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UNIVERSITY

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Glasgow University Library

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GUL 68.18

THE HO R S E,

BY WILLIAM YOUATT,

AUTIIOE OF " CATTLE," " SHEEP," ETC.
WITH

A TREATISE ON DRAUGHT,

BY I. K. BE0NEL, ESQ.

AHD

AN APPENDIX,

INTENDED TO ADVANCE THE WOEK TO THE PEESENT STATE OF
VETEEINAEY SCIENCE,

BY W. 0. SPOONER, M.E.C.V.S.,

author op !»
theatises ox influenza, and the foot and leg of the hobse, etc.

PUBLrSBED UNDER THB SUPKIIINTBIIDBNCE OK

THE SOCIETY FOB THE DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

LONDON: — ROBERT BALDWIN,
47, PATERNOSTBE ROW.

I

LONDON ;

OFORGF. WOOl.FAM, / NT) SON,

ANUKl. COimT. SKINI KR 8TI.KKT.

CONTENTS

Vase

Introduction ... . . I

Chapter I.

GENERAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE . 2

Earliest records of him : appears to have been first domesticated in Egypt, and
thence propagated to other countries : the horse not cultivated in Arabia until the
seventh century.

Chaptkp. II.

THE DIFFERENT FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES 5

The wild horses of South America, method of catching and breaking them by the
Gauchos : the wild horses of Tartary : the Barb.: the Dongola : the Arabian, his
varieties, beautiful form, fleetness, docility, affection of the Arab towards him,
anecdotes of: the East Indian, his varieties : the Chinese : Persian, beauty and value
of : the Toorkoman : Tartar and Calmu. . Turkish : German : Swedish, Finland,
and Norwegian: Iceland: Flemish and Dutch: French - Spanish: Italian: Ame-
rican.

Chapter 111.

HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH HORSE . 30

Horse of the early Britons : crossed by the Romans : improved by Athelstan and
Howell the Good: not used for the plough until the tenth century: improved by
William I. and Henry II. : neglected by the Crusaders : materially improved by
John, who imported many Flanders horses: by Edward II., who purchased
thirty Lombardy horses: by Edward III., who introduced the Spanish horse,
and had several running horses : more rapidly improved, however, when cumbrous
armour was laid aside : the improvement arrested by the tyrannical and illiberal
policy of Henry VIII., and under Elizabeth horses were diminished in number and
value: under James I. the progress of improvement was hastened: Turkish and
Barbary horses were introduced, and the first Arabian horse: races were now esta-
blished : Charles I. was fond of horses : even Cromwell encouraged the improve-
ment of the breed : at the restoration a new impulse was given under Anne, Ara-
bians were again introduced : and about the middle of the eighteenth century the
English horse had arrived at its state of highest perfection.

Chapter IV.

THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES 29

The roadster or hackney : description of him : the horse of all work, the farmer's
horse: the coach -horse, derived from the Cleveland bays : principle ° dr^^^nt.
power of the horse: the pace killing : the heavy draught horse ; ^he oW Sutt^iK .
the C4rdesdale: the heavy black horse, too heavy: the ^ray-horse ; the cavmry
horse . the race-horse, question of his real origin, actually ^^r'°'l° emulatTon of
the Darley, Flying Childers, Eclipse, the ^^^t ^r^tl^riV ion ^h^^^^^^^^
the race-horse, consequence of short races : theji-"t"' de c P^ ^f
breed and form, anecdotes of his love of the sport, °\ " ' °.

when distressed, summering of: the Galloway: "l^.^^l^^PJ^h^ti^^^^^y^
Forester: the Exmoor pony: the Dartmoor: the Highland: the Shetland, the

'rish horse.

IV CONTENTS

Chapter V.

Pant

ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE HORSE 61

Chapter VI

THE EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE HORSE 63

The head : frontal bones -. frontal sinuses, used for the discovery of glanders :
the parietal : temporal : arched form of the skull : designed strength of the base of
the arch: occipital, attachment of the strong ligament of the neck to it: the
sphenoid and sethmoid ; the brain: medullary and cineritious portions: the nerves:
spinal cord : spinal nerves, consisting of fibres of sensation and motion, and others
devoted to respiration : the sympathetic or organic nerve, at the base of the skull,
devoted to nutrition and circulation. Tlie ear, beauty of, indicative of temper, folly
of cropping or singeing: the internal ear ; beautiful mechanism of, the drum, the
little bones, the expansion of the nerve. The eye; the lids, substitution for eye-brows,
eye-lashes, tears, situation of lachrymal gland : the haw, beautiful mechanism of it,
barbarous practice of destroying it : the conjunctiva: cornea, importance of its per-
fect transparency, directions for examining it : the sclerotica : choroid coat, its
black colour, the beautiful colour and use of the lucid carpet within the eye : the
aqueous humour : iris : wall-eyed horse : the pupil, importance likewise of carefully
examining it : the lens : vitreous humour : retina : theory of vision : shying : muscles
of the eye : the one peculiar to quadrupeds to retract it from danger.

Chapter VII.

DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND EYE . 100

Fracture of the skull: pressure on the brain: megrims: apoplexy: stomaoh-
staggers, arising usually from mismanagement: mad staggers: locked jaw, or
tetanus :' epilepsy or fits : palsy : rabies or madness : neurotomy, method of per-
forming the operation, diseases of the foot for which beneficial. Diseases of the
eye : wounds : warts : enlargement of the haw : inflammation of the eye : opacities
of the cornea : cataract : gutta serena, or glass eye.

Chapter VIII.

THE NOSE AND MOUTH, AND THEIR DISEASES 117

Anatomy of the nose: Roman noses : cartilage of the nose: turbinated bones:
wideness of nostril, advantage of: importance of observing the colourof the mem-
brane of the nose : discharge from the nose. Glanders, symptoms of, how distin-
guished from strangles or cold : primarily a disease of the membrane of the nose-
connected with farcy ; they are different forms of the same disease ; causes of con-
taeion- hot and foul stables: debilitating disease: highly contagious: prevention:
treatment Farcy, a disease of the absorbents : farcy buds : symptoms : treatment
The lips, the organs of touch : lips, how formed : bearing rein, necessity for : bones
of the mouth: the palate, method of bleeding from: lampas : the lower jaw
^ur ous me hanism o'f the* joint of, contrived to grind the food Teeth their
e3thard changes from the birth, as indicative of the age: wolves teeth: diseases
Tthe teeth Desciiption of the tongue : vesicles under the tongue: the salivary
Inds the parotid: the submaxillary and sublingual: strangles: canker in the
mouth - wounds in the mouth . description of the pharynx.

CONTENTS

V

Chapter IX.

Paite

THE NECK ... 152

Description of the neck : poll-evil : proper form of the neck : the splenius muscle :
neck should be muscular at the bottom : the complexus major : ewe-necked : the
muscles of the neck generally : arteries and veins of the neck : inflammation of the
vein after bleeding: the wind-pipe: the larynx: roaring: the oesophagus or
gullet.

Chapter X.

THE CHEST— ITS CONTENTS AND THEIR DISEASES 163

The proper form of the chest: form of as much importance as capacity : depth of
chest, importance of: ribbed hoine. Anatomy of the spine : the bones of the spine
connected by highly elastic substance : consequent ease in riding : contrivances for
strength: broken-backed: comparison between the long and short-backed horse ;
saddle-backed: weak-backed. The loins: should be broad and muscular. The
withers: advantage of high withers. The muscles of the back. Fistulous withers :
warbles: sitfasts : saddle-galls. The ribs. The breast: muscles of the breast:
being all abroad. Chest-founder: dropsical swellings between the fore-legs. Inside
of the chest, diaphragm : the pleura : the mediastinum. The heart and its action :
inflammation of the heart. The arteries. The pulse : its standard number : when
quick hard, small, weak, or oppressed: necessity of attending to the pulse. The
capillaries. Inflammation, an increased flow of blood to and through the part :
local and general : treatment of: cold or warm applications. Fever, or general in-
creased arterial action: pure fever: symptomatic fever: treatment. The veins:
bo- and blood spavin. Bleeding; directions for: the fleam and lancet; bleedmg
pla«s The lungs: description of: change of blood in passing through them:
capacious chest, advantage of. Inflammation of the lungs : symptoms : causes :
treatment : consequences. Pleurisy. Catarrh, or common cold. Bronchilis. Ca-
tarrhal fever. The malignant epidemic. Chronic cough. Thick-wind : broken-wind :
the piper : wheezer : whistler : highblower : grunter.

Chapter XI.

THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES— THEIR DISEASES 197

The diaphragm. The stomach : stomach staggers : iriflammation : poisons : bots.
The intestines: the mesentery, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, ccecum, colon, rectum :
spasmodic colic: calculi: intussusception: entanglement: inflammation of the
bowels : over-purging : washy horses : worms : physicking : the best purgatives :
rupture. The liver: inflammation of the liver : jaundice. The spleen. The pan-
creas. The omentum. The kidneys : diuretic medicines, use and abuse of : inflam-
mation of the kidney : profuse staling. The bladder : inflammation of the bladder :
stone in the bladder.

Chapter XII.

PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING • 219

Form, constitution, diseases inherited : causes of deterioration of half-bred^horses:
the mare of as much importance in breeding as the horse : shape of ""f ^"^ j
breeding in and in : age at which mare is capable of breeding : time of heat : time gi
going with foal: management of mare with foal: when she l''!^ ^7,"' = "^"^^^^^^^
Ll : treatment of foal : importance of good feeding : process of breakmS 'n ^^S>^"
from the period of weaning: actual breaking in: different steps of^necessty^^^
implicit obedience, yet not enforced by crueltv : breaking in for the road or chase
bitting the colt : saddling: castration.

vi

CONTENTS.

Chapter XTII.

THE FORE-LEGS, AND THEIR DISEASES 227

The shoulder : sprain of the shoulder : slanting direction of the shoulder, import-
ance of : how applicable to horses of heavy draught -muscle of the outside of the
shoulder: trapesius : levator humeri: serratus: sterno-maxillaris : spinati : pec-
torals : the lower bone of the shoulder : the arm : the elbow: principle of the lever
applied to it : the extensor muscles : the flexors : disadvantage at which they act : the
perforated muscle: the perforating: the arm should be long: the knee: broken
knees: the leg : splent : speedy-cut: tied in below the knee: sprain of the back
sinews: necessity of attention to any thickening on them: windgalls : the pasterns:
the suspensory iigaments : obliquity of the pastern : rupture of the suspensory liga-
ment : the fetlock : grogginess : cutting : bones of the pasterns : sprain of the cof-
fin-joint: ring-bone : position of the legs.

Chaptkr XIV.

THE HINDER LIMBS AND THEIR DISEASES 256

The haunch: being ragged-hipped : width of haunch: the thigh: muscles of the
inside of the thigh : the sartorius : gracilis : muscles of the outside of the thigh :
the glutaei : great trochanter of the thigh, importance of : sprain of the round bone :
the stifle: the extensor pedis muscle: the peronaeus : the flexor pedis: thorough-
pin: the hock: enlargement of the hock: curb: bog-spavin; bone-spavin: other
lameness of the hock : the point of the hock: capped hock : mallenders and sallen-
ders : cow-hocks: stringhalt: swelled legs : grease, cause and treatment of : washing
the heels : danger of cutting the hair from the heels.

Chapter XV.

THE ANATOMY OF THE FOOT . 280

The crust or wall of the foot : the inner heel should not be too much cut away:
the coronary ligament : the coronary ring : the frog-band : the crust : colour
of: the bars: folly of destroying them: the frog : the sole : the coffin-bone : the
sensible sole : the sensible frog : the navicular bone : the cartilages of the foot.

Chapter XVI.

DISEASES OF THE FOOT . . 289

Inflammation of the foot, or acute founder : pumiced feet : chronic founder : con-
traction : the navicular -joint disease: sand-crack: tread or over-reach : false-quar-
ter: quittor: prick, or wound in "-he foot: corns: thrush: canker: ossification of
the cartilages : weakness of the foot

Chapter XVII,

ON SHOEING . . .311

The concave seated shoe : preparation of the foot : putting on of the shoe : cal-
kins : clips: the hind-shoe: the hunting-shoe : the bar-shoe: tips: the expanding
shoe : felt or leather soles.

Chapter XVIII.
OPERATIONS . . 32«

Thetrevis: the side-line : the hobbles : the twitch: the barnacles: bleeding:
blistering: firing: setons : docking: nicking.

CONTENTS.

vii

■Chapter XIX,

Page

VICES AND BAD HABITS . . 350

Restiveness: Jumper the horse-breaker: King Pippin, anecdote of: Sullivan the
Irish whisperer : backing or gibbing: biting: getting the check of the bit into the
mouth: kicking: unsteadiness while being mounted: rearing: running away J
vicious to clean : vicious to shoe : swallowing v;ithout grinding : crib-biting : wind-
sucking : cuUing : not lying down : overreach : pawing : quidding : rolling : shying:
slipping the collar: tripping: weaving.

Chapter XX.

THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE 345

Air : litter: light : grooming : exercise : food : manger-feeding: oats: barley:
grains: wheat: beans: peas: grass: hay: tares: rye-grass : clover : lucern : saint-
foin : Swedish turnip : carrots : potatoes : furze : nutritive matter in the different
articles of food : the times of feeding should be equally divided : water : manage-
Tient of the feet.

Chapter XXI.

SOUNDNESS . 361

The grand principle of : supposed causes of unsoundness : broken knees : capped
hocks: contraction: corns: cough: roaring: wheezing: whistling: high-blowing:
jrunting: broken wind: crib-biting: curb: cutting: enlarged glands : enlarged hock:
che eyes : lameness : neurotomy : ossification of the lateral cartilages : pumiced
foot: quidding: quittor : ringbone: sandcrack : spavin: blood spavin: splent :
stringhall : thickening of the back sinews : thoroughpin : thrush : windgalls. Form
of warrantry: the horse must be unsound or vicious at the time of sale : no price
will imply a warranty: a warranty after the sale invalid: to complete the purchase
Ihere must be a transfer, a memorandum, or partial payment: notice of unsound-
ness not legally required, yet advisable : prudent to refrain from all medical treat-
•nent : where no warranty, an action mav oe brought on tiie ground of fraud : ex-
changes considered on the same ground as simple sales : the allowance of trial :
laws of the principal Repositories.

Chapter XXI.

THE SKIN 369
Hide bound : the hair : pores of the skin : moulting : clipping : colour of the horse
?urfeit: mange: warts.

Chapter XXII.

MEDICINES USED IN VETERINARY PRACTICE 381

Aloes : alteratives: alum : hartshorn: sal-ammoniac : anodynes : black antimony:
emetic tartar: antimonial powder : butyr of antimony: antispasmodics: arsenic:
astringents: balls: blisters: bole -Armenian: burgundy pitch : calamine: calomel;
camphor : cantharides : carraways : castor oil : catechu : caustics : chalk : chamo-
mile : charcoal : charger : clysters : verdigris : blue vitriol : cordials : corrosive sub-
limate : cream of tartar . croton : diaphoretics : digestives : digitalis : diuretics :
drinks ; elder : epsom-salts : fomentations ; gentian : ginger : Goulard's extract : hel-
lebore : hemlock: infusions: iodine: green vitriol : oil of juniper: lard: sugar of
'ead- white lead: chloride of lime: liniments: linseed: lotions: mashes, mercu-
rial ointment: ^thiop's mineral: mint: myrrh: nitre: spirit of nitrous ffither i
oil of olives: opium: palm oil : pitch : physic: poultices : powders : raking : resin :
lowels : salt : sedatives : lunar caustic: chloride of soda: soap : starcn : stoppings :
sulphur: tar: tinctures: tobac£o : tonics: turpentine: vinegar- wax vhite
vitriol ; zinc.

VIII

CONTENTS.

Vagi

ON DRAUGHT , . 403

The power of the horse, how calculated: difference of opinion as to wheels:
draught regarded as to the act of drawing, and the resistance to the power employed :
the moving power. Animal power is the application of the strength of an animal ;
and mechanical power is power employed, through the intervention of machinery -
horse power and that of the steam-engine compared, as to interest of first cost,
decrease of value, hazard of loss or accidents, value of food, or coals and water
renewals and repairs, harness, shoeing, farriery, stabling, and expense of attendance :
the power of draught, or effect produced by each : the obstacles to be overcome in
the use of machinery. The manner in which the animal adapts himself to his load :
errors with regard to this in some ancient sculptures : real action of the horse in
walking, trotting, and galloping. The resistance to draught should be rigid, and void
of elasticity, but should not be constant and unremitting: a horse pulls better when
close to his work : the disadvantage of long teams. The effect of draught depends on
the speed, the power of the animal, and the time employed: calculation and com-
parison of these : the hours of labour should not exceed six hours : the rapid reduc-
tion of the power of the horse when his speed is increased. A flat piece of road more
destructive to the horse, than one with alternate rises and falls. Best direction of
the traces : should be nearly horizontal, but varying with the kind of horse, and na-
ture of the work and road : inclining the traces downward, the same as throwing
a part of the load on the shafts. Ancient mode of harnessing : the collar in the time
of Homer : explanation of the power of the South American lasso. The advantage
of transporting goods by water, consists in the smallness of power required; this
rapidly increasing with the speed: calculation of the draught of a canal boat. The
advantages and disadvantages of sledges and rollers : manner in which the rock
forming the pedestal of the statue of Peter the Great was moved on rollers: the best
construction of the roller. Description of the ancient war chariots : the mechanical
advantage of the wheel increased in proportion to its height: the resistance depends
on the friction at the axle : comparative advantages of different materials as used for
axles : axles working in iron boxes : calculation of the force of draught required for
a four-wheeled cart on different roads : comparison between narrow and broad
wheels : description of dishing the wheels, and advantage of : comparison between
conical and cylindrical wheels : injury received by the roads by different wheels : the
cylindrical wheel a little dished, and the edges rounded off, is the best : ruts form a
great resistance to draught: the hind wheels should exactly follow the track of the
fore ones : description of Jones's patent wheels : the expense and weight must limit
the height of the wheels : the fore-wheels usually too small : the comparative ad-
vantages of two and four-wheeled carriages : two wheeled carts with two horses,
disadvantageous. Springs should never be applied to give any longitudinal elas-
ticity to the carriage : disadvantage of C springs on this account : advantage of
springs : Mr. D. Giddy's theory of wheels and springs : springs particularly advanta-
geous when much velocity is required : loading high, although dangerous, makes the
carriage run light : the safety coaches, by having the load low, very disadvantageous.
Hardness, the great desideratum in roads : great rounding of the road useless, and
jnjurious : a rise of six or eight inches in a road twenty feet wide, quite sufficient :
hardness of surface, how best secured : constant repairs and attention, on the whole,
most economical. Great advantage of railways : the power of the horse increased
tenfold on a railway.

APPENDIX

475

LIBllARY OF USEFUL KNOAVLEDGE.

THE FARMER'S SERIES.

INTRODUCTION.

The Farmkr's Series will consist of Treatises upon subjects most inter-
esting to persons employed in the various branches of agriculture, and to
those, generally, who reside in the country. It naturally begins with con-
sidering the Animals which constitute the most valuable part of the farmer's
property; — their origin; — their different breeds; — their structure; — the
most economical, and profitable, and humane method of treating
them ; — and the art of rendering their services more extensive and
permanent, and their health and comfort more secure. It is hoped that
these volumes will contribute to the amusement, the improvement, and the
profit of the farmer and the cottager ; and better the condition both of
himself and of the animals intrusted to his care. They may afford him a
pleasant companion at his winter's fire-side, — a useful counsellor when em-
ployed in the labours of his station, — and a help to raise his mind to a
serious, but delightful contemplation of the objects which Providence has
spread around us for our admiration and our use.

Under this first great division will be considered thqse animals which
aid the power of man — the horse, ox, ass, mulo, dog — those which supply
food and clothing — horned cattle, sheep, swine, goats, poultry, i-abbits,
bees — those which are hurtful — the fox, weazel, rat, mole, insects. In
treating the subject of domestic animals, their history, various kinds,
structure and habits, feeding and treatment when young, management
when worked, and diseases, will be successively considered.

The General Principles of Agric'uUitreviiW form the other great division
of this series ; and under this head will be treated whatever relates to the
nature of soils and manures — the rotation of crops — farm -buildings a nd
machinery — sheep-farming and dairy-farming, so far as these may not have
been considered under the head of sheep and cattle — potatoes and spade
husbandry — wood and timber.

There is a class of subjects which, though not exclusively interesting to
country people, belong more to them than to others; brewing, baking,
washing and bleaching, land-measuring, road-making, bridge-building-
quarrying, lime-burning, &c. These will be discussed in treatises occa-
sionally introduced in the progress of this series.

At the head of those ain'mals which have been domesticated by, or ren-
dered useful to, man,— whether we regard his noble form, his great saga-
city, or the manner in which he is connected with our proVit and our
pleasure, — stands the Horse

TIIK IIORSK

CnAl>riiH 1.

OENKRaL IIISTOKY of the IIOIISK.

Hackney. AraBian. Ht.ntrr.

Into this and the various breeds of horses, we shall enter at some len^^th ,
and although the more practical division of the Treatise will be thereby
necessarily postponed until the next monthly part, we shall not, even at
present, forget the name of the Library to which it belongs, but endeavour
to blend the useful with the entertaining.

The native country of the horse cannot with certainty be traced. He
has been found, varying materially in size, in form, and in utility, in all
the temperate, in most of the sultry, and in many of the northern ren-ions
of the Old World.

In the Sacred Volume, which, beside its higher claims to stand at the
head of the Farmer's Library, contains the oldest authentic record of past
transactions, we are told that, so early as 1650 years before the birth of
Christ, the horse had been domesticated by the Egyptians. When Joseph
carried his father's remains from Egypt to Canaan, " there went up with
him both chariots and horsemen*." One hundred and fifty years after-
wards, the horse constituted the principal strength of the Egyptian army.
Pharaoh pursued the Israelites with " six hundred chosen chariots, and
with all the chariots of Egypt f."

If we could be lieve the accounts of the uninspired historians, Sesostris
(tl)e monarch prob ibly whom Joseph served) had twenty-seven thousand
chariots of war ; and Semiramis, the founder of Babylon, had one hundred
thousand chariots, and a million of horsemen ; but this was probably a
great exaggeration.

Fitly years after the expulsion of the Israelites from Et^ypt, and 1450
years before the birth o( Christ, the horse was so far natunvlized in Crreece

» Ooii. T. 9

Kxod. XV i. 7.

ITS HISTORY.

3

that tlie Olympic games were instituted, including chariot and horse races
We have, therefore, sufficient evidence that the horse was, at a very early
period, subjected to the dominion of man, and, mifortunately, for the
worst of purposes, — the business of war.

From the records of the Old Testament, we are likewise enabled to
ascertain the precise period of time, when in Egypt and Canaan, and
the neighbouring countries, this animal began to be domesticated.
1920 years before the birth of Christ, when Abraham, having left Harau,
in obedience to the divine command, was driven into Egypt by the
famine which raged in Canaan *, Pharaoh offered him sheep and oxen,
and asses and camels. Horses would doubtless have been added,
had they then existed, or had they been subdued in Egypt.

When, fifly years afterwards, Abraham journeyed to Mount Moriah, to
offer up his only son, he rode upon an ass, which, Avith all his wealth and
power, he would scarcely have done, had the horse been known t

Thirty years later, when Jacob returned to Isaac with Rachel and
Leah, an account is given I of the number of oxen, sheep, camels, goats,
and asses, which he sent to appease the anger of Esau, but not one horse
•'s mentioned.

It is not until twenty-foiir years afler this, when the famine devas-
tated Canaan II, and Jacob sent into Egypt to buy corn, that horses
are first heard of. " Waggons," probably carriages drawn by horses,
were sent by Joseph into Canaan to bring his father to Egypt. It
would seem, however, that horses had been but lately introduced, and
were not numerous, or not used as beasts of burden ; for the whole
of the corn, which was to be conveyed some hundred miles, and was to
afford subsistence for Jacob's large household, was carried on asses. -

It appears, then, that about 1740 years before Christ, horses were
first used in Egypt ; but they soon afterwards became so numerous
as to form a considerable proportion of the Egyptian army : and when the
Israelites returned into Canaan, the horse had been introduced and na-
turalized there ; for the Canaanites " went out to fight against Israel with
horses and chariots very maiiy§."

The sacred volume, therefore, clears up a point upon which no other
record throws any light, — namely, the period when the horse first became
the servant of man, at least in one part of the world, and that the most ad-
vanced in civilization, and before Greece was peopled. Along time must
have elapsed before man was able to ascertain the value and peculiar use of
the animals that surrounded him. He would begin with the more subordi-
nate— those which were most easily caught, and most readily subdued ;
and the benefits which he derived from their labours would induce him to
attempt the conquest of superior quadrupeds. In accordance with this
the writings of Moses shew us that, after the ox, the sheep, and the goat,
man subdued the ass, and then the camel, and, last of all, the horse became
his servant : and no sooner was he subdued, and his strength and docihty
and sagacity appreciated, than the others were comparatively disregarded,
except in Palestine, where the use of the horse was forbidden by clmne
authority, and on extensive and barren deserts, where he could not iive^.

♦Gen. xii. 13. t Gen. xxii. 3. : Gen. xxxii. 14.

II Opn xir 1') § .Joshua xi. 4. . » ,,

If When Sir Gore Ou Jey travelled through Persia, an.l the /°""t"es of tho

Rast, he examined, among other relics of antiquity, the Bculptiuos on the^rums ot Pcrs(».

4

THE IIORSK.

From Egypt the use of tlie horse was propagaled to other and clistant
lands ; and, probably, the Iiorse himself was first transmitted IVom l<>ypt
to several countries. The Greeks adirm, that Neptune struck the t^rlh
with his trident, and a horse appeared. The truth is, that tiie Tiiessalians,
the fust and most expert of the Grecian iiorsemen, and likewise the inha-
bitants of Argos and of Athens, were colonists from Egypt.

The Bible likewise decides another point, that Arabia, by whose breed
of horses those of other countries liave been so much improved, was not tlie
native place of tlie horse. Six hundred years after the time just referred '
to, Aral)ia had no horses. Solomon imported spices, gold, and silver,
from Arabia*; but all the horses for his own cavalry and chariots, and
those with which he supplied the Phoenician monarchs, he procured from
Egypt t.

In the seventh century after Christ, when Mahoniet attacked the Koreish
near Mecca, he had but two horses in his whole army ; and at the close of
his murderous campaign, although he drove off twenty-four thousand
camels, and forty thousand sheep, and carried away twenty-four thousand
ounces of silver, not one horse appears in the list ofjilunder.

There is a curious record of the commerce of different countries at the
close of the second century. Among the articles exported from Egypt to
Arabia, and particularly as presents to reigning monarchs, were ho-ses.

In the fourth century two hundred Cappadocian horses were sent by the
Roman emperor, as the most acceptable present he could offer a powerful
prince of Arabia.

So late as the seventh century, the Arabs had few horses, and those of
little value. These circumstances sufficiently prove that, however superior
may be the present breed, it is comparatively lately that the horse was
naturalized in Arabia.

The horses of Arabia itself, and of the south-eastern parts of Europe, are
clearly derived from Egypt; but whether they were there bred, or im-
ported from the south-western regions of Asia, or, as is more probable,
brought from the interior, or northern coasts of Africa, cannot with cer
taiuty be determined.

polis, and he draws from them a curious and interesting conclusion as to the manner in
which the horse was gradually subdued. •' There are no figures," says he, " mounted on
horseback, although some travellers have mentioned horsemen among those scidjitures
0ns would think that the simple act of mounting on a horse's back would naturally have
preceded the use of wheel-carnages and their complicated harness ; yet no horsemen are
found at Perscpolis ; and we know Homer's horses are represented in chariots from wliich
the waiTiors sometimes descended to combat on foot, but the poet has not described them
as fighting on horseback. The absence of mounted figures might authorize an opinion
that those sculptures had been executed before the time of Cyrus, whose precepts and
example first inspired the Persians witli a love of equestrian exercises, of which, before
his time, they were wholly ignorant." — vol. ii. p. 27(J.

• 2 Chron.l't. 14. ^ f 2 Chron. i. 1 7.

•}■ The historian gives us the price ot the horse and the chaiiot at that time. A horse
brought from Egypt, including, probably, the expense of the journey, cost one hundred and
tifty shekels of silver, which, at two sliiilings, three pence, and one half farthing each,
amounts to about seventeen pounds two shillings. A chariot cost six hundred shekels, or
sixty-eight pounds, eight shillings; a most enormous sum at that early period, but little to
him who expended more than thirty-five millions of pounds, iu gold alone, to ornameat
tho Temple which he had built.

ITS lIISTOliV— IJHliKDS.

S

Chapteii II

THE UIFFERENT FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES

THE WILD HORSE.

Troops of wild horses are found in the plains of Great Tartary, and also i»
several parts of South America. In neither, however, can we rrcoo-nise
an original race. The horses of the Ukraine, and those of South America,
are equally the descendants of those who had escaped from the slavery of
man. The Tartar horses are fleet and strong-, but comparatively of an
ordinary breed. Those of South America retain, almost unimpaired, the size
and form of their European ancestors.

In no part of America, or of the more newly-discovered islands of the
Pacific, was the horse known, until he was introduced by Europeans ; and the
origin of the horses of Tartary has been clearly traced to those who were
employed in the siege of Azoph, in 1657, but which were turned loose for
want of forage.

All travellers, who' have crossed the plains extending from the shores of
La Plata to Patagonia, have spoken of numerous droves of wild horses.
Some affirm that they have seen ten thousand in one troop. They appear to
be under the command of a leadei, the strongest and boldest of tlie herd, and
whom they implicitly obey. A secret instinct teaches them that their safety
consists in their union, and in a principle of subordination. The lion, tlie
tiger, and the leopard*, are their principal enemies. At some signal, intel-
ligible to them all, they either close into a dense mass, and trample their
enemy to death; or, placing the mares and foals in the centre, they form
themselves into a circle and welcome him with their heels. In the attack,
their leader is the first to face the danger, and, when prudence demands a
retreat, they follow his rapid flight.

In the thinly inhabited parts of South America it is dangerous to fall in
wiU^i any of these troops. The wild horses approach as near as they dare :
they call to the loaded horse with the greatest eagerness, and, if the rider
be not on the alert, and have not considerable strength of arm, and sharpness
of spur, his beast will divest himself of his burden, take to his heels, and
be gone for ever.

Captain Head gives the following account of a meeting with a troop of
wild horses, where the country is more thickly inhabited. Some poor cap-
tured auimals are supposed to be forced along by their riders at their very
utmost speed : — " As they are thus galloping along, urged by the spur,
it is interesting to see the groups of wild horses one passes. The mares,
which are never ridden in South America, seem not to understand what
makes the poor horse carry his head so low, and look so wearyt- The
little innocent colts come running to meet him, and then start away fright-
ened : while the old horses, whose white marks on the flanks and backs

• These animals are of a different race from those which go under the same names in the
Old World, and are very inferior in strength. n j v ii.

t An Englishman once attempted to ride a mare, but he wm hooted and peltod by the
natives, and thought himself fortunate to BBcane without serious nyury. , . ..

Sir John Carr, in his Norlliern Summer, p. 44. states that it is only a short time siaci
naruii began to be ridden iu Russia.

6 THE HORSE.

betray their acquaintance with the spur and saddle, walk slowly away for
some distance, then, breaking into a trot as they seek their safety, snort and
look behind them, first with one eye and then with the other, turning their
nose from right to left, and carrying their long tail high in the air*.

The same pleasing writer describes the system of horse-management
among the rude inhabitants of the plains of South America. They have
no stables, no fenced pastures. One horse is usually kept tied at the door
of the hut, fed scantily at night on maize ; or at other times several may be
enclosed in the corral, which is a circular space surrounded by rough posts,
driven firmly into the ground. The mares are never ridden, or attempted
to be tamed, but wander with their foals wherever they please.

When the Gaucho, the native inhabitant of the plains, wants horses for
himself or for the supply of the traveller, he either goes with his lasso to the
corral, and selects those, possibly, who on the preceding day had for the
first time been backed, or he scampers across the plain, and presently
returns with an unwilling, struggling, or subdued captive. When the
services of the animals have been exacted, he either takes them to the
corral, and feeds them with a small quantity of maize, if he thinks he shall
presently need them again, or he once more turns them loose on the plains.

Travellers give some amusing accounts of the manner in which all this is
effected — Miers t thus describes the lasso, simple in its construction, but
all-powerful in the hands of the Gaucho.

" The Lasso is a missile weapon used by every native of the United
Provinces and Chile. It is a very strong jjlaited thong of equal thickness,
half an inch in diameter, and forty feet long ; made of many strips of green
hide, plaited like a whipthong, and rendered supple by grease. It has, at
one end, an iron ring above an inch and a half in diameter, through which
the thong is passed, and this forms a running noose. The Gaucho, or
native Peon, is generally mounted on horseback when he uses the lasso.
One end of the thong is affixed to his saddle girth : the remainder he coils
carefully in his left hand, leaving about twelve feet belonging to the noose-
end, in a coil, and a half of which he holds in his right hand. He tiien
swings this long noose horizontally round his head, the weight of the iron
ring at the end of the noose assisting in giving to it, by a continued circular
motion, a sufficient force to project it the whole length of the line."

When the Gauchos wish to have a grand breaking-in, they drive a whole
herd of wild horses into the corral. — " The corral was quite full of horses,
most of which were young ones about two or three years old. The capi-
/? / i-^ /artchief Gaucho), mounted on a strong steady horse, rode into the corral
iC^U^^^^ and threw his lasso over the neck of a young horse, and dragged him to
' the gate. For some time he was very unwiUing to leave his comrades ;

but the moment he was forced out of the corral, his first idea was to gal-
lop away : however a tnnely jerk of the lasso checked him in the most ef-
fectual way. The peons now ran after him on foot and threw a lasso over
his fore-legs just above the fetlock, and twitching it, they pulled his legs
from under him so suddenly, that I really thought the fall he got had killed
Irm In an instant a Gaucho was seated on his head, and with his long
kiiife and in a few seconds, cut off the whole of the horse's mane, while
another cut the hair from the end of his tail. This they told me was a
mark that the horse had been once mounted. They then put a piece of
hide into his mouth to serve for a bit, and a strong hide halter on his head.
The Gaucho who was to mount, arranged his spurs, which were unusually

• Iltad-s Jomaey across the Pampas, p. 258. f Miers" Travels in ChUe, vol. i. p. 88

WILD nRKRlW.

7

\ong and shaqj*, and while two nien held the horse by his ears, he put on
the saddle, which he girtiied extremely tight. He then caught hold of the
horse's ear, and in an instant vaulted into the saddle ; upon which the man
who held the horse by the halter threw the end to the rider, and from that
moment no one seemed to take any further notice of him.

"The horse instantly began to jump in a maimer which made it very diffi-
cult for the rider to keep his seat, and quite different from the kick or
plunge of an English horse: however, the Gaucho 's spurs soon set him
going, and off he galloped, doing everything in his power to throw his rider.

"Another horse was immediately brought from the corral, and so quick
was the operation, that twelve Gauchos were mounted in a space which I
think hardly exceeded an houi*. It was wonderful to see the different
manner in which different horses behaved. Some would actually scream
while the Gauchos were girding the saddle" upon their backs ; some would
instantly lie down and roll upon it ; while some would stand without being
held — their legs stiff, and in unnatural positions, their necks half bent
towards their tails, and looking vicious and obstinate ; and I could not help
thinking that I would not have mounted one of those for any rewardthat
could be offered me, for they were invariably the most difficult to subdue.

" It was now curious to look around and see the Gauchos on the horizon
in different directions, trying to bring their horses back to the corral,
which is the most difficult part of their work ; for the poor creatures had
been so scared there that they were unwilling to return to the place. It
was amusing to see the antics of the horses — they were jumping and
dancing in diflferent ways, while the right arm of the Gauchos was seen
flogging them. At last they brought the horses back, apparently subdued,
and broken in. The saddles and bridles were taken off, and the young
horses trotted off towards the corral, neighing to one anotherf." Ih . j :

When the Gaucho wishes to take a wild horse, he mounts one that has been
used to the sport, and gallops over the plain. As soon as he comes suffi-

USea 10 ine spun, anu gauu^ja uvci mc jjidiii. jiij jvj^L no v,^...v,o. ..v.... , ^

ciently near his prey,->' the lasso is thrown round the two hind legs, and as v,
the Gaucho rides a little on one side, the jerk pulls the entangled horse's / x
feet laterally, so as to throw him on his side, without endangering his knees Q ^
or his face. Before the horse can recover the shock, the rider dismounts,
and snatching his poncho or cloak from his shoulders, wraps it round the
prostrate animal's head. He then forces into his mouth one of the power-
ful bridles of the country, straps a saddle on his back, and bestriding him,
removes the poncho ; upon which the astonished horse springs on his legs,
and endeavours by a thousand vain efforts to disencumber himself of his
new master, who sits quite composedly on his back, and, by a discipline
which never fails, reduces the horse to such complete obedience, that he is
soon trained to lend his whole speed and strength to the capture of his
companions. +" ^ ^t.

• The manufacture of the Qaucho's boots is somewhat singular —« The boots of the fW^
Gauchos are formed of the ham and part of the leg-skin of a colt taken -^f el"°g/«^rj L,^iM
mother, which is said to be sacrificed for the sole purpose, just at the ^]^^ !
when the hair has not begun to grow. At this stage, the skm strips "9,^ f y:^^^"';^^' ."^^l
white and beautiful in texture and appearance. The ham forms the calf oi the boot , tne
hock easily adopts itself to the heel, and the leg above the fetlock ^o^f ^^ut^^
whole making a neat and elegant half-boot, with an aperture sufficient for the great toe, W
project through.''^ Andrews's Journey in South America, vol. i. p. ^o.

t Head's Journey across the Pampas, p. 258. . Oobrizhoffer,

: Basil HaU's Journey to Peru and Mexico, vol. i. p. . , ^ j^o '

8

THE IIORSK.

These animals possess much of the form of the Spanish horse, from
which they sprung; they are tamed, as has been seen, with far less difficulty
than could be thought possible ; and, although theirs is the obedience ot
fear, and enforced at first by the whip and spur, there are no horses who so
soon and so perfectly exert their sagacity and their power in the service ol
man. They are possessed of no extraordinary speed, but they are capable
of enduring immense fatigue. They are freq\iently ridden 60 or 70 miles
without drawing bit, and have been urged on by the cruel spur of the
Gaucho, more than a hundred miles, and at the rate of twelve miles in the
hour.

Like the Arab horses, they know no intermediate pace lietween the walk
and the gallop. Although at the end of a day so hard, their sides are
horribly mangled, and they completely exhausted, there is this consolation
for them, — they are immediately turned loose on the plains, and it will be
their own fault if they are speedily caught again. The mare is occa-
sionally killed for food, and especially on occasions of unusual festivity.
General San Martin, during the war for independence, gave a feast to the
Indian allies attached to his army ; and mares' flesh, and the blood mixed
with gin, formed the whole of the entertainment.

On such dry and sultry plains the supply of water is often scanty
and then a species of madness seizes on the horses, and their gene-
rous and docile qualities are no longer recognized. They rush violently into
every pond and lake, savagely mangling dnd trampling upon one another ;
and the carcases of many thousands of them, destroyed by their fellows
have occasionally been seen in and around a considerable pool. This is
one of the means by which the too rapid increase of this quadruped is, by
the ordinance of Nature, there prevented.

The wild horses of Tartary, although easily domesticated, materially
differ in character from those on the plains of South America. They will
not suffer a stranger to join them. If a domesticated horse comes in their
way, unprotected by his master, they attack him with their teeth and their
heels, and speedily destiny him. They readily submit, however, to the do-
minion of man, and become perfectly docile and faithful.

Among the Tartars, the flesh of the horse is a frequent article of food ;
and although they do not, like the Indians of the Pampas, eat it raw, their
mode of cookery would not be very inviting to the European epicure.
They cut the muscular parts into slices, and place them under their saddles,
and after they have galloped thirty or forty miles, the meat becomes tender
and sodden, andfit for their table ; and, at all their feasts, the first and last
and most favourite dish, is a horse's head.

When water was not at hand, the Scythians used to draw blood from
their horses, and drink it ; and the dukes of Muscovy, for nearly two hundred
and sixty years, presented Tartar ambassadors with the milk of mares. If
any of this milk fell upon the mane of the horse, the duke, by custom,
was bound to lick it off.

Troops of wild horses are occasionally met with in the central parts of
Africa, in the island of St. Domingo, on the deserts of Arabia, and in
a few other parts of the world ; but no where do they equal the domesti-
cated horse in form, strength, or even speed.

horse on the right side. In the right hraid they grasp the bridle, and in the left a very
long spear, leaning on which, they jump with the impulse of both feet, and then fall right
upon the horse's back."

0

THE BARB.

The OoJolphin Arabian-

It has already been stated, that tlie earliest records we have of the liorse
trace him to Egypt, whence he gradually found his way to Arabia and
Persia, and the provinces which were colonized from Egypt ; and thence
to the other parts of the Old World. But Egypt is not now a breeding
country, and it does not appear to possess those requisites which could
ever have constituted it one. Without, however, entering into the question
whether the horse was primarily the inhabitant of some particular region,
whence other parts were gradually supplied, or whether it was common to
many countries, but differing in each ; we have stated it to be probable
that the horses of Egypt, the earliest on record, were derived from the
neighbouring and interior districts of Africa. Therefore, in giving a very
summary account of the most celebrated and useful breeds of different
countries, it is natural tcf begin with those of Africa.

At the head of these is the Barb, from Barbary, and particularly from
Morocco and Fez, and the interior of Tripoli ; and remarkable for his fine
and graceful action. It is rather lower than the Arabian, seldom exceed-
ing fourteen hands and an inch. The shoulders are flat, the chest roimd,
the joints inclined to be long, and the head particularly beautiful. The
Bari) is decidedly superior to the Arab in form, but has not his spirit, or
speed, or countenance.

The Barb has chiefly contributed to the excellence of the Spanish horse ;
and, when the improvement of the breed of horses began to be systemati-
cally pursued in Great Britain, the Barb was very early introduced. The
Godolphin Arabian, as he is called, of whom we have presented our
••eaders with a cut, and who was the origin of some of our best racmg
blood, was a Barb ; and others of our most celebrated turf-horses trace
their descent from African mares.

More in the centre of Africa, in the kingdom of Bournou, is a breed,
which Mr. Tully, in his almost romantic history of Tripoli, reckons superior
even to those of Arabia or Barbary; it possesses the best qualities of both

10

THE UORSE

those breeds, being as serviceable as that of Arabia, and as beaut-TuI aa
that of Barbary.

In the more southern and western districts of Africa, and particularly in
the neighbourhood of the Guinea Coast, the breed of horses is very in-
ferior. They are small, weak, unsafe, and untractable. But neither
liorses, nor any other produce of value, can be looked for in those unhappy
countries, so long as they are desolated by the infernal slave-trade inflicted
upon them by the most civiUzed, but truly unchristian, nations of Europe

THE DONGOLA HORSE.

The kingdom of Dongola, and the neighbouring districts lying between
Egypt and Abyssinia, contain a horse not at all like any other oriental.

