sensation, lameness also returns : but a repetition of the opera-
tion again removes it; and, in some, sensation never re-appears j. It will there-
fore be evident, that valuable as is this discover^', it is yet a limited one, and
is confined to particular cases, while in some it is even prejudicial : it conse-
quently remains to inquire, what are these particular cases ? and here I much
fear our knowledge is yet more hmited than the operation ; for as we cannot look
into the foot, nor are there pathognomonic symptoms sufficient, in many cases,
to enable us to decide to what extent the ravages within have disorganized it,
or whether such processes of disorganization are still actively going on, it is
difiicult to mark the cases proper for it with any precision. There are particu-
lar cases of groggy lameness, where little more is seen without than partial con-

• ' It witl be seen from tliesc experiments, in the first place, that after a division of a nerve, the
extremities of the divided portions (retract) become enlarged and more vascnlur, liut especially the
upper portion ; and coagnlable lymph, having the appearance of white of egg, is elfiised, which soon
becomes vascular. In a few days the congulable lymph from each portion becomes united, and
anastomosis forms between the bloodvessels ; the coagulable lymph gradually assumes a firmer
texture, and the number of the bloodvessels diminishes, and the newly- formed sabstancc appears to
contract, like all other cicatrices, so as to bring the extremities of the divided portions nea er and
nearer to each other. It is difficult to detern)ine, from an experiment on the limb of an animal, tlie
exact time at which the nerve performs its functions. In eight weeks after the division of the sciatic
nerve, I have observed a rabbit to be in some degree Improved in the use of its leg, but at the end of
eighteen weeks it was not perfect. When the nerves of the leg of a horse have been divided just
above the foot, tliey are sufficiently restored to perform their functions, in a very great degree, in six
or eight weeks; but it must be observed that l/icse nerves iire only fnrincd fur sensation, and
it is very different with the nerves of voluntary motion.' ' Tlie re-union is sometimes accomplished
by granulations.' ' Secondly, I would observe, that punctures a id partial divisions of nerves heal
in the same way as when theie has been a total division ; and that on the lirst inllletion of the wounds
the functions of the nerve are very little impaired.' — Swan's Dissertation on the TrcnCmerit of
Morbid l,ocal Affer.lions of "Nerves.

+ This restorative process is the more remarkable, for, according to the observations of Mr. Swan,
silthnugh the renewed communication s'cms accomplished in the same way as when there had been a
simple division, yet the appearance of the interposed portion was not snch as to lead to a sup-
position that the nerve would ever be again functionally restored. Accurate dissections, and very
minute examinations of the intersecting nervous bulh, which occupied the space between the divided
portions of the nerves of dogs again restored to sensation and motion (for such tliey were), in the
experiments of Dr. Ilaighton, I remember presented a mass of exquisitely fine parallel fibres. Some-
thing of this kind maybe also seen in the connecting knob, where simple division was made of the
metacarpal nerves of the horse, but which is, as far as I have ohacrved, not distinguishable in that
lengthened portion which fills up the break In the present mode of altogether removing a piece of the
nerve. Mr. Sewell has observed, that sensation is restored in about two rnorrtlis alter, when the
nerve has been simply divided; but when an Inch has been removed, the returir of seirsatlon cannot lie
dat(!d with any precision : In one case he found it had rrot rettrrned In three years. The feet of a cast
horse belonging to the Royal .\rtillery was sensible of a prick at the end of two years; and I have
«een a case where sensation and lameness again appeared in something more than eightcerr months, nt
which time tlie horse was again operated on : three years and a half afterwards sensation had not
leturncd ; I then lost sight of him.

N n

562

NEUROTOMY.

traction ; but where progression is rendered painful to the animal, and unplea-
sant as well as unsafe to the rider, from exostosis or ulceration of the articu-
lating membranes, which forces the horse to suspend much of his weight, by
firmly contracting his extensors, before he is wiUing to call his flexors into ac-
tion, thus forcing on himself a stilty gait, as though the bony pieces of his
limbs were nearly perpendicularly opposed to each other : and in a certain de-
gree they are so ; for Mr. Turner has shewn that there is an actual ascent of
the coffin-bone within the hoof, which drags with it the navicular bone. These
results follow from a contraction of the hoof of a particular kind, whose symp-
toms, according to his account, are ' circularity, solidity, compactness of fibre,
and an unusual appearance of strength : the heels are high, the sole strong, and
the crust thick, particularly at the toe ; but it sometimes loses its due pro-
portion of obliquity, and becomes rather more upright than natural. There
is, however, a more certain indication, which usually presents itself; viz., a
falling in of the inside quarter, or slight indentation about the middle of the
crust towards the heel : this sometimes assumes the appearance of a stricture,
in a slight degree, all round the crust ; and occasionally two or three of these
strictures or rings are apparent. Thus much may be observed without the re-
moval of the shoe ; but the protrusion of the frog within the foot, together
with the morbid concavity of sole, may not be discoverable till the drawing-
knife has been extensively employed, not only on the sole, but in excavating
those channels or commissures on each side of the frog, between it and the
bars. An inordinate growth of sole and other parts of the foot, by presenting
prominent surfaces, too often conceal from our view the encroachments and
consequent diminution of the horny cavity.' This description is intended to
lead to a judgment of the existence of navicular disease (see also p. 524).
Now, in the early stage of this complaint, or, indeed, whenever it had not so
attacked the under surface of the navicular bone, as by its ravages to have en-
dangered the safety of the insertion of the flexor perforans, it is evident that it
would prove a most essential benefit ; but, unfortunately, as remarked by Pro-
fessor Dick, ' the ulceration of the under surfaces of this bone is such, in se-
vere and protracted cases, that, after the nerves have been divided in the ope-
ration of neurotomy, it happens frequently that the friction between the ten-
dons and the navicular bone completely divides the tendinous insertion, and
the pastern falls to the ground.' These cases, therefore, are among those in
which it would be most injudicious to neurotomize; for if the separation did
not occur, then it would most likely do so hereafter, when the horse, no longer
sensitive to concussion, battered his injured feet without the restraint of the
natural guard to injudicious exertion ; for unquestionably pain was given as
the warning monitor when we were making an improper use of our organs. But
how are we to judge of this particular state ? I know of no actual sign to dis-
tinguish it. I should, however, in no case perform the operation if the joints
were stiffened in any degree, or become very perpendicularly inclined : neither
would I recommend it if there were signs of actual inflammation, unless I were
led to suspect that the heat arose from vascular re-action, the eflTect of simple
contraction of the hoof, brought on by any of the occasional outward causes
which produce this lessening of its diameter: in such case I would pare and soak
the foot a few davs, and then proceed to operate. In the pumiced foot also,
the warning voice of pain being removed, the neurotomized horse, in every in-
stance soon batters the remains into a useless disorganized mass : in these cases
it is always hurtful ; but in cases of ringbone, and in those groggy lamenesses
connected with ossification of the lateral cartilages, it offers a valuable palliative,
and where a disease of the foot has terminated in partial anchylosis, it does the
same • for here the use of the part must prove beneficial instead of hurtful, as
in pumiced feet. As far as my own experience goes, those cases are the least
benefitted by it which are the result of acute founder, terminating in congestion
and diseased alteration of the laminated structure, with a tendency to ossifica-
tion of the laminiE. Neurotomy, in such instances, I have found to be very
frequently pernicious, and followed by the loss of the hoof. Mr. Castley, a very

NEUROTOMY.

563

rngenious writer in The Veterinarian, appears to consider, that it succeeds best
when only one foot is the subject of lameness, and where organic disease has
existed, but with little contraction of hoof.

Neurotomy has now stood the test of very extensive application : the annals
of our writers offer innumerable proofs of its restoring almost useless animals
to a state of much utility, and of saving an infinity of pain and suffering to a
valuable and patient servant of man. And if there are chances that it may
occasion such injury as to hasten the end of some horses, it is usually in such
as the disease would have done the same at no very distant period : under
which presumption it might be worth the trial, even in the most adverse cases :
it is imperative almost whenever we have reason to consider that the morbid
processes are not now in a state of activity, which is by no means an unfrequent
case. Having stated thus much in its favour, it must not be supposed that I
recommend it as an unqualified benefit, even where it succeeds best. No neu-
rotomized horse ever after goes exactly with the same freedom as before, nor
with equal care and safety : the indifference to the nature of the exertions, and
to that of the ground gone over, is such as to have fractured the legs ; it is
quite common to batter the feet to pieces ; and although horses have hunted
afterwards with desperation, and hacknies have canied their riders with de-
termined perseverance long distances, yet it is altogether more calculated to
prove beneficial to carriage than to saddle horses. This I believe to be a just
statement of its merits, as assisting the horse as a locomotive animal ; but
there are benefits it offers to the animal of a more extensive and constitutional
kind. Those gained by the bodily system generally have been in some cases
very marked : thus, an aged and crippled stalhon, from the irritation constantly
kept up, became so emaciated as to be unable to fecundate ; but being relieved
from a constant state of suffering by neurotomj^, improved in health and con-
dition again, was used to cover, and became the sire of healthy colts after-
wards. It happened, also, that a mare similarly circumstanced ceased to feel
the periodical oestrum, or horsing ; but after neurotomy it again returned, and
she resumed her character of a brood, and not a barren mare. It also appears
likely to add to our remedies for tetanus, by cutting off the communication
between an unhealthily disposed wound and the brain ; and it appears in these
instances also to act with most certainty when & portion of the imtated nerve
is excised. One case has actually occured where the tetanus, occasioned by a
wound in the foot, was arrested and removed by neurotomy. It also promises
much in the painftil state of some cankers, where the irritation has rendered
the application of dressings almost impossible : here, by depriving the foot of
sensibiUty, we deprive the horse of that which at once injures him and us : the
sore itself is often amended by it ; but in every instance the dressings can be
effectively applied, and the healthy processes cannot be at all suspended by it.
It remains to add, that although neurotomy, as I have shewn, did not originate
with Mr. Sewell, yet it is to him we are indebted for its being brought promi-
nently forward, and it is wholly to him that we understand the full rationale
of its action. His extensive experiments on it have given it its proper rank in
the scale of benefits to the animal and acquisitions to the art : it will, without
doubt, be always inseparably connected with veterinary practice, and equally
so with his name, ' Palrnam qui meruit ferat' Mr. Sewell, I beUeve, still per-
severes in recommending the lower incision; that the horse may retain a
portion of sensation in the front of the foot, as a warning against the improper
use of it. Mr. Goodwin, on the contrary, who introduced it into the late king's
stables with decided advantage, I believe prefers the upper section*: such

• If T am not mirtaken, the benefits reBiilting from it in these atnlilcs were mniked by tlic rostoia*
tion of some very valimbic horses to (freat usefulness : Mr. Hloxliam mentioned to me two particular
lavouriles that had been so benefitted. Altogetlier, the statements of Mr. Goodwin arc of much
weight, not only from his known experience and veracity, but also because, at the time when liis
valuable work came before the public, he appears not to have been at all prejudiced in favour of the
operation : it seems also to have rather grown upon bis good opinion by his subsequent observations
which much enhances its value. His account is marked with great candour, which lias been too
much wanting between the disputants on the subject; and while he notes the hoofs which have sepa*

N n 2

564

NEUROTOMY.

preference, however, ought to be under the guidance of circumstances, as the
intensity and the seat of the disease, of which I have before treated. The
operation commonly leaves, for a considerable time, some enlargement around
the spot, the elFects of the adhesive matter interposed between the severed por-
tions, which has occasionally been so considerable as to interfere with progres-
sion, by its aptitude to become struck by the contrary foot, but which can be
remedied by a little invention of bandage. This circumstance has, however, led
some practitioners, when it has been wished to make the upper section, and yet
to avoid the chance of interfering^ to operate on the metacarpal nerve on the
outside^ and on the pastern or plantar on the inside.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES.

Fi^ 1st represents an off fore leg with the integuments removed. — a, The
commencement of the incision, which exposes the inner metacarpal nen'e lying
behind the vein and artery. Z>, A pin separating and elevating the nerve at the
part intended for the upper section, c. The continuation of the nerve over the
fetlock, and here called the plantar or pastern nerve ; the anterior branch which
furnishes the front of the foot is not seen in the view, but is given off just above
this, The inner plantar or pastern artery, which in a natural state passes
close to and before the nerve. <?, The inner plantar or pastern vein anterior to
the artery.

Fi'y. 2d represents a leg with the integuments entire. — a. The situation of the
section through the skin in the high operation, ft, The situation of the lower
section.

Mode of performing the Operation.

The situation of the section through the skin being determined on, a guide to
which may be gained from Jig. 2 ; cast the horse, and having firmly secured the

rated fi om the feet bv it he rcmarka that in most in^^tanecs tlic horsos themselves were not of much
use nievioiislv • so tli;it it was little more tliiui the Insa of the operation— the animal was iisnally as
l.nrl 19 Inst hofc'ire The follow ini/ extract from his work Is of great practical nnportance : ' it has been
stated that the hoof and foot waste after the operation ; but I am glad to know that this observation
is imaaiiiarv I have observed, in hoof- where the operation has been performed, a more pleiitiful i;ro-
inct on of horn than before, and a greater disposition to jfrow in the natural form : and t .ink this is
conscn lence to be expected ; as the irritable state of the foot hein^ destroyed by the division ol the
Lr c 11 e secreti,n t le boin is likely to go on more freely. When the operation has been performed
AT/-or/anv considerable change of structure has taken place, I have no doubt that the origma! cause
iH rc.ro^^^a aU gather by the to bear the full proportion of weight on the lame

foot.

DIVISION OF THE FLEXOR TENDONS. 665

leg to be -first operated on, shave, or otherwise very closely cut, the hair from
the part, which having done, and having ascertained the exact course of the ar-
tery by its pulsation, make a section in that direction, be it either above or
below the fetlock joint, inclining a little behind the vessel, through the integu-
ments, one and a half or two inches long. The cellular substance being cleared
away will bring the vessels into view, and the nerve will be readily distinguished
from them by its whiteness. Elevating it from them, and from its membranous
attachments, by means of a tenaculum, or by a crooked needle armed with thread,
pass a bistoury under it, as near to the upper angle of the section as may be.
The violent spasm which the section produces may be somewhat lessened by
first pressing the nerve between the finger and thumb, when an opportunity
may be taken, either with the scalpel or with strong surgical scissors, of dividing
it; "when, firmly holding the lower portion between a pair of forceps, and having
detached it from all adherences, with the bistoury or scissors excise about three-
fourths of an inch of its trunk. Having finished, if both feet are afiected, pro-
ceed to do the same with the contrary side of the other leg ; in doing which no
pain is felt, consequently no one woi;ld be so thoughtless as to excise this por-
tion first : after which turn the horse, and repeat the operation on the other
sides of each leg as they come in succession, by which a more frequent turning
of the horse may be avoided. The integuments may be now drawn neatly to-
gether, and either secured by slips of adhesive plaister, or by a few stitches ; if
by the former method, and they be properly secured by a light compress, it af-
fords the greatest chance of promoting a union by the first intention. Tie up
the head for a day or two, after which put on a cradle ; keep the horse very
quiet and low : give mashes to open the bowels ; but I should avoid phj/sicking,
from the fear that griping might occur, which would make him restless, or pro-
bably require exercise : if of a full habit, bleed.

DIVISION OF THE FLEXOR TENDONS,

This operation has long been occasionally practised, principally among far -
riers of the better order ; for few surgically educated would have dared to ven-
ture on one apparently so formidable, but which timidity has arisen from want
of a proper consideration of the brute resources. Mr. Dick informs us, it had
been practised by his father ; by a friend of his also, and lastly by himself : and
how dexterously, and with how successful a result, a letter from Mr. Castley (who
saw it performed) to Mr. J. Turner, to be seen in the 3d vol. of The Veterina-
rian, wiU testify. In vol. ii of the same valuable work, it wiU also appear that
it had been previously performed with the best results by Mr. Wells, V.S. of
Wymondham. These are flattering proofs of the growth of the art among us,
and become of much importance to the possessor of animals ; for few of us but
must have remembered to have met unhappy brutes travelling with a pastern
flexed almost to the ground, the weight of the half of the body suspended on the
point of the toe. There are so many accidents and so many diseases that may
produce contraction of the flexor tendons of the foot, that we only wonder we do
not more often meet with them ; which we should certainly do, but that the
attendants, despairing of being able to afford relief, advise their destruction, a
few bold characters excepted, and a few confiding owners at the head of them.
The operation consists in making a longitudinal incision of about three inches
in length along the inner lateral edge of the tendon, dissecting each portion
from its cellular attachments, so as to expose the nerve, artery, and tendon
under the anterior flap, and the tendons hidden by the other. This opening
will allow the perforatus and perforans to be freed from any connexions, when a
division of them should be made by a powerful scalpel applied to the surface of
the tendons, while an attendant holds back the integuments; the nerve and
vessels being also carefully kept out of the reach of incision. It is evident that
this should take place below any thickening, or any adhesions wlu'ch may have
permanently connected the tendon with the neighbouring parts: any lesser at-
tachments will be broken througli by the bringing back the just position of the

566

AMPUTATIONS.

limb, which has been very properly effeeted by a forcible straightening of the
flexed pastern. By Mr, Dick this was done ' by placing his knee against the
front or projecting part of it, at the same time laynig hold of the foot with one
hand and the upper part of the leg with the other, and using considerable force,
in the same manner as a person would do in breaking a stick : and this appears
to be necessary, in order to break any membranous or ligamentous adhesions
that may have formed.' The limb should now be placed in a poultice; the
horse not having been bled, it should now be done ; and if any fear of future
contraction should arise during the cure, thicken the shoe of the foot operated
on, and put a patten shoe on the other. Some slight exercise after the first
week may be allowed, but previously to that the horse should be confined to a
box, during which the bowels must be kept open with mashes.

STRICTURES.

These contractions are liable to occur in the horse, though he cannot be con-
sidered as very obnoxious to them. Wounds or bruises have brought them on
in the urethra, in the pharynx, larynx, trachea, and esophagus. Wherever they
occur, the introduction of a probang daily should first be tried; which having
failed, the strictured part must be cut down on, and the stricture divided ; in-
troducing a flexible tube for the purpose of preventing both the reunion of the
strictured portions, and the interruption of the functions of the part : then re-
place the integuments so as to encourage healing by the adhesive process, un-
less any part of the treatment requires delay.

AMPUTATIONS.

These have been hitherto confined principally to the tail, the ears, and other
parts of minor importance in the animal frame; but veterinary surgery now
takes a wider field, and the extremities are amputated with a certainty of making
horned cattle still serviceable for the purposes of yielding milk ; and without
doubt the same might be done with the brood mare, or stallion, particularly in
fractures of the fore extremities ; and also in some instances where a very favour-
ite horse or mare was entitled, by some particular claim on the affection, to re-
tain life under all circumstances. Professor Dick furnishes a case sent to him
by one of his pupils to the following effect : ' I performed amputation upon the
cow on the 7th of July : after having properly secured the animal, and applied a
tourniquet above the carpus, I made a circular incision through the integuments
round the leg, a little below the carpus, and having separated the skin so as to
allow of its being pushed up a little, I cut through the sinews, and lastly sawed
off the stump : the parts are now completely whole, although she has been going
at grass all the time, and, now that she has got the advantage of a cork stump,
makes a wonderful shift for herself, and yields a good supply of milk to her
owner.' Mr, Dick also notices another case of amputation of the fore leg of a
two-year old lieifer ; and of a third, where the hind leg was removed above the
tarsus. Such operations have occasionally occurred from time immemorial, with
a few enterprising characters. I have myself heard of them, but they were re-
garded as mere matters of curiosity and wonder, and therefore were not imitated.
We shall, however, probably ere long have them more common, in cows at least ;
for, occurring belovy the carpus and tarsus, they are as easily performed as nick-
ing or docking : and as there is no doubt but that a hoUow padded stump might
be applied sufficient for the support of the animal, such operation, in an econo-
mical point of view, might be prudent in many cases. Fractures of the lower
portions of the limbs, with great comminution of bone, considerable ravages of
disease within the foot, or extensive gangrene, are the cases which might call for
it. Of the method of amputation little need be added to the above. Hurtrel
d'Arboval enters into a very laboured detail of the maimer of amputating the
various parts of the extreuiity, lioni the foot upwards ; to which the intjuisitivc

AMPUTATIONS.

567

may refer. The principal practical points are, the fixing of a tourniquet of suf-
ficient force, which should be padded to make its principal pressure on the
leading arterial trunks, while its general circumference wiU act on the smaller:
no individual flap of integuments will require to be saved, but a nng of about
two inches in depth should be obtained by a section below the intended place of
operation made through them only, and, when separated from its cellular ad-
herences, should be turned back; and a circular incision may then be carried
in a direction a little inclined upwards, as regards the limb, through the muscles,
&c., taking up by ligature such vessels, both venous and arterial, as appear in the
course of the operation. The section thus made, free the bone from the soft
parts by the scalpel, where the adherences are very intimate, and having, by
means of a crucial bandage retracted the soft parts altogether above the bone,
saw it through. Finally, effectually secure the principal vessels, when, bringing
the soft parts over the bone, retain them there by proper bandaging, which keep
moistened with Goulard water, and suffer to remain without disturbance until
the third or fourth day.

Amputation of the Penis.

Among those removals of parts which become occasionally necessary in ve-
terinary practice, this may be reckoned. Dedelay d'Agier has treated of the
diseases which attack this organ, and render amputation necessary. _ Chabert
also describes the operation, and the cases which call for it, as when it is in a
gangrenous state; and also when it becomes covered with chancres or with warty
excrescences, sometimes with both. In this latter state M. Huzard operated
the removal of the penis of a gelding by ligature, which seems to have been the
only method resorted to at that time. Hurtrel d'Arboval also, when he describes
this amputation, says that the immense size of the organ, and the number and
■volume of its vessels, are such as would render haemorrhage from it mortal : its
removal, therefore, he observes, can only be effected with safety by ligature.
M. Huzard passed a canula within the urethra, and by ligatures attached to its
verge, and carrying it round the body, retained it there. He then applied a
strong ligature around the penis, beyond the diseased part, including within it
the canula, by which the urinary fliow remained unchecked : the ligature was
now applied and further tightened daily, mortification followed, and the stran-
gulated part separated from the living on the eighth day. In this way, there-
fore, the timid practitioner may always remove a diseased penis : but humanity
is concerned in performing it by direct section. We are likewise informed that
some serious symptoms followed the removal by ligature, as colic, general abdo-
minal inflammation, and disgusting fostor. These prompted M. Barthelemy, jun.,
senior professor at the Royal College at Alfort, to attempt the amputation by
the knife, a detailed account of which, as read before the Royal Academy of
Medicine, is to be met with in No. 5 of The Hippiatrist, and a more condensed
one, with editorial remarks, in the Ist vol. of The Veterinarian. He introduced
a canula, and placed a ligature an inch beyond the proposed point of incision.
Unexpectedly, as soon as this was made, the remainder of the penis escaped
within the sheath, dislodging the canula and removing the ligature, neither of
which could afterwards be replaced. No haemorrhage, however, followed at the
time ; but at each erection for the purpose of staling some bleeding occurred ;
so that in the five days which succeeded to the operation it was calculated that
fifty pounds of blood were lost. Amputation of the penis is likewise not un-
known among us : it has been performed several times at the Veterinary College,
where it is found that no canula is necessary to keep open the urethra ; the
force of the urinary flow breaking down any incipient cicatrization of its orifice.
The sheath is first forced back, and the penis brought forward to its greatest
possible extent: whatever portion it is intended to remove is now cut through
by means of the bistoury, when the remainder is retracted within the sheath,
and little haemorrhage has afterwards occurred, except at the time of passing
the urine, as in the case of M. Barthelemy ; but in these there appear to have

been no alarming quantity of blood lost.

568

AMPUTATIONS.

Amputation of the Tail, or Docking,

It might be worth inquiry, whether this operation first oriduated in a sun-
position that, by excising a portion of the tail, the hinder quarters were therebv
strengthened ; or whether the inconveniences of a flowing tail to the rider or
driver were the exciting causes. Even yet, in some counties, and among some
particuhir horses, as those of stage waggons, an idea is entertained that addi-
tional strength is gained by a close curtailment of dock. Neither is it impro-
bable, but that the blood intended for the support of the tail may, to a cerfiin
degree, find itself other channels, by increasing the anastomosing branches' of
the surrounding parts. I am not, however, advocating the cause of this custom •
still less the barbarous and unsightly one of cutting the dock to within three or
four inches of the rump; whose benefits are probably a (leceptio vims, and
estimated by the eye being at once carried over the expanse of croup and but-
tocks; whereas in other horses, the line of vision is broken by a dock of
ordinary length. Neither is the custom of docking colts almost as soon as
dropped at all beneficial to the future growth of hair on the tail : on the con-
trary, I was informed by an intelligent breeder in Yorkshire, that the early
docked colts had less hair even than others. Mr. John Laweqce, who as 'a
practical writer deserves attention, however observes, that the ancient custom
of early docking may be practised at a month. old with a common knife only
and IS attended with httle pain and no risk. It became first objected to among
us, because the tail was supposed to extend itself beyond the proposed limits
It certainly deprives the animal of some defence against flies ; but it is so little
provided with flowing hair at this period, that this objection is not great. I
perfectly agree with those writers who advocate the cause of a longer dock
than it was heretofore flishiouable to leave our hunters, and some of our road-
sters and carriage horses. Whatever appearance a short tail may have in making
the thick-set round breed look 'knowing' and more angular in the cock-tails
surely it detracts greatly from the elegant lines of the better breeds, in whom
contrast is less wanting than a continuation of symmetrical lines. The length
of dock must however be left to choice, but, be'ing previously determined on,
the long hair should be fastened back from that part, while about an inch or
two below it should be shorn clear from surrounding hair : to this part the
docking machine is to be applied, which removes it at one stroke. Various im-
provements have been attempted in the after-treatment, such as ligatures by
rope, tourniquet, pledgets, astringents, &c., for restraining the haemorrhage.
These are all now justly abandoned, and too often originated more in an afiect-
ed sympathy, or wish for originality, than in a just estimate of feeling or conse-
quences. A mild application of the cautery is unquestionably the safest and
probably the most humane mode, as occasioning no necessity for after-torments-
however, as it is sometimes applied, it is cruel in the extreme, and certainly
totally unnecessary. _ It is not unlikely that its violence is even sometimes pro-
ductive of the tetanic state which occasionally follows docking, as well as of
mortification also. We jcnow that sloughing and an ill-conditioned state of
parts are consequences of it; and as the hffiinorrhage which follows would never
prove fatal, and seldom injure the horse, there is still less necessity for it, or for
a second application of the iron with melted resin over it. I need hardly hint,
that the position in which the tail is held when searing can never influence the
future carriage of the tail, though it has been thought to do it when held per-
pendicularly. In my own practice I always found a moderate pressure of the
iron, heated only to a dull red heat, fully sufficient. Every practitioner is
aware that from two or three coccygeal trunks only does much haemorrhage flow
■with any considerable impetus. Might not these be fired with a budding-iron
separately, sufiiciently to arrest the bleeding, leaving the minor anastomosing *
branches to restrain themselves ? If tetanic symptoms appear, operate anew
without restraining the blood, the flow of which may be useful, particularly if
accompanied witli large doses of opium. (See p. 3(j(>). If gangrenous appear-

NICKING. 569
aiices arise, warm terobinthiuated dressings on the part, warm fomentations over
it, and spirituous applications in the intermediate tunes, are the principal
indications.

NICKING.

There can be very little doubt but that the former operation originated in a
wish to prevent the inconveniences resulting from the force with which a horse
carried a long tail around him, to the annoyance of his rider ; perhaps it was
further kept alive by its being apt to be carried over the reins in driving also ;
tails were therefore first tied up in ' stiff buckle ;' and as carriage riding became
prevalent, they gradually were altogether shortened or docked ; and, lastly, from
an observance that, under impetuosity, or stimulated by any excitement, the
tail was elevated, or nicked. Animation, which is but another term for beauty
and grace, became inseparably connected in the mind with this carriage of the
tail, and artificial means were therefore used to make it constant in ordinary
exertion. In a natural state, the depressing muscles of the tail are stronger
than the erecting, that, by its close application to the anus, it might guard this
important outlet. It is to reverse this, and to give the balance of power to the
erectors, that the operation of niching is practised. The introduction of blood-
horses into general use has greatly modified the mode of nicking, and, instead of
three sections to form a perfect nag-tail, the drooping pendant elegant curve of
the blood-horse requires but one. As in castration, so also with nicking, a
seasonable time should be chosen for it : in cold weather, it may become checked
in its granulating process ; and in very hot weather, tetanus will be more likely
to supervene. A temperature of from 55° to 60° will be, therefore a very proper
one. " The modes of securing the horse for the operation are various. Some
few do it in the break or trevis ; others place him against a strong bail, across
a stall, or a leaping bar ; which methods are practised by grooms and horse-
dealers, who are often very expert at nicking, and who seldom, if ever, cast a
horse for the purpose. Professional practitioners, I believe, most of them, used
to throw the horse for this operation : for many years I never operated without
so doing ; but I became averse to it from the difficulty of making the sections
of equal depth, and likewise from the dangers of casting ; but more than all,
from every day seeing horse-dealers performing it with the greatest ease and
security standing. It should, however, be remembered, that unless the prac-
titioner be very expert at using the side lines, and have all the necessary con-
veniencies, it will be safer for him to operate by casting : for want of these
precautions, I remember, a few years ago, a horse-dealer being killed on the spot
while nicking a horse one Sunday morning in London.

Mode of operation. — The horse being properly secured (if by the side line,
two had better be used), and a twitch being ready for both lip and ear, endea-
vour to gently place first one, and then the other hind leg, as far under the
belly as the horse can bear with comfort, but not farther, or it will increase his
disposition to resistance. If it be suspected that he will prove very obstrepe-
rous, or any timidity exist in the mind of the operator, as a further security,
include both hind legs in another rope, or in a wide web, a little above the
hocks. This may either run in a noose, or, which is better, let each loose end
be attached to a manger ring, or, if operated out of doors, fasten them around
the neck or across the breast. The tail having the hairs of the dock first bound
together with wax-end, &c., as the future means of attachment to the pullies,
and also, if very full of hair, having it plaited back and secured, prepare to use
a short stout scalpel ; if double-edged, it is more convenient, and wiU save
trouble in turning. The mode of making the sections must be left to the dis-
cretion of the operator, but the junior practitioner will find himself materially
assisted by an accurate acquaintance with the anatomy of the tail, which, if not
already obtained, he should procure one and inspect, which will assist him much
in becoming acquainted with the operation he is going to peiforni. Tiiis will
whew him tliat the tail is neither conical nor perfectly cylindrical, but somewhat

^'^^ . NICKING.

quadrilateral ; its upper angles being formed of the fleshy bellies of the coccvKeal
elevators and its lower of the depressors, leaving the under surface of SeuU
pnnc.pally covered with ligament and skin. It is of the utmost consequence
to he junior operator that he bears this in mind, and that it does not penetrate
turther than the skin at this part, or he may divide the ligaments, Tnd even
penetrate the joint between one coccygeal bone and another, when anchylosis

•// u i^''''^'^ ^^'^ ^^"^r accident may, however, be readily

avoided by making the sections in the centre of a tail-bone, which may be
distinguished by the prominences of its articular surfaces; between which no
such accident can happen. It is sometimes directed, and practised also, to
make a section first through the integuments only, beginning at the ro6ts of the
hair on one side, carrying it across the bellies of the depressor muscles; then
doing the same by the other side; and, lastly, by making these sections meet
by a light and careful division of the integuments only, on the median Une of
the tail. Such is a very cautious and proper mode for the tyro, and is con-
sistent with the best principles of the art ; but it somewhat delays time, and the
expert practitioner wiU probably find it more ready to carry his scalpel at once
through the depressors, by a steady sweep, embracing aU the parts to the
median hue, easmg off the depth of section as he approaches it. By turning
his hand, the same may be done on the other side, by which two strokes
judiciously performed, the operation, in expert hands, is at once complete. This
first section should not be nearer in the smallest horse than two inches and a
half, and in a full sized, three inches, or three and a half, as the centre of the
coccygeal bones may indicate. If another section be wanted, make it at two
inches and a half or three inches from the first and the third, if it be necessary
somewhat less distant than the others ; but which latter is seldom now required
in any but low-bred horses or determined cock-tails, as the mere hack is called.
In blood-horses, one or at most two sections, or rather one full and one slight
section, according to the fulness of the croup and height of the sacral line, is
all that will be at the present day required : for mares of whatever breed, one
section less than for a horse is advisable. The most expert operator will find it
prudent, when the sections are made, to examine them carefully that they are
all of equal depth, and have divided the depressor muscles completely. Should
any difference appear in these respects, and should such unequal division be
allowed to remain, the operation would be incomplete, and the horse would
probably carry his tale awry. Add to which, any portion of the muscle being
left undivided, would tend to prevent the others from retracting, and might also
serve to promote a reunion of them. Having proceeded thus far, the hsemor-
rhage which ensues need not be considered as of consequence, nor will it shew
itself until the tail be wholly relaxed ; while it is elevated, therefore, proceed
to remove the tendinous ends, which will bulge out, not being retracted with
the divided ends of their accompanying muscles. If one section only be made,
they will be less prominent than when there are more ; but enough will always
protrude to enable them to be laid hold of by a tenaculum or forceps, and then
cut off by a pair of strong and sharp scissors. The removal of these will not
only separate the attachments of the muscles farther from each other, which, if
reunited, would of course frustrate the operation, but their removal greatly
facilitates the healing of the wounds.

The sections being thus complete, proceed to restrain the haemorrhage, which
is done in various ways. Some do it by means of strips of cotton, tow, hemp,
&c., which, twisted and inserted into each nick, are separately tied on the back
of the tail. My own practice of late was to place a piece of lint on a pledget of
tow, and introduce into each section sufficient to fill it up, over which I placed
linen strips long enough to tie on the back of the tail, which were then tied
sufficiently tight to restrain the haemorrhage. Here also it behoves the practi-
tioner to consider the surgical principles of his operations : he purposely stran-
gulates the tail to prevent a dangerous waste of blood, but the very action is
an incipient death to the part, and therefore should be most carefully guarded
against that it docs not proceed too far. If tlie bleeding be considerable, and

NICKING. - 571

require the bandages to be made very tight, I usually loosen them a little in two
.hours, watching the wounds; but when these ligatures are not_ necessarily so
tight, they may be allowed to remain all night, but should be snipped in two at
the back of the tail in the morning, which wiU not disturb the tail : indeed,
whatever the degree of stricture or tightness used in the appbcation of the liga-
tures, as soon as symptoms of strangulation have commenced, less risk will be
run by a too early than by a too late division. When the practitioner is on the
spot, an examination of the taU may be made in the evening previously to leav-
inrr the horse, when, if the re-action appear to be considerable, which will be
kn^own by the taU becoming very hot, it will be prudent to divide them at once,
and this* more particularly if the operation have been performed early in the
morning. Much difference of opinion has prevailed on the subject of dressings,
and whether any medicament were proper beyond dry lint. If it were possible
to promote the adhesive union, then a dry dressing would be the best; but
when it is considered that an early and healthy suppuration is, m human sur-
gery at least, thought to be some guard against tetanus, and as it will enable
the dressings to be removed with less difficulty, so there can be no objection to
any mUd digestive being made use of, if it faU in with the view of the operator.
Many of the best veterinarians, however, content themselves with simply watch-
ing the nicks, that they be kept clean and free from fungus or other unhealthy
process, which, if they do not occur, they use no application but the bandages.
It is evident that, were a nicked tail left to itself, the depressing muscles would
re-unite, and carry it nearly as before, by the approximation thus allowed to
their divided portions : a suspension of the tail afterwards is therefore necessary
to keep the divided ends of the muscles apart until a cicatrix be formed, and
the interstices be filled up by an organized matter, not muscular, nor contractile.
Various means have been used for this purpose ; formerly the tail was fastened
on the back, to the danger and torment of the animal. It is now suspended by
means of pullies, the best of which are double. When one is used, one wheel
is passed through a line stretched across the end of the stall, rather behind the
horse, and through the other wheel, the line to which the weight is appended.
A more improved mode is used by means of two of these pullies, one of which
is placed directly behind the horse, at some distance from him, through which,
after passing through the pulley on the cross line, it is also carried. By these
means, whatever be the motions of the horse, the tail is distended at a right line
with the body. The weight used for this distention should be such that, for
the first day or two, it will hardly keep the tail straight, or more than straight :
for two or three more, elevate it to a little above the horizontal line, advancing
it every two or three days to the required height, to an angle of 45°, but never
allow it to be carried perpendicularly erect. The elevation ought, however,
principally to depend on the height to which we wish the tail to be carried in
future ; the carriage of the tail should therefore be examined every two or_ three
days, bearing in mind that, after it has altogether done with the pullies, it fre-
quently, indeed commonly, drops a little, by the forced muscles resuming their
former contractility.