The " Dongola horses stand full sixteen hands high, but the length of tho
body, from the shoulders to the quarter, is considerably less. Their form,
therefore, is opposite to that of the Arabian, or English thorough-bred, which
are longer by some inches than they are high. The neck is long and
slender, the crest fine, and the withers sharp and high, giving a beautiful
forehand ; but the breast is too narrow, the quarters and flanks too flat, and
the back carped. They constitute excellent war-horses, from their speed
•lurability, and size. Several of them have lately been imported into Eu-
rope, but they are little valued. Possibly, with three-part-bred mares, thev
might improve our cavalry horses."

Bosman, whose descriptions prove him to be no bad horseman, thus
speaks of them, but in somewhat too flattering a manner. " The Dongola
horses are the most perfect in the world, being beautiful, symmetrical in their
parts, nervous and elastic in their movements, and docile and affectionate in
their manners. One of these horses was sold in 1816, at Grand Cairo, for
a sum equivalent to 1000/."

Mr. Bruce tells us, that the best African horses are said to be descended
from one of the five on which Mahomet and his four immediate succes-
sors fled from Mecca to Medina, on the night of the Hegira. He thus
accounts for very singular and opposite customs among the Arabs and
Africans.

"No Arab ever mounts a stallion : on the contrary, in Africa they neve,
ride mares. The reason is plain. — The Arabs are constantly at war with
their neighbours, and always endeavour to take their enemies by surprise
in tlie grey of the evening, or the dawn of day. A stallion no sooner
smells the stale of the mare in the enemy's quarters, than he begins to
neigh, and that would give the alarm to the party intended to be surprised.
No such thing can ever happen when they ride mares only. On the con-
trary, the Funge trust only to superior force. They are in an open, plain
country — must be discovered at many miles distance — and all such sur-
prises and stratagems are useless to them."

THE ARABIAN.

Going further eastward we arrive at Arabia, whose horses deaervedlj
occupy the very highest rank.

THE ARABIAN.

U

■rlie WcUcsleij Arahinn.

A few wild horses are yet seen on some of the deserts of Arabia. They
are hunted by the Bedouinsfor their flesh, which is considered a delicacy,
if the animal be young ; and also to increase their stock of inferior horses,
which they often palm on the merchant as descended from the sacred
breed. They are said to be even swiiter than the domesticated horse, and
are usually taken by traps hidden in the sand. Mr. Bruce, however, doubts
whether any wild horses are now found in Arabia Deserta *.

Although in the seventh century the Arabs had no horses of value, yet
the Cappadocian and other horses which they had derived from their
neighbours, were preserved with so much care, and propagated so uni-
formly and strictly from the finest of the breed, that in the thirteenth cen-
tury the Arabian horse began to assume a just and unrivalled celebrity.

There are said to be three breeds or varieties of Arabian horses : the
Attechi, or inferior breed, on which they set little value, and which are
found wild on some parts of the deserts ; the Kadischi, literally horses ol
an unknown race, answering to our half-bred horses — a mixed breed; and
the Kochlani, horses whose genealogy, according to the Arab account, is
known for two thousand years. Many of them have written and attested
pedigrees extending more than four hundred years, and, with true Eastern
exaggeration, traced by oral tradition from the stud of Solomon. A
more careful account is kept of these genealogies than belongs to the
most ancient family of the proudest Arab chief, and very singular pre-
cautions are taken to prevent the possibility of fraud, so far as the written
pedigree extends

The Kochlani are principally reared by the Bedouin Arabs, in the
remoter deserts. A stallion may be procured without much difficulty,
although at a great price. A mare is rarely to be obtained, except by fraud
and excessive bribery. The Arabs have found out that which the English
breeder should never forget, that the female is more concerned than the
male in the excellence and value of the produce ; and the genealogies o(
their horses are always reckoned from the mothers.

The Arabian horse would not be acknowledged by every judge to pos-

•Bruce's Travels, vol. vi. p. 430.

12

THE HOUSE.

sess a perlect form: his liead, however, is iiiiniitable. The broadness
and squareness of the foreiiead, the shortness and fineness of the
muzzle, the prominence and brilliancy of the eye, the smalhiess of the
ears, and the beautiful course of the veins, will always characterise the head
of the Arabian horse.

His body may be considered as too light, and his chest as too narrow ;
but behind the arms the barrel generally swells out, and leaves sufficient
room for the play of the lungs.

In the formation of the shoulder, next to that of the head, the Arab is
superior to any other breed. The withers are high, and the shoulder-blade
inclined backward, and so nicely adjusted, that in descending a hill the
point or edge of the ham never ruffles the skin. He may not be thought
sufficiently high ; he seldom stands more than fourteen hands two inches.

The fineness of his legs, and the oblique position of his pasterns, may
be supposed to lessen his apparent strength ; but the leg, although small,
is flat and wiry ; anatomists know that the bone has no common density,
and the starting muscles of the fore-arm and the thigh indicate that he is
fully capable of accomplishing many of the feats which are recorded of
him.

The Barb alone excels him in noble and spirited action ; and if there be
defects about him, he is perfect for that for which he was designed. He
presents the true combination of speed and bottom — strength enough to
carry more than a light weight, and courage that would cause him to die
rather than to give up.

We may not, perhaps, believe all that is told us of the Arabian. It
has been remarked, that there are on the deserts which this horse traverses
no mile-stones to mark the distance, or watches to calculate the time;
and the Bedouin is naturally given to exaggeration, and, most of all, when
relating the prowess of the animal, which he loves as dearly as his chil-
dren : yet it caimot be denied that, at the introduction of the Arabian into the
European stables, there was no other horse comparable to him.

The Arab horse is as celebrated for his docility and good temper as
for his speed and courage. In that delightful book, ' Bishop Heber's Nar-
rative of a Journey through the Upper Provinces of India,' the following
interesting character is given of him. *' My morning rides are very pleasant.
My horse is a nice, quiet, good-tempered little Arab, who is so fearless, that
he goes without starting close to an elephant, and so gentle and docile that
he eats bread out of my hand, and has almost as much attachment and
coaxing ways as a dog. This seems the general character of the Arab
horses, to judge from what I have seen in this country. It is not the
fiery dashing animal I had supposed, but with more rationality about him,
and more apparent confidence in his rider, than the majority of English
horses."

The kindness with which he is treated from a foal, gives him an affection
for his master, a wish to please, a pride in exerting every energy in obedience
to his commands, and, consequently, an ap])arent sagacity which is seldom
seen in other breeds. The mare and her foal inhabit the same tent with
the Bedouin and his children. The neck of the mare is often the pillow
of the rider, and, more frequently, of the children, who are rolling about
upon her and the foal: yet no accident ever occurs, and the animal ac-
quires that friendship and love for man which occasional ill-treatment will
not cause him for a moment to forget.

Wiien the Arab falls from his mare, and is unable to rise, she will

THE ARABIAN.

13

immediately stand still, and neij^h nntil assistance arrives. If he lies
down to sleep, as fatigue sometimes compels him, in the midst of the
desert, she stands watchful over him, and neighs and rouses him if
either man or beast approaches. An old Arab had a valuable mare that
had carried liim for fifteen years in many a hard-fought battle, and many a
rapid weary march ; at length, eighty years old, and unable longer to ride
her, he gave her, and a scimitar that had been his father's, to his eldest
son, and told him to appreciate their value, and never lie down to rest until
he had rubbed them both as bright as a looking-glass. In the first skir-
mish in which the young man was engaged he was killed, and the mare
fell into the hands of the enemy. When the news reached the old man, he
exclaimed that " life was no longer worth preserving, for he had lost both
his son and his mare, and he grieved for one as much as the other ; ' and
lie immediately sickened and died*.

Man, however, is an inconsistent being. The Arab who thus lives
with and loves his horses, regarding them as his most valuable treasure,
sometimes treats them with a cruelty scarcely to be believed, and not
at all to be justified. The severest treatment which the English race-
horse endures is gentleness compared with the trial of the young Ara-
bian. Probably the filly has never before been mounted ; she is led out ;
her owner springs on her back, and goads her over the sand and rocks of
the desert at full speed for fifty or sixty miles without one moment's respite.
She is then forced, steaming and panting, into water deep enough for her
to swim. If, immediately after this, she will eat as if nothing had occurred,
her character is established, and she is acknowledged to be a gentiine
descendant of the Kochlani breed. The Arab is not conscious of the
cruelty which he thus inflicts. It is an invariable custom, and custom will
nduce us to inflict many a pang on those whom, after all, we love.

The following anecdote of the attachment of an Arab to his mare
fiasoflen been told, but it comes home to the bosom of every one possessed
of common feeling. "The whole stock of an Arab of the -desert con-
sisted of a mare. The French consul offered to purchase her in order to
send her to his sovereign, Louis XIV. The Arab would have rejected the
proposal at once with indignation and scorn ; but he was miserably poor.
He had no means of supplying his most urgent wants, or procuring the
barest necessaries of life. Still he hesitated ; — he had scarcely a rag to
cover him— and his wife and his children were starving. The sum offered
was great, — it would provide him and his family with food for life. At
length, and reluctantly, he consented. He brought the mare to the dwell-
ing of the consul, — he dismounted, — he stood leaning upon her ; — he
looked now at the gold, and then at his favourite ; he sighed — he wept.
* To whom is it,' said he, ' I am going to yield thee up ? To Europeans,
who will tie thee close, — who will beat thee, — ^who will render thee miser-
able. Return with me, my beauty, my jewel, and rejoice the hearts of
my children.' As he pronounced the last words, he sprung upon her
hack, and was out of sight in a moment."

The next anecdote is scarcely less touching, and not so ivell known.
Ibrahim, a poor but worthy Arab, unable to pay a sum of money which
he owed, was compelled to allow a merchant of llama to become partner
with him in a valuable mare. When the time came, he could not redeem
his pledge to this mun, and the mare was sold. Her pedigree could be
traced on the side of sire and dam for full five hundred years. The price

• Smith on Brooding, p. 80.

)4

THE HORSE.

was three hundred pounds; an enormous sum in that country. Ibrahim
went frequently to Rama to incjuire after the mare : he would embrace
her, — wipe her eyes with his handkerchief, — rub her with his shirt
sleeves, — and give her a thousand benedictions during whole hours that
he remained talking to her. ' My eyes !' would he say to her, ' my soul !
my heart! must I be so unfortunate as to have thee sold to so many masters
and not keep thee myself? I am poor, my antelope ! I brought thee up
in my dwelling as my child. I did never beat nor chide thee ; I caressed
thee in the proudest manner. God preserve thee, my beloved ! thou art
beautiful, thou art sweet, thou art lovely 1 God defend thee frpm envious
eyes !"

Sir John Malcolm gives two anecdotes to the same purpose, but of a
more amusing nature.

" When the envoy, returning from his former mission, was encamped
near Bagdad, an Arab rode a bright bay mare of extraordinary shape and
beauty before his tent, until he attracted his attention. On being asked if
lie would sell her; — 'What will you give me?' was the reply: 'That
depends upon her age ; I suppose she is past five ?' — ' Guess again,' said
he. ' Four ?' ' Look at her mouth,' said the Arab, with a smile. On
examination she was found to be rising three. This, from her size and
symmetry, greatly enhanced her value. The envoy said, ' I will give you
fifty tomans' (a coin nearly of the value of a pound sterling). ' A little
more if you please,' said the fellow, apparently entertained. ' Eighty.
A hundred.' He shook his head and smiled. The offer at last came to
two hundred tomans ! ' Well, said the Arab, ' you need not tempt me
further; — it is of no use. — You are a rich elchee (nobleman). You have
fine horses, camels, and mules, and, I am told, you have loads of silver and
gold. Now,' added he, ' you want my mare, but you shall not have her
for all you have got*.**

" An Arab sheick or chief, who lived within fifty miles of Bussorah, had
a favourite breed of horses. He lost one of his best meres, and could not
for a long while discover whether she was stolen or had strayed. Some
time after, a young man of a different tribe, who had long wished to marry
his daughter, but had always been rejected by the sheick, obtained the
lady's consent and eloped with her. The sheick and his followers pursued,
but the lover and his mistress, mounted on one horse, made a wonderful
march, and escaped. The old chief swore that the fellow was either
mounted upon the devil, or the favourite mare he had lost. After his return,
he found the latter was the case ; that the lover was the thief of his mare as
well as his daughter ; and that he stole the one to carry off the other. The
chief was quite gratified to think he had not been beaten by a mare of
another breed ; and was easily reconciled to the young man, in order that
he might recover the mare, which appeared an object about which he was
more solicitous than about his daughter t-"

One of our own countrymen, the enterprising traveller. Major Denham,
affords us a pleasing instance of the attachment with which the docility
and sagacity of the horse may inspire the owner. — He thus relaies the
death of his favourite Arabian, in one of the most desert spots of Central
Africa. His feelings needed no apology. We naturally honour the man
in whom true sensibility and undaunted courage, exerted for useful pur-
poses, were thus united.

" There are a few situations in a man's life in which losses of this nature

* Malcolm's Sketches of Persia, vol. i p. 41.

+ Ibid. p. 45.

THE ARABIAN— THE EAST INDIAN.

are felt most keenly ; and this was one of them. It was not grief, bnt it
was something very nearly approaching to it ; and though I felt ashamed
of the degree of derangement I suffered from it, yet it was several days
before I could get over the loss. Let it, however, be remembered that the
poor animal had been my support and comfort, — nay, I may say, com-
panion, through many a dreary day and night; — had endured both hunger
and thirst in my service ; and was so docile, that he would stand still for hours
in the desert while I slept between his legs, his body affording me the only
shelter that could be obtained from the powerful influence of a noon-day
sun : — he was yet the fleetest of the fleet, and ever foremost in the
chase."

Our horses would fare badly on the scanty nourishment afforded the
Arabian. The mare usually has but one or two meals in twenty-four hours.
During the day she is tied to the door of the tent, ready for the Bedouin to
spring, at a moment's warning, into the saddle ; or she is turned out
before the tent ready saddled, the bridle merely taken off, and so trained
that she gallops up immediately at her master's call. At night she receives
a little water; and with her scanty provender of five or six pounds of barley or
beans, and sometimes a little straw, she lies down content, in the midst of
her master's family. She can, however, endure great fatigue; she will
travel fifty miles without stopping ; she has been pushed, on emergency,
one Imndred and twenty miles, and, occasionally, neither she nor her rider
has tasted food for three whole days.

To the Arabian, principally, England is indebted for her improved and
now unrivalled breed of horses for th*" turf, the field, and the road, as will
be shewn when we presently treat of the English horse.

THE EAST INDIAN HORSE

We will now travel further eastward, and look at the breeds of horses in our
Indian possessions. First, we have the Toorky, originally from aToorko-
man and a Persian, beautiful in his form, graceful in his action, and do-
cile in his temper. It is said that, when skilfully managed, th« grandeur
and stateliness of his carriage are equal to what the warmest imagination can
conceive of the horse : his spirit rising as his exertions are required, he
exhibits to his beholders an appearance of fury in the performance of his
task, yet preserving to his rider the utmost playfulness and gentleness.

Next comea the Iranee, well limbed, and his joints closely knit, and par-
ticularly powerful in the quarters, but with scarcely sufficient spirit, and his
ears large and loose.

The patient and docile Cozakee is deep in the girth, powerful in the fore-
arm, but with large head, and sadly cat-hammed ; hardy, and calculated
for long journeys and severe service.

The Mojinniss have spirit, beauty, speed, and perseverance.

The Tazsee is slight, hollow-backed, and, for that reason perhaps,
although deficient in strength, and leaving as it were his hind legs behind
him, and likewise irritable in temper, yet sought after on account of the
peculiar easiness of his pace. , ., ,

A sale of horses near the Company's stud, at Hissar, is thus described
by an excellent judge. " Not less than one thousand horses were shewn^
They were all above fourteen hands and a half in height, high-crested, and
shewy-looking horses. The "-reat defect seemed a want of bone below

IG THE HORSE.

the knee, which is indeed general to all the native horses throughout India ;
and also so great a tendency to fulness in the liocks, that, in England, it
would be thought half of them had blood spavins."

THE CHINESE HORSE.

This breed is small, weak, ill-formed, without spirit, and altogetlier unde-
serving of notice.

THE PERSIAN HORSE.

Returning westward we find the Persian next in estimation, and deser
vedly so, to the Arabian. The head is almost equally beautiful, the crupper
superior ; he is equal in speed, but far inferior in endurance. The whole
frame is more developed than in the Arabian.

The Persian horses were celebrated for many a century before the
Arabians were known, or even existed. They constituted, in ancient times,
the best cavalry of the East. The native Persian was so highly prized,
that Alexander considered one of them the noblest gift he could bestow :
and when the kings of Parthia would propitiate their divinities by the
most costly sacrifice, a Persian horse was offered on the altar. An en-
tertaining traveller (Sir R. Ker Porter) bears testimony that they have
not now degenerated. He gives the following account of this breed.

" The Persian horses never exceed fourteen or fourteen and a half hands
hio-h, yet certainly, in the whole, are taller than the Arabs. Those of the
desert and couijtry about Hillah run very small, but are full of bone and
of good speed. General custom feeds and waters them only at sun-rise
and sun-set, when they are cleaned. Their usual provender is barley and
chopped straw, which, if the animals are piqueted, is put into a nose-bag
and hung from their heads; but if stabled, it is thrown into a small
lozen"-e-shaped hole left in the thickness of the mud-wall for that purpose,
but much higher up than the line of our mangers, and there the animal eats
at his leisure. Hay is a kind of food not known here. The bedding of
the horse consists of his dung. After being exposed to the drying in-
fluence of the sun during the day, it becomes pulverized, and, in that state,
is nightly spread under him *. Little of it touches his body, that bemg
covered by his clothing, a large nummud from the ears to the tail, and
bound firmly round his body by a very long surcingle. But this apparel is
only for cold weather ; in the warmer season the night-clothes are of a
lighter substance, and during the heat of the day, the animal is kept entirely

"""At^ night he is tied in the court yard. The horses' heads are attached to
the place of security by double ropes from their halters, and the heels of
their hinder legs are confined by cords of twisted hair, fastened to iron
rino-s and pe-s driven into the earth. The same custom prevailed in the
tim'e of Xenophon, and for the same reason, to secure them ft-om being
able to attack and maim each other, the whole stud generally consisting of
stellions. Their keepers, however, always sleep on their rugs amongst

. It is the usual flooring of the stable and the tent. The united influence of the sun
and ai^ deprive t of aU unpleasant odour, and when from use ^ becomes a second tmxe
offeusL: U?s aga^ exposed to the 8«n. and aU unpleasant smell once more tal..a away

•

THE PERSIAN— TOORKOMAN.

Hiem to prevent accident ; and sometimes, notwit^lstandin^^ all this care
they manno-e to break loose, and then the combat ensues. A srcneral
neighing, screaming, kicking, and snorting, soon rouses the grooms and
the scene for awhile is terrible. Indeed no one can conceive the sudden
uproar of such a moment who has not been in Eastern countries to hear it
and then all who have, must bear me witness that the noise is tremendous'
They seize, bite, and kick each other with the most determined fury ancl
frequently cannot be separated before their heads and haunches stream with
blood. Even in skirmishes with the natives, their horses take part in the
fray, tearing each other with their teeth, while their masters are in similai
close quarters on their backs."

His description of a Persian race does not altogether remind us of
Newmarket or Doncaster.

" My curiosity was fully on the apiir to see the racers, which I could not
doubt must have been chosen from the best in the nation to exhibit the perfec-
tion of Its breed before the sovereign. The rival horses were divided imo
three sets m order to lengthen the amusement. They had been in training

wL'T^i """'S' ^'■^""^ ^^"-y ^'"'•in'? that time; and

when I did see them, I found so much pains had been taken to swea and
reduce their weight, that their bones were nearly cutting the skin The
distance marked for the race was a stretch of four-and-ttenty miles, and
that his majesty might not have to wait when he had reached the field the
horses had set forward long before, by three divisions, from the stStLg
point (a short interval of time passing between each set,) so that thev
might begin to come m, a few minutes after the king had taken his seat The
dilterent divisions arrived in regular order at the goal, but all so fatio-ued
and exhausted, that their former boasted fleetness hardly exceede'd a
moderate canter when they passed before the royal eyes "

In Circassia almost every family of distinction, whether of princes or
nobles, boasts of possessing a peculiar race of horses, which, when youno-
are burned on the buttock with a particular mark. On this occasion, they
act with tlie most scrupulous adherence to custom, so that a person who
should attempt to burn a character expressing noble descent, on a filly of
a conimon race, would, for such forgery, forfeit his life. The most cele-
brated race of Circassian horses has received the name of Shalokh, and is
m the exclusive possession of the Tau Sultan family. This race is valu-
able for Its strength and swiftness, more than its peculiar beauty. Its dis-
tinguishing mark is a full horse-shoe, without an arrow.

THE TOORKOMAN HORSE.

Turkistan is that part of South Tartary, north-east of the Caspian sea,
and has been celebrated from very early times, for producing a pure and
valuable breed of horses. They are called Toorkomam. They are said to
be preferable even to the pure Persians, for service. They are large,
standing from fifteen to sixteen hands high; swift, and inexhaustible
under fatigue. Some of them have travelled nine hundred miles in eleven
successive days. They, however, are somewhat too small in the barrel, —
too long on the legs, — occasionally ewe-necked, and always have a head
out of proportion large : yet, such are the good qualities of the horse, that
one of the pure blood is worth two or three hundred pounds, even in that
country.

Captain Fraser, who is evidently a good judge of the horse, (\\\ Iiig

C

18

THE HORSE.

Journey to Khorasan) thus relates the impression which they made on him :
" They are deficient in compactness. Tlieir bodies are long in pro{)ortion
to their bulk. They are not well-ribbed up. They are long on the legs,
— deficient in muscle, — falling off below the knee ; — narrow chested, —
long necked, — head large, uncouth, and seldom well put on. Such was
the impression I received from the first sight of them, and it was not for
some time that their superior valuable qualities were apparent to me."

THE TARTAR AND CALMUCK HORSE.

The horses of the other parts of Tartary, comprehending the immense
plains of Central Asia, and a considerable part of European Russia, are
little removed from a wild state : they are small and badly made ; but
capable of supporting the longest and most rapid journey, on the scantiest
fare. The foals, from the earliest period, are exposed to the inclemency
of the weather, have little to eat, and follow their dams in the longest
excursions, and, therefore, soon acquire a very great power of sustaining
fatigue. They must be hardy for another reason. The Tartars live much
on the flesh of horses, and, consequently, those animals that are unable to
support the labour of their frequent rapid emigrations are soon destroyed,
and only the more vigorous preserved.

The horses, which range at large over the plains, are divided into herds
at the head of which are placed two stallions, who carefully prevent them
frotn intermingling with each other, and it is rarely that a foal is lost. On
the approach of a strange herd, the stallions dri\ e their own into a close
body, place themselves in front, and, if necessary, attack and drive off the
others. As the stallion- foals grow up, they are driven away from the
herd, and are seen straggling about at a distance, until they are strong
enough to form herds of wild mares for themselves.

These horses, or those of a similar breed and habits, were beaten by not
the first-rate English blood-horses, in a race which fairly put to the test
both their speed and stoutness. On the 4th of August, 18:;i5, a race of
the cruel distance of more than forty-seven miles was run between twc
Cossack and two thorough-bred English horses — Sharper and Miiia. The
most celebrated Cossack horses from the Don, the Black Sea, and the
Ural, were sent ; and, after numerous trials, the best were selected. On
starting, the Cossacks took the lead at a moderate pace, the English
following at about three or four lengths, but before they had gone half a
mile, the stirrup-leather of Sharper broke, and he ran away with his rider,
followed by Mina, and they went more than a mile, and up a steep hill,
before they could be held in.

Half the distance was run in an hour and four mmutes. Both the
English horses were then fresh, and one of the Cossacks. On their re-
turn, Mina fell lame, and was taken away. The Cossack horse, likewise,
began to flag, when the accompanying Russians began to drag him on by
the bridle, throwing away the saddle, and putting a mere child on his
back. Sharper, likewise, evidently shewed the effects of the pace at which he
fiad gone when running away, and was much distressed. The Cossacks
then had recourse to foul play, and actually carried on their horse ; some
dragging him on by a rope, and the bridle at his head ; and others pulling
him^on by the tail, and ridmg alongside of his quarters to support him,
and relieving each other at this fatiguing work. Sharper did the whole
'lislance in two hours and forty-eight minutes, a»d the Cossack horse was

THE TURKISH— GKRftlAN

warped in, eight minutes after him. At starting, the English horses car-
ried full thiee stone more than the Cossacks; and during the latter half o(
the race, a mere child had ridden the Cossack.

THE TURKISH HORSE.

The Tnrkisn horses are descended principally from the Arab, crossed by
the Persian and certain other bloods. The body, however, is even longer
than the Arabian's, and the crupper more elevated. They have contributed
materially to the improvement of the English breed. The Byerley and
the Helmsley Turk are names familiar to every one conversant with horses,
and connected with our best blood.

The learned and benevolent Busbequius, who was ambassador at Con-
stantinople in the seventeenth century, gives the following account of the
Turkish horses. Our grooms, and their masters too, may learn a lesson of
wisdom and humanity from his words.

" There is no creature so gentle as a Turkish horse, nor more respectful
to his master, or the groom that dresses him. The reason is, because they
treat their horses with great lenity. I myself saw, when I was in Pontus,
passing through a part of Bithinia called Axilos, towards Cappadocia,
how indulgent the countrymen were to young colts, and how kindly they
used them .soon after they were foaled. They would stroke them, bring
them into their houses, and almost to their tables, and use them even like
children. They hung something like a jewel about their necks, and a
garter, which was full of amulets against poison, which they are most
afraid of The grooms that dress them are as indulgent as their masters ;
they fre(juently sleek them down with their hands, and never use a cudgel
to bang their sides, but in cases of netressity. This makes their horses
great lovers of mankind, and they are so far from kicking, wincing, or
growmg untractable by this gentle usage, that you will hardly find a
masterless horse amongst them.

" But, alas ! our Christian grooms' horses go on at another rate. They
never think them rightly curried till they thunder at them with their
voices, and let their clubs or horse-whips, as it were, dwell on their bides.
This makes some horses even tremble when their keepers come into their
stable ; so that they hate and fear them too. But the Turks love to have
their horses so gentle, that at the word of command they may fall on their
knees, and in this position i-eceive their riders.

" They will take up a staff or club upon the road with their teeth,
which their rider has let fall, and hold it up to him again ; and when
they are perfect in this lesson, then, for credit, they have rings of silver
hung on their nostrils as a badge of honour and good discipline. I saw
some horses when their master was fallen from the saddle stand stock
still without wagging a foot till he got up again. Another time I saw a
groom standing at a distance in the midst of a whole ring of horses, and,
at the word of command, they would either go round or stand still. Once
I saw some horses when their master was at dinner with me in an upper
room prick up their ears to hear his voice, and when they did so they
neighed for joy."

THE GERMAN HORSE.

The German horses are gene.ally large, heavy, and slow. The Hunga-
rian may be an exception, being lijjhter, speedier, and giymg greater

2U

THE HORSE.

proof of Eastern blood*. Every part of the continent, however, following
the example of England, has been diligently engaged in the improvement
of its breed, and the German and Prussian horses are now better propor-
tioned, and have considerable endurance, but are still deficient in speed.
The Prussian, German, and the greater part of the French cavalry are
procured from Holstein. They are of a dark, glossy, bay-colour, with
small heads, large nostrils, and full dark eyes, the fire and clearness of
which seem to denote the inward spirit of the animal. They are beautiful,
active, and strong.

THE SWEDISH, FINLAND, AND NORWEGIAN HORSE.

Of the Swedish horses, Clarke, in his " Scandinavia," says, that they are
small but beautiful, and remarkable for their speed and spirit. Those of
Finland he describes as yet smaller, not more than twelve hands hich,
beautifully formed, and very fleet. The peasants take them from the forests
when they are wanted for travellers. Although apparently wild, they are
under perfect control, and they trot along with ease at the rate of twelve
miles an hour."

The following story is told of one of the Norwegian horses. His master
had been dining at a neighbouring town, and, when it was time to return,
had exceeded so much, that he could not keep a firm seat in his saddle.
The horse regulated himself, as well as he could, according to the un-
settled motion of his rider, but, happening to make a false step, the
peasant was thrown, and hung with one foot entangled in the stirrup.
The horse immediately stopped, and twisting his body in various direc-
tions, endeavoured to extricate his master, but in vain. The man was
severely hurt, and almost helpless ; but the shock had brought him to
his senses. The horse looked at him as he lay on the ground, and, stoop-
ing, laid hold of the brim of his hat, and raised his head a little ; but the
hat coming off, he fell again. The animal then laid hold of the collar of
his coat, and raised him by it so far from the ground, that he was enabled
to draw his foot out of the stirrup. After resting awhile he regained the
saddle, and reached his home. Grateful to his preserver, the man did,
what every good feeling bid him, — he cherished the animal until it died of
old age.

Many an English farmer owes a considerable debt of gratitude to his
intelligent and faithful servant, who has taken caie of him when he was
iniable to take care of himself, and, possibly, has presei-ved his life. Let
him repay the debt by kinder usage.

THE ICELAND HORSE.

There are numerous troops of horses in this cold and inhospitable country,
descended, according to Mr. Anderson, from the Norwegian horse, but
according to Mr. Horrebow, being of Scottish origin. They are very small,
strong, and swift. There are thousands of them in the mountains which
never enter a stable, but instinct or habit has taught them to scrape away
the snow, or break the ice, in search of their scanty food. A few are
usually kept In the stable, but when the peasant wants more he catches as

* M. de Buffon strangely affirms, that the Hussars and Hungarians slit the nostrils of
their horses with a view to increase their wind, and to prevent their neighing ; and that
Hungarian, Croatian, and Polish horses continue to old age to have the mark in all their
fore-tueth

THE FLEMISH— FRENCH— SPANISH, &c

many as he needs, and shoes tliem himself, and that sometimes with
sheep's horn*.

THE FLEMISH AND DUTCH HORSE.

The Flemish ajid Dutch horses are larg-e, and strongly and beautifully
formed. We are indebted to them for some of the best blood of our
draug:ht-horses, and we still have frequent recourse to them for keeping up
and improving the breed. They will be more particularly described when
the cart-horse is spoken of.

THE FRENCH HORSE.

France contains, like England, numerous breeds of horses and consi-
derable attention has lately been paid to their improvement; but they are
far inferior to ours in beauty, fleetness, and strength. The provinces of
Auvergne and Poitou produce good ponies and galloways ; but the best
French horses are bred in Limousin and Normandy. From the former
district come excellent saddle-horses and himters ; and from the latter a
stronger species, for the road, the cavalry, or the carriage. The Norman
horses are now much crossed by our hunters, and occasionally by the
thorough-bred ; and the English roadster and light draught-horse has not
suffered by a mixture with the Norman.

THE SPANISH HORSE,

Spain was early celebrated for her breed of horses. The Andalusian
charger and the Spanish jennet are familiar to all readers of romance
The subjugation of so great a portion of the peninsula to the Moorish
sway, by introducing so much of the Barbary blood, mainly contributed to
the undisputed excellence of the Spanish horse. One breed, long in the
limbs, and graceful in all its motions, was the favourite war-horse of the
knight ; while another race, carrying the esquire, although inferior in ele-
gance, possessed far more strength and endurance. The Spanish horse
of the present day is not much unlike the Yorkshire half-bred ; perhaps
with flatter legs and better feet, but far inferior figure.

THE ITALIAN HORSE.

The Italian horses were once in high repute, particularly the Neapolitans ;
but like every thing else in those mismanaged countries, they have sadly
degenerated. One circumstance has mainly contributed to this falling off
in reputation and value, viz. that the breed has been kept up by occasional
intermixture, not of Eastein, but of European blood. A few of the Nea-
politan horses, from their superior size and stateliuess, are well adapted for
the carriage.

THE AMERICAN HORSE.

Fn the extensive territory and varied climate of the United States, several
breeds of horses are found.

The Canadian is found principally in Canada, and the Northern States.
He is supposed to be of French descent, and many of the celebrated Ame-
rican trotters are of this breed. We will speak of some of them when we
describe the paces of the horse.

«• Kcrguelen's Voyage ui the North

12

THE IIOHSK

The Conestoga Iiorse is found in Pennsylvania, and the nriiddie States—-
lon£^ in the leir and lig-ht in the carcase — somietimes rising seventeen liandri,
nsed principally for the carriai^e ; but when not too high, and with suffi-
cient substance, useful for hunting and the saddle.

The Englixh horse, with a good deal of blood, prevails in Virginia and
Kentucky ; and is found, to a greater or less degree, in all the States. The
Americans have, at ditferent times, imported some of the best English
blood. It has been most diligently and purely preserved in the Southern
States. The celebrated Shark, the best horse of his day, and equalled by
few at any time, was the sire of the best Virginian horses ; and Tally-ho,
a son of Highflyer, peopled the Jerseys.

In the back- settlements, and in the south-western States, is a horse
resembling the wild horse of the Pampas, already described, and evidently
of the same origin.

Chapter III

HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH HORSE.

The earliest record of the horse in Great Britain is contained in the Iiis-
tory given by Julius Caesar of his invasion of our island. The Britisli
army was accompanied by numerous war-chariots, drawn by horses; Short
scythes were fastened to the ends of the axletrees, sweeping down every
thino- before them, and carrying terror and devastation into the ranks of
their enemies. The conqueror gives a most animated description of the
dexterity with which the horses were managed.

What kind of horse the Britons then possessed, it would be useless to
inquire ; but, from the cumbrous structure of tlie car, and the fury with
which it was driven, and from the badness or nonexistence of the roads,
they must have been both active and powerful in an extraordinary degree.
Caesar deemed them so valuable, that he carried many of them to Rome ;
and the British horses were, for a considerable period afterwards, in great
request in various parts of the Roman empire.

Horses must at that time have been exceedingly numerous in Britain,
for we are told that virhen the British king, CassibcUaunus, dismissed the
main body of his army, he retained four thousand of his war-chariots for
the purpose of harassing the Romans, when they attempted to forage.

The British horse now received its first cross ; but whether the breed
was thereby improved cannot be ascertained. The Romans having esta-
blished themselves in Britain, found it necessary to send over a numerous
body of cavalry to maintain a chain of posts and check the frequent insur-
rections of the natives. The Roman horses would breed With those of the
country, and, to a greater or less extent, change their character ; and from
this time, the English horse would consist of a compoimd of the native and
those from Gaul,1[taly, Spain, and every province from which the Roman
cavalry was supplied. Many centuries afterwards passed by, and we have no
record of the character or value, improvement or deterioration, of the

animal. , , . i . .1 .1

It would appear probable, however, that Athelsian, the natural son ot
Alfred the Great, and the second in succession to him, paid some atten-
tion to the improvement of the horse ; for having subdued all the rebellious
Vortioa3 of the Heptarchy, he was congratulated on his success by some o\

TUE ENGLISH. 23

t

tlie coiuiiiental princes, and received from Hugh Capet of France, who
solicited his sister in marriage, various presents, doubtless of a nature that
would be thought most acceptable to him ; and among them several Ger-
man nnmiiiff horses. Hence ou-r breed received another cross, and pro-
bably an improvement.

Athelstan seems to have seriously devoted himself to this important
object, for he soon aftemards decreed (a. d. 930) that no horses should be
sent abroad for sale, or on any account, except as royal presents. This
proves his anxiety to preserve the breed, and likewise renders it probable
that that breed was beginning to be esteemed by our neighbours. In a
document bearing date A. d. 1000 we have an interesting account of the
relative value of the horse. If a horse was destroyed, or neghgently lost,
the compensation to be demanded was thirty shillings ; a mare or colt,
twenty shillings ; a mule or young ass, twelve shillings ; an ox, thirty
pence ; a cow, twenty-foui pence ; a pig, eightpence ; and, it strangelj
follows, a man, one pound *.

In the laws of Howell the Good, Prince of Wales, and passed a little
before this time, there are. some curious particulars respecting the value
and sale of horses. The value of a foal not fourteen days old is fixed at
fourpence ; at one year and a day it is estimated at forty-eight pence ; and
at three years sixty pence. It was then to be tamed with the bridle, and
brought up either as a palfrey or a serving horse ; when its value be-
came one hundred and twenty pence ; and that of a wild or unbroken
mare, sixty pence.

Even in those early days, the frauds of dealers were too notorious, and
the following singular regulations were established. The buyer was
allowed time to ascertain whether the horse were free from three diseases.
He had three nights to prove him for the staggers ; three months to prove
/he soundness of his lungs ; and one year to ascertain whether he was
infectd with glanders. For every blemish discovered after the pu rchase,
one-third of the money was to be returned, except it should be a blemish
of the ears or tail.

The practice of letting horses for hire was then known, and then, as
now, the services of the poor hack were too brutally exacted. The benevo-
lent Howell disdains not to legislate for the protection of this abused and
valuable servant. "Whoever shall borrow a horGC, and rub the hair so as
to gall the back, shall pay fourpence ; if the skin is forced into the flesh,
eightpence ; if the flesh be forced to the bone, sixteen pence."

One circumstance deserves to be remarked, that in none of the earliest
historical records of the Anglo-Saxons or the Welsh, is there any allu-
sion to the use of the horse for the plough. Until a comparatively re-
cent period, oxen alone were used in England, as in other countries, for
this purpose ; but about this time (the latter part of the tenth century)
some mnovation on this point was creeping in, and, therefore, a Welsh law
forbids the farmer to plough with horses, mares, or cows, but with oxen
alone. On one of the pieces of tapestry woven at Bayonne in the tmic ol
William the Conqueror, (a. d. 1066) there is the figure of a man driving a
horse attached to a harrow. This is the earliest notice we have of the use
of the horse in field-labour. . n •* \

With William the Conqueror came a marked improvement m the liritisli

• Accordine to the Anglo-Saxon computation, forty-eight slulllngs made a pound,
ccjual in silvM to about three poundB of our present money, in vahic to fifteen or iixtfen
pounds, and five ptncc made one shilling.

THE MORSE,

horse. To his superiority in cavalry this prince was cliiefly indebted fm
the victory of Hasting;s. The thvourite charger of William was a Spanianl.
His followers, both tlie barons and the common soldiers, came principally
troin a country in which agriculture had made more rapid progress than
m England. A very considerable portion of the kingdom was divided
among these men ; and it cannot be doubted that, however unjust was the
usurpation of the Norman, England benefited in its husbandry, and par
ticularly in its horses, by the change of masters. Some of the barons,
and particularly Roger de Boulogne, earl of Shrewsbury, introduced the
Spanish horse, on their newly-acquired estates. The historians of tliese
times, however, principally monks, knowing nothing about horses, give uf
very little information on the subject.

In the reign of Henry I. (a. d. 1121) the first Arabian horse, or, at
least, the first on record, was introduced. Alexander I., king of Scotland,
presented to the church of St. Andrew's, an Arabian horse, with costly
furniture, Turkish armour, many valuable trinkets, and a considerable
estate.

Forty years afterwards, in the reign of Henry II., Smithfield was cele-
brated as a horse-market. Fitz-Stephen, who lived at that time, gives the
following animated account of the manner in which the hackneys and
cfiarging-steeds were tried there, by racing against one another. " When
a race is to be run by this sort of horses, and perhaps by others, which also
in their kind are strong and fleet, a shout is immediately raised, and the
common horses are ordered to withdraw out of the way. Three jockeys,
or sometimes only two, as the match is made, prepare themselves for the
contest. The horses on their part are not without emulation ; they tremble
and are impatient, and are continually in motion. At last, the signal once
given, they start, devour the course, and hurry along with unremitting
swiftness. The jockeys inspired with the thought of applause, and the
hope of victory, clap spurs to their willing horses, brandish their whips,
and cheer them with their cries." This description reminds us of the more
leiigthened raoes of the present day, and proves the blood of the English
horse, even before the Eastern breed was tried.

Close on this followed the Crusades. The champions of the Cross cer-
tainly had it in their power to enrich their native country with some of the
choicest specimens of Eastern horses, but they were completely under the
influence of superstition and fanaticism, and common sense and usefulness
were forgotten.

An old metrical romance, however, records the excellence of two horses
belonging to Richard Coeur de Lion, which he purchased at Cyprus, and
were therefore, probably, of Eastern origin.

Vu this worlde they hadde no pere*.
Dromedary nor destrere f,
Stede, Rabyte.j:, ne Cammele,
Goeth none so swifte, without fayle :
For a thousand pownd of golde,
Ne should the one be solde.

The war-steed was defended by mail oi plate, much on the plan of the
harness of the knight himself. His head was ornamented with a crest. The
head, chest, and flanks, were wholly or partially protected ; and sometimes,
he was clad in complete steel, with the arms of his master engraved oi
embossed on his bardiiigs. The bridle of the horse was always as splendid

* Pere, equal. + War horse. J Arabian.

THE ENGLISH.

25

as ihe circumstances of the knight allowed, and thus a horse was often called
Brigliadore, from hriglia lVoto, a bridle of gold. Bells wore a very
favourite addition to the equipment of the horse. The old Troubadour,
Arnold of Marson, says, " that nothing is so proper to inspire confidence in
a knight, and terror in an enemy."

The price of horses at this period was singularly uncertain. In 1185,
fifteen breeding mares sold for two pounds twelve shillings and sixpence,
They were purchased by the monarch, and distributed among his tenants,
and, in order to get something by the bargain, he charged them the great
sum of four shillings each. Twenty years afterwards, ten capital horses
brought no less than twenty pounds each; and, twelve years later, a pair
of horses were imported from Lombardy, for which the extravagant price
of thirty-eight pounds thirteen shillings and fourpence was given. The
usual price of good handsome horses was ten pounds, and the hire of a
car or cart, with two horses, was teupence a-day.

To King John, hateful as he was in all other respects, we are yet much
indebted for the attention which he |)aid to agriculture generally, and par-
ticularly to improving the breed of horses. He imported one hundred
chosen stallions of the Flanders kind, and thus mainly contributed to pre-
pare our noble species of draught-horses, as unrivalled as the horses of the
turf.

John accumulated a very numerous and valuable stud. He was eager
to posses himself of every horse of more than usual power; and, at all
times, gladly received, from the tenants of the crown, horses of a superior
quality, instead of money, for the renewal of grants, or the payment of for-
feitures belonging to the crown. It was his pride to render his cavalry,
and the horses for the tournament and for pleasure, as perfect as possible.
It could not be expected that so haugl.t) a tyrant would concern himself
much with the inferior kinds; yetwhi'e the superior was becoming rapidly
more valuable, the others would, in an indirect manner, partake of the
improvement.

One hundred years afterwards, Edward II. purchased thirty Lombardy
war-horses, and twelve heavy draught-horses. Lombardy, Italy, and
Spain were the countries whence the greater part of Europe was then sup-
plied with the most valuable cavalry or parade horses. Horses for agri-
cultural purposes were chiefly procured from Flanders.

Edward III. devoted one thousand marks to the purchase of fifty
Spanish horses ; and of such importance did he conceive this addition to
the English, or rather mingled blood, then existing, that formal application
was made to tlie kings of France and Spain to grant sale conduct to the
tmop. When they had safely arrived at the royal stud, it was computed
that they had cost the monarch no less than thirteen pounds six shillings
and eightpence per horse, equal in value to one hundred and sixty pounds
of our present money.