Among farriers and horse-dealers some difference of opinion has existed rela-
tive to the propriety of exercising a horse during the use of the pulley, and also
as to how long the pulley should be used ; but these matters can never^ puzzle
the veterinarian, being easily solved by a knowledge of the general principles
of the animal economy, which alone ought to guide him. The pulley is only
an extension of the tail, to keep the ends of the muscles from uniting again ;
but the simple extension docs nothing of itself, as is foolishly supposed, towards
the making the horse carry it in future. As soon, therefore, as the wounds are
closed, or nearly so, then all benefit from the pulley is finished ; but till then,
of course, the muscular ends may unite, and frustrate the operation. Some-
times incrustation of the wounds will take place in ten days or a fortnight, and
sometimes it will take a longer time. With regard also to the propriety of ex-
ercising the horse, there ought to be but one opinion. As the hair is, or ought
to be, plaited and carefully secured, so no inconvenience can arise, but every

572 AMPUTATION OP THE EARS, OR CROPPING.

benefit may be gained from letting Urn from the pullies, and exercising him
gently to remove swelhng, &c. &c. The hair being put on the stretch by the
lorce used, so a great part of it usually comes off, and this will happen in spite
of every precaution; but the longer it is kept in one immediate position so
much the more certam it is for much to fall off. At the end of five or six days
therefore, it may be untied or unplaited, combed out, and then tied afresh, be-
ing first greased at its roots ; and the same may be repeated every three or four
days afterwards, which is the best means I liave found of preventing it from fall-
ing totally off.

Having thus carried the operation through its ordinary course, it remains to
say somewhat of its irregularities. Occasionally inflammation follows the ope-
ration, either from suspending too much weight to the pulley, or forcing it
backwards ; or otherwise from too long continuance of the ligatures, or too great
tightness in them. If it be intense, it may be succeeded by mortification, or
it may leave the tail with an unhealthy ulceration, producing sinuses : in the
former case, the horse shews evident uneasiness the second or third day, the
tail swells, is very tender towards the rump, and the heat is excessive. If the
di-essiugs be removed, the wounds appear highly inflamed and tumefied ; and
unless this inflammatory state be arrested by the most active means, the wounds
will become gangrenous, the stump will feel cold, and mortification will pro-
ceed towards the body, and either destroy the horse, or it is sometimes arrested
at the base of the tail, where a separation between the dead and living parts
takes place, and the tail drops ofi". In these cases the treatment must be
prompt, and exactly such as is already detailed for active and important inflam-
mations : as a part of such treatment, remove it from the pullies, or only very
slightly suspend it; wetting it frequently with cold water; keeping it conti-
nually so, will be found even more useful : it is also a good preventive to apply cold
water during the common process, whenever the tail is at all hotter than is
wished. _ Another evil to which these cases are exposed is that of tetanus or
locked jaw, which is brought on by causes unapparent to us : in some instances,
however, heat in the temperature of the air seems to operate on it. It makes
its appearance, in many cases, about the fourth or fifth day, and occasionally
later ; and is often observed to be preceded by an unhealthy aspect of the wounds,
and by a cessation of suppuration in them : sometimes, however, the wounds
remain unaltered. The first step in these cases is, to dilate the wounds ; if that
does not succeed, amputate the tail a little above the first section.

AMPUTATION OF THE EARS, OR CROPPING.

Custom has nearly abolished this worse than useless practice : circumstances
may, however, occur to render it necessary, such as one ear becoming ble-
mished ; therefore, at the makers of surgical instruments we always find a' sort
of curved clams, called cropping-irons ; into these one of the ears is introduced,
and the upper part is cut off at one stroke with a knife of sufficient length ; the
excised portion serving as a guide for forming the other crop. A young prac-
titioner is apt to be alarmed at the retraction of the skin from the cartilages,
but the exposed edges disappear in a few days. Horses often continue for a
long time very shy about the head by cropping ; to lessen which both the bridle
and the halter also should be used without a forepart or fronting, till the ears
be well. The bridle should likewise be made to unbuckle at one side from the
bit, . so that the headstall may be dropped on without the hand being raised to
pass it over the ears. This will materially operate in dissipating the customary
shyness that otherwise so long remains, and which is never wholly lost if force
and cruelty be afterwards used.

FIRING.

Tnis becomes an important and a very salutary agent in good hands. The
practise of firing was not always confined to quadrupeds ; on the contrary, it

FIRING.

573

probably was first used on man ; and to this day in many countries it is a very
popular remedy among human surgeons. In India it is apphed over the abdo-
nsen for the cure of scirrhosity of the liver ; and among ourselves also its use
is rather on the increase, particularly the mediate firing by means ot Indian moxa
for scrofulous enlarged joints, and some other topical congestions*. In veteri-
nary practice it would not be difficult to prove that we have no remedies that
can compensate for its disuse, although it is now somewhat got into disrepute,
because, Hke all other good remedies, it has been abused, by being often unne-
cessaiily and sometimes injuriously applied. It is less sanctioned at the Veteri-
nary College than formerly, as a check to the rage for practising it on every
occasion : but it is to be hoped that, in avoiding one evil, we may not fall into a
greater, by the disuse of a valuable remedy on proper occasions. Firing is per-
formed on horses for two purposes : one for the forming of a permanent bandage
to a part, which it does by destroying the elasticity of the skin and lessening
its surface : the other, that of raising an active inflammation, and thereby excit-
ing absorption. Sometimes it is used to answer one of those pm-poses only ;
and sometimes it is performed to promote both conjointly. The Arabs fire the
joints of their young colts to strengthen them by the constant bandage the cica-
trix forms to the part. Some English breeders of blood horses have done the _
same, but the practice is rare, and in my own opinion not philosophical, and con-
sequently it must be erroneous. Of the blood horse we expect superior loco-
motive powers : the Arab values his steed by his speed : the imagery of his
poetry in derived from the swiftness of his paces ; and the English race-horse
likewise is estimated in the exact ratio of his fleetness. Firing acts as a bandage
to healthy parts, but there are few persons who have to run a race that fetter
their health]/ hmbs with bandaging : the skin is by nature made elastic, that it
may dilate to the swelled muscle, or to the pressure of the bent joint : whatever,
therefore, corrugates the skin, and permanently lessens its dilatability, must
fetter and confine the motion of the limbs, and thus impede the velocity of pro-
gression. The same will apply also to the adult horse in even a greater degree ;
and though we do hear of some racers who have lost little of their speed after
firing, yet, unless performed so lightly as to effect but little alteration on the
part, it must tend somewhat to obstruct motion. Osmer remarks, ' that con-
tracting the fibres of the skin by firing will impede the velocity of motion.'
There must, however, arise cases when, all other remedial plans having failed,
it would be madness not to have recourse to this even in the racer. _ Firing is
nevertheless more used as a cure of disease, and as a paUiative of its effects,
than as a direct preventive, and is principally apphed to fulfil the following im-
portant indications : — by raising an artificial inflammation to lessen a morbid
one already existing, and by offering a powerful stimulus to the absorbents to
remove injurious deposits. Suhordinately it is intended to act as well remediaUy,
and in palliation of the consequences of former disease, as preventively of new
inroads of the same. We use cauterization to combat inflammation when we
pour hot water on the pasterns to relieve pneumonia ; or when we di-aw a large
heated surface over the integuments of the belly in enteritis. But we do not,
in general cases, apply the actual cautery to parts themselves in a state of active
inflammation, particularly of muscular and other vascular tissues ; but in slow
unhealthy processes, where the existing inflammation is the consequence of re-
action produced by such morbid processes going on, here we fire with great
confidence. Such cases are found in bony exostoses, and in the thickened state
of the tendons and ligaments still suffering under the effects of former distention

•

• The actual cautery liaii never wholly f.illcn into disucc in human surgery, from the time of Hip-
pocrates to the piesent; but it has sluinhered among Europeans for the last half century : there is,
however, n)uch leason to believe it will be again revived into inoie general use than heretofore.
liOrrey and other French surgeons favour its application. JJnron Rust, of Berlin, considers it us a
most powerful and efficacious remedy. Sir A. Carlisle advocates a sort of mediate liring, by a
metallic substance heated in boiling water, and applied on the pait, wetted silk heiiig interposed
between the metal .and skin. Many surgeons use the actual cautery in poisoned wounds, and in the
extension of tlie original lesion in traumatic tetanus: and, without doubt, it would be much more
employed, were it not I'oi the fears and prejudices of ihc public.

574 FIRING.

or lesion. It has, however, been said, that we ought never to fire when the
object IS only to excite inflammation of the skin, and when the after support is
not a consideration. The dogma is good, but it should have been accompanied
with limitations ; and pressure should have been substituted for support. We
fire the skin over a splint, spavin, or ring-bone, simply with a ^dew to excite
inflammation in such skin, without any view to future support. We hope by its
means to engage the neighbouring vessels in a new action, thereby to lessen the
secretion of bone ; and also to force the absorbents to take up part of that ex-
ostosis already deposited. We also hope to gain much after the inflammation in
the skin is removed, by the pressure of its cicatrices, which will long, continue
its stimulating effects on the remaining tumour. Some of the greatest and
most durable benefits we derive from firing we thus see are gained through the
medium of inflammation ; and it is this view that has given rise to the custom
of applying a blister over the cauterized surface, both to increase and protract
the inflammation. The result is absorption, and this is our grand agent when
we attempt the reinstatement of some injured organs. The parts we cauterize
are usually tendinous, ligamentous, and bony, all which, as having little vascu-
larity, are endowed with a less share of the powers of life ; they therefore do not
so readily fall into disease as muscular and other parts more highly organized ;
but they are equally subjected to injury, when their inferior powers render them
kss capable of reinstating themselves from accidental lesion, or of combatin"
with direct morbid attacks. We are therefore forced into violent measures to
bring these parts into a healthy action. When an effusion of lymph has taken
place throughout the cellular and ligamentous connexions of thecas, tendons,
and articular surfaces, probably deranging the very internal structure of the
tendons themselves, it is evident that parts must be glued, as it were, together
into a tumid mass, which should be completely distinct to perform their func-
tions properly*. We may here blister repeatedly, and may gain some benefit,
but we lose much time : nor is that all ; if we fire, we apply a much higher
stimulus, and none but a high one will do : often we gain our end at once ; and
we gain more ; for, by tightening the skin, we keep up pressure as a stimulus
to future absorption, and gain a permanent bandage. Here, then, firing acts
according to the last of my indications on this subject ; that is, it acts remedially
and in palliation of the consequences of former disease, as well as preventively
of fresh attacks of the same. The immediate cases which call for firing are dis-
persed through the body of the work ; and although I have stated that it is
much more efficient in action than a blister, yet it is infinitely more painful,
and therefore should never be resorted to where the end might be obtained
otherwise. Blisters promote absorption, and, when the horse can be spared to
have them repeated, they are very active agents : and, as they leave no blemish,
they deserve, in many instances, to be preferred. It has been very common to
blister also immediately after firing, but the practice is on the wane, and hu-
manity directs that it should be discontinued whenever not imperatively called
for; but I would not recommend the practitioner to be deterred by popular
outcry to do whatever is necessary for the benefit of his patient. When it is of
consequence to keep up the irritation in future, or even to increase it at the
present, which we dare not do by deeper firing, or by lines too near each other,

• Mr. Turner, in his paper on deep firing, which appeared in the Lancet of September 1830, thus
admirably describes this state, as it is often found in tlie fetlocl*- joint. ' I will suppose a tumour op.
the inner or the outer ancle contiguous to either of the sesamoid bones; this a very frequent cause
of lameness, the pulley-liVe joint formed by the sesamoid bones being more or less involved; this
enlargement or bulge is to be mi t with rather more frequently on the inside of the fetlock joint, very
near to the cutting place, but distinguishable from the elfects of striking, in an instant, by the
experienced eye: it is a diffused swelling, consisting of a condensation of cellular tissue and lymph
effused under the skin, vi'hile the integuments preserve their original or natural thinness ; but there is
usually an accompaniment which completely stamps the character of the enlargement, viz. a slight
projection or thickening of the inner or outer branch of the suspensory ligament, as may happen to
be the alfected side, just below the bifurcation; the other parts of the leg may be sound and clean,
and the patient tolerably free from lameness whilst at rest, but when put to ordinary work, lameness
ensues immediately. I need scarcely add, that this consolidation of parts originak's, in nine cases out
of ten, in a sprain of the elastic suspensory ligament. Sometimes both sides of the joint are similarly
alfected.'

FIRING.

575

then blistering immediately after firing is admissible. Such cases occur in very
great and old indurations of one immediate part, ligamentary or osseous ; but
when firing is applied to four stale extremities, or even to two, which present
only the ordinary appearances of disease, it is not only unnecessary, but it is
wantonly cruel, and, what perhaps will be more deterring, it is dangerous also,
and has proved destructive.

The viode of cauterization differs according to circumstances. As a general
rule it ought, of course, to be applied in the direction of the hair, by which the
blemish is lessened; but this rule cannot be arbitrarily followed, although it
ought to do away with all the false pride of exhibiting critical figures by the
cicatrices. The Veterinary College recommends that the limbs be always fired
in perpendicular lines, the reasons for which are obvious. If it be applied as a
bandage, in no direction can it corrugate the skin in so effective a manner as
one inversely to the action as well as enlargements of the. parts. When the
principles of the action of the cautery are understood, all attention to particular
forms or figures in the cicatrices which are lefl, beyond what are suggested by
the medical consequences to be expected from it, are fanciful or empirical.
Some cast the horse ; many others perform it standing : there is a sort of
' esprit du corps ' among veterinarians, to perform the most desperate operations
without casting ; and certainly there is this excuse, that once in nearly a hundred
cases a fractured vertebra may occur ; but there are such things as fractured
limbs, ribs, and skulls, happening to the attendants also without it : however,
every one to their fancy ; mine has always been to cast the horse to fire, having
first cut or shaved the hair as closely as possible. The junior practitioner may
chalk the lines he means to make, or the cloud of smoke may obscure the
vision : the experienced artist would disdain this. The irons used are of various
shapes and dimensions ; as the searing-iron for docking, the budding-iron for
cavities, and the lunettes in great variety for linear firing, with many others.
All firing-irons should be sufficiently thick to retain the heat, and should never
be heated to a white, but to a red heat only : and in firing in lines, care should
be taken that, by repeated heating, the instrument does not gain too sharp an
edge, or the skin may be fired through, which, although it is by Mr. Turner
now advocated, and very properly so in some desperate cases, is not even yet
a general practice. When therefore it is not intended to operate by deep firing, as
it is called, be mindful after each heating to rub the edge of the firing-iron
moderately, thereby to round it, and also to remove any loose scoriae that may
be attached. The best mode of heating the irons, of which there should always
be three or four, is by means of, a charcoal fire in a chaffing-dish, placed not
far from the operator, which wiU save much trouble, and greatly expedite the
business. In spite of the account of deep firing presented to us by Mr. Turner
as a safe and more efiective plan*, I cannot but caution the junior practitioner to

• This mellind of Mr. Turner's he introduces to our notice by a slight sketch of what he calls
superficial firing, as practiced at the Veterinary College, and as recommended by Mr. Percivall and
by myself, which he contrasts with his own thus: ' Viewing the other method, niy practice in firing
of horses has convinced me, that the success of the operation, if performed for the removal of
lameness, wliere the ordinary means have failed, whether situate in a joint or a sinew, depends
solely on making each separate line or incision, from end to end, completely through the skin or
common integuments, cutis as well as cuticle, and boldly exposing the cellular tissue, forming the
immediate covering of ligaments, tendons, periosteum, &c. ; witli all due caution, of course, not to
pass the instrument so near as to wound or sear these impoitant structures. Wlien tlie part operated
on happens to be the inside of the hock, a case of spavin, for instance, all the dexterity, tact, talent,
and nerve of the experienced practitioner will he in requisition ; for while he strenuously exerts him-
self amid the struggles of his patierrt, he revolves in his mind the absolute necessity of his instrument
reaching the surface of the disease itself; and yet, on the other hand, he has to consider the paramount
necessity of avoiding a puncture of the capsule of the joint. With respect to additional cruelty
attending this mode of firing, I admit that it is a natural inference to draw ; but I doubt the fact, for
this reason— less tumefaction follows my method than atteirds the other next best plan of firing, which
consists in passing the instrument all through the skin at the time of the operation, so that the
remaining portion ulcerates through in the course of the suppurative process, by about the third or
fourth day. Now, when we reflect that there is no organ more abundantly supplied with nerves than
the skin of ahorse, it must be obvious that we diminish, instead of increase, the sufferings of our
patrent by perfect, rather than the partial lesion of such organization.' Mr. Turner in addition
observes, ' that both himself and brother have practised these deep incisions by cautery successfully
for a series of years, and that nevertheless they defy the world to say that a single mishap has
occurred from the severity of the operation.' From talented and most respectable practitiorrcrs, as

^"^^ FlllING.

avoid penetrating the cuticle. Deep firing in the hands of Mr. Turner may be verv
excellent practice. We know it to be so ; but in the hands of a junior veterinarian
It may not prove so. Deep firing may be, nay, I know it is, more adapted to meet
the exigencies of many cases, and with much care is often attended with nmch
benefit and no serious consequences : it has occasionally, under my own direct
knowledge, produced great constitutional disturbance and extensive slouThiug
particularly when a bursal cavity has been penetrated. Nevertheless, under the
sanction of such high authority as that of Mr. Turner, every practitioner in
desperate cases, need npt hesitate to fire a single joint or tendinous enlarge-
ment after this method ; but it should only be in such cases, and hkcwise where
the animals could be placed directly under the practitioner's own eye. I am
now disposed to think that in my own practice I did not go far enough in many
instances ; for I very seldom fired through the skin ; but 1 should be much more
bold now, being fully convinced that desperate diseases render the use of des-
perate remedies necessary. It is true that in exostoses, as ring-bone, splint, and
spavin, I did fire deeply; but it was usually done with a fine and slight iron, often
a sharp budding-iron, with which, as it were, I bored slight holes through the
integument and periosteum : in the former I did it but very lightly, in the latter
rather more deeply. Even these cases were often followed with a high degree of
inflammation ; though I never had occasion for alarm but once ; and I certainly
had reason to think that I had, in most of these cases, gained much by the
depth of cauterization ; but in some I had little to boast of; and until the
practice is become familiar, I would recommend the practitioner to be on the
safe side. When it is not intended that blistering should immediately follow on
the firing, nothing more need be applied unless the weather be very hot, in
which case a small quantity of tar may be rubbed on, and some loose tow
wrapped over, which will keep the flies from annoying the part : after the third
day, gently rub over some oil, or other greasy matter daily, to prevent a crack-
ing of the skin. It may be well to observe, that the benefit derived from firing
is not always immediate ; on the contrary, it often does not shew itself for some
weeks after ; the reason of which is, that the continued pressure occasioned by
the cicatrix left, being a constant stimulant to the part underneath, the requisite
absorption is at length cflTected. It shews the versatility of the mind in framing
new theories and new practices, or rather of brushing-up and re-clothing old
ones, to observe, that while Mr. Turner is endeavouring to promulgate deep
jirivg^ M. Gelle, Assistant Professor at Alfort, is attempting to revive the old
custom of moderate or mediate firing, recommended by Sollysel*.

those arc known to be, tliese assertions carry great weight with them in favour of our pushing this
operation, in urgent cases, to a wider limit tliaii \vc hitherto dared on ordinary occasions to do. It is,
however, to be observed, that tlie-e gentlemen never perform after this manner (in tlieir own words)
' so far from home as to preclnde tlie po-F-ibility or convenience of almost daily watching our patient,
and therefore, by never having allowed inordimite iiij/ammntiun to have gained a day's march on
us:' by which we may learn, that it is to the admirable watchfulness of tiiese practitioners in their
early attack of tlic conseiiiicnoes, more than the total absence of danger, that the success of the method
depends.

• The following are extracted from the report of M. Gellc on the benefits of moderate firing
through the medium of bacon rind, for the treatment of osseous tumours, as suggested by jM. Du-
trosne, V.S., in T/ic Dictionary of Ai;riculture , for the cure of wiudgalls, capped hocks, par-
ticularly of exostosis, splints, piirhs, spavins, &c. ' This means, which consists in taking the rind
of bacon, with a small poition of the fat, and plaf:ing it upon the part to be tired, the grease touching
the liair, and to draw over the rind a red-hot iron, of which the application is continued several times,
and at short intervals, until the bacon is nearly melted away, leaving no blemish; an incalculable
advantage, as it sets aside the difficulty usually raised by owners of horses, when veterinarians pro-
pose hring. In order for this operation to succeed, it is necessary that the ossilication shall not have
been of long standiui.', nor totally devoid of sensibility ; that we excite the part, by means of mercurial
frictions, some days before the opei ation ; and that, to facilitate absorption it is needful to continue
the frictions afterwards. The rind ought to 1)0 thick, and covered with a layer of a fat line (an eii;hlh
of an inch) in thickness, so that the heat may penetrate gradually, in oiderlhat the operation may be
longer; also that the liring-irons should be warmed to less than a cherry-red tempoiature. They
should lie small, and passed lightly by intervals, desciibing a circular turn,' over a space larger than
the part to be cauterized." The principal benefit this olfers over blistering (for it may I'e considered
in the light of the bat, who belonged to neither bird nor beast, as cither tiring or blistering) is in its
superior activity, without leaving any permanent blemish, which activity is derived from the very
high temperatuic of boiling oil over lh.it of water. This mediute lii ing admits of many modifications
in human surgery, and, by the accounts rendered by M. Gclle, is very effective in veteliuary practice
alio.

577

BLISTERING.

This is an operation of very great utility, and is, perhaps, 'coinpared with
its benefits and importance, the safest that is performed. When a vesicatory
becomes absorbed through the pores of the skin, it inflames the sensible cutis
underneath ; the consequence of which is a determination of serum to the part,
•which, in the human, elevates the cuticle into a bladder equal to the surface
inflamed: but in the horse, from the greater tenacity of the cuticular con-
nexions, it becomes separated in the form of small distinct vesicles only. If
the irritating cause be quickly removed, the serum may be reabsorbed, and the
surface restored by a slight effort of adhesive inflammation. If the irritant act
in a still minor degree, it simply irritates the vessels of the cutis to an infiltra-
tion of fluid through the sensible pores, but produces no desquamation of
cuticle : such has been called, and not so erroneously as supposed, a sweating
blister. But when by continued irritation, or by denuding the surface by rup-
turing the vessels, the cutis is exposed, suppuration succeeds, and the part is
fully bhstered. The salutary action of blisters is exerted in several ways, in
promoting absorption, in combating deep-seated inflammations, and in aiding
others. As a stimulus to the absorbents, they act beneficially in the removal
of injurious deposits, as the coagula remaining after inflammatory lesions con-
sequent on strains or hgamentary extensions ; and we expect them to act bene-
ficially also in the same way when we apply them to the exostoses of spUnts and
spavins. But it is to be remarked, that when any existing deposit is of long
continuance, or is osseous, it requires that the action of the vesicatory be kept
up, either by repeated active blistering, or by a frequent renewal of a milder
kind of the original blister, or by a daily application of the ointment of savine.
(See Mat. Med.) Mercurial blisters have been thought to have a superior
influence in accelerating absorption. I was once of the same opinion ; but I
now believe it to be very doubtful, whether any mercurial preparation mixed
with other vesicating articles acts in any other way than as it vesicates or pro-
duces an es(;har : and that mercurials, rubbed in some weeks or days previously
to blistering, are great assistants, and should always be employed in the treatment
of obstinate osseous or Hgamentary enlargements. Blisters are very important
aids, in inflammatory affections, as counter-irritants, derived from a law in the
animal economy, that two inflammations seldom' exist in the vicinity of each
other ; tlierefore, when such an affection has taken place in any part, and we
wish to remove it, we attempt to raise an artificial inflammation in the neigh-
bourhood by means of bhsters ; which, if we effect, we remove, or at least lessen,
the original one. Thus, in inflammatory affections of the lungs, bowels, &c.,
it is proper to bhster the chest, belly, &c., very extensively, by which means the
vascular action may be removed from the vital organs to parts of less importance.
Occasionally also we blister the immediate inflamed part, as in phlegmon or
abscess, with a view to hasten the suppurative process by increasing" the activity
of the vessels, which in some cases are somewhat tardy, as in deep-seated
abscesses, and also in those which attack glandular parts. We, therefore, employ
blisters to hasten the maturation of the tumours in strangles. In these lingering
phlegmonous inflammations, blisters are peculiarly indicated, by their capability
of acting either in retarding or promoting the inflanuuation existing in a part,
as the case may be. When the flagging powers vacillate between resolution
and suppuration, as they often do in tlie phlegmonous inflammations of glandular
or of deep-seated parts, blisters may either act as derivatives, and hasten the
resolution, if the tendency so inclines, or they may add their influence to the
attempted suppuration, and thus shorten the process in that way ; for when it
is long delayed it is always to be dreaded in either of the situations specified.
But we carefully avoid, in other cases, af)plying a vesicant to a ]iart innnediately
in a state of active inflammation: particularly we should avoid wiiat is too
often done, that of blistering over the tendons, ligaments, and articulatory sur-
faces of a tumid limb, labouring under a coiigested state of the parts from

o o

578 BLISTERING.

excess of vascular action still going on, consequent to strain or other violence.
Here we should do great injury were we to blister, by promoting a greater de-
posit of lymph, and by hastening its organization into an injurious bond of
union between the inflamed parts, whose functions require them to exist free
and distinct. The vesicatory, or blister for general use in veterinary medicine,
as a simple stimulant, should be principally composed of Spanish flies only.
(See Blisters in the Materia Mediea.) Cheaper substitutes are used, but they
irritate violently : in extensive inflammatory affections, they are on this account
perfectly inadmissible ; and wherever a case requires any thing more it will
be noted. TJie mode of blistering is sufliiciently known. The hair should be
cut or shorn as close as possible from around the part ; the blistering matter
should then be well rubbed in for ten or fifteen minutes ; on which thorough
application of it much of its operation depends : having done this, smooth it
down, and spread a little more on the surface with a spatula. If the pasterns
and fetlocks are the parts to be blistered, previous to rubbing in the ointment,
smear some lard, tallow, or melted suet, over the heels, and within the hollow
at the back of the small pastern. This will often prevent grease or trouble-
some sores from forming, from the blistering ointment falling on these parts.
Another caution is also necessary to be observed with regard to this operation,
which is, that when a horse is much out of condition, particularly in the autumn
or winter, and is blistered behind, the suppurative surface is veiy apt to de-
generate into the diseased state of grease, and to produce much trouble. In
such cases, therefore, if blistering cannot be avoided, much caution is required
in the operation, as well as to prepare the animal for it. While a blister is
acting, the litter should be removed from under the feet, or it will tickle the
legs, and irritate : the horse should also have hay or other food constantly
before him, which will draw off" his attention and quiet the pain ; but, above all,
his head ought to be most carefully secured, for two days and nights, to prevent
him lying down, more especially to prevent him biting the blistered part : and
unless this be particularly attended to, the irritation will make him tear and
disfigure himself much. On the third evening he may be permitted to lie
down ; but a prevention should even then be continued, by means of what is
called a cradle, which should also be put on the moment the blister begins to
be troublesome, as an assistant security. This apparatus may be bought ready
at turning shops ; or may be made of eight or ten pieces of round wood, an
inch and a half in diameter, and two feet long : these are strung at each end
on a rope, and fastened around the neck, by which the horse is effectually pre-
vented from bending his neck to bite or tear himself. When it is intended to
blister repeatedly, the effects of the first should have completely subsided before
the blister is renewed ; the scurf and scabs also be cleared away, and the part
well washed with soap and water, which will free it from any matter that might
obstruct the action of the renewed blister. In all cases, the third or fourth day
after the application the part should be well rubbed with some lard, palm
oil, or other greasy matter, to prevent the skin cracking and chapping ; and
when it is proposed to turn a horse out afterwards, it should never be done
until the whole blistered surface be quite healed, otherwise dirt, flies, &c., may
prove hurtful. I would also add to what has been already said on this subject,
that in blistering for exostoses, as ringbones, sphnts, spavins, and also for liga-
mentary indurations of long standing, by farriers called ' callusses,'^ I would
recommend to rub the part well with mercurial ointment once or twice a-day
for a week or ten days before the blister is applied ; by which means the eflicacy
and action of the blister appear to be increased. It remains to observe, that,
instead of repeated active blistering, it is in some cases preferable to keep up
a continual slight irritation on the original bhster by means of stimulants, as
turpentine, savine ointment, mild blistering ointment, &c. : caution is however
necessary to avoid forming an eschar, and thereby a permanent blemish ; but
when a blemish is not of consequence, this plan will be found often inore effica-
cious than firing, as in splints, spavins, &c. Some practitioners blister mildly
one day, and on the next wash off the blistering matter, and thereby save the

ROWELLFNG— SETONS. 579
loss of iKiir. But there is more of appearance than of reality in this plan. If
a blister be necessary, it requires all its activity ; if it can be dispensed with,
and yet some stnnulant be wanting, use the following, which will equally save
the hau-, and promote a longer action. h j v

■ Sjveating BHsters.-This term is made use of among farriers to imply a
moderately active stimulant, generally of a liquid kind, that, while it wiU rouse
the absorbents, yet will not excoriate, raise the cuticle, or cause a separation of
hair, but wdl stimulate the vessels to a serous discharge, and occasion, as is
supposed, a transpiration of fluid matter, or a effect, wherebv accu-

mulations are removed in the latter stages of muscular and ligamentary strains,
as those of the shoulder, hip, stifle, and some others; in which it will be seen
1 have sometimes recommended this plan. The mode I generally adopt to effect
It IS this: I apply the liquid stimulant (see Sweating Blisters in Mat. Med)
d[frLnri??> ''^\*K-^ the irritability of the skin", which varies much In
different habits; rubbing in dady a sufficient quantity, so that on the third or
fourth day, but not before a considerable tumefaction or swelling shaU appear
I then desist, and suffer the sweUing to subside, when I frequently find that [t
;? not," repeatlt. ' ^^^^^^^^^^^ P^-^-l^ ^-«^-g' - weu\s th'e lameness!

ROWELLING.

Rowels act like blisters, by inflaming the surface, whereby more deep-seated
mflammations are removed : but it is evident they cannot act either so quickly
r^uvT^ '^""^^q^f'^tly we see the error of aUowing them to supply thi
SnvlLt T extensive visceral affections : they are, however, often more
convenient and more permanent in their action. The common mode of making

on aTv nnrT nf 'ff ^ f ^ fl^^""^ «f the rowel scissor!

hlnd^Inf L • ^°teguments held_ between the finger and thumb, with the
handle of the scissors separate from its ceUular connexions a circle of two or
three inches m diameter, into which is introduced something to prevent the
reunion of the skin. A piece of circular leather, tolerably stiff, with rcentral

of 'he'cSStrrr "r"^' ^'^J^'^^^^ toVsome on accoun

of the difficulty of changing it without injuring the skin, but which, however

J ut eTth"e;fh k'"^' f "^"'"^ ^"-^^^ ''^^ly introduced into this civky !

fi St ilTtfon ^^^^^ smeared over with some digestive ointment: at the

S^f n K ^ J ^'P^^^ '° bhstering ointment. If it runs fi-eelv it

it i? of Lt^'''^ f"l' by <=hangi°g the plug, if of tow, and by ckai Sng

comfort of the'bov.r^'T)'^""^^ ^'^""''^ '^'^^'^ ^a^' fo^" the

twlf / T'^^y ^e^y favourite appUcations with farriers and

whereriM,!"'^."".' r^"'"'^' V ^eing employed in aU eases indiscrin^nately ;
whereas t is evident they are principaUy applicable to those of plethora or of

Ln/rrWrdrr^'f t"" r^'T'^ They are also us'ef^l whenever

Ktlnt^wL^of th^^^^^^^^ - ^^-^^-^ ^1-'-^-

SETONS

vp/'L?"'' ^^t^f"^^^semble rowels, but are more convenient in their application

a of fh^^',^" T '"'"^^^^'^ ^ ^ Thereby

a part ot the body where a seton may not be conveniently placed • thev h-ivP
been put around the eye, and even within the lids. They have dso been
the arm .^^^^hors, and brought out. at the point of the Jhoulder, or unde
the arm, &c. ; so capacious and so diminutive can they be made. In sinuous
ulcers not only of the withers, but also of the neck in p^ll-evil ; in all b Jsse"
and m diseases of the navicular bone, their wide-spi4ad use s acknowkZd
In cavernous sores they arc entered at the superior^.art, and are b oSt
with it tr.'-'" ''^Z d'^P^r^hhg orifice; thus the pus formed drains off an
with it the diseased secretions. The formation of a seton is very simple a

o o 2

580 ABSTRACTION OF BLOOD, OR BLEEDING.

skein of thread, or a piece of tape of a convenient size, from the most bulky to
the most diminutive, may any one be used : at the one end place a large knot
many times folded, to give it substance : arm the eye of a corresponding sized
seton needle by the other end ; introduce this, smeared over with some digestive
ointment, into any proposed part, and, bringing it out at some other, either
jnake another knot, or tie the two ends of the tape together, but which method
of fastening is often objected to, from the danger of its catching in something,
and then tearing out, to the disfigurement of the horse. When a seton is placed
in a sinuous track for the purpose of inflaming, it is moved twice a day fre-
quently, and moistened at each time with some stimulant, as oil of turpentine,
tincture of aloes and of benjamin. All setons require daily cleaning and
moving.

ABSTRACTION OF BLOOD, OR BLEEDING.

Arteriotomy. — Blood is abstracted by opening the sanguiferous vessels, both
arterial and venous; when by the former, it is called arteriotomy; when by the
latter, it is known as phlebotomy. Some bleedings include both these opera-
tions ; as general scarifications of the soft parts, bleeding at the toe point, divi-
sions of the vessels of the cornea, &c. &c. Bloodletting is called local when it
is practised on or very near the affected part, on which it is supposed to act more
effectually than general bleeding, because it empties the vessels of the part sud-
denly, and of that principally : it also does it pi'obably when the constitution is
not in a state to bear a sufficient general abstraction, and even should it be other-
wise local bleeding does not supersede general bleeding ; thus, while we open
the jugular, we may at the same time puncture the toe in founder, scarify the
conjunctiva in ophthalmia, or apply leeches; or we may cup any other part.
Local bleeding is therefore usually practised on the minor branches of the arte-
ries and veins, as on the temporal artery, the superficial bronchial or plate vein,
the saphena or thigh vein, &c. — Leeches are a means of local bleeding not often
used by us in veterinary practice ; but there is no reason whatever why they
should not ; they have been applied to the eye, and occasionally to other parts,
also; they adhere readily, and abstract blood rapidly, and therefore might be
valuable aids in violent local inflammation. — Cupping is also practised in France
and other parts of the continent with very large glasses, and it is there supposed
to act remcdially in many local inflammations. By general bleeding we under-
stand the depletion of the system at large from the more immediate source of
circulation ; and this we practise in all extensive inflammations, in which we con-
sider that lessening the general quantity throughout the whole as necessary, both
for the welfare of the part and as our only means frequently of local application
of the principles of depletion. Any instructions on the different methods of
bleeding will be rendered most useful when accompanied by an anatomical
sketch of the situation and connexion of the vessels from whence blood is taken ;
indeed, without this the practitioner travels unguided, and 'is often misled. He
is directed to penetrate the jugular, but it is of much importance that he shoiild
know whereabout he is to do it : in one part he may at once puncture the vein,
the artery, and the windpipe, and drown the animal in his own blood ; in another
part he may cut through so thick a coating of muscular matter as to make phleg-
monous inflammation almost inevitable ; or he may divide either a recurrent or a
par vagum nerve. Arteriotomy is not very frequently practised on the horse ;
there are occasions, however, when it may be usefully employed.