This monarch had many running-horses. The precise meaning of the
term is not, however, clear. It might be light and speedy horses in oppo-
sition to the war-horses, or those that were literally used for the purpose of
racing. The average price of these running-horses was twenty marks, or
three potmds six shillings and eightpence. Edward was devoted to the
."^ports of the turf or the field, or he began to see the propriety of crossmg
our stately and heavy breed with those of a lighter structure and greater
speed.

There was, however, one imiedimeiit to this, which was not lor a very

THE HORSE.

lonjr penoa removed. The soldier was cased in heavy armour The
kmgh^ with all his accoutrements, often rode more than tLntrfive stone
Noh tie bulk and strength were required in the animal c7eSed to S'v
th,s back-breaking weight. When the musket was substituted for thi
cross-^bow and battle-axe and this iron defence, cumbrous to the weare
and destructive to the horse, was useless, and laid Jtside, the imorove
ment of the British horse in reality commenced. improve
While Edward was thus eager to avail himself of forei-n blood with
the too frequent selfishness of the sportsman, he would fet no neT^L
bour share m the advantage. The exportation of horses was forbidden
under very heavy penalties. One case in which he relaxed from his
seventy IS mentioned, when he permitted a German merchant to re-export
some Flanders horses which he had brought on speculation; but he was
strictly forbidden to send them to Scotland. Nay, so jealous were these
s.ster-k.ngdoms of each other's prosperity, that so late as the time of Eliza-
beth, It was felony to export horses from England to Scotland

The English horse was advancing, although slowly, to an equality
with, or even superiority over those of neighbouring countries. His value
began to be more generally and highly estimated, and his price rapidly
increased— so much so, that breeders and the dealers, then, as now, skilful
m imposing on the inexperienced, obtained from many of our youno- gran-
dees enormous prices for them. This evil magnified to such an ''extent
Uiat Richard II (1386) interfered to regulate and determine the price.
Ihe proclamation which he issued is interesting not only as provino- the
increased value of the horse, but shewing what were, four hundred and
fifty years ago, and what are, still, the chief breeding districts. It was
ordered to be published in the counties of Lincoln and Cambridge, and
the East and North Ridings of Yorkshire ; a».d the price of the horse was
restricted to that which had been determined by former sovereigns. A
more enlightened policy has at length banished all such absurd^interfer-
ences with agriculture and commerce.

We can now collect but little of the history of the horse until the reign
of Henry VII., at the close of the fifteenth century. He continued to pro-
hibit the exportation of stallions, but allowed that of mares when more than
two years old, and under the value of six shillings and eightpence. This
regulation was, however, easily evaded, for if a mare could be found worth
mors than six shillings and eightpence, she might be freely exported on
Jie payment ?f that sum.

Henry VIII., a tyrannical and cruel prince, but fond of shew and splen-
dour, was very anxious to produce a valuable breed of horses ; and the
means which he adopted were both perfectly in unison with his arbitrary
disposition, and very little calculated to effect his object. He affixed a cer-
tain standard, below which no horse should be kept. The lowest height
for the stallion wns fifteen hands, and for the mare thirteen hands ; and
even before they had arrived at their full growth, no stallion above two
years old, and under fourteen hands and a half, was permitted to run on
any forest, moor, or common, where there were mares. At " Michaelmas-
tide" the neighbouring magistrates were ordered to " drive" all forests and
commons, and not only destroy such stallions, but all " unlikely tits,"
whether mares or geldings, or foals, which they might deem not calculated
to produce a valuable breed. He likewise ordained, that in every deer-
j)ark a certain number of mares, in proportion to its size, and each at least
thirteen hands hijrh should bp kept; and thai all his prelates and nobies.

THK ENGLISH.

27

ami " all those wliose wives wore velvet bonnets," should keep stallions
for the saddle at least fitleen hands high. These ordinances perished with
the tyrant by whom they were promulg^ated.

The reii>:n of Henry VIIT. produced the earliest Eutrlish treatise on agri-
culture, and the management of horses and cattle. It was written by Sir
A. Fitzherbert, Judge of the Common Pleas, and contains much useful
information. It is entitled, " Boke of Husbandry;" and, being now
exceedingly rare, an extract from it may not be unacceptable. It would
seem that the mare had been but lately employed in husbandry, for he
says, " A husbande may not be without horses and mares, and specially if
he goe with a horse-ploughe he must have both, his horses to draive ; his
mares to brynge colts to upholde his stocke, and yet at many times they
may draive well if they be well handled." The learned judge shared the
couunon fate of those who have to do with ihe horse. " Thou grasyer, that
mayst fortune to be of myne opinion or condytion to love horses, and
young coltes and foles to go among thy cattle, take hede that thou be not
beguiled as I have been a hundred tymes and more. And first thou shalt
knowe that a good horse has 54 properties, that is to say, 2 of a man, 2 of
a badger, 4 of a lion, 9 of an oxe, 9 of a hare, 9 of a foxe, 9 of an asse,
and 10 of a woman*."

The tyrannical edicts of Henry VIII. had the effect which common
sense would have anticipated, — the breed of horses was not materially im-
proved, and their numbers were sadly diminished. When the bigot, Philip
of Spain, threatened England, in the reign of Elizabeth, with his Invincible
Armada, that princess could muster in her whole kingdom only three
thousand cavalry to oppose him; and Blundeville, who wrote at this time
a very pleasant and excellent book on the art of riding, speaks con-
temptuously of the qualities of these horses. The secret of improving
the breed had not been then discovered ; it had been attempted by arbi-
trary power ; and it had extended only to those crosses from which little
good could have been expected : or, rather, it had more reference to the
actual situation of tne country, and the heavy carriages, and the bad roads,
and the tedious travelling which then prevailed, than to the wonderfiil
cJiange in these which a few centuries were destined to effect.

Blundeville describes the majority of our horses as consisting of streng,
sturdy beasts, fit only for slow draught, and the few of a lighter structure
being weak and without bottom. There were, however, some exceptions ;
for he relates a case of one of these lighter horses travelling eighty miles in
a day— a task which in later times has been too often and cruelly exacted
from our half-bred nags.

An account has been given of the racing trial of the horses in Smithfield
market. Regular races were now established in various parts of England.
Meetings of this kind were first held at Chester and Stamford; but there
was no acknowledged system as now : and no breed of racing horses.
Hunters and hackneys mingled together, and no description of horse was
excluded.

. Later writers have pirated from Sir A., but have 'f J-^P'^il^re to^e ."S
following dcBcription of the horse is well known. " A good horse " J^^^J "l^^^l^'^.
htles of a woman,-,-^ broad breast, round hips, and a ''"'K,'?'''^"'' f i'^i't^^^^
tenance, courage/and fire ;-three of a '-"""ck ^tbe eye he ^^^^^y^J^^^
of .a sheep,--the nose gentleness, '^^•- ;;;^'^;^^Z^re. of a wolf ;ithroat, neck'.
a.,d oot;--three of a < eer -l>end legs '^f f '^^^^i^^^ ^^ ,e,.pent,-. -memory sight,
Rnd hearing; — three ot a fox, — eai , tail, anu iru , i „i' „„„„

. , • I ii !• u„„. „r ^ if — runnini:, walking, and suppleness,

mid luining ; — and thrt-e ol a bar;; or cat,— rui"""h' h) »i

28

THE HORSE.

sometimes the mn^t rliffi. u ! across tlie country mu\

selected for the exh bS o'" '"r''""^ P^""' «^ ^-"^r/' T
a.lopted with ain s dan^^^^^^ ^^Z^ ""Z P-«-'\«t-eple chaL wa
sons were appointed crud ^o ffoffX^^^^^ P--

It should, Lwever, be ilnowfedted^tLat hf ra^f oTthaT'^' 'T'''
not disgraced by the system of ^amblino- and fraud whfv ''"''"'^ "^^'^
become almost iuseparlble from^the amusementT o The tV' '^'^

was usually a wooden bell adorned with flowers Thi<, w ^''f
Pxchang-ed for a silver bell and " mv«.AU u , afterwards
and farthest on ho;eback\n' Shr^e V^^^^^^^^

plirase of " bearing away the bell." Tuesday. Hence the common

Horse-ra<3ing became gradually more cultivated • but it «... .
the last year of the rei<rn of Jimpo T tw 7 '

generall/ subscribed to for thet regulation tL''. Promulgated and

Although the Turkish and Barbary horses had been freelv u<,Pd in ™o

SrS? "^"^'"^ breeZwhich was best sui eLr his e^e":

cise, little improvement had been effected Tampc r,rUu . • j

.lele^ed .„ ,,,e Arab breed. ptbaHy, hera^^oTtS^Sr;;

nve centuries betore He purchased, from a merchant named Markham
a celebrated Arabian horse, for which he gave the extravagant sum of five
hundred pounds. Kings, however, like their subjects, are often Thwarted
and governed by he.r servants, and the Duke of Newcastle took a dis ke
o this foreig-n amma . He wrote a book, and a very good one on horse-
manship and described this Arabian as a little -bony horse, of ordina'
shape setting h.m down as good for nothing, because, after bdng regu
trained, he could not race. The opinion of the Duke, probably altoletheJ
erroneous, had, for nearly a century, great weight ; and the Arabian^
lost its reputation among the English turf-breeders.

.h^ South-Eastern hor^e was afterwards brought into England, and pur-
chased by James, of Mr. Place, who was afterwards stud-master, or groom
to Oliver Cromwell. This beautiful animal was called the White Turk
and his name and 1 hat of his keeper will long be remembered. ShortW
afterwards appeared the Helmsley Turk, introduced by Villiers. the firsl
duke of Buckingham. He was followed by Fairfax's Morocco Barb
These horses speedily effected a considerable change in the character of
our breed so that Lord Harleigh, one of the old school, complained that
the great horse was fast disappearing, and that horses were now bred lidit
and fine for the sake of speed only.

Charles I. ardently pursued this favourite object of English gentlemen
and, a little before his rupture with the parliament, established races in
Hyde Park, and at Newmarket. The civil wars somewhat suspended the
improvement of the breed ; yet the advantage which was derived by both
parties from a light and active cavalry, sufficiently proved the importance
of the change which had been effected ; and Cromwell perceiving, with
his wonted sagacity, how much these i)ursuits were counectcd with the
prosperity of the country, had his stud of race-horses.

THE ROAD AND rARMEIfS

29

At tlie Restoration a new impulse was given to the cultivation of the
horse by the inclination of the court to patronize e^aiety and dissipation.
The races at Newmarket were restored, and as an additional spur to emu-
lation, royal plates were now £jiven at each of the principal courses.
Charles II. sent his master of the horse to the Levant, to purchase brood
mares and stallions. These were principally Barbs and Turks.

From that period to the middle of the last century, the system of im-
provement was zealously pursued : every variety of Eastern blood was»
occasionally engrailed on ours, and the superiority of the engrafted, above
the very best of the original stock, began to be evident.

Man is rarely satisfied with any degree of perfection in the object on
which he has set his heart. The sportsman had now beauty of form, and
speed and stoutness, scarcely an approach to which had been observed in
the original breed. Still some imagined that this speed and stoutness
might poseibly be increased ; and Mr. Darley, in the latter part of the
reign of Queen Anne, had recourse to the discarded and despised Arabian.
He had much prejudice to contend with, and it was some time before the
Dai'ley Arabian attracted notice. At length the value of his produce began
to be recognised, and to him we are greatly indebted for a breed of horses
of unequalled beauty, speed, and strength.

This last improvement now furnishes all that can be aesired: nor is this
true only of the thorough-bred or turf-horse ; it is, to a very material degree,
the case with every description of horse. By a judicious admixture and pro-
portion of blood, we have rendered our hunters, our hackneys, our coach,
nay even our cart horses, much stronger, more active, and more enduring,
than they were before the introduction of the race-horse.

Chapter IV.

THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES.

Thk reader is now prepared for the history and distinguishing character of
the various breeds of English horses. If we were composing a treatise
on the horse adapted for general readers, we should commence with the
racer, or thorough-bred horse, which, if it be not considered as the parent
of every other breed, yet enters into, and adds, or oflen gives, the only
value to it. Remembering, however, the title of our work, we will begin
with those which are occasionally or chiefly employed for agricultural pur-
poses. First stands the Roadster, or Hackney, whether used by the farmer
to ride over his grounds, or for the longer journeys of business or plea-
sure.

The roadster varies much in ditferent districts, and according to the
whim or caprice of the rider. We have (p. 2) presented our readers with a
portrait of the old English hackney, now, fortimately, little known, yet the
origin of our best saddle-horses, whether for the road or the field. The
modern horseman will find some fault with him. We give him as he was,
and shall proceed to describe a mufh superior animal.

30

THE HORSE.
Tino ROAD HORSE

The Road Horse! more uiifcull to meet witli hi oerfectioii tl.an even the
hunter or the couiser. There are many reasons for this. The price ot
the hackney, or the horse of all-work, is so low, that he who has a <>ood one
will not part with him ; and it is by mere accident that he can be obtained.
There are also several faults that can be overlooked in the hunter but
which the road-horse must not have. The hunter may start, may be awk-
ward in his walk, or even his trot; he may have thrushes or corns- but
if he can go a good slapping pace, and has wind and bottom, we can put
up with him, or prize him : but the hackney, if he be worth having, must
have good fore-legs, and good hinder ones too; he must be sound on his
feet ; even-tempered ; no starter ; quiet in whatever situation he may be
placed; not heavy in hand ; and never disposed to say his prayers.

If there be one thing more than any other, in which the possessor, and,
in his own estimation at le*ist, the tolerable judge of the horse, is in error
it is the action of the road-horse: " Let him lift his legs well," it is said
" and he will never come down."

In proportion, however, as he lifts his legs well, will be the force with
which lie puts them down again; the jar and concussion to the rider; and
the battering and wear and tear of the i'eet. A horse with too great
" knee action" will not always be speedy; he will rarely be pleasant to
ride, and he will not, in the long run, be safer than others. The careless
daisy-cutter, however pleasant on the turf, should indeed be avoided,
unless the neck of the rider be previously insured ; yet it is a rule, not
often understood, and sometimes disputed, but which experience will fully
confirm, — that the safety of the horse depends a g.reat deal more on the
manner in which he puts his feet down, than on that in which he lifts
them up : — more on the foot being placed at once flat on the ground, or
perhaps the heel coming first in contact with it, than on the highest and
most splendid action.

When the toe first touches the ground, it may be easily supposed that
the horse will occasionally topple over. An unexpected obstacle will throw
the centre of gravity forward, and down he will come. If the toe dig into
the ground before the foot is firmly placed, a little thing will cause a trip
and a full.

THE ROAD

31

Let the farmer who has a stumbler look at the shoes of his horse In
what part is the wear and tear? — The toe of the shoe will become round
or even be altogether gone, when the heel is scarcely touched.

For ])leasant riding, and for safety also, a hackney should iiot carry hm
legs too high. His going a little too near to the ground is not always to
be considered as an insuperable objection. The question is, does he dig
his toe into the ground?

Mount him, and put him to the test. Take up his feet and examine
them. If the shoe, after having been on a week, or a fortnight, is not un-
necessarily worn at the toe, and you feel him put his foot flat on the
ground, do not scruple to buy him, nay, esteem him a " choice-gifted hack-
ney," although he may not have the lofty action which some have erro-
neously thought so necessary.

Every horse, however, is liable to fall, and hence comes the golden
rule of riding, "never trust to your horse," — always feel his mouth lightly.
He does wrong who constantly pulls might and main ; he will soon spoil
his horse's mouth, and render his own work always necessary. He
does worse who carelessly throws the reins on the neck of the horse.
Always feel the mouth lightly ; you will thus be able to give the animal
assistance immediately, before he is too much off his centre, and when a
little check will save him. By this constant gentle feeling you will like-
wise induce him to carry his head well, than which few things are more
conducive to the beautiful, safe, and easy going of the horse.

The road-horse may, and should, like the hunter, possess different de-
grees of blood, according to the natuie of the country, and the work
required of him. When approaching to thoroughbred, he may be a splendid
animal, but he will be scarcely fitted for his duty. His legs will be too
slender ; his feet too small ; his stride too long; and he will rarely be able
to trot. Three parts, or half, and for the horse of all-work, even less
than that, will make a good and useful animal.

The hackney should be a hunter in miniature, with these exceptions.
His height should rarely exceed fifteen hands and an inch. He will be
sufficiently strong and more pleasant for general work below that standard.
He should be of a more compact form than the hunter, and have more bulk
according to his height ; for he has not merely to stand an occasional
although severe burst, but a great deal of every-day work.

It is of esseiitial consequence that the bones beneath the knee should he
deep and flat, and the tendon not tied in.

The pastern should be short, and although oblique or slanting, yet far
less so than that of the race-horse, and considerably less than that of the
hunter. There should be obliquity enough to give pleasant action, but not
enough to render the horse incapable of the wear and tear of constant, and
sometimes hard work.

The foot is a matter' of the greatest consequence in a hackney. It
should be of a size corresponding with the bulk of the animal, neither too
hollow, nor too flat ; open at the heels ; and free from corns and thrushes.

The fore legs should be perfectly straight. There needs not a moment's
consideration to satisfy us that a horse with his knees bent will, from a
slight cause, and especially if he be overweighted, come down.

The back should be straight and short, yet sufficiently long to leave
comfortable room for the saddle between the shoulders and the /lUck with-
out pressing on either. Some persons prefer a hollow-backed horse. It •
is generally an easy one to go. It will canter well with a lady ; but it
wilTnot carry a heavy weight, nor stand much hard work

S2

TIIK HORSE

The road-horso should be high in the forehand ; round in tlie barrel ;
and deep in the chest: the saddle will not then press too forward, but the
girths will remain, without crupper, firmly fixed in their proper place.

A hackney is far more valuable for the pleasantness of his paces, and
his safety, good temper, and endurance, than for his speed. We rarely
want to go more than eight or ten miles in an hour; and, on a journey, not
more than six or seven. The fast horses, and especially the fast trotters,
are not often easy in their paces, and although they may perform very
extraordinary feats, are disabled and worthless when the slower horse is
in his prime.

Most of our readers probably are horsemen. Their memones .will
supply them with many an instance of intelligence and fidelity in the horse,
and p^irticularly in the hackney — the every-day companion of man. A friend
of ours rode thirty miles from home on a young horse which he had bred,
and which had never before been in tliat part of the country. The road
was difficult to find, but by dint of inquiry he at length reached the place he
sought. Two years passed over, and he had again occasion to take the same
journey. No one rode this horse but himself, and he was perfectly assured
that the animal had not since been in that direction. Three or four miles
before he reached his journey's end he was benighted. He had to traverse
moor and common, and he could scarcely see his horse's head. The rain
began to pelt. " Well," thought he, " here I am, far from any house, and
know not, nor can I see an inch of my road. I have heard much of the
memory of the horse, — it is my only hope now, — so there," throwing
the reins on his horse's neck, " go on." In half an hour he was safe at
his friend's gate.

The following anecdote, given on the authority of Professor Kruger of
Halle, proves both the sagacity and fidelity of the horse. — A friend of his,
riding home through a wood in a dark night, struck his head against the
branch of a tree, and fell from his horse stunned. The steed immediately
returned to the house which they had lately left, and which was now closed,
and the family in bed, and pawed at the door until some one rose and
opened it. He turned about, and the man wondering at the affair, fol-
lowed him : the faithful and intelligent animal led him to the place where
his master lay senseless on the ground.

Cunningham, in his valuable account of New South Wales, vol. i. p. 298,
says, " A Iriend of mine in the habit of riding a good deal, found that when-
ever he approached a gully, his sagacious horse invariably opposed his
wishes to cross at the particular spot he had been accustomed to, alwa\s
endeavouring to lead off to another part of the gully, where no passage
was known to exist by his rider. Resolving to see whither the cunning
rogue would go. he gave him the rein, and soon fbund himself carried
over the gully by a route he had never before followed. Still, however,
thinking that the former way was the nearest, he was curious enougii to
have both measured, when he found the horse's judgment correct ; that
way being the nearest by several hundred yards."

Of the paces of the hackney, and of horses generally, and the prmcijde
of the walk, the trot, the canter, and the gallop, we shall be better able to,
speak, when the structure of the horse, varying in diiierent breeds, has
been explained.

THE I'AHMKU'S.

33

The points of shape most essentia! to be attended to in the chm,..
hackney, are— the shoulders and the fore legs and feet : because , J
whose shoulders are properly formed and placed is not liable to Aill rl Zf''
and because his soundness depends chiefly upon his legs and feet T? '
shoulders should not be too upright, but should slope backwards from
the shoulder point to the withers. It is desirable, if the horse is intended
to carry a man of much weight, that the shoulders should be rather thick
than thm ; but it is essential that they should not be too large at the points
A horse whose shoulders are good, stands, when in a natural position, with
his tore legs in a line perpendicular to the ground; it is therefore very
desirable that the purchaser should see him in the stable, and before he
has been moved, for he will then find him in his natural position, in which
It may be difficult to place him after he has been once disturbed, \nother
mode of ascertaining whether the shoulders are properly placed is bv
allowing the horse to walk past you, and to observe whether he places' his
fore foot more forward than the shoulder point when he puts it on the
ground. A horse whose shoulders are properly formed will always do
so; one whose shoulders are upright, cannot. The fore quarters of u
horse intended to be used as a hackney constitute an essential point • his
carcase should be round, and his ribs deep. A horse's fore lejr of the
proper form, should be flat, and as large under the knee as it is just above
the fetlock. The pastern should be so joined to the leg at the fetlock, thai
the horse should neither turn his feet out or in; but it is less objectionable
that a horse should turn his feet a little outwards, provided it is not so
much as to make hun hit his fetlocks, than that he should turn them in-
wards

THE FARMER'S HORSE.

The Farmer's Horse is an animal of all-work; to be ridden occasion-
ally to market or for pleasure, but to be principally employed for draught.
He should be higher than the road-horse: about filteen hands and two
inches may be taken as the best standard. A horse with a shoulder thicker,
lower, and less slanting than would be chosen in a hackney, will better
suit the collar; and collar-work will be chiefly required of him. A stout
compact horse should be selected, yet not a heavy cloddy one. Some blood
will be desirable, but the half-bred horse will generally best suit the
farmer's purpose. He should have weight enough to throw into the
collar, and sufficient activity to get over the ground.

Farmers are now beginning to be aware of the superiority of the
moderate-sized, strong, active horse over the bulkier, but slower" animal ot
former days. It is not only in harvest, and when a frosty morning must
be seized to cart manure, that this is perceived, but, in the every-day work
of the farm, the sa\-ing of time, and the saving of provender too, will be
very considerable in the course of a year.

It has often been said, that a horse used much for draught is neither
pieasant nor safe for the saddle. The little farmer does not want a shewy,
complete hackney. He will be content if he is tolerably well carried; and
(.if he has taken a little care in the choice of his horse ; has selected one
with sound feet, shoulders not too thick, and legs not too much under him;
and, if he keeps him in good condition, and does not scandalously over-
weight him,) the five days carting or harrow-work will not, to any
material degree, unfit him for the .saddle ; especially if the rider bear irj

D

84

THE HOUSE.

mind Wimt we have termed the golden rule of horsemansliii), always a
little to feel the mouth of the animal he is upon.

A farmer, and, more particularly, a small farmer, will prefer a mare to a
gelding, both for riding and driving. She will not cost him so much at
first ; and he will get a great deal more work out of her. There can be no
doubt that, taking bulk for bulk, a mare is stronger and more lasting than
a gelding; and, in addition to this, the farmer has her to breed froir
Tliis and the profit which is attached to it is well known in the breeding
counties ; but why the breeding of horses for sale should be almost
exclusively confined to a few northern districts it is not easy to explain.
Wherever there are good horses, with convenience for rearing the colts, the
farmer may start as a breeder with a good chance of success.

If he has a few useful cart-mares, and crosses them with a well-knit,
half-bred horse, he will certainly have colts useful for every purpose of
a2,Ticulture, and some of them sufficiently light for the van, post-chaise, or
coach. If he has a superior mare, one of the old Cleveland breed, and
puts her to a bony, three-fourths-bred horse, or, if he can find one stout
and compact enough, a seven-eighths, or a thorough-bred one, he will
have a fair chance to rear a colt that will amply repay him as a hunter or
carriage-horse.

The mare needs not be idle while she is breeding. She may be worked
moderately almost to the period of her foaling, and with benefit rather
than otherwise: nor is there occasion that much of her /time should be
lost even while .she is suckling. If she is put to hoise in June, the foal-
ing time will fall, and the loss of labour will occur, in the most leisure time
of the year.

There are two rocks on which the farmer often strikes : he pays little
attention to the kind of mare, and less to the proper nourishment of the
foal. It may be laid down as a maxim in breeding, however general may
be the prejudice against it, that the value of the foal depends a great deal
more on the dam than on the sire. The Arabs are convinced of this,
for no price will buy from them a likely mare of the highest blood ; and
they trace back the pedigree of their horses, not through the sire, but the
darn. The Greek sporting-men held the same opinion, long before the
Arab horse was known. " What chance of winning have I T' inquired a
youth whose horse was about to start on the Olympic course. " Ask the
dam of your horse" was the reply, founded on experience*.

The farmer, however, too frequently thinks that any mare will do to
breed from ; and, if he can find a great prancing stallion, with a high-
sounding name, and loaded with fat, he reckons on having a valuable
colt : and should he fail, he attributes the fault to the horse, and not to his
own want of judgment. Far more depends on the mare than is dreamt
of in his philosophy.

If lie has an undersized, or a blemished, or unsound mare, let him
continue to use her on his farm : she probably did not cost him much,
and she will beat any gelding; but let him not think of breeding

* Bishop Hall, who wrote in the time of Elizabeth, intimates that such was th«
opinion of horsemen at that period. He asks, in cue of his satires (Lib . iv.)

" ..^ dost thou prize

Thy brute beasts' worth by their dams' quahties ?
Say'st thou this colt shall prove a swift-pac'd steed
Onely because a Jennet did him breed ?
Or say'st thou this same horse shall win the prize,
Because Ms dam was swiftest Tranchefice f

THE FARMER'S.

35

from her. A roomy mare, with some blood in her, and with most of the
(rood points, will alone answer his purpose. She may bear about her the
marks of honest work (the fewer of these, however, the better), but she
must not have any disease. There is scarcely a malady to which the
horse is subject that is not hereditary. Contracted feet, curb, spavin,
roarintr, thick wind, blindness, notoriously descend from the sire or dam to
the foal. Mr. Roberts, in that useful publication, ' The Veterinarian,
says, " Last summer I was asked my opinion of a horse I approved of
his formation with the exception of the hocks, where there happened to be
two curbs. I was then told his sister was in the same stable : she also
had two curbs. Knowing the sire to be free from these defects, I in-
quired about the dam : she also had two confirmed curbs. She was at
this time running with a foal of hers, two years old, by another horse, and
ne also had two curbs.

The foal should be well taken care of for the first two years. It is bad
policy to stint, or half-starve, the growing colt.

The colt, whether intended for a hunter or carriage-horse, may be earlier
Handled, but should not be broken-in until three years old ; and then the
very best breaking-in for the carriage-horse is to make him earn a little
of his living. Let him be put to harrow or light plough. Going over the
rough ground will teach him to lift his feet well, and give him that high
and shewy action, excusable in a carriage-horse, but excusable in no other.
In the succeeding winter he will be. perfectly ready for the town or
country market.

THE COACH-HORSE*.

This animal has fully shared in the progress of improvement, and is as
different from what he was fifty years ago as it is possible to conceive.

* Wheel carriages, bearing any resemblance to chariots, first came into use in the
reign of Richard 11. about the year 1381 ; they were called whirlicotes, and were little
better than litters or cotes {cots) placed on wheels. We are told by Master John Stowe,
that " Richard II., behig threatened by the rebels of Kent, rode from the Tower of London
to tlie Miles End, and with him his mother, because she was sick and weak, in a whirli-
cote;" and this is described as an ugly vehicle of four boards put together in a clumsy
manner.

in tne following year he married Anne of Luxembourg, who introduced the riding upon
side-saddles ; and so " was the riding in those whirlicotes forsaken, except at coronations
and suchlike spectacles,"

Coaches were not used until the time of Elizabeth, when we are told (Stowe's Survey
of London and Westminster, book i.) " divers great ladies made them coaches, and rode in
them up and do^vn the countries to the great admiration of all the beholders." The fashion
soon spread, and he adds, what is often too true in the present day, " the world runs
on wheels with many whose parents were glad to go on foot."

These coaches were heavy and unwieldy, and probably bore some rough resemblance to
the state coaches now used occasionally in court processions.

The rate of travelling was as slow as the clumsiness of the horses and vehicle would natu-
rally indicate. King George II. died early on Saturday morning, Oct. 21, 1760 : the
Duke of Devonshire, who was lord chamberlain, arrived in town from Chatsworth m three
days ; but a fourth.and a fifth day passing over, and the lord steward, the Duke ot Kutlanil,
not making his appearance, alihouffh he had not so far to travel by more tlian thirty miles,
Mr. Speaker Onslow made this apology for him, that " the Duke of Devonshire travelled
at a prodigious rate, notless tha.n Ji/lti tni/es a <lau .'" ., n. ± i i

To travel in the stage-coach from London to Epsom, sixteen miles then took nearly
the whole day, and th? passengers dined on the road. The coa^h from Edinburgh to
London started once a month, and occupied sixteen or eighteen days on the journey. A
person may now start from Edinburgh on Satiuday eveiuug, have two spare days in Lou-
don, and be back again at the Scotcli metropolis to breakfast on the next Saturday la

THE HORSE.

clumsy-ljflarreiled, eloddy-sliouldererl, round-legged, black family
horse, neither a coach nor a dray-horse, but something between both, as
fat as an ox, and, with all his pride and prancing at first starting, not
equal to more than six miles an hour, and knocking-up with one liard
day's work, is no more seen; and we have, instead of him, an animal ot
tall, deep-chested, rising in the withers, slanting in the shoulders, flat
in the legs, with even more strength, and with treble the speed.

There is a great deal of deception, however, even in the best of ther.e
improved coach-horses. They prance it nobly through the streets ; and
they have more work in them than the old clumsy, sluggish breed : but
they have not the endurance that could be wished, — and a pair of poor
post-horses would, at the end of the second day, beat them hollow.

The knee-action, and high lifting of the feet in the carriage-horse is
deemed an excellence, because it adds to the grandeur of his appearance ;
but, as has already been stated, it is necessarily accompanied by much wear
and tear of the legs and feet, and this is very soon a])]3arent.

The principal points in the coach-horse are, substance well placed, a
deep and well proportioned body, bone under the knee, and sound,
open, tough feet.

The origin of the better kind of coach-horse is the Cleveland Bay, con-
fined principally to Yorkshire and Durham, with, perhaps, Lincolnshire
on one side, and Northumberland on the other, but difficult to meet with
pure in either county. The Cleveland mare is crossed by a three-fourth,
or thoroughbred horse of sufficient substance and height, and the produce
is the coach-horse most in repute, with his arched crest and high action.
From the thoroughbred of sufficient height, but not of so much substance,
we obtain the four-in-hand, and superior curricle-horse.

From less height and more substance we have the hunter and better
sort of hackney ; and, from the half bred, we derive the machineer, the
poster, and the common carriage-horse : indeed, Cleveland, and the Vale
of Pickering, in the East Riding of Yorkshire, may be considered as the
most decided breeding country in England for coach-horses, hunters,
and hacknies. The coach-horse is nothing more than a tall, strong, over-
sized hunter. The hackney has many of the qualities of the hunter on a
small scale.

How far we are carrying supposed improvement too far, and sacrificing
strength and usefulness to speed, is a question not difficult to resolve. The
rage for rapid travelling is the bane of the post-master, the destruction of
the horse, and a disgrace to the English character.

eluding short stages, one thousand four hundred coaches now set out from London every
day ; the expense of each of which, with four horses, cannot be less than two shillings
and sixpence per mile.

Hackney coaches first appeared in London in 1625, tlie first year ot tlie reign of
Charles L : sedan-chairs had been introduced by the Duke of Buckingham six years L)efore.

Among the numerous benefits arising from the services of the horse, and the im-
provement of public roads and carriages, is the speedy and regular correspondence by
post. The invention of this useful estabUshment is ascribed to Cjtus tlie Great. It
was adopted by the Greeks and Romans. It was introduced into France by Loms XL
in 1462 and we first read of it in English history about the year 1550, under Ed-
ward VI. when post-houses were established, and horses provided at the rate of one
penny per mile. Under Elizabeth a post-master was nominated by government, and
under Charles I., in 1634, the system assumed its present form. The charge ot
postage was then fixed at two pence, if under eighty miles ; four pence between eighty
and one hundred and forty ; and six pence if under two hundred and forty miles ; but this
charge rapidly increased with the increasing price of horses, and the other expenses ol
conveyance, and after^vards it was further raised by taxation, like almost every thing else.

THE COACII-IIORSK.

3/

There is no trutli so easily proved, or so painfully felt hv the nn«t
master, at least in his pocket, as that it is the pace that kills A horJ^t
dead pull, or at the beg-inniug- of his pull, is enabled, by the force of
muscles, to throw a certain weight into the collar. If Jie walk four miles
m the hour, some part of that muscular energy must be expended in the
act of walking ; and, consequently, the power of drawin.o- must be propor
tionably diminished. If he trot eight miles in the hour, more animal power
IS expended m the trot, and less remains for the draught but the draught
continues the same, and, to enable him to accomplish his work, he must
tax his energies to a degree that is cruel in itself, and that must speedily
wear him out.

Let it be supposed — what every horse cannot accomplish — that he shall
t>e able, by fair exertion and without distress, to throw, at a dead pull| a
weight into his collar, or exert a force equal to two hundred and sixteen
pounds ; or, in other words, let him be able to drav/ a load which requires a
force of two hundred and sixteen pounds to move. Let him next walk at the
rate of four miles in an hour : what force will he then be able to employ ?
We have taken away some to assist him in walking, and we have left him
only ninety- six pounds, being not half of that which he could exert when he
began his pull. He shall quicken his pace to six miles an hour— more
energy must be exerted to carry him over this additional ground. How-
much has he remaining to apply to the weight behind him ? Fifty-four
pounds only. We will make the six miles an hour ten ; for it seems now
to be the fashion for the fast coach, and for almost every coach, and every
vehicle to attempt this pace. How stands the account with the poor
beast 9 We have left him a power equal to thirty-two pounds only to be
employed for the purpose of draught.

The load which a horse can draw is about fifteen times greater than the
power exerted, supposing the road to be hard and level, and the carriage to
run with little friction ; and the horse which at starting can throw into the
collar a weight or force equal to two hundred and sixteen pounds, will draw
a load of three thousand two hundred. Let him, however, be urged on at
the rate of ten miles in the hour — deduct the power used in swiftness of

pfw;e from the sum total of that which he possesses, and what remains?

not a sixth ]mrt — not that which is equal to a quarter of a ton— or, if it be
a stage-coach, the energy exerted in draught by the four horses will not
be equal to a ton.

The coach, and its passengers and its luggage, weigh more than this, and
the whole is still drawn on, and must be so. Whence comes the power ?
From the over-strained exertion, the injury, the torture, the destruction of
the horse. That which is true of the coach-horse, is equally true of every
other. Let each reader apply it to his own animal, and act as humanity
and interest dictate.

Many a horse used on our public roads is unable to throw all hia natural
power or weight into the collar. He is tender-footed — lame ; but he is
bought at little price, and he is worked on the brutal and abominable
principle, that he may be " whipjKd soimd." And so apparently he is.
At first he sadly halts ; but, urged by the torture of the lash, he acquires
a i)eculiar habit of going. The faulty limb appears to keep pace with the
others, but no stress or labour is thrown upon it, and he gradually contrives
to make the sound limbs perform among them all the duties of the un-
sound one ; and thus he is barbarously " whipped sound," and cruelty is
undeservedly rewarded. Afierall, however, what has been done? Three
legs are made to do thut which was almost too hard a task for four. Tlien

38

THE HORSE.

they must be most injuriously strained, and soon worn out, and tfie jronertkl
power of the animal must be rapidly exhausted, and, at no great distance
of time, exhaustion and death release him from his merciless persecutors.

It is said that between Glasgow and Edinburgh, a carrier in a single
horse cart, weighing about seven h\uidred weight, will take a load of a ton,
and at the rate of twenty-two miles in a day. The Normandy carriers
travel with a team of four horses, and from fourteen to twenty-two miles in
a day, with a load of ninety hundred weight.

An unparalleled instance of the power of a horse when assisted by art,
was shewn near Croydon. The Surrey iron railway being completed, a
wager was laid by two gentlemen, that a common horse could draw thirty •
six tons for six miles along the road, and that he should draw his weight
from a dead pull, as well as turn it round the occasional windings of the
road. A numerous party of gentlemen assembled near Merstham to see
this extraordinary triumph of art. Twelve waggons loaded with stones, each
wago-on weighing above three tons, were chained together, and a horse,
taken promiscuously from the timber cart of Mr. Harwood, was yoked to
the train. He started from the Fox publio-house, near Merstham, aad drew
the immense chain of waggons, with apparent ease, almost to the
turnpike at Croydon, a distance of six miles, in one hour and forty-one
minutes, which is nearly at the rate of four miles an houi-. In the course
of the journey he stopped four times, to shew that it was not by any ad-
vantage of descent that this power was acquired ; and after each stop
page he again drew off the chain of waggons with great ease. Mr. Banks,
who had wagered on the power of the horse, then desired that four more
loaded waggons should be added to the cavalcade, with which the same
horse set oif again with undiminished pace. Still further to shew the
effect of the railway in facilitating motion, he directed the attending work
men, to the number of fifty, to mount on the waggons, and the horse pro-
ceeded without the least distress; and, in truth, there appeared to be
scarcely any limitation to the power of his draught. After this trial the
waggons were taken to the weighing-machine, and it appeared that the
whole weight was as follows : —

Ton. Cwt. Qr.

12 Waggons first linked together 38 4 2

4 Ditto, afterwards attached - - 13 2 0

Siiprosed weight of fifty labourers 4 0 ^

55 6 2

HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSES.

The Cleveland horses have been known to carry more than seven hun-
dred pounds sixty miles in twenty-four hours, and to perform this journey
lour times in a week ; and mill-horses have carried nine hundred and ten
pounds two or three miles.

Horses for slower draught, and sometimes even for the carnage, are
produced from the Suffolk Punch, so called from his round punchy
rnake and descended from the Norman stallion and the Suffolk part mare
The true Suffolk, like the Cleveland, is now nearly extinct. It stood from
fifteen to sixteen hands high, of a sorrel colour ; was large headed ; low
shouldered, and thick on the top ; deep and round chested ; long backed ;
hio-h in the croup ; large and strong in the quarters ; full in the flanks ,
round in the legs • and short in the pasterns. It was the very horse to throw

aK.\VY DKAUOUr

Northamptonshire. Glydeadaic. SuffiUt CIcaelann.

his whole weight into the collar, with suflRcient activity to do it effectually
and hardihood to stand a long day's work.

The present breed possesses many of the peculiarities and good qualities
of its ancestors. It is more or less inclined to a sorrel colour; it is a taller
horse; higher and finer in the shoulders; and is a cross with the York-
shire half or three-fourths bred.

The excellence, and a rare one, of the old Suffolk (the new breed ha3
not quite lost it) consisted in nimbleness of action, and the honesty and
continuance with which he would exert himself at a dead pull. Many a good
draught horse knows well what he can effect ; and, after he has attempted
it and failed, no torture of the whip will induce him to strain his powers
beyond their natural extent. The Suffolk, however, would tug at a dead
pull until he dropped. It was beautiful to see a team of true Suffolks, at
a signal from the driver, and without the whip, down on their knees in a
moment, and drag everything before them. Brutal wagers were frequently
laid as to their power in this respect, and many a good team was injured
and ruined. The immense power of the Suffolk is accounted for by tho
low position of the shoulder, which enables him to throw so much of his
weight into the collar.

Although the Punch is not what he was, and the Suffolk and NorfoIV
farmer can no longer boast of ploughing more land in a day than any one
else, this is undoubtedly a valuable breed.

The Duke of Richmond obtained many excellent carriage horses, with
strength, activity, and figure, by crossing the Suffolk with one of his best
hunters.

The Suffolk breed is in great request in the neighbouring counties ol
Norfolk and Essex. Mr. Wakefield, of Barnham in Essex, had a stallion
for which he was offered four hundred guineas.

The Clydesdale is a good kind of draught-horse, and particularly for
farming business and in a hilly countrv. It derives its name from tho

40

THK IIOllSl?.

district on the Clyde in Scotland, where it is principally bred. The
Clydesdale horse owes its origin to one of the Dukes of Hamilton, who
crossed some of the best Lanark mares with stallions which he had brought
over from Flanders. The Clydesdale is larger than the Suffolk, and has a
better head, a longer neck, a lighter carcase, and deeper legs ; strong.
Iiardy, pulling true, and rarely restive. The southern parts of Scotland are
principally supplied from this district ; and many Clydesdales, not only for
agricultural purposes, but for the coach and the saddle, find their way to the
central, and even southern counties of England. Dealers from almost
every part of the United Kingdom attend the markets of Glasgow and
llutherglen.

The Heaw Black Horse is the last variety it may be necessary to
notice. It is bred chiefly in the midland counties from Lincolnshire to
Staffordshire. Many are bought up by the Surrey and Berkshire farmers
at two years old, — and being worked moderately until they are four,
earning their keep all the while, they are then sent to the Loudon market,
and sold at a profit of ten or twelve per cent.

It would not answer the breeder's purpose to keep them until they are
fit for town-work. He has plenty of fillies and mares on his farm for every
purpose that he can require; he therefore sells them to a person nearer the
metropolis, by whom they are gradually trained and prepared. The
traveller has probably wondered to see four of these enormous animals in a
line before a plough, on no very heavy soil, and where two lighter horses
would have been quite sufficient. The farmer is training them for their
future destiny ; and he does right in not requiring the exertion of all then
strength, for their bones are not yet perfectly formed, nor their joints knii ;
and were he to urge them too severely, he would probably injure and
deform them. By the gentle and constant exercise of the plough, he is
preparing them for that continued and equable pull at the collar, which is
afterwards so necessary. These horses are adapted more for parade and
shew, and to gratify the ambition which one brewer has to outvie his neigh-
bour, than for any peculiar utility. They are certainly noble-looking
animals, with their round fat carcases, and their sleek coats, and the
evident pride which they take in themselves ; but they eat a great deal oi
hay and corn, and at hard and long-continued work they would be
completely beaten by a team of active muscular horses an inch and a ha!i
lower.

The only plea which can be urged in their favour, beside their fine
appearance, is, that as shaft-horses, over the badly-paved streets of the
metropolis, and with the immense loads they often have behind them, great
bulk and weight are necessary to stand the unavoidable shaking and
battering. Weight must be opposed to weight, or the horse would some-
times be quite thrown off his legs. A large heavy horse must be in the
shafts, and then little ones before him would not look well

Certainly no one has walked the streets of London without pitying the poor
thill-horse, jolted from side to side, and exposed to many a bruise, unless,
with admirable cleverness, he accommodates himself to every motion ; but,
at the same time, it must be evident, that bulk and fat do not always con-
stitute strength, and that a compact muscular horse, approaching to sixteen
hands high, would acquit himself far better in such a situation. The
dray-horse, in the mere act of ascending from the wharf, may display
a powerful effort, but he afterwards makes little exertion, much oi
his force being expended in transporting his own overgrown mass.