Division, of the temporal artery was thought to be essential to depletmg the
globe of the" eye, but which I have elsewhere shewn it can but have httle effect
in doino- : it may, however, be prudent to open it in phrenitis or staggers, and
sometimes in angina it may afford much relief The proper spot for cither
its puncture or division is in "the track of its course where it leaves the parotid,
and curves upwards and forwards around the jaw, a little below its condyle.
(See plate 4, and description, p. 196.) When it is pMwc/MmZ it affords most
blood usually, and in such case, when enough has been obtained, dmde the rc-

ABSTRACTION OF BLOOD, OR BLEEDING. 581
luaining trunk ; when the receding portions becoming pressed by the integu-
ments and bv their own muscularity besides, stop the haemorrhage. It should be
punctured by a lancet ; a fleam may wound the periosteum, and even hx itselt ni
the bone : its division can be readily made also either by a lancet or scalpel.—
Dividon of the vessels of the conjunctive coats, either of the globe or the bds,_ in-
cludes both arteriotomy and phlebotomy, and is readily operated by fine sections
with a sharp lancet. . , , ,

Bleeding by the palate is also a species of arterio-phlebotomy, and is a very
favourite spot for abstracting blood with farriers in many cases, but particularly
in spasmodic colic or gripes, and in meagrims or epilepsy ; in the latter of which
it may with propriety be done. In such cases, however, a want of knowledge of
the anatomy of the parts has occasioned a serious hsemorrhage to occur : it may
prove a fatal one if the vessel of the part be divided incompletely. The pala-
tine vessels and nerve run near each other, on each side of the roof of the mouth,
passing up so as to divide the surface of the palate into three nearly equal portions.
No other than a direct division of the bloodvessel should be made ; therefore,
when bleeding is determined on here for the purpose of abstracting a full flow of
bood from the head, as in staggers, epilepsy, &c., it is to be done by plunging a
lancet or even a pen-knife in a direct line across the rugae, one inch within the
mouth, exactly between the middle and second nippers, where these vessels form a
curve, and which curve will then be divided, and wiU yield three or four pints of
blood'. If the instrument enter too much on one side, as about the middle of the
second nipper, then a partial and longitudinal division of the artery may be made,
and an alarming hicmorrhage may follow. In this case the section must be en-
larged and deepened outwards, that is, towards the teeth, which will completely
sever the vessel, and its retraction will stop the ha;morrhage. A moderate or
slight flow of blood from the palate may be obtained by light scarifications of
the rugae : but aU bleedings here, except under circumstances of the most urgent
necessity, bad better be avoided*.

Bleeding by the toe is also arterio-phlebotomy, as it divides the circulus
arteriosus and the venous meshwork at the same time. By no means cut out a
portion of the sole at the point of the frog, which frequently occasions abscess
and even canker ; but with a very fine di-awing-knife cut down exactly in the
line of union between the crust of the sole and of the walls, and then, by punc-
turing the part with a lancet, a vast flow of blood may be obtained, the benefits
of which in some cases are very marked, particularly in acute founder. If the
blood should not flow with sufiicient freedom, place the foot in warm water : the
bleeding finished, cover the puncture, and hghtly tack on the shoe. Sometimes
the plantar vein is opened as a substitute, and now and then the frog is punctured

• The ingenious writer of the article Horse, in The Library of Useful Knorvled^c, lias inserted
a very accurate and useful sketch of the course of the palatine arteries ; and Hurtrel :l'Arlioval, with
his accustomed detail, has furnished us with the directions of Chahert for the performance of palate
bleeding, as follows: ' Selon Chabert, la pointe d'un bistouri courbe bien alBlee, tel que celuidit a
serpette, ou la lancctte cachee, sont des instrumens trfes faciles a introduirc daps la houche, fi
I'endroit des barres. La lancette caehee ct a ressort n'fetant pas usitee, nous n'en diroiis rien de plus.
Voici comment Chabert s'exprime sur la manifere de proccder a la seignfee du palais, en se servant du
bistouri courbe. Tiiez la lame du bistouri de son manche, faites-lui nar courir un quart de cercle ;
saisissez-la avec le ponce et I'index de la main dioite, et a trois lignes (sept millimetres) de sa pointe,
le troisieme et le quatrieme doigt reposant sur le reste Je la lame, le petit doigt place du cfltfe du
pouce, ct portant sur la tete du clou sur lequel la lame se nieut; le rcstant du manche hors do la
main,'et dans la direction de I'annulaire et du petit doigt. Ordonnez k I'aide charge de tcnir Ic
nialade de saisir les branches du bridon avec sa main gauche, tandis que sa main droite sera occupee
a tenir hors de la bouche I'extremite de la langue de I'animal. Saisissez de la main non occupee de
I'instrumcnt le bout du ncz de I'animal ; soulevez-le avoc assez de force pour lui ouvrir la bouche;
passcz ensuite dans cettc partie la main armfee ile I'instrument; dirigcz-cn la pointe dans le milieu du
cinqui^me sillon, i'l coinptie des pinces ; enfoncez d'environ deux lignes (quatre a cinq millimetres) ;
prolor.gez, par un second temps, I'incision jusqu'au trolsiimc sillon. La nigoslte fetaill incisee
transversalemcnt dans sa partie moyenne, letirez votre instrument, abandonnez le ncz du nialude ;
que I'aidc lir.he la langue, le sang sortira, et I'opcration sera faite. Aprfes avoir eoule en assez
grande quantile, il (le sang) s'arrfttc ordinairemcnt de lui-mfime. S'il ne s'arrGtait pas ainsi, ayez
recours 4 une eponge imbihec dc quelque liqueur astritigente, que vous aiirez soin de faire tenir sur
la plaie ; et, dans le cas oil re moyen ne suflirait pas encote, chargez un plumasseau d'agarie en
poudre, que vous fcrcz tenir sur cette meme partie, jusqu"ili'ce que Ic sang soit enli6rcment"(;tanchi;
j'ai vu une hemorrhagic assez rebclle pour ne cider qu'a uflc cbnipression lorte, longue et ronslante.'
yoi/cz I'art. Lampas, ou nous sommes entr6a dans quelqtrps kutvea details rclutil's taut i cette saigiiec
qu'a ses suites. * ^

582 BLEEDING BY THE JUGULAR OR NECK VEIN,

through its cleft for the same; but they are neither of them equally convenient,
safe, nor efficacious, as spots for hleediag.—Scarificaiions are also occasionally
practised, which, of course, divide both venous and arterial rami : they were for-
merly employed under an idea of arresting the progress of mortification ; but
sections made into the living parts can only reduce such parts into the same state
with the dead, and thus we should propagate the destruction. In France exten-
sive scarifications were used to be made into phlegmonous indurations before the
suppurative process had commenced, which in some cases prevented that from
going on ; and the remedial loounds made were healed by adhesive inflammation,
or by healthy granulations : the same method has also been occasionally practised
here, but it is not now often attempted.

Phlebotomy, or the division of a venous branch, is the most usual mode of
drawing blood in veterinary practice, and may be employed on any point of the
body ; but some vessels are much more frequently opened than others, and most
of all the jugular, with which I shall finish. — Bleeding by the thigh vein. The
saphena is a prominent vein, continued from the inner and fore part of the hock,
ascending obliquely up the middle part of the inside of the thigh, and may be
opened by the fleam, but with much greater safety and propriety by a lancet.
The opposite leg being held up, the operator placing himself in front of the
thigh, and steadying himself and the horse by placing one hand on the hock, may
fix the vein with the little and ring-fiinger of the other, while the lancet held be-
tween the thumb and fore finger punctures it. — Bleeding in the plate or plat-vein.
The superficial brachial vein is frequently made use of by farriers to abstract
blood from injuries real and supposed to the fore extremities. When I say mip-
posed, I allude to the thousands and tens of thousands of bleedings here for
lameness considered to have its seat in the shoulder, when it has been, probably,
in the pastern or foot. The superficial brachial or cephalic vein is a continua-
tion of the superficial division of the metacarpal veins, and in the passage up-
wards furnishes more than one supeificial branch, which may be opened to re-
lieve any injury to the radial or fore-ann vicinage ; but its principal trunk
ascends along the inner side of the radius, inclining gradually forward to the
front of the biceps to the shoulder point. This mvij be very conveniently punc-
tured by means of the lancet : the unsteady hand would find an excellent aid m
Mr. Weiss's spring lancet. It may also be well to remark, that, when taking
blood from the superficial veins of the arm or fore-arm, and any difficulty ex-
perienced in obtaining a sufficient flow of it, the lifting up of the other leg, by
throwing the muscles of the punctured one into action, will so force the blood
from the inner to the outer set, that an increased quantity may be obtained.
The spur vein, or external thoracic, is also sometimes opened, as it emerges from
behind the arm. The ingui?ial branch, also called in cows the milk-vein, and
among farriers the belly-vein, I have likewise known to be bled from by farriers :
but in these local bleedings it is very often that the disease for which they are
opened is altogether mistaken ; and when it is not, it is seldom but that a general
bleeding by the neck and a proper application to the part would have done much
better.

BliEEDING BY THE JuGULAR OE NeCK VeIN.

The situation of this important vessel is well known, but its internal con-
nexions are not so familiar, though such knowledge is essential to the uniform
safety of the operation. The horse has only an external jugular vein, a right
and a left : as each emerges from the chest, it is found deep-seated, and ap-
proaching the trachea ; it then passes forwards in company with the external
carotid artery : towards the middle of the neck it becomes more superficial,
and is now distinctly seen progressing rather above and without the carotid ar-
tery and trachea, or windpipe. The carotid, therefore, in the future course of
the jugular track, is situated a little below and ivithin the vein, having on its
outer side tiie par vagum nerve ; while the recurrent nerve courses between it
and the traclica. The jugular is also slightly separated from the carotid, the

BLEEDING BY THE JUGULAR OR NECK VEIN. 383
trachea, and these nerves, by a sUght muscular expansion given from the levator
humeri. Its further track is marked in the hollow formed by the inferior edge
of the levator humeri and the upper one of the mylo-hyoideus, where it is co-
vered by the pauniculus carnosus and integuments only; when, having reached
the prominent point of the parotid gland, within a few inches of the jaw, it
makes its well-known dwision or bifurcation into two portions; the upper being
continued under its former name, the lower as the submaxillary vein. ^ Bleeding
by the jugular is usually practised with a lancet, or with a fleam. The lancet
has the most surgical appearance, but it requires much more skill and dexte-
rity to become master of it, it being more difficult to bleed a horse than a
man by this means. The spring lancet, invented by Weiss, however, is said
to obviate much of the difficulty which young practitioners experience, who are
usually forced to open the vein at two efforts with the lancet, one through the
integuments, and the second through the coats of the vein. A Httle perse-
. verance, however, with a good lancet of a proper size and shape*, wiU render
the practice both familiar and easy. The proper spot for the puncture may
be found any where between two inches and six from the bifurcation of the
vein, or within a foot from the head : this latitude is here mentioned, because
it is' prudent to avoid puncturing directly over a former bleeding place, known
by the scar and enlargement : it should also be avoided where a little knot in
the course of the vein will sometimes detect one of the venous valves, inflam-
mation having followed from this cause. But in all ordinary cases, where these
hinderances do not appear, operate at two or three inches from the division of
the vein, which will be sufficiently evident when it is pressed on. Avoid ope-
rating low down in the neck, as there the vessel is deeper seated, has more co-
vering, and approximates the carotid artery, the trachea, and important nerves,
too closely to render it safe from danger in any resistance of the horse or slip
of the instrument. First moisten the hair and smooth it down ; then, steadying
and enlarging the vessel with one hand, with the other plunge the point into
the integuments, so as just to puncture them and the vein ; then, by a slight
turn of the wrist, carry the instrument obliquely forward to finish the cut :
for opening the smaller veins, the lancet should always be used. In all but the
well- practised hand, the jfteam is the safest instrument f, the breadth of its
shoulder being favourable to a quick and full flow without danger of puncturing
the contrary side of the vessel : when using it, it is always prudent to have the
eye of the horse covered, which I prefer to having the head turned away, as
apt to give the vein a curve that is favourable to the puncture of its opposite
parietes : unless the eye be covered, the horse will be likely to flinch at the
moment of the stroke, and the puncture may be made in any place but where
we wish. The hair being first smoothed and wetted (some cut it close, but which
is objectionable on the score of its unsightliness), and the fleam being retained
in the left hand, the unemployed fingers pressing on the vein so as to fix as well
as swell the vessel, let the star rest directly, centrally, and longitudinally on the
vein; strike it with sufficient force to penetrate the skin and vessel, but avoid
so much force as will carry the star point through its opposite side. A blood-
stick is preferable to the hand for the purpose of striking the fleam : there is a
vibration between the collision of two hard bodies when they meet, which, in this,
instance, is more favourable to a quick and moderate puncture of the vein than
a more violent stroke of the hand would produce : the re-action from a smart

• I always myself bled with a lancet of the abscess kind, with its shoulders moderately broad, one
of which was slightly concave, the other sliehtly convex : on using this lancet, the convex shoulder
was the upper; and, consequently, this inclined the point somewhat downward, for the more ready
penetration of the integuments, and the same shoulder effected the af er-enlargcmcnt of the wound
with much facility.

f The operator will do well to furnish himself with a fleam having two or three substantial blades;
not thin, to endanger its indentation into the coats of the vein, but of sufKcient subslanci- to resist all
passage of the star or lancet part beyond its limits. It is essentially necessary to have several sizes
of star or lancet part, and some variety of shape also : we should not use the same size for a pony and
a cart-horse of seventeen hands high : neither should we wish to make so immense an orifice on some
occasions a» we should on some others, as in acute inflammations for instance ; consequently, sosic
variation in the shoulder of the dillercnt stars is required.

584 BLEEDING BY THE JUGULAR OR NECK VEIN,

but not violent stroke made by the blood-stick occurs before it has reached
the opposite side of the venous tube, which further prevents danger. A liga-
ture IS very seldom necessary in bleeding, and, by distending the vessels to tur-
gidity, makes the vein more difficult to steady. Horses thus strangulated have
faUen also ; neither is it required after, the fingers, or moderate pressure from
the edge of the vessel appointed to receive the blood*, being sufficient to keep
up the flow : it may also be encouraged by forcing the horse to champ on the
bit, if he be bridled; or, if not, by putting a finger Mithin the bars: in cases
that do not forbid it, a little exercise will also distend the veins sufficiently if
they are not evident. The requisite quantity of blood being drawn, remove the
blood-can gently away from the orifice, to prevent air rushing suddenly hito the
vein, a caution I shall shew to be necessary. The remaining process of secur-
ing the vessel is of equal importance with its section ; and is sometimes produc-
tive of such very grave consequences, when injudiciously done, as to make some
avoid it altogether, contenting themselves with tying the head up to the rack,
&c., after having previously brought the lips of the wound into contact, and then'
glueing them together by passing the finger over the wound, until the blood around
begins to harden, and which method may be practised with sufficient safety in
some cases, but cannot be so done in others. In general cases, therefore, the
severed sides of the cut are first to be brought in exact opposition, without any
pinching of them, and without any drawing of them out from the vein, which
encourages blood to escape into the integuments, and the formation of abscess :
the same cautions should also be observed when the pin is introduced : let it be
small and sharp, and round it wrap a few hairs, or a little tow ; but observe that
it be lightly wrapped, otherwise it may strangulate the part and produce fester-
iiig, instead of healing at once by the adhesive process ; and this is still more
likely to happen when too large a portion of integument has been included within
the pin-hold.

The importance of abstracting blood in veterinaiy practice is incalculable.
From the extreme quickness with which most diseases of increased vascular
action run their course in the horse, it is in many cases our principal resource ;
and as the nauseating remedies are uncertain in their action, and often slow in
producing their effect, it may be considered as our sheet-anchor. It is, however,
to be observed, that the quantity of blood taken away is, in general, too small ;
for a large horse, under any important inflammatory affection, particularly if it
be early in the complaint, the first bleeding should not be less than five, six, or
seven quarts. In staggers and inflamed lungs, a still larger quantity may be
drawn at the first operation. In all other cases not specified, or where nothing
particular prevents, three or four quarts maybe taken, according to the age, size,
and strength of the animal, &c. In all acute inflammations it is of great conse-
quence to draw the blood from a large orifice, and as quickly as may be : the in-
creased action of the vascular fiystem appears to be more readily checked by a
sudden evacuation of blood ; probably from a sympathetic eflfect, by which the
vessels recover their tone by a hasty depletion. Certain it is, that in the horse,
as in man, a moderate quantity only, taken rapidly away, will often operate more
favourably in giving an effective check to an acute inflammation, than a much
larger quantity will do taken slowly, or taken at twice. Blood-letting is also
important as a criterion of the state of disease ; certain appearances of the ab-
stracted fluid presenting certain indications of extreme importance to our treat-
ment. See Nature and Properties oj the Blood, p. 204. See also The Pulse-
p. 129.

Common, however, as this operation is, and qualified as every one thinks
himself to perform it, yet there are very serious accidents which do occasionally
attend: these I will just glance at, as both cautionary and remedial. The most
frequent is that phlegmonous inflammation of the integuments, and sometimes

• In drawing blood it should be an invariable rule never to let it fall on the ground : it should not
only be received into a vessel, but into one by which the quantity can be accurately. judged ; for
which purpose, in every well-repulatcd stable there should he a tin uieasnre that will bold six, seven,
or eight quails, graduated into pints and quarts, into which the blood should always be drawn.

OF PURGATIVES, AND PHYSICKING OF HORSES. 585

of the vein itself, described under Morbid Consequences of Bloodletting, p. 424,
It has also happened, either by an injudicioiis bleeding too near to the chest, or
otherwise by some accident which has diverted the stroke of the instrument to
one side, that the carotid artery has become penetrated. When the puncture
has been made through the vein, the accident is known immediately by the
forcible and pulsatory gush of both florid arterial blood and dark venous blood.
In one instance of this kind, which occurred to a French practitioner, he imme-
diately thrust his finger into the opening through the vein, and thus plugged up
the artery, intending to wait for assistance. In this state he remained, I believe,
an hour"^or more; when, removing his finger, to his surprise, he found the
hccmorrhage had ceased, and did not again return. But such a fortunate issue is
little to be expected in a similar case ; the artery may, however, be very properly
plugged in the best manner possible, until the horse can be cast, when the prac-
titioner must cut carefully down on it, and encircle it with a ligature : the course
of its passage and its attachments may be seen by what has preceded. The
intromission of air is also another very serious accident that now and then at-
tends bleeding : it sometimes happens from the sudden removal of the fingers
or blood-can, or whatever was used to distend the vessel by obstructing the re-
turn of the blood : this being suddenly taken away, allows the escape of the
blood towards the heart, and occasions a momentary vacuum, the air being
heard to rush with a gurgling noise into the vein by the unclosed lips, where it
mixes with the blood, and occasions a train of dire symptoms. The animal be-
gins to tremble ; he then staggers, and finally falls in a state of asphyxia : if the
quantity of air taken in has been considerable, death ensues in a little time.
The remedy must, therefore, be instantaneous, and consists in again opening the
orifice, or, by making a new one, to gain an immediate renewed flow of blood,
which will, in most cases, renovate the horse, who has been found afterv/ards
tormented with an intolerable itching, probably of a similar kind with that most
distressing tingling which persons resuscitated from drowning experience ; and
from the same cause, also, the passing from death to life.

OF PURGATIVES, AND PHYSICKING OF HORSES.

A FAKKiER of the old school would smile with no small degi'ee of contempt
and self-complacency if he should glance his eye over the extent of the following
detail. As to the all- sufficient groom, who ' can carry a horse through his three
doses of physic with any man in the world,' he would wonder what the d — 1 I
could find in it to talk so long about ; and yet, if I blotted twice the number
of pages, I should leave still much unsaid; so very interesting, so very important
a subject is that of the purging of horses, to the animal himself, to the owner,
and to his medical attendant. I remember when veterinary medicine first be-
gan to engage attention, by the establishment of a public seminary for its pro-
motion, that no subject connected with it excited more discordance of opinion
than this popular one. Reasoning from analogy only, it was asked by the new
inquirers, If a horse be already in health, can purgatives make him more so ? or
when in health, can they secure him against disease? Neither could those who
were educated in the human medical schools (as most of the early students and
promoters of the art were) readily understand why, when we wished to promote
extraordinary vigour, present strength, and continued endurance of fatigue, with
a more free and effective respiration, we should commence by the weakening
efforts of repeated purges. Would it not, they inquired, be more accordant
with theory and human practice, to expect all this from the stimuli of condensed
nutriment and increased exercise rather ? Imposing as these analogical queries
and arguments appeared at that time, they made but a short and feeble stand
against the force of facts and the experience of ages; and the subject has now
settled itself into an universal conviction, that the effects of purgatives on the
human and on the horse are not altogether analogous, particularly as a promoter
of that state of health which is termed condition. Certain peculiarities of con-
stitution generally, and certain states of the alimentary canal i)urticularly, rcn-

586 OF PURGATIVES, AND PHYSICKING OP HORSES.

dcr this process very salutary to the horse: they are indeed essentially necessary
to keep him up to that artificial standard which luxury and refinement have
taught us to expect in him. This subject is, therefore, a very important one to
the veterinarian, and one that he should well understand, both popularly and
scientifically : popularly, or he may be convicted of ignorance by the humblest
groom, not one of whom but supposes he knows every thing connected with the
process scientifically, he ought to be most intimately acquainted with it, be-
cause it is not the same simple, easy, and safe operation as it is in man, under
almost any management ; but, on the contrary, it is a much more complex, diffi-
cult, and dangerous one ; and although properly prepared, properly administered,
and with proper treatment, it is not more useful than safe, yet, by being so often
practised by grooms, stable-men, and the dabblers in farrierj^, whose ignorance
is usually equalled only by their presumption, scores of horses are yearly lost
by it.

Theory and effects of purgation. — The principles of purgation are the same in
man and the horse ; but the products vary : thus it commonly requires twenty -
four hours to produce complete catharsis in the horse, whereas two or three
hours, and often less, will effect it in man. Speciality of structure produces
this difference. The alimentary track is of immense length in the horse, and
the surface to be stimulated into action is consequently of great extent ; add to
which, that the erect position of man is favourable to a gravitation of the abdo-
minal contents, particularly of the liquid contents, but which the horizontal
posture of the horse tends to retain. Cathartics act by stimulating the intes-
tines to a more frequent evacuation of their contents, and they also increase
the quantity of the matter expelled : under some circumstances they alter the
quality of it also. A simple increase of the peristaltic motion of the bowels wiU
hasten the expulsion of the excrementitious parts of the aliments. A farther
stimulus will not only so hasten them, that the fluid contents of the bowels
cease to be absorbed, but the secreting surface of the intestines themselves will
furnish fluid matter also. If stimulated stiU more, the biliary and pancreatic
fluids are poured forth in greater quantities, and the alvine secretions are altered
thereby. This being the simple operation of purging, it is evident how many
erroneous notions are entertained relative to it ; and more immediately that
which has been termed elective purgation, or the giving of particular substances
to purge particular humours, is wholly vague. Purging is used to reduce swelled
legs : but no purge acts on the legs immediately ; for it cannot, in the first in-
stance, remove fluids from any other parts but from the stomach and bowels :
but mediately it may remove them ; for the removal of the fluids of the ahment-
ary track puts the absorbents to work to take up the fluids from other parts to
make up the deficiency, and thus the legs become lessened. From what has
been stated of the operation of purging, it is clearly an error to suppose likewise
that what are called humours are passed off in purging; or that hard riding is
necessary previous to a purge to stir up these humours. A definite distinction
has been attempted to be drawn between a laxative and a purgative ; the former
being characterised as merely the evacuation of the intestinal contents, and the
latter as the increase of the secretion of the intestinal surfaces to supply an ad-
ditional quantity of evacuated matter. As a means of expressing a greater or
less degree of stimulus applied to the intestines (i. e. a weaker or a stronger
purge), the terms laxative and purgative are useful and convenient; but as every
degree of these acts is dependent on a stimidus applied to the bowels, whereby
their peristaltic motion is increased, so nothing more definite can be understood
to apply to them ; and it is only in this sense they are to be viewed whenever
they occur here.

The uses of purging medicines. — These are various, but may be arranged
under — such as are given remedially against an existing disease ; those exhibited
as a preventive against a probable one ; lastly, they are very generally in use for
promoting a certain state called condition (which see). Remedially, catharsis is
most beneficially employed against inflammation, or most diseases of increased
action, except of the alimentary track : by increasing the waste of the watery

OF PURGATIVES, AND PHYSICKING OF HORSES. 587
parts of the blood, it depletes the system, and lessens arterial action. In active
inflammation it greatly assists bleeding, and in some cases it is supenor to it,
and can be advantageously employed when that cannot be with propriety at-
tempted, as in fevers possessing a low or putrid character: for as such appear to
be often dependent on some morbid change within, or some morbid combinations
formed by the biliary fluid, which purging acts particularly upon, so its advan-
tages here are striking. In the plethoric states, which produce serous deposits
in the legs, &c. as in horses just removed from grass, &c. &c., we depend on
purgatives for their removal. In pursive thick-winded horses, physic not only
prevents further accumulation, but also stimulates the absorbents to take up
some of the existing deposit. In dyspeptic cases, in hide-bound, in lampas, or
other affections arising from deranged functions of the stomach, mild purgatives
act in the most salutary manner. In the removal of worms also they act bene-
ficially, by ejecting them and the nidus in which they are lodged also. Ks pre-
ventives, purges are extensively employed also, when horses are taken from grass
or straw-yard, and are at once removed into a heated temperature, with clothing
and a full diet. Were it not for bleeding and purging, but particularly the latter,
we should find all the consequences of plethora shew themselves soon after ; as
hide-bound, surfeits, swelled legs, cracked heels, ophthalmia, and not unfre-
quently inflamed lungs also : here, and in all similar cases, purgatives find a
vent for the superabundant blood formed. It is another fact which serves to
exemplify the want of analogy between the action of purgatives on the horse
and those on the human subject, that, when an emaciated horse is removed
from hard work and harder fare at once to rest and a full diet, so far from his
condition being improved, unless he be prepared for the change by previous
purging, his skin becomes fixed, his belly still more and more tucked up, and
his hair will often actually fall off. But the same change, when accompanied by
a judicious use of purgatives, operates so much to his advantage, that a few
weeks brings forth a new animal, as it were. Physic is also most beneficially
given at particular seasons, as at the spring and fall, to obviate the effects of
the contradictory state into which horses faU at those times ; being then appa-
rently weak and emaciated, yet at the same time suffering from increased arte-
rial action, employed in working the periodical change in the constitution. At
these times two or three mild purges will stimulate the defective digestion, re-
move morbid accumulations from the bowels occasioned thereby, and, by a sym-
pathetic effect between the skin and alimentary canal, they will assist in the
change of the new hair for the old.

Purgatives are given to promote condition. — If their tardiness of action alto-
gether shut them out fi-om any other medicinal use, yet their beneficial in-
fluence in producing condition would, of itself, render the subject important to
all those connected with horses. If, likewise, they excited only the condition
we require on the young, the robust, and the already lusty animal, it would ex-
cite little surprise, and the modus operandi would be clear ; but when we know
that they equally promote it in lean emaciated horses, even without apparent
disease, it requires an intimate acquaintance with the sequine functions, and his
animal economy, to enable us to account for the fact. In such cases we give
mild doses only, which prove a valuable stimulant and tonic to the stomach and
bowels, thus promoting their digestive powers, and consequent capability of se-
parating more organic moleculae from the ingesta. They also stimulate the sluggish
biliary and pancreatic secretions, which are so necessary to a healthy digestion
and formation of chyle, from which alone the strength and bulk can be aug-
mented. Luxury and refinement have introduced an artificial state of condition,
beyond that simply implying a healthy ftmctional state. Such condition is not
only necessary to bring the animal up to our present ideas of beauty, but also
to enable him to undergo exercises which, in a state of nature, were not expected
of him, as hunting, racing, &c. &c. To promote this state, purges are indis-
pensably necessary, and it is from this view that the subject of physicking de-
rives its popularity with the mere horseman ; though we have shewn that it
derives no less consideration under every point of view connected with the well-

588 ■ OF PURGATIVES, AND PHYSICKING OF HORSES.

being of this valuable animal. In promoting condition, purgatives not only act
favourably on the digestive organs, but their beneficial influence extends to the
other solid and fluid parts of the body also. By their means the watery parts of
the blood are removed, by which the absorbents become stimulated to take up
all the interstitial fluid interposed between the moving masses, as well as that
distributed within the cellular membrane ; by which means both the strengtli
is augmented and the weight of useless matter diminished. The unnecessary
adeps or fat of the body is also removed by the same process, which allows the
muscular fibres to be more rectiliuearly placed, and to approximate in their ac-
tion, by which a great increase in their power is gained : it is thus that physic
draws up the belly and hardens the flesh. The lungs also are enabled to act
more advantageously by the agency of physic, their capacity being greatly in-
creased by the absorption of incumbering matter, either solid or fluid. In this
way, the wind as well as the strength is increased by perfect condition.

The abuse and dangers of pu7-gatives. — Salutary as is the operation of purga-
tives on horses, judiciously managed aud properly timed, yet hurtful in the
extreme and often fatal are the consequences brought about by an ignorant em-
ployment of them when not proper, and an erroneous mode of managing them
when they are. In all inflammatory affections of the stomach and bowels, ca-
thartics must be highly injurious, except in enteritis, when the obstruction
cannot be overcome by other means. They are almost equally hurtful in in-
flammation of the lungs ; and it is probable, from the powers it calls forth in
the horse to produce purging, occasioned by his structural peculiarities, that in
all great visceral inflammations active purges should be admitted with caution.
In farcy and glanders, purgatives seldom do other than harm ; and in chronic
affections attended with great debility they are only admissible in some parti-
cular instances, specified in the treatment of such diseases. Physic is hurtful,
however, principally from the frequency and quantity sometimes given. Grooms
suppose that every ordinary case requires three doses of physic, the reasons for
which Mr. Peall has humorously given, ' The first being intended to stir up
the humours,' ' the second to set them afloat,' and ' the third to carry 'them off.'
To very young horses, and to delicate feeders, the exhibition of three strong
doses of physic must be attended with most injurious consequences, and such as
they cannot recover from for months. In such cases, one or two very mild
doses are all that can be required, or ought to be permitted; nor can such
horses take their purgative dose too mild : by mashing them well three, four, or
five days previously, three, four, or five di'achms of aloes will work them suffi-
ciently, and not pull them down : it is also, with very delicate horses, admissible
to divide the dose, allowing six hours between. It is doubtful, without some
' foulness,' as it is termed, or rather cuticular symptoms of extreme fulness and
plethora lie apparent, whether, in ordinary cases, two moderate doses be not
all that is necessary to ensure the condition of most saddle and carriage horses.
It is an unfortunate prejudice, engendered by ignorance and kept alive by ob-
stinacy, that to do much good with physic it should be very strong. I was once
told by a groom, that the dose I dispensed was not strong enough, for it had not
purged the horse more than fourteen or fifteen times ; and I have been also told
that two ounces of aloes was but a moderate dose. I have very seldom met
with a horse I would not effectually purge with less than half the quantity, by
fuU preparatory mashing, which, be it observed, ought in every case to be done
for two or three days previous to giving the aloetic ball; by doing of which, it is
very seldom that the operation rakes or distresses even young and tender horses.
In many cases, however, these sapient gentry, the grooms, are not satisfied unless
a horse have twenty or thirty evacuations. Super-purgation has destroyed
hundreds of horses, and it has irreparably injured thousands : it certainly debi-
litates the horse more than man, probably from a lax state of bowels being
more common in man, owing to the presence of both cystic and hepatic bile, as
well as a dependent situation of bowels. It is hardly possible to conceive a
more deplorable object than a horse under the action of an enormous purgative:
the liquid aliments escaping almost involuntarily from a red protruded anus,

OF PURGATIVES, AND PHYSICKING OF HORSES. 589
excoriated with the violence and frequency of the dejections ; the belly drawn
to the flank, cold sweats bedewing the frame, appetite totally lost, and the
strength so lessened as to leave the animal hardly the power of tottermg from
one staU to another; and yet to this state does the obstinacy "and ignorance of
an infinite nmnber of grooms doom the horses of their owners. The number
and strength of the purgative doses are not the only evils also to which the
horse is liable, from improper purgation ; the articles used are likewise often of
an injurious nature. Frequently with the coarsest aloes the groom's prescnp-
'tion directs other drastics, purposely to increase the strength; and if he omits
these, he will attempt to increase its effect by adding soda or other alkaline, not
considering that they act on the kidneys, and thus lessen the catharsis he wishes
to excite. Neither are grooms, or indeed some practitioners, so_ attentive to
previous preparation as they should be : a powerful dose of physic put into a
horse from hard work and full keep, without previous mashing, hurries the har-
dened fceces forwards until it forms them into an impenetrable mass : inflam-
mation ensues, and on the third day the horse is found dead, and swollen
immensely. No horse should have a strong dose of physic put into him without
two or three days previous mashing ; and if this be done, a mild dose will be
sufficient. In hot weather, inflammation supervenes on physic, when at aU too
active; and dysentery is a very common consequence of summer purging. When
good physic has been properly given, still it is often rendered injurious, and even
destructive, by carelessness or ignorance. Cold water given at these times wiU
injure ; a sudden chill from a door left carelessly open may bring on enteritis ;
and immoderate exercise, to promote a ' stirring up of the humours' has de-
stroyed many a valuable animal.

Of the articles used in purging of horses. — A great discrepancy of opinion
prevails on this head also, but, if the distinction between laxatives and purga-
tives be maintained, it would tend to reconcile these contentions. There are
numerous articles which simply relax the bowels, i. e. slightly increase their
peristaltic motion ; but very few which produce active purgation. Of the for-
mer, bran, calomel, neutral salts, castor, linseed, and oUve oils, are the most
usual instances ; but it must be confessed that, with the exception of bran, aU
the others occasionally fail. Rhubarb, jalap, colocynth, and elaterium, are inert,
except in such doses as derange the bowels dangerously, and, therefore, it is
evident how uselessly these enter into the formulae of purges for horses. Some
further account of these several substances will appear in the Veterinary Ma-
teria Medica, at the end of the work. Gamboge, which is also added to horse
physic, is a still more dangerous addition, for it sometimes proves a most drastic
purgative, and in others is totally inert. The purgative of the horse, therefore,
in almost every instance, is aloes. Lately, however, there has been added to
the list of effective sequine purgatives the croton tiglium, of which anon. Much
difference of opinion exists on the preference due to the various kinds of aloes ;
nor can we ever arrive at a just conclusion on this head, until we unite a con-
clave of honest druggists, both wholesale and retail, from whom alone might be
procured something like a knowledge of the various sorts unadulterated; and
until we are better informed of the original state of these articles, or until we
can get them of real purity, our written accounts can be little depended on ;
for, if I be not mistaken, they are all mixed and remixed to suit the convenience
of the dealer ; and are named and re-named, to suit the wants of the purchaser ;
to which circumstance we are indebted for the contradictory accounts we read
relative to them. Of the aloe varieties two are principally in use ; the hepatic*
or Barbadoes, and the cabaline* or Cape. The Barbadoes arc somewhat quicker
and stronger in their action, and consequently rather more drastic in their ope-
ration than the Cape, and therefore in some cases are not to be preferred. But
as they are in general more certain in their action than the Cape, I have com-
monly made use of them. Cabaline or Cape aloes are used at tlie Veterinary
College, which tells in their favour, and they are generally thouglit milder and

• The names liepatice and cabaline are frequently used to siKiiify aloetle admixtures also of the
various kinds, wliich may occasionally mislead in the dispensing or orderinjf of purges.

590 OF PURGATIVES, AND PHYSICKING OF HORSES,

weaker; it is usual, therefore, to consider, that a moderate dose of physic, whicli
requu-es six drachms of Barbadoes, should have seven drachms of Cape aloes
The quantity of aloes requisite to produce purging is dependent on so many
circumstances, that it is uo wonder if it should be so often mismanaged in ig-
norant hands; and this IS one of the sources of the complexity and danger of
physicking horses, except with those systematically accustomed to it Horses
do certainly vary greatly in their intrinsic capability of being acted on by pur-
gatives, but much more in the circumstances under which they are given Mr
Coleman, in his lectures, mentions a horse of his own that would puree bv tak-"
ing three drachms only of Cape aloes : while Mr. Percivall quotes a horse which
belonged to Mr. O Conner, veterinary surgeon, of Newmarket, which at three
years old required fourteen drachms of aloes to purge its bowels. These facts
serve to shew the propriety of prescribing a very moderate quantity only as the
hrst dose for a horse with whose constitutional peculiarities we are unacquainted
Ihe requisite quantity is also greatly dependent on various other circumstances •
old horses, and such as are constantly fed on hard meat, require more than
others ; while horses fresh from grass purge with a very mild dose, as do those
used to bran mashes as daily food ; and in all, by mashing three times a day
for several days, we may make four or five drachms do the work of eight. This
I repeat, shews the extreme importance of previous mashing for all horses what-
ever, but particularly in weakly horses, and also in such as have been previously
accustomed to much hard food. Form also influences the quantity requisite ; a
thin, narrow-chested, lank-sided horse, will purge more readily than a circular
deep-carcassed one. Tt may be considered, therefore, that the quantities re-
quired to purge horses, both prudently and effectively, range between five drachms
and ten ; the extent of which range will serve to shew that something more is
requisite than a blind acquiescence in any acknowledged recipe or invariable form.

The croton tiglium is a purgative of new discovery, and one which there is
reason to hope is not, like many others, confined to man, but extends its in-
fluence to our present subject also. At present, however, the acquaintance
with it is very limited, even among those whose opportunities are the most ex-
tensive, and consequently we can hardly wonder, that, while one is praising it
as an article of vast import to the veterinary world, another has found it deceive
his expectations. The cupidity of the drug dealers prevents us from ascertain-
ing its true qualities ; and few veterinarians agree in their opinions regarding
it. In its action it is certain only in producing motions much more liquid than
those produced by aloes, consequently we must suppose it weakens more. The
capsule of the croton seed, I believe, has been found, if I be rightly informed,
pretty generally unworthy of dependence on ; as much perhaps owing to the
tricks it is likely are already played with it, as to its own intrinsic want of
energy. Mr. Youatt has tried it with variable effect ; but altogether he does
not appear prepossessed in its favour. Several others, I believe, have also tried
it, without being able to come to a direct conclusion relative to its properties.
Mr. Field has however found, that two drachms of the capsule have produced
the same efiects with forty grains of the farina, which is the remains of the ker-
nel of the croton seed, after it has had the croton oil expressed from it. This
farina, when genuine, appears to possess more certainty of action. Mr. Field,
indeed, appears to exhibit it with equal confidence in its certainty and safety as
in aloes : -he estimates that thirty grains of it are equivalent to six drachm's of
Barbadoes aloes. The croton oil is probably equally certain in its action with
the farina, but its extreme price amounts, at present at least, to a prohibition of
its use, and indeed has prevented any data of quantity and quality being formed
relative to it. Mr. Percivall suggests, that from forty drops to a drachm might
be found the quantity necessary to fully purge ; and he comes to the conclusion,
that at a future time it may become a valuable addition to our veterinary list ;
but that as yet it presents no other apparent advantages over aloes but its
diminished bulk, seeing it takes fully as much time to operate as aloes. — Sec
Croton Tiglium, Mat. Med. It appears therefore, that, at present, aloes is likely
to remain the prevailing purgative; and wc shall proceed by offering, for the

OF PURGATIVES, AND PHYSICKING OF HORSES. 591
convenience of guiding the amateur and junior practitioner, the formulae of three
several strengths formed of Barbadoes aloes, to each of which from one drachm
to one drachm and a half may be added, in case Cape aloes be preferred, which
will equalise their action.

No. 1.— Barbadoes aloes* five drachms

Oil of caraways ten drops.

Palm oil or lard, sufficient to make a ball.

No. 2.— Barbadoes aloes seven drachms and a half.

Add and mix, as the former.

No. 3.— Barbadoes aloes nine drachms.

Add and mix, as the former.

When it is thought proper to give mercm-ial physic for woms, or skin atFee-
tions, two drachms of calomel may be given the night previous in a mash, first
mixed with a table spoonful of flour. This,_by lying all night in the horse,
may, perhaps, assist its efficacy, particularly in case of worms ; and the aloetic
ball may be given the next morning ; keeping in mind that it should be some-
thing less strong for the calomel ah-eady given.

Treatment connected ivith physicking. — The intestines should always be pre-
pared for this operation by bran mashes, and which should be given two or
three days pre\'iously, nor indeed should the physic be ever administered until
the stools present some appearance of softening. The first dose given to every
horse, with which we are not well acquainted, should be a very mild one, for
some horses are much more easily purged than others ; and if the dose do
not operate, it can do no harm, as it is often most erroneously supposed to do.
Exercise is of particular importance in physicking ; but I would earnestly cau-
tion the attendants against active trotting or galloping : brisk and continued
walking is all that ought to be allowed. The importance of exercise is by no
means sufficiently considered ; half the quantity of any cathartic, with plenty
of walking exercise, will operate nearly as much as a double dose without ; so
that the degree of purging may be always regulated nearly to our wish, which
is a very desirable circumstance. When physic does not work kindly, the exer-
cise should be repeated at short intervals of two hours, till it does ; and then it
should be altogether omitted, as it would fatigue. Cold water should never be
allowed, but, if the horse will not drink it warm, it may be given cool, but
never cold : on this particular it is also necessary to observe, that ample dilution
of the bowels is of the utmost consequence to insure physic working kindly.
Entice the horse therefore to drink by every means, and by no means forget the
necessary precaution of giving him pure water, from a perfectly clean pail : when
it is either smoked or greasy, it cannot be expected that so nice an animal as a
horse will drink. During the working of the physic he should be kept warm,
both by the stable temperature and by clothing, and he must be exercised (if in
winter) in clothes proportioned to the cold. When a purge is to be given, pro-
ceed as follows : — The horse having fasted an hour or two in the morning, give
him the ball, after which he should be offered some warm water ; or it will not
be improper to let him have his ball a quarter of an hour after he has had about
half his usual quantity of water ; for it sometimes happens that the ball disgusts,

• Practitioners differ mucli as to tlic propriety of admitting any mixture of matters in tlieir purging
(loses. Relative to the incongruous jumble of the old recipes, there can be but one opinion ; but, are
Barbadoes aloes rendered more mild by the admixture of the supertai trate of potash (cream of tartar)
as Mr. I'eall directs ? or arc carminatives a preventive to the griping (|ualily of aloes in general?
Mr. IJracy Clark strongly condemns all compositions witli aloes ; but as \vc know the horse bears
spicy stimulants well (and he recommends them himself as stomachics), is it not reasonable to sup-
pose them an useful addition to cathartics? A hurtful one, I believe, they cannot prove. On the
iubject of cream of tartar I have no expeiienrc, but I have much respect for Mr, I'eall's opinion. Jt
• is however certain that soap is not altogether a proper means of making a mass of the aloes ; It is
somewhat diuretic, and therefore, as presenting a contra-indication, is better omitted, and sonie olea-
ginous matter used instead. Memorandum.— In every case the aloes should be at least roughly
powdered.

592

DIURETICS.

and then he will not drink for some hours after, which is not so favourahle to
an early solution of tlie ball. After it is taken, he should be fasted^nother
hour, or an hour and a half, when a small quantity of good hay may be allowed,
or a bran mash may be given, with a very few oats sprinkled in it, to make it
palatable : he should, at noon, be walked for half an hour or an hour, with hay
or mash feeding afterwards, and exercised again half an hour in the evening,
bemg allowed warm or tepid water at intervals during the day, with, hay and a
bran mash again towards night. Early on the following morning the physic will
probably begin to work, which, if it does briskly, no more exercise need be given ;
but if not, half an hour's walking should be allowed, when the horse may have
a mash and warm water. After this, another half hour's exercise should be
given (walking only), and which is to be repeated every other hour or two, till
the physic work kindly, allowing mashes and a little clean hay occasionally, and
warm water as often as he will take it. Should the horse appear griped and
uneasy, a warm clyster of the common kind may be given, which will generally
reheye with exercise, but do not repeat the clyster ; and in the event of its still
continuing, which will seldom be the ease when good aloes are used, then the
following drink may be given, hand-rubbing the belly well at the same time.
(See Colic.)

Mix, and give rather more than blood-warm.

It occasionally happens that, notwithstanding every attention, physic will not
work on the second day, in which case let nothing tempt the practitioner, as has
been done, to give another dose immediately ; for it sometimes happens that
purgatives will not act until the third day. But when a case occurs of non-
purgation, always wait until the third day, when, if no symptoms of purging ap-
pear, either let tlie horse rest altogether for two days longer, and then give him
rather a strong dose; or commence by giving him a quarter of the original dose
every six hours till it purge, mashing, giving exercise and warm water'as before.
Let it also be remembered, that it is erroneous to encourage liquid purging to
twenty, thirty, or more dejections. No good attends this practice. I never
wish any horse I physic to have more than from twelve to fifteen liquid evacua-
tions ; all beyond this weaken the intestines and injure the horse. In the usual
course pf physic, on the next day after the operation of the purgative, the faeces
will resume nearly their former consistency and shape, when the physic is said to
be set. If it, however, continue to operate with nearly the same violence as on
the day before, it must be regarded as a case of mpe/--puj'gation, and recourse
must be immediately had to the treatment already directed. (See page 396.)
Otherwise, the horse may now return to his former habits, giving him corn at
first rather sparingly, with moderate exercise ; and, in five or six days from its
setting, if the operation have been only ordinary, a second dose may be given,
which is commonly required to be a little stronger than the first. After this,
with the same caution, if it be deemed necessary, a third dose may be given ;
wliich is usually considered a course of physic : but the number of doses ought,
as before pointed out, never to be under the arbitrary direction of custom, but
should be regulated by the existing circumstances.

As we have but little power over the skin of the horse, so we have corre-
spondently a greater one over the kidneys. In the human, the very reverse of
this is the case, and the articles that do act on the human kidney appear to do
it principally by a sympathetic effort of the stomach ; whereas, diuretics in the
horse, at least the greater number of them, appear to act primarily on the
kidneys by determining a greater quantity of blood to those organs, stimulating
them thereby to separate a larger quantity of water from it. The blood, losing

Sound ale ,

Peppermint water,

a pint
a pint.

DIURETICS.

DIURETICS.

593

ail unusual poportion of its serum, or watery part, must be supplied from other
sources* this is done by the absorbing vessels, which take up, in that case, any
supcrriuous fluids they meet with to supply the deficiency; therefore, in swelled
legs, in cracks, in grease, or in any preternatural enlargements occasioned by
fluids, we give diuretics with great advantage. But diuretics have also a salutary
operation in acute as well as in chronic diseases : for in lessening the aqueous
portion of the blood, they must naturally lessen the distention of the vascular
system generally; and therefore act like bleeding in all acute inflammatory
affections : they also have a further beneficial influence on these cases, because
they employ the vessels of the kidneys in an increased action of their secreting
process, which may thus -act as a derivative of inflammation ; the heightened
vascularity of the kidneys detracting, like a blister, from the force of the circula-
tion in the diseased organ for whose benefit we give them. Like purgatives,
they however are much abused, and irreparable injury is done to horses by their
too frequent administration by ignorant and by idle grooms, who wish to keep
their horses' legs fine without the trouble of hand-rubbing. In all accumulations
connected with debility, it is evident that diuretics may do harm ; the very na-
ture of the diuretic being to call largely on the constitution, and that is akeady
debile : we may, it is true, remove some extravasation and swelling to-day, but
still more will return to-morrow. In these cases we must, on the contrary,
strengthen the system by tonics, proper feeding, and mild exercise : the local de-
bility we must aid by friction and bandages. When there is plethora, that is,
when indications of a full habit are present, then serous accumulations in the
legs may be very much remedied by a proper administration of diuretics ; and it
will be found that nothing aids their action so much as a liberal supply of water.
While the kidneys are under the operation of a diuretic, the absorbents are open-
ing their mouths in all the cavities, and over all the surfaces of the body ; and it
is known that they do so under these circumstances particularly : the call made
by the kidneys cannot be supplied alone by water poured into the stomach ; but
it can engage all the other fluids also, and with this peculiarity, that when they
are actively engaged in separating that only already within the body, they are
apt to fall into apathy or inflammation ; but mixed with the aqueous fluid re-
ceived from the stomach, they go on vigorously in depleting all the serous
cavities.

The principal diuretic substances in general use for the horse are, resin, nitre,
turpentine, potash, and corrosive sublimate. The milder ones are digitalis,
tobacco, squills, cream of tartar, neutral salts, juniper, &c. Many other sub-
stances act on the kidneys of the horse, but in a less degree. Digitalis is pecu-
liarly applicable to highly inflammatcry affections either with or without nitre.
Resin is, perhaps, the most active diuretic in veterinary practice, and, in a dose
of three to six or eight drachms, is very certain in its operation. Nitre, in
similar doses, is equally certain, but a little less active. In inflammatory dis-
eases, and in urinary obstructions from gravel, it is also much to be preferred
to resin. Turpentine, both liquid and solid, are certain diuretics ; as also is
potash, half an ounce or an ounce being diluted in two or three quarts of water,
and given fasting. Con-osioe sublimate proves a powerful diuretic, in doses of
half a drachm to a drachm ; but it is evident no such quantity should be given
for this purpose, without first ascertaining that a lesser dose can be borne with
impunity. I am disposed to think that the diuretic effect here produced is
through the medium of the stomach alone, and not by its primary action on
the kidneys ; although mercury in all its forms increases the action of other
diuretics, in the horse as well as in the human. As a mild diuretic, the fox-
glove is a good one, in doses of one drachm to two ; but it requires to be repeated
at daily intervals to become certain in its effects. In similar doses, tobacco
proves a diuretic, but it is less certain even than the digitalis ; squills are the
same. Cream of tartar, to prove certain in its action, must be given in doses
of four to six oimces. All the nmdrul salts, in similar doses, act in the same
way ; but not always with uniform certainty. When they prove apciient, the
flow of urine is in general inconsidorable, biit it lasts some time. When strong

p p

594

DIURETICS.

diuretics are used, it should not be forgotten that they act by over-exerting an
important organ ; so a frequent repetition of them may prove very injurious,
and can only be warranted by some very urgent circumstance, as ascites. The
unobservant are but little aware how very seriously too powerful and too often
repeated diuretics injure the horse; for great debility and emaciation very
usually follow when given in these extremes. Whenever a diuretic is given,
the same cautions should be observed as with a purgative : to keep warm, but
not hot, sweating would impede the process of the diuretic; to avoid over-
exertion ; but, above all, to allow a large quantity of tepid water, which greatly
increases the effect, and renders the action less hurtful : indeed, a large quantity
of water will of itself prove a diuretic, particularly if the horse have previously
fasted from it. This phenomenon alone is sufficient to shew, that largely dilut-
ing the stomach acts sympathetically and not mechanically on the kidneys : that
is, not by merely throwing a superabundant quantity of water into the system,
which must be got rid of in this way. When a horse has long fasted from water,
his other secretions must have lessened the watery parts of the blood so much
that it would seem to occasion an imperative call for dilution ; and in such case
it would, h priori^ be supposed, that whatever fluid aliment was then taken, how-
ever large the quantity, would be received into the system to repair the waste.
But it is not so ; on the contrary, whatever may be the wants of the constitution
by long deprivation from liquid aliments, a full dilution, instead of being at once
taken up to repair the waste, greatly increases the urinary flow by constitutional
sympathy and venous or lymphatic absorption. It is, therefore, clear, that when-
ever we deprive horses of water during the action of diuretics, under a supposi-
tion that we thereby increase the absorption of the extravasated fluids, we err
greatly ; and instead, we have every reason to conclude, that by whatever means
the urinary secretion is excited, by such means interstitial absorptiou is likewise
promoted as a necessary consequence. Diuretics are given in the form of hall&
or powders., a formula of each of which is added : —

Diuretic Balls.

Resin, yellow four pounds

Nitre, in powder two pounds

Horse turpentine two pounds

Yellow soap one pound.

Melt the resin, soap, and turpentine over a slow fire ; and when cooling add the
nitre. Strong dose, one ounce and a half to two ounces. Mild dose, six di-achms
to eight. The former may be given once a week ; the- latter every third or
fourth day.

Diuretic Powders.

Yellow resin, powdered two pounds

Nitre, ditto four pounds

Cream of tartar, ditto two pounds.

Dose, six drachms to ten or twelve, twice a week, in a mash.

PART TPIE FOURTH.

THE

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA;

OR,

OF THE VARIOUS

f

MEDICINAL ARTICLES AT PRESENT EMPLOYED

IN VETERINARY PRACTICE.

P p 2

1

THE

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA, &c.

The practice of the Veterinary Art reqmres medicaments to combat the nu-
merous diseases to which the more important quadrupeds domesticated around
us are liable. It was only lately that an excellent scientific digest of these medi-
caments, bearing the title of a Manual of Pharmacij for the Student of Veterinary
Medicine, was published by Mr. Morton, under the sanction of the Veterinary
College. ' Without materially inteirupting my former manual, I shall make such
use of this as will prove beneficial to the student of animal_ medicine. Nor can
I do justice to gentlemen pursuing their studies in the curative treatment of ani-
mals without strongly recommending this work to their notice, and also to an
attendance on Mr. Morton's lectures on the Materia Medica. A well-grounded
knowledge of chemistry is necessary to the proper construction of the formulae
used among us ; and without it we are apt, by injudicious combinations to de-
stroy the effect of our remedies, or otherwise to beget new compounds of totally
different qualities to those intended : probably noxious ones are produced. On
the other hand, an intimate knowledge of the chemical affinities of each will en-
able the practitioner, out of articles apparently dissonant in properties and action,
to form a new article with particular powers suited to his purposes. We, never-
theless, have occasion sometimes to make very unchemical mixtures, which must
of necessity decompose each other, were they mixed in a state of solution : such
would be the case with the superacetate of lead and alumine, or, in other words,
with Goulard's wash and alum, which I have often seen prescribed, and have
probably often done it myself But these and other dissonants might unite
their quaUties favourably in the shape of an ointment, or when made into a ball.
A wash compounded of tincture of opium, and either superacetate of lead, sul-
phate of zinc, or cinchona in solution or infusion, would have the opium wholly
precipitated; and yet how common it is to mix an eye collyrium thus! There
is, however, one thing to be taken into the account, that even these apparent in-
congruities must not lead us to reject the use of formulae whose benefits have
stood the test of many years, and whose virtues are as notorious as that turpen-
tine is a diuretic : for there may be a sort of gastric chemistry which prevents the
decomposition so much dreaded, or again disunites those affinities the mixture
had operated*. I am fully aware that some, perhaps several, of the recipes in-

• On the subject of polypharmacy, or the compounding numerous articles together, much difference
of opinion exists ; though the fashion of the present day rather leans to the practice of tlie ancient
school of Cos, of employing single articles of the most simple nature, contrary to the recipes of the
Galenic pharmacopcEia. Fouir roy said, ' tliat the mtiriMre and con/iai'ow of medicaments was one
of the greatest obstacles medicine had to surmount." But, in reply, mixture does not necessarily
imply confiKion • aird Dr. George Fordycc also said, ' that the union of several medicaments having
the same tendency, increased the efficacy of each.' Wo liave medicinal articles which are best alone,
we have others which are most efficacious in combination : but, as a principle, when we r eturn to
single articles in general practice, to the exclusion of compounds, we shall be oircouraging eiiipiiicisru,
and entering on the confines of a specious barbarism. It is also faslrioirable to throw ridicule oir all
attempts at r.lnsxiiig remrdii'/i : many of the terms, and rrrany of the distinctioirs , which have been
irsed are sufficiently irrcongruous, without doubt; but are there no sedative, no tonic, no absorlriirg,
no stimulating lemeilies? Is a nrerc fanciful rage for simplicity to deprive us of the benefit of arr ang-
ing our remedies under terms appropriate to their characters ; and which terms are so essential a part

598

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

troduced in the body of the early editions of this work arc not strictly chemical ;
and were I again to enter into the art of prescribing, I should probably fonn
otliers more accordant with the rules of pharmaceutic chemistry : but I was
bound to direct that which I knew by experience to be good, they having stood
the test of nearly thirty years' trial. I have now introduced others also which
an extended series of observation and experience have shewn the efficacy of, and
I iiavc likewise continued them under the old names, having also added the new,
which in a future edition will probably then have become familiar, and take the
entiie place of the former.

In the exhibition of medicines, the veterinary practitioner is in a much worse
situation than the human. The former not only derives no assistance from the
relation of the feelings of his patient, but the specific action of medicines admi-
nistered is totally different in the several objects which fall under his care : in
many cases they bear no analogy with each other. At this moment I know an
eminent physician who destroyed a valuable pointer by giving him ten grains of
calomel ; observing to me afterwards, ' Bless me ; I have often given a woman
as much ; and here is a dog killed by it.' A veterinary surgeon also destroyed
a favourite dog with twelve grains of emetic tartar, and remarked upon it, that
his only fear was, that he had not given enough. Here both erred, because they
' travelled out of the record :' to the former we might say, ne sutor, The
fitter is now wiser, I dare say, because our knowledge is more diffused. To the
dog, it may be remarked that it is very frequent for sportsmen to give with im-
punity extraordinary doses of active drugs, the half of which would inevitably
destroy : but it is not the safety of the dose, it is the quantity which irritates the
sensitive stomach to its immediate ejection, and the dog escapes. It was thus
that a man who took two ounces of arsenic escaped, when thirty grains would
have proved fatal. Dogs, for the information of the practitioner, cannot with
impunity take of the mineral acids, or of calomel, or of tartarized antimony, more
than the human subject : they are omnivorous, like ourselves, and their diges-
tive organs are thus equally inimical to these articles ; but further the analogy
fails ; for the dog may be made to puke with two drachms of opium, but it will
not destroy him. Again, the dog will take a drachm to a drachm and a half of
aloes to purge him ; but his athletic master would be almost raked to death by
a quarter of the quantity ; and the largest hog in his stye would probably be
killed by it. At the same time, an ounce and a half even, suspended in water,
has been given to a sheep without producing any effect. Cows will take, on some
occasions, even more ; but in general this quantity would purge a cow suffi-
ciently, two ounces most copiously. Tartarized antimony can be taken with im-
punity by the following animals in the quantities mentioned : — From one drachm
to three'have been given to sheep ; from one ounce to two to cattle ; and from
two ounces to three to horses; when, as before observed, the hog would be
vomited with three or four grains, and the largest dog with six. Cantharides, as
a remedy, is equally irritating and dangerous to all these : but the hedge-hog, as
Mr. Youatt informs us, will eat as many as would destroy a whole regiment of
soldiers, and suffer nothing. If one was caught after such a meal, and dressed

of the language of our art, that pathological and therapeutical description could not go on without
them ? Consequently, if they are necessary images, they must have identity and a necessary purpose.
Moiroud, on the Veterinary IVIateria Medica, observes liiat tlie immediate action of medicines on the
tissues with which they come in contact is the most simple, and generally the most advantageous;
their effects, liowevcr, are not confined to this place, l)ut by contiguity of tissue, or by absorption or
svmualliy, tiiey exert a more extensive influence. Of this influence, communicated by contiguity of
tissue, we have freiiuent proof, as when we calm the intlauimation of the mucous surfaces of the re-
Bpiratury passages by emollient drinks, whose sedative effects are transmitted to tliese passages through
tlie medium of the pharynx, with which tlie drink comes in contact ; and also as en ollicnt cataplasms
a iplicd til the loins in inflammation of the kidneys, extend their soothing influence through the medium
of the intervening tissues. ' Of all tlie means by which medicines extend their action, there is no one
so general or so complete as absorption : they are carried into the circulatory current, and conveyed
with it to every part of the frame, and thus exert a direct influence on the whole organization. Salts
of iron and copper, and icsinoiis substances, administered by the mouth, have been speedily detected
in the bluod by chemical analysis. Tlieir stay in the circulatory vessels is ordinarily of short duration ;
for if Ihev cannot assimilate iliemselves with some organ or tissue, they are discarded by the natural
emunctor'iee : thus the cutaneous peispiration and pnbnonary exhalation betray the odour of ether ;
the milk obtain? the bitterness of woimwood, and the urine is charged with certain metallic oxides.'

" VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 599

with his t)-ail like a woodcock, I should suppose the meal might be more piquant
than wholesome : this fact,, however, shews how necessary it is that we dispense
medicines only from experience, and not from analogical conclusions. Jalap,
rhubai-d, and senna, are not purgative to the horse, cow, or sheep, although
so active in promoting catharsis in ourselves. The human subject can take three
tunes as much oil of turpentine as the largest dog ; and it was from reasoning by
analogy that a surgeon destroyed a stout spaniel by one or two drachms only,
and the death was instantaneous. The quantities of acrid minerals which
horses, cows, and sheep even, take to destroy them, would stagger us, were it
not for our acquaintance with their structm-al peculiarities : the one has a cuti-
cular lining to his stomach, and the poison there becomes neutralized before it
is received into the constitution. The ruminant is similarly situated, because
any acrid matter has to pass into other receptacles before it is received into
the digesting stomach, particularly when given in a solid form : whatever is re-
ceived in a liquid form, takes a more direct course, as necessarily regurgitated,
and hence is usually more active. From this consideration we become impressed
with the necessity, or prudence, at least, of giving our cattle medicines in a liquid
form.

I would particularly recommend to the veterinarian commencing practice, to
have a neat and well-regulated dispensary : except that the matters need not be
quite so numerous, it should be a fac-simile of a well-arranged apothecary's
shop. The various articles should be inclosed in di-awers, pots, or bottles, ac-
cording to their forms or properties : each should be separate, and each should
be distinctly marked. Above all, it behoves him, if he wish either to satisfy
himself, or to do justice to the cases under his care, to be most particular as to
the quality of the simples and compounds he uses. On this, too much stress
cannot be laid ; for it has been justly observed, ' any thing is thought good
enough for a horse ;' and hence no medicinal articles are so shamefully adulte-
rated as those intended for his use. The prudent veterinarian will find it his
interest to deal with a druggist of established reputation, and to order none but
genuine drugs, and of the best quality. At the present day, I should hope I
need not caution him against the wretched trash offered under the names of
horse powders and horse oils. These articles can be sold at any price ; for they
are very generally adulterated by farriers' druggists, to suit the pocket, the cre-
dit, or the tastes of their customers, whose usual ignorance of chemistry and
pharmacy makes the imposition the more easy. The only means to avoid such
deception is to compound for himself ; and to do it with the best drugs. In
the formulcB, and doses, the apothecaries' weights and measures are always meant,
a table of which is added as a guide. I would also recommend to those whose
knowledge of pharmacy is limited, to procure a complete set of apothecaries'
weights and measures, marked and graduated in English characters, as they
are now generally sold by London scale-makers, which prevents the possibility
of mistake. The various articles are mostly described under their chemical
and pharmaceutical names ; but I have, at the same time, inserted the popular
terms by which they are known, so that a more ready reference may be made,
while the general order of description will lead to an assimilation of this with
its parent art of human pharmacy. For the convenience of the junior practitioner
we have inserted the compounding tables, but we would refer the medical prac-
titioner to Mr. Morton's Veterinary Pharmacy for a most excellent expose of
medicaments generally, and particularly of those employed at the Royal Veteri-
nary College. One of that gentleman's little tomds, and one course of that gen-
tleman's Lectures on Vetei-inu7~y Materia Medica, will greatly aid him in attain-
ing all the requisite information on the subject alluded to.

600

VETERlNAllY MATERIA MEDICA.

A TABLE OF THE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES GENERALLY USED
IN THE COMPOUNDING OF MEDICINES.

WEIGHTS :

The Pound...

— Ounce...

— Drachm.

— Scruple..

— Grain....

r Twelve ounces
Eight drachms
contains ■{ Three scruples
1^ Twenty grains.

MEASURE OF FLUIDS :

The GaUon

— Pint

— Fluid ounce...

— Fluid drachm .

contains

Eight pints
Sixteen fluid ounces
Eight fluid drachms
Sixty minims or drops.

ABBEEVIATIONS I

Gut. or Min.

Gr

9

3

I

m

for

Drop
Grain
Scruple
Drachm
Ounce
, Pound.

1 he medical compounder of drugs hardly need to be informed, that thev are
bought and sold by what is called Avoirdupois weight, which is thus clearly
stated, because, to use Mr. Morton's exposition, it does appear that, whether the
purchaser of drugs be furnished by Troy or Avoirdupois, is often little attended
to : by which, in compounding of medicines, much «3rror is likely to be com-
mitted ; as will be apparent, when it is considered that a pound Avoirdupois
contains 7000 grains, and the ounce 480 grains. A pound Troy, on the contrary
contains 5760 grains only. It therefore behoves the veterinary practitioner to be'
fully aware of this, both in the purchase, the sale, or the administration of his
drugs. — See Introduction to Veterinary Pha7'macy, 2d Edition.

AnsoRnENTS.— The efficacy of this class of remedies is supposed to consist in
their tendency to correct a diseased acidity in the stomach ; but as this organ
in the horse has but a small portion of secreting surface, so he is less hable
to affections of this nature than many other animals. In horned cattle com-
plaints apparently originating from this course are more common; 'hence
cows, calves, and sheep, are sometimes benefitted by chalk; which is the most
usual antacid in veterinary practice. Dogs, also, are fit subjects for their ex-
hibition.

AcETATED Liquor of Ammonia. — This has been long known by the popular
term of Mindcrerus's spirit, and is made by pouring a quart of vinegar on
an ounce of volatile salt of ammonia. It may be also made by taking any
quantity of carbonized spirit of ammonia (spirit of hartshorn), and adding
vinegar to it till it tastes neither salt nor sour. I consider it useful in horse
practice ; it gently invigorates, is diaphoretic, and sometimes it proves mildly
diuretic. It principally shews its salutary effects on the commencement of
the debile stage, or at the close of lingering febrile diseases, particularly of
the epidemic catarrh ; in which cases it may be combined with camphor, and
also with powdered chamomile (see Chamomile). In the more early stages
of epidemic catarrii, it may be united \vith nitre and oxymel; and though the
mixture be somewhat unchemical, it is often strikingly beneficial : the dose is
fi om four to six ounces. In slight strains it forms a useful external application
also.

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 601

Acetate of Copper, or Verdigris.— See Copper. . , „ . . ,
Acids, in chemical language, form a class of salts gained fi-om the animal,
vegetable, and mineral kingdoms. Such as are m use in veterinary medicine
are described under their proper names throughout the Materia Medica.
iEGTPTi\cuMS are Mixtures of the acetate of copper (verdigris) and honey,
sometimes with vinegar, borax, alum, &c. The simple segyptiacum is used
for ulcers of the mouth, the others for grease, cracks, &c.
iERUGO. — See Acetate or Copper. , , •

iETHER.— The volatility as well as the value will ever prevent the sulphuric
sether from coming into general use in veterinary practice ; but the more dilute
preparation of it, called spirit of mlplmric ather, may be often used with great
benefit in spasmodic colic, in addition to the other means. The iiitro2is (ether,
or sweet spirit of nitre, as it is called, is a more general remedy, and will
probably become still more so as it is more known. As a febrifuge, it is at
once refrigerating without lowering. (See Nitre.) A drachm of sulphuric
£ether to eight ounces of rose water makes an excellent collyrium for the
latter stages of ophthalmia.
^THiops Minerax.— See Mercury, Black Sulphubet or.
Aeisma Plantago was supposed to have both a curative and preventive power
over rabies ; but although it appears to quiet the present fury, it has not
proved ultimately beneficial. . , ,.

AiOES. These form a very important article in the veterinarian s hst of medi-
cines, and therefore too much care cannot be taken to procure them genuine.
Every practitioner, however, should purchase them in the gross, and have
them reduced to powder under his own inspection, as the surest preventive
against adulteration. Aloes are of three kinds ; Socotrine, Barbadoes, and
Cape. Formerly the Socotrine were recommended, and the other kinds con-
demned as unsafe : but the Barbadoes are now in most request, as being the
most certain in their action; principally, I believe, because they are less
adulterated. Socotrine aloes appear in colour compounded of red, brown,
and yellow ; are very brittle, and fragrant to the smell. Barbadoes aloes are
of a deeper tint, less brittle, less fragrant, and more intensely bitter. Cape
aloes in appearance hold a middle place between the two, and indeed what
are so called are in many instances compounded by druggists of the refuse
of both, and to which perhaps may be attributed much of their uncertainty.
The action of each kind as a purgative is detailed under the head Purgatives.
As an alterative, a stomachic, or a vermifuge, aloes are sometimes given in
doses of one drachm to two daily ; they are also used in similar doses as a
nauseant in inflammations, but are not uniform in their action, and are apt
to irritate. As an external detergent and stimulant application, they are
used in the compound tinctures of myrrh and of benjamin, called Friars'
balsam. Aloes form a remarkable instance of the different properties of the
same article over different animals. A horse requires an ounce, an ox two
ounces or even more, to purge him ; a dog can take a drachm ; a man cannot
bear half that quantity; and the largest hog not even so much : while, accord-
ing to the experiments of M. Gilbert, a sheep which took two ounces was not
purged, although it died seventeen days afterwards. Aloes, particularly the
Barbadoes, will not pulverise readily except in frosty weather, at which time
a sufficient quantity should be done to last the year through ; and as they
are apt again to unite into a sohd mass, so, as soon as powdered, they should
be mixed with some soft ingredient. I have always used for this purpose half
their weight of lard or palm oil : mixed in this manner they keep well, and
form a uniform mass of a proper consistence to make balls ; which dissolves
readily in the stomach, never hardens, and is, I think, less apt to gripe than
any other form, particularly if half a drachm of powdered ginger be added.
Soap is not thought, by some of our most scientific practitioners, a good
article to entangle the aloes ; and though it has been introduced partly to
assist the solution of the aloes in the stomach, yet, by its diuretic properties,
it must somewhat interfere, though probably slightly only, with the purgation

602 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

by exciting the kidneys. Under this view, the introduction of soda, as a
direct diuretic, must certainly be more objectionable. Aloes are now boiled
by some practitioners, to render them more mild. The great difficulty of
keeping aloes m an equal state of consistence, as a purging mass, induced
Ml. B. Clark to adopt the following method, by which, he informs us, these
mconveniences are obviated. He places one vessel within another, exactly
as carpenters melt glue, having water in the outer vessel, and aloes with one-
hfth of their weight of treacle in the inner one, which is carefully covered
with a hd. The apparatus being put on the fire, is suffered to remain, the
aloes and treacle being now and then, but not too often, stirred to combine
them, tor an hour or more, or until perfectly melted. The inner vessel being
now taken from the outer, the contents are expeditiously cast in paper moulds
or tubes, of the usual diameter of a horse ball. When cold, Mr. C. finds
these balls flexible, yet solid, and that they remain so. He gives an ounce to
a saddle or carriage horse, and ten drachnis to a cart horse : but there is rea-
son to fear that they do not prove so soluble in the stomach as when their
particles are divided by oil, lard, or even syrup, but which is a more ob-
jectionable ingredient than either of the others.