These heavy horses are bred in the liighest perfection, as to size, i'\ the

HEAVY DRAUGHT.

41

fens of Lincolnshire, and few of them are less than seventeen hands high
at two and a half years old. Neither the soil, nor the produce of the soU,
is better than in other counties; on the contrary, much of the lower part ot
Lincolnshire is a cold, hungry clay. The true explanation of the matter
is, that there are certain situations better suited than others to different
kinds of farming, and the breeding- of different animals ; and that not
altogether depending on richness of soil or pasture. The principal art
of the farmer is, to find out what will best suit his soil, and the produce
of it.

A dray-horse should have a broad breast, and thick and upright
shoulders ; (the more upright the collar stands on him the better ;) a low
forehand, deep and round barrel, loins broad and high, ample quarters,
thick fore-arms and thighs, short legs, round hoofs, broad at the heels,
and soles not too flat. The great fault of the large dray-horse is, his
slowness. This is so much in the breed, that even the discipline of the
ploughman, who would be better pleased to get through an additional rood
in the day, cannot permanently quicken him. Surely the breeder might
obviate this. Let a dray-mare be selected, as perfect as can be obtained.
Let her be put to the strongest, largest, most compact, thorough-bred
horse. If the produce be a filly, let her be covered by a superior dray-
horse, and the result of this cross, if a colt, will be precisely the animal
required to breed from.

The largest of this heavy breed of black horses are used as dray-horses.
Tiie next in size are sold as waggon-horses ; and a smaller variety, and witii
more blood, constitutes a considerable part of our cavalry, and is likewise
devoted to undertakers' work.

All our heavy draught horses, and some even of the lighter kind, have
been lately much crossed by the Flanders breed, and with evident improve
ment. Little has been lost in depth and bulk of carcass ; but the fore-
hand has been raised, the legs have been flattened and deepened, and very
nuch has been gained in activity. The slow heavy black, with his two
mdes and a half an hour, has been clianged into a lighter, but yet
exceedingly powerful horse, wiio will siej) four miles in the same time,
will) perfect ease, and has considerably more endurance.

XHK DK.AY HORSE.

THK HORSE.

nope frequently to Le JL^^ 7^lst tZ^T^^^^^^^^^^^^
not so deeply as some, with the Flanders. '

Ihis IS the very system, as we shall presently describe which has
been adopted with such success in the blood-horse, and has made the
Enghshra.:er and hunter, and the En^ish horse generally what It is
As the racer .s prmc.pally or purely of Eastern orighi, so has the English
drauffh horse sprung chiefly from Flemish blood, and to that blood the ^' i
cultunst has recourse for the perfection of the breed. For the dray he sni t
waggon, and not too heavy loads, and for road- work generally, a cross wi
the Flanders will be advantageous; but if. in London, L enorm„u
heavy horse must be used in the coal-waggon, or the heavier load of the
wharf, we must leave our midland black, with all his unwieldlv bulk
untouched. ^

As an ordinary beast of lighter draught, and particularly in the neigh-
bourhood of London, the worn out hackney and the refuse of the coach,
even of the hackney-coach is used. Li the hay-markets of St. James's and
VVhitechapel are continually seen wretched teams, which would dis-race
the poorest district of the poorest country. The small farmer in the "vici-
nity of the metropolis, himself strangely inferior to the small farmer else
wliere, has too easy access to Smith field, that sink of cruelty. Thev who
are unacquainted with this part of the country, would scarcely think it
possible, that on the forests and commons within a few miles of London
as many ragged, wild, mongrel horses are to be found, as in any district
ot the United Kingdom, and a good horse is scarcely by any chance bred
there.

CAVALRY HORSE.

Tills is the proper place to speak of the cavalry horse, lliat noble animal
whose varieties we are describing, so admirably adapted to contribute to
our pleasure and our use, was at a very early age perverted to the destruc-
tive purposes of war ; and, as if he had been destined to the murderous
business, seemed to exult and triumph in the work of death.

A sacred writer, more than three thousand years ago, gives us a sublime
account of the manner in which the horse, at that time, as at present, en-
tered into the spirit of the battle (Job xxxix. 19 et seq.) " Hast thou given
the horse strength? hast thou clothed his neck with thunder? Canst
thou make him afraid as a grasshopper ? The glory of his nostrils is
terrible. He paweth in the valley, and rejoiceth in his strength : he
goeth on to meet the armed men. He mocketh at fear and is not
affrighted; neither turneth he back from the sword. The quiver rattleth
against him, the glittering spear and the shield. He swalloweth the ground
with fierceness and rage. He saith among the trumpets Ha 1 ha ! He
smelleth the battle afar off, the thunder of the captains and the shouting."

The cavalry horses contain a different proportion of blood, accordino- to
tlie nature of the service required, or the caprice of the commanding
officer. Those of the household troops are from half to three-fourths
bred. Some of the lighter regiments have more blood in them. Our
cavalry horses were formerly large and heavy. To his imposing size was
added action as imposing. The horse was trained to a peculiar, and grand
and beautiful method of going; but he was often found deficient in real

RACE HORSE.

43

service, for this very action diminished his speed, and added to his
labour and fatigue.

A considerable change has taken place in the character of our war-
horses: lightness and activity have succeeded to bulk and strength; and
for skirmishing and sudden attack the change is an improvement. It is
particularly found to be so in long and rapid marches, which the lighter
troops scarcely regard, while the heavier horses, with their more than com-
parative additional weight to carry, are knocked up. There was, how-
ever, some danger of carrying this too far ; for it was found that in the
engagements previous to, and at the battle of Waterloo, our heavy house-
hofd troops alone were able to repulse the formidable charge of the French
guard.

The following anecdote of the memory and discipline of the troop-horse
is related on good authority. The Tyrolese, in one of their insurrections
in 1809, took fifteen Bavarian horses, and mounted them with so many of
their own men ; but, in a skirmish with a squadron of the same regiment,
no sooner did these horses hear the trumpet, and recognise the uniform of
their old masters, than they set off at full gallop, and carried their riders,
in spite of all their efforts, into the Bavarian ranks, where they were made
prisoners.

Pliny relates a curious story about the war-horse, but, although an ex-
cellent naturalist and philosopher, he was either very credulous or too
fond of the marvellous. The Sybarites trained their horses to dance.
The inhabitants of Crotona, with whom they were at war, had their
trumpeters taught the tunes to which the horses were accustomed to dance.
When the opposing troops were in the act of charging upon each other,
the Crotonian trumpeters began to play these tunes — the Sybarite horses
began to dance, r.nd were easily defeated.

THE RACE HORSE.

There is much dispute with regard to the origin of ihe thorough bred
horse By some he is traced thro^ugh both sire and dam to Eastern p.rent-
a^e others believe him to be the native horse, improved and Pf^^ed by
Scions crossincr with the Barb, the Turk, or the Arab.an. ' The Stud
juaiLious cros=4iiio vyitu '„bnnwlpd£red bv every English breeder,

Rnok ' which is an authority acknowioobeu ■ , ° ,u ,:\

uooK, w 111.11 lo u, 4„ Fastern or tf'n ; or it traces them until

traces al the old racers to some Jiiftsiern ui >„ ,

44

THE HORSE.

the pedig;ree is lost in the uncertainty of an early period of breeding. If
the pedigree of a racer of the present day be required, it is traced back to
a certain extent, and ends with a well-known racer; — or if an earlier deriva-
tion be required, that ends either with an Eastern horse, or in obscurity.

It must, on the whole, be allowed, that the present English thorough-
bred horse is of foreign extraction, improved and perfected by the influence
of the climate, and by diligent cultivation. There are some exceptions, as
in the case of Sampson and Bay-Malton, in each of whom, althou<rh the
best horses of their day, there was a cross of vulgar blood ; but they are
only exceptions to a general rule. In our best racing stables, and, particu-
larly in the studs of the Earls of Grosvenor and Egremont, this is an ac-
knowledged principle ; and it is not, when properly considered, a principle
at all derogatory to the credit of the country. The British climate, and
British skill, made the thorough-bred horse what he is.

The beautiful tales of Eastern countries, and somewhat remoter days,
may lead us to imagine that the Arabian horse possesses marvellous
powers; but it cannot admit of a doubt, that the English trained horse is
more beautiful, and far swifter and stouter than the justly-famed coursers
of the desert. In the burning plains of the East, and the frozen climate
of Russia, he has invariably beaten every antagonist on his native ground.
A few years ago, Recruit, an English horse of moderate reputation,
easily beat Pyramus, the best Arabian on the Bengal side of India.

It must not be objected, that the number of Eastern horses imported is
far too small to produce so numerous a progeny. It will be recollected,
that the thousands of wild horses on the plains of South America
descended from only two stallions and four mares, which the early Spanish
adventurers left there.

Whatever may be the truth as to the origin of the race-horse, the
strictest attention has for the last fifty years been paid to pedigree. In
the descent of almost every modern racer, not the slightest flaw can be
discovered : or when, with the splendid exception of Sampson and Bay-
Malton, one drop of common blood has mingled with the pure stream, it
has been immediately detected in the inferiority of form, and deficiency of
bottom, and it has required two or three generations to wipe away the stain,
and get rid of its consequences.

The racer is generally distinguished by his beautiful Arabian head ; —
his fine and finely-set-on neck ; — his oblique, lengthened shoulders ; — well-
bent hinder legs ; — his ample, muscular quarters — his flat legs, rather
short from the knee downward, although not always' so deep as thev
should be ; — and his long and elastic pastern. These are separately con-
sidered where the structure of the horse is treated of.

The racer, however, with the most beautiful form, is occasionally a sorry
animal. There is sometimes a want of energy in an apparently faultless
shape, for which there is no accounting ; but there are two points among
those just enumerated, which will rarely or never deceive, a well-placed
shoulder, and a well-bent hinder leg.

THE DARLEr ARABIAN

The Darley. Arabien was the parent of our best racmg stock. He was
purchased by Mr. Darley's brother, at Aleppo, and was bred in the
neighbouring desert of Palmyra. The figure here given of hitn is
supposed to be an accurate delineation. It contains every point, withoul
much show, which could be desired in a turf-horse

THE DARLEY ARABIAN

4b

The immediate descendaiils ofthis invaluable horse, were the Devonsliire
or Flying Childers ; the Bleeding or Bartletl's Childers, who was never
trained; Almanzor and others.

The two Childers were the means through which the brood and fame of
their sire were widely circulated, and from them descended another
Childers, Blaze, Snap, Sampson, Eclipse, and a host of excellent horses.

?LYING CHILDERS.

The Devonshire or Flying Childers, so culled from the name of his
breeder, Mr. Childers, of Carr-Honse, and the sale of him to the Duke of
Devonshire, was the fleetest horse of his day. He was at first trained
as a hunter, but the superior speed and courage which he discovered
caused him to be soon transferred to the turf. Common report affirms,
that he could run a mile in a minute, but there is no authentic record of
this Childers ran over the round course at Newmarket (three miles six
furlongs and ninety-three yards') in six minutes and forty seconds ; and
the Beacon courso. (four miles one fnvlong and one hundred and thirty-

46 THE HORSE.

eight yards) in sevon minutes and thirty seconds. In 1772 a mile wns
run by Firetail, in one minute and four seconds.

In October 1741, at the Curragh meeting in Ireland, Mr. Wilde engaged
to ride one hundred and twenty-seven miles in nine hours. He performed
it in six hours and twenty-one minutes. He employed ten horses, and,
allowing for mounting and dismounting, and a moment for refreshment, he
rode for six hours at the rate of twenty miles an hour.

Mr. Thornhill, in 1745, exceeded this, for he rode from Stilton to
London and back, and again to Stilton, being two hundred and thirteen
miles, in eleven hours and thirty-four minutes, which is, after allowing
the least possible time for changing horses, twenty miles an hour for
eleven hours, and on the turnpike road and uneven groutid.

Mr.' Shaftoe, in 1762, with ten horses, and five of them ridden twice,
accomphshed fifty miles and a quarter, in one hour and forty-nine minutes.
In 1763, Mr. Shaftoe won a more extraordinary match. He was to
procure a person to ride one hundred miles a day, on any one horse each
day, for twenty-nine days together, and to have any number of horses not
exceeding twenty-nine. He accomplished it on fourteen horses; and on
one day he rode one hundred and sixty nxiles, on account of the tiring of
his first horse.

Mr. Hull's Quibbler, however, afforded the most extraordinary instance
on record, of the stoutness as well as speed of the race-horse. In December
1786, he ran twenty-three miles round the flat at Newmarket, iu fifty-seven
minutes and ten seconds.

ECLIPSE.

Eclipse was got by Marsk, a grandson of Bartlett's Childers *.

* The pedigree of Eclipse aflTords a singular illustration of the descent of our thorough-
bred horses from pure Eastern blood.

/-BartletfiCbildcn

/-Squirt.

^Marsk .

I Dam ot

I Caroline and Shock..

r Darlej Arabian.

1 Betty Lceda j CareleM|9banker| Barb Marc.
t Snake . . . LUter Turk.

. . I LUter Turk.
ofHa^.l;?,.{Hnu.bo,.

Daughter of-

Eci IFSB .

{Hutton'< Bay Turk.
Daughter off Coneyskln. . | LUler Turk.
' \ Daughter of i Hautboy.

{Clumsy \ Hautboy.
' f
Daughter of { Leeds Arabian.

f< r
t I Concyskina < LUler Turk.

(.Daughter of < V

t Daughter of I Hutton'a Ul«T Barb.

t Daughter of<

r negulus

^Bplletla..

{Godolphin Arabian.
{ Bald Galloway.
Daughter of^ , gnake f Llstar Turk.

I Daughter of i I

I Old Wilkes, by Hautboy.

I , „, . r Smith's Son of Snake

L Mother Western | ^

Old Montague| Daughter of Hautboy.

Tlie pedifrree of Eclipse mil likewise afford us another curious dlustration of the
uncertaiS which attends thorough-bred horses. Marsk was sold at the sale of the Duke
of Cumberland's stud for a mere trifle, and was suffered to run almost wild on the ^ ew
Forest He was afterwards purchased by the Earl of Abingdon, for one thousand guineas
Ld before his death, covered for one hundred guineas. Sgu.RT, when he property ot
^r Han-y Harpur, wis ordered to be shot, and while he was actually Wading to the dog-
kLinel he wa? spared at the intercession of one of Snr Harrj' s grooms ; and neithe,
™'ktt's cLnKas, nor Snake, was ever trained. On the side of the dam. Spilett.

THE RACE HORSE.

47

Of the beauty, yet peculiarity of his form, much has been said. The
very great size, obliquity, and lowness of his shoulders were the objects ot
general remark— with the shortness of his forequarters, his ample and
finely proportioned quarters, and the sweUing muscles of his fore-arm and
thiii'h. Of his speed, no correct estimate can be formed, for he never met
with an opponent sufficiently fleet to put it to the test.

He was bred by the Duke of Cumberland, and sold at his death to
Mr. Wildman, a sheep salesman, for seventy-five guineas. Colonel
O'Kelly purchased a share of him from Wildman. In the spring of the
following year, when the reputation of this wonderful animal was at its
height, O'Kelly wished to become sole owner of him, and bought the
remaining share for one thousand pounds.

Eclipse was what is termed a thick-winded horse, and puffed and
roared so as to be heard at a considerable distance. For this or some
other cause, he was not brought on the turf until he was five years old.

O'Kelly, aware of his horse's powers, had backed him freely on his
first race, in May 1769. This excited curiosity, or, perhaps, roused sus-
picion, and some persons attempted to watch one of his trials. Mr. John
Lawrence says, that " they were a little too late ; but they found an old
woman who gave them all the information they wanted. On inquiring
whether she had seen a race, she replied that she could not tell whether
It was a race or not, but that she had just seen a horse with white legs
running away at a monstrous rate, and another horse a great way behind,
trying to run after him ; but she was sure he never would catch the white-
legged horse if he ran to the world's end."

The first heat was easily won, when O'Kelly, observing that the rider
had been pulling at Eclipse during the whole of the race, offered a wager
that he placed the horses in the next heat. This seemed a thing so highly
improbable, that he immediately had bets to a large amount. Being
called on to declare, he replied, " Eclipse first, and the rest no where !''
The event justified his prediction : all the others were distanced by Eclipse
with the greatest ease ; or, in the language of the turf, they had no place

In the spring of the following year, he beat Mr. Wentworth's Bucephalus

never started but once, and was beaten ; and the Godoi.putn Arabian was purchased
from a water-cart in Paris. — Smilh'i Breeding /or the Turf, p. 5.

48

THE HORSE

who had never before been conquered. Two days afterwards he distanced
Mr. Strode's Pensioner, a very good horse ; and, in the August of the same
year, he won the great subscription at York. No horse daring to enlei
against him, he closed his short career of seventeen months, by walking
over the Newmarket course for the king's plate, on October the 18th, 1770.
He was never beaten, nor ever paid forfeit, and won for his owner more
than twenty-five thousand pounds.

Eclipse was afterwards employed as a stallion, and produced the
extraordinary number of three hundred and thirty-four winners, and these
netted to their owners more than a hundred and sixty thousand pounds
exclusive of plates and cups. This fine animal died in 1789, at the age
of twenty-five years *.

More than twenty years after the Darley Arabian, and when the value
of the Arabian blood was fully established, Lord Godolphin possessed a
beautiful, but singularly-shaped horse, which he called an Arabian, but
which was really a Barb. His crest, lofty and arched almost to a fault,
will distinguish him from every other horse.

It will likewise be seen from our plate (vide p. 9), that he had a
sinking behind his shoulders, almost as peculiar, and a corresponding
elevation of the spine towards the loins. His muzzle was uncommonly
fine, his head beautifully set on, his shoulders capacious, and his quarters
well spread out. He was picked up in France, where he was actually
employed in drawing a cart ; and when he was afterwards presented to Lord
Godolphin, he was in that nobleman's stud a considerable time before his
value was discovered. It was not until the birth of Lath, one of the first
horses of that period, that his excellence began to be appreciated He
was then styled an Arabian, and became, in even a greater degree than the
Darley, the founder of the modern thorough-bred horses. He died in
1753, at the age of twenty-nine.

An intimate friendship subsisted between him and a cat, which either sat
on his back when he was in the stable, or nestled as closely to him as she
could. At his death, the cat refused her food, and pined away, and soon

died. Mr. Holcroft gives a similar relation of the attachment between a

race-horse and a cat, which the courser would take in his mouth and place
in his manger and upon his back without hurting her. Chillaby, called
from his great ferocity the Mad Arabian, whom one only of the grooms
dared to approach, and who savagely tore to pieces the image of a man
that was purposely placed in his way, had his peculiar attachment to a
iamb, who used to employ himself for many an hour, in butting away the

flies from him. .

Another foreign horse, whose portrait we have given {vide p. 11), was
the Wellesley Arabian; the very picture of a beautiful wild horse of
the desert. His precise country was never determined. He is evidently
neither a perfec Barb, nor a perfect Arabian, but from some neighbouring
province, where both the Barb and Arabian would expand to a more per-
fect fulness of form. This horse has been erroneously selected as the pat-
tern of a superior Arabian, and therefore we have introduced him ; few, how
ever of his produce were trained who can add much to his reputation.

It has been imagined that the breed of racing horses has lately very
considerably degenerated. This is not the case. Thorough-bred horses

* The produce of King Herod, a descendant of Flying Childers, even more
numerous.^ He got no lefs than four hundred aj.d ninety-sevcn winners, ^Waino^ fur
theTr proprietors upwards of two hundred thousand pounds. Highflyer was a son of Ku,g
Herod.

THE RACER.

49

were formerly fewer in number, and their performances created ereater
wonder. The breed has now increased twenty-fold, and superiority is not
so easily obtained among so many competitors If one circumstance could
more than any other, produce this degeneracy, it would be our absurd and
cruel habit of bringing- out horses too soon, and the frequent failure of their
legs before they have come to their full power. Childers and Eclipse
did not appear until they were five years old ; but many of our best horses
and those, perhaps, who would have shewn equal excellence with the most
celebrated racers, are foundered and destroyed before that period.

Whether the introduction of short races, and so young horses, be
advantageous, and whether stoutness and usefulness may not thus be
somewhat too much sacrificed to speed : whether there may be dano-er
that an animal designed for service may, in process of time, be frit-
tered away almost to a shadow of what he was, in order that at two
years old, over the one-mile-course, he may astonish the crowd by his
fleetness, — are questions that more concern the sporting man thaii the
agriculturist ; and yet they concern the agriculturist too, for racing is
principally valuable as connected with breeding, and as the test of breeding.

The horse enters into the spirit of the race as thoroughly as does his
rider, and, without whip or spur, will generally exert his energies to the
utmost to beat his opponent. It is beautiful to see him advancing to the
starting-post, every motion evincing his eagerness. The signal is given,
and he springs away — he settles himself in his stride — the jockey becomes
a part and portion of him, every motion of the arms and body corre-
sponding with, and assisting the action of the horse. On he goes, eager,
yet husbanding his powers. At length, when he arrives at that distance
from which the rider knows that he will live home at the top of his speed,
the hint is given, and on he rushes. Then the race in reality begins,
and every nerve is strained to head Ins competitor. Then, too, comes the
art of the rider, to keep the horse within his pace, and with admirable give
and take, add to the length of every stride. Then, perhaps, the spur,
skilfully applied, may be necessary to rouse every dormant energy. A
sluggish luiching horse may need more punishment than the humane
observer would think justifiable. But the natural ardour of the race-horse,
roused at the moment of the grand struggle, by the moderate application
of the whip and spur, will bring him through if he can win.

Forrester will afford sufficient illustration of the natural emi'lation of
the courser. — He had won many a hardly contested race ; at length, over-
weighted and over-matched, the rally had commenced. His opponent,
who had been waiting behind, was gaining upon him ; he overtook him,
and they continued quite close to within the distance. It was a point that
could scarcely be decided. But Forrester's strength was failing. He made
one desperate plunge — seized his antagonist by the jaw to hold him back,
and could scarcely be forced to quit his hold. In like manner, a horse
belonging to Mr. Quin,in 1753, finding his adversary gradually passing him,
seized him by the leg, and both riders were obliged to dismount, in order to
separate the animals. Let us here pause and ask, would the butcherly whip-
ping and cutting which seems so often to form the expected and necessary
conclusion of the race — the supposed display of the skill of the rider
—the exultation of the thoughtless or unfeeling spectator— would these
have can-ied such horses over one additional inch of ground ? They
would have been thrown abroad— they would have shortened their stroke
-and pel haps would have become enraged and suspended every exertion

50

THE F ORSK.

The liorse is as susceptible of pleasure and pain as ourselves. He was
committed to us for our protection and our ur>e; he is a willing, devoted
servant. Whence did we derive the right to abuse him ? Interest speaks
the same language : many a race has been lost by the infliction of wanton
cruelty •

THE HUNTER

There are few agriculturists who have not a little liking for the sports ot
the field, and who do not fancy rich music in the cry of the hounds. To
what extent it may be prudent for them to indulge in these sports circum-
stances must decide, and they deserve the most serious consideration.
Few can, or, if they could, ought to keep a hunter. There are tempta-
tions to expense in the field, and to expense after the chase, which it
may be difficult to withstand. The hunter, however, or the hunting horse,

* One of the severest plate-races on record, was run at Carlisle, in 1761, and in which
there were no fewer than six heats, and two of them were dead heats, each of which was
contested by the winner of the plate. , . v i_ i

In 1763 at Salisbury, and over a four mile coiwse, there were four heats between two
horses, the Duke of Grafton's Havannah and Mr. Wildman's Pam. _

The following table of the abbreviations used in designatmg tha different courses at
New market, and the length of these courses, may not be unacceptable.

Abbrev. Miles. Furl. Yds.
The Beacon course - - B.C. is 4 1 138
Last three miles of ditto - L.T.M. 3 0 !»

From the Ditch in - - D-I. 2 0 94

From the turn of the lands in T.L.I. 0 5 184

Clermont course - - C.C. 1 5 217

Across the Flat • A.F. 1 1 447

Two-year old course - T.Y.C. 0 5 l^o

Yearling course _ » ^ 147

Round course
Ditch mile

. - . • r"m!- 10

D.M. 0 7 148

A.M. 0 7 211

Rowley mile - - \ 7 US

Two middle miles of B.C. T M.M. I 7 115

A. Distance is the length of two hundred andforty yards from the winning post la the
jTerv of the winning post, and in a little gallery at the distance post, are pl^^ced wo men
ffling Crimson flag?.^ A soon as the first horse has passed the wmmng post, the man

TIIK HUNTER.

51

Ke. the horse on which a farmer, if he be not a professed c,ir,rtsmmi
may occasionally with pleasure, and without disf,nacc, follow the hounds'
is in value ami beauty next to the racer. '

He should seldom he under fifteen or more than sixteen hands hitrh
below this standard he cannot always sufficiently mcasiu-e the object before
him, and above this, he is apt to be le£> oy and awkward at his work.

In proportion as the an riculture of the country is improved, the speed of
the chase is increased. The scent both of the fox and the hare will lie better
in inclosed and well-cultivated ground, than on open, barren heaths ; and
there is more running breast-high than when the hound is compelled to
pick out the scent, carrying his nose almost close to the ground, and
consequently going more slowly.. The character of the hunter is consequently
gradually changing. Stoutness is still required, but speed is becoming
more necessary, and, therefore, for the fox, and the deer, and even for the
har«« blood is an essential quality.

In strong, thickly inclosed countries, the half-bred horse may get toler-
ably well along ; but for general use the hunter should be at least three-
quarters bred, perhaps seven-eighths. If he could be obtained with
bone enough, and different action, a thorovgh-bred horse, would form the
best of all hunters: but the thorough-bred horse, with the usual action of
the racer, would not, even at three-quarters speed, always carry himself
sufficiently high to be aware of and to clear his fences.

The first property of a good hunter is, that he should be light in hand.
For this purpose his head must be small; his neck thin ; and especially
thin beneath ; his crest firm and arched, and his jaws wide. The head
will then be well set on. It will form that angle with the neck, which gives
a light and pleasant mouth.

Somewhat of a ewe-neck, however it may lessen the beauty of the race-
horse, does not interfere with his speed, because, as is shewn where the
structure of the horse is considered, more weight may be thrown forward,
and consequently the whole bulk of the animal more easily impelled ; at
the same time, the head is more readily and perfectly extended, the wind-
pipe is brought almost to a straight line from the lungs to the muzzle,, and
the breathing is freer. Should the courser, in consequence of this form
of the neck, bear more heavily on the hand, the race is soon over; but the
hunter may be our companion and our servant through a long day, and it
is of essential consequence that he shall not too much annoy and tire us
by the weight of his head and neck.

The forehand should be loftier than that of the racer. A turf horse may
be forgiven if his hind quarters rise an inch or two above his fore ones.
His ])rincipal power is wanted from behind, and the very lowness of the

drops his flag ; the other at the distance post drops his at the same moment, and the horse
which has not then passed that post is said to be distanced, and cannot start again for the
same plate or prize.

A Feather-weight is the lightest weight that can he put on the back of a horse.

A Give and Take Plate is where horses carry weight according to their height. Four-
teen hands are taken as the standard height, and the horse must curry nine stone (the horse-
man's stone, is fourteen pounds). Seven pounds are taken from the weight for every inch
helow fourteen hands, and seven pounds added for every inch above fourteen hands. A
few pounds additional weight is so serious an evil, that it is said, seven pounds in a mile-
race are eqidvalent to a distance. . i.. • -i .

A Post Match is for horses of a certain ago, and the parties possess the privilege ot
bringing any horse of that age to the post.

A PnooucE Match is that between t)io produce of certain marcs jn foal at the time of the
match, and to be decided when they an-ivo at a ceitain age specified.

E 2

1)2

THE HORSK,

forehand maj threw more weight in front, and cause the whole machine to
he more easily and speedily moved. A lofty forehand, however, is indis-
pensable in the hunter ; the shoulder as extensive as in the racer ; — as
oblique and somewhat thicker ; the saddle will then be in its proper place,
and will continue so, however long may be the run.

The barrel should be rounder to give greater room for the heart and
lunn-s to play, and send more and purer blood to the larger frame of this
horse ; and especially more room to play when the run may contmue un-
checked for a time that begins to be distressing. A broad chest rs an
excellence in the hunter.— In the violent and long-continued exertion of the
chase, the respiration is exceedingly quickened, and abundantly more
blood is hurried through the lungs in a given time than when the animal
is at rest There must be sufficient room for this, or the horse will lie
blown, and possibly destroyed. The majority of the horses that perish
in the field are narrow chested.

The arm should be as muscular as that of the courser, or even more
so, for both strength and endurance are wanted.

The leg should be deeper than that of the race horse (broader as you
stand at the side of the horse), and • especially beneath the knee In
proportion to the distance of the tendon from the cannon or shank-bone,
and more particularly just below the knee, is the mechanical advantage
with which it acts. A racer may be tied beneath the knee, without per-
fectly destroying his power, but a hunter with this defect will nirely have

stoutness. , ., .n i xu i tv...

If any objection be made to our cut of the hunter, it will be that the
mare was too fine below the knee. It was the only bad point m an almost
perfect form. She was the property of T. Millington Esq., o whose
kindness we are indebted for permission to copy her portrait. She would
(TO over anything, and was never tired. . , , • .v.

The leg should be shorter. Higher action is required than in the racer,
that the legs may be clearly and safely lifted over many an obstacle, and,
particularly, that they may be well doubled up in the leap.
^ The pal em should b/shorter, and less slanting, yet retaining consider-
able obUquity. The long pastern is useful, by ^he y-lduig res t^^^^^^^
which its elasticity affords, to break the concussion ^^^h .^^ich ^^^^
horse from his immense stride and speed must come on the ground . and
iZ oU qne direction of the different bones beautifully 'contributes to effect
he same purpose. With this elasticity, however, a considerab e degree
of weaknes^s is necessarily connected, and the race-horse occasionally breaks
Sown in the middle of his course. The hunter, from his different ^^^^^^^
takes not this length of stride, and therefore wants not all this elastic me-
chanism ; he more needs strength to support his own heavier carcase, and
^he ™ter weight of his rider, and to undergo the fatigue of a long day
Some^lSluit^ requires, otherwise the concussion even of

his shorter glilop, and more particularly of his frequently tremendous
Ipans would inevitably lame him. ^ . r

The foot of the hunter is a most material point. It is of consequence m
the r^^er yet it is a notorious fact, that many of our best thorough-bred
horseThave had very indifferent feet. The narrow contracted foot is the
curse of mucE of the racing blood. The work of the racer, however, is ak
curse or mucn o b scarcely incommode hira ;

S"ot of hunlwt battered over ma;;y a flinty road and stony
fil, and if not particularly good, will soon be disabled and i^ed.

The position of the feet requires some attention in the hunter. Ihey

THE HUNTER.

53

should if possible stand straight. If they turn a little outward there is no
serious objection ; but if they turn inward his action cannot be safe
partioilarly when he. is fatigued or over-weighted. '

The body should be short and compact, compared with that of the race-
horse, that he may not in his gallop take too extended a stride. This
would be a serious disadvantage in a long day and with a heavy rider,
from the stress on the pasterns ; and more serious when going over
clayey poached ground, during the winter months. The compact short-
strided horse will almost skim the surface, while the feet of the longer-
reached animal will sink deep, and he will wear himself out by etForts to
disengage himself.

Every horseman knows how much more enduring is a short-bodied
horse in climbing hills, although perhaps not quite so much in descending
them. This is the secret of suiting the race-horse to his course; and
unfolds the apparent mystery of a decidedly superior horse on a flat and
straight course, being often beaten by a little horse, with far shorter stride
on uneven ground, and with several turnings.

The loins should be broad; — the quarters long; — the thighs muscular;
— the hocks well bent, and well under the horse.

The reader needs not be told how essential temper and courage are. A
hot irritable brute is a perfect nuisance, and the coward that will scarcely
face the slightest fence exposes his owner to ridicule.

The training of the race-horse has not been touched upon^ It contains
too much mystery, and too much absurdity for common understandings.
The principle however of preptfting both tiie race-horse and the hunter fo!
their work is the same, and can have no mystery about it; viz., by
physic and by exercise, to get rid of all superfluous fat and flesh, without
too much lowering the animal ; and, particularly to bring him by dint of
exercise into good wind, and accustom him to the full trial of his powers,
without over-straming or injuring him. Two or three doses of physic
as the season approaches, and these not too strong ; plenty of good hard
meat ; and a daily gallop of a couple of miles, and at a pace not too
quick, will be nearly all that can be required. Physic must not bt»
omitted ; but the three words air, exercise, food, contain the grand secret
and art of training.

Some think that even the simple process now described is not necessary
and that horses that are taken up and worked in the day, and with a feed
or two of corn, and turned out at night, with an open stable or shed to
run into if they please, are as active, healthy, and enduring, as these who
are most carefully trained, and confined to the stable during the hunting
season. Many a farmer has boasted, that he can beat the most numerous
md the best-appointed field, and that his horse never wants wind, and
rarely tires.

It is true that the farmer may enjoy a good day's sport on the horse
that carries him to market, or possibly, occasionally performs more menial
drudgery ; but the frothy lather with which such a horse is covered m the
early part of the day evinces undeniable inferiority. There is, however,
one point on which the untrained horse has the advantage. Accustomed
to all weathers, he rarely suffers, when, after a sharp burst, there comes a
sudden check, and the pampered and shivering stabled horse is exposed
with him for a considerable time to a piercing north-easter 1 he one cares
nothing about it; the other may carry home the seeds of dangerous
disease.

54

THE UOHSR.

The liunter may be fuiily ridden twice, or, if not with any very IibkI
days, three iiines in tlie vvcol< ; but, after a thoroiigiily hard day, and
evident distress, throe or four days' rest siiould be allowed. They who are
tnercilul to their horses, allow about thirty days' work in the course of the
season ; with gentle exercise on each of the intermediate days, and parti-
cularly a sweat on the day before hunting. There is an account,
however, of one horse who followed the fox-hounds seventy-five times in
one season. This feat has never been exceeded.

We recolk'ct to have seen the last Duke of Richmond but one, although an
old man, and when he had the gout in his hands so severely that he was
obMged to be lifted on horseback, and both arms, being passed through the
reins, were crossed on his breast, galloping down the steepest part of
Bow Hill, in the neighVjourhood of Goodwood, almost as abrupt as the ridge
of an ordinary house, and cheering on the hounds with all the ardour of a
youth*.

The horse fully shares in the enthusiasm of his rider. It h beautiful to
watch the old hunter, who, after many a winters' hard work, is turned into
tlie park to eryoy himself for life. His attitude and his countenance when,
perchance, he hears the distant cry of the dogs, are a study. If he can he
will break his fence, and, over hedge, and lane, and brook, follow the
chase, and come in first at the death.

A horse that had, a short time before, been severely fired on three legs,
and was placed in a loose box, with the door, four feet high, closed, and an
aperture over it little more than three feet square, and standing himself
iiearjy sixteen liands, and master of fifteen* stone, hearing the cheering of
the huntsman and the cry of the dogs at no great distance, sprung througli
the aperture without leaving a single mark on the bottom, the top, or the
sides.

Then, if the horse be thus ready to exert himself for our pleasure— and
pleasure alone is here the object— it is indefensible and brutal to urge him

• Sir John Malcolm (in his Sketches of Persia; gives an amusing account of the impres-
sicn which a fox-huut in the English style made on an Arab.

" 1 was entertained by listening to an Arab peasant, who, with animated gestures, was
narrating to a group of his countrymen all he had seen of this noble hunt. ' There came
the fox,' said he, pointing with a crooked stick to a clump of date trees, ' there lie came I'.t
a gi-eat rate. 1 hallooed, but uobody heard me, and I thought he must get away ; but when
he got quite out of sight, up came a large spotted dog, and then another and another. 1 hey
all had their noses to the ground, and gave tongue — whow. whow, whow, so loud, 1 was
frightened. Awav went these devils, who soon found the poor animal. After theui gal-
loped the Foringees (a corruption of Frank, the name given to an European over all Asia),
shouting and trj ing to make a noise louder than the dogs. No wonder they killed the tox

among them.' " , , j. a. • i

The Treasurer, Bui leigh, the sage councillor of Queen Ehzabeth, could not enter into
the pleasures of the chase. Old Andrew Fuller relates a cpiaint story of him :—

" When some noblemen had gotten William Cecill Lord Burleigh to ride with them
a huntin.', and the sport began to be cold, ' What call you this ?' swd the treasurer.
' Oh! now the dogs are at fault,' was the reply. ' Yea,' quoth the treasurer, ' take me
atcain in such a fault, and I'll give you leave to punish me.'" ^ ,^ , i ,

In former times it was the fashion for women to hunt almost as olten and as keenly
as the men. Queen Elizabeth was extremely fond of the chase Row and WTiyte, u,
a letter to Sir Robert Sidney, says, "Iter majesty is wel , and exceUent ly d.s^^^
to hunting ; for every second day she is on horsebixk, and con nines the sport long

This cus'toin soon after,.ard/ began to decline, and the jokes aua sarcasms o th.
witty court of Charles II. contributed to discountenance it.

U is a curious circumstance, that the first work on hunting that proceeded fo^m th«
press, was from the pen of a female, Juliana Barnes or Berners the sister of Lord
Hwners. and pnoress of the nmmery of Sopewcll, about the year I'lCl

THE HUNTER.

55

beyond his own natural ardour, so severely as we sometimes do, and even
until nature is quite exhausted. We do not often hear of a " hard-day "
without being likewise informed, that one or more horses either died i'n
the field, or scarcely reached home before they expired. Some have been
thoughtless and cruel enough to kill two horses in one day. One of the
severest chases on record was by the King's stag-hounds. There was an
uninterrupted burst of four hours and twenty minutes. One horse dropped
dead in the field; another died before he could reach the stable; and seven
more within a week afterwards.

It is very conceivable, and does sometimes happen, that, entering as
ftilly as his master into the sports of the day, the horse disdains to yield
to fatigue, and voluntarily presses on, until nature is exhausted, and
he falls and dies ; but, much oftener, the poor animal has, intelligibly
enough, hinted his distress ; unwilling to give in, yet painfully and faul-
teringly holding on. The merciless rider, rather than give up one hour's
enjoyment, tortures him with whip and spur, until he drops and expires.

Although the hunter may be unwilling to relinquish the chase, he who
" is merciful to his beast" will soon recognize the symptoms of excessive
and dangerous distress. To the drooping pace and staggering gait, and
heaving flank, and heavy bearing on hand, will be added a very pecuhar
noise. The inexperienced person will fancy it to be the beating of the
heart ; but that has almost ceased to beat, and the lungs are becom-
ing gorged with blood. It is the convulsive motion of the muscles of the
belly, called into violent action to assist in the now laborious office of
breathing. The man who proceeds a single mile after this ought to suffer
the punishment he is inflicting*

Let the rider instantly dismount. If he has a lancet, and skill to use it,
let him take away five or six quarts of blood ; or if he has no lancet, let
him cut the burs with his pocket knife as deeply as he can. The lungs
may be thus relieved, and the horse may be able to crawl home. Then,
or before, if possible, let some powerful cordial be administered. Cordials
are, generally speaking, the disgrace and bane of the stable ; but here, and
almost here alone, they are truly valuable. They may rouse the exhausted
powers of nature; they may prevent what the medical man would call the
reaction of inflammation ; although they are the veriest poison when
inflammation has commenced.

A favourite hunter fell after a long burst, and lay stretched out, convulsed,
and apparently dying. His master procured a bottle of good sherry from
the house of a neighbouring friend, and poured it down the animals

• We should almost rejoice if the abused quadruped, cruelly urged beyoud
his powers, were to inflict on his rider the punishment which a Spanish ruffian
received, when mercilessly torturmg, in a similar way, a poor Indian slave, who was
carrying him on his back over the mountains. It is thus related by Captain Cochrane,
(Colombia ii. 357). — " Shortly after passing this stream, we arrived at an abrupt preci
pice, which went perpendicularly down about fifteen hundred feet, to a mountain torrent
below. There Lieutenant Ortegas narrated to me the following anecdote of the cruelty
and punishment of a Spanish officer :— This inhuman wretch, having fastened on an
immense pair of mule spurs, was incessantly dartmg the rowels into the bare flesh ol the
tortured sillcro, who in vain remonstrated with his persecutor, and asswed liim fie could
not quicken his pace. The officer only plied his spurs the more, m proportion to the mur.
murs of the sillero. At last, the man roused to the highest pitch of ini;unated excitement
and resentment, from the relentless attacks of the officer, on reaching this place jerked him
from his chair into the immense depth of the torrent below, where he was killed, and hiR
body could not be recovered. The sillero dashed off at iuU speed, escaped into th« uioim-
taiii, and was never after heard of."

THE HOrtSK.

throat. The horse immediately began to revive: soon after got up;
walked home, and gradually recovered. The sportsman may not always
be able to get this, but he may obtain a cordial-ball from the nearest
farrier, or he may beg a little ginger from some good house-wife,
and mix it with warm ale, or he may give the ale alone, or strength-
ened with a little rum or gin. When he gets home, or if he stops
at the first stable he finds, let the horse be put into the coolest place, and
then well clothed and diligently rubbed about the legs and belly. The
practice of putting the animal, thus distressed, into " a comfortable warm
stable," and excluding every breath of air, has destroyed many valuable
norses.

We are now dcscnomg the very earliest treatment to oe adopted, and before
it may be possible to call in an experienced practitioner. This stimulating
plan would be fatal twelve hours afterwards. It will, however, be the
wisest coarse, to commit the animal, the first moment it is practicable, to
the care of the veterinary surgeon, if such there be in the neighbourhood,
in whom confidence can be placed.

The labours and the pleasures of the hunting season being passed, the
farmer makes little or no difference in the management of his untrained
horse ; but the wealthier sportsman is somewhat at a loss what to do with
his. It used to be thought, that when the animal had so long contributed,
sometimes voluntarily, and sometimes with a little compulsion, to the
enjoyment of his owner, he ought, for a few months, to be permitted to
seek his own amusement, in his own way ; and he was turned out for a ,
summer's run at grass. Fashion, which governs everything, and now and
then most cruelly and absurdly, has exercised her tyranny over this pooi
quadruped. His field, where he could wander and gambol as he liked, is
changed to a loose box ; and tfie liberty in which he so evidently exulted,
to an hour's walking exercise daily. He is allowed vetches, or grass
occasionally, but from his box he stirs not, except for his dull morning's
round, until he is taken into training for the next winter's business.

In this, however, as in most other things, there is a medium. There
are few horses who have not materially suffered in their legs and feet,
before the close of the hunting season. There is nothing so refreshing to
their feet as the damp coolness of the grass into which they are turned
in May; and nothing so calculated to remove every enlargement and
sjirain, as the gentle exercise which the animal voluntarily takes while his
legs are exposed to the cooling jirocess of evaporation, which is taking
place from the herbage he treads. The experience of ages has shewn, thai
it is superior *o all the embrocations and bandages of the most skilful
veterinarian. It is the renovating process of nature, where the art of man
fails

The spring grass is the best physic that can possibly be administered
to the horse. To a degree, whicli no artificial aperient or diuretic can attain,
it carries off every humour which may be lurking about the animal ; it fines
down the roundness of the legs; and, except there be some bony en-
laro-ement, restores them almost to their original form and strength
When, however, tlie summer has thoroughly set in, the grass ceases to be
succulent, aperient, or medicinal ; the ground is no longer cool and moist,
at least during the day ; and a host of tormentors, in the shape of flies,
are, from sun-rise to sun-set persecuting the poor animal, llunning and
stamping to rid himself of his plagues, his feet are battered by the hard
ground, and he newly, and perhaps more severely, injures his legs. Kept

GALLOWAYS AND PONIES.