A watery xobition of aloes should be kept by every veterinarian, and which
will be found, in many instances, a very convenient form, as well as desirable,
on account of its quicker action. It may be made by grossly powdering a
pound of the mass, and infusing it, in a warm place, in one pint and a half
of proof spirit for three or four days ; after which add soft water two quarts,
and bottle for use. When to be taken, shake the vessel containing it, and
give sediment and all, in doses of two, three, or four ounces, as the case may
require.

A spiritiwus tincture of aloes, made by digesting foiu- ounces of the powder
in a quart of proof spirit in a sand-bath, forms an excellent stimulating ap-
plication to sinuous sores, recent wounds, &c. Half an ounce of powdered
myrrh is a good addition to this vulnerary>
Aj.tebatives are articles that are supposed to act medicinally on the body, in
a slow and nearly imperceptible manner. The usual alteratives among far-
riers are nitre, antimony, sulphur, resin, and spices; but a better acquaint-
ance with the art teaches us to add mercurials, mineral acids, foxglove, wood
barks, aloes, with some of the gums, and gum resins : a change also in the
food becomes, in some instances, a powerful alterative. — Nitrated potash or
nitre, in doses of two to six drachms, increases the urinary discharge, and
thus becomes an alterative, by gently decreasing the accumulation of fluids
in swelled heels and other osdematous enlargements. Antimony is given in
several forms : the sulphuret, or what was called crude antimony, has been
long a common alterative : it is still given in doses of two to six drachms in
skin affections, as hidebound, &c. Autimonial powder, and tartarized anti-
mony, called emetic tartar (see Antimony), are also alteratives of a diapho-
retic quality, in doses of one to two di-acbms. — Besin is an active and useful
diuretic alterative, in doses of two or three or four di-achms ; but it simply
empties the system, while nitre is a refrigerant also. The supertartrate of
potash, known as cream of tartar, is an excellent alterative, particularly in
conjunction with mercurials and sulphur, in skin affections, as surfeits, &c.
&c. — Spices are oflcn too freely used by ignorant persons to produce a fine
coat ; but in judicious hands they become useful alteratives, by their invigo-
rating and tonic quality. — The submuriate of mercury, or calomel, is useful
in all herpetic affections, and as a vermifuge also, in doses of a scruple to a
drachm; but its effects must be watched, or salivation may unexpectedly
come on. — The oxymuriate of mercury, or corrosive siihlimate, may likewise
be given in similar cases, and in farcy, glanders, grease, &c., in doses of ten
grains to a scruple, watching its effects even more attentively than the former,
as, in addition to salivation, it may produce inflauuuation of the stomach. —
Arsenic is not only given with the same intents as the last article, but a.<> a
tonic its effects arc also considerable, particularly in cases of ])rolracte(l dc-

VKTEIUNARY MATERIA MEDICA. 603
bilitvfrom chronic diseases: it is likewise a useful vermifuge Tlie dose is
I c a ne as of corrosive sublimate, and similar cautions are to be observed m
s cxhibition.-Foxglove is likewise a useful alterative in watery accumula-
ons, iu doses of two scruples to a drachm. Diuretics diaphoretics, axa-
Hves; stomachics, and tonics, maybe aU likewise considered as alteratives.

AiJm rSrS-This compounded body of sulphuric acid and pure argil is in
very general use in veterinary practice, both externally and intemaUy In
doses of one or two drachms, it is a useful astringent in diarrhoea diabetes
and other fluxes; it also possesses some virtue as a stomachic. Lx^teruaily
it is used as a styptic to stop haemorrhage, by sprinkling it on the bleeding
orifice, when its coagulating properties plug up the mouth of the vessel. 1
is a useful escharotic to destroy fungus, and a valuable detergent for foul
ulcers It is also a useful stimulant in inflammations of the eye ; and a whey
made of it forms a good astringent clyster. When it is burnt, it is rather
milder, but its properties are not otherwise matenal y altered. _ . , . „
AmmoniI CRVi>E CAmmoma muriasj. It is called crude, to distinguish it from
the volatile or prepared ammonia which follows. It is, in my opinion, one ot
our very best discutients, and, when in mixture with acetic acid or vinegar,
it forms the saline embrocation mentioned in the body of the work, (bee 1!>m-
BROCATioNs). From it are prepared • c i

Ammonia volatile (ammonia subcarbonas). The gaseous ammonia fixed
into a solid form by combination with carbonic acid, forms the volatile am-
moniacal salt of the di-uggists. It has been said to be a good stimulant in the
latter stages of fever ; but I have never tried it alone : united with vinegar,
it forms the spirit of Mindererus, a most excellent human febrifuge.

Amnmiia acetatis (acetated hquor of ammonia) is made by pouring a quart
of vinegar on an ounce of volatile salt of ammonia ; it may be also made by
takin-f any quantity of the carbonated water of ammonia, or spirit of harts-
horn,°and adding vinegar to it tiU it tastes neither salt nor sour. I consider
it as a very important medicine in horse practice ; it gently invigorates, is
diaphoretic, and sometimes it proves mildly diuretic. It prmcipaHy shews
its salutary effects on the commencement of the debile stage, or at the close
of hno'cring febrile diseases, particularly of the epidemic catarrh ; in which
cases °it may be combined with camphor, but more effectively with powdered
chamomile (see Chamomile). In the more early stages of the epidemic
catarrh it may be united with nitre and oxymel. The dose is from four to
six ounces. In strains and ligamentary lamenesses it fomrs a very useful ex-
ternal application also.

Carbonate of Ammonia is called salt of hartshorn ; carbonated water ot
ammonia is the spirit of hartshorn of the shops. It is convenient in veteri-
nary practice, from its pecuUar property of uniting oil and water. Inter-
nally, it is an antispasmodic, in doses of eight to ten drachms. United with
acetous acid, or vinegar, it forms an excellent diaphoretic febrifuge ; and
in conjunction with equal parts of oil it forms the volatile liniment, which is
a warm discutient apphcation, much used for sore throat and indurated
tumours. .
Ammoniacum. — This gum is sometimes given in old obstinate coughs, but L

have no evidence to offer of its efficacy. j , /. •

Anise Sked.— The powder of these seeds was formerly much used by famers,
and the druggists who make horse powders find it a profitable article ; for it
is adulterated to one-third only of the genuine powder. It may be very pro-
perly united with other warm aromatics when cordials are admissible. It is
also thought to possess some pectoral properties, but they are very trifling.
The essential oil is the most active prepration of it ; which see.
Anodynes.— These are medicines that quiet pain. In the human, they procure
sleep also ; but no article with which we are acquainted is absolutely capable
of producing this effect on the horse, whose stomach having but little secret-
ing surface, on which most anodynes first act by a sympathetic effect, is not

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.
much open to this impression. As mitigators of pain, opium and hyoscyaniuH
must be tried. Camphor and aether will also act as antispasmodics; but in
all painful affections, where relief is essential, opium in doses of one, two, or
three drachms, is chiefly to be depended on; and if pain be mitigated, sleep
tollows of course, from the fatigue of irritation.
Anthelmintics. — See Vermifuges.

Antimony.— There are several medicinal preparations made from the crude
metal, as

Black sulplmret of antimony (Sulphuretum antimonii), the metal itself, but
ground and levigated : in this state it is already compounded with sulphur
but when it is to be given as an alterative, more sulphur is often added to it,'
with nitre or other articles, according to the pleasure of the compounder : in
dopes of two, three, or as far as four drachms, it is a good and safe alterative
daily administered. It should be bought and powdered by the practitioner,
or he may purchase manganese and forge-dust as a part of the mass. It
holds within itself often a portion of arsenic, to which we attribute its occa-
sional violence of action, particularly when given to dogs : the presence of
arsenic may be tried by burning a little on a red hot iron plate, when a smell
of garlic detects the arsenic. ^

Tarturized antimony (Antimonium tartarizatum). Emetic tartar, or the
tartrate of potash and antimony, is a very valuable medicine in veterinary
. practice, although its merits are not allowed by some practitioners : but who-
ever will try it without prejudice, will have reason to be satisfied that it is
both a febrifuge and expectorant (see Expectorants) ; and, as most of the
fevers of horses are connected with some pneumonic affection, so a remedy
that combines the properties of diminishing action, and increasing expec-
toration, is invaluable. In active pneumonia, I unite it with nitre, digitalis,
and oxymel, in doses of one to two drachms, two or three times a-day. In
lesser cases, it may be given with nitre and supertartrate of potash (cream of
tartar) in similar doses, once a-day, in a mash. It is also an excellent altera-
tive (see Axteratives). In full doses it occasions determination to the skin,
and ultimately lessens the action of the heart and arteries : sometimes it in-
creases the flow of urine. Mr. Morton notices it as an excellent emetic for
dogs, in a dose of from one to three grains. Mr. Youatt does the same. It
will also prove emetic, when applied externally, and in our opinion it cer-
tainly lessens the febrile action of the vascular system more effectually than
any other medicament. Mr. Peall was also wont to use it as a vermifuge, and
praised it highly. Hardly any quantity of tartarized antimony will kill a horse
or ox : a dog cannot take ten grains without danger.

Antimonial powder (Pulvis antimonialis). This well known preparation,
supposed to be the same with Dr. James's powder, is a compound of oxide
of antimony with phosphate of lime. It has some febrifuge qualities ; but
although it determines to the skin and lessens arterial action ; in my own
practice I seldom found it so efficacious as the tartarized antimony. As an
alterative it is useful in doses of one to two drachms ; and as a promoter of
condition it is often preferable to tartarized antimony.

Antimony, chloride of (Murias antimonii), or butter or butyr of antimony, is
a very powerful escharotic. (See Escharotics.)

Antiseptics are remedies supposed to possess a power of resisting a putrefac-
tive process in the body ; but this disposition is questioned, and all medicines
of this class are now considered as acting only by their stimulating qualities.
— See Tonics and Stimulants.

Antispasmodics. — The horse is not subject to many spasmodic affections, and
the class of remedies that applies to the few he is troubled with is small.
Opium stands first on the list. Camphor, a;ther, hyoscyamus, belladonna,
oil of turpentine, and asafoetida, have all of them likewise proved useful.
Cold also, in an intense degree, is a powerful antispasmodic, for which reason
we apply it in tetanus.

Aperients. — Sec Laxatives.

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

605

Arsenic, oxide (Arsenicmn oxyduni). — This powerful mineral is somewhat
uncertain in its action, and not always safe either : were it not for this, it
might be called a good tonic, in doses of ten grains to twenty daily, in a very
fine powder : more has been given ; but it sometimes appears to remain in-
nocuous until the constitution is fuUy saturated with it ; and then commences
its noxious effects suddenly and irreparably : this destroys much of its useful-
ness, and makes it necessary to exhibit it with great caution : nor should it
ever be given on an empty stomach. It has the power of staying the progress
of glanders, and it ultimately cures farcy when watched and continued : it
also appears to have some vermifuge properties ; and it certainly retards the
march of the rabid disease, but is not ultimately successful. The properties
of this mineral are ably examined in The Veterinarian^ vol. iii, where it will
be seen (such are the anomalies of the action of caustic substances on the
horse) that five drachms and a scruple were taken at once without injury.
Externally, it assists other applications in the cure of mange.
AsTRrNGBJiTS. — These are supposed to act on the living fibres by producing in-
creased contraction in them, in which point of view they form a very nume-
rous and important class ; but in a more limited sense, they are considered as
substances that restrain immoderate fluxes, as of the intestines and kidneys.
Those that act by constringing the divided ends of bloodvessels are called
styptics. Opium, chalk, alum, starch, and catechu, act favourably in re-
straining intestinal fluxes. Catechu, alum, and acetate of lead, operate as
astringents on the urinary passages.
Balls. — There are some circumstances, in the preparation of this form of me-
dicines, not in general sufficiently attended to by veterinarians. Substances
that are volatile do not keep well in balls, and therefore should only be made
when used. The same caution is also requisite with such as liquefy by the
absorption of air. All hard substances entering into balls should be finely
powdered, and the moist matter that is to form them into an adhesive mass
should be of a nature that will neither ferment nor become mouldy. Very
dry and bulky powders are no way so conveniently formed into a mass, or
keep so well, as by the addition of lard or palm oil. Such as are less bulky,
and other matters, may be mixed vidth honey, syrup, or treacle, unless they
are intended for keeping some months ; in which case, if lard or pakn oil be
not used, well made conserve of roses forms a convenient medium: it is,
however, the opinion of some, that saccharine media are less soluble in the
stomach than vegetable and even animal oils. A mass of baUs not intended
for immediate use should be pressed down into a jar, and tied over with a
bladder. As the giving of a hall is a forcible operation, so, when it is requi-
site to exhibit medicines more than once a-day, it is more prudent to give
them in the form of drinks. A horse ball should not be so large as a pullet's
egg, but rather longer ; nor should it be too hard : the weight between an
ounce and a half and two ounces. A very ingenious instrument is now made
for giving balls, which may be used in every case, but is particularly appli-
cable to colts, ponies, or horses with a small mouth. The common balling
iron, used by persons not expert at delivering a ball, as it is termed, should
always be guarded with cloth, to prevent the bars of the mouth from being
wounded. _ The most convenient mode of ' delivering a ball' is, to back the
horse in his stall, when the operator, raising himself on a stool (the bottom
of the bucket is a very usual convenience, but it sometimes falls in, and'
alarms the horse), should gently draw the tongue a little out of the mouth,
so asto prevent its rising to resist the passage of the hand; but it should not
be laid hold of alone or the struggles of the horse may injure it, but should
be held firmly by the fingers of the left hand against the jaw. The ball, be-
ing previously oiled, must now be taken between the tips of the fingers of the
right hand, lengthwise, when the hand, being squeezed into as small a space
as possible, should be passed up the mouth close to the roof, by which injury
from the teeth will be avoided : having placed the ball on the root of the
tongue, the hand may be withdrawn, and the tongue liberated, when the ball

G06

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

will pass down. The luiad should, during the whole, be but moderately ele-
vated: when it is held too liigli, tlierc is some danger of clicking the horse.

Balsams are a kind of resinous juice, united with some of the extractive uiattei
of the various plants they are obtained from, in combination with an essential
oil. AU the balsams are occasionally in use in veterinary medicine, and were
formerly in very high estimation, for their supposed salutary action in chronic
diseases of the lungs. They were also considered as a sovereign vulnerary for
abraded m-inary passages. It is the modern doctrine to think their efficacy
overrated, and which is probably in some respects true, particularly as regards
their expectorant qualities : nevertheless they are far from being inert ; on the
contrary, they appear to act very favourably in some instances, as a warm terc-
binthinated stimulant. There are balsams of Canada ; of Copaiva ; of Gilead ;
of Peru ; and of Tolu. What is called balsam of sulphur is merely a com-
pounded preparation of sulphur in oil.

Barbadoes Tab. — See Tab.

Bark. — Several of the harks enter into the veterinarian's list of medicaments,
and aU act by an astringent property on the animal fibre. Peruvian bark,
which stands foremost in reputation, is almost excluded from our reach by its
cost ; and as horses are little subject to intermittents, so we can more readily
dispense with it, particularly as the tonic qualities can be gained from others
less expensive. I have used the willow, the elm, and the oak barks, particu-
larly in conjunction with chamomile, in cases of debility after fever, with ad-
vantage. Cascarilla, canella, and Angustura barks prove themselves also valu-
able stomachic tonics. The elm and oak barks, in decoction, form excellent
astringent washes for herpetic complaints, chapped heels, grease, &c. &c.

Barytes (Murias BarytcB) has been tried with some benefit in glanders. It is,
however, a very powerful medicament, and few glandered horses are able to
bear the quantity requisite for the cure. — See Glanders.

Basilicon (^Ccratum resince). — A useful digestive ointment.

Beans, in a medical point of view, are sometimes used as a tonic, and the flour
of them as a restringent.

Belladonna (iiightshade). — Mr. Youatt considers this to have some prophylactic
powers against rabies, but particularly when in union with the Scutellaria, or
skull- cap. He begins ' with a drachm ball to a moderate-sized dog, containing
two scruples of the Scutellaria, and about two and a half grains of the belladonna,
to be given night and morning : on the second week two baUs are given ; on
the third, three ; and this continued for six weeks.' The nightshade is also a
general sedative.

Blisters. — The action of blisters, and the cases in which they are properly ap-
plied, are detailed under the operations. The suhstances used for this purpose
are various ; the most important is the meloe cantharides, or Spanish fly, whose
action is so certain and mild, that, as a simple vesicatory for internal inflam-
matory affections, every other article is very inferior. Euphorbium, which is
the general substance introduced as a substitute for a portion of these flies,
is sufficiently active ; but it irritates, and therefore ought never to be em-
ployed in these eases. However, in common blistering for strains, &c., where
the expense of cantharides is objected to, auxiliary vesicatories may be ad-
mitted, among which the tincture of croton is now used.

No. 1. — Blister for. general Use.

Powdered canthai-ides one pound

Venice turpentine ditto

Resin ditto

Palm oil, or lard ^ two pounds.

Melt the three latter articles slowly together, and, when not too hot, gradually
mix the cantharides or flies.

VETERINARY

MATERIA

MEDICA.

G07

No. 2. — A jwiverful Blister.

Powdered euphorbiura three ounces

Oil of vitriol two drachms

Spanish flies one pound

Palm oil, or lard three pounds

Resin three pounds

Oil of turpentine eight ounces.

Melt the resin with the lard or pahii oil, after -which add the turpentme.
Having previously mixed the oil of vitriol very gradually with an ounce of
water, as gi-adually add these to the melted mass, which again set on a very
slow fire for ten minutes more : afterwards remove the whole, and, when
beginning to cool, add the powders previously mixed together.

No. 3.-4 Mercurial Blister for Splints, Spavins, and Ringbones, ivhick may he
used luhere dependence is placed on the action of Mercurials and Blisters, but
which there is reason to think are but little assistant in the reduction of these exos-

toses, particularly if of long standing.

Of either of the former four ounces

Corrosive sublimate, powdered finely half a di-achm.

No. 4. — Liquid Blister, strong; sometimes called Sweating Bmster.

Spanish flies, in gross powder half a pound

Oil of turpentine two quarts

Olive oil one quart.

Steep the flies in the turpentine three weeks ; strain off, and add the olive oil.

No. 5. — Liquid Blister, mild.

Of the above one pint

Olive oil a pint and a half.

The farriers' sweating blister is only a strong stimulant, without actually sepa-
rating the cuticle : it occasions heat and swelling, without excoriation or loss
of hair; consequently it is a very convenient application, when it is an object
to avoid a blemish, and when the case is not a very desperate one. But
there are also instances in which it is to be preferred to an actual blister, as in
recent strains, where some remains of heat and inflammation are present, but
without activity : in such cases the sweating blister is very often efficacious.
The mode of application is to rub it in of sufficient strength to irritate in
a mild degree only, repeating it every day, until considerable swelling is occa-
sioned, when the application should be desisted firom, and the swelling suffered
to subside.

No. 6. — A Mustard Blister or Poidtice, to be applied in cases of emergency, when
blistering ointment is not at hand.

Mix half a pound of flour of mustard into a paste, and apply hot. It may
in some cases be strengthened by the addition of two ounces of oil of tur-
pentine.

Blue Vitriol {Cvpri sidphas). — See Sulphate of Copper.

UohE Armenian (Bolus Arinenice),\u\gar\y called bole armenic,i8 an argillaceous
earth impregnated with iron ; and was formerly extolled for its astringent
strengthening qualities, both externally and internally ; but, although it has
some claim to attention, it is seldom now used except in charges, and in
some grease ointments.

Borax. — See Soda.

COS VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

Box-tree (Buxus). —Thia in a .slight degree possesses preventive properties
against rabies or madness in animals, as my own experiments proved. Mr.
Youatt, however, confides more in the belladonna and Scutellaria ; but un-
fortunately we yet want a specific.

Bran.— Independently of the use of this as an article of food, it may be-here in-
troduced as a medicine also, being mucilaginous and aperient. In the latter
point of view, it is perhaps the most certain laxative with which we are ac-
quainted, and at the same time the most mild also. — See Mashes.

Burgundy Pitch differs so little from resin in its qualities, as to need no parti-
cular comment. — See Resin.

Butter or Buttr of Antimony (Antimomum Muriatum). — See Escharotics.

Calamine, prepared (Lapis calaminaris), is an ore of zinc, which, when reduced
to a fine powder, may be very usefully sprinkled on excoriations, and on cracks
of the heels, to dry them. It is, however, most frequently used in the form of
the ungent called calamine cerate, and formerly Turner's cerate, and is an ex-
cellent desiccative application.

Calomel. — (See Submuriate of Quicksilver.) — This is a very useful medicine in
horse practice, but is liable to some uncertainty in its action : therefore, in
cases in which its use is to be continued, it should only be given in doses of
fifteen to twenty grains daily, and even then should be carefully watched ;
for the moment the gums look red, the mouth feels hot, and a tenderness is
observed in chewing, it should be immediately discontinued. Calomel has
not much effect as a vermifuge beyond its purgative properties ; but it is an
excellent alterative in slcin affections, as hidebound, surfeits, &c. It has
proved useful also irw farcy, grease, and oedema. I have used it successfully
likewise in constitutional ophthalmia, both externally and internally. It is
often united with purges, but is not to be depended on alone as a purgative :
I prefer to give it in a mash on the evening preceding the morning the purge
is to be given, when the addition, in some cases, has an excellent effect. Two
drachms are a proper quantity for this purpose ; but it must not be forgotten
to subtract something from the strength of the morning purge. ' During the
use of calomel as an alterative, the horse should not be exposed to wet or
cold, nor should its use be persisted in more than a week without a pause.
It remains to add, that, unless this article be purchased from a druggist of
reputation, it is very apt to be adulterated.

Camphor is an Indian produce, chiefly extracted from the laurus camphora.
It is a substance whose action it is very difficult to define ; but as it is active
in its properties on the horse, it well deserves very full trial. In large doses
it produces convulsions and delirium : half an ounce has done this. In mo-
derate doses, as a drachm, it proves sedative and antispasmodic, and there-
fore may be usefully employed in flatulent colic, in conjunction with other
remedies. United with opium, it has acted beneficially in spasmodic con-
strictions of the neck of the bladder not dependent on inflammation. It has
also been highly spoken of as a powerful remedy in locked jaw ; but though
I have fully tried it in these cases, I am not able to say much in its favour :
on very respectable authority it has been also warmly praised for its virtues
in fever ; and as it is certainly possessed of that anomalous action better felt
and observed than described, being at once a gentle stimulant and soother of
irritation in moderate repeated doses, so in the latter stages of febrile com-
plaints, where the debility and irritability are considerable, it may be very
properly given. But in the more early stages its beneficial action is question-
able : nor are its powers sufficient as a permanent stimulant to be depended
on at any time without other auxiliaries. Externally it proves a mild dis-
cutient in indurations and rheumatic affections ; and I have also experienced
advantage from its use in collyriums for inflamed eyes.

Cantharides, or Spanish Flies. — These are, or ought to be, the principal
stimulating ingredient in the making of blisters; and every veterinarian
should purchase them whole and powder them himself, otherwise he will bo
very apt to buy them adulterated. Previously to being powdered, they should

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA,

609

be moderately dried, and then leisurely pounded, or rather ground into a
powder, the operator guarding his face with a fine muslin handkerchief, so
as not to receive the fine particles into his nose and thrpat, otherwise an un-
pleasant sense and soreness will arise. If they are very dry, and the powder
flies much, add a few drops of sweet oil, which will prevent this. Of all the
vesicating articles in use, none equal cantharides ; they empty the subjacent
vessels, and raise much local inflammation without at aW injuring the texture
of the cutis or its connexions ; and without leaving any ulcerative process, as
is the case with most other acrid applications, which, by so doing, keep up
such a hurtful irritation at the close of fever and extensive inflammations as
to preclude a favourable termina,tion. They likewise make a very useful
stimulating tincture for injecting' into sinuous sores. Cantharides are found
also to have a very salutary effect in those relaxations of mucous membranes
which produce a morbid purulent secretion ; and which is apparently done by
stimulating the system generally, and these parts particularly, into a new and
healthy action. It is thus they have been applied to the treatment of glanders,
and with a prospect of limited success : in nasal gleets not dirgctly glander-
ous, but whose continuance might tend to the disease, they have been ex-
tremely beneficial. Some experiments of M. Barthelemy's would also lead
to a supposition that they do not exert an injurious effect on the kidneys by
absorption when a blister is applied, as it has been long considered they do,
and as we know that at least they occasionally do by the symptoms of stran-
gury, which occur sometimes.
Cai'Sicum. — In Indian horse practice, an infusion of Cayenne pepper is often
given as a cure of flatulent colic, and as a vermifuge also ; it is likewise used
externally as a stimulant. I have myself tried it in colic with some ad-
vantage, but not with sufficient benefit to prefer it to the more established
means. As a stomachic, it is decidedly inferior to the other spices.
Caraways. — Both the seeds and essential oil are used as warm stomachic cor-
dials.— See Cordials.

■ Carbon. — The chemical name of charcoal : it is useful in stopping the ulcera-
tive process. — See Poultices.

' Carbonate of Ammonia, or Salt of Hartshorn of the shops. — See Am-
monia.

'Carbonated Water of Ammonia, or Spirit of Hartshorn. — See Am-
monia.

' Carbonate of Iron. — See Iron.

' Carrots. — These become, under many circumstances, a medicine, as well as
an article of diet Even for the latter purpose they are not sufficiently known ;
for they fatten without heating, i. e. without promoting plethora ; but, on the
contrary, they keep the body cool by keeping it open, and greatly promote a
healthy coat. As a medicine they often remove cough, cure incipient grease,
are good in farcy, and beneficial in surfeits and mange ; but in these latter
cases they must be wholly substituted for com. A poultice formed of the
scraped root is an excellent application in cases of ichorous discharge from
the heels. — See Pooltices.

• Castor Oil (Oleum Riciru). — See Oils."

• Cataplasms. — See Charges.

• Cathartics. — Whatever excites the intestines to a more early, a more fre-

quent, and a more copious discharge of their contents, may be termed a
cathMrtic, or purge. If this effect be intended to be produced in slight
degree only, the article effecting it is termed a laxative; which see. The
principal cathartic in veterinary practice is aloes. Castor oil, calomel and
neutral salts, may be considered as laxatives. — See Physicking, Aloes'&c
<CATECHU.--By universal suffrage this has long been called japan earth; al-
though it is an extract from a species of Indian acacia. It is a very mild but
tolerably certain astringent ; and its effects are, I think, even more certain
on brutes than on the human subject. It acts favourably in relaxations of
the urinary passages, and also in alvine fluxes or diarrhoea ; in which latter

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610 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

cases it slioiild be given with chalk, in doses of an ounce. It should not be
united with any metallic salt, particularly in a diluted form, to avoid the
affinity which its tannin or gallic acid, on which its astringent properties
inainly depend, has for all metals, which union would reduce it to almost
inertness. Even the chalk with which it is so commonly given, being an
alkali, Mr. Youatt thinks weakens its action ; but the loss is compensated,
in his opinion, by its antacid properties. By an Indian practice, it would
appear that catechu is a powerful sedative ; for there it is given in daily
doses of two ounces, for the purpose of taming vicious horses. As an
astringent in the diarrhoea of cattle, it appears to be even more active than
in the horse.
Caustics. — See Escharotics.

Cerates are ointments of a drying healing nature; the principal of which is
calamine, or Turner's cerate.

Chalk, (Creta). — This is a carbonate of lime, commonly used in a prepared
state under the name of prepared chalk. It is an excellent antacid and
astringent, in diarrhoja, dependent on a vitiated state of the stomachic, biliary,
and intestinal secretions : in this way it is that it proves so beneficial in the
scouring of calves. The dose is from half an ounce to two ounces. It is
occasionally sprinkled over cracks also. In the diarrhoea of dogs, which is so
fatal a symptom of distemper, chalk and catechu are sheet anchors.

Chamomile. — If I do not very wrongly appreciate this vegetable, it unites in
an admirable degree the qualities of a stomachic and febrifuge. In debUity
of the stomach and bowels it is a most excellent tonic, in doses of an ounce
and a half once or twice a- day, particularly in conjunction with carbonate of
iron. In fevers, but more especially in the debile stage of catarrh which
succeeds the first inflammatory attack, and when the purulent discharge has
appeared, it proves a most valuable assistant to the other medicines pre-
scribed. In conjunction with acetated liquor of ammonia, it forms the best
febrifuge for the secondary stages of fever in general with which we are
acquainted.

Charcoal (Charbo ligni) has a peculiar property of amending the ichorous
discharge from ill-conditioned ulcers, either sprinkled over them in powder
or mixed with a poultice.

Charges are not much used by modern veterinarians ; for a more extensive
acquaintance with the animal economy teaches us that there is but little ac-
tivity in what are considered as external bracers. Nevertheless, I think there
are some other points of view in which we may place this matter, to prove
that charges may yet prove of much service in some cases, if it be merely to
act as a bandage, or to protect from cold. In this way a charge becomes a
useful application to the loins in rheumatism ; not only as it protects the
affected part from cold, but also from the resin in it proving a useful stimu-
lant. Windgalls, old lamenesses from ligamentary extension, &c., may be still
further assisted after firing or blistering, by the continued bandage kept up
by a charge. Any strong adhesive, as resin, pitch, &c., melted with wax or
oil sufficient to keep it from being too brittle, may be formed into a charge,
and applied warm on the part ; and as it cools, it should be covered with
flocks or short tow. The strengthening part of a charge was supposed to
consist in adding armenian bole, crocus metallorum, litharge, or other matters;
which may be still done if thought proper. Another favourite, and, if we
beheve the accounts given of it, a very effi^ctive charge in ligamentary lame-
nesses, was common salt with the white of egg.

Clysters. — These often form very important medicaments in veterinary prac-
tice, and have the valuable properties of being always safe, and commonly
easy to give. From the length of time it requires to open the bowels by
purgatives given by the mouth, clysters are often our principal dependence ;
and also when aperients cannot be given by the mouth, they become our only
. resource. Nutriment may likewise be given this way, when circumstances
prevent its being received in the usual manner, or when it is requisite to

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

611

throw a large quantity into the system. When clysters are given to remove
costivcness, it is always proper to back-rake first (see Rakinc), as it removes
any hardened dung that might obstruct the passage of the liquid. The ap-
paratus made use of in giving a clyster may be a large hog's or ox's bladder,
capable of holding five or six quarts, attached to a smooth wooden pipe an
inch in diameter, and fourteen or sixteen inches long ; but a much more
efficient apparatus is i?e«VZ's patent clyster syringe and stomach pump, by which
almost any quantity may be forced up to the required distance in the intes-
tines. The liquor should not be too warm ; but the pipe being oiled, the
whole must be conducted gently, so that the horse may not be surprised with
its being thrown up too suddenly. This is a better instrument for giving an
injection than the pewter syringe made for this purpose by the veterinary
instrument makers.

A laxative Clyster.

No. 1. — Thin gruel, or broth five quarts

Epsom or common salt six ounces

Or in default of them, soft or yellow soap... two ounces.

A Clyster for Gripes.
No. 2. — ^Mash two moderately sized onions, over which pour oil of turpen-

tine two ounces.

Thin gruel four quarts.

A nourishing Clyster.

No. 3. — Thick gruel three quarts

Strong ale one quart.

Mix.— Orj

Strong broth * two quarts

Thickened milk two quarts.

Mix.

Astringent Clysters.

No. 4. — Tripe liquor, or suet boiled in milk three pints

Thin starch two pints

Laudanum half an ounce.

No. 5. — Alum whey one quart

Boiled starch one quart*

CoLCHicuM {Meadolu saffron root) is a diuretic medicine to the horse, but as
yet little kno'svn.

CoLLYRiuMS are washes, commonly in use for the eyes. — See Washes.

Conserves. — These are numerous in the human pharmacy, though but few
are used in horse practice. The conserve of red roses is, however, a most
convenient medium for forming balls, as it is adhesive, and, when properly
made, keeps well. It is, nevertheless, not intended by this to recommend it
for horse balls in preference to palm oil, which is undoubtedly the best matter
to form these balls ; lard, next to it ; but for small balls, particularly for
dog balls, this conserve will be found very convenient.

Cordials are matters that invigorate by their stimulating property, usually
through the medium of the stomach, but finally by being received into the
circulation : thus oxygon gas, inhaled by the human into the lungs, produces
a more vivid halo of imagination than ardent spirits. Cordials have been so
long the very strong hold of the ignorant and presuming, and prove so in-
jurious in the stable management of such persons, be they masters, farriers,
or grooms, that the very term sounds ill in the ear of the well-informed
veterinarian. The groom requires a cordial, because his daily and perhaps
hourly habits tend to derange his stomach, which can only be brought to feel

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612 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

appetite when rc-nthindated by tlie cordials which are fast hastening him to
his end. But his horse indulging in no such habits, does not require a cor-
dial ball twice a-week, or on every evening after hunting, or on every morning
his coat stares with the altered temperature : to him, therefore, a cordial, as
being unnatural, must be hurtful, unless required by some very extraordinary
exertion, which, by calling forth too much of the constitutional powers, has
expended the vital resources from whence the stomach draws its tone and
office, and the appetite in consequence fails. Thus after a very hard run
with hounds ; after thirty, forty, or fifty miles rapid carrying or drawing, all
this may happen, and then a gentle stimulant may excite the digestive sym-
pathy artificially, until the natural powers return to do it. Here a cordial
may be proper and even necessary : but how often does this necessity occur
in proportion to the number of what are called cordial balls given ; and given
injuriously, because not called for by the state and wants of the animal. — For
forms of cordials see Stimulants.

Copper {Cuprum) yields two articles used in veterinary practice.

Verdigris (iErugo). — Internally, this subacetate of copper has been given
in daily doses of two or three drachms, . and sometimes with success ; but it
does not appear, from what I have seen of it, to merit the exclusion of more
appreciated remedies. It has, however, some power as a tonic, and, in this
point of view, may be properly administered. Externally, its benefits are
more apparent, as it proves one of the best detergents and mild escharotics
with which we are acquainted. Mixed with honey, it forms segyptiacum,
and is used in ulcers of the mouth, and likewise as a paste to other ulcerated
parts. Mixed with tar, it becomes one of the best applications for thrushes,
grease, and cracks.

Blue Vitriol (Cupri sulphas). — This has been at one time lauded to the
skies, at another abused to the shades ; and, like most other matters thus
treated, its merits lie between the two. It is, unfortunately, not a cure for
glanders ; but it certainly does, in some cases, flatter much, and does some-
times not deceive. It has been justly observed of it, that in lingering chro-
nic cases, the result of catarrh, it proves a most excellent tonic ; and here
often it exerts its best influence, and puts a stop to the discharge which would
in the end contaminate the lungs. It is also a good detergent application,
in the proportion of half an ounce to a pint of water; or when sprinkled
dry on unhealthy surfaces, as canker, &c., or injected into sinuous sores in
dilution.

CoRiANCER. — The seeds of the coriander are a warm aromatic stimulant.

Corrosive Sublimate {Hydrargyri oxymurias). — See Mercury.

CowHAGE. — This has been described as a valuable vermifuge in doses of half a

drachm to a drachm ; but it does not appear to me to possess much medicinal

activity.

Cream of Tartar {Potassm supertartras). — See Potash.

Croton Tiglii. — In India this has long been used both as a human and brute
purgative, and lately it has entered into the veterinary practice of this coun-
try : the expressed oil is of extraordinary power as a cathartic, but is seldom
used, ft-om its price, except in the human subject. In veterinary pharmacy the
meal, which possesses similar properties, is used ; but, unfortunately, by the
arts of the druggist, it is often so adulterated as to deceive the expectations
of the practitioner. When it is pure, it may be given in doses from a scruple
to half a drachm, with linseed meal, in the form of a ball, to shield its acrid
nature. It is equally, indeed, somewhat more, drastic than aloes, producing
profuse liquid watery stools, and often much griping, and it occasionally takes
as much time to excite purgation. It is also somewhat uncertain in its ac-
tion, but, under a favourable operation, it is quicker than aloes, although our
first accounts of it denied this. It may, therefore, when immediate purga-
tion is necessary, be very properly applied to ; and also in tetanus its di-
minished bulk and great activity make it valuable. Dissolved in turpentine,
it forms a blister, but inferior to cantharides. For cattle, Mr. Morton ob-

4

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

613

serves, that its union with the sulphate of magnesia in doses of from twenty
to thirty grains is now commonly had recourse to ; and that it has been found
effectual in overcoming obstinate constipations, as well as in those cases which
require the bowels to be quickly acted upon.

Decoctions. — Many herbs are boiled to make decoctions of them. During
the boiling, the vessel should be covered ; and if the liquor be not intended
for immediate use, it should afterwards be bottled, and have a small portion
of some spirit added to it.

Demulcents are medicines that act mechanically, by surrounding acrid mat-
ter, and thus sheathing it from hurting sensible and irritable parts. In this
way oily preparations act ; likewise, honey, gums, mucilages, &c. Diluents,
as warm fluids, mashes, &c., are also demulcents, because they dilute acrimo-
nious matter, and render it less active.

DiAPENTE was an old cordial, composed of gentian, bay berries, bithwort, ivory
shavings, and myrrh. When made genuine, there are few better compounds
as a stomachic cordial among those in present use.

DiAPHOKBTics are supposed moderately to increase the natural exhalations of
the skin. Sudorifics are intended to do it more actively, and to occasion
actual sweating, which, in the horse, it proves very difficult to do ; but a dia-
phoretic eflect is more easy to excite. Vinegar will, however, often produce
a violent perspiration, but it is not a salutary one ; yet the same liquid, neu-
tralized by ammoniacal salts into Mindererus's spirit, will often excite a fa-
vom-able but mild diaphoretic effect. Antimonials in repeated doses, assisted
by diluting liquors and warm clothing, will likewise commonly produce some
diaphoresis. Camphor, in considerable doses, wiU also uniformly occasion
determination to the skin. The principal diaphoretic is gained from such
medicines as nauseate, as aloes, white hellebore, &c.

Digestives are stimulant applications that produce or increase the tendency to
suppuration : they are mostly of the warm terebinthinated kind, or the gum
resins. Of the former, are turpentine, resin, pitch, and tar : of the latter, are
myrrh, aloes, balsams, &c.

Digitalis. — Foxglove, or, more properly folks-glove, or, as the Germans have it,
Jinger-hiU. Mr. Morton very justly forbids its use after it is a twelve-month
old ; and when it is considered how universally it is diffiised, it is unpardonable
to use it when its virtues are dried away. It has been most erroneously stated
to be inert in veterinary practice, except in very large doses; and even then its
salutary action was denied : but this opinion is losing ground. Mr. Youatt
and myself have long stood its advocates, and we have lived to see it brought
into more general use as a valuable sedative, and as an active agent in lessen-
ing irritability. In moderate repeated doses it very seldom fails to lessen arterial
action, and excite mild diaphoresis. It is, however, somewhat irregular in its
action, and appears to act best when the constitution is already excited. In
some cases it commences its operations by increasing the pulse ; but it almost
invariably ends, when sufficiently continued (in doses of a drachm to a drachm
and a half every four hours), in reducing it, and that in a particular manner :
not altogether by diminishing the number of pulsations regularly, but by in-
termissions or lapses of pulsation between the beats ; exactly after the man-
ner which one would expect of this great pump of the machine, whose power
seems thus occasionally altogether suspended, to give it time to recruit and
then go on again. Thus, between every fifth and sixth, or sixth and seventh,
or seventh and eighth beat, a momentary pause is detected, and then the
systole and diastole follow each other in uniform tenses until a new inter-
ruption. The tyro is apt to be alarmed at this ; but it is the effect the
established- practitioner expects and even wishes to produce : he has arrested
the impetuosity of the circulation, and in general cases has cut short the
disease. In all great visceral inflammations this happens with the use of
digitalis ; but it is in pneumonia it is more distinctly visible : it is, therefore,
a most valuable agent, but, like all active agencies, requires nuich watching :
without care it may be pushed too far, if, after the alteration of pulse just

614 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

described, it is continued to be given in equal doses. To prevent this, it
should be diminished in strength and frequency, and instead of emetic tartar
and nitre as accompaniments (with which I have always joined it), it should
now be given with infusion of chamomile; or the adjuncts, tartarized anti-
mony and nitre, should altogether take place of the digitalis for the two or
three next days ; when these, in turn, may give place to infusion of chamo-
mile and nitrous ajther. In this way digitalis M'ill bear an equal palm witli
the white hellebore, and leave a horse convalescent sooner : they are, how-
ever, both valuable medicines in judicious hands ; but I do thmk the foxglove
the safest. Mr. Youatt recommends both a tincture and infusion of digitalis
for ophthalmia ; observing on it, that it is almost equal in power to opium,
and that it may also be advantageously alternated with that. The infusion is
made by pouring a quart of boiling water on an ounce of the powder. The
tincture, by digesting three ounces of it in a quart of spirit. Foxglove should
be gathered about its flowering time, and di-ied in the dark, which greatly in-
creases its strength. A French apothecary is said to have been able to con-
dense the active principle of digitalis, which he names digitaline. For cattle
and sheep also, Mr. Morton teUs us, digitalis appears an excellent febrifuge
in combination with nitrate of potash, and the potassio-tai'trate of antimony.
To the dog we have also frequently administered it, with much good effect in
febrile excitements.

DiscuTiENTS are remedies which dissolve impacted matter, as old enlargements
formed by vascular deposits or extravasations.

DisiNFECTOBS liavc hitherto been little more than a name, or the process of the
decomposition of infection has been expensive, troublesome, and noisome in
ths extreme ; but we have now a means, not only of completely disinfecting
our houses and stables, but of removing the foetor of the most putrid sub-
stances instantaneously. The chloride of lime does this by the use of a con-
centrated solution, which is cheap, and which being ndxed with ten times
its quantity of water, and sprinkled around objects supposed to carry about
them, or to throw off, the seeds of contagion, as in malignant epidemics,
glanders, &c., completely removes all danger of infection. By washing the
walls, standings, racks, mangers, head-stalls, brushes, curry-combs, &c., with
this liquor, all risk is avoided, even where the most mangy horse has been
placed.

UiuEKTics ai'e such articles as stimulate the kidneys to a greater separation
of urine from the blood ; as resin, turpentine, oxymuriate of mercury, soda,
nitre, &c.

Drinks, or Deenches, are the liquid remedies given to brutes. It is not so safe
to give them by means of a bottle as by a horn, as instances have occurred of
the neck of the bottle breaking. Mr. Bracy Clark recommends to reverse the
drinking horn, closing up the large end, and forming a moderate opening at
the smaller end, to introduce that into the mouth. In tetanus such a horn
would be useful, and at all times it prevents the waste of the liquid ; but in
tenanus a patent syringe is a better means, and can be introduced by the sides
of the teeth. The usual method of giving a drink is, I presume, familiar to
most, but cannot well be practised without assistance. Insert the noose of a
halter into the mouth, and by means of a stable -fork let the assistant raise
the head higher than when giving a ball. The operator must now mount by
a stool or a reversed pail, &c. &c., on the off side of the horse, and draw out
the tongue with his left hand ; with the right he should introduce the horn
gently into the mouth, and completely over the root of the tongue, when, by
overturning the horn, the whole of the drink will escape into the back part of
the mouth : withdraw the horn, loosen the tongue, and at least the principal
jnvrt of the fluid must be swallowed. It wiU be prudent, however, to still
keep up the head some time longer, as many horses obstinately retain much
of it in the mouth, and while so held it is conunon to give the muzzle an un-
e.xpecteil tap, which takes off the attention from the resistance, and the re-
rnainder is then swallowed. Much of the success of giving a drink depends

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 615

on not filling the horn too full, at once introducing it thoroughly into the
mouth, turning the drink quickly out of it, and as quickly loosening the
tongue aud withdrawing the horn. There have lately been some ingenious
instruments brought forward for drenching ; but we have not approved of any
one so much as to recommend its adoption, in preference to the good old-
fashioned cow-horn, when in practised hands.

EiJ3CTinciTY is seldom used in veterinary practice with us. On the continent,
powerful machines are found at the Veterinary Colleges of Paris and Berlin
for the treatment of cataract, gutta serena, paralysis, &c.

Embrocations are external remedies applied by rubbing them on the part with
the hand, a sponge, flannel, or brush, as occasion suits. The formulae for
them are very numerous, and it would extend beyond our limits to particu-
larize them here ; but, in the course of the work, frequent mention has been
made of a Saline Embrocation, the recipe for which is as follows : —

Mmiiite of ammonix (crude sal ammoniac) eight ounces

Vinegar three pints.

Mis.

Emetic Taktak {Aniimonii tartarizatiim'). — See Antimony.

Epsom Salts (Magnesia sulphas). — See Sulphate of Magnesia. Glauber's

salt possesses nearly similar properties, but is hardly so active, and much less

convenient.

Escharotics, known among farriers by the more familiar term of caustics,
are substances which destroy the texture of the parts they are applied to in
the degree of theii- intensity, and therefore are often divided into eroding and
caustic. Escharotic articles are numerous, but I shall notice such only as
are particularly useful or popular. The mineral acids are active caustics.
Sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol, is sometimes mixed with blistering ointment
and with other matters to hasten their stimulating effect. Nitrous acid
(^aquafortis') may be used in a similar way. The chloride or muriate of anti-
mony, very commonly called by farriers the butter of antimony, is an escha-
rotic or caustic in very general use in veterinary practice. Applied to a raw
surface it instantly changes it white, destroying a thin layer of substance ;
hence it is a very convenient application in cankered feet, as, by means of a
small camel's hair brush, it can be spread over as much or as little a portion
of parts as is necessary. In sandcrack, when the sensible substance protrudes,
it may be applied in a similar way. For the cure of corns, after the bruised
portion has been removed, it hkewise proves particularly useful. In obstinate
cases of grease, the buds are sometimes beneficially touched with it : but in
quittor, poll-evil, and other sinuses, it is not so proper as some other escharotics.
—Nitrated silver (Argens nitras), or, as it is popularly called. Lunar caustic,
is a preparation from silver, which renders it expensive : it is, however, essen-
tially necessary to the veterinarian's dispensary, from its being so completely
under command in its action, not extending its effects beyond the immediate
part it is apphed to. It proves the most convenient caustic for destroying
the edges of a contaminated wound, when not too extensive, as the bite of a
rabid animal. Dissolved in five, six, or eight times its own weight of water,
it forms an excellent liquid caustic, peculiarly useful as a dressing for the
foot rot in sheep, and also to touch the protruded portions in sandcrack.
Dissolved in twenty times its weight of water, it makes a useful determent
wash for foul ulcers, and to keep down too luxuriant surfaces. — Caustic pot-
ash {potassa fusa), called la-pis infernalis, formed into a solid body, is also
another powerful caustic, quicker in its action than the lunar, and therefore
Hiore convenient for extensive use ; but its ready liquefaction renders it unfit
for tedious operations or deep-seated parts. Made into a paste with soap, it
forms a useful escharotic to insert into the pipes of a quittor. — Oxynuiriatc of
mercury {hydrargyri oxymurias), known by the term corrosiue sulllimntc, is a
very usual caustic employed, and is, perhaps, one of the best for ' coring out'
of (juittors ; it also enters into tlic formation of very active blisters. In strong

616 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

solution it is an excellent application for grease, often curing when every other
means have failed.— The nitrous oxyde of quicksilver, called red precipitate,
IS also another preparation from mercury, and in very general use as an escha-
rotic m horse practice. Sprinkled over very foul surfaces, it changes them
quickly into a better state ; and it acts equally beneficially on luxuriant sores,
by destroying fungus, for which purpose its form of a powder renders it
very convenient.— The sulphate of copper, called blue vitriol, is a much milder
escharotic than some others, and much used to destroy fungus, both in powder
and solution. A milder solution, of a drachm to six ounces of water, makes a
detergent lotion for ulcers, as grease, &c.— The sulphate of zinc, or white
vitriol, is also a good escharotic, and forms, in a saturate solution, the remedy
for quittor, which it is said has been adopted by Mr. Newport.— Q?hcA Ihne is
sometimes used as an escharotic substance, for sprinkling over ulcerated sur-
faces, as cankered feet, &c, ; for which purpose it is convenient, from its pro-
perty of absorbing the moisture.
EuPHORBiuM. — This most acrid substance is sometimes used as a substitute for
cantharides. In blisters for general purposes, where the expense is an object,
a portion of it may be admissible ; but it irritates extremely, and therefore
should never be used when vesication is employed in fevers; and I would even
in all other cases advise the veterinarian rather to save in any other way than
out of the feelings of the animal whose welfare he is set as a guard over. —
See Blisters.

Expectorants. — These are remedies that promote the removal of the irritating
mucus formed in the bronchia and trachea, in affections of these parts. The
principal of these are tartar emetic, foxglove, Mindererus's spirit, oxymel, and
probably squills : nauseants likewise act in this way. The critic might say
that the horse does not expectorate ; but his bronchial secretion can be in-
creased, and he can throw up and cough out the produce : thus this class of
remedies is not without its value in veterinary medicine.

Extract of Lead. — See Lead preparations.

Fomentations are warm fluid apphcations to an injured part, generally by means
of cloths wrung out of the hot liquor, and re-appHed as it cools. Infusions of
various herbs have been employed for fomentations ; but as the good effect
is principally dependent on the warmth and moisture, so warm water alone is
generally sufficient. Fomentations allay irritation, and are useful as stimu-
lants to the flagging powers in gangrene : by tending to unload the vessels,
they also promote resolution in active inflammations ; but they are seldom used
sufficiently long, and attendants are very apt, when they are removed, to leave
the part wet and uncovered, by which more harm is done frequently than
good, as the evaporation thus occasioned is a source of cold. As soon as an
embrocation is removed, immediately wipe the part perfectly dry, and cover it
up from the external air. I have in some cases fomented, and immediately ap-
plied a poultice : as far as I know, the practice is singular, but it is more than
ordinarily beneficial.

Gentian is a useful stomachic bitter, and wa.^ much used in diapente : it has now
somewhat given place to articles more in fashion ; but I doubt much whether
more effective. Mr. Youatt considers gentian as a valuable animal tonic, so
BO much so, as to supersede most others. Its dose may vary by circumstances
from one to three, four, or five drachms ; but it should be always given with
ginger.

Ginger is perhaps the best spice in the veterinary materia medica ; but even
this should not be wantonly used. As a warm cordial, it may be occasionally
given is doses of two or three drachms ; and in flatulent colic, in doses of four
to six drachms : it will also form a valuable assistant to saline and other cold
remedies, given to tender stomachs and bowels. For horses, for cattle, and
sheep, it is an excellent carminative, and should be always employed when a
warm stimulant is wanting. It is indeed one of the most valuable cordials to
invigorate tlic stomachic and intestinal surfaces wc know. The dose for cattle
is from two to four drachms; and jss to ji for sheep.

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

617^

Glauber's Salt {Soda Sulphas). — See Epsom Salt.
Clysters. — See Cltstees.

Goulard's Extract, f Preparations of.

Goulard s Wash, 3

Grains op Paradise are warm spicy seeds, much iu use among farriers, parti-
cularly for horned cattle ; and are given by grooms to promote a fine coat. In
this way they often do mischief ; but as an addition to other stomachics, when
necessary, they may be still properly made use of

Gruel is an article of no small consequence in the veterinary materia medica,
inasmuch as it is bland, mild, and diluting. In making it, care should be had
to its intention : if as a cordial or for nutriment, it ought to be thick ; if as a
diluent, it cannot be too thin : it should likewise, when made, be perfectly
clean, and free from smoke. Ignorant servants are apt to think any thing suffi-
ciently clean for a brute, without being aware that the most delicate female is
not half so susceptible to unpleasant sensations from dirt as is the horse ; and
if he once has gruel offered to him that has been smoked, it is only by force
that he will ever after take any. A useful diluent is also made from bran, by
pouring boiling water on it, when it is called bran tea; but it should be strained
when cold, particularly when offered to horses in catarrh.

Gum. — This is a juice that flows from various trees and plants, and inspissates by
heat. The gums in use in human pharmacy are numerous ; but they are fewer
in veterinary practice. Gum ai'ahic and Gum tragacanfh are both sometimes
used in pectoral drinks, and other demulcent medicaments.

Gum ResijSS are compounded of gum and resin. Gum ammoniacum is sometimes
used in chronic cough, but with doubtful advantage. Gum guaiacum is now
very seldom used ; Gum dragon has shared the same fate. Gum myrrh has
outlived the reputation of the others ; but it is questionable whether its virtue
as a cordial, in the usual acceptation or meaning of the word, is not ideal ; but
as a permanent tonic it ranks higher. — See Tonics.

Hartshorn, Spirit of {Aqua carbonatis ammonia). See Carbonate of
Ammonia. — Carbonated water, or spirit of ammonia, is convenient in vete-
rinary practice, from its peculiar property of uniting oil and water. Inter-
nally, it is an antispasmodic in doses of eight to ten drachms. United with
acetous acid, or vinegar, it forms an excellent diaphoretic febrifuge. And
in conjunction with equal parts of oil, it forms the volatile liniment, which
is a warm discutient application, much used for sore throat and indurated
tumour.

Hellebore, white. — {Veratrum album). This active vegetable is variously esti-
mated : Mr. Percivall cherishes its fame as a valuable sedative and active nau-
seant, given in doses of a scruple or half a drachm, every four, six, or eight
hours. Mr. Youatt also praises it much for moderating active internal inflam-
mation. We also have used it with very beneficial effects ; but in verification
of the old proverb, that doctors wiU differ, we are told that Mr. Sewell holds
it in slight estimation ; it has, however, crept into pretty general practice, and
wiU have a run ; some part of which celebrity it will retain, but probably not
the whole of it. As the horse was not intended to vomit, so it is exceedingly
difficult to excite nausea in him. Aloes have been used for that purpose, but
they are uncertain, and in many cases cannot be prudently administered, from
fear of drawing the neighbouring affections to the bowels. We are, therefore,
forced to trust to the powdered root of the white hellebore, which is, perhaps,
the most certain nauseant with which we are acquainted ; but it is only safe
under very watchful eyes and quick perceptions. It may be given to a certain
point, and nothing but moderate nausea is observed : if pushed beyond this,
the head droops in the manger, the mouth froths or slavers, the pulse sinks, the
horse reels too and fro, and purging comes on, which commonly proves a fatal
symptom. It may be given in doses of a scruple every six hours, and which
may be increased to half a drachm ; but the horse must be carefully looked to,
and as soon as the pulse sinks and the mouth slavers, or any trembling ap-
pears, desist from its further exhibition, and directly combat its debilitating

618

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

and sedative effects by active stimulants. The hellebore lowers the system
more speedily than digitalis, but the digitalis more safely when there is time
for its operation ; at least so I have found : it is for the observant veterinarian
to select the proper cases for both. It ranks high also with some veterinarians
when used with setons by smearing them with the powder.
Hellebore, black. — Wc understand that tliis root has lately been emploved
with much success as a local application in fistulous affections of the poll and
withers. When the tumour has burst and been allowed to discharge two or
three days, being dressed with an ordinary digestive, and the discharge being
of the nature termed laudable ; that then a few portions of the fibrous part of
the root be passed to the bottom of the sinuses, allowing them to remain a
fortnight or more. Under this treatment Mr. Morton assures us he has ob-
served its salutary action in several cases. See Mr. M.'s Veterinciry PhuTmacy^
'2d edition, p. 174.

Hemlock {Cicuta) is used as a sedative in pneumonic affections by some prac-
titioners, in doses of two scruples to a drachm of the powder night and morn-
ing ; but it is much inferior to either digitalis or hellebore.

HoNEY'is an article of importance in the veterinary pharmacopoeia, not only as
it is a usual medium for making balls with, as well as aegyptiacums ; but also
as it forms, in conjunction with vinegar, the simple oxymel, an article that
should always be at hand, and which should never be made with sugar for
cheapness ; as there is little doubt but that the honey is in itself a demulcent
and balsam of much virtue. And provided the veterinarian orders from his
druggist the foreign lioney, and watches his time for purchasing it, it may be
obtained for 6(/., Td., or 8r7. per pound. But this kind will be found too thin
to form balls with ; and, indeed, honey is so apt to ferment, that it should
never be used in this way, but when the mass is intended for immediate use.

HyoscYAMUS (Hejibane) appears to act as a sedative, without the constipating
qualities of opium.

Instruments. — Veterinarians are not sufficiently careful relative to their instru-
ments, which should be kept in the best order, and always ready for immediate
use. The lancets, fleams, &c. purchased at cutlers, are too apt to be procured
wholesale from Sheffield or Birmingham, where the tempering is not sufficiently
attended to. But the veterinarian who is curious in this respect, will do well
to furnish himself from the successor to the late Mr. Long, of Holborn,
who is, I believe, one of the best veterinary instrument makers in England.
Here may be seen all the improvements that have taken place either from
the suggestions of the various practitioners in this art, or from the ingenuity
of Mr. Long himself, wh9se attention to this useful branch of the arts is
still acknowledged by his successors.

Intusions are only different from decoctions by the articles employed being
steeped together instead of boiled.

Iodine. — Among horses this substance has not long made its appearance; but
as a remedy for bronchocele it has been some years employed on dogs. It is
now given to horses to promote a solution of the glandular swellings, which
frequently remain after catarrh. In daily doses of five grains it seems to
have much resolving power, not over these only, but also over all other glan-
dular enlargements. It appears also to possess tonic and alterative properties
combined. Its purity may be tested by its becoming soluble in alcohol, and
by evaporating entirely by heat. In Mr. Morton's Maimal of Pharmacy, se-
veral preparations of it are given, with valuable notices thereon, which wc
recommend to consideration. It is by some veterinarians very highly thought
of; we particularly allude to the iodine of potassium., which may be adminis-
tered to the horse from twenty to thirty grains : to cattle it may be given
from five to ten grains. An ointment, wig. potassi iodidi, is also an acti\c
dispeller of glandular enlargements. Its effects, we may add, are oflcn slow,
but seldom unavailing.

Iron. — Almost all the preparations from this metal prove excellent tonics to
the horse. Iron filings (liniatura ferri) may be given in tlic corn or a mash,

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

619

in doses of two or three ounces once or twice a-day. The rust, or carbonate
(Jerri carhonas), is another form, and proves useful when given as the former,
in doses of one ounce to two. Green vitriol, or copperas as it is called (feri-i
stdphus), is also given as a tonic, and some think it a preferable preparation,
on account of its saline admixture. It is usually given in a daily dose of four
to six drachms : it has more lately been given with some success in that form
of glanders which has been termed the insidious. All the preparations of
iron appear to produce most effect when combined with aromatic bitters : they
should not be united with any alkali, consequently ought not, in chemical
strictness, to be made up with soap ; nor should nitre or any astringent vege-
table enter the composition with them : though, for the reasons noticed in the
introduction to the pharmacy, a mechanical holding together in a ball is very
different from an intimate mixture in dilute solution.^

Jalap, though so strong a human purgative, is totally inactive in the horse.

Japan Earth. — See Catechu.

Juniper. — The berries are now and then given, but more frequently the essen-
tial oil is used as a warm stomachic and slight diuretic.
Kali. — See Potash.

Lard. — Many practitioners are at a loss for a substitute for lard, which forms
the basis of most of their unctuous matters. When, however, lard cannot be
procured, or is extravagantly dear, the fatty matter, called palm oil, which is
of the same consistence, may be always obtained, commonly at less than a
shilling a pound : as a medium for balls, it may, as a vegetable oil, be sup-
posed much less disgusting to the stomach of the horse than an animal oil,
as lard.

Laudanum. — The liquid preparation or tincture of opium. — See Opium.

Laxatives may be denominated milder purgatives, and, as acting with less irri-
tation, are much to be preferred to them in violent inflammatory affections.
In some chronic cases, also, they are eligible, because they can be more fre-
quently repeated. Of this latter kind are calomel with small doses of aloes.
The laxatives proper in febrile cases are Epsom, Glauber's, or, in default of
these, common salt, eight to twelve ounces, dissolved in thin gruel, and re-
peated every six or eight hours till effect is produced. ' In some cases, as
bowel affections, from six to eight or ten omices of castor or linseed oil, with
a few ounces of watery tincture of aloes, form the best laxative. It must,
however, be allowed, that most of these articles are uncertain in their action ;
but their uncertainty is by no means equal to that which it is the fashion of
the present day to represent, as the experiments detailed, in which there is
much discrepancy, shew. The action of laxatives is much assisted by diluting
drinks,' bran mashes, raking, and clysters: indeed, both bran mashes and
clysters are of themselves in many cases sufficiently laxative. Grass, par-
ticularly that of the salt marshes, forms also an excellent laxative out of the
stable, as soiling does in it.

Jjead. — Several preparations of this metal enter into veterinary practice. The
principal of these is the

Lead, Acetate of (^Superacetas plumbi) . — In the former dispensatory, this was
called the acetate of lead ; but it is still familiarly known by the old term of
sugar of lead among farriers ; originally so called from its sweet taste. It is
of much importance in veterinary practice, forming a more convenient, and I
think a more efficacious, mode of making Goulard water, as the solution of it
is popularly called ; but which liquor has been usually made from a prepara-
tion of litharge, called extract of saturn, or Goulard's extract. When tliis
celebrated liquor is made from the dry acetate, do it as follows :

Goulard water. — Take acetate of lead, one drachm to two, proof spirit an
ounce, soft water a pint: when the extract is preferred, it is thus made: —
Liquid acetate of lead, extract of saturn (liquor plwmhi acetatis), one drachm
to two ; proof spirit an ounce ; soft water a pint. Either of these preparations
of the acetate of lead arc excellent, and justly appreciated apj)lications, in su-
perficial inflannnations ; but, to produce the full effect, the part afibcted

620 VETERINARY MATERIA MRDICA.

should be kept conatantly wet with one or the other of them. Interiiallv
this preparation is inert : even four ounces have been given without pro-
ducing any visible effect.

Lead, Carbonate of (Plumbi carbarns).— White lead is sometimes used as
a desiccativc, being sprinkled over a sore.

Lead, Litharge of (Plumbi oxydum semivitreum).— From this the celebrated
extract of Goulard is made, which, infused in water, produces the Goulard
wash, but which I prefer to make of the superacetate or sugar of lead, as it is
erroneously called.

Lime is, in some cases, when quick, a useful caustic ; and, when pulverized, is
found good to sprinkle over cankered feet, greasy heels, or any foul surface,
where an absorption of moisture, as well as an escharotic process, are de-
sirable.

Lime Water. — Six pounds of lime, infused in two gallons of water, may,
after standing three or four hours, be strained off, and kept in a closely stopped
bottle for use, without which care it will be useless. Lime water is a good
application for mange, and is also sometimes recommended internally for ob-
stinate coughs and nephritic complaints.

Chloride of Lime is a most valuable disinfector : it is also used as an external
application to wounds having a putrid tendency ; in the latter use it is inferior
to the chloride of soda, which see. In a retention of the placenta, called not
having cleansed, in a cow, where the putridity had become so great as to pro-
duce larvfE or maggots and intolerable fcetor, there was injected a wine-glass
of chloride of lime, diluted with a pint of warm water, into the vagina, which
itself brought away, in two hours' time, several quarts of putrid matter, by
which the cow was greatly relieved; but some foetor returning, a second in-
jection was passed the next day, which again sweetened the cleansing, and
prevented further putrefaction. But as the placenta was not yet ejected, two
ounces of the chloride of soda was now given in a pint of gruel every hour ;
the consequence of which was, that after the sixth dose the placenta came
away, much decomposed, but without foetor ; and the cow was evidently saved
by these means, though apparently before in a dying condition.
Liniment is a fluid preparation of oil and other matters.

Linseed. — The seeds boiled form a thick mucilaginous demulcent drink, used
in catarrh, sore throat, and all chest affections. Linseed powder makes a
convenient poultice, particularly where a close application of the poulticing
medium is required.

Liquid Blister. — See Blister ; see, also. Sweating Blister.

Liquor AMMONiiE Acetatis. — See Acetated Liquor of Ammonia.

Liquorice, like linseed, enter.ed into the composition of numerous old recipes,
but, in this way the virtues of neither, particularly of the latter, are very con-
spicuous.

Lotions. — See Washes.

Madder. — Much dependence used to be placed on the virtues of this, among
old farriers, in diseases of the stomach and liver, as well as in farcy. It was
also considered as a preventive against the effects of venemous bites. In
farcy I have witnessed some good from it, but not enough to deserve parti-
cular attention : in other respects, I believe it does not merit nmch notice.

Malt. — This forms an excellent cordial in cases of debility, and, when conti-
nued, it becomes a permanent tonic : it has also some pectoral qualities ; but
in active inflammations of the chest it is too stimulant. Malt is also an ex-
cellent alterative : in farcy, in grease, and in mange also, when accompanied
with emaciation, I have used it with extreme efficacy : but, in such cases, it
should be given in considerable quantities without other corn, and even with
as little hay as possible, so that almost all the nutriment received by the con-
stitution may be by the malt. This practice is not generally known, but it
has proved with ine, in some cases, singularly efficacious : the best mode of
giving malt is by mashes. — See M ashes.

Marshmallows. — Either the leaves, stalks, or roots, when boiled, yield a mu-

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

621

cilaginous liquor, formerly much used as a fomentation, and occasionally given
internally as a demulcent ; but this plant has fallen into disuse among us,
though still in repute on the continent.
Mashes are much in request in stable management, and are made from oats,
barley, bran, malt. Unseed, and sometimes chaflf : they are also given cold or
warm ; but, in either case, should always be hot when made. ^ In making
them, care is necessary to avoid smoking the water, and riot to stir them with
any thing dirty, or the horse, being a cleanly animal, will refuse them. The
mode of mashing is sufficiently known : boiling water being poured on the
bran, corn, or whatever is the subject of the mash, to the consistence, when
stirred, of a poultice, it should be covered over, and suffered to remain an
hour or two, unless it is to be given hot to steam the head, as in catarrh ;
but even here it should not be hung round the neck immediately, or it would
alarm the horse. Some horses will not readily eat bran mashes without a
handful of corn to make it palatable : when horses are weakly and much
emaciated, it is prudent often to mash all their corn. The quantity intended
for them the ensuing day may be put into a vessel the over-night, and boiling
water poured on it : in this way it is rendered more easy of digestion, and
hence more nutritive. Speared corn has been sometimes recommended in
the course of the Work; which is nothing more than malting a quantity,
by putting cold water to it for twenty-four hours, and then spreading it on a
floor two inches thick, which will soon make it sprout, when it may be given.
In this way, it must be made from day to day, or it will become musty or
mouldy.

Mercukt {Hydrargyms), or QuiCKStLVEB. — This singular mineral yields us
some of our most active medicinal agents.

Corrosive mercury (Hydrargyrus oxymurias), popularly called corrosive
sublimate, forms an excellent medical agent in judicious hands. As an al-
terative, it may be given in doses of ten to twenty grains daily : in glanders
and farcy this quantity may be gradually increased to as much as the horse
will bear without inconvenience ; but as its noxious effects are often sudden,
so it must be most carefully watched. It proves also a very certain diuretic
in large doses (see Didketics). Externally, also, its effects are considerable.
As a caustic, it has already been noticed among Escharotics. It forms a use-
ful wash for mange, and is an excellent auxiliary to the stimulant properties
of blisters, when used for exostosis. It appears to have a very peculiar effect
on cattle : received by the stomach, a considerable quantity may be given with
impunity : but sprinkled on a wound, comparatively a small quantity destroys.
See some very instructive notices with regard to this active medicament, in
Mr. Morton's Manual of Pharmacy, second edition, p 189.

Bed precipitated mercury (Hydrargyri oxydum riibrum), or red precipitate,
is a useful, active, and convenient caustic, by the ease with which it may
be sprinkled over sores. (See Eschakotics).

Black sulphuret of mercury ( Hydrargyri sulphuretum nigrum), or JEthiops
Mineral, is less frequently given in horse practice than it deserves. There is
too much fashion in our pharmacy, and too little experiment. In all skin
affections I have found this a valuable alterative, and also vermifuge, in daily
doses of two or three drachms. It is equally useful in the mange of dogs.
See ' Canine Pathology.^

Mint and Peppermint. — See Oils.

Muriate of Antimony. — See Antimony.

Muriate of Barttes. — See Barttes.

Muriate of Sot)A, or Common Salt. — See Salts.

Myrbii. — This excellent gum resin is a valuable tonic to the horse, in doses of
an ounce, particularly if united with salt of steel, and any warm bitter.
There are two tinctures of it ; one simple, and one compounded with aloes :
both of which are much used externally, as warm digestives, in wounds and
sinuous sores, where the application is attended with striking benefit fre-
quently : the aloetic tincture is by much the most stimulant. To cattle also
it proves a stimulating tonic and valuable antiseptic in doses of from jij to jiv.

622

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

Naphtha. — See Tar.

Narcotics are not altogether similar in their action to antispasmodics, but
more so to anodynes ; yet the analogy altogether is so considerable, that, in
the present instance, it is not necessary to separate the consideration of
them from what lessens irritation and eases pain. — See Antispasmodics and
Anodynes.

Natron. — See Soda.

Nitrate of Silver {Argenti nitras). This is popularly called lunar caustic,
and is in veterinary practice a valuable external application : to the human
subject, and to dogs, it is also a good internal one in nervous affection^. — See
Escharotics.

Nitre (JPotassce nitras) is a very general mineral product, and is as useful as it
is general : it is compounded of nitric acid, and vegetable alkali, whence its
chemical name nitrate of potash. It is the most powerful refrigerant we
know : it greatly diminishes febrile action, and determines its depleting action
more certainly to the kidneys than any of the saline articles we use. It is
also antiseptic and diaphoretic, and therefore of great consequence in active
fever, given two or three times a-day in doses of three or four drachms. As
an alterative it is also well known ; but it is not a good plan, as practised
by some grooms, to infuse it into the water which horses are to drink ; it is
apt to disgust them from all drinking. Nitre is sometimes used as a cooling
lotion for inflammatory swellings arising from sprains.

Nitre, Sweet Spirit of {Spiritus mtheris nitrici). — This is a valuable prepa-
ration of nitre, inasmuch as it is a refrigerant, and yet, in some measure, a
cordial, from its sethereal composition ; therefore it is a useful medicine in
the more advanced stages of fever, in does of an ounce two or three times a-
day. It is also a useful article to give in the immediate approach of the first
cold fit of fever, in a dose of two ounces. — See Fever.

Nitrous Acid (Acidum nitrosum dilutuni), or aquafortis. — See Caustics.

Oak Bark. — See Barks.

Oils. — These are either fixed or volatile. The fixed oils are so called because
they are not liable to be changed into vapour but under a high degree of tem-
perature, and are also generally gained in quantities by expression. The iw-
laiile oils, on the contrary, are produced by distillation, and evaporate by a
moderate heat. The fixed kind, in horse practice, are, —

Oil o f Bay, an expressed oil from bay berries : now obsolete, except in the
recipes of the country smith.

Oil of Castor. — See Castor Oil. — In very large doses this occasions some
disturbance in the bowels, and does not often operate as a laxative ; but in
doses of eight or ten ounces, repeated every five or six hours, it proves fre-
quently an excellent laxative when more drastic matters are inadmissible. It
is apt to be decried, and numerous experiments are detailed to prove that it
is noxious as well as inert, but hardly any two experiments agree. I have
given it for years, without experiencing any ill effect, but often the best, from
its use. It is true, it can never gain a character as a certain aperient; it is,
on the contrary, an uncertain one, unless joined with a watery tincture of
aloes, or with neutral salts, when the mixture seldom fails, if mashes have
been in use : alone, it must be owned, it is not always certain as a purgative,
but in quantities that produce much irritation. It is a most safe and inva-
luable purgative to the dog.

Oil of Olives. — The best olive oil may be substituted for castor oil, when
the latter cannot be obtained. It is the principal medium in the composition
of liniments, and enters into many ointments.