57

in a constant state of irritation and fever, he rapidly loses his condition
and sometimes comes up in August little better than a skeleton. '

Let the horse be turned out as soon as possible after the hunting season
is over. Let him have the whole of May, and the greater part, or possibly
the whole of June ; but when the grass fails, and the ground gets hardi and
the flies tormsMit, let him be taken up. All the bpnefits of turning out,' and
that which a loose box and artificial physic can never give, will have been
obtained, withDut the inconvenience and injury which attend an injudi-
ciously protracted run at grass, and which arguing against the use of a
thing fpom the abuse of it, have been improperly urged against turnin"'
out at all. °

The Steeple Hunt is a relic of ancient foolhardiness and cruelty. It
was ihe form under which the horse-race, at its first establishment, was
frequently decided. It is a race across the country, of two, or four, or
even a greater number of miles ; and it is generally contrived that there
shall be some deep lane, or wide brook, and many a stiff and dano-erous
fence between. It is ridden at the evident hazard of the life of the
sportsman ; and it likewise puts to hazard the life or enjoyment of the
horse. It is getting into gradual disuse, and no man whose good opinion
is worth having would deem such an exhibition creditable to the head or
heart of him who was engaged in it.

GALLOWAYS AND PONIES.

A liorse between thirteen and fourteen liands in height is called a Gal-
loway, from a beautiful breed of little horses once found in the south of
Scotland, on the shore of the Solway Firth, but now sadly degenerated,
and almost lost, from the attempts of the farmers to obtain a larger kind,
and better adajited for the purposes of agriculture. There is a tradition
in that country that the breed is of Spanish extraction, some horses having
escaped from one of the vessels of the Grand Armada, which was wrecked
in the neighbouring coast. This district, however, so early as the time ol
Edward I., cupplied tliat monarch with a great number of horses.

The pure galloway was said to be nearly fourteen hands high, and some-

TIIK HORSE.

'.lines more ; of a nrif^lit bay, or brown, with black leg.s, small head and
neck, and pecnHarly deep and clean legs. Its qualities were speed, stout-
ness, and sure-footedness over a very rugged and mountainous country.

Dr. Anderson thus describes the galloway : " There was once a breed
of small elegant horses in Scotland, similar to those of Iceland and
Sweden, and which were known by the name of galloways ; the best of
which sometimes reached the height of fourteen hands and a half. One
of this description I possessed, it having been bought for my use when a
boy. In point of elegance of shape it was a perfect picture ; and in dis-
position was gentle and compliant. It moved almost with a wiifh, and
never tired. I rode this little creature for twenty-five years, and, twice in
that time I rode a hundred and fifty miles at a stretch, without stopping,
except to bait, and that not for above an hour at a time. It came in at the
last stage with as much ease and alacrity as it travelled the first. I could
have undertaken to have performed on this beast, when it was in its prime,
sixty miles a-day for a twelvemonth running without any extraordinary
exertion."

A galloway in point of size, whether of Scotch origin or not we are
uncertain, performed, about the year 1814, a greater feat than Dr
Anderson's favourite. It started from London with the Exeter mail, and,
notwithstanding the numerous changes of horses, and the rapid driving of
that vehicle, it arrived at Exeter (one hundred and seventy-two miles) a
quarter of an hour before the mail. We saw him about a twelvemonth
afterwards, wind-galled, spiavined, ring-boned, and a lamentable picture of
the ingratitude of some human brutes towards a willing and faithfu\
servant.

In 1754 Mr. Corker's galloway went one hundred miles a-day for three
successive days, over the Newmarket course, and without the slightest
distress.

A galloway belonging to Mr. Sinclair, of Kirby-Lonsdale, performed at
Carlisle the extraordinary feat of one thousand miles in a thousand hours.

Many of the galloways now in use are procured either from Wales or
the New Forest, but they have materially diminished in number: there are
scarcely sufficient to supply even the neighbouring districts, and they are
still more materially deteriorated in form and value. Both the Welsh and
the Hampshire galloways and ponies claim, however, some noble blood.

Old Marsk, before his value was known, contributed to the improve
ment of the H ampshire breed ; and the Welsh ponies are said to be in
debted to the celebrated Merlin for their form and qualities.

The IVtlsh pony is one of the most beautiful little animals that can be
imagined. He has a small head, high withers, deep yet round barrel,
short joints, flat legs, and good round feet. He will live on any fare,
and can never be tired out.

The New foresters, notwithstanding their Marsk-blood, are generally
ill-made, large-headed, short-necked, ragged hipped, but hardy, safe, and
useful ; with much of their ancient spirit and speed, and all tlieir old
paces. The catching of these ponies is as great a trial of skill, as the
hunting of the wild-horse on the Pampas of South America, and a greater

one of patience. , • r •

A great many ponies, of little value, used to be reared ui Lmcoln-

shire, in the neighbourhood of Boston, but the breed has been neglected

for some years, and the enclosure of the fens will render it extinct.

The Exmoor Ponies, although generally ugly enough, are hardy and

iiSRlul A well-known sportsman says, that he rode one ot them half a

GALLOWAYS AND PONIES.

5!>

dozen aiiles, and never felt sucli power and action in so small a compass
oefore. To sliew his accoinplisliments, lie was turned over a gato at least
eight inches higher than his back ; and his owner, who rides fourteen
stone, travelled on him from Bristol to South Molton, eighty-six miles
heating the coach which runs the same road. *

The horses which are still used in Devonshire, and particularly in the
western and southern districts under the denomination of PACK-HonsEs
are a larger variety of the Exmoor or Dartmoor breed. The saddle-
horses of Devonshire are mostly procured from the more eastern counties.

There are many farms in that beautiful part of the kingdom on which
there is not a pair of wheels. Hay, corn, straw, fuel, stones, dung, lime,
are carried on horseback; and in liarvest, sledges drawn by oxen and
horses are used. This was probably in early times the mode of con-
veyance throughout the kingdom, and is continued in these districts,
partly from the hilliness of the country, and more from backwardness
in all matters of improvement. Light articles, as corn, straw, faggots,
&c., are carried in crooks, formed of willow poles, of the thickness of
scythe-handles, bent as ox-bows, and with one end much longer than
the other ; these are joined in pairs by cross-bars, eighteen inches or two
feet long, and each horse has tvi'o pair of them, slung together, so that
the shorter ends lie against the pack saddle, and the longer stand four
or five feet fro-m each other, and rise fifteen or eighteen inches above the
horse's back. Within and between these crooks the load is piled. Dung,
sand, &c. are carried in pots, or strong coarse panniers slung together
in the same way, and the dung ridged up over the saddle. At the
bottom of the pot is a falling door, and at the end of the journey the
trap is unlatched, and the load falls out.

There !s on Dartmoor a race of ponies much in request in that vicinity,
Ir ing sure-footed, and hardy, and admirably calculated to scramble over
the rough roads and dreary wilds of that mountainous district. The
Dartmoor pony is larger than the Exmoor, and, if possible, uglier. He
exists there almost in a state of nature. The late Captain Colgrave, ot
the prison, had a great desire to possess one of them of somewhat superior
figure to its fellows, and having several men to assist him, they separated
it from the herd. They drove it on some rocks by the side of a tor (an
abrupt pointed hill) ; a man followed on horseback, while the Captain stood
below watcliing the chase. The little animal being driven into a corner
leaped completely over the man and horse, and escaped.

The Highland Povy is far inferior to the galloway. The head is large,
he is low before, long in the back, short in the legs, upright in the pasterns,
rather slow in his paces, and not pleasant to ride, except in the canter.
His habits make him hardy, for he is rarely housed in the summer or the
winter The Rev. Mr. Hall, in his "Travels in Scotland," says, "that
when these animals come to any boggy piece of ground, they first put
their nose to it, and then pat on it in a peculiar way with one of their fore-
feet, and from the sound and feel of the ground, they know whether it
will bear them. They do the same with ice. and determine in a minute
whether they will proceed.'

The Shetland Pony, called in Scotland Sheltie, an inhabitant of the
extremest northern Scottish isles, is a very diminutive animal, sometimes
not seven hands and a half in height, and rarely exceeding nine and a half.
He is often exceedingly beautiful, with a small head, good-tempered counte-
nance, a short neck. 'fine Awards the throttle, shoulders low and lliick, (iii

TUK SHETLAND PONY.

so little a creature far from beinjr a blemieh,) back short, quarters expanded
and powerful, legs flat and fine, and pretty round feet. They possess
immense strength for their size, will fatten upon anythmg; and are per-
fectly docile. One of them nine hands, or three feet in height, carried a
man of twelve stone, forty miles in one day.

Our cut is the portrait of a Slieltie, the property of Lord Verulam
painted by Mr. Ward. A friend of ours was, not long ago, presented with
one of these elegant little animals. He was several miles from home, and
nuzzled how to convey his newly-acquired property. The Shetlander was
scarcely more than seven hands high, and as docile as he was beautiful.
" Can we not carry him in your chaise?" said his friend. The strange
experiment was tried. The Sheltie was placed in the bottom of the gig,
and covered up as well as could be managed with the aproii ; a tew bits of
bread kept him quiet ; and thus he was safely conveyed away, a-nd exhibited
the curious spectacle of a horse riding in a gig.

In the Southern parts of the kingdom the Shetlander^ have a very
pleasing appearance, harnessed to a light garden chair, or carrying an
Llmost baby rider. There are several of them now running in Windsor Park.

It has been disputed whether the pony and large English horse were,
or could be, originally from the same stock. The question is difficult to
answer It is ^lot impossible that they might have one common ex-
traction, and, if we reflect on the effect of feeding, it is not so improbable

us it may at first appear, ■ l iu , c w

Mr Parkinson * relates a circumstance very much to the point, that leli
„„der his observation. His father had a mare that brought him no less
lhan fourteen colts, and all by the same horse, and not one of which at
h^^e years old was under seventeen hands. She was in the fifteenth foal
bl the same horse, when he sold her to a neighbouring farmer,, reserving
Se foal thich was to be delivered in a twelvemonth. At her new master s
she wts comparatively starved, and she came back at t^e expiration of the
vear so altered as scarcely to be recognised. The foal, tour months old,
was very small. The little animal was put on the most luxuriant keep
but i didTot each more than fifteen hands at the expiration of the third

year.

. Parkinson on Breeding, and fho Management of Live Stock, voUi-v 139

(Si

THE IRISH HORSE.

In some of the ricli grazing counties, as Meath and Roscommon, a lame
long blood horse is reared of considerable value, but he seldom has tlie
elegance of the English horse ; he is larger headed, more leggy, ragged-
hipped, angular, yet with great power in the quarters, nmch depth beneath
the knee, stout and hardy, full of fire and courage, and the best leaper in
the world.

The Irish horse is generally smaller than the English. He is stinted
in his growth, for the poverty and custom of the country have imposed
upon him much hard work, at a time when he is unfit for labour of any
kind. For this reason, too, the Irish horse is deficient in speed. There
js, however, another explanation of this. The Irish thorough-bred horse
is not equal to the English. He is comparatively a weedy, les-gy, worth-
less an.imal, and very little of him enters into the composition of the hunter
or the hackney.

For leaping the Irish horse is unrivalled. It is not, however, the leap-
ing of the English horse, striding as it were over a low fence, and stretched
at his full length over a higher one ; it is the proper jump of the deer,
beautiful to look at, difficult to sit, and, both in height and extent, unequalled
by the English horse.

There are very few horses in the agricultural districts of Ireland exclu-
sively devoted to draught. The minute division of the farms renders it im-
possible for them to be kept. The occupier even of a tolerable sized Irish
farm, wants a horse that shall carry him to market, and draw his small
car, and perform every kind of drudgery — a horse of all work ; therefore the
thorough draught horse, whether Leicestershire or Suffolk, is rarely found.

If we look to the commerce of Ireland, there are few stage waggons,
or drayf with immense cattle belonging to them, but almost every thin<>- is
done by one-horse carts. In the North of Ireland, some stout horses ''are
employed in the carnage of linen, but the majority of the garrons used in
agriculture or commercial pursuits are miserable and half starved animals.
In the north it is somewhat better. There is a native breed in Ulster,
hardy, and sure-footed, but with little pretension to beauty or speed.

Chapter V.

THE ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE HORSE.

There are so many thousand species of living beings, some so much
resembling each other, and some so strangely and altogether different, that
it would have been impossible to have arranged them in any order, or to
have given any description that could be understood, had not naturalists
agreed on certain peculiarities of form which should characterize certain
classes, and other lesser peculiarities again subdividing these classes.

The first division of animals is into ocrtcbratcd and i/ivertebrated.

Ve.rU-bratp.d animals are those which have a cranium, or bony cavity
roniaming the brain, and a succession of bones called the spine, and the

52 THE HOUSE

divisions of it, vertcbrcc, proceeding from the cranium, and containing a
prolongation of the brain, denominated the spinal ^narrow.

Invertcbrated animals are those which have no vertebrae.

The horse then belongs to the division vertebrated, because he has a
cranium or skull, and a spine or range of vertebrae proceeding from it

The vertebrated animals, however, are very numerous. They inc hide
man, quadrupeds of all kinds, birds, fishes, and many reptiles We look
out then for some subdivision, and a very simple line of distinction is soon
oresented Some of these vertebrated animals have mammce or teats, with
which the females suckle their young. The human female has two tlie
mare has two, the cow fourpthe bitch ten or twelve, and the sow more than

twelve * 11 1

This class of vertebrated animals, having mammae or teats is called
mammalia, and the horse belongs to the division vertebrata, and the class

""ThTlts mammalia is still exceedingly large and we must again sub-
divide it. It is stated (Library of Entertaining Knowledge, vol i. p. 13)
that " this class of quadrupeds, or mammiferous quadrupeds, admits of a

'^i^rV^i:e':L^ettremities are divided into fingers or toes scie.Uifi-
,„Ilv nailed mmuic.ulala. from the Latin word lor nait : and U. lHose,
„1 '„L Jlifrar^ hoofed, scietrtlHcall, called from the Latm

ttmilie, of the first are armed with elaws or naiK which
enahrthet^T grasp, to climb, or to burrow^ The extrern.ues of the
!«tml tribe are cmploved merely to support and move the body.

■?Se StreraMes of the horse are covered with a hoof, by w^nch the body
is Iworted and with which he cannot grasp anything, and therefore he

'''B"„?%L?if a%3 wi'e;' trtofea animals. The elephant, the
rhlteros 'tie hippopotamus. L swine, the horse th ,,e^p he c iee.

-rsrsoTeoTfSipc^tcfpt^^h^^^^^^

I the mooth to be ^.t^td bet?^^?^^^^^^^^^^ of *e

rorW°(fr:;CeS) eahlrth, ruLn or paunch, to be chewed

'?bh;l'Sr:rr^^^^^

/fSf Therefore the horse ranks under the division vertebrata;
Zl^—^^^^^ tribe ungulata;-the order pachydermata

^"The^oTpelaS of several species, as the horse, the ass, the mule.

'^"'pJrs: Sfthe E.U.S C^B...us.^r Co^^^^ Sr^umber, description.

Animals are likewise d.stingu sh^ ^^^^.^^
and situation of tlieir teeth. Ihe ' * .

the front of each jaw ; and one ^"'""^ .^"^^'^^^^Xtance from the incisors.

On each side, above and below, at some mst ^^^^^^
behind the canines and with some mtervenmg space.

ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

C3

or grinders ; and these molar teeth have flat crowns with ridfres of emm I
and that enamel penetrating into the substance of the tooth '
The whole is thus represented by natural historians, and the reader will
comprehend our meaning when we are speaking of other animals.

Horse.— Incisors —, Canine -l"!, Molar TotaUO teeth

Chapter VI.
THE EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE HORSE.

A The Head.

a The posterior maxillary or under jaw.

b The superior maxillary or upper jaw. Opposite to the letter is a foramen througl
which pass the nerves aiid blood-vessels wliich chiefly supply the lower part of
the face,

o The orbit, or cavity containing the eye.
d The nasal bones, or bones of the nose.

e The suture dividing the parietal bones below, from the occipital bones abovft

f The inferior maxillary bone containing the upper incisor teeth,

B The Seven Cervical Vertebrae, or bones of the neck.

C The Eighteen Dorsal Vertebrss, or bones of the back.

I) The Six Lumbar Vericbrae, or bones of the loins.

E The Five Sacral Vertebrae, or bones of the haunch.

F The Caudal Vertebra!, or bones of the tail, generally about fifteen.

G The Scapula, or shoulderblade.

CI

THK HORSE

Sternum or fore-part of the chest.
The Costseor ribs, seven or eight articulating with the sternum, and called the true rtb*
and ten or eleven united together by cartilage, called the/«/.e rib,.
I The Humerus, or boue of the arm.
K The Radius, or bone of the fore-arm.

L The Ulna, or elbow. The point of the elbow xs called the Olecranon.

M The Carpus or knee, consisting of seven bones. ^ u ■ e ^ A

N Tl.e metacarpal bones. The larger metacarpal or cannon or shank m front, and the

smaller metacarpal or splent bone behind. . .

„ Theforepasternandfoot,consistingoftheOsSuffragims,ortheupperandlargerpaste^^

' bone with the sessamoid bones behind, articulating w.th the cannon and greale
paSm, the Os Corona, or lesser pastern; the Os Pedis or coffin bone; and
Jhe Os Naviculare, or navicular, or shuttle-bone, not seen, and artiadatmg with th.
smaller pastern and coffin bones.
A The corresponding bones of the hind-feet. wv n u-

O Se il'nch, con'sting of three portions, the Ilium, the Ischium, and the Pubis.

P The Femur or thigh,

O Tlie stifle joint with the Patella. „ , .1. cv ,

V xuc siiu J v„>,;na i<i a small bone called the fibula.

point of the hock.
T The Metatarsals of the hind leg.

are few persom who do P'^'tT " .f, ,,oblen.an with his numerous
his for.„, qoahues '^^f -;^l„£Zr^ltl^i.^>i<'. not excluding
and valuable stud, to me mi.a le^i j behind a horse once in a

even the mechanic -"S'-V'^an wh wouM be offended if h.
twelvemonth, there is scarcely a ™" ™ " ^herc is no subject on
were thought altogether ignorant of ^^^'V j.^ '"^.ally spiking,
which he is so P»''^,'^*;^:''f,^° J' So^so^^^^^^ of ^hiSh theSe
^Jellnlf a'd^'l^lSSes would not give a totally opposiU

-Z'tnith is, that «^-xiirrt't%:i,rrrifL^

strength, or fleetness, or f ''"I^Jl J^l^S"^^^^ and pullies, and
constructing or examining ^ "'^*''"fi°'X,,t or to set in motion certain
by which we purposed 'r''^'^' .'^-l' • ° ,;''„blct, or expose our

b'odies ""Vthf i:':t;:'Twe":et no. wLt^L 'of lev Jr or con-

^c jl-'itr ;;a?:/Xntag^^ and b^what pe^l^r eon-

struction it would inevitably ^^}^^\ „f ^he human being*, consist*

Now the structure , of Ws with ropes attached to them in
of numerous levers in the shape of bones, witn np
• See Treatise on "Animal Mechanics."

fiXTKKNAL STHUCTUUE. 05

Uie form of muscles and tendons ; and tliese levers »ire differeMllv rnn
nected, and act m different directions ; and he will be the best \ Juq Lf
horses who, wlale he has loved, and lived among them, is somevvhat ac
quainted with the circumstances in which mechanical power is cained
or lost. °

In speaking then of the structure of this animal, and the points which
guide the opinion of real judges of him, we shall, as briefly and as simplv
as we are able, explain those fundamental principles on which his usefulness
and beauty must depend. We require one kind of horse for slow and
heavy draught, and another for lighter and quicker work: — one as a plea-
sant and safe roadster ; another with more speed and equal continuance as
a hunter ; and another still is wanted for the race-course. What is the
peculiarity of structure — what are the particular points that will fit each
for his proper business, and, to a certaii degree, unfit him for everythino-
else ? The farmer will require a horse of all work, that can carry him
to market and take him round his farn, on which he can occasionally
ride for pleasure, and which he must som* times degrade to the dung-cart
or the harrow. What combination of powers will enable the animal to dis-
charge most of these duties well, and all of them to a certain extent profi-
tably? '

Much time spent among horses, an acquired love of them, and a
little, sometimes possibly, too dearly-bought experience, may give the
agriculturist some insight into these matters. We will try whether we
cannot assist him in this affair ; whether we cannot explain to hiin the
reason why certain points must be good, and why a horse without them
must, of necessity, be good for nothing. Perhaps some useful rules may
thus be more deeply impressed upon his memory, or some common, but
dangerous prejudices may be discarded, and a considerable degree of
error, disappointment, and expense avoided.

It is first of all necessary to give a sketch of the Anatomy of the Horse,
in which we shall endeavour to elucidate those numerous and beautiful
instances of wise and benevolent design, exhibited in the structure of this
valuable animal, and which will render our study of him more interesting;
while many a hint of practical utility will be gained.

If we treat of this at considerable length, let it be remembered, that the
horse is our noblest servant, and that, in describing the structure and eco-
nomy of his frame, we are, in a great measure, describing that of other
domestic quadrupeds, and shall hereafter have to speak only of points of
difference required by the different services and uses for which they were
destined. And further, let it be remembered that it is only by being well
acquainted with the structure and anatomy of the horse that we can appre
ciate his shape and uses, or understand the different diseases to which he
is liable. We trust the reader who may fancy us rather prolix on this
head m\], before the work is finished, feel the full value of what we
purpose to explain, ft is from want of knowledge of the anatomy of
Ihe horse, that much of the mass of ignorance and prejudice which exists,
ns to the diseases, &c. to which the horse is subject, is to be relened ; and
we deem it one of the most imi)ortant objects of this treatise to reform this
Ignorance, and remove these prejudices.

It will be proper here, once for all, to caution the reader, who has hitherto
been unaccustomed to reading books of science, against being deterred by
the sight of a few of what are termed hard names. The fact is, that science
must have, to a certain extent, a new language to express minutely and ac-
curately the particular parts or things to be described ; and this is the case

F

6G

THE HORSE,

and every art. A carpenter eotild not, without this, deRcrilje wit.li preeisior
and clearness the diflerenl tools in use, nor could he describe the ditTerent
operations to be performed, without inventing a particular language adapt«<}
to his purpose, and whereby he is enabled to express in one word what
would otherwise onlv be accomplished by a long sentence. It is the same
with anatomy, except that the names and signs have prmcipally been
adopted from the Lalin and Greek, inasmuch as those languages are usually
known to scientific men in all countries. This new language becomes one
common to all men pursuing the same science. We shall as we go on
explain the meaning of the words so adopted, and a very little attention
will enable the reader to master them, and it will require little thought to
be convinced of the advantage, in respect of clearness and certamfy, de-
rived from their use. ... . , ■ . .1

We begin with the head, containmg the bram, and the most important

"'^f he he^dTay be divided into two parts, tlie skull and the face. The
bones which compose the skull or cranium, and which contain and protect
the brain are nine in number: two frontal a «-two parietal, co-two
temporal, d d-the occipital, g-the ethmoid, and the sphenoid. The two
Z lie principally at [he base of the skull, and are not seen m this cut,
but will be found delineated in figs, k and I, page 68. These nine bones
are separate in the foul at an early period of its existence ; but soon after
the birth they are firmly united together by what anatomists call sutures,
and so firm \s the union! that a fracture will occur in any other part more
readily than over a suture.

(J a

b h

The frontal bones, or bones of the forehead.
The supra-orbital foramina or holes above the orbit,
through which pass out the nerves and blood-vessels
supplying the forehead. The small hole beneath
(ofwhich ill many horses there are several) receives
vessels which dip into and supply the bone,
c c The parietal bones, or walls of the skull,
i d The temporal bones, or bones of the temples,
e e The zygomatic, or yoke-shaped arch.
ff The temporal fossa, or pit above the eye.
g The occipital bone, or bone of the hinder part of the
head.

The orbits, containing and defending the eye.
The lachrymal bones, or tear-bones.
The nasal bones, or bones of the nose.
The malar, or cheek bones.

The superior maxillary, or that portion of the upiicr

law containing the molar teeth or grinders.
The infra-orbital foramen, a h..e below the orb. ,
through which pass branches of nerves and blood-
vessels to supply the lower part of the lace.
The n erior mixUlary, the lower part of the upper jaw
a separate bone in quadrupeds, conta.mng ,he
incisor or cutting teeth, and the upper tushes at the
"of union 'between the superior and mfenor
niaxillaries

nie upper incisor or cutting teeth. - •„„*v,.

llL oiiings into tha nose, with the hones forming th.c
roof of the palate

h h
1 1

k k
1 1

m m

EXTERNAL STRUCTURK.

There is an eviiienl iislfiilion in Uiis division
of the iiead into so many bones. When the foetns
—the unborn foal— first begins to liave life, that
which afterwards becomes bone, is a mere jelly-
like substance; this is gradually changed into
a harder material— cartilage ; and, before the
birth of the animal, much of the cartilage is
taken away by vessels called absorbents, and
bone deposited in its stead. In flat bones, like
those of the head, this deposit takes place in the
centre, and rays or radiations of bone extend
thence in every direction. Then, by having so
many bones, there are so many centres of radia-
tion ; and, consequently, the formation of bone
Ks carried on so much the more rapidly, and per-
fected at the time when the necessities of the
animal require it. At the period of birth, how-
ever, this process is not completed, but the edges
of the bones remain somewhat soft and pliant,
and therefore, in parturition, they yield a little,
and overlap each other, and thus, by rendering
the birth more easy, they save the motlicr much
pain, and contribute to the safety of the foal.
Without a change in the form of (lie head, from a compression and yieldinrr
of the bone of which it is composed, the animal could not be born. "

The first of these bones, or the first pair of them, occupying the broad
expanse of the forehead, are called the frontal bones, a a. They are united
together by a most curious and intricate dove-tailing, to defend from in-
jury the brain which lies beneath the ujiper part of them. Lower down,
and where the cavity of the nose is to be defended, their union is sufficient
but far less complicated. The mechanism is here, as in every part of the
frame, and every part of the universe, wisely adjusted to the necessities
and wants of the animal.

Few things more clearly indicate the breed or blood of the horse than
the form of the frontal bones. Who has not remarked the broad anguUir
forehead of the bloodhorse, giving him that beautiful expression of intelli-
gence and fire, and the face gradually tapering from the forehead to the
muzzle ; and then compared it with the large face of the cart or dray horse,
and the forehead scarcely wider than the face.

At /, between the frontal bones, is the ])it or cavity above the eye, and
by the depth of which we form some idea of the age of the horse. There
is placed at the back of the eye a considerable quantity of fatty substance,
on which the eye may revolve easily and witliout friction. In aged horses,
and in diseases attended with general loss of condition, much ef this fat
disappears ; the eye becomes sunken, and the pit ahove the eye deej)cns
It is said that some of the lower class of horse dealers puncture the skin,
and, with a tobacco-pipe or small tube, blow into the orifice, imtil the
depression is almost filled up. This operation is vulgarly called pvjfflng
the glims, and, with the aid of a bishopped tooth, will give a false appear-
ance of youth, that will remain during many hours, and may deceive the
unwary, though the puffing may easily be detected by pressing on the part.

These bones, however, are not solid, but a considerable portion of then,
is composed of two plates receding from each other, and leaving n\nnerous
and krge vacuities or cells. These vacuities are cdled the frontal sinusal

F 2

68

THE HORSE.

They communicate with the cavities of the nose, am l.l<ew.se ^ t lho«.
of the sphenoid, ethmoid, and npper jaw bones, an.l ''-/^J -'"'I'^^'^t
French horn, increase the clearness and loudness of the ne.ghmg. Ih.y
are sufficiently evident at h in the following cut.

SECTION OF THE HEAD.

o The nasal bone, or bone of the nose.

The frontal bone. Tlie cavities or cells beneath are called the frontal sinnscs.
c Tlie crest or ridge of the pariftal bones.

d Tlie tentorium, or bony separation between the cerebrum and cerebellum.
e The occipital bone.

/• The ligament of the neck, or pack-was, by which the head is chiefly supported.
y The atlas, sustaining or carrying, or first bone of the neck
h The dentata, tooth-like, or second bone of the neck.

,• The cuneiform, or wedge-shaped process, or base of the occipital bone. Bet«-een it
and the other portion of the occipital bone e, lies the great foramen or aperture through
which the prolongation of the brain,— the spinal marrow,— issues from the skull.
k The sphenoid, wedge-like, bono, with its cavities.

The ethmoid, *iet)e-Z<Are bone, with its cells. , , , „ , ♦

The cerebrum, or brain, with the appearance of >ts cortical and medullary substance.
The cerebellum, or little brain, with its beautiful arborescent appearance.
A portion of the central medullary. marrowUke, substance of the bram and the pro
bngation of it under the name of the eras cerebn, leg o/thebra.n, and from winch
manv of the nerves take their origiii. „ „ , „ , .

Th™ldulla oblongata,-the prolongation of the beam after the medullary substance
of retrebrum and Ubellum have united, and forming th« commencement of th«

EXTERNAL STRUCTURE.

si)inal marrow. Tlie columnar appearance of this portion of the brain is renr-j
sented, and the origins of the reiii)iratory nerves. ^

■I The spinal marrow extending through a canal in the centre of the bones of the neck
back, and loins, to the extremities of the tail, and from which the nerves of feeling
and of motion, that supply every part of the frame, except the head, arise.

r The septum narium, or cartilaginous division between the nostrils.

s Tlie same cut off at the lower part, to shew the spongy turbinated, turban-shuped, bonus
filling the cavity of the nostril.

t Tlie palate.

ti The molar teeth, or grinders.

1' Tlie inferior maxillary bone, containing the incisor teeth or nippers. The canine

tooth, or tusli, is concealed by the tongue.
If Tlie posterior maxillary, or lower jaw wiUa its incisors.
X The lips,
y Tlie tongue.

z A portion of the os hyoides, or bone of the tongue, like a Greek u, u.

I The thyroid, helmet-shaped, cartilage, enclosing and shielding the neighbouring parts.
V! The epiglottis, or covering of the glottis, or aperture of the wind-pipe.

3 Tlie arj'teuoid, funnel-shafed, cartilages, having between them the aperture leading

into the trachea or ivind-pipe.

4 One of the chordae vocales, cords or ligaments concerned in the formation of the voice.

5 Tlie sacculus laryngis, sac or ventricle of the larynx, throat, to modulate the voice.

6 The trachea or wind-pipe, with its different rings.

7 The soft palate at tlie beck of the mouth, so constructed as almost to prevent the po*

sibihty of vomiting.

8 Tlie opening from the back part of the mouth into the nostril.

9 The cartilage covering the entrance into the eustachian tube, or communication between

the mouth and internal part of the ear.

1 0 The oesophagus, or gullet.

I I The cricoid, ring-tike, cartilage, helow and behind the thyroid.

12 Muscle of the neck, covered by the membrane of the back part of the mouth.

In the sheep, and occasionally in the ox, rarely in the horse, the larvae of
mag-gots produced by certain species of flies, crawl up the nose, lodge them-
selves in these sinuses, and produce intolerable pain.

Veterinary surgeons have availed themselves of these sinuses, to detect the
existence of glanders, that disease so infectious and so fatal. They may sus-
pect that a horse respecting which they are consulted is glandered. It is of
great consequence to be sure about it. The safety of the whole team may
depend upon this. It may be a puzzling case. There maybe no ulceration
of the nose within sight. The glands under the jaw may not be close to,
and seemingly sticking to the bone, which is a common symptom, yet for
a considerable time there may have been a discharge from the nostril, and
the horse is out of condition. On the other hand, some slight ulceration
may be detected in the nostril, but the horse eats well, works well, and is in
good plight. From the closest examination of the animal, no horseman,
and no veterinary surgeon can give a decided opinion.

If, however, the horse be glandered, there will probably be considerable
ulceration in the upper part of the cavity of the nose, and a collection of
matter there. To detect this the veterinary surgeon sometimes makes au
opening into these sinuses. He may do this with perfect safety. On that
part of the frontal bone, which lies between the eye and the pit above it,
and above the inner corner of the eye, there is, on either side, a small de[)rcs-
sion or hole (see fig. b b, cut, page 66), which miiy be easily felt in the living

70

THE UORSR

horse. It is wluit anatomists call a foramen — the suira-orbital foianien.
It gives passage to the blood-vessels and nerves of the forehead.

Suppose a line to be drawn across the forehead, from one of these
depressions to the other ; on that line, and about half an inch from the
centre of it, either on the one side or the other, the frontal sinuses will be
found an inch in depth (compare fig. b, pp. 66 and 68). There a perfo-
ration may be easily and safely made. A little way above, the brain
would be endangered, and a little below this line, the cavity of the nose
would be pierced. Some warm water may then be thrown into this hole,
with a common squirt, and it will run out at the nose. If there be malter
in the frontal sinuses, or any part of the cavity of the nose, it will appear
mixed with the water, and the owner may be assured that the horse is
glandered ; but if the water flow uncoloured, or simply mixed with blood
or mucus, the horse may be considered as free from this disease. The
thicky creamy consistence of pus, its sinking in water, and its capability of
being perfectly, although not readily mixed with water, will distinguish it
sufficiently from tlie natural running of the nose, which is ropy, lighter
than water, and when mixed with it still preserves a kind of stringiness.
And this is one of the surest modes of distinguishing between the matter
and the natural running of the nose.

The inner plate of the frontal bone forms a considerable proportion o\
the roof of the cavity which contains the brain (m in the last cut). The
bones immediately above the frontal, and extending from the frontal to the
poll, are called the parietals, (c c, pp. 66 and 68,) from the Latin word panes,
a wall. They are two, united together by a suture when the annual is
young, but that suture soon becoming obliterated. They have the occipital,

p. 66, above, the frontals, a a, below, and the temporals, d d, on either
side. They are of a closer and harder texture than the frontals, because
they arc more exposed to injury, and more concerned in defending the

^'Tverv small portion only o{ ihepanetahm naked, and that is composed
of bone even harder than the other part, and with an aclditional layer ot
bone rising in the form of a crest or ridge externally. Every other part of
these bones is covered by a thick mass of muscle, the ^'^P'l^l.^^^^:'^'^^
is principally concerned in chewing the food, but which hkewise by its
yidding^resistance speedily and effectually breaks the force of the most vio-
lent stroke. A blow on the calf of the leg is comparatively disregarded
while one, half as heavy, received on the shui, gives excessive pam. A
wool-pack hung over the wall of a fortress, when the enemy is battering
to effect a breach, renders the heaviest artillery almost harmless. So the
vieldiu"- resistance of the temporal muscle affords a sure defence to the brain
howeve" sudden or violent may be the blow which falls on the parietal.
These benevolent provisions will not be disregarded by the reflecting mind
On the side of the head, and under the parietals, are placed {dd, p. OO;
the t^nporal bones, one on each side. Thene again are divided "i^o two
oarts or consist of two distinct bones; the petrous portion so called from
its great or slo7iy hardness, and containing the wonderful mechanisni o
the ea- and the squa^nous portion from the appearance of its union with

""VrtSle ^:X^^^^^o:^'^<-- e, which miites with the
frnnS a ml forr^s strong arch distinctly to be felt at the side of the head
unm^diate aW h eye^ This arch is designed to protect the upper par.
c^^^e owerlaw, the motion of which may very plainly be seen beneath ,
wh « t lu ho se is eating. It h very strong, and it ought to be, lest the

KXTKRNAL STRUCTURE.

motion sliould by accident be impeded, and the horse should starve If
only one spccicy of violence were conmdered to which this arch is too
frequently exposed, it would require to possess no common strength; we
mean, the brutal manner in which the collar is forced over the head. ' At
the base of the arch is an important cavity, not visible in our cut, receiving
into it, and formintr a joint with the head of the lower jaw — we shall have
to speak of it presently.

Having reached the base of the temporal bone, we find it united to the
parietal, not by a simple suture, as the lower part of the frontals, or the
bones of the nose (see fig. a and 7, p. 66), nor by a dove-tailed suture,
as the upper part of the frontals (see the same cut), but it is spread over
the parietal in the form of a large scale, and hen?e, as before observed,
called the squamous portion of the temporal bone. In fact, there are two
plates of bone, instead of one. Was there design in this ? Yes, evidently
so. In the first place, to increase the strength of the base of the zygomatic
arch. This extensive union between the temporal and parietal bones
answers to the buttress or mass of masonry attached to the base of every
arch to counteract its lateral pressure. The concussion likewise which
might be communicated by a blow on the top of the arch, is thus spread
over a large surface, and consequently weakened and rendered compara-
tively harmless ; and that surface is composed of the union of two bones
of dissimilar construction. The hard stony structure of the parietal is very
different from the tougher material of the temporal ; and thus, as a finger
acts on a sounding glass, the vibration communicated to the temporal is at
once stopped, and the brain receives no injury.

But there is yet more admirable design. Where is this squamous por-
tion of the temporal bone situated ? On the side of the head. And what
is the figure of the cranium or skull, and principally that part of it which
contains the cerebrum or brain ? It is an elliptical or oval arch (see fig.m,
n, 0, p. 68). If pressure be made on the crown of that arch — if a blow be
received on the suture between the parietals, sufficient to cause the elastic
materials of which the skull is composed to yield — the seat of danger and
injury is at the side. If a man receive a violent blow on the crown or
back part of the head, the fracture, if there be any, is generally about the
temple, and the extravasation of blood is oftenest found there. The fol-
lowing figure will explain this.

Let the line ABC represent an elliptical arch, composed of elastic ma-
terials. Some force shall be applied at B sufficient to cause it to yield.
We cannot compress it into smaller compass ; but just in propoition as it
yields at B, will it spur or bulge out at D, and give way sometimes as re-
presented at E. In a dome, the weight of the materials constantly acting may
be considered as representing the force applied at B ; and so great is tho
lateral pressure, or tendency to bulge oui{vidc D and E), that it is neces-

72 THE HORSE.

sarv either to dove-tail the materials into one another, or to pass strong iron
.nains round them. For want of sufficient attention to this, " the dome of
St. Sopn,a m Constantinople, built in the time of the Emperor J ustunan,
fell thi-ee times during its erection ; and the dome of the cathedral of Flo-
rence stood unfinished an hundred and twenty years for want of an

'''' Nalurl in the construction of the horse's head, has taken away the
nressure or removed the probability of injury, by g.vmg an add, ,onal layer
of bone or a m^ss of muscle, where alone there was danger and has dove-
"ailcS the materials, and, to make assurance doubly sure, has placed th.s
eSual g^d" at the'base, in the overlapping of the squamous portion of

'''in "roT' wE^e, to give a secure base to the horn, the frontal bone spreads
ove the who7e of the fore-part of the head, and the cramal cav.ty is suffi-
cTently selredby the beautiful mechanism between the two l^ate^ ^f ^^^^
bone the temporal bone does not overlap the parietal Nature gives
every thing esTtial to the protection and welfare of the animal, but nothing

AboveThe parietals, and separated from them by a suture (fig. g, pp. 66
and 68, and fi^^. c, p. 66), is the occipital hone. Superiorly it cov rs^.d
nrotects the smaller portion of the brain, the cerebellum ; and as it there
LStls the sumn^t or crest of the head, and is not P-t-ted by im^^^
rles ind uarticularly exposed to danger, it is interesting to see what tliick
issirassumes The head of the hoarse does not, like that of the humarj
be ni r dHpright on the neck, with all its weight supported by the spinal
column a^id the only office of the muscles of the neck being o move the
r 1 ?;rw,rd or backward, or horizontally on its pivot; but it hangs in a
'rl™ia%" oftheLck, and the neck Hself projects

Tconsfderable distance from the chest, and thus the whole weight of the
Lr^nd neck are suspended from the chest, -^-^--J^f ^^^^/.^k
fo suDOort them In addition to the simple weight of the head and neck.

he neck pro eating from the chest, and the head hanging from the extre-
t^fty of tL necV^act with enormous mechanical force, and increase mor.
thai a hundred-fold the P^^^ Xa'^mllltS'frl^^^^^^ at arm's

.enl\r tTc farS sTJJy 2 shtw thl ^weight of a fel pounds, at tl.

Smity, wtlS^^^^^ or B.t with a force equal to a hundred weight

"^'ll^'cnTand Teck of the horse, and particularly of some horses of a
coarse b^eed a e of o httle bulk and weight. We shall hereafter have to
«rrin what breeds, and for what purposes a light or heavy head and
Srradvantao'ous ; but it may be safely affirmed, that projecting so
xr from the chest^ and being consequently at so great a distai.ce from tl^
ar trom ' ^ j. ,° ^ y^^^^ ^ct or bear upon the joint be-

teZ Z S'bl o? th'e neck and the first rib. with a force equal to
many thousand Vonndi. ^ j ^ of muscle equal to

the task ? The muscles or i ^^.^ ^^^^^ attended with

extraordinary force ; but a^ the ex ^^^^^ ^^^.^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^.^^
the consumption ot vital energy, uic

is remitted or altogether suspended. constant support of the

„efj":ff c i;«rri fo, u. ,.1:0^ ......

tind comj)lete

EXTERNAL STRUCTURK

73

Fruin the buck of the occipital bone (fig-, f, n 68") nnri i- . ,

below the crest, proceeds a rouU cord of consilSbie ^[.Ik 'l.nitS
of a ho-amentous substance, and which is carried down and securely auS
o the spnies of the vertebrae, or bones of the back ; and by this lii^amen t f the
hgammtum co//i, hgament of the neck, commonly called the vack-wax^T.
. head is supported. ''

There are, however, some admirable contrivances connected with this
ig-ament. As it proceeds from the head, it is in the form of a round cord
It passes over the atlas, or first bone of the neck, without touching it, and then"
attaching Itself strongly to the second bone, princi]mlly supports the head
by Its union with this bone. The mechanical disadvantage is increased but
^he head is turned more freely on the first and second bones. The prin
cipal stress is on the dentata or second bone, so much so, that, in poll-
evil, this ligament may be divided without serious inconvenience to the
horse^ It then suddenly sinks deeper, and communicates with all the other
vertebriE. Each of these communications becomes a separate point of sup
port, and as they approach nearer to the prop, or centre of motion, the mi
chanical disadvantage, or the force with which the weight of the head and
neck presses and acts, is materially lessened.

The head then, without any aid from muscular energy, is, while the
animal is in a state of rest, supported by this ligament.

There is, however, something yet wanting. The head must not be
always elevated. The horse has his food to seek. In a state of nature this
food lies principally on the ground, and the head must be lowered to enable
the animal to get at it. • How is this effected ? This ligament, as we call it,
because it resembles in appearance the other ligaments of the body pos-
sesses a property which they have not, and which they must not have or
they would be useless. No well-knit joint could exist if it had this pro-
perty The pack-wax is elastic. It will yield to a force impressed upon
It, and it will resume its natural dimensions when that force is removed
It sustains perfectly the weight of the head. That portion of tenacity or
strength is given to it, which will not yield to the simple weight of the head
but vvhich will yield to a very little additional weight. Its resisting power is
so admirably adjusted to that which it has to sustain, that when certain
inuscles, whose action is to depress or lower the head, begin to act, and add
their power to the previous weight it had to bear, the ligament stretches
and when the horse is browsing, it is full two inches longer than when the
head is erect.