Oil of Linseed.— This is considered as a,pectoral by the older farner.s, and
was formerly much used in coughs, but is now seldom given. It is also a
pretty certain laxative, and is more to be depended on than olive oil ; and in
many instances more than castor oil.

Oil of PaZm.— Country practitioners hardly know there is such an article
as this, which has the consistence of all the other properties of lard, with
the addition of a most fragrant smell. In quantities it may be also purchased

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

623

cheaper than lard, and, as it does not become rancid, it is greatly to be pre-
ferred : it must also be less noxious to the stomach of th(% horse than the
animal oil of the swine. It is the produce of the kernels of the fruit of the
Cocos Butyracea, or Mackaw tree, or Brazilian palm.
The essential or volatile oils are, —

Oil of Amber. — An antispasmodic not much in use. It is said to have a
peculiar property of hastening the action of aloes.

Oil of Anise Seeds. — This is an elegant warm aromatic, and may very pro- ■
perly be added to cordial balls, in doses of ten to thirty drops.

Oil of Caraways may be used in the same way, and considered in a similar
point of view.

Oil of Juniper. — This is often added to diuretic balls, to increase their
eflPect : it acts, however, principally, as a warm aromatic.

Oil of Petre is only Barbadoes tar in oil of turpentine.

Oil of Tar is a cheap penetrating distillation from tar, that may be substi-
tuted for turpentine : but it may be better employed in mixture with whale-
oil, as a suppleing matter for the hoofs.

Oil of Turpentine. — See Turpentine.

Oil of Origanum. — This warm penetrating oil was formerly much used
among farriers as an external stimulant ; but it possesses no powers superior
to turpentine, and is therefore little used by modern practitioners.

Oil of Spike. — To this, also, the older farriers attributed superior efficacy,
although it was nothing more than oil of turpentine coloured with alkanet
root.

Oil of Vitriol. — See Sulphuric Acid.

O1NTMENT.S are greasy applications for covering excoriated surfaces. The nu-

■ merous preparations of this kind are much reduced in number ; for, although
some certainly have a salutary influence on a wound, yet, after all, their prin-
cipal merit is in the defence they afford.

Onions. — In domestic practice the juice of three or four onions in half a pint
of sound ale or gin has relieved flatulent colic. The French, in such cases,
introduce a large one up the anus.

Opium. — I believe it has been attempted to prove that this valuable antispas-
modic is nearly inert in the horse, and it is true that it requires a large dose
to exert a narcotic effect ; on the contrary, its action is rather that of a sti-
mulant when the system is already excited ; it therefore is injurious in direct
increased vascular action ; but in indirect vascular action, the consequence of
some great irritation, it then exerts its sedative properties. In enteritis of
the horse, nevertheless, after blood has been abstracted, it has had a most sa-
lutary effect. See Enteritis. This is apparent in tetanus, where its benefits
are sometimes most striking : in spasmodic colic its benefits are particularly
observable in doses of two to three drachms ; in which cases, also, it may be
given in clysters as well. It greatly assists the action of astringents in diar-
rhoea ; and, in profuse staling, united with alum and catechu, it has proved
singularly efiicacious; as also in difficult staling, not dependent on inflam-
mation In farcy and skin complaints, it combats the ill effects of too large
doses of active minerals. It increases the pulse, in repeated doses of one to
two drachms every six hours; hence it is an useful auxiliary remedy in the
debiie stages of irritative fever. As a direct narcotic, opium is not active on
most brutes : the dog will take sixty grains without sensible effect : the sheep
may have three drachms in infusion passed into the true stomach without
proving narcotic.

Lamlanum is the tincture of opium, but it is too diffused for much use in
horse practice, unless when a very small dose is required. A watery solu-
tion may, however, be made strong, and the whole given ; that is, sediment
and all.

Oxalic Acid, in the hands of Dr. M'Donald, has been successfully employed
in the preservation of the colours of anatomical preparations, when exhibited
in the humid way : it must be very evident that such a discovery must greatly

624

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

aid these preparations, whether we consider them as objects of admiration, or
of study. S(^ Veterinarian, vol. ii, p. 38.

OxYMEL, Simple. — This is made by simmering a pint of vinegar with two
pounds of honey. Sugar is sometimes substituted, but this is never advisable,
as it destroys, I am disposed to think, a considerable portion of the efficacy
of the compound. Oxymel, properly made, will be found a valuable remedy
in pneumonia, and all catarrhal affections ; particularly in conjunction with
nitre, tartar emetic, and foxglove ; the dose from four to six ounces.

Palm Oil. — See Oils.

Peppkrs. — The various kinds of peppers are sometimes used by farriers, par-
ticularly in colic. Mr. B. Clark has written a treatise expressly on the vir-
tue of the pimento berry (see Colic). As a domestic remedy, either of them
may be very properly given in doses of three drachms to six ; except the
Cayenne, which, as being very strong, admits of only a drachm as a dose . the
peppers are sometimes used as a stomachic, or to warm other more permanent
tonics, as steel, bitters, &c.

Physic. — See Cathartics.

Pitch is used to give a consistence and adhesiveness to plaisters and ointments,
and is also the basis of charges. It has as much medicinal quality as its rela-
tionship with terebinthinated substances allows it.

Potash {Potassa) has been commonly called the vegetable alkali, to distinguish
it from soda, or the mineral alkali. Potash forms two principal compounds,
,the nitrate and the siipertartrate : the former has been noticed as nitre ; the
'other is cream of tartar, as popularly called.

Supertartrate of Potash (Potassae supertartras, cream of tartar). — This is
not a very active medicament in horse practice, but is however slightly febri-
fuge, and mildly diuretic : it has some alterative powers therefore, and unites
very well with those alteratives we employ when horses are labouring under
cutaneous affections.

Poultices. — In veterinary practice, bread would be too expensive an article
to make poultices of in common cases. Bran, therefore, is very commonly
used ; and, to give it a proper consistence, some linseed meal, if thought ne-
cessary, may be mixed with it ; or, in default of this, a little of any other
meal. A poultice should be made of a svifficient consistence, that it may not
run through the cloth it is put in ; and yet it should not be so thick as to dry
too quickly, for a poultice acts principally by its moisture ; therefore it should
be frequently wetted through the cloth with the predominating fluid, of what-
ever kind. In applying poultices to the legs, care should be taken not to tie
them too tight, as is frequently done, and thereby the mischief aggravated
instead of relieved : a piece of broad list is, for this reason, very proper to
fasten them on with. A poultice should never be applied too hot ; very little
good can be derived from it, and much pain may be occasioned. A hot poul-
tice soon comes to the heat of the part ; and as in most cases requiring one
the part, at the moment of application, is in a state of comparative debihty,
too great heat only farther weakens it. Poultices are likewise, in many cases,
applied cold, as in some strains, and in affections of the eye. A very conve-
nient mode of applying a poultice to the extremities is by means of an old
worsted stocking cut off at the ancle. The leg of it being slipped over the
hoof, is brought around the part, and secured below by means of broad list
not too tightly applied. The poultice is then put into the stocking by means
of the hand, and afterwards secured above by another piece of broad tape
loosely applied ; after which the top of the stocking may be folded down over
it. In cases where it is found difficult to keep a poultice on any part of the
extremities, from its inclination to slip down, still by no means tighten the
supporting bandage ; but, instead, pass a long tape from it over the withers,
or back, if behind, and attach it to the other side of the bandage; it will
then be effectually secured from slipping.

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

625

A common softening Poultice.
Bran, any quantity ; pour on it boiling water, to form a thin paste ; add lin-
seed meal sufficient to make it adhesive. After this, stir in one or two
ounces of sweet oil.

A cooling Poultice.
Bran, any quantity ; pour on it a sufficient quantity of cold Goulard water
to form a poultice ; which, as it dries, moisten with more Goulard water.

Cleansing Poultices for Grease, or ichorous Discharges from other disectsed
Surfaces, or for gangrenous Wounds.

Oatmeal half a pint

Linseed meal ditto

Powdered charcoal four ounces

Stale beer grounds, sufficient to make a poultice.

Or,

Carrots, scraped, sufficient to make a poultice.

Or,

Turnips, boiled and mashed, sufficient to make a poultice.

To either of these four ounces of powdered charcoal may be added, if thought
proper. Or, ^

Linseed meal, or oatmeal flour, any quantity ; mix with boiling water, and
ferment with a table-spoonful of yeast : as it rises, apply to the part.

In cases of extensive gangrene, an ounce or two of oil of turpentine may be
added to either of these poultices.

PowDEKs. — Pulverized medicines, without much taste, may be conveniently
given by mixing with a mash, or in the corn. If in the latter, and the matters
given are very dry and light, the corn should be first sprinkled with water,
to prevent the powder being blown away by the horse breathing or snorting.
But whenever a horse is delicate in his stomach, and refuses his food on this
account, the attempt to give them thus should not be persisted in.

Purges. — See Cathartics.

Quassia, a useful bitter in doses of six to ten drachms.

QuiNA, often called quinine, is a disulphate of quina, and, as far as our own
experience goes, is a very valuable brute as well as human tonic in doses from
jss to 3j, and is more particularly so if conjoined with camphor. We need
not say that its costliness prevents its use but in particular cases.

Raking is a method of emptying the bowels by means of the hand. The right-
hand arm being stripped and oiled, with the left hand the tJiil is drawn aside,
when the right being made as small as possible, and cone like, should be
gently introduced up the fundament, and any quantity of hardened excrement
the hand meets with carefully removed in small pieces. From this it will be
at once evident that hack raking must be useful in a vast variety of cases. It
should always be made use of previously to giving a clyster, otherwise the
hardened matter may prevent the passage of the fluid. It is also always
proper in colic ; and in all cases of costiveness it should never be dis-
pensed with.

Red Precipitate. — See Mercury.

Repellents. — Medicines whose action was supposed to consist in driving back

humours from one part to another. Modern physiology allows no such action ;

and it appears, from the theories now received, that all repellents, as they

were termed, act simply by their tonic power.
Resin, commonly called rosin, is either yellow or black. The yellow is the one

used in veterinary practice; internally as a diuretic; and, externally, in

charges, plaisters, &c.
Rue, joined with box, has been thought to be an antidote to the effects of the

u r

626 VETEllINAllY MATERIA MEDICA.

bite of a rabid dog. I have myself witnessed the preventive powers of a
mixture in which it was an ingredient ; but I am disposed to attribute the
principal efficacy to the box (sec Rabies). As a remedy in farcy, worms,
and grease, in all which it was formerly used, it has little virtue.

Saline Embrocation. — See Embrocations.

Salts are divided into acids, alkalies, and neutrals.

Common Salt. — This is a useful remedy in veterinary practice ; for when
Epsom or Glauber's salt cannot be conveniently got at, this may be substi-
tuted as an aperient. It also proves itself a vermifiige, and in solution assists
the effects of opening clysters. It may be given in doses of from six to eight
ounces. In the proportion of a di-achm to six ounces of water, it has been
found an excellent collyrium for ophthalmia when the first inflammatory iiTi-
tation has subsided. The chloride of sodium or common salt is an invaluable
tonic and alterative, and is so palatable that it induces the animals it is set
before, when mixed with their provender, to eat it with avidity. It increases
the digestive powers ; and we believe it to be a vermifuge also. As a remedy
for the rot in sheep, Mr. Youatt bears evidence of its excellence.

Salt, Epsom (Magnesia sulphas). — See Sulphate of Magnesia.

Salt of Steel. — See Iron.

Salt of Tai-tar. — See Potash.

Savin. — This was formerly strongly recommended as a powerful vermifuge. I
have sometimes seen worms come away when it has been given, particularly
by considerable doses of the essential oil, as five or six drachms; but I con-
sider it altogether as less efficacious than those vermifuges already noticed :
made into an ointment, however, it is efficacious against warts.

Scutellaria (Skidl-cap). — This herb has obtained some celebrity for its sup-
posed efficacy in stemming the ravages of rabies, and as a prophylactic : the
experiments of Mr. Youatt go to establish its claim, particularly in union with
belladonna, which see.

Sea Water. — For the same purposes that common salt is given, sea water may
also be employed in doses of two or three pints. Some horses will drink it
of themselves ; and persons living on the sea coast affirm, that it is not un-
common for a horse out of condition to break away and go to the sea side to
drink, as though impressed with an instinctive knowledge of the efficacy of it
as an alterative or vermifuge. It is remarkable, however, that horses on the
sea coast seldom carry a fine coat, which can only arise from the action of the
sea air externally applied, for internally they are usually healthy.

Sedatives. — These form a class of valuable remedies calculated to diminish
the irritability of the system, either by acting on the immediate part or on
the whole sensorium through the medium of the stomach, usually. In some
cases they may be supposed to act by bringing up the system to a state to
resist the irritating impressions ; in others they lower the animal powers into
a lessened sensibility by a narcotic or soporific effect. In the horse we have
no remedies that are decided soporifics ; but we have such as lessen irritation
and check spasmodic action (see Antispasaiodics). Opium, hyoscyamus or
henbane, digitalis or foxglove, cicuta or hemlock, belladonna or nightshade,
camphor, nauseants, the cold bath, are sedatives adapted to diflTerent degrees
and different varieties of irritation. Some irritative states are best combated
permanently by tonics, as the mineral acids, &c.

Silver furjiishes us with a nitrate known as the lunar caustic, whose propertioa
as an escharotic are detailed under that head. Internally, the nitrate of silver
is a good antispasmodic in the chorea of dogs.

Soda is the mine7-al alkali, the medicinal properties of which do not differ ma
terially from potash, or the vegetable alkali, which see. Its compounds yield
us common salt, called muriate or chloride of sodium. — See Salts.

Chloride of Soda forms a better detergent, though it is inferior as a dis-
infector, to the chloride of lime. As an application for malignant and spread-
ing ulcers it possesses very great efficacy. It forms also a good stimulatmg
injection for poll-evil and fistulous withers ; and in grease it may be often

VETEUINATIY MATERIA MEDICA. o27

advantageously employed. It seems likewise to hold out a promise of benefit
in glanders, the virulence of which it has at least suspended ; and when given
in daily doses of from one to two ounces, in a properly diluted state, it has
evinced a very powerful effect on the absorbents.

Si'ANiSH Flies. — See Canthauides. • • j-

Ergot of Rye, more commonly known as spurred rye, is an active ingredient
of a principle not well understood, but very evanescent. It should therefore
be kept in well stoppered bottles, and even then it must not be kept too long.
Mr. Morton says it acts as an excitant in the throes of the uterus in doses
of 3ij to 3iv ; but that it should not be given until the regular forcings of the
womb have proved ineffective. It has been administered to the foaling mare
with effect, but it appears to exert its powers most successfully in cows,
sheep, and dogs. The secale is certainly an emmenagogue of great power,
yet it should not be employed but when other means have failed.

Squills (Scilla mai-itima). — Squills are highly recommended by Mr. White ;
but I cannot speak in equal terms of their efficacy in the cases I have tried
them. By their stimulating properties they may assist the bronchial secre-
tions in a slight degree, and may therefore be added to tartarized antimony in
the later stages of angina or catarrh ; but in cases of emergency they ought
not to supersede more active agents.

Starch. — In diarrhoea, starch clysters have proved very useful. It may also be
given internally in such cases, united with chalk and opium.

Stimulants. — The veterinarian is doomed to hear the word cordials so often
from mouths more fitted to receive them than to use them, on their Jiorses at
least, that he will gladly recognize all proper matters under this" head in
preference to the former much abused one. The cordial hall of the groom,
and as well of the iUiterate farrier, might be called baleful, got by quackery
out of ignorance ; and under the term cordial, I have pointed out when only
it can be req^i^te in a state of health ; and here will follow formulae proper
for those cases. Stimidants are medicines that exert an influence on the
system by increasing the power and action of a part, or of the whole of it ;
hence they may be considered as very numerous, and the term as of very ex-
tensive signification. Local stiimdi are all such matters as either promote
the vascular,, the nervous, or the absorbing energies ; as friction, rubefacients,
blisters, &c. General stimuli act on the sensorium at once, through the me-
dium of the senses : the voice of the hounds stimulates the horse by his ears ;
the exertions of a fellow horse stimulate him to new energies through his
eyes ; and the staUion's fire is di-awn forth by the scent of the horsing mare.
Absorbing sttnMants are heat, friction, depletion, mercury, &c.

Stomachic ^Wmulants.— Such may be called cordials, as are intended to have
a temporary effect on the stomach ; and those may be noted as stomachics
whose action is more permanent. Both the one and the other appear to act
by a sympathetic effect they excite between the stomach and the system ; but
as this organ in the horse is not so sympathetic as that of some animals, so
their activity here is less apparent : nevertheless, warm spicy matters do cer-
tainly possess some efficacy ; but, as might be supposed, such cordials (i. e.,
stomachics) appear to act best, and most permanently, as are received into
the system at large, as generous food, malt, gruel, ale, &c. After this, it may
be gathered that much dependence is not to be placed on what are termed
cordials. In comphance, however, with the general prejudice, I have added
three formulae, as good, perhaps, as any : —

No. I. — Gentian, powdered ". eight ounces

Ginger, ditto four ounces

Coriander seeds, in powder eight ounces

Caraway ditto, ditto ditto

Oil of anise seed half an ounce.

Make into a mass with lard, honey, treacle, or conserve of roses, and give one
ounce and a half for a dose.

K r 2

628 . VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

No. 2.— Of the preceding mass one ounce

Gum myrrh one drachm

Ualsam of Tolu ditto.

No. 3.— Of the first mass ten drachms

Camphor one drachm

*-'Pi""i twenty grains.

Either of these may be given as a drink also, by infusing the powders in a pint

or cii6.

As stimulants, Mr. Vines, in his Treatise on Glanders, enumerates the fol-
lowmg articles :— Cantharides, canella bark {canellcB cortex), capsicum berries
(capsici hacca), cubebs or Java pepper (cubeha), ginger root {zingiberis radix),
grams of paradise {grana paradisi), pellitory of Spain {pyrethri radix) ; all the
different sorts of peppers, as the common, black, cayenne, chili, long, and
white ; pimento or allspice {pimento; bacccs), sweet flag-root (calami aromat.
radix), winter's bark {winterm cortex).

More permanent stomacliic stimulants are such as act not only by determin-
ing a greater quantity of blood to the stomach, which increases the gastric
secretion, but also by strengthening the muscular tone of that organ, which
enables it to act with more energy in its digestive movements. The following
formulae are inserted on these united intentions, and are therefore proper in
cases of convalescence, or recovery from debilitating diseases which have im-
paired the appetite : —

Powdered canella alba four drachms

Ginger one drachm

Sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) one drachm .

Make into a ball with conserve of roses.

Decoction of chamomile three pints

Watery tincture of aloes four ounces

Ginger, in powder half an ounce

Sulphate of iron (green vitriol) one ounce and a half.

Mix, and divide into four drinks.

Gum myn-h two drachms

Mustard flour one drachm

Cantharides , five grains

Chamomile powder four drachms.

Make into a ball with thin Venice turpentine.

Powdered gentian three drachms

Powdered quassia three drachms

Powdered grains of paradise three di-achms.

Make into a ball with Venice tui-pentine.

Tonic stimulants are supposed to exert their influence on the muscular fibre,
and to improve their tone : this they do, in some instances, through the
medium of the stomach, and are then called stomachics (which see) ; or they
are received into the blood, and then become a very part of the fibre them-
selves. Tonics are, therefore, stimulants of permanent action ; and from
which may be gained that this class is numerous, and is, in fact, diffused
through the whole materia mcdica. A complete knowledge of their num-
bers and their effects can only be gained by an intimate conversance with
the animal economy, and the nature of the various foreign agents employed
in acting upon it. As a guide to the junior veterinarian and amateur, a few
formulae, that I have found by experience to be efficient, are added; either
of which may be given daily : —

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 629

Gum myrrh three drachms

Sulphate of iron {green vitriol) two drachms

Chamomile powder three drachms

Ginger, ditto one drachm. ^

Mix into a ball with turpentine or pahn oil; or into a drink with a pint of

mild beer.

Arsenic ten grains

Gentian,' powdered three drachms

Cascarilla, ditto three drachms.

Mix into a ball with conserve of ros6s, or, as above, into a di-ink.

Gum myrrh three drachms

Powdered gentian three drachms

Levigated rust of iron two drachms.

Make into a ball.

As tonics, Mr. Vines enumerates Angustura bark {Cusparia cortex), Buck-
bean {Menyanthes trifoliata), CascariUa bark {Cascarilla: cortex). Chamomile
flowers {Anthemides Jlores), Gentian root (Gentiance radix), Quassia wood
{Quassia lignwin).

Stoppings are articles introduced into the hollow of the bottom of the hoof to
moisten the horn ; and in other instances also, as in cases of pricks, corns, or
bruised soles. For the first purpose, any thing that will retain moisture may
be used ; the following will be found as good as any, as it not only moistens
but toughens the horn : —

Cow-dung and horse-dung, mixed six parts

Tar one part.

Clay is not a good stopping. It dries too soon, and then rather adds to
the evil of hardening the hoof than diminishing it : if clay is used, it nmst be
mixed with something that will retain moisture, as one-thii-d of its proportion
should be cow-dung ; and if a little tar be added, it will then make an adhe-
sive and excellent stopping, sufficiently firm to yield pressure to the bottom
of the foot without an injurious brick-hardness. In cases of pricks, &c., hot
tar is not improperly used as a stopping. Pieces of tow are dipped into it,
and are then retained by means of tough strips of wood, as withy from the
broom-binding, which may be laid across. ' Oil of turpentine one part, horse
turpentine one part, and grease a third part, make also a good warm drawing
stopping for similar purposes ; but it should be always first considered whether
the case requires stimulating. Sole pads are now invented of thick felting,
which, being passed within the shoe, and then wetted, swell, so as to be per-
manently retained, find at once yield pressure and moisture.
Storax. — See Balsams.

Styptics are remedies that restrain haemorrhage, either internally or exter-
nally. Those used in the former case are acetate of lead, zinc, alum, and
catechu ; in the latter, vitriolated zinc and alum, together with such articles
as coagulate the blood either mechanically or chemically, and thus plug up
the open vessel.

SuBLiiMATE. — See Mercury.

SuDORiFics. — These are uncertain remedies in the horse. We can procure a
slight relaxation of skin by diluents, warmth, and diaphoretic medicines;
but actual perspiration we can seldom excite, except by violent nauseants.
Vinegar, however, in frequently repeated doses of six ounces, will generally
produce it ; but it appears to excite much action in the system, and hence
not to be recommended. Increased clothing will generally produce it ; but
by exciting increased action, it may do more harm than good. In common
cases, it will be therefore prudent to content ourselves with diluents, anti-

630 VETERINARY MATERIA MliDICA-

inoaials, and acotated liquor of anuuonia : in important ones we may use
nauseants.

SiiLPHUu.— Flour of sulphur is a very common remedy in veterinary practice,
internally as an alterative, and externally as a cure of eruptions of the skin :
for the latter purpose, the black sulphur, which is cheaper, is equally proper.

SuLPHUBic Acid, or Oil of Vitriol (Acidum. sulphuricum), as it is populariy
termed, is a preparation from sulphur, whieh is seldom used in horse prac-
tice but as an escharotic, or added to blistering substances to increase their
activity.

Sulphur, Balsam of (Oleum s?ilphuretum). — Brimstone, boiled in oil, was
used formerly to be called a balsam, and was then much used among farriers
in old coughs and thick wind ; but, as may be supposed, with little advan-
tage. Ani sated balsam of sulphur was made by adding oil of aniseed to the
former.

Sulphate of Copper (Cupri sulphas). — See Copper.

SuLPHURET OF QuiCKSiLVER {Sulphuretuin liydrargyri nigrum)^ or iEthiop's
mineral. — See Mercury.

Sulphate of Magnesia {Magnesia sidphas), Epsom Salts, or bitter purging
salt, so well known, is a valuable medicine oftentimes to the veterinarian ;
much more so than the sulphate of soda, or Glauber's salt In cases requir-
ing a loose state of bowels, but where aloes are inadmissible, as in inflam-
matory affections, this salt is pften a resource : in fevers it appears to have
a double effect ; one as a febrifuge, the other as an aperient. It requires
from six or eight ounces to twelve, dissolved in water or gruel, to open the
bowels ; and sometimes it is necessary to repeat the dose before the effect is
produced. It cannot, therefore, be considered altogether as a certain laxa-
tive ; but when combined with linseed or castor oil, it seldom fails, particu-
larly if assisted by bran mashes. In opening clysters, also, it may be very
properly added.

Supertartrate of Potash {Potassm supertartras), or Cream of Tartar. — See
Potash.

Tar is a very useful article to the veterinarian. Equal parts of tar and fish
oil make an excellent application for the hoofs of horses, applied daily with a
brush, the hoofs being previously moistened. Tar is also an excellent stop-
ping for the bottom of the feet, in the proportion described under Stoppings:
it is, also, either alone, or mixed with oil of turpentine and applied warm,
often used with advantage as a stopping in pricks and bruises of the sole.
Tar enters also into some of the digestive and detergent unguents, particularly
in preparations for the cure of thrushes in the feet : it has also been given in-
wardly in balls ; and from the water of tar as a drink in obstinate chronic
coughs, joined with expectorants and alteratives, particularly of the mercurial
kind, it is said much benefit has been received.

Tar, Barbadoes. — This was by old practitioners valued more highly as an
internal remedy, and was often given for coughs ; but, as far as my experience
goes, it merits no preference : probably neither are very efficient, but may be
used in making up the baU given on these occasions. Mr. Hart has been
lately attempting to revive the use of it, under the name of Green Naphtha, as
an internal remedy of great utility in all chronic chest affections.

Tannin is prepared from oakgalls, and concentrates with it the gallic acid, by
which it becomes a powerful astringent ; and if its properties as an astringent
would prove equal in all other animals as it does in the dog, we should not
fear pure diarrhoea in any of them.

Tartarized Antimony (Antimomi tartarizatum). — See Antimony.

Tents are substances introduced into a wound, to prevent its too early clos-
ing. In deep wounds having a narrow outlet, and when any foreign body re-
mains to be expelled, they may be very properly employed ; and any soft sub-
stance, as lint or tow, may be introduced for this purpose. But the old plan
of the farriers, of cramming every wound witli tents, is an absurd and hurtful
practice.

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDIC A. 631

Tin —This is used as a vermifuge to horses frequently. It has, however, but
moderate efficacy, and, when given, it should be always in fine filings, and not
levi-'ated, as there is reason to beUeve its action is purely mechanical ; in which
caae^ tin must be preferable to pewter filings, as being harder, but which are
Ecnerally substituted. Dose, three ounces daily.

Tinctures, are solutions of vegetable or other matter in spirituous hquors.
When any of the resinous gums are to be dissolved, pure spirit of wine should
be used, men the roots, bark, leaves, &c. of plants are to be made into tinctures,
tlilute spirit is sufficient. Tinctures are not, in general, a convenient formula
for the veterinarian. The substances employed are too diffused, and cannot be
given in general cases in sufficient quantity, without using an unnecessary and
even hurtful portion of the spirit or menstruum. But as sometimes it may be
wished to give either aloes or opium diluted, so a watery solution or tincture
might here be useful. In these cases, equal weights of the substance and of
proof spirit may be digested together in a warm place for two days, and then
the united articles may have double the weight of water added ; and in this
state the tincture may be kept for use. In giving it, the bottle must be shaken,
and the sediment and all poured out. Any of the tinctures of the human
pharmacopoeia may occasionally be employed in veterinary practice, but, for
the above reasons, this wiU never be a very useful formula. The principal
ones in use are tincture of aloes ; tincture of aloes with myrrh ; tincture of
benjamin compounded, called friars balsam; tincture of myrrh; and tincture
of Spanish flies, all of which are occasionally used as detergents. Internally,
also, all of them, except the tincture of aloes, are stomachics and tonics.
Tincture of catechu likewise may sometimes be useful in restringent drinks.
The tincture of opium also made as above, or a stronger laudanum, would be
useful. Foxglove, as being a powerful remedy, may be very usefully given in
tincture ; and, for convenience, the veterinarian may keep this also of double
strength to what is ordered in the Pharmacopoeia.

Tobacco.— This is a very powerful narcotic. An instance is mentioned by Mr.
White of two ounces having been given by an ignorant groom to produce a
fine coat, which occasioned ahnost immediate death. But this very activity,
when we are better acquainted with its mode of action, may be made subser-
vient to important medicinal purposes. Tobacco is very useful in infusion, as
an external remedy for mange.

Tonics are remedies so called from a supposed property of giving tone to the
living fibre, by which they increase the action of the heart and arteries through
the medium of the stomach principally, but through other media occasionally,
as cold bath, exercise, friction, &c. — See Stimulants.

Turner's Cerate. — See Cerates.

Turpentine forms an article of very considerable importance in veterinary me-
dicine. There is no great difierence between the Venice and the common,
which are the kinds principally used in our practice : both are considerable
ingredients in digestive and blistering ointments ; and either is also a conve-
nient adhesive medium for forming balls. Internally, the Venice is a warm
stomachic, an excellent assistant diuretic, and has some vermifuge powers.

Turpentine, Oil of. — This terebinthinated preparation is still more in use
than the massy turpentine. Internally, in doses of two to four ounces, it forms
an excellent antispasmodic in flatulent colic, and half the quantity in daily
doses forms a valuable vermifuge ; in both chronic and acute indigestion it is
also serviceable. Externally, its use is still more frequent : it is a ready and
never-faihng stimulant, and hence it is the basis of the liquid bUster ; and
more dilute, it forms the best application for old strains and bruises.

Unguents. — A derivative name for ointments ; which see.

Verdigris {JErugo). — See Acetate of Copper.

Vkrjuice is only an apple vinegar, and hence applicable to similar purposes with
the common kind.

ViRMiFUOEs arc such substances as remove worms from the body by mechani-
cally irritating them by their spiculi, or such as dislodge them by removing the

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.
mucus of the bowels, as purgatives, or such as prove noxious to the worms
themselves^ 1 m or pewter, or iron filed fine, but not levigated, two or th oe
ounces. Common salt, six to eight ounces; oil of turpentine, 'two to ee
ounces; savm one to two ounces ; cowhage, half a di-achm ; calomel, a scru-

tV^'T"' 'Z^'^'^'l ^^"".^'^ '^'^'y P^'-g'^ ; these are thought to fulfil
one or other of these indications. Worm medicines should be given fasting
every day, for a fortnight.— See Worms, in the Diseases ^'
V ESICATORIES, bhstcring articles.— See Blisters

Vitriol (^M/p/iGs zmcO.— White vitriol, or sulphate of zinc, is an exceUent
styptic and astringent: applied externally, Mr. Morton recommends it in so-
lution, as very useful in reducing the sweUings of horses' legs, gorged bv over
exertion But mstead of the common linen or woollen bandages usually eni-
ployed, Mr. M. recommends those made of chamois leather, which not onlv
retams its moisture, but also by its ^asticity gives a continued compression to
the relaxed or gorged hmb. In ophthahiiia it forms the best wash for the
middle and latter stages. It is also a good detergent in grease and other iU-
conditioned sores.

Vitriolated Copper. — See Blue VitrioI;.

Vilriolated Iron. — See Green Vitriol.

Vitriol, Oil of. — See Sulphuric Acid.
Vinegar {Acetum).—The acetous acid is very frequently used in veterinary
practice ; it is of the utmost consequence, therefore, that it should be pure
It IS, however unfortunately, very liable to be adulterated with, or whoiiv
made of, sulphuric acid, and then becomes very unfit for use as an internal
remedy, being changed into an active stimulant instead of a refrigerant Vine-
gar, not neutralized by salt or sugar, is capable of proving very noxious to
the horse. We have instances on record of a pint of strong vinegar destroy-
ing life ; but, neutralized with carbonate of ammonia, it forms a most exceUeiit
febrifuge, under the old name of Mindererus's Spirit. Neutralized with sugar
or honey, it forms a valuable expectorant called oxymel. As an external ap-
plication, the acetous acid is likewise no less useful. In strains, bruises, and
other local injuries, it is the base of the best remedies, either in combination
with acetate of lead when active inflammation exists, or mixed with crude sal
ammoniac, or the bay salt, to counteract theeflfects of distention.— See Saline
Embrocation.

Vinegar, Distilled.— This elegant preparation is nothing more than the com-
mon vinegar deprived of its water and feculent parts, but is in no respect pre-
ferable for the purposes of horse practice.

Washes are watery solutions, or infusions, of various substances, to be tvashed
over the parts to which they are to be applied.

Wax, White and Yellow.— The yellow is principally used by the veterinarian
to thicken and give consistence to ointments. '

Willow Bark. — See Bark.

Worm Medicines.— See Anthelmintics.

Zinc. — See Vitriol and Calamine.

The_ veterinary practitioner is recommended, at his outset in professional life,
to furnish himself with a neat and appropriate dispensar;/. Nothing will lead more
to a conviction in the minds of his emijloyers, both that he is well informed on
the curative properties of the various medicinal articles he uses, and that he has
possessed himself of the best that can be obtained, than a careful and methodical
arrangement of them within drawers, pots, or bottles, according to their nature
and qualities ; aU of which should be distinctly labelled with the names directed
by the London Pharmacopoeia. The dispensary of the veterinarian should be a
fac-similc of the apothecary's shop, except in the number of its articles being
more limited ; but it should be ecpially conveniently fitted up for the compound-
ing of medicines, with counter, mortar, slabs, &c. &c. It should also, hkc that.

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

633

be kept equally distinct from any other occupation ; and not exhibit, as I have
seen it, an assemblage of saddles, harness, and other stable paraphernalia ; with
the addition, perhaps, of receptacles for bran, oats, beans, &c. As the dispensary
of the practitioner cannot escape public observation (indeed, it ought to be the
coHsultinf^ and receiving room in his professional engagements), so the appearances
I have hinted at will inevitably injure his respectabihty, and sink him to the level
of the smith or common farrier. Neither can it be favourable to the safety of the
drugs themselves to be placed in any other than a warm, dry, and closed apart-
ment. It is both the duty and the interest of the veterinarian to conduct every
part of his practice with the same attention to system and professional appear-
ance as are observed by the most respectable human practitioners ; by which
conduct he will assist to elevate the character of the art he practises to the rank
it ought to hold among the liberal pursuits of mankind: and I need not add, that
the elevation of that will insure his own.

INDEX.

A.

ABSCESS, 433— acute, 428
Abdominal ring, 248

Abdomen, anatomy of, 212 — dropsy of, 394

— wounds of, 414
Absorbents, 146 — physiology of, 149
Acetabulum, 106

Action in the horse, safety of it, 52, 56, 57

— wliat it depends on, 56
Adenology, 165

Adhesive inflammation, 281, 411

Adipose membrane and fat, 171

Adult period in horses, 250

JF.gagropilus, or collections of hair in tlie
stomach, 169

Aeration of the blood,. 208

Age of horses known by the teeth, 26 to 32
— by tlie exterior conformation, 31 — de-
ceptions practised by dealers, 33 — of oxen,
35 — of sheep, 36

Air, its effects in respiration, 203 — its ac-
tion on the blood, 208

Alteratives, 69

Amaurosis, 487

Amputations, 566 — of the penis, 567 — of the

tail, 568 — of the ears, 572
Anatomy in general, its importance, 17 —

anatomy of the horse, 91 to 238
Anasarca, 396
Anchylosis, 477
Aneurism, 454

Animal heat, how produced, 209
Angina pharyngo-laryngea, or sore throat,
334

Angina trachealis, 335
Angiology, 126
Anlicor, 452
Apoplexy, 360

Arm, fore, 41 — bone of, 109 — muscles of,
252

Arabian, the first imported into England,
21

Arteries, structure and functions of, 1 26 —
distribution of, 134 — aorta, ib. — axillary,
.135 — humeral, ib. — carotid, 137 — aorta
posterior, 138 — emulgents, 139 — iliacs,
ib. — pulmonary, 140 — plantar, 136 —
wounds of, 424

Arteriolomy, 580 — how to stop hicmorrhagc
from, 424 to 427

Ascites, 394 — tapping for, 306

B.