When the animal has satified himself, these depressing muscles cease to
act, and other muscles, which are designed to assist in raising the head,
begin to exert themselves ; and, by their aid (but more by the inherent elasti-
city of the ligament), the head is once more elevated, and remains so without
the slightest exertion of muscular power. This is one of the many appli-
cations of the principle of elasticity which we shall have to observe and
adniire in the construction of the animal frame.

The ligament of the neck is inserted into the centre of the back part of
the occipital bone, and immediately below the vertex or crest of that bone ;
and, therefore, the bone is so thick at this part (see fig. e, p. 68).

Many, and large, and powerful muscles, however, are necessary to turn
the head in various directions, and to assist in raising it when depressed.
The occipital bone, as will be seen in this cut, presents a spine running
down the centre, B, and a large roughened surface for the attach-
ment of these inuscles C, C.

Lower down, and still at the back ol the occipital bone, are two rounded

rilB IIOIISK.

A

nrotuberauces D D. by wliich the head is connected with the ato, oi
upper, or first vertebra, or bone of the neck, and these are^called the condy.
hid, cnp-shaped. processes of the occipital bone. All the motions of the
head are partly, and many of them wholly performed by this jomt.

Between them is a latge hole, called the /oramen magnum, or grea
aperture F, through which the continuation ot the bram, called the spinal
cord or marrow, passes out of the skull. • . . r .u^ u^^A

As an additional contrivance to support the great weight of the head
are two other projections of the occipital bone, pecuhar to ^"•«;;^l^"'h«se
heads are set on in a slanting direction, and into vyhich powerful muscles
are inserted ; they are called the ceracoid, beak-like, processes or prolon-
c-ations, F F, of the occipital bone. , , , j •

^ Running forward, and forming outwardly a part ot the base and in-
wardly a pition of the Boor of the skull, is what from 'ts wedge-l.ke sh p
is called the cuneiform process of the occipital bone (fig. t, • 68). It is
hick strong and solid; and placed at the bottom of the skull, not on y to
be a propTfoundation fo^^ and to give additional strength to the arch on
Lh side but speedily to break and stop all vibration and concussion.

At the base of the skull, ami anterior to. or below the occipttal hes he
svhenM w dge-Hke bon^ (fig. P- 68). Its oody, likewise called the
cWorm or wedge-shaped process, is a continuation of the same process
of tlTe ocdpHar and like it is thick and solid, and for the same important
mi oLe Th s bone branches out into four irregular bodies or plates two
S lich are called the wings, and two running to the palate, the legs. Tliey
:^:id tot be represented in the cut, and there is -Jhing import^U be^
Ion-inn- to them so far as our work is concerned InteindUy (hg. k),
snh^iold forms a portion of the cavity of the skull.

Of ^e eTtad^ieve-h bone little can be seen outwardly. A small
po^io Is ouTd i^ the back part of the orbit, and in the cavity of the era
Sium int the most important part of it is that which ^7P;f//g^
mum , ui forming numerous cavities or cells (fig. t, p. 68)

"-Ih the mem3e of the nose! and entering into the cav ity of the nose,
hned "'^^^^ the membrane cribriform, or sieve-shaped plate, from its

The upper P^/J-!"" '^'^^uitnde of little holes, through which the nerve
being P^f ,^ ses and spreads over the nose,

connected with smelling Passes a ^ irregular oval shape, but

Altogether, these bones form a cavity o^ °nce of being divided

the tentorium penetrating into it, gnes u ine aj p

into two (d, p. 68). ^ arched all round. Tlir

EXTERNAL STRUCTURE

75

I roper.y constructed, ,t ,s equal to a solid mass of masonry. Tlie arch
of the horses skull has not much weight to support, but it is exnolr.o
many, injuries from the brutality of those by whom he should be protected
and Iroin accidental causes. wuiecieaj

The roof of the skull is composed of two plates of bone : the outer hard nn^
tongh, and the different parts dove-tailed together, so as not to be ea flv
t.ired , the inner plate ,s elastic, and by the union of these two substanci^;
different cons ruction, the vibration is partly damped or destroyed R„
means of the elasticity of the inner plate, the force or influence which miL^
reach ,t through the outer plate, and, notwithstanding its difference of strtc
ture, affect It, IS spread over the whole of the roof; and the inner nlX
xs not dove-tailed like the outer, because the dove-tailing would impede thp
spread of the vibration. ^

The brain of the horse corresponds with the cavity in which it is placed
p. 68). It IS a flattened oval. It is divided into two parts, one much
larger than the other, the cerebrum or brain, and the cerebellum or lit'ie
Oram (/; p. 68) In the human being the cerebrum is above the cerebel-

sSon Ti;r ™^f i!''^"'^' """^ •■'^^"^the same relative

situation. Ihe cerebellum is nearer to the foramen or hole, through which
the bram passes out of the skull („, p. 68), and the continuation of the
cerebrum passes under the cerebellum {p, p. 68) to arrive at this foramen,
in the human head this foramen is at the base of the skull , but in the
quadruped in whom the head is placed slanting, it is necessarily elevated

It would occupy too great a portion of our time fully to consider t.he
wonderful and mysterious functions discharged by the brain, but some
diseases to which the horse is subject, and a very useful operation the di-
vision of the nerve of the leg, for foot lameness, could not be understood
without a slight account of this important organ.

When the brain is cut it presents two distinct substances (m, p. 68) one
principally on the outside, grey, or ash-coloured, and therefore called the
corticcd (bark-like, or rind-like) from its situation, or the cmeritious
tasn-like), from its colour ; and one more in the centre, and its fibres
running towards the centre, and white and pulpy, and from its consistence
ca ed the medullary (marrow-like) part. This latter portion seems to be
collected and condensed towards the centre or base of the brain, and all
the nerves derive their origin from it.

The medullary portion then is evidently connected with the nervous
system ; and the nerves are concerned in the discharge of all the offices of
ite. They give motion to the limbs; they supply with energy the heart
the lungs, the stomach, and every part connected with life ; and beino- the
medium through which sensation is conveyed, they supply the mind'witli
materials to think and work upon.

The cincritious part has a different appearanct, and is evidently differ-
ently constituted ; and some have supposed it to be the residence of the
mind, receiving the impressions which are conveyed to the brain by the
nerve of , sensation, and directing the operation and action of those which
give motion to the limbs. In accordance with this it happens, that where
superior intelligence is found, the cincritious prevails, and where little
beside brutal strength and appetite exist, the medulhiry portion is enlarged
From the medullary substance proceed certain cords or prolongations,
called nerves, by which the animal is enabled to receive impressions from
surrounding objects, and to connect himself with them, and to possess many
pleasurable or painful sensations. One; is spread over the nicnibraiie
the nose, and gives the sense of smell ; another expands on the back of the

THE IIOUSK.

eye, and Uie faculty of sight is gained; and a Uurd goes to the internal
structure of the ear and the animal hears. Other nerves Foc«ed'ng to
different parts of the head give the faculty of motion to those p.rts , and
another class bestows the power of feeling. ^rolnncration of the

One division of nerves {h, p. 68) springing from ^ P;"j?"e^^^^^^^^^
brain, and yet within the skull, wander to ditterent P^^f^ ^^^/^^ act
impo tant purposes connected with respiration or ^'''jf]^ "S, and ^^^^^^
of breathing is essential to life, and were .t to cease, l'^ ammal would die
these are nerves involuntary motion ; so that, whether he s -^w^^^ o
asrep conscious of it or not. the lungs heave and ^' e - su,jpor^ Las ^
from the spinal cord q, (a further prolongation J ^xtenSing

through a cavity in the bones of the neck, back, ^fj^^^
to the very tip of the tail.) other nerves are given off at '^^r^^'" ,
^W cut delh eates one pair of them.. The spinal cord a. is combined of

, . . nr rods running through its v/hole length— three on

six distinct cohimnB or rods run ^^^^ g^^^.^^ ^^.^^^ ^^^^^^^

either side The wo vipp .^^^ ^.^^ .^^ j^^^^

r I'usTnroceed ro^^ ,f brain devoted to sensation

toward us) ^hmntlv distinct fibres from the column, and which

From these come out W/^'^^^^^^^^^^ „giio„ or enlargement, d,

collect together, and P^^!^^"^;^"" ^ a '^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^

(an enlargemen^ of a ijen^^^^^^^ (/p.flong^tion of the track

ot sensation. J-^^/^Vc^^^ „,her fibres, which also collect gradually

f ^^teVUrf'rm^' Trvo^ -id, c, giving the power of motion,
together, ana lorm perfect spinal nerve, 6,

Beyond the ganglion » -^^-^^^^^^ and tl^e fibres of the

possessing the power b ^^^^-^^^.^^^^ enveloped in the same sheath

two '^ol"'^"^. „e ^e. Each portion, however, continues to be wrapped
andapparently one nerve I ^ distinct ; they constitute one

°rnXr tl^ir substance nor their office is confounded. Our cut
nerve, yet neither tneir ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^

t^XTJ^ ct"-each covered in its own membrane, but al
Invdopedina comruon^^^^^^^^^^^^ sensation and motion alone; but there
All these nerves ^^e or a ^ ^^^side of and below the brain These
are others whose origin seems to o ^^^.^^^ ^^^^ sympathy with all the

are the sympathetic so caliea r^roceed from a small ganglion

others, and identified ^ith l^^fe U^'^f i^.^ ueck. or from a collection of little
or enlargement HI the »ppe p^^^^ beats, and to the

ganglions •"the belly Thjy to ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ bloodvessel,

siomach, and U digests, iney lou

EXTERNAL STRUCTURE.

"7

and tlie current flows on. They surround the very minutest vessels, and
the frame is nourislied and built up. They are destitute of sensation and
they are perfectly beyond the control of the will. '

The reader, we trust, will now comprehend this wonderful, yet simple
machinery, and be able, by and by, to refer to it the explanation of several
diseases, and particularly of the operation to which we have referred.

Two of the senses have their residence in the bones of the cranium, those
of hearing and sight.

They who know any thing of the horse pay much attention to the size, set-
ting on, and motion of the ear. Ears rather small than large, placed not too
far apart, and erect, and quick in motion, indicate both breeding and spirit ;
and if a horse is frequently in the habit of carrying one ear forward, and the
other backward, and especially if he does so on a journey, he will generally
possess both spirit and continuance. The stretching of the ears in contrary
directions shews that he is attentive to every thing that is taking place around
him, and, while he is doing this, he cannot be much fatigued, or likely soon
to become so. It has been remarked that few horses sleep without point-
ing one ear forward and the other backward, that they may receive notice
of the approach of objects in every direction *.

The ear of the horse is one of the most beautiful parts about him, and
by few things is the temper more surely indicated than by its motion.
The ear is more intelligible even than the eye, and a person accustomed
to the horse, and an observer of the horse, can tell by the expressive
motion of the ears almost all that he thinks or means. It is a com-
mon saying that when a horse lays his ears flat back upon his neck, and
keeps them so, he most assuredly is meditating mischief, and the stander
by should beware of his heels or his teeth. In play, the ears will be laid
back, but not so decidedly, nor so long. A quick change in their position,
and more particularly the expression of the eye at the time, will distinguish
between playfulness and vice.

The external ear is formed by a cartilage of an oval or cone-like shape,
flexible, yet firm, and terminating in a point. It has, directed towards the
side, yet somewhat pointing forward, a large opening extending from the
top to the bottom. The intention of this is to collect the sound, and
convey it to the interior part of the ear.

The hearing of the horse is remarkably acute. A thousand vibrations
of the air, too slight to make any impression on the human ear, are readily
perceived by him. It is well known to every hunting-man, that the cry of
the hounds will be recognised by the horse, and his ears will be erect, and
he will be all spirit and impatience, a considerable time before the rider is
conscious of the least sound. Need anything more be said to expose the
absurdity of cropping ? Fortunately for this too-often-abused animal, crop
ping is not now the fashion. Some thoughtless or unfeeling young men en-
deavoured, a little while ago, to introduce it, but the voice of reason and
humanity prevailed.

This cartilage, the conch or shell, is attached to the head by ligaments,
and sustained by muscles, on which its action depends. It rests upon
another cartilage, round without, and irregular within, called the annular,
ring-like, cartilage, and conducting to the interior of the ear ; and it is

* " When horses or mules march in company at night, those m front direct their cars
forwards ; those in the rear direct them backward ; and those in the centre turn them
laterally or across ; the whole troop seeming thus to be actuate<l by one feeling, which
watches the general safety." — Arnott's Elements of Physics, vol. i, p. 478.

THE HORSK

likewise sunported and moved by a third small carlilagc, placed at the
fore part of the base of the conch, and into which several muscles are in-
serted.

The ear is covered by skin thinner than in most other parts of the
body, and altojrether destitute of fat, that it may not be too bulky and
heavy, and may be more easily moved. Under the skin lining the inside
of the cartilage are numerous glands, that secrete, or throw out a scaly
white greasy matter, which may be rubbed off with the finger, and which
is destined to supple this part of the ear, and to keep it soft and smooth.
Below this are other glands which pour out a peculiar, sticky, bitter fluid,
tlie wax, probably displeasing to insects, and therefore deterring them from
crawling down the ear, and annoying the animal : or by its stickiness arrest-
ing their progress.

The internal part of the conch is covered with long hair which sliinds
across the passage in every direction. This likewise is to protect the
ear from insects, that would with difficulty penetrate through this thick
defence. The cold air is likewise prevented from reaching the interior of the
ear and the sound is moderated, not arrested; penetrating readily but not
violently ; and not striking injuriously on the membrane covering the druni
of the ear. Can these purposes he accomplished, when it is the custom ol
so many carters and grooms to cut out the hair of the ear so closely and in-
dustriously as they do ? The groom who singes it to the root with a candle
must be either very ignorant or very brutal. It can scared y be accomplished
without singeing the ear as well as the hair. Many a troublesome sore is
occasioned by it ; and many a horse that was perfectly ciuiet before, rendered
difficult to handle or to halter; and even disposed to be otherwise vicious
from a recollection of the pain which he suffered during the absurd anct

barbarous operation. , , , ^

The sound collected by the outer ear, passes through the lower oi
annular, ring-shaped, cartilage, and through irregularitie^, which, while
thev break and modify it, carry it on to another canal, partly cartilaginous,
and partly bony, conducting immediately to the internal mechanism of the
ear. This canal or passage, is called the external auditory passage a d
at the base of it is placed, stretching across it, and closing it, a thick and
elaluc Membrane, eSled the membrane of the drum, b. This membrane
rsuppS with numerous fibres, from the fifth pair, or sensitive nerve of
the head, for it is necessary that it should possess extreme sensibility.

The mechanism of the ear is so exquisite that we cannot refrain from
entering into a minute description of it, although we fee that we are some-
what trenching on the comprehensive subject of animal physiology.

Sound is produced by certain vibrations or undulations communicated
in the air by the concussions or tremblings of things around, and which
vib ations smead through the air, and fall upon the ear. The striking of
: . a s and the sound of a large bell, are sufficient illustrations of the
manner in which sound is propagated by distinct vibrations or waves of
The aTr These vibrations reach the conch of the ear. From its hollow
form md peculiar shape, and the faculty of being directed to every quarter
rnce Unbrations'p;oceed, they are collected and condensed, and con
wnt-ncc til t nassao-e and fa upon the membrane, 6. Ihat

rlr^rthUy *eEr and elastic, deceives *e i,„pressio„ made

or * m onhe ear, (, from it, opposed rCBentblance a ^

.„ irregular shape. The »nl'» or sides m composed of bone, lmc.1 with

i

EXTERNAL STRUCTURE.

L'licate membrane, with several iipoi tuies or liolcp, b, f k llip nn..„:„ i
of which we shall describe. ' /. i'"' prmcipf.l

EXPLANATION OF THE CUT OF THE EAR.
a The meatus extemus, or outer passage.

b The membrana tympani, or membrane stretched over the entrance to the drum of the
ear.

0 Tbt: ma/leus, or hammer, the first of the msicu/i (little bones), and resting upon the

membrana tympani.
d The incus., or anvil.
e The orbiculare, or round bone.

/ The slopes, or stirnip bone, resting on the membrane which covers the forarnen ovale,
or oval windovf, and which conducts to the labyrinth of the ear.
One of the muscles of the tympaniim attached to the stapes.
h The vestibule, or hall, the first portion of tlie labyrinth of the ear.
' The semicircular canals,
k Openings into the canals.
/ The tympanum, or drum of the ear.
m The cochlea, or shell-like portion of the labyrinth.

n The meatus auditoriiu interttfts, or internal passage, through which both divisions ot the
seventh pair of nerves enter the ear. At the end of it is the cribriform sievelike
plate, through wliich the portio mollis, or soft portion of the seventh pair of
nerves, and which is the auditory nerve, or nerve of hearing, enters to spread over
Uie cochlea and vestibule.

0 The Eustachian tube, or communication between the tympanum and the mouth, so
called from its discoverer.

V The cord, or nerve of the car. corda tympani, a branch of the portio dura, hard portion,
of the seventh pair of nerves, united to a portion of the fifth pair, running ucrosa
the tympanum, and ramifying on it and on the membrane.

9 The exit of the portio dura from the temporal bone, to spread over the fjire.

gQ TIIE HORSE.

Between the membrane at which we have arrived 6. ^"'^^J";^"^' ^
almost opposite, f, IcacVuio- to the still interior part of the ear, ami <"\;v Inc

strongly unted to ,1, »» '^"^ ^ , ij^^., . „„d it must be

a In^strEe^en .Ore extremity of the ^^^^^^^^^^^^^

its head resting on the anvil, is a f ^'^^P. P^^^^^^^^^X fuic mm, or centre
in the bony wall of the drum, and which jv d " Y ulcmm ^^^^^^
of motion, on which the hammer nms and ' ^^^^^

of the bone, than the extremity of the handle^ ^^^^
acts upon the principle «^the lever The ponit o^ ui ^^^^^^
where the vibration is received, or the P^^f \ W'^^ ^ tne I

the fulcrum or prop, or turning P^^^^^jf ^ ."S -^^^^ -"-^ P-

tremity of the other arm, where the ^^^'S^

duced: Now, in proportion (as we sha ^J^, ^l^^;^^."^^ ^he distance of
strate,whenwespeak oftheconstruction of he lim^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^

tl>e power from the fulcrum exceeds tfa of Uie gt, ^^^^

mechanical advaiifage ^^^-^f^.^'^Z^^orut^^^iTZ the head; and,
extremity of the hammer IS twice as far fr^^^^^^^^

Itet^ S\hf hlnS, ^:ii?rcL:^^^^^^^^^^ — to the

^"^l;e bodies of these bones a^e eW; -J^^^, J^J^^^^ .

covered by a substance, carfttege, ^^^Ttod from the hammer to the anvil,

*s,trr'reX:ii',trjKST„rat.^ '>;;r"Lu«o„ or .....

'°Se anvn^is another lever and not „„1, would th^^

™„n,cated -''™'">*'t„tTf o^:n™ Tn' S oTtW the
or fangs be.ng '^rf"" "'° ,1" ^i" was received, or the power

disumce of the point at which the '"'P^*™ . , i„.,„ssioii is to be
n^sides, being greater h'^^^^^;*^^^^^^^^^^ 'where the effeet

conveyed or given np '» '''f Tf.^™' , ^e, likewise, gained, and the

trrSe^ei'^s-rbL! r^n-r,;^

smallest bone in the »3ody , ana ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^ ^

rC'set; "Xatn^rrrrln icated to the s,irr„p-bo„e in a per-
pendicular direction.

EXTERNAL STRUCTURE

81

The last of the four little bones, is the stapes, or stirrup bone. It dosel v
resembles a stu-rup in form, and it is placed on the membrane of the fenl
ttra ovalis, the oval window, or opening into the most interior part of the'
ear, and the immediate and actual seat of hearing. The stirrup bein"- re-
tained in a perpendicular direction on this membrane, by the round bone"
not only is the full impression which had been communicated to the fir«t
membrane conveyed to the other, but it is trebled by the beautiful me-
chanism of the bones.

Sound, we have said, is produced by vibrations conveyed to the ear
and exciting- similar vibrations in certain parts of the ear. These vibra-
tions, once excited, do not immediately cease. A glass continues to
sound, and the prolonged undulations of the deep-toned bell are familiar
to every one. The pulses of sound succeed each other with great rapidity.
In speaking, the words quickly follow each other, and each syllable pro-
duces a separate impulse on the external membrane of the ear. Unless
however, one pulsation or vibration had ceased before the next was commu-
nicated, language would be unintelligible, and a confused and endless noise
would prevail. The finger placed on the edge of a glass immediately
stops the vibration. The damper applied to the piano-forte effects the
same purpose, and gives distinctness of sound and tone.

There is in the ear an admirable contrivance to accomplish the same
object. Muscles are attached to these little bones, and particularly to the
hammer and stirrup, which are in contact with the membranes. One be-
longing to the stirrup is given in our cut, g. They are placed there, ac-
cording to some physiologists, to tighten or relax the chain of bones, in
order to produce greater or less intensity of sound. We would rather say
that they were intended as dampers, to prevent the otherwise unavoid
able confusion of sound. No sooner is an impression conveyed to these
bones, or a vibration communicated down them, than the muscles contract,
and by that contraction tighten the chain of bones, and by that tightening
destroy and not increase the vibration. The heads of the bones are
pressed one on the other, so that, like the finger on the edge of the glass,
the vibration is not only immediately arrested in these bones, but in the
membranes above and below to which they are attached.

The air in the drum of the ear is not always of the same warmth
In fever, or in consequence of inflammation in a neighbouring pari,
or during the excitement of exercise, the air in the drum may attain
a degree of heat far above the natural standard; the consequence of
which would be that it would expand. All bodies expand with heat ; and
this air expanding would press on every part of the cavity. The bony
walls of the cavity would not yield, but the membrane might be so vio
lently distended, as to be incapable of vibrating. Under the cold fit of
fever, the air would collapse, or would diminish in bulk. All bodies
contract by the application of cold. Then the external air, endeavouring
to enter the partial vacuum, and pressing the membranes inward, might
produce precisely the same effect. To prevent all this, and to preserve a
proper balance between the heat of the air in the tympanum, and that of
the other parts of the body, or the atmosphere, there is a passage communi-
cating with the mouth ; and by means of the mouth, with the external air.
See p in this cut, and 9 in the cut, page 68, which gives the cartilage that
covers the entrance of this passage, the Eustachian tube, into the mouth.

The Eustachian tube commences in the drum of the ear, by a mere slit
in the bony wall, which, passing through the stony portion of the temporal
bone, and part of the sphenoid bone, becomes cartilaginous, and then expands,

aa THE HORSE.

and ends in a large pouch or bag. The cartilage, p, protects the movith of
this bag, and prevents the food from entering it ; and likewise enables it
occasionally to unclose for purposes connected with the faculty of hearing.

The impression, then, has been conveyed by the mechanism of the bones,
from the membrane of the drum, b, to the membrane on which the stirrup
rests, f: and which closes the fenestra ovalis, or oval window or opening
into the labyrinlh of the ear. This mechanism, however, deeply seated as it
is in the head, and guarded by the stony hardness of the temporal bone, is
liable to injury, and we are next led to admire many provisions, for pre
serving the sense of hearing, even when much mischief has been done to
the machine The membrane may be punctured or ruptured. It is occa-
sionallv so by accident or violence, and lately purposely done in the human
subiect to remedy deafness produced by obstruction of the Eustachian
tube The vibrations of the external air would proceed down the passage a,
and be communicated, although imperfectly, to the little bones at the bot-
tom c d,e, and carried on to the oval window,/, and hearing vvould remain.
Supposing: that the three first of the little bones were diseased or removed,
the vibration of the external air would be communicated to the air m the
drum, and by that to the stirrup, /, and the animal would not be entirely
deaf - or even if the whole of the httle bones were destroyed, yet the mem-
brane of the oval window remaining, some vibration might be communi-
cated to it, and some sound perceived. r u a
Passing the oval window,/, we arrive at the true seat of hearmg. A
strangely irregular cavity, h, presents itself, filled with an aqueous fluid
while the substance or pulp of the portio mollis or soft portion of the seventh
pair of nerves, the auditory nerve, expands on the membrane which lines
the walls of this cavity. Why is this cavity filled with a liquid ? First, that
the membrane which covers the passage into it, might always be Weserved
in a proper state to receive and communicate vibrations If the ^^^J^f
had contained a fluid possessed of much expansibility, m the considerable
changes of temperature to which the frame is subject, this "I'embrane might
be stretched beyond the power of vibrating and almost to burstmg by the
increased bulk of that fluid. Air is highly «^P=^"fble. That is of no
consequence in the drum of the ear, I, because, as it expanded, it wouW
rush out of the Eustachian tube; but in the labyrinth it would be h'ghly
CJurious, because that is a closed cavity. These interior «h--^e- then are
filled with water instead of air, because it is not one f ^h p^j^^^o e^^^^^
sible as air. If, however, the labyrinth be completely filled ^^/^^ ^^"^^^"^"^^^
fluid, how can any undulation or vibration take P^^^^^?. ^nddation
noses a chan-e of fio-ure, an enlargement in some direction ; but there can
L no entgement in a bony cavity completely filled This was not for-
gotten in the wonderful construction of the ear, and, therefore, at the base
of the shell, m, and between the stirrup and the shell, is an openmg, covered
uUwise wkh membrane, called the round window, or communication be
t™ the drum and the labyrinth. When any force, then, is impressed on
the membrane under the stirrup, this membrane yields to the ^P^f
andTuffers the vibration to be propagated through the whole of the l^y
and suttees tne ^ ^^^^ ^^.^ ^^^^^ "^^"^^."^Tn
over this opening returns to its natural situation, and is ready to yield to
the next impression. ^,1^^ ^^-^y^

There is ^^^^^X ! j ob^^^^^^^^^^ --hanism of the little bones
aqueous fluid. Ihe P""«'P^ ^"^^ ^^d even to increase the effect of,

we have seen to be, perfectly to convey, ana ex
the vibration first communicated to the membrane of the drum. Ihe

EXTERNAI STRUCTURE.

83

tion reaches the oval window, trebled in intensity. The sam^ ^k- . •
pursued within the labyrinth. A liquid is placed there, heSnsl sound T
propagated through it, with greater rapidity. While sound travels thmll!
a,r at the rate of 1 132 feet in a second, it passes through water at the rSe
of more than 4000 feet in the same time. The impulse communicated to tt
water by the membrane, is thus more suddenly spread over the whole of the
abynnth. There is, besides, a law regulating the pressure of fluids, by which
this impulse must be spread over the «;Ao/e of the labyrinth, and every nor
lion of the expansion of the nerve will be affected by it, which would not
be the case m a fluid so rare and so expansible as air.

The strongest reason, however, remains to be stated,~the impression or
vibration is rendered more intense, by travelling through water. That sound
which would scarcely be heard in the air, is almost deafening under water
It is a common practice for boys when they bathe, to dive with a stone in
each hand, and the rubbing of them together under water produces a rum-
bling sound of extraordinary loudness. This is contrary to the old opinion •
and even philosophers, of no mean repute, have denied that fishes had ears'
because they were placed in a medium, through which sound could scarcely
be conveyed, and where their ears would be of little use to them. Later
and better observers have proved that sound is propagated far more in-
tensely through water, than through air ; and therefore, an aqueous fluid
occupies those chambers of the ear, on the walls of which the auditory nerve
IS expanded.

The oval window opens into the labyrinth, which is divided info three
compartments. First is the vestibule, h, the hall of entrance, not more
than a quarter of an inch wide in the actual subject, but magnified in our
cut, for the purpose of illustration. Over the whole of the membrane by
which It is lined, there are spread expansions of the soft portion of the
seventh pair of nerves.

On the upper side are several foramina or holes, it, which conduct tc
the semi-circular canals, i, containing also water, lined by the same mem
Drane, and that membrane likewise covered, although not so thickly, with
nervous pulp. The posterior one is a perfectly semi-circular canal, with two
openings into the vestibule. The other two run into each other in a part
of their course, and have one common opening, and one peculiar to each ;
so that these canals open into the vestibule by five apertures.

These canals contain a singular mechanism. In the part of the vesti-
bule at the opening of the canals, k, is suspended a little bag filled with a
very clear fluid, and from which branches go into, and occupy the canals,
not filling them, but floating in the fluid which they contain ; and on these
bags the portion of the nerve belonging to the canal is principally distri
buted. The membrane composing these bags is exceedingly thin. Thus
floating in the fluid of the canals, and richly supplied with nervous matter,
the slightest vibration or motion communicated to the fluid, by the stirrup
on the oval window, will be immediately and powerfully felt.

On the other side is, if possible, a more complex mechanism. At m is
the cochlea^ so termed from its likeness to the convolutions of a shell. It,
however, more resembles a spiral lamina, or narrow and Ihin plate, j)artly
bony, and partly membranous, runnin'g round a column in the centre. It
is a spiral staircase in a round tower. The base of it rests on the interna)
passage, n, through which both portions of the seventh pair of nerves pass
into the ear. Its apex, or top, approaches the Eustachian tube, o The
soft, or auditory portion of the nerve, penetrates through the cribriform or
sieve like termination of the passage, and a part of it runs up the central

84 THE HORSE.

column or bone, which is hollow and spongy, and, through a thousand
apertures in it, ramifies on the lamina of hone, twmmg spirally around the
column, and on the membranous fringe which floats in thefluul w.th which
the shell is filled, and the whole is covered by a thick expansion of nervous

The cribriform plate extends beyond the base of the shell to the vestw
bule Ld thoie portions of nerve there enter, which spread oyer the vesti-
bule and the semi-circular canals; but the principal part of it seems to be

^' mlt is\Tdiiunct and peculiar office of these parts, so curiously and
vet so differently constructed, we know not. They are both admirably
Tdapted to render the sense of hearing fully equal to every possible want of
the anrmal In the horse the cochlea is much larger, compared with the
caUs than it is in the ox or sheep ; but for what especial purpose we are
m able to determine : nor can we account for the large pouch-shaped opening
ofthe Eustachian tube in the horse, (fig. 9. p. 68), nor for the small deve-
lemenrof the mastoid cells in the horse, while they are exceedingly large
n the ox There are many parts of the frame, the precise use or fiinction of
whl^h we cannot ascertain'; Lt, as far as we do -^erf f the m^^^^^^^^^^^^
of the various animals which pass under our notice all is fittest bej^ •
and thi study of the animal frame, with a view to discover the evidences of

dc-io-n, is pleasing and improving. -j^^fj^,.
The E2/«is amost important organ, and comes next under consideration
as inclosed in the bonU of the skull. The eye of the horse should be
W-e and somewhat but not too prominent, and the eyelid fine and thin
If th; eye be sunk in the head, and apparently little (tor there is actuary
a very trifling difference in the size of the eye m animals of he same
snedes and bulk, and the seeming difference arises from the large or
smaUer opening between the lids), and the lid be thick and especially ,f
"ere Wny puckering towards the inner corner of the hds that eye either
s chseased or has been lately subject to inflammation ; and. particularly, if
one eye ls 'smaller than the Jther. it has been, at no great distance of time.

T^^elie of the horse enables us pretty accurately to guess at his t^nper.
Tf much of the white be seen, the buyer should pause ere he completes his
It much ot tne wmie uc j happen that the cornea

lrfZi^::T;:kt::^^^^ therlU^f unusual portion

of the Xte of^^^^^ is seen, and especially when the horse .s looking
ot the wf^^ , t experience has shown that this display of

fhS ifdan™ 4^ horse is slyly on the lookout for op

Lnunitiertrdo m and the frequent backward ^-ection of the e

Then the white is most perceptible, is only to give surer effect to the blow

We will\tt cu^iTy description of the eye. and the uses of its diffe^

The'eves are placed at the side of the head, yet a little pointing for-
id tS the animal a more extended field of vision. He needs h s
Ws wild stafe to detect the approach of his enemies, and it is useful to

him when ^^^Pj^J^^^^j^^^^^^^ attached to different parts ot the

l^k eledded in a vast mass of fat, upon which it may be

EXTERNAL STRUCTURE.

or

rupidly, protect it from many an injury Uiat threatens;— supply it with that
moisture which is necessary to preserve its transparency ; — in the momen-
tary act of closing, they give a certain and sufficient respite to a delicate
organ, which would otherwise be fatigued and worn out, by the constant
glare of day; — when the eye labours under inflammation, defend it from the
stimulus of light, — and, gradually drooping, permit the animal to enjoy that
repose which nature requires.

Extending round both lids, and, it may be almost said, having neither ori-
gin nor insertion, is a muscle called the orbicularis, or circular muscle. Its
office is to close the lids in the act of winking or otherwise, but only while the
animal is awake. When he sleeps, this is effected by another and very inge-
nious mechanism, for no voluntary muscle will continue in action during
sleep. The natural state of the eyelids is that of being closed ; and they are
kept open by the energy of the muscles, whose office it is to raise the upper
hd. As sleep steals upon the animal, these muscles cease to act, and the
lids close by the inherent elasticity of the membrane of which they are com-
posed.

The skin of the Hd is, like that of the ear, exceedingly fine, to prevent
unnecessary weight and pressure on such a part, and to give more easy and
extensive motion. The lids close accurately when drawn over the eye, and
this is effected by a little strip of cartilage, at the edge of each of them,
which may be easily felt with the finger, and which preserves them in a
hoop-like form, and adapts them closely to the eye and to each other.
The lower cartilage, however, does not, as a moment's observation will
shew, present towards the inner corner of the eye the whole of its flat sur-
face to the upper, but it evidently slopes inward, and only the outer edge
of the under lid touches the upper, and, by this means, a little gutter
is formed, by which the superfluous moisture of the eye flows to the inner
corner where there is a canal to convey it away, and therefore it neither
accumulates in the eye, nor unpleasantly runs down the cheek.

Along the edges of the lids are placed numerous little hollows which
can be plainly distinguished even in the living horse by slightly turning
down the lid. These are the openings into numerous small cells containing
a thick and unctuous fluid, by means of which the eyes are more accu
rately closed, and the edges of the lids defended from the acrimony of the
tears.

The horse has no ej/ebroim, and the eyelashes are very peculiarly ar-
ranged. The rows of hair are longest and most numerous on the upper
lid, and especially towards the outer or temporal corner, because the
light comes from above ; and, as the animal stands, and particularly when
he is grazing, and from the lateral situation of his eyes, the greater portion
of the light, and the attacks of insects, and the rolling down of moisture,
would chiefly be from the outside or temples. Towards the inner corner
of the eye there is little or no eyelash, because there is no probable danger
or nuisance in that direction. Only a small quantity of light can enter
from below, and therefore the lashes are thin and short; but as, in the act
of grazing, insects may more readily climb up and be troublesome to the
eye, towards the inner angle, there the principal or only hair is found on
the lower lid. These apparently trifling circumstances will not be over-
looked by the careful observer.

They who are unacquainted with the absurdities of stable management,
or who have not carefully examined the abuses which may exist in t'^cir
own establishments, can scarcely conceive the foolish and cruel practices
of some carters and grooms. We know that when the groom is anxious

86

THto HORSE.

that his horse sliould be as trim and neat all over as art can make him,
the very eye-lashes are generally sacrificed. What has the poor animal
suffered, when, travelling in the noon of day, the full blaze of the sun lia«
fallen upon his eyes ; and how many accidents have probably happened,
from his being dazzled by the light, but which have been attributed to

other causes. , , . , . , j

If the horse has no eyebrow, theie are several hairs or bristles scattered
on the upper eyelid, and there is a projecting fold of the lid which dis-
charo-es nearly the same office. It is more conspicuous in old horses than
in voung ones. Some horsemen do not hke to see it, and associate the
idea of it with weakness or disease of the eye. This is perfectly erroneous.
It is a provision of nature to accomplish a certain purpose, and has nothing
to do either with health or disease.

On the lower lid is a useful provision to warn the horse of the near ap-
proach of any object that might incommode or injure him, in the'form of
Ion"- projecting hairs or bristles, and which are plenteously embued with
nervous influence, so that the slightest touch shall put the animal on his
guard We would request any of our readers, by whom the experiment
never has been made, to touch very slightly the extremity of one of these
hairs They will be surprised to observe the sudden convulsive twitching
of the lid, rendering the attack of the insect absolutely impossible. Those
ignorant grooms, however, who cut away the eye-lashes, do not spare these

The eve is exposed to the action of the atmospheric air, and the
process of evaporation, destructive of its transparency, is continually going
on. The eye of the horse, or the visible part of the eye, is, likewise, more
prominent and larger than in the human being, and the animal is often
subject to extreme annoyance from dust and insects, while he has no hands
or other guard to defend himself from the torture which they occasion.
What is the provision of nature against this ? Under the lid and a little
within the outer corner of the upper lid, is a large irregular body, the tecry-
mal gland, comparatively larger than in the human being, secreting an
aqueous fluid, and which fluid slowly issuing out from the gland, and,
more especially, pressed out of it by the act of winking, flows over the
eye, supplies it with moisture, and washes otF all impurities Human
ino-enuity could not have selected a situation from which the fluid could be
conveyed over the eye with more advantage for this purpose.

When this fluid is- secreted in an undue quantity, and flows over the eye
it is called tears. An increased flow of tears is produced by any thmg that
irritates the eye, and, therefore, a constant accompamment and symptom
of inflammation. A horse with any degree of weeping, or the flowing
of the tears down the cheek, should be regarded with much suspicion
In the human being an unusual secretion of tears is often caused by
bodily pain, and emotions of the mind ; and so it is occasionally in the
horse We have seen it repeatedly, under acute pain or brutal usage.
JolmLawrence, speaking of the cruelty exercised (and we know still too
often exercised) by some dealers in what they call " firing" a horse before
he is led out for sale, in order to arouse every spark of mettle, says, " more
than fifty years have passed away, and I have before my eyes a poor mare
l^one bliUexquisitel? shaped, -\fhowing all the marks of high bl^^^^^^
whom I saw unmercifully cut with the whip a quarter of an bour before
Te Tale, to bring her to Ihe use of her stiffened limbs, while the tears were

trichlins down her cheeks" t „♦

Havhig passed over the eye. the fluid is conveyed by the little canal ol

EXTERNAL STRUCTURE.

87

which we have spoVen, formed by the sloping of the under lid, towards the
corner of the eye; and there are two little orifices, that conduct it tea
small reservoir within, and at the upper part of the lacrymal bone, (fig i
p. 66). A little protuberance of a black or pied colour, called the caruncle
placed in the very corner of the eye, and to be seen without opening the
lids, is situated between these orifices, and guides the fluid into them.
From this reservoir the tears are conveyed by a long canal, the lacrymal
duct, partly bony, and partly membranous, to the lower part of the nose.
A little within the nostril, and on the division between the nostrils, is seen
the lower opening of this canal ; the situation of which our readers should
carefully mark, and bear in mind its real use, for not only horsemen, but
even some careless veterinary surgeons, have mistaken it for a glanderous
ulcer, and have condemned a useful and valuable animal. It is found just
before the skin of the muzzle terminates, and the more delicate membrane
of the nostril commences. The opening of the canal is placed thus low
because the membrane of the nose is exceedingly delicate, and would be
irritated and made sore by the frequent or constant running down of the
tears.

This canal is sometimes obstructed in the human being, and the reservoir
is distended and bursts ; an ulcer is then formed, very difficult to heal, and
only healed by a metal style or pin, penetrating into the duct, being worn
for a considerable time. Fortunately the lacrymal duct is rarely obstructed
in the horse, for, if it were, and ulceration were to follow, no mechanical
contrivance could retain the style or pin in its place. The dog is subject
to obstructions of this canal, and the ulcer formed by the bursting of the
sac is never healed.

There is, however, something yet wanting. We have a provision for
supplying the eye with requisite moisture, and for washing from off the
transparent part of it insects or dust which may aimoy the animal. What
becomes of these impurities when thus washed off? Are they carried by
the tears to the comer of the eye, and so pass down this duct, and irritaltf
and obstruct it; or do they accumulate at the inner angle of the eye?
There is a beautiful contrivance for disposing of them as fast as they
enter the eye. Concealed within the inner corner of the eye, or ouiy
the margin of it, black or pied, visible, is a triangular-shaped cartilage,
the haw, with its broad part before. It is concave within, exactly
to suit the globe of the eye ; and it is convex without, accurately to adapt
itself to the membrane lining the lid ; and the base of it is reduced tu a
thin or almost sharp edg^. At the will of the animal this is suddenly pro
truded from its hiding place, passes rapidly over the eye, and shovels up
every nuisance mixed with the tears, and then, being speedily drawn back,
the dust or insect is wiped off as the cartilage again passes under the corner
of the eye.

How is this managed ? This cartilage has no muscle attached to it, and
the limbs, and the different parts of the body, when put into motion by the
influence of the will, are moved invariably by muscles. The mechanism is
simple and effectual. There is a great mass of fat at the back of the eye,
that the eye may be easily moved ; and this fat is particularly accumulated
about the inner corner of the eye, and beneath, and at the point of this car-
tilage. The eye of the horse has likewise very strong muscles attached to
it, and one, peculiar to quadrupeds, of extraordinary power, and by whose
aid, if the animal has not hands to ward off a danger that threatens, he
is at least enabled to draw the eye back almost out of the reach of that
dangei.

88 THE HORSE.

Dust, 01 gravel, or insects, shall have entered the eye, and annoy the
horse. This peculiar muscle suddenly acts. The eye is forcibly drawn
back, and presses upon the fatty matter. That may be displaced, but can-
not be squeezed into less compass. It is forced violently towards the mner
corner of the eye, and it drives before it the haw ; and the haw having
likewise some fat about the point of it, and being placed between the eve
and an exceedingly smooth and polished bone, and, bemg pressed upon
by the eye as it°is violently drawn back, shoots out with the rapidity of
lightning, and, guided by the eyehds, projects over the eye, and thus car-
ries off the offending matter.

In what way shall we draw the haw back again without muscular action
Another principle is called into play, of which we have already spoken,
and of which we shall have much to say, elasticity. It is that principle
by which a body yields to a certain force impressed upon it, and returns to
its former state as soon as that force is removed. It is that by which the
lio-ament of the neck (p. 68), while it supports the head, enables the horse
to ffraze,— by which the heart expands after closing on and propelling tor-
ward the blood in its ventricles,— by which the artery contraxits on the blood
that has distended it, and by which many of the most important functions
of life are influenced or governed. This muscle ceases to act. The eye
resumes its natural situation in the orbit. There is rooni for the fatty
matter to return to its place, and it immediately returns by the elasticity of
the membrane by which it is covered; and it draws after it this cartilage
with which it is connected, and the return is as rapid as the projection

The old farriers strangely misunderstood the nature and design ot the
haw, and many of the present day do not seem to be much better informed.
When from sympathy with other parts of the eye labouring under inflam-
mation, and becoming itself inflamed, and increased b"^'^' J^^^^e^^^^^^
bourin- parts likewise thickened, it was either forced out of its place, or
vlntarily protruded to defend the eye from the actionof hgh , and could
not return, they mistook it for some injurious excrescence or tumour, and
proceeded to cut it out. The " haw in the eyes," is a disease we known
Ke majoritv of grooms, and this sad remedy for it is deemed the only
cure n is a barbarous practice, and if they were compelled to walk half
a dozen miles in a thick dust, and without being per™tted to wipe or to
cleanse the eye they would feel the torture to which they doom this noble
anhS wh^n afterwards employed in their service. A little patience having
been exercised, and a few cooling applications made to the eye while the
SmmXn lasted, and, afterwards, some mild astringent ones and o he^
proper means employed, the tumour would have disappeared the haw
Sd have returned to its place, and the animal would have discharged
Te duties required of him. without inconvenience to himself, "^stead of
Ihe agony to which an unguarded and unprotected eye must frequently

%°he of blood occasioned by the cutting out of the haw may fre-
auentlv relieve the inflammation of the eye; and the evident amendment
^Tvh fnUows induces these wise men to believe that they have performed
which ff7';;"^""' butthe same loss of blood, by scarification of the
an excellent "P^;^;^^;^'^^-,^^'^ would be equall^ beneficial, and the
overloaded [^^^'.^ «J J^^S'"? ^ nstrument of admirable use to him

'\Te eTe is of a globularfigure. yet not a perfect globe It is rathe.
Ihe eye is or a ^. ^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^^ and

composed of '^^^ nn7of the o her, p, larger, and the coat of it opaque
r W^stn'm^^^^ ^he coat, of the eye.

EXTERNAL SUBSTANCE.

8)

ABA supposed object viewed by the animal, and an inverted image of which, a, b, is

thrown on the retina at the back of the eye.
c c The points where the rays, having passed the cornea and the lens, converge by the

refractive power of the lens.
d e The rays proceeding from the extremities of the object to the eye.
f The cornea, or horny and transparent part of the eye, covered by the con/Mnc/i'iw, uniting

different parts together.
g The crystalline (crystal or glassy) lens, behind the pupil, and in front of the vitreons

humour.
h h Muscles of the eye.
i The optic nerve, or nerve of sight.

k The sclerotica (hard firm coat) covering the whole of the eye, except the portion occupied
by the cornea, and being a seeming prolongation of the covering of the optic nerve.

/ The ehoroides (receptacle or covering), or choroid coat, covered with a black secretion ot
paint.

m m The iris, or rainbow-coloured circular membrane, under the cornea, in front of the
eye, and on which the colour of the eye depends. The duplicature behind is the
uvea, from being coloured like a grape. The opening in the centre is the pupil.

It n The ciliary (hair-like) processes.

o The retina, or net-like exj)ansion of the optic nerve, spread over the whole of the cho

roides as far as the lens.
p The vitreous (glass-like) humour filling thewhole of the cavity of the eye behind the lens
q The aqueous (water-like) humour filling the space between the cornea and the lens.

The conjunctiva, f, is that membrane which lines the lids, and covers the
fore part of the eye. It covers all that we can see or feel of the eye, and
even its transparent part. It is itself transparent, and transmits the colour
of the parts beneath. It is very susceptible of inflammation, during which
the lining of the lids will become intensely red, and the white of the eye ,
will be first streaked with red vessels, and then covered with a complete
mesh of them, and the cornea will become cloudy and opaque. It is the
seat of various diseases, and particularly in it commences the sad inflam-
mation of the horse's eye, which bids defiance to the veterinary surgeon s
skill, and, almost invariably, terminates in blindness.

The examination of the conjunctiva, by turning down the lid, will enable
us to form an accurate judgment of the degree of inflammation which exists
in the eye. Horsemen and farriers, however, seem to think that it likewise
indicates the degree of inflammation in almost every other part, or, at least,
of the general fever which may accompany local inflammation. There is
a part which much more clearly indicates this, and especially if the general
disturbance be accompanied or produced by any aff'ection of the lungs— a

90

THE nORSE.

part which will rarely deceive, and is more easily got at, viz. the mem-
brane lining the nose. If the edge of the nostril be lifted up, the colour
of the nostril will faithfully indicate the degree of chest affection, and of
gei>eral inflammation or fever.

Covering the back part of the eye, and, indeed, four-fifths of the globe of
the eye, is the sclerotica, 1c. It is an exceedingly strong membrane, com-
posed of fibres interweaving with each other, and almost defying the pos-
sibility of separation. An organ so delicate and so important as the eye,
requires secure protection.

This is a highly elastic membrane. It is necessary that it should be so,
when we consider that the eye is surrounded by several, and very powerful
muscles, which must temporarily, and even for the purposes of vision, alter
its shape. The elasticity of the sclerotica is usefully exhibited, by its
causing the globe of the eye to resume its former and natural shape, as
soon as the action of the muscle ceases.

The sclerotica has very few blood vessels ; is scarcely sensible ; and its
diseases, except when it participates in general disturbance or disorganiza-
tion, are rarely brought under our notice. We therefore pass on to the
cornea.

ThQ cornea is, or we should wish it to be, the only visible part ot the
horse's eye, for we repeat, that the exhibition of much white about it is a
symptom of wickedness. The cornea fills up the vacuity which is left by
the sclerotica, in the fore part of the eye, and although closely united to
the sclerotica, may be separated from it, and will drop out like a watch
glass. It is not round, but wider from side to side, than from top to bot-
tom ; and the curve rather broader towards the inner than the outer corner
of the eye, so that the near eye may be known from the oflF, after it is
taken from the head.

The convexity or projection of the cornea is a point of considerable im-
portance. The prominence of the eye certainly adds much to the beauty
of the animal, but we shall see presently, when we consider the eye as the
organ of sight, that by being too prominent, the rays of light may be ren-
dered too convergent, and the vision indistinct; or if the cornea be small
and flat, the rays may not be convergent enough, and perfect vision de-
stroyed ; and in either case, the horse may unpleasantly start, or suddenly
and dangerously turn round. An eye neither too prominent nor too flat
will be nearest to perfection.

It ought to be perfectly transparent, and any cloudiness or opacity is
the consequence of disease. It is an exceedingly firm and dense mem-
brane and can scarcely be pierced by the sharpest instrument. The cornea
is composed of many different plates, laid over one another, and, between
each, at least in a state of health, is a fluid, which is the cause of its trans-
parency • and the evaporation of which, after death, produces the leaden or
fflazed appearance of the eye. When it appears to be opaque, it is not
often and never at first, that the cornea is changed. It is the conjunctiva,
the membrane that spreads over it, that now carries through its numerous
vessels white blood instead of that which was perfectly pellucid or clear;
or there is a secretion of a milky fluid, over or through the conjunctiva
leaving the cornea beneath unafiected. If, however, the inflammation of
the conjunctiva continues, a thick fluid is at length thrown ^t^^^^^X'!
the plates of the cornea, and the cloudiness is converted into perfect

°^Se is nothing which deserves so much attention from the purchaser
of a horse, as the perfect transparency of the cornea over the whgle of its

EXTERNAL STRUCTURE,

surface The eye should be examined for this purpose, both in front and
with the face of the examiner close to the cheek of the horse under' and
behind the eye. The latter method of looking through the cornea is the
most satisfactory, so far as the transparency of that part of the eye is con-
cerned. During this examination the horse should not be in the open air
but in the stable, standing in the door- way and a little withi<i the door.
If any small, faint, whitish lines appear to cross the cornea, or spread over
any part of it, they are assuredly the remains of previous inflammation ; or
although the centre and bulk of the cornea should be perfectly clear, yet if
round the edge of it, where it unites with the sclerotica, there should be ?
narrow ring or circle of haziness, the conclusion is equally true, but the in-
flammation occurred at a more distant period. Whether, however, the
inflanrimation has lately existed, or several weeks or months have elapsed
since it was subdued, there is every probability that it will recur

There is one little caution to be added. The cornea in its natural state
is not only a beautifully transparent body, but it reflects, even in proportion
to its transparency, many of the rays which fall upon it, and, if there be a
white object immediately before the eye, as a very hght waistcoat, or much
display of a white neckcloth, the reflection may puzzle an experienced
observer, and has misled the careless one. The coat should be buttoried
up, and the white cravat carefully concealed.

Within the sclerotica, and connected with it by innumerable minute fibres
and vessels, is the choroid coat, I. It is a very delicate membrane, and
extends over the whole of the internal part of the eye, from the optic nerve to
the cornea. It secretes a dark coloured substance or paint, by which it is co-
vered ; the intention of which, like the inside of our telescopes and micro-
scopes, has been supposed to be, to absorb any stray rays of light which might
dazzle and confuse. The black paint, pigmentum nigrum, seems perfectly to
discharge this function in the human eye. It is placed immediately under
the retina or expansion of the optic nerve. The rays of light fall on the
retina, and, penetrating its delicate substance, are immediately absorbed or
destroyed, by the black covering of the choroides underneath. For the per-
fection of many of his best pleasures, and, particularly of his intellectual
powers, man wants the vivid impression which will be caused by the ad-
mission of the rays of light into a perfectly dark chamber ; and when the
light of the sun begins to fail, his superior intelligence has enabled him to
discover various methods of substituting an artificial day, after the natural
one has closed. Other animals, without this power of kindhng another
although inferior light, have far more to do with the night than we have.
Many of them sleep through the glare of day, and awake, and are busy
during the period of darkness. Our servant the ox occupies some hours ol
the night in grazing ; the sheep does so when not folded in his pen ;
and the horse, worked during the day for our convenience and profit,
has often little more than the period of night allotted to him for nourish-
ment and repose. Then it is necessary that, by some peculiar and excel-
lent contrivance, these hours of comparative or total darkness to us should
be partially yet sufficiently illuminated for them ; and therefore, in the
horse, the dark brovra or black coat of the choroides does not extend over
the whole of the irflernal part of the eye, or rather, it is not found on any
part on which the rays proceeding from the objects could fall. It is not
found in any part of what may be called the field of vision ; but, in its
place, a bright variegated green is spread, and more over the upper part
than the lower, because the animal's food, and the objects which it is ol
consequence for him to notice, are usually below the level of his head —

92

THE HORSK

thus, by suffering the impression to remain longer on the retina, or by
some portion of light reflected from this variegated bed on which the retina
reposes, or in some other inexplicable but efficient way, enabling the ani-
mal, even in comparative darkness, to possess a power of vision equal to
his wants.

The reader may see in the dusk, or even when duskiness is fast yielding
to utter darkness, the beautiful sea-green reflexion from the eye of the horse
It is that lucid variegated carpet of which we are now speaking.

Who is unaware that in the fading glimmering of the evening, and even
in the darker shades of night, his horse can see surrounding objects much
better than his rider, and who, resigning himself to the guidance of that
sagacious and faithful animal, has not been carried in safety to his journey's
end, when he would otherwise have been bewildered?

If our reader has not seen this beautiful pigment in the eye of the horse,
we would entreat him to take the earliest opportunity of examining it, and
he will be convinced what care that Being, who gave all things life, has
taken that each shall be fitted for his situation. The horse has not the in-
telligence of man, and may not want for any purpose of pleasure or im-
provement, the vivid picture of surrounding objects, which the retina of the
human being presents. A thousand minute but exquisite beauties
would be lost upon him. He has not the faculty to appreciate, or to
profit by them. If, therefore, his sense of vision may not be so strong
during the day, it is made up to him by the increased power of vision in
the dark.

Perfectly white and cream coloured horses have a peculiar appearance
of the eyes. The pupil is red instead of black. They have no black paint
or brilliant carpet. It is the choroid coat itself which we see in them, and
not its coverhig ; and the red appearance is caused by the numerous blood-
vessels which are found on every part of that coat.

When we come to treat of other domestic animals, we shall tell how this
carpet is varied in colour to suit the situation and necessity of each. In
the ox it is of a dark green. He has not many enemies to fear, nor much
difficulty in searching for nourishment, and the colour of the eye is adapted
to his food. In the cat and all his varieties, it is yellow. We have heard
of the eyes of the lion appearing like two flaming torches in the night. It
is the reflection of the little light about him, concentred on the yellow
carpet. There are few of our readers who have not seen the same
singular glare from the eyes of the domestic cat. In the wolf, and like-
wise in the dog, who, in his wild state, prowls chiefly at night, it is grey.
In the poor, unjustly persecuted badger, who scarcely dares to crawl forth
at night, although sheltered by the thickest darkness, it is white ; and the
ferret who is destined to hunt his prey through all its winding retreats, and
in what would be to us absolute darkness, has no paint on the choroides.

Tracinu- the choroides towards the fore part of the eye, we perceive that
it is reflected from the side to the edge of the lens, 7i, and has the appear-
ance of several plaits or folds. They are actually foldings of the mem-
brane It is not diminished in size, but it has less space to cover, and
therefore there must be these duplicatures or plaits. They are very use-
fully employed in the place in which we find them. They prevent the
passage of any rays of light on the outside of the lens, and which, proceed-
ing forward in various directions, and uncondensea by the power of the
lens, would render vision confused or imperfect These folds of the cho-
roides are called the citory processes, u-u iin-

Of the last and innermost coat of the eye, the retina, for which all the

EXTERNAL STRUCTURE,

93

others were constructed, we shall be better able to speak when we have
explained the contents of the eye.

Within the cornea, and occupying- the fore part of the eye, is the aqueous
huinour, p, so termed from its resemblance to pure water. It is that
by which the cornea is preserved in its protuberant and rounded form. It
extends to the crystalline lens q, and therefore a portion of it, althoue;h a
very small one, is behind the iris (tti, p. 89). Floating in this fluid is a mem-
brane, with an an oblongs aperture, called the iris. It is that which gives
colour to the eye. The human eye is said to be black, or hazel, or blue
according to the colour of this membrane or curtain ; and it is called the
iris, or rainbow, from its beautiful, intermingling hues. The colour
varies but little in the horse, and always bears some analogy to that of the
skin. We rarely see it lighter than a hazel, or darker than a brown. The
sparkling black of the human being is never found. Horses perfectly
white, or cream-coloured, have the iris white and the pupil red. When
horses of other colours, and which are usually pied, have a white iris and
a black pupil, they are said to be wall-eyed. Vulgar opinion has decided
that a wall-eyed horse is never subject to blindness, but this we believe to
be altogether erroneous. There is no difierence of structure which can
produce this exemption ; but the wall-eyed horse, from this singular and
unpleasant appearance, and his frequent want of breeding, may not be
exposed to many of the usual causes of inflammation.

The aperture in the iris is termed the pupil, and through it light passes
to the inner chamber of the eye. The pupil is oblong, and variable in size.
It varies with the intensity or degree of light which falls upon the eye. In
a dark stable the pupil is expanded to admit a great proportion of the light
which falls upon the cornea, but when the horse is brought towards
the door of the stable, and more light is thrown upon the eye, the pupil
contracts in order to keep out that extra quantity which would be painful
to the animal, and injurious to vision. When opposed directly to the sun,
the aperture will almost close.

This alteration of form in the pupil is effected by the muscular fibres
which enter into the composition of the iris. When these fibres contract,
it is plain that the pupil must enlarge. The membrane itself must be
drawn into less compass, and therefore the aperture in the centre must be
greater. When the fibres are relaxed, the pupii must proportionably di-
minish. The motions of the iris are not at all under the control of the will,
nor is the animal sensible of them. They are produced by sympathy with
the state of the retina. When a quantity of light, sufficient to dazzle or
give pain, falls upon the retina, it is exhausted, the fibres of the iris sym-
pathize with it, and relax, and the curtain falls. When a deficient portion
of light reaches the retina, and vision is indistinct, we are conscious of an
apparent effort to bring the object clearly into view ; the fibres then con-,
tract, and the aperture enlarges, and more light is admitted.

This dilatation or contraction of the pupil gives a useful method of as-
certaining the existence of blindness in one eye or in both. There is a
description of blindness, which a close examination of the eye, even by a
person accustomed to horses, will not always detect. The cornea and
crystalline lens remain perfectly transparent, but the retina is palsied, and
is not affected by light; and good judges have been deceived when bhnd-
ness of this description has been confined to one eye. A horse bhnd m
both eyes will usually have his ears in constant and rapid motion, directing
them in quick succession to every quarter; he will likewise hang back in
his halter in a peculiar way : and will lift his feet high as if he were stepping

94 THE HORSE.

over some obstacle, when there is actually nothing to obstruct his passage ;
and there will be an evident uncertainty in the putting down of his feet:
these things, however, have been overlooked by the careless and inexpert,
and a blind horse has been bought as a sound one. In blindness ot one
eye little or nothing ot this characteristic gait and manner can be perceived ;
yet although a one-eyed horse may not be absolutely condemned for the
common business of the carriage or the road, he is generally worthless as
a hunter, for he cannot measure his distances, and will run in o his leaps .
Many a sportsman, puzzled and angry at the sudden blundering of his
horse or injured by one or more stunning falls, have found a very natural,
althouo-h unexpected explanation of it in the blindness of one eye and that
perhap^s produced through his own fault, by over-riding his willing and
valuable beast, and causing a determination of blood to the eye, which
proved fatal to the delicate texture of the retina. Even for the carriage cr
the road, he is, however, sadly deteriorated ; for, his eyes being placed la-
teralW his field of observation must be materially lessened.

Let'the size of both pupils be carefully noticed before the horse is re-
moved from the stable, and, as he is led to the door, observe whether they
both contract, and equally so, with the increase of light. If the horse
should be first seen in the open air, let it be observed whether the pupils
are precisely of the same size; then let the hand be placed over each eye
alternately, and held there for a little while, and let it be observed whether
the pupil dilates with the abstraction of light, and equally dilates m each ej e
Hanging from the upper edge of the pupil of the horse, are found
two or three round black bodies, as large as millet seeds. When the
horse is suddenly brought into an intense light, and the pupil is closed,
these bodies present a singular appearance, bemg squeezed out from be-
tween the edges of the iris. An equal number, but rnuch smaller, are
lurched to the edge of the lower portion of the iris Their general use is
probably to intercept portions of light which would be troublesome or m-
furious- but their principal function is accomplished during the act of
Irazinl'. They are larger on the upper edge of the iris, and are placed on
fhe ourer side of the pupil, evidently to discharge the same function which
we ^r^attHbuted to the eyelashes, to obstruct the light in those direc-
LnsTn whS it would come with greatest force both from above and even
from below, while, at the same time, the field of view is perfectly open, so
far as it regards the pasture on which the horse is grazing. ^ r

Our cut m gives a duplicature of the iris, or the back surface of it.
Th?sTs called the and it is covered with a thick coat of black mucus.

riUst t frays of light, and to prevent them from entering the eye m
n^hlr wav San through the pupil. The colour of the iris is, m some
nnLown way, conn^ Ld lith thl black paint behind. Wall-eyed horses.

an the important uses of the eye

n^ninlv deoend the crydalline le7i's g, so called from its resemblance to a
mainly depend tne J . ^ „f ^ ^^ick jelly-like consistence,

ZA:r^A:r iT^^^^ -h side but more

201, says, " The loss of one eye f ""^^ ^-^-^ 'it is said to render the conception

energy,\hough it * the one con,„,onlv hrought forward to

erring, and the case of mis-judgment oi a ^ ^^^^ possessed, a horse

show this. All I can say on this VO ^^J^' ^^^^ ^ on^yed horse, and this animal carried
gifted with extraordinary powers for leapmg, was a on^7^ single blunder in

me through a hunting season, without to my recollectioa m t,
leaping."

EXTERNAL STRUCTURE.

convex on the inner than the outer side. It is enclosed in a delicate tran^
parent bag or capsule, and is placed between the aqueous and the vitreo .B
humors, and received into a hollow in the vitreous humor with wliich it
exactly corresponds. It has, from its density, and its double convexitv
the chief concern in conveying the rays of light which pass into the pupil'

The lens is very apt to be affected from long or violent inflammation of
the conjunctiva, and either its capsule becomes cloudy, and imperfectlv
transmits the light, or the substance of the lens becomes opaque. The
examination of the horse, with a view to detect this, must either be in the
shade, or at a stable door, where the light shall fall on the horse from
above and in front ; and in conducting this examijiation we would more
particularly caution the intended purchaser against a superfluity of white
about his neck. Holding the head of the horse a little up, and the lio-ht
coming in the direction which we have described, the condition of the lens
will at once be evident. The confirmed cataract, or the opaque lens of
long standing, will exhibit a pearly appearance, which cannot be mistcikpn
and will frequently be attended with a„change of form, a portion of the lens
being forced forwards into the pupil. Although the disease may not have
proceeded so far as this, yet if there be the slightest cloudiness of the lens
. either generally, or in the form of a minute spot in the centre, and with or
without lines radiating from that spot, the horse is to be condemned ; for in
mnety-nine cases out of a hundred the disease will proceed, and cataract
or complete opacity of the lens, and absolute blindness, will be the result. '

Cataract in the human being may, to a very considerable extent, be
remedied. The opaque lens may be extracted, or it may be forced into
the vitreous humors, and there existing as a foreign body it will soon
be absorbed and disappear. These operations are impossible in the horse,
for, in the first place, there is a muscle of which we have already spoken'
and to be presently described, peculiar to quadrupeds, and of such power
as generally to draw back the eye too far into its socket for the surgeon
to be ^enabled to make his incision; and, could the incision be made," the
action of this muscle would force out the greater part of the contents of
the eye, and this organ would almost waste away. If, however, the opaque
lens could be withdrawn or depressed, and the mechanism of the eye were
not otherwise injured, the operation would be totally useless, for we could
not make the horse wear those spectacles, whose convergin"- power miffht
compensate for the loss of the lens. °

Behind the lens, and occupying four-fifths of the cavity of the eye, is the
vitreous humor (glassy, or resembling glass). It seems, when first' taken
froni the eye, to be of the consistence of a jelly, of beautiful transparency ;
but if it is punctured, a fluid escapes from it as limpid and as thin as water,
and when this has been suffered completely to ooze out, a mass of mem-
braneous bags or cells remains. The vitreous humor then consists of a
watery fluid contained in these cells, but the fluid and tSe cells form a body
of considerably greater density than the aqueous fluid in the front of the eye".

Last of all, between the vitreous humor and the choroid coat, is the
retina, o, or net-like membrane. It is an expansion of the substance, g,
of the optic nerve. When that nerve has reached the back of the eye, and
penetrated through 'he sclerotic and choroid coats, it first enlarges into a
little white prominence, and from that proceed radiations or expansions
of nervous matter, whicJi spread over the whole of the choroid coat, and
form the third investment of the eye. The membrane by which this nervous
pulp is supported, is so exceedingly fine and delicate, that it will tear
with the slightest touch, and break even with its own weight The mem

96

THE HORSE.,

brane and the pulp are perfectly transparent in the living: animal. The pupil
appears to be black, because in the day time it imperfectly reflects the
colour of the choroid coat beneath ; in the dusk it is greenish, because, the
glare of day being removed, the actual green of the paint appears.

On this expansion of nervous pulp, the rays of light from surrounding
objects, condensed by the lens and the humours, fall, and producing a
certain' image corresponding with these objects, the animal is conscious of
their existence and presence. ^ , ,

Li"-ht consists of particles, which, proceeding from the sun or other lu-
minous bodies, fall on different objects, and being again reflected from
them, and entering the eye, render these objects visible. If we are m a
dark room, which we know to be filled with furniture, we see it not, and
were it not for our previous knowledge of it, or did we not touch it, we
should not be conscious of its existence ; but if a candle be brought mto
the room or if one of the shutters be opened, the light from the candle,
or that admitted through the window, falls upon the different articles oi
furniture and a portion of it being reflected from them, and reflected in
every direction, some of the light enters the pupil of the eye, and we see
the objects around us. , .

It proceeds from these objects to us in straight lines, and except it were
impeded, or driven, or drawn out of its course by some body, it would
continue to travel on for ever in straight lines. It passes through some
bodies with perfect ease, as glass, and crystal, and water, but it is ob-
structed in its passage by others, as metals and wood. These substances
throuoh which it readily passes are said to be transparent ; those by which
its course is arrested are called opaqve. It has an attraction for all bodies,
stronn-er for some than for others. By the opaque body the greater part
of it il absorbed; and although it passes through the transparent body it
feels and is affected by the attraction of that body. It is bent out ot its
way although not detained. This is called the refraction of light ; and it
is on the knowledge of this simple fact that all our optical instruments are
constructed, and that we are enabled to explain the wonderful construction

Thirfit'tle figure will make it sufficiently evident. A ray of light, a, shall

fall on a smooth or level piece of glass, in the d-fct on ° -f^^^^^^^^^
if it were not acted upon by the glass, it won d pursue «ut e P ^^^^
teaches us that it does not. It no sooner enter^^he glass, lha ^^^^^

out of its original course, and takes .^^^ ^'.'^^Xn a 6 and the attraction
upon by two forces, the first impulse in the direction a b, and

91

oftlie g-.nss, it> a peipe.ulici.Iar dirtot-'on, as it approaclied it- and chpv
iMo- both forc.>s, il took- a new path, / i)etween the two forces, and uJ-^
towards a hne, c, drawn perpendicular to the surface of the o-|ass. This new
path it continued to pursue, until it had penetrated throug-h the glass ; and
lheii, beuio- about to quit the g:lass, it was once more acted upon by twofo'rces-
—this combined iinpidse in an obliqtie direction, and the attraction of the
lower surface of the g-lass in a perpendicular one ;— and as before, obeyino-
both. It again traversed a new path, e, between both forces, and in a direc-
tion from tlie perpendicular.

The degree and kind of deviation fron^ the original line will depend on
the dilference ni density between the air and the glass or water, or whatever
siibstance may be used, and likewise on the surface of the refracting body
Passnig through a transparent substance, with a plain and level sinface
above and below, the rays will be bent out of their first direction, but will
contmue parallel to each other. Passing through a concave glass (a glass
hollowed on one or both sides), the rays will diverge or separate ; and tra-
versmg a convex one (rounded on one or both sides), they will converge
or approach each other, and tend to a point; and the degree of convero-ence
or divergence will depend on the degree of convexity or^concavity.
■ Let us apply this to the mechanism of the eye of the horse (vide p 89)
We have spoken of the cornea, / and the aqueous humour, q, and the crys-
talline lens, g, and the vitreous humour, h; but although possessed of dif-
ferent refractive powers, according to their form and density, (and the
cornea from its convexity, and the crystalline lens from its density, being
the principal agents,) they are so fitted to each other, that we may consider
them as composing one exceedingly convex lens, and of such power, that
the rays entering the pupil, m, are brought to a point within the very sub-
stance of the lens

The place of distinct vision, however, will not be at this point, but a little
way behind. If the glass of a spectacle, such as those generally worn by
old people, be held between a candle and a piece of paper, the rays of
light will converge by the convexity of the glass, and be brought to a" very
small surface or point on the paper ; but on that point, there will be no
distinct picture of the candle, and the paper must be gradually removed
from the light, until a distance be found at which the image of the candle
will be seen most vivid and distinct, although inverted. So (see the cut,
p. 89) the retina which is spread over the internal coat of the eye is placed
at a little distance behind the point where the rays meet and cross. If the
eye be too convex, and its converging power too great, the rays will cross
too soon, and the image will be formed, brightest and best, before they
reach the retina, and the vision or sight will be imperfect and obscure. If
the eye is not sufficiently convex, and consequently does not possess con-
verging power enough, the rays will not cross until they are too near the
retina, and the picture would be most luminous and distinct behind
the retina ; and 'hus, likewise, the sight would be imperfect and ob-
scure *.

* " In considering vision as aoliieved by means of an image formed at the bottom of the
eye, we can never reflect without wonder on the sraalhieas, yet correctness of the picture,
the subtilty of the touch, and the fineness of the lines. A landscape of fiveor six square leagues
is brought into a space of half an inch in diameter ; yet the multitude of objects which it
contains are all preserved, are all discriminated in their magnitudes, j)ositions, fipiros,
colours. A stage coach passing at its ordinary speed, for several minutes, passes in the
eve only over one-twelfth of an inch, yet is the change of place in the image distinctly per
ceived tluroughout its whole progress." — Pnleij's Natural Theology, p. .32.

9»

THE IIORSK.

We are of course unable to ascertain when the horse experiences either
of these kinds of indistinct vision, nor are we able to offer any remedy or
them: but nothing? can be more certain than that his sight ,s frequenly
very imperfect from one of these causes. There is a shying, often the
resul of cowardice or playfulness, or want of work ? but at other tunes
prol^ beTond contradictln, a defect of sight. A horse will manifestly
Sake the nature of the object before him ; he will run against that
lich he should have seen ; or he will be terrified by a tree or bird, which

^'''^X^"^^^^^ dangerous than blindness. A blind horse
wilT r sign ht self fo the guidance of his rider or driver ; but against the
misconception and starling of a shying horse there is no defence That
^^r^eT' row shy as they grow old, no one accustomed to them will deny ;
and no^intdligent person will be slow in attributing it to the righ cause-
a decry n hf organ of vision.-a loss of convexity in the eye, lessening
the convero ency of the rays, and throwing the perfect image beyond, and
not on the retina. There is a striking difference m the convexity of the
CO nea in the colt and the old horse ; and both of them, probably, may
Jhv f^oi^ opposite causes; the one from a cornea too prominent, and the
shy fiom OPPO^"^ ^T;^ J t (hink that, in the usual examination

T^':Z::i:Z::^o p?cht:sufficient att'entlon is paid to the con-

'^Tlfefeme'dTfor 'shying will be considered when we speak of the vice, of

^"^There is a provision yet wanting. The horse has a very extended field
of view but many persons are not perhaps aware how little of ,t he can
ol view, Dui n' H f readers who can make out a

"ne of^or^eale'^iZr. changing direction of the eye. It is
the motion of the eyes of a r.^ -d«. ^ To .^e^the

power and quickness, no less tlian six "^jves

L!ra.T,::^K»htiw"^S;Ln:?J^'re:^^^^

MUSCLES OF THE EYE.

muscles three of which are represented in our cut.
There "^f""^^^'^^^' X trek of the orbit, and inserted into the ball of
d, and /. "^.•"S/'-o"^^^^^^^^^^^^ equal distances from each other

the eye, opposite to each \,,t behind the transparent and

SK^cI "^Zr^ to raise the eye. When it con-

THE MUSCLKS OF THE EVK. „g

Iracts, the eye must be drawn upward. Anotlier, f, is inserted ,
opposite, at the bottom of the eye ; and its office is as clearly to depress 2
eye, or enable the animal to look downwards. A third, c, is inserted nf hi
outer corner, and by means of it the eye is turned outward, and from \Z
situation of the eye of the horse, considerably backward ; and the fourth is
inserted at the mner corner, turning the eye inward. They can thus rotate
or turn the eye m any direction the animal wishes. If the upper and outer
muscles are called into action, the horse looks upward and outward and
more upward than outward in proportion as the upper muscle acts, at the
will of the animal, more powerfully than the outer; and thus, by the action
ot one of them, or the combined action of slny two of them, the eye may
be immediately and accurately directed to every point.

These muscles, however, have another duty to discharge. They support
the eye in its place. In the usual position of the head of the horse, they must
be to a certain degree employed for this purpose ; but when he is grazing- or
feeding, the principal weight of the eye rests upon them ; and then, lest
from this slanting and downward position of the head, when the horse is
so often and so long employed in feeding, they .should be fatigued, another
muscle IS added, peculiar to quadrupeds, called the retractor (drawer-
back), or the susperiwrius {svspemory) muscle, g. It arises from the ed^e
of the foramen or hole through which the optic nerve enters the orbit— siir
rounds the nerve as it proceeds forward, and then, partially dividing into
four parts, is attached to the back part of the eye. Its office is evidently
to support the eye generally, or, when it is suddenly called into powerful
action, and assisted by the straight muscles, it draws the eye back out of
the reach of threatening danger, and in the act of drawing "it back causes
the haw to protrude in the manner which we have already described, as an
additional defence. "

The power of this' muscle is very great. It has been proved, in at-
tempted operations fqr cataract, to exert a force equal to more than twenty
pounds ; and it renders an operation on the eye almost impossible. It
is an admirable substitute for the want of hands, to defend the eye from
many things that would injure it; and, being partially separated into four
divisions, it is also enabled to assist the straight muscles in turning the eye.

These muscles discharge another and a most important office. If we
examine near and distant objects through a telescope, we must alter the
focus, i. e. we must increase jor diminish the length of the tube. We must
shorten it a little when we examine distant objects, because the rays coming
to us from them, in a less divergent direction, are sooner brought to a
point by the power of the lens ; so the straight and retractor muscles
drawing back the eye, and forcing it upon the substance behind, and thus
in a slight degree flattening it, bring the lens nearer to the retina, and adapt
the eye to the observation of distant objects.

Still, however, being em])loyed in supporting the weight of the eye, these
muscles might not be able to turn it so rapidly and so extensively as
the wishes or wants of the animal might require ; therefore, two other
muscles are given, which are used solely in turning the eye. They are
called oblique muscles, because their course is obliquely across the eye,
The upper one is most curiously constructed, a, h. It comes from the
back part of the orbit, and takes a direction upwards and towards
the inner side, and there, just under the ridge of the orbit, it passes
through a perfect mechanical pulley, and, turning round, proceeds
across the eye, and is inserted rather beyond the middle of the eye, towards
•lie outer side. Thus the globe of the eye is evidently directed inward and

H 2

100 THE HORSE.

upward. Somethini? more, however, is accomplished by this singrular me-
chanism. The eye is naturally deep in tlie orbit, that it may be more per-
fectly defended ; but it may be necessary, occasionally, to bnng the eye
forward, and enlarge the field of vision. The eye is actually protruded
under the influence of fear: not only are the lids opened more wide y but
the eye is brought more forward. How can this possibly be accomphshed >
There are no muscles anterior to, or before the eye-there is no place for
their insertion. The object is readily effected by th.s suigular pulley, 6 c.
By the power of this muscle, the trochlearis or pulley-muscle, and the
straight muscles at the same time not opposing it, or only regulatmg the
direcUonoftheeye, it is really brought somewhat forward. The lower
obliciue muscle rises just within the lacrymal bone (z, p. 66), and, proceed-
ino- across the eye, is fixed into the part of the sclerotica, opposite to
the other oblique muscle, and it turns the eye in an opposite direction,
assisting, however, the upper oblique, in bringing the eye forward from its

Chapter VII.

INJURIES AND DISEASES OF THE SKULL-THE BRAIN-THE EARS-

AND THE EYES.

We have now arrived at a convenient resting-place in our somewhat dry,
but necessary description of the structure of the horse, and we willingly
turn to more practical matter. We will consider the injuries and diseases
of the parts we have surveyed. In entering, however, on this division oi
our work, we would premise, that it is impossible for us to give the farmer
such an account of the nature and treatment of the diseases of horses as will
enable him with safety to practise for himself, except in the commonest cases.
The causes of most diseases are so obscure, their symptoms so variable,
and their connexion with other maladies so complicated and mysterious,
that a life devoted to professional study will alone qualify a man to become
a judicious and successful practitioner on the diseases of the horse, and
other domestic animals. Our object will be to communicate sufficient in-
struction to the farmer, to enable him to act with promptness and judgment
when he cannot obtain professional assistance — to qualify him to form a
satisfactory opinion of the skill of the veterinary surgeon whom he may
employ, and, more especially, to divest him of those strange and absurd
prejudices which, in a variety of cases, not only produce and prolong
disease, but bring it to a fatal termination.

FRACTURE.

We have described the cavity of the skull of the horse as being so de-
fended by the hardness of the parietal bones, and those bones as so covered
by a mass of muscle, and protected above by an additional layer of bone,
and the occipital bone as so exceedingly thick (see cut, p. 68), that a frac-
ture of the bones of the skull is almost impossible. It can only occur
trom brutal violence, except that, when a horse falls in the act of rearing,
the occipital bone is sometimes fractured; when he fulls forward, and
the head comes in contact wUh the ground, the muzzle or jaws will receive
tlie principal or whole force of the blow. When, however, fracture of tli€
skull does occur, it u almost invariably fatal. A blow ot sufficient violence

MK«iRIMS.

to break these bones must likewise irreparably iniure the delicate and im
portunt org'an which they protect.

The ridge, or outer and upper part of the orbit of the eye, is occa-
sionally fractured. It hapi^ens from falling-, or much oftener from violent
blows. The slightest examination will detect the loosened pieces, but u
professional man alone can here render effectual assistance. AH, however
that he can do will be gently to replace the parts in their natural situation^
and contrive to confine them there by adhesive plasters ; to obviate in-
flammation by bleeding, jihysic, and low diet, and leave the rest to nature.

We proceed then to the diseases of the head, and the first of these is
PRESSURE ON THE BRAIN. This may be produced by some fluid thrown
out between the membranes, or occupying- and distending the ventricles of
the brain. In the grown horse this rarely occurs, but it is well known to
breeders as an occasional disease of the foal, under the name of " water in
the head." The head is either very much enlarged, or strangely deformed,
or both ; and the animal dies either in the act of foaling, or a few days
afler the birth.

MEGRIMS

There is another kind of pressure on the braui, resulting from an un-
usual determination or flow of blood to it. This organ requires a lam e
supply of blood to enable it to discharge its important functions. It "is
supposed that ten times more blood flows througfi the brain than throu^-h
any other part of the frame of equal bulk. Nature, in the horse more than
iu many other animals, has made some admirable provisions to cause this
^re-dt quantity of blood to flow into the brain without much velocity, and
thereby to lessen the risk of suddenly overloading it or rupturing its
vessels. The arteries pursue their course to the brain ui a strangely wind-
ing and circuitous manner ; and they enter the skull through bony holes
which will admit of the enlargement of the vessels only to a very limited
extent: yet, from various causes, of which the most common is violent
exercise in a hot day, and the horse being fat and full of blood, more than
the usual quantity will be sent to the head : — or from some negligence about
the harness, as the collar being too small, or the curb-rein too tight, the
blood will be prevented from returning from the head : and thus the larger
vessels of the brain will be too long and injuriously distended, and, what
is of more consequence, the small vessels which run through the sub-
stance of the brain will be enlarged, and the bulk of the brain will be
increased, and it will press upon the origins of tlie nerves, and produce,
almost without warning, loss of power and consciousness.

The mildest affection of this kind is known by the name of Megrims. It
comparatively rarely happens when the horse is ridden ; but should he be
driven, and, perhaps, rather quickly, he may perform a part of his journey
with his usual cheerfulness and ease, when all at once he will stop, sliake
his head, be evidently giddy, and half unconscious. In a minute or two
this will pass over, and he will go on again as if nothing had happened.

Frequently, however, the attack will be of a more serious nature. He
will fall without the slightest warning, or suddenly run round once or
twice, and then fall. He will either lie in a state of complete insensibi-
lity, or struggle with the utmost violence. In five or ten minutes he will
begin gradually to come to himself; he will get up and proceed on his
journey, yet somewhat dull, and evidently affected and exhausted by what
had happened, although not seriously or perniaiicntly ill.

This is a very dangerous disease — dangerous to the horse, which will

102

THK Ilt)RSE.

occasionally die on the spot, and peculiarly dangerous to lliose who drive
him, for there will frequently be no warnin"- or opportunity to escape. It
likewise happens, that whether the vessels have been weakened by thin
violent distension, and afterwards ofter less resistance to the flow of blood,
or, whatever be the cause, a horse that has once been attacked by mej^rims
is very subject to a return of the coniplaint. No prudent man will drive a
horse that has had a second attack, especially if, in the intermediate time,
he has taken proper means to prevent a recurrence of the fit.

At the moment of attack, a person who is able to bleed should take three
or four quarts of blood from the neck ; or any one can cut the bars of the
palate in the manner explained where we describe the palate, and whence a
considerable and sufficient quantity of blood may be readily obtained. The
driver should pat and soothe the animal, and carefully examine the harness,
and pursue his journey as gently as circumstances will permit. When he
g-ets home, a dose of physic * should be administered if the horse can be
"spared, and the quantity of dry food lessened, and mashes given, or green
meat, or the horse should be turned out at night, or turned out altogether
for two or three months. (1.)

AI OPLE/:\

The attack sometimes assumes a still more violent form. The horse
falls and dies at once. It then rather resembles, or is the same with apo-
plexy in the human being. To this more serious form of the disease he is
subject in the stable, and even at pasture; but there is generally some
warning. He will be seen with the head low, extended almost to the
ground, and su|)ported against the manger. He staggers as he stands.
If moved, he appears as if he would fall. His sight and hearing are evi-
dently atlected. This is not mad staggers, for no inflammation of the
brain is ftnuid ; nor stomach-staggers, for there is no distension of the sto-
mach. The horse will continue in this way from one hour to twelve. He
then falls grinds his teeth ;— his eyes are open, protruded, and fixed— the
pupil is dilated ;— there are twilchings about the frame ;— the muzzle is
cold ; — the vein of the neck is evidently swelled ; — he is unable to swallow ;
— the drink is returned by the nostril or the mouth, and the dung often
voided involuntarily :- the twitchinga increase to strong convulsions, and
death speedily closes the scen^.

If there be time for medical treatment, the course to be pursued is i lam
enough. Bleed copiouslyt ;— take at once eight or ten quarts. Bleed from a
vein in preference to an artery, for an artery which supplies the bram can-
not be got at. Bleed from the jugular or common neck vein, for that re-
turns the blood from the brain, and a large quantity rapidly drawn from
this vein may possibly give relief. Next back-rake, or remove the dung
from the lower intestine with the hand, and give a strong dose of physic :
but the case is usually hopeless, and the most decisive and skilful treat-
ment alone can avail. We decidedly object to two methods of cure
adopted by some farriers, and farmers too. The first is to blow pep-
per (and Cayenne pepper if they can get it) up the nostrils of the horse.
The violent sneezing that will be produced if the animal is not too insen-
sible must probably, or almost certainly, rupture some of the vessels
already over-distended. The other practice is to give spices and bark to
rouse the aaimal. The etiect of these would be to quicken the tirculatiou.

• By physic, whenever the word occurs in this Treatise we mean purgative medicjne.
t Fun directions for bleeding will be given, when we describe the various uperatian.
which it may be necessary to pert'orm ou ihc horr.e.

STOMACH-STAGGERS.

and to send \et»more blood to that organ which already had a great deal toe
much. (2.)

STOMACH-STAGGERS.

A disease not mucli unlike this ie known under the name of Staqgi rs.
There are two varieties of it — the sleepy or stomach-staggers, and the nmd-
staggers ; frequently, however, they are only different stages of the same ais-
ease, or varying with the cause that produced them. In Stomach-Staggers
the horse stands dull, sleepy, staggering; when roused he looks vacantly
around him; perhaps seizes a lock of hay, and dozes again with it in his
mouth ; at length he drops, and dies : or the sleepiness passes off, and deli
rium comes on, when he falls, rises again, drops, beats himself about, and
dies in convulsions. The cause of this is sufficiently evident ; and the disease
never occurs, except by the fault of those who have the management ol
the horse. It arises from over feeding. The horse has been permitted to
get at a too great quantity of food, or food of an improper nature. Wiien
he has been kept for some hours without eating, and has been worked
hard, and has become thoroughly hungry, he falls ravenously upon every
kind of food he can get at; swallowing it faster than his small stomacli
can digest it ; and no water being given to soften it, and to hasten its pas-
sage, the stomach becomes crammed, and having been previously ex-
hausted by long fasting, is unable to contract upon its contents. The food
soon begins to ferment and to swell, causing great distension ; the brain
sympathizes with this overloaded organ, and staggers are produced. We
can easily imagine this, when we remember the sad headaches occasionally
arising from an overfilled or disordered stomach. Sometimes the stomach
is ruptured.

We have little to say of the treatment of the disease so far as medicine is
concerned, except that as it is almost or quite impossible for the person
most accustomed to horses to distinguish between the early stage of sto-
mach and mad staggers (distension of the stomach, and inflammation of
the brain), we should be most diligent and minute in our inquiry into the
history of the horse for the preceding twenty-four hours — whether He could
have got at an undue quantity of food, or had been worked hard and kept
long fasting. Some say that there is a yellowness of the eye, and twitch-
ings about the breast in the early stage of sleepy or stomach-staggers. We
have seen a great many cases of stomach-staggers without this yellowness,
or these catchings, and we believe that no one can certainly distinguish
between the two, and that we must be guided entirely by the history of
the case.

Bleed very largely ; — that cannot do harm, and in mad staggers is indis-
pensable. Give a good dose of physic — that also cannot do harm, although
in stomach-staggers it caimot do much good, for it can scarcely find its way
into the over-distended stomach, and it certainly cannot find its way
through it. Keeping the horse from all food will be a very proper proceed-
ing, whichever be the disease.

Some good judges have affirmed that a horse was never cured of stomach-
staggers. It was formerly a very difficult thing, but the .stomach-pump
has done wonders in cases of poisoning in the human being, and, by means
of a larger and somewhat altered pump, (which every veterinary surgeon,
and, we think, every large proprietor of horses, should have on his pre-
mises,) this enormous mass of food may, without difficulty, be washed out.

If, however, we can say but little of the treatment of stomach-staggers,
we have much to say of its prevention. It attacks old horses oftcner than

104

THE MORSE.

otliers, and horses that have been hardly worked, or that have been workt-d
for many hours without food. Lei no farmer dehide himself with the idea
that it is contagious. If his horses have occasionally slight fits of tlie
staggers, or if the disease carries off several of them, he may be assured
that there is something wrong in his management. One horse may
get at the f orn-bin, and cram himself to bursting ; but if several are at-
tacked, it is time for him to look about him. The cause will generally be
found to be, too voracious feeding ; — too much food given at once, and
perhaps without water, after hard work and long fasting. Nothing is lost
by the habitual use of the nose-bag, and a more equal division of the
hours of labour and the times of feeding. Some careless and thoughtless
people suffer their horses to go from morning to night without being fed,
and then they wonder if sometimes the horses hang their heads, and droop,
and cannot work. No horse should be worked more than four or five hours
without being baited.

There is one consequence of this improper treatment, of which persons
do not appear to be aware, although they suffer severely from it. A horse
that has frequent half-attacks of staggers very often goes blind. It is not
the common blindness from cataract, but a peculiarly glassy appearance of
the eye. If the history of these blind horses could be told, it would be
found thai they had been subject to fits of drooping and dulness, and these
produced by absurd management respecting labour and food.

Staggers have been known to occur when the animal is at grass ; but
this usually happens in poor, hard-worked, half-starved animals, and
soon after they have been turned out, either in rich pasture, or in a salt
marsh, and in hot weather.

There are, however, few diseases of the horse that are not occasionally
epidemic, or produced by some influence of the atmosphere, of the natUi-e
of which we are ignorant ; and stomach-staggers sometimes prevails in par-
ticular districts, where there is nothing remarkably wrong in the treatment
of the horse. There is at that time somethnig in the atmosphere which
weakens the stomach, and disposes it to indigestion, and causes a little
error in feeding to be dangerous, or produces considerable dise.ise under
the common circumstances of fee(hng. When this is the case the pro-
prietors of horses should be particularly on their guard, for in most of
the horses which then die, the distended stomach will be observed, and will
be the actual cause of death. It is very possible that, at certain seasons,
some poisonous plants may prevail, or that the hay may not be so nutritive
or digestible, and thus the stomach may be weakened. The farmer will
weigh all these things in his mind, and act accordingly.

MAD STAGGERS.

Mad Staggers (inflammation of the brain, brain fever) can, as we
have said, be at first with difliculty distinguished from the sleejiy, or sto-
mach-staggers, but, after a while, the horse suddenly begins to heave at
the flanks; — his nostrils expand; — his eyes unclose; — he has a wild and
vacant stare, and delirium comes rapidly on. He dashes himself furiously
about; there is no disposition to do mischief, but his motions are sudden
and violent, and accomjjanied by perfect unconsciousness ; and he becomes
a terrifying and dangerous animal. This continues either until his former
stupor returns, or he has literally worn himself out in frightful struggles.

There are only two diseases with which it can be confounded, and from
bolh of Ihem il'is very readily distinguished, viz. colic and madness, lii
colic the horse rises and fails, but not with so much violence ; he some-

TETAJ^US, OH LOCKED-JAW.

times ])Uinges, hut he more ofteu rolls himself about; he looks frequently
at his flanks with an expression of pain, and he is conscious.

In madness there may be more or less violence ; there is sometimes a
determination to do mischief ; and there is always consciousness.

Over-exertion, when the horse is too fat or full of blood, or especially
during hot weather, is a frequent cause of inflammation of the brain ; but
whatever will produce general fever, may be the cause of mad staggers.

The treatment adopted by the best practitioners is too often unsuccess-
ful. The horse should be bled until he faints or drops ; or if he be down,
until he is evidently faint and weak. Both the neck-veins should be
opened at once, and the fulness of the stream, or the quickness with which
it is taken, is almost as important as the quantity. Physic should then be
given. The purge that acts most quickly is the best, and that is the croton
nut, powdered at the. time, and given in a drink, in the dose of a half
drachm, and followed by smaller doses of ten grains each, every six hours,
with plenty of injections of warm soap and water, until the bowels are well
opened. If the croton is not at hand, aloes mny be given, but dissolved in
hot water — an ounce of aloes at the first dose, and, afterwards, a quarter
of an ounce every four hours, until purging is produced. This being ef-
fected, those medicines should be given which have a tendency to lessen the
force of the circulation, and, consequently, the determination of blood to
the head. The most powerful of these are the foxglove, and tartar emetic, in
doses of a drachm each, three or four times in the day. Hellebore should
not be given on account of the previously too great determination of blood
to the brain. The head should be blistered, but rowels and setons give
useless pain, for the horse is cither cured or dead before they perceptibly
begin to act (3.)

TETANUS, on LOCKED-JAW.

We have described the nerves as proceeding from the brain and spinal
marrow, and conveying the power of feeling and motion to the whole frame.
This power may be best conceived by considering it as an influence pro-
ceeding from the brain to every part. In a state of health, it is regularly
and uniformly distributed ; but it is much affected by disease. It may rush
on violently and without interruption, and we have cramp, and tetanus, or
locked-jaw : or the stream may be rapid, but with considerable suspensions,
and we have fits ; or it may be quite suspended, and we have palsy.

Tetanus is one of the most dreadful and fatal diseases to which the horse
is subject. It is called Locked-Jaw, because the muscles of the jaw are
earliest and most powerfiilly affected. Tetanus is a constant spasm of all
the voluntary muscles, and particularly of the neck, the spine, and the head.
It is generally slow and very treacherous in its attack. The horse for a day
or two does not appear to be quite well ; he docs not feed as usual ; partly
chews his food and drops it ; and gulps his water. The owner at length finds
uiiithat the motion of the jaws is considerably limited, and some saliva is
drivelling from the mouth. If he tries the mouth, he can open it only a
very little way, or the jaws are perfectly and rigidly closed ; and thus the only
time in which the disease could have" been successfully combated is lost.
We have, therefore, given a cut of a horse labouring under this disease,
which the reader will do well carefully to examine as we proceed with the
symptoms, that he may be enabled to recognise it in its very earliest stage ;
and the moment he does recognise it, he will do well to apply lor the
very best advice he can get. Most of the peculiarities delineated in the cut

106

THE HORSE.

will be sufficiently apparent before the jaws ate locked, aud while im-diciiic
can be administered with tolerable ease.

The jaws are unnaturally fixed, and then he observes that there is «
stiffness of the neck, a difficulty in bringing the head round, and a
prominence, and hardness, and unyieldingness of ail the muscles of the
neck, with an unusual protrusion of the head. It next occurs that the
poor animal cannot bend his head. The retractor muscle (fig. g, p. 98)
is affected by spasm, and the eye is drawn into the socket— squniting
outward— and the haw protruding over a portion of it, The nostril is
expanded, the ear erect, and the countenance anxious ;— the back and
loins are stitf, and if he is turned in his stall, the whole body turns at once
like an unbending piece of wood. The muscles of the belly are also
affected by spasm, and he is tucked up (his belly contracted and drawn
up) to a strange degree. The tail is erect, and constantly quivering.
The extremities are singularly fixed ;— the hind legs straddling ;— the
fore-lcffs projecting forward and outward (as some one has aptly described
U) likftlfe legs ot-a stool. The pulse at first not much affected, but soon
becoming quick, and small, and irregular; the breathnig more labonous
as the disease proceeds, aud the countenance wild and haggard, and
expressive of extreme agony. The pain which attends the cramp of one
limb will enable us to judge of that which must accompany ""^versa
spasm If a person goes near the horse, or touches him in the slightest
wav aithouo-h he may be unable to move, yet the sudden quickfemng oi
the pulse wfll tell what the animal feels and fears. So the disease goes on
for nine or ten days, until the animal is exhausted by the expenditure of
nervous energy, and the continuance of torUu e.

If from strength of constitution or medical treatment, he should recover,
the first favourable symptom is a slight and short remission of the spasm ;
the time of the remission gradually lengthening, and the jaws a little
relaxing ; but the progress of cure is exceedingly slow, and the horse is

left verv weak. „ « n r

Tetanus is evidently an affection of the nerves. A small fibre of some
nerve has been injured, and the effect of that injury has spread to the
origin of the nerve ; the brain has become atftcted, and universal diseased
Z^on speedily follows. Locked-jaw generally arises from i^^ ^'; ' -^^^^^
oftenest a wound of a tendinous or ligamentous part; but depending not

TETANUS, OR LOCKED-JAW.

1(7

either upon the extent of the wound, or the degree oi' inflamniaLioii which
may be excited. The time of the attack is uncertain, and may be post-
poned until the wound is nearly or quite healed. It occasionally follows
nicking', docking^, cropping-, whether well or ill performed — whether pro-
perly attended to afterwards, or neg'lected. It has been traced to worms
and particularly to bots ; but we do not think that there is any proof of
this. Exposure to cold is a frequent cause ; water dropping upon the back
throug'h the decayed roof of a stable ; or the storm pelting u])on the unco-
vered and shivering animal, while the thoughtless owner has fcheltered
himself

The rational method of cure would seem to be; first to remove tlie local
cause ; — but this will seldom avail much. The irritation is become general,
and the spasmodic action constitutional. The habit is formed, and will
continue. It is well, however, to endeavour to discover the local cause. If
it be a wound in the foot, let it be touched with the hot iron or the caustic,
and kept open with digestive ointment. The new irritation thus produced,
may lessen or remove the old one. If it follows nicking, let the inc'sion be
made deeper, and stimulated by digestive ointment ; — and if it arise from
docking, let the operation be repeated higher. In treating the constitu-
tional disease, efforts must be made to tranquillise the system, and the most
powerful agent is bleeding. We have known twenty pounds of blood taken
at once and with manifest advantage. There is not a more powerful means
of allaying general irritation. Temporary relaxation of the spasm will at
least follow, and that will give the opportunity to do another thing in order
to reduce and quiet the disturbed system, and that is, to give physic. Here
again, that physic is best which is speediest in operation, and will lie in the
smallest compass. The croton has no rival in this respect. The first
(lose should be a half drachm, and the medicine repeated every six hours,
in doses of ten grains, until it operates. The bowels, in all these nervous
affections, are very torpid, -and there is little danger of inflammation from
an over dose of physic. The operation o'" ^he physic may be assisted by
frequent injections, each containing a drachm of aloes dissolved in warm
water — or, by means of the pump, to which we referred in page 103, whole
pailfuls of warm water, or very thin gruel, may be thrown up.

Then, as it is a diseased action of the nerves proceeding from the spinal
marrow, the whole of the spine should be blistered — three or four inches
wide. The horse should be placed in a warm stable, yet with pure air, and
should be clothed with two or three additional rugs, or, what is much better,
sheep-skins warm from the animal, with the raw side inward ; and changed
as soon as they become dry or putrid.

Having bled largely, and physicked and blistered, we seek for other
means to lull the irritation, and we have one at hand, small in bulk and
potent in energy — opium. Give at once a quarter of an ounce, reduced to
powder, and made into a drink with gruel, or in a small ball, (in its crude
state it would be too long in dissolving in the stomach :) and give an addi-
tional drachm every six hours. If the jaw should be quite fixed, adminis-
ter it in injections. The bowels must be attended to during the exhibition
of the opium, and aloes given in small doses, to keep them in a lax state.
Camphor and assafoetida may be given by those who please;— we are not
aware that they will do injury, but opium is the sheet anchor of the vete-
rinary ])ractitioner. ... • , i • ,

dreat caution and patience are requisite in mhnuiistonug the drinks,
for the elevatinn- of the head seems to be exceedingly paiiilul to the horse
A ball maybe divided into small pieces, and with a piece of cane or whale-

108

TIIK UORSK.

hone conveyed to the 1 ack part of tlie nioulli, where it will be dissolved
and must be swallowed.

As soon as possible the strength should be supported by nutritive food.
The appetite seldom fails in this disease ; and it is painful to see the re-
peated eager efTbrts of the poor animal to allay his hunger. When his jaws
are most firmly fixed, he will sometimes be able to suck in the liquid ti oin a
moist mash ; — if he has the slightest command over them, he will contrive to
swallow the greater part of the mash : and should there be room to introduce
the mouth of a small horn, he will thankfully take as much gruel as his
attendant will give him. Until the jaws are firmly locked, he may be suffered
to have hay, although he should only chew it and drop it from the mouth ;
for this action of the muscles of the jaws may delay or prevent taeir total
closure. Little medicine will be wanted as he gets better ; nourishing
food, not too liberally administered, will constitute the best tonic ; and
should the weather be sufficiently warm, few things will do him more good
than to turn him out for two or three hours in the middle of the day. It
will extend the muscles of his neck, and bring him to the use of his limbs.

Against one mode of treatment we enter our protest, from its cruelty
and its inutility— the application of cold. Some turn the animal out un-
covered in a frosty night. We have no laith in the practice of this : but
placing the poor horse under a pump, and letting the water flow upon his
spasm'ed limbs for hours together, or dashing it violently upon him, while
he crouches and y^roans all the while, is both cruel and useless. ( t.)

FITS, OR EPILEPSY.

The stream of nervous influence is sometimes rapid, but the suspen-
sions are considerable, and this is the theory of Fits, or Epilepsy. For-
tunately the horse is not often afflicted with this disease, although it is
not unknown to the breeder. The attack is sudden. The aiumal stops ;
—trembles ;— looks vacantly around him, and falls. Occasionally the
convulsions which follow are slight; at other times they are terrible. 1 he
head and fore part of the horse are most affected, and the contortions are
most singular. In a few minutes the convulsions cea.se ; he gets up ; looks
around him with a kind of stupid astonishment ; shakes his ears ; urines ;
and eats or drinks as if nothing had hap|)ened. r u «. i

The only hope of cure consists in discovering the cause of the tits ; and
an experienced practitioner must be consulted, if the animal be valuable .
generally speaking, however, the cause is so difficult to discover, and the
habit of fits is so soon formed, and they will so frequently return, even at a
great distance of time, that he who values his own safety, or the lives ot
his fivmily, will cease to use an epileptic horse. (5.)

PALSY.

The stream of nervous influence is sometimes stopped, and thence
results Palsy. The power of the muscle is unimpaired, but the nervous
enerrry is deficient. Palsy in the horse is usually confined to the hinder
limbs When purging has been too suddenly stopped, he becomes
naralvtic. It is sometimes the consequence of violent inflammation
Ef the bowels. It is produced by falls, blows on the loins, mjury
m lasting and turning' in a narrow stall. In these latter cases tl>e
spine has been evidentTy injured. Old carriage horses, and horses ol
dirght of every kind, luhongh not absolutely paralyzed, have often
great^tifl-ness ii/tlieir gait, and difficulty of turning. 1'"-;''; ^ -
Turn one way and not the other. They are unwilling to Iw down, f.oin

RABI KS.

experience of the dimculty tlicy would Imvc in rising- again. Tiiese are
evident injuries of tlie spine, and a loss of some of the joints of the loins or
back, and are without remedy ; and so often is palsy. Bleeding, physick-
ing, antimonial medicines, and stimulating embrocations, are the most likely
means of cure. (6.) '

RABIES, OR MADNESS.

There is another disease of the nervous system, of which we must
speak — Rabies, or Madness — that incurable malady which results from
the bite of a rabid or mad animal. The poison of the saliva remains in the
wouna for an uncertain time, varying from three to eight weeks in the
horse, and then begins to produce its dreadful effects on the system. The
attack of rabies (or hydrophobia, as it is commonly, but very improperly
called in the hoi'se and other quadrupeds, for they have no dread of water)
is usually very sudden. The animal will go to work apparently well ; all
at once he will stop, tremble, heave, paw, stagger and fall. Almost im-
mediately he will rise ; draw his load a little farther ; again stop, look about
him, and once more fall. This cannot be confounded with meo-rims
because the horse is perfectly sensible. The sooner he is led home the
better, for the progress of the disease is most rapid ; and, if he is not im-
mediately destroyed, he should be slung, for sometimes a state of the
highest excitation speedily ensues. The horse kicks and plunges in the
most violent manner ; attempts furiously to seize and bite the other horses,
or his attendants ; " and will level with the ground every thing before him,
himself sweating, and snorting, and foaming, amidst the ruins." In both
the ferocious and the harmless variety of the disease, staggering and palsy
of the hinder extremities soon follow. We remember to have seen a beauti-
fid mare, sitting on her haunches, and unable to rise, yet pawing furiously
with her fore-feet, and striking at every thing within her reach. The thirst
is excessive, and the act of swallowing is usually performed with a forced
gulping effort, and the head is, in a few instances, snatched violently from
the pail. The disease rarely extends beyond the third day.

After death, there is uniformly found inflammation at the back part of
the mouth, and at the top of the windpipe, and likewise in the stomach,
and on the membrane covering the lungs, and where the spinal marrow
first comes from the brain.

When the disease can be clearly connected with a previous bite, the
sooner the animal is destroyed the better, for there is no cure. If the
symptoms bear considerable resemblance to rabies, although no bite be
suspected, the horse should at least be slung, and the medicine, if any be
administered, given in the form of a drink, and with the hand well pro-
tected ; because, if it should be scratched in balling the horse, or the
skin should have been previously broken, the saliva of the animal is
capable of communicating the disease. Several farriers have lost their
lives from being bitten or scratched in the act of administering medicine
to a rabid horse.

It is always dangerous to encourage dogs much about the stable, and
especially if they become fond of the horses, and are in the habit of jump-
ing up and licking them. The corners of horses' mouths are often sore
from the pressure of the bit ; and when a coach-dog in a gentleman's
stable — and it is likely to happen in every stable, and with every dog —
becomes rabid and dies, the horse too frequently follows him at no great
distance of time.

If a horse should be bitten by a dog under suspicious circumstances, hu

lie THK HORSE.

should be carefully, examined, and every wound, and even the slinhtesl
scratch, well iMirned with the lunar caustic (nitrate of silver) and the scab
should be removed and the operation repeated on the third day. The hot
iron does not answer so well, and other caustics are not so mana-eable.
In the spriii"- of 1827, four horses were bitten near Hyde 1 ark, by
a mad dog. To one of them the lunar caustic was severely ana twice
applied-he lived. The red hot iron was unsyjaringly used on the
others, and they died. The caustic must reach every part of the wouncL
At the expiration of the fourth month, the horse may be considered to be
safe. (7.)

NEUROTOMY, OB CUTTING THE NERVE.

To enable the horse to accomplish many of the tasks we exact from hirn
we have nailed on his feet an iron defence Without the shoe he wo.dd
not only be unable to travel over our hard roads, but he would spee^^^^^

become useless to us. ^Vhile, however, the ''l^" P™f '^^^ ''^Jl^^s a^^
being battered and bndsed, it is necessarily n.flex.ble. J* cramps ^^^^
confines the hoof, and, without great care, entails on our valuable servant

''lmoug'thrS;ent modes of palliating or removing the extreme pain
veterinar? surgeons have lately resorted to the division of ^ - nerv^ wh d
goes to the foot. We shall now perhaps be able to ""'^^J^J^^f
and the effect of the operation. The nerve of the leg, we ^^'f '
rived from the union of several of the spinal nerves, and consequently it is
nerve "combined feeling and motion. The fibres connected with mo
lion, however, are directed only to those parts which are -"--d -
nrodiRtion of motion, and these are the muscles. By the contraction oi
niuscles caused by the influence of the nerves, the hnibs are moyed^
The bones, the blood-vessels, and other parts, are mere y P^fJ^^" ^
the muscle; of the leg of the horsedo -t extend below the kn e^ T.opa

^ '^^-t^JC^^'Zi, r^li^ j£Sd Zf'^^^ we
iranT peSi V abate the inllan.mation of the part, and give time for
;t use of remedies, which we should otherwise have been unable to apply.
..,^A tliuq nossiblv retain his services for many a year. . . • „

It s W befL a new operation or practice, however useful or judicious
it mav be is generally adopted, an.l, probably, the maiority of our reade s
■tmay ^^' J £f J shake off the prejudices and errors of their fo.e-
are some ^f;";^^^^, by mony a farmer, and by many a fayncr.

^ " WW' en e nerve of tlL limb! Is not the nerve the very hie or
'"°~7 u J ri It iL limb derive all its support from the nerve
the limb? Does not the ^Q^^f 'aVop When this

Will not the foot -^^'^J^^^ ^^^J^^^^^^^^^ sense would

operation has been impropeily F^"^^ . ^ ^^ ■ but from feeling

have forbidden it, and the horse ."^f^be senLiou oi pain would

too, has battered and bruised us ^oot ^^^^uch t^l e se,^^ i
not have permitted, and thus the structure ol tlie lou

NEUROTOMY.

destroyed, and the hoof has actually dropped off after the division of Ihp
nerve,— every prejudice has been strengthened, and the opemtion h- ,
licen censured and neglected. Now, although we have shown that every
part of the animal frame is dependent on nervous energy, we have also
shown that we do not and cannot, by this operation, injure those nerves
on which nutrition depends : these are the ganglial nerves, which wind
round the arteries and veins, and their minutest branches, and enable then-
to discharge their functions; and they are not, and cannot be touched in
the operation of unnerving; nor can the slightest portion of nutriment be
taken away from the limb. We divide only the nerve of sensation ; and
if we have used a little common sense, and considered whether it be a case
that admits of the operation, and will probably benefit by it, we shall o-ive
relief to him who well deserves it, and will amply repay it. . "

A The nerve on the inside of the off leg at the edge of the

shank bone, and behind the vein and artery.
B The continuation of the same nerve on the pastern, and
proceeding downward to supply the back part of the
foot with feeling,
c The division of the nerve on the fetlock joint.
D The branch which supplies with feeling the fore part of
the foot.

E The arteiy between the vein and nerve.
V The continuation of the artery on the pastern, close to
and before the nerve.

0 The vein before the artery and nerve.
H The same vein spreading over the pastern.

1 One of the flexor tendons, the perforalus (perforated).
J The deeper flexor tendon, the ■performs (perforating,

contained mthin the other).
K The tendinous band in which the flexors work.
I. One of the extensors of the foot/
M The internal or sensible frog.
N The posterior lateral ligament.

o The fleshy or sensible lamina covering the coffin bone.

the horny crust being removed,
p The horny crust.
Q The sole.

Our cut gives a view of the nerve on the inside, as it approaches the
.fetlock, and goes over the pastern. It will be seen that branches are
given off above the fetlock, which go to the fore part of the foot, and
supply it with feeling. The continuation of the nerve below the fetlock is
given principally to the quarters and hinder part of tlie foot. The first
consideration, then, with the operator is — Does he wi-sh to deprive the
whole of the foot of sensation, or is the cause of lameness principally in
the hinder part of the foot, so that he can leave some degree of feeling in
the fore part, and prevent that alteration in the tread and going of the
horse, which the good horseman immediately detects ?

The horse is cast and secured, and the limb to be operated on removed
from the hobbles and extended, the hair having been previously shaved
from the part. The operator then feels for the throbbing of the artery, or
the round firm body of the nerve itself, on the side of the shaidc bone, or
the larger pastern. The vein, artery, and nerve, here run close together ;
the vein nearest to the front of the leg, then the artery, and the nerve
behind. He cautiously cuts through the skin, for an inch and a half in

112 THE HORSE.

Ienj!tli. The vessels will then be broufrlit into view, and the nerve will be
distinguished from tliem by its being boliind, and by its whiteness. A
crooked needle with silk is passed under it to raise it a little ; it is dis-
sected from the cellular substance beneath, and about three quarters of an
inch of it cut out; the first incision being made at the upi)er part, in which
case the second cut will not be felt. The horse must then be turned
and the operation performed on the other side, for there is a nervous
trunk on both sides. The wounds are now closed with strips of adhesive
plaster, a bandage placed over them, the head tied up for two days, and
the animal kept rather low, and as quiet as possible. The incisions will
generally rapidly heal, and in three weeks, or a month, and sometimes
earlier, the horse will be fit for work. • ,

For rin'T-bone;— the side cartilages becoming bony, and partial stittness
of the pas°tern and coffin joints, the operation of nerving vyiU probably be
useful. The sense of pain being taken away, the animal will use these
parts more, and partly recover their natural action and motion. For the
same reason, in old contraction of the feet, it is highly benehcial Uie
torture occasioned by the pressure of the horny crust on the sensible parts
within being no longer felt, and the foot coming fully and firmly in contact
with the .around, not onlv is lameness relieved, but the elasticity and torm
of the foot partially restored. Where there has long existed lameness
unattended with heat of the foot, or alteration of shape, and the seat ot
which could not be ascertained, although probably existing between the
slmttle bone and the back tendon which plays over it, neurotomy may
be resorted to with decided advantage.

Mischief, however, will result from the operation if the pastern or cottin
ioints are perfectly stiff, because the concussion occasioned by the t.jrcible
contact of the foot with the ground, and unbroken by the play of the joints,
must necessarily still more injure the bone. When the sole of the foot is
convex or pumiced, the effect of neurotomy will be most destructive i he
sole, scarcely able to bear the pressure of the coffin-bone forced belovy its
natural situation, even when pain induces the anima to put his toot as
gently as possible on the ground, would now be speedily worn through and
destroyed. So if inflammation existed, although its pain might be removed
yet its progress would be quickened by the bruising to which the paits
mi.ht be subjected, and mire especially would this be the case if the e
were any ulceration of the ligaments or cartilages. How many cases will
this include! To how many poor coach and cart-hoi^es and hackneys
mi-ht some years of usefulness and enjoyment thus be added!

The value of the operation, or the unpleasant consequences which may
follow from it, depend upon the judgment of the surgeon; ^nd tliat judg-
ment being duly exercised, we regard this operation as one of the most
important discoveries in horse practice in modern times. (8.)

DISEASES OF THE EYE.

The diseases of the eye constitute a very important, but a most unsatis-
f..rovv vision of our work; for the maladies of this organ, although few

diseases is so mucli at variance with common sense

We have spoken of Fhactube of the orbit, and ite treatment, uc
sionally a Wound is inflicted by a passionate or careless servant, ihe eje

INFLAMMATION OF TlIK EYR.

Jtsiilf is rarely injured. It is placed on a mass of fat, and il turn, most r^..^!!
and the pronn. of the fork glances off; but the substance around Thfe'llfv
be deeply wounded, and very considerable inflammation may ensue TV
should be abated by poultices, and bleeding, and physic ; but no nrnb!
should be used, under the foolish idea of ascertaining the depth of the
wound, for, from the constant motion of the eye, it is almost impossible to
pass the probe into the original wound, and the effort to accomplish it will
give a great deal of pain, and increase the inflammation.

The horse has occasionally a scaly eruption on the edges of the eyelids
attended with great itching, in the effort to allay which, by rubbing the part'
the eye may be blemished. The nitrated ointment of quicksilver, mixed
with an equal quantity of lard, may be slightly rubbed on the edge's of the
lids with considerable good effect.

Warts are sometimes attached to the edges of the lids, and are a source
of great irritation. When rubbed they bleed, and the common opinion is
true that they are propagated by the blood. They may be taken off with
a sharp pair of scissors, and their roots touched with the lunar caustic.

The Haw may be thickened, and project on the fore part of tiie eye.
The eye is drawn back by the retractor muscle to relieve it from the pain-
ful influence of the light; and the haw being thus pushed forward, and
thickened, and the neighbouring parts thickened, is unable to retract.
Cooling applications, and bleeding and physic, will generally set all right.
The farrier who talks of cutting out tiiis important organ must be exceed-
ingly ignorant

In a very few instances long continued inflammation of the haw is fol-
lowed by ulceration and eating away of the cartilage. If the Goulard lotion,
and that succeeded by the white vitriol, fail to abate the inflammation or to
retract the part, it may be necessary to extirpate it. The horse must be
cast, and the aid of a veterinary surgeon is indispensable, for he alone can
determine how much of the neighbouring membranes must likewise be re
iioved.

COMMON INFLAMMATION OF THE EYE.

The conjunctiva is the seat of the worst disease, and which is too often
destructive to the eye. We may consider inflammation of the eye under
two forms— the common and manageable, and the specific and fata'
The Common Inflammation is generally sudden in its attack. The lids
will be found swelled, the eyes partially closed, with some weeping. The
inside of the lid will be red, some red streaks visible on the white of the
aye, and the cornea slightly dim. This is usually connected with some
degree of catarrh or cold ; but it is as often unaccompanied by this, and
depends on external irritation, as a blow, or the presence of a bit of hay-seed
or oat-husk within the lid, and towards the outer corner where the haw
cannot reach it : therefore the lids should always he carefully examined as
to this possible source of the complaint. The health of the animal is
generally not at all affected ; he feeds well, and performs his work with his
usual spirit, Cooling applications to the eye, as the Goulard's extract in
the proportion of a drachm, or half an ounce of the tincture of opiiun, to a
pint of water, with mash-diet, and gentle physic, will usually get rid of this ;
or the inflammation vrill subside without medical treatment. (9.)

SPECIFIC OPHTHALMIA, OR MOON-BLINDNKSS.

Should three or four days pass, and the inflauunation not be abated, wa
may begin to suspect that it is thr true Ophlliabiiia, especiallv if the ey«s

THE HOUSE.

be very impatient of light, and the cornea be considerably clouded : the
aqueous humor then often loses its transparency, even the iris chai ges
its colour, and the pupil is exceedingly contracted. We have now an
obstinate disease to combat, and one which will generally maintain ita
ground in spite of all our efforts. For three, or four, or five weeks, the
inflammation will remain undiminished, or if it appears to yield on one day,
it will return with redoubled violence on the next. At length, and often
unconnected with any of the means we have been using, the eye begms to
Dear the lio-ht, the redness on the membrane of the lid and the white ot
the eye somewhat suddenly disappears, the cornea clears up, and the only
vesti"^e of disease which remains is a slight thickening of the lids, and
apparent uneasiness when exposed to a very strong light.

If we imagine that we have got rid of the disease, we shall be sadly dis-
appointed for in the course of six weeks or two months, either the same
eve undergoes a second and similar attack, or the other eye becomes al-
fected All again seems to pass over, except that the eye is not so perfectly
restored, and a slight, deeply-seated cloudiness begins to appear; and afler
repeated attacks, and alternations of disease from eye to eye. the aHair ter
minates in opacitv of the lens or its capsule, attended with perfect blindness
either of one eye or both. This affection was formerly known by the name
of moon-blindness, from its periodical return, and some supposed influence
of the moon. That planet, however, has not, and cannot have any thing

to do with it. . XT •

What is the practitioner doing all this while? He is an anxiou^, and
busy but almost powerless spectator. He foments the eyes with warm
water or applies cold lotions with the extract of lead or opium, or poultices
to which these drugs may be added; he bleeds, not from the temporal
artery, for that does not supply the orbit of the eye, but irom ihe angidar
vein at the inner corner of the eye, or by scarifying the lining of he lid or
by subtracting a considerable quantity of blood from the jugular The
scarifying of the lids, which may be easily accomplished without a twitch,
bv exposing the inside of the lids, and drawing a keen lancet slightly over
it; is the most effectual of all ways to abate inflammation, for we are
then immediately unloading the distended vessels. He places his se on.
n theTeek, or his rowell under the jaw; and he keeps the animal low,
and physics or gives fever medicine (digitalis, nitre, and emetic tartar) ;
or. as"^ s'ome'have^done, considering it as a --^'^-^-"^
nisters the corrosive sublimate daily in doses of a scruple. The disease
however, ebbs and flows, retreats and attacks, untd it reaches Us natural
termination, blindness of one or both eyes. * •

The horse is more subject to this disease from the age of four to six years
than at any other period. He has then completed his growth : he is tull
of blood and liable to inflammatory complaints, and the eye is the organ
attacked from a peculiar predisposition in it to inflammation, the naiuie
or ctise of which canno! be explained. Every affection ot the eye ap-
nearin- about this age must be regarded with much suspicion. It
fs a common opinion that black horses are more subject to bhndness than
others We have considerable doubt about this, or rather we believe that
colour has no influence either in producing or aggravating the disease.

As tht malady so frequently destroys the sight, -d there are cei-
tain periods when the inflammation has seemingly subsided, and the m
exZenced per^^^^ would be deceived into the behcf that all danger is at
anCd ?he eye should be most carefully examined at the time ot purchase
and t; examiner should be fully aware of all the mmute indications o.

INFLAMMATION OF THE EYK.

116

previous or approacliing disease. They are a slight thickening of the lids
or puckering towards the inner corner of the eye ; a differtnce in the anpv
rent size of the eyes ; a cloudiness, although perhaps scarcely perceptible"
(>f the surface of the cornea, or more deeply seated, or a hazy circle round
its edge ; a gloominess of the eye generally, and dulness of the iris ; or a
minute, faint, dusky spot in the centre, with or without little fibres or lines
diverging from it.

The cause of this inflammation is undoubtedly a strong predisposition
to it in the eye of the horse, but assisted by the heated and poisoned air of
many stables. Some of our readers whose stables are not too air-tight, see
frequently a great deal of this disease ; but if they knew its ravages where
several horses are crowded together, and scarcely a breath of air admitted,
they would deem themselves comparatively fortunate. The heated air has
much to do with the production of the disease ; — the poisoned air a great
deal more ; for every one must have observed, on entering a close stable
early in the morning, strong fumes of hartshorn, which were painful to his
eyes and caused them to water. What must be the constant action of
this on the eyes of the horse ? The dung of the horse, and *he litter of
the stables, when becoming putrid, give out fumes of volatile alkali or
hartsliorn ; but besides this, the urine of the horse, for some purpose un-
known to us, possibly to teach us to take better care of this useful servant,
begins very soon after it is voided to give out an immense quantity of this
pungent gas. If we are scarcely able to bear it when we stand in the
stable for only a few minutes, we need not wonder at the prevalence of
inflammation in the eye of the stabled horse, nor at the difficulty of abating
inflammation while the eye continues to be exposed to such painful excite-
ment. Stables are now much better ventilated than they used to be, and
this disease is not so prevalent as it was fifty years ago.

The farmer may not be aware of another cause of this disease, to which
his horse is more particularly exposed, viz confinement in a dark stable.
Many stables in the country have no glazed windows, but there is a flap
which is open for a few hours in the day, or while the carter is employed
in the stable, and when that is shut down almost total darkness prevails.
Let our reader consider what are his sensations when he suddenly emerges
from a dark room into the full glare of light ; he is dazzled and bewil-
dered, and some time passes before his vision is distinct Let this be
repeated several times in the day, and what will be the consequence? The
sight will be disordered, and the eye irreparably injured. Then let him
think of his poor horse, who often stumbles and starts through no fault of
his own, although he is corrected for so doing, but because his eyes are
necessarily weakened by these sudden transitions, and disposed to take
on this sad inflammation with all its fatal results.

The propagation of various diseases, and this possibly more than any
other, fi-om the sire to his progeny, has not been sufficiently considered by
breeders. Let a stallion that is blind, or whose sight is defective, possess
every other point and quality that can be wished, yet he is worse tiiaii
useless; for a very considerable proportion of his offspring will most as-
suredly inherit his weak eyes, or become totally blind. There is no hict
better established than this.

The most fi-equent consequences of this disease are cloudiness of the eye,
and cataratt. The cloudiness is singular in its nature. It will change in
twenty-four hours from the thinnest film to the thickest opacity ; and as
suddenly the eye will nearly regain its perfect transparency, but only to
lose it. and as rapidly, a second tim<' Tlie most barbarous methode Iiave

12

J 16 -iHE HORSE-

been resorted to for tlie pni-pose of removing Oiis cloudiness. Chalk, and
salt, and sugar, and even pounded glass, have been introduced into the eye
mechanically to rub ofl" the film. It was forgotten that the cloudiness was
the effect of inflammation, and that means so harsh and cruel were very

likely to recall the inflammation; ^hat^^^^^^Tf ^^^^^^.^^^^^^^^^
must of necessity inflict excruciating pain; and that, after all, it generally is
3 a film on the surface of the cornea, but a dimness pervading its sub-
tle^ Indevln sinking deep within it, ^^^^^^^Z^i ^J^^
beino- rubbed off. Where the cloudmess can be removed, it will be best
eSed by first abating inflammation; and then exc.tmg the absorbents
to take up the --rey deposit, by washing the eye with a very weak so ution
of corrosive sublimate, containing not more than a gram of the sublimate

'"Op^cirof h^^^^^^^ is another consequence of inflammation. A white
SDeck appears on the centre of the lens, which gradually spreads over it,
aSdcomSely covers it. It is generally so white and pearly as not to
ll JSel. I other times more hazy, ^^^^^^^

occasioning doubt in the mind of the professional 7^"- //^^^^'^'J',
many instances in which the sight has been ^.^'den y affected or ^^a^^^^^^^^^^
lost and yet a different opinion has been given by very ^^^^ jurt e
The eye must be exposed to the light, and yet tmder the kind of shelter
to whfch we have previously referred, in order to discover the defect. The
nupirof The horse^ i« seldom blax^k, like that of the human being, and its
^re^yLh hue concea s the recent or thin film which may be spreading

'"C^a". the eye of the horse admits of no --dy ^or Jw^^ s^
reasons • the retractor muscle draws the eye back so powerfully and so
deeply into the socket, tl,at it would be almost impossible to perform

The man who has undergone the operaUon "f^^^^e^^burwe could not
lens before his eye, in the forni of a '^^^^^J/.I^T^"'^^^^^^^^^
adapt spectacles to the eye of the horse, or fix them there. {W.)

GUTTA SERENA

f Ki;„^nP«s and of which we spoke when describing

more than y f ^^^^J ^'^^l its expansion, the retina; and is

Th s IS palsy of the optic nerve, oi i ^

usually produced by determination of ^lood to the head VVe h
scribed it as a consequence of staggers rn-ch pressur^^ ^^^^ .^^

casioned on the base ^^^fl^^^J^^^^^^^^^ difficult as

'rfT t'aa' We Wrard" successful cases, but we never saw one ;
that of cataract, w e nave nean ^^^p,-,.;? in endeavour ng to accom-

orshouldwebech^
phshimpossiDihties. Keasoning ^ constitutional treat-

andphy^sic, ''"^trilv of cases t^m^^ would have long ceased,
ment ; but n. the ^"^^y^^ir f .^^/'^f^' Xc^ d remained. As to local treat
althou"-h the mischief which it hart enecieu '
ment"The seat of disease is out of our reach. (H.)

ANATOMY OF TIIE NOSK.

II?

chaptku vin

TIIK ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTH.

We now proceed to the description of tlie face of the Iiorse, so called in
contradistinction from the upper part of the head, containing the brain
The nasal bones, or bones of the nose (jj, page 66, and a, p. 68), are
connected with the frontal bones above, and with the lacrynial, i i'miA
the bones of the upper jaw, I /, oh either side ; they are united together by
a plain suture, which is a continuation of the frontal, and they terminate in
a point at the nostril (/ p. 63). They are rounded and arched above, because
they are exposed to occasional violence and injury, which the arch-form wil!
enable them best to resist ; and at the base of the arch, where the main
strength should be, they are overlapped by the upper jawbone, as we have
described the temporal bone overlapping the base of the parietal. These
bones form a principal part of the face ; and the length, or shortness, and
the character of the face, depend upon them. The largeness and length of
these bones constitute the striking difference between the head of the cart
horse and of the blood horse.

In some horses, this arch is more than usually developed, and there is,
beside, a prominence or increased archedness about half-way down
the nasal bones. These horses are said to have Roman noses, because
this arch of the nose distinguishes the profile of some of the most celebrated
of the ancient Romans. We cannot say that the breed of horses in which
the Roman-nose usually occurs, possesses superior sagacity or courage ;
they are generally easy, good-tempered horses, excellent feeders, and
hardy constitutioned, but possessing little blood. Many thorough-bred
horses have a peculiarity the reverse of the Roman-nose. There is a
depression or hollow about the middle of the nasal bones. Although this
be a characteristic of breeding, it often accompanies an uncontrollable and
yicious temper.

These bones form the roof of an important cavity (see a, p. 68)
The sides are constituted above by the nasal bones, and, lower down,
by the upper jaw-bones (^superior maxillaries'), while plates from these
latter bones project and compose the palate, which is both the floor of the
nose and the roof of the mouth (t, p. 68). Above (near fig. 8), not
visible in our cut, is a bone called the palatine, although it contributes
very little to the formation of the palate. It is the termination of the
palate, or the border of the opening where the cavities of the mouth imd
nose meet (fig. 8). The frontal sinuses, b, and large vacuities in the nppci
jaw-bone, and in the aethmoid, /, and sphenoid bones, k, communicate with
and enlarge the cavity of the nose.

This cavity is divided into two parts by a thick cartilage (r, p. 69).
When we open the nostril, we see the membrane by which the cartilage, and
the whole of the cavity of the nose is lined, and by the colour of which, much
more than by that of the lining of the eyelids, we judge of the degree of
fever, and particularly of inflammation of the lungs, or any of the air pas-
sages. By the sore places or ulcerations discovered on this membrane, we
likewise determine on the existence of glanders. This cavity is, on either
side, occupied by two bones, which, from their being rolled up somewhat
in the form of a turban, are called the turbinated or turban-shaped bones, s s ;
part of the cartilage is cut away to display them. They are as thin as gauze,
and perforated, like gauze, with a thousand holes. Between them are left
aafFicient passages for the air.

118 THE HORSE.

If they were unrolled they would present a very considerable surface ; and
m every part of them is spread the substance or pulp of the olfactory, or
first pair of nerves. These bones, lined with delicate membranes, and co
vercd by the olfactory nerves, are the seat of smell : and they are thus ex
panded, because the sense of smell in the horse must, to a very consider
able decree, supply the place of the sense of touch and the lessons of expe-
rience in the human being. By this alone is he enabled to select, amongst
the nutritive and poisonous herbage of the meadow, tliat