Back, how it should be formed, 45 — saddle

galled, 437
Back sinews, how they should be formed,

42— clap in, 446 — rupture of, 448
Bag of the mare, 238
Ball, mode of giving, 605
Barbs, the removal of them injurious, 192
Barking in dogs, how produced, 190
Bartlet, account of, 9
Bars of the foot, 269

of the mouth, 185

Bel, M. St., account of, 10 — his writings,

11

Bile, 227 — no cystic bile in the horse, 228

Bladder, structure of, 230 — functions of,
231 — mode of puncturing it, 331 — in-
flammation of the neck of, ib. — inflam-
mation of the body of, 330

Black quarter in cattle, 292 — black leg, or
acute fever, ib.

Bleeding, how performed, 580 — arterio-
tomy, ib. — phlebotomy, 582 — bleeding
by the palate, 581 — by the toe, ib. — by
the neck-vein or jugular, 582 — by the
plat- vein, ib. — the spur- vein, ib. — the
thigh-vein, ib. — the great importance of
abstracting blood in disease, 584

Blindness, moon, 479

Blistering, 577

Blood, circulation of, 203 — nature and pro-
perties of, 204 — its life, ib. — appearances
and conditions of, under disease, 206 —
how acted on by the air, 208 — purity of
blood among breeders, 243 — bloody urine,
390 — blood spavin, 454

Blood-letting, 580 — morbid consequences of,
424

Bloodstriking in sheep, or inflammatory fe-
ver, 293
Bloody ray, 356

Blown in oxen, 374— in sheep, ib.

Blundeville, 9
Body founder, 452
Bog spavin, 456

Bones, anatomy of, 91 to 120 — their com-
position : of the head, 93 — face, 94' — jaw,
96 — teeth, ib. — vertebras, 103 — pelvic,
105 — thoracic, 106 — costa?, — scapu-
Ite, 107 — radius and ulna, 109 — carpal,
J 10 — metacarpal, 112 — pustcrn, ib. —

636

INDEX.

foot, 114' — femur, 115 — patella, iJ. — ti-
bia and fibula, 116 — tarsus, ib. — dis-
eases of bones, 467

Bone spavin, 471

Bourgclat, his writings, 7

Box, a necessary appendage to every stable,
75

Brain, its structure, 150 — active infiamma-
tion of, 301 — symptomatic phrenitis, 305
— diseases of, 359

Bracken, Dr., 9

Braying, how produced, 190

Braxy, 356 — in sheep, 357

Breaking down, 448

Breast, proper form of, 40 — anatomy of it,
196

Breeding, or pregnancy, 241

Breeding of horses, the system of, 243 —

in-and-in system of, ih. — breeding back,

244

Broken knees, 420 — signs of 41, 420
Broken wind, 338 — how distinguished, 340
Bronchicp, 202
Bronchitis, 335

Bronchotomy and tracheotomy, 556
Bruises, 451

Buck eyes, or gutta serena, 487
Bursalogy, 125

Bursce mucosae, structure of, 127 — enlarge-
ment of, forms windgalls, 455

C.

Ceectim, 224 — in oxen, 226

Calcular concretions, 399 — intestinal, 400
— urinary, 401 — ^vesical, ib.

Calves, scouring in, 382

Canker in the feet of horses, 539 — treat-
ment of, 540

Cannon, metacarpus or shank bone, 41

Canter, how performed, 62

Capsular ligaments, 121 — wounds into them,
418

Capulet, 454 — capped elbow, and hock, 456,
457

Carcass of horses, the best form of, 45 — a
proper consideration of this formed Mr.
Bakewell's secret in breeding, ib.

Caries of bones, 467

Carditis, 394

Carpus, or knee, 41 — bones of, 110
Cartilages, 120— the lateral of the foot,

270
Casting, 544

Castration, mode of, 547— by cautery, 549
—the French method,- 553 — by ligature,
556

Cataract, 487

Catarrh, mild, 334

Catarrhal epidemic fever in horses, 285 —
ditto in oxen, 295

Crt</*<!<er, , introduction of, 331

Cattle, age of, 35— pithing of, what, 104—
lowing, how produced, 190 — inflamma-
tory fevers in, called by the various names

of black quarter, joint felon, quarter evil,
shewt of'blood, black leg, &c., 292 — in-
flamed lungs in cattle, 319 — inflamed
bowels, 326 — inflamed liver, 327 — in-
flamed kidneys, 329 — inflamed bladder,
332 — inflamed womb," or puerperal fc-ver,
or dropping after calving, 295, 333 —
dysentery, scouring, braxy, bloody ray,
slimy flux, 356 — colic, 379 — ^hove, 374 —
parasitic animals in, 378 — paralysis, 363
— madness in, 441 — looseness, scouring
cow, scantering, 381 — jaundice in oxen
and sheep, 338

Cellular membrane, 171

Cervical ligament, 195 — admirable me-
chanism of, ib.

Chabert, his writings, 8

Charge, 610 '

Cherry, Mr., his writings, 16

Chestnut horses subject to contracted feet,
51

Chestnuts, the horny knob within the arms,
so called by the French, supposed use of,
240

Chest, viscera of, 198 — dropsy of, 392 —

wounds of, 413
Chestfounder, 450

Circulation of the blood, anatomy and phy-
siology of, 201 — foetal circulation, 247

Clap in the sinews, 446

Clark, Mr. Bracy, his writings, 14 — his pa-
ratrite, 14, 514

Clark, Mr., of Edinburgh, his works, 7

Cleansing after calving, 620

Clipping the coats of horses, 98

Clysters, 610

Coagulable lymph, what, 205

Coagulum, 205

Coffi7i bone, 118

Cold, as a disease, 334

Coleman, Mr., his professorship, 11 — his

writings, 12 — his shoe, 514
Colic, red, 322— spasmodic, or gripes, 369

—in cattle, 372
Colon, 224

Colour of horses, 48 — simple colours, 50 —
compound colours, 51 — extraordinary co-
lours, 52 — light- coloured legs most sub-
ject to grease, 493
Columella, an ancient veterinary author, 6
Colt, fcetal, 246 — his peculiarity of forma-
tion, and the wisdom displayed in it,
246-247

Conception in the mare, how brought about,
241

Condition of horses, 63 — morbid condition,
68 — ' getting a horse into condition,' 71
— how purgatives act in promoting it, 587

Constipation, 322

Consumption, 320

Contracted feet, 506 — chestnut horse pecu-
liarly liable to them, 43-51 — mode of re-
lieving them, 51 1

Contusion, or bruise, 451

Copulation in the horse, act of, 240— pliy-

INDEX.

G37

siological consequences of, 24-0 — prehi

sile organ for, iO.
Coronary ligament, 266
Coronet bone, 106
Corns, 525
CosUe, or ribs, 106*
Coslivene.is, 379
Couching, 487
Cough, chronic, 336
Cracks in the heels, 491
Cramp, or spasm, 363
Cranium, bones of, 93
Crassamentum of the blood, what, 205
Cribbiting, 67, 382
Cropping, 572

Cruor of the blood, what, 205
Curb, 450, 476

Cuticle, 169 — cuticular c6at of the stomach,

215
Cutis, 170

Cutting of the feet, how done, 43
Cutting a horse, 547
Cystitis, 330 — in cattle, 332

D.

Deglutition, 191
Dentition, process o^ 32
Diabetes, 390

Diagnosis of disease, what, 278
Diaphragm, 199 — mode of its action, ib. —

rupture of, 414
Diarrhoea in the horse, 379 — in cattle, 381

— in calves, 382
Dieting the horse, 71

Digestion, economy of, 217 — differs in the
horse from most other animals, 219 — its
economy within the intestines, 225

Diseases, what, 277 — their origins, 278 —
epidemic, ib. — endemic, ib. — sporadic, ib.

Dislocations, 466 — of the patella, ib.

Distemj)er in horses, or epidemic catarrh,
385

Diuretics, 592 — cases that require them,

593
Docking, 568

Downing, Mr., account of, 13
Drink, or drench, how to give, 614
Dropping after calving, or puerperal fever

in cattle, 295
Dropsy of the head, 391 — of the chest, 392

— of the heart, 394— of the belly, ib. — of

the skin, 396 — of the spine, ib. — ^^of the

extremities, 397
Duodenum, 203

Dysentery, 355 — in cattle, 356 — in sheep,
357

Dyspepsia, 372

E.

Ear, its structure, 173— varieties in its for-
mation, 174— the Eustachian cavity, 175
— the motions of the ear present an indi-
cation of intention, 2'1 — cropping of, 572

Elbow of the horse, 41 — capped or diseased,
454, 457

- Embryotomy, 546
Empltyscma, 399
Ecchymosis, 399

Endemic diseases, what, 39, 278
'Enteritis, 322— in cattle, 326
Epidemic catarrh,' 285 — malignant ditto,
289

Epidemic diseases, what, 278
Epigastric region, 212
Epilepsy, 361
Esophagotomy, 557
Esophagus, 196

Eustachian tube, 174' — opens into a pecu-
liar sac, shut out from the pharynx, 175,
188

Exercise of horses, 86
Exfoliation, 467
Exostosis, 467

Exterior conformation of the horse, 22 — his
head, 23 — his eyes, 24 — his age, 26 — his
neck, 37 — his shoulders, 39 — parts below,
39-48---body, ib.
Extravasation of air, 399
Extremities, the fore, structure of, 251 —
bones of, 107 — vessels of, 1 35 — nerves of,

159 — muscles of, 251 — fractures of, 461
Extremities, hinder, structure of, 259 —

bones of, 115 — vessels of, 138 — nerves of,

160 — muscles of, 259 — their part in pro-
gression, 54-59 — fractures of, 161

Eye, external form of, 24 — requisite exa-
mination of, ib. — its structure, 176 — why
animals see better than man at night, 178
— physiology of vision, 181
Eye, simple inflammation of, 477 — specific
ditto, or moon eyes, 479— cataract, 487
— glass, or buck eyes, ii.— filaria, or
worm in the eye, 488 — excrescences on
it, 489

F.

Face in the horse, 25 — facial angle, ih. —

bones of, 94
False quarter, 542
Farcy, 351 — water farcy, 396
Farriery, account of its state before the
establishment of a veterinary college, 58
Fat, formation of, and uses, 171
Feeding of horses, directions relative to it,

77— varieties of food, 78, 82, 218
Feet, external consideration of, 43 — ma-
nagement of in the stable, 85 — anatomy
of, 267— the bones, 132— contracted, 506
— mode of expanding them,318 — pumiced
foot, 522— founder, 501— thrush in, 527
— sandcrack, 529— foot pricked, 532—
heel tread, 534' — quittor, ii— canker, 539
— false quarter in, 542
Fain7e diseases generally, 277— the belief
in idiopathic fever gaining ground, ib. —
epidemic, endemic, and sporadic fevers,
acknowledged, 278— epidemic catarrhal
fever in horses, 285 — malignant slate of
it, 289 — symptomatic fever, 29 1

638

INDEX.

Fever in cattle usually mixed or typhoid,
292 — malignant or typhoid, 293 — puer-
peral fever, 295 — in sheep also, 297

Filaria, or. worm in the eye, 488

Firing, 572

Fistula in the anus, 440 — in the withers, 437
— in the salivary glands, 438 — in the poll,
434— in the sternum, 438 — in the peri-
naeum, 441

Flank of the horse, 46

Flexor tendons, division of, 565

Fleshy ^a.nmc\e, 173

Fluids of the body, 272

Fluke worm in sheep, 378

Flux, slimy, in cattle, 356

Foal, its formation, 246 — its structural pe-
culiarities and evolution, 247-251 — foetal
testicles, 249

Foaling, 245— difficult, '546

Foetal circulation, 247 — specialities of it in
the horse, 248

Food of horses, various, 79 — relative pro-
portions of nutriment in it, 80 — mixed
food, 81 — cooked food, ib. — physiology of
its mastication and deglutition, 191 — the
action of the stomach on it, 217 — further
acted on in the intestines, 226 — bad food
a cause of ill condition, 65

Foot-founder, 501

Foot-rot in sheep, 292

Forehand, how it should be formed, 56

Fosse, La, senior, his writings, 7

, La, junior, his writings, 8

Founder, foot, 501— acute, ib. — chronic,
505, 515

Fractures, 457 — of the skull, 458— of the
jaw, 459 — of the nasal bones, 460 — of the
ribs, ib. — of the vertebrae, 461 — of the
scapula, ib. — of the humerus, 462— of the
cubitus, ib. — of the femur, ib. — of the
tibia, ib. — of the olecranon or elbow, 463
■ — of the cannon, ib. — of the pasterns,
464 — of the coronary, coffin, and navicu-

, lar bones, 465

Freeman, Mr., his work on shoeing, 13 — on

"progression, 58
Frog, horny, 267 — uses of, 269 — fleshy frog,

270— disease of, 527
Frontal sinuses, 182

G.

Gall-bladder, wanting in the horse, 228
Gallop, how performed, 61 — hand gallop, ib.
Ganglion, what, 162 — ganglial nerves, ib.
Gangrene, what, 407
Gastric secretion, 272
Gastritis, 321

Gelding, or castration, 547

Generating organs in the horse, 233 — in the

mare, 236 — physiology of generation, 239
Gestation, physiology of, 245 — gestatory

period in different animals, ib.
Gibson, Mr., account of, 9
Gid in sheep, 378

Girard,scn.,an eminent veterinary writer, 8

Glanders, 341 — treatment of, 348

Glands, structure and functions of, 165 —

diseases of, 387 — lymphatic, 147 — lacteal

absorbents, ib.
Glandular secretion, physiology of, 166
Goodwill, Mr., his writings, 15
Gravel and calcular concretions, 401
Grease, 489 — treatment of, 493
Gripes, 369

Groggy lamenesses, 523
Gunshot wounds, 427
Gutta Serena, 487

H.

Hemorrhage, 424-427

Hair, structure of, 167 — its colours, 48 — is
symptomatic of particular temperament,
167 — two varieties are common, 169 — is
reproduced twice a year, ib. — light-co-
loured legs subject to disease, 493

Hair balls, 169

Hrsmaturia, or red water, in cattle, 389
Head, external form of, 23 — bones of, 9.3 —

glands of, 191 — dropsy of, 391 — wounds

of, 413
Hearing, sense of, 175
Heart, anatomy of, 200 — inflammation of,

321

Heat, animal, sources of, 209

i/«a<s of mares, 239

Heels of the foot, 44 — what really opens
them, 508

Hepatitis, 326 in cattle, 327

Hernia, 383 -.strangulated, 384 — treatment
of in stallions, ib. — in geldings, 385 —
hernia congenital, 386

Hidebound, what, 67 — improperly consi-
dered as a disease, 501

Higham- striking in sheep, 293

Hippocrates, both a veterinarian and a hu-
man physician, 6

History of veterinary medicine in Britain, 8

Hock, how it should be formed, 48 — bones
of, 116 — its bony mechanism, how it in-
fluences its mode of action, 117 — muscles
operating on it, 262 — capped or capulet,
456 — spavin of it, 47 1

Hoof, structure of, 267 — contraction of, 506

Horse, natural history of, 1 9 — exterior con-
formation of, 22-37 — his eyes, 24 — his
teeth as characteristic of his age, 26 — ■
marks in his face, names of, 25 — his
shoulders, 39 — his feet exteriorly consi-
dered, 43 — colours of horses, 48 — race-
horse, proper form of, 53 — the hunter, 54
—the hackney, 55 — thecoach-horse,56 —
the cart-horse, ib. — paces of the horse,
57 — condition of, 63 — stable management
of, 72-75 — summering of, 76— feeding
of, 77 — watering of, 82 — dressing of, 83
— exercise of, 86 — anatomy of, 91-272 —
diseases of, 277-592— clothing of, 84

Horsing in mares, or oestrum, what, 239

Hovcn in horses, 373

INDEX.

639

Hoven in oxen, 374

Humoral pathology, what, 207

Hunger, what it is physiologically, 217

Hunter, Mr., debt of gratitude due to him,
12 — opinion of the blood, 204 — of inflam-
mation, 280

Husk in cattle, the same with common cold
in horses, 334

Hazard, senior, his writings, 8

Hazard, junior, his writings, 8

Hydatids in sheep, 378

Hydrocephalus, 391

Hydrorachitis, 396

Hydroihorau; 392

Hydrophobia, 403 — a misnomer in brutes,
ib.

Hydrops pericardii, 394
Hygrology, 272
Hypogastric region, 212
Hypochondriac region, 212
Hysteritis, 332 — ditto in cattle, 333

I.

Indigestion, acute, 373 — chronic ditto, 372

Inflammation, general or diffused, 278 —
divided into acute and chronic, 280 —
causes of, 303 — treatment of as local,
406 — treatment of as diffused, 407 —
of the brain, 301 — of the lungs in horses,
309 — in oxen, 319 — chronic inflammation
of, 320— of the heart in horses, 321— of
the stomach, ib. — of the intestines, 322 —
in cattle, 327 — of the liver in horses, 326
— of the kidneys in cattle, 329 — of the
bladder, 331 — of the neck of, ib. — of the
bladder in cattle, 330 — of the womb in
cattle, 332— of the peritoneum, 333— of
mucous membranes, ib. — of the spleen,
388— ofthe eye, 477— of the feet, 501

Inflammation, adhesive, 411

Inflammation, pl6gmonous, 433

Influenza, 285— in cattle, 298 '

Integuments, 172

Intestines, anatonfiy and situation of, 223,
264 — uses of intestines, 225 — inflamma-
tion of the outer coats of, 325 — ditto of
mucous or inner coats of, 328 — ditto from
superpurgation, 330 — from strangulation
of in hernia, 387 — from intussusception,
invagination, inversion, or involution, ib.

3.

Jaundice, 387 — in oxen and sheep, 388
Jaw-bone, fracture of, 459
Jaw locked, 364

Joi7its, wounds of, 415 — dislocations of, 466

— stifTjoints, 477
Joint felon in cattle, or acute fever, 392

K.

Kidneys, structure and economy of, 229 —
inflammation of, 327— in neat cattle, 329
Knte of the horse, 41

Knees, broken, with penetrated joint, 420 —
without penetrating the joint, 423 — mode
of lessening the blemish of, 421

Kumree, 362

L.

Lachrymal duct, how formed, 180

Lactation, or suckling, 246

Lucteals, structure of, 147

Lafosse, sen. and jun., their writings, 7, 8

Lamenesses, flying, 452

Lamina, sensible, 271

Lampas, 375

Larynx, 189 — uses of, 190

Leaping, how performed, 63

Legs, what form of best, 39 to 44 — anato-
mical conformation of, 251 to 259 — frac-
ture of the bones of, 461 — swelled legs,
397 — with discharge, 494 — white legs
most subject to grease, 493 — washing the
legs, when most injurious, 491

Lethargy, as a symptom of phrenitis, 361

Ligaments, generally, 121 — of the fore ex-
tremities, 257 — of the hind, 263 — rupture
of suspensory ligaments, 448

Ligamentum colli, 195

Ligamentary extension, or strain, 442

Lights, the rising or inflammation of in the
horse, 309 — in neat cattle, 319 — in sheep,
320

Lithotomy, 545
Lips, 188

Liver, structure of, 226 — economy of, 227 —
inflammation of, 326 — parasitic worms in
cattle, 378

Loclced-jaw, 364 . .

Loins, proper form of, 46

Looseness, 379 — in oxen, 381 — in calves,
318

Lumbar region, 212

Lunatic blindness, 479

Lungs, their structure, 202 — physiology of
their action in respiration, 203 — acute in-
flammation of, 309 — in cattle, 319

Luxations, 457

Lymphatics, 147

M.

Madness, rabid, 403 — in cattle and swine,
404

Malignant epidemic jn horses, 289

Mallunders, 497

Mamvdlis, or inflammation of the udder of
cows, 297

Mamma of the mare, 238

Mane, 38 — best mode of pulling it, ib. — in-
stances of a very long one, ih.

Mange, 498

Mare, her organs of generation, 236 — her
oestrum, or horsing, 239 — her copulation,
conception, and pregnancy, 240, 244' —
gestatory periods, 244 — parturition, or
foaling, 245 — lactation, or giving suck,
246 — evolution of her foal, ib.

INDEX.

640

Markham, Gervase, 5
Murks and colours of horses, 48-50
Mark in the mouth, 26
Mastication, 191
Meagrims, 403

Mechanism of the skeleton, 119
Membranes, cellular and adipose, 171, 172

Mesentery, 225
Metastasis, 282

Milk, tlie organs for its formation, 238 —

its composition, 272
Moisture, a cause of grease, 491
Molten grease, 355
Moon blindness, 479

Moorcroft, Mr., account of, 11 — was joined
in the professorship with Mr. Coleman,
ih. — Mr. Coleman's Treatise on Shoeing,
12

Morfonndering, or common cold, 334
Morbid consequences of blood-letting, 424
Mortification, 408 — ossific, 468
Moulting, what, 67

Moiith, structure of, 184 — uses of the bars,
185 — ignorance of farriers in removing
the paps and barbs, 192

Mucous capsules, 126 — diseases of, 455

Murrain or pest in cattle, or malignant epi-
demic, 292

Muscles, their structure, 123 — their pro-
perties, 125 — muscles of the extremities,
251

'^lyology, 122 — of anterior extremities, 251
—of hind ditto, 259

N.

Nasal duct, 183

Navicular disease, 523

Neck, proper form of, 37 — anatomy of, 194
— cervical cavity in, 195 — wounds of, 413

Neighing, how produced, 190

Nephritis, 327 — in cattle, 329

Nernous principle, 161

sympathy, 164

Nerves, structure of, 152 — cerebrine, 153
— spinal, 156 — division of into nerves of
sensation and motion, 158 — ganglionic
nerves, 162 — of the fore extremities, 159
— of the hinder extremities, 1 60 — dis-
eases of, 359 — nerve operation, or divi-
sion of, 564

Neurology, 1 50 — physiology of the nervous
system, 161

Neuroio7tiy, 558

Nicking, mode of, 569

Nictating memhrme, 179 — monkey the only
brute without, 180 — extreme ignorance
displayed in removing it, ib.

Nose, anatomy of, 182 — sense of smelling,
184' — fractures of, 460

O.

(Edema, 396

fEstrum, or heat, 239 — is periodical in

brutes, ib.
Omentum, 214

Operations in farriery, 543 — for hernia, 385
— for paracentesis thoracis, 393 — ditto
abdominis, 396

Ophthalmia, common, 477 — periodical, 479

Osmer, Mr., account of, 10

Osteology, 91 to 119

Overreach, 447, 534

P.

Paces of the horse, 57 — artificial ditto", G3
Palsy, 361

Pancreas, structure and functions of, 228
Panniculus carnosus, 173 — its connexions

and uses, ib.
Paps, ignorance of farriers in their removal,

192

Paracentesis operation, 393 — ditto abdomi-
nis, 394

Parotid gland, 1 93 — fistulous state of, 438
Parturition, or foaling, 245 — difficult, 575
Parasitic animals in cattle, 378
Paralysis, 361 — in cattle, 363
Pastern, best form of, 42 — bones of, 112 —

muscles of, 255, 263 — anchylosis of, 477
Paunchiiig, or puncturing the paunch, 374
Peale, Mr., his writings, 14
Pelvis, bones of, 105 — organs within, 230
Penis, structure of, 235 — urinary uses of,

231

Percivall, Mr., his writings, 15
Periosteum, 121

Peripneumony, 319 — in neat cattle, ih. — in

sheep, 320
Peristaltic motion, what, 225
Peritoneum, 213
Peritonitis, 322

Perspiration, what, 273 — connexion with

the kidneys, 231
Pest, or murrain in cattle, 292
Pharynx, 188

Phlebotomy, 581 — great importance of, 584

— inflammation of vein from, 424
Phlebitis, 424
Phlegmonous tumour, 428
Phrenitis, 301 — symptomatic, 305
Phrenzy fever, farriers' term for phrenitis,
301

Phthisis pulmonalis, 320
Physicking of horses, 585
Pithing of oxen, what, 1 04
Pituitary membrane, 183
Placenta, peculiai-ity of it in the mare, 244,
247

Plat or plate -vein, 143
Pleur/v, 197
Pleurisy in horses, 319
Pneumonia, 310 — in cattle, 319 — in sheep,
320

Poisons, animal, 403 — vegetable, 405 — mi-
neral, ib. — poisonous bites, 404
Poll evil, 434
Polypus, 453

Pregnancy of the ninrc, 241 — symptoms of
it, 245"

INDEX.

641

Prognosis, in disease, 278

Progression, how performed, 57-63 — me-
chanism of the bones, 109

Propagation, an irresistible stimulus im-
planted in animals, 239

Prostate gland, 234'

Puberty in the horse, 250

Puckeridge in cattle, 378

Puerperal fever in cows, 295

Pulmonary vessels, 140

Pulse, account of, 129— where felt, 131—
mean pulsations in different animals, 129
— where felt for in cattle and dogs, 132
— pulse as indicating disease, 133 to 138

Pumiced foot, 522

Puncture of the bladder, 331

Puncttired foot, or prick, 532

Purity of blood, its value, 243

Purgatives, 585 — their uses, 586 — the abuse
and dangers of, 588— formulae of, 591

Q.

Quarter evil in cattle, 292
Quitfor, 534 — tendinous, ib. — cartilaginous,
538

R.

Rabies, 403— in cattle, &c., 404
Rectum, 224

Red-water, in cattle, 329, 389— in sheep, 330
Regions, abdominal, 212
Renal capsules, 229
Reproductive system, 239
Resolution of inflammation, 281
Respiration, mode of, 203
Restraints for the horse, 543, 545
Rheumatism, 451— acute, 462— chronic, ib.

— in cattle, 453
Ribs, 106— fracture of, 460
Ringbone, 476

Risi^tg of the lights, inflammation of the
lungs in horses, 309 — in oxen, 319 — in
sheep, 320

Roaring, 335

Rot, in horses, 309 — in sheep, 357

Rowels, how to insert, 579

Rupture of the suspensory ligaments, 448
— of the flexor tendons, ib. — of the ex-
tensor tendons, ib.

Ryding, Mr., his veterinary pathology, 14

S.

Saliva, where formed, 273 — its use, ib.
Sallenders, 497

Salt, common, its qualities, 635
Sandcraclr, 529

Scantering, or diarrhoea in cattle, 381
Scapula, 107

Schneiderian membrane, 182, 184
Scouring in horses, 379 — in oxen, 381—

in calves, 382
Scrotum, or bag, 233
Secretion, physiology of, 166

Seeing, sense of, 181

Semen, its generative power, 240— where

formed, ib. — its composition, 273
Setons, 579

Sewell, Mr., Professor of the Veterinary Col-
lege, his discovery of the medullary ca-
vity continued through the spinal cord,

157 , . ^

Sheep, age, how to judge of, 36— bleatmg,
how produced, 190— inflammatory fever,
or higham or blood-striking, 293 — in-
flammation of their lungs, 320— red wa-
ter, or inflammation of their kidneys, 330
—blown or hoved, 374^rot, or fluke
worm, 357 — frontal worms, 376 — hyda-
tids, or staggers, 378— jaundice, 388 —
madness in, 404,
Shewt of blood in cattle, 292
Shoeing, generally, 511— the seated shoe,
ib. — preparation of the foot for it, 512 —
colt shoeing, 513— Mr. Bracy Clark's
shoe, 513— the Veterinary College shoe,
514 —Mr. Turner's shoe, 515
Shoulder, exterior form of, 39— bones of,
107 — great importance of in progression,
ib. — its connexions from, 108 to 110 —
muscles of, 251— strain of, 444
Side line, method of application, 544
Siffast, 454

Skeleton, considered mechanically, 119
Skin, structure of, 169 — its connexions, ib.
— its sympathetic influence on the haiv,
167 — its difierent colours arise from the
rete mucosum, 170 — the skin the princi-
pal organ of touch, ib. — its connexion with
the kidneys, 231
Skin, diseases of, 489 — of grease, ib. — of
warts, 498— of mange, hide-binding,
67

Skull, bones of, 93— liable to fractures, 458

— treatment of them, 459
Smelling, sense of, 182
Slinging of horses, 545
Sole, sensible, 270— horpy, 267
Sore throat, 334
Sollysel, his writings, 3
Sounds emitted by different animals, 190
Spasm, 363
Spasmodic colic, 369

Spavinhone, 471 — blood, 454 — bog, 456

Specks on the eyes, 24, 481

Spinal cord, 156 — its division into columns,

157 — important physiological deductions

therefrom, 158-165
Splanchnology, 167
Spleen, structure of, 228
Splenitis, 388

Splent, cause of, 469 — treatment of, 470

Sporadic diseases, 278

Stable, form of, 72 — regulation and manage-
ment of, 73, 76

Stabling of horses, its effects, 72

Staggers, m<id, 301 — staggers in cattle, 304
— symptomatic or stomach staggers in
horses, 305 — in sheep, 378

642

INDEX.

Stag-evil, 364

Staggers, mad, 302 — staggers symptomatic,
305 — staggers, stomach, or acute indiges-
tion, 372

Staling, profuse, 390

Stifle-joint, 48 — bone of, 115 — strain of, 450
— dislocation of, 466

Stomach, structure and functions of, 214 —
its situation, 215 — peculiarity of it from
its cuticular coat, ib. — its inability to re-
gurgitate, ib. — physiology of digestion,
217, 223 — acute indigestion, or stomach
staggers, 373 — inflammation of, 321

Stone in the bladder, 555 — in tlie intestines,
400— in the kidneys, 401

Strains, what, 442 — general treatment of,
443 — of the shoulder, 444 — of the back
sinews, 446 — of the fetlock, 449 — of the
cofBn, ib. — of the head of the femur, or
round bone, 450 — of the stifle, ib. — of the
hock, ib.

Strangles, 430

Strictures, 566

Stringhalt, 358

Stubbs, Mr., his work, 10

Sturdy, or hydatids in sheep, 378

Suckling, mode of, 246

Summering of horses, 76

Superpurgation, 326

Suppression of urine, 331

Suppuration, 408 — suppurative process in
wounds, 411

Surfeit, 67, 499

Suspensory ligaments, rupture of, 448
Sutures, in wounds, 410
Swallowing, how performed, 190
Swelled legs, with discharge, 494
Symptomatic fever, 290
Syndesmology, 126

Siptocha, a fever essentially inflammatory,
290

Synochus, a mixed fever, compounded of

inflammatory and putrid types, 293
Synovia, 122

Tail of the horse, 47
Teenia, or tape-worm, 76
Taste, sense of, 188

Teeth, considered as indicating the age, 26
— temporary and permanent sets, 27—
order of their appearance, 28 — value of
the tusk as a mark of age, ib. — frauds
practised by dealers to set the mark aside,
32

Teeth, structure of, 98— functional econo-
my of, 101 — necessity of two sets, 100
— liable to become diseased, and to irre-;
gular wear, 101

Temperament, what, 250— extends to brutes,:
ib.

Temporal artei^-, its situation, 138 — erro-
neously supposed to furnish the eye,
ib.

Tendons, their structure, 124 — extension of,
called strains, 442 — rupture of, 448— di-
vision of, 565

Testicles, structure of, 233 — generating use
of, ib. — when they appear in the scrotum,
250 — the effects they have on the form,
ib. — removal of, or castration, 547

Tetanus, 364' — treatment of, 366

Thick wind, 338

Thigh of the horse, 47

Thirst, what, 217

Thoracic duct, 148

Thora.v, bones of, 106 — internal anatomy

of, 196
Thoroughpin, 456
Throat, sore, 334
Thrush, running, 527
Tonics, 630
Touch, sense of, 170

Trachea, or windpipe, 195 — sheep have

worms within, 378
Tracheotomy, 556
Tread, or overreach, 534
Trevis, 543

Trot, how performed, 58

Tumours, inflammatory, 442 — indurated,

453 — encysted, 454
Twitch, 543

U.

Ulceration, process of, 433
Ulcers, 434
Umbilical region, 212
Ureters, 235

Urine, how formed, 231 — composition of it,
ib. — bloody urine, 390 — urine profuse, ib.
Uterus, 230, 238

V.

Vagina, 237
Varix, 454

Vegetius, an ancient and celebrated author
on veterinary medicine, 6

Veins, structure and functions of, 141 — dis-
tribution of, 142 — anterior cava, ib. — pos-
terior cava, 144 — vena portae, 145 — in-
flamed vein, 424

Venemous bites, 404

Vertigo, 361

Vessels, blood, general remai-ks on, 146 —

diseases of, 278
Vessels, absorbent, 146
' Veterinarian,' an excellent periodical, 17
Veterinary as a term, whence derived, 6
Veterinary art, proper mode of acquiring the

practice of it, 16
Veterinary College, history of, in England,
10 — M. St. Bel its first professor, ib. —
Mr. Moorcroft and Mr. Coleman were
next joined in the English veterinary pro-
fessorship, ib. — Mr. Sewell also became
sub-professor, and on Mr.Coleman's death
chief professor

INDEX.

643

Veterinary medicine, general history of, 5
— origin and meaning of the term, 6 —
Vegetius the father of, (6.— sunk in ig-
norance irom the eleventh to the fifteenth
century, ib. — began to revive in the six-
teenth century, ib.— its progress in the
seventeenth centiuy, 7 — and its farther
improvements during the eighteenth cen-
■ tury, ib. — account of the French schools,
ib.

Veterinary medicine, history of, m Great
Britain, 8— early writers on it, 9 to 10—
establishment of a veterinary college in
England, 12— various writers on it, 10-16

Vines, Mr., his writings, 16

Viscera, the relative situation of, 212, 225

Voice of animals, how formed, 190 — neigh-
ing, knuckering, braying, lowing, bleat-
ing, barking, &c. &c., how produced, ib.

Vomition, difficult in the horse, 221— struc-
tural hinderance to it, 222

W.

Walk of the horse, how performed, 57
Warbles, 433
Warts, 454, 489

Washing the heels, when injiirious, 491
Water-farcy, 397

Watering of horses, directions for it, 82
Whirl-bone, 47

White, Mr., his Treatise on Farriery, 13
Wind, thick, 338 — wind, broken, ib. — how

to distinguish its soundness, 340
Windgalls, 43, 126— treatment of, 455
Withers, form of, 38 — high ones favourable

to safe progression, ib. — animals of great

speed low before, why, 38 — fistulous wi-
thers, 437

Womb, inflammation of, 332 — in cattle,
338

Worms in the eye of horses, 488 — fluke
worms in sheep, 378 — hydatids on the
brain of sheep, ib. — puckeridge in cattle,
ib. — frontal worms in sheep, ib.

Wornuls in cattle, 378

Wounds generally, what, 409 — treatment of,
ib. — adhesive inflammation, 411 — sup-
purative process, ib. — granulating pro-
cess, ib. — wounds of individual parts, 413
— of the head, ih. — of the neck, ib. — of
the chest, ih. — of the belly, 414 — of the
joints, 415 — of the mucous capsules, 416
— of the arteries, 424 — of the veins, ib. —
of the knees, 420 — gunshot wounds, 427

X.

Xenophon, one of the most ancient au-
thors on horses, 1

Y.

Yard, of the horse, 235 — urinary use of,

232 — generating use of, 240
Yellows, 387

Yoiiatt, Mr., an eminent writer and veteri-
nary practitioner, 35 et seq.

Z.

Zygomatic arch, 94! — fracture of, 459.

ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA.

It was not until the Myology of this Volume had been introduced as it appeared in
the last edition of the Veterinary Outlines that Mr. Spooner kindly proposed that I
should, in this, mal* use of his improved myological nomenclature. It may be readily
supposed how gladly I should have availed myself of his offer, in consideration of its
superiority over that in use among the early teachers ; but, most unfortunately, my own
list had been printed some weeks before the generous proposal was made to me. There-
fore it now only remains that I do earnestly request all the College students to study and
dissect with Mr. Spooner's Myology before them, and to adhere to that only, until eacli
is familiar with it.

sPLENT versus splint.

It may also be observed that, through some inadvertence, the word Splent, &s
exostosis, has sometimes been pnnted Splint, which we hope the reader will rectify.

Comptoii and Ritcliie, Hrinters, Middl« Street, Cloth Fiiir, London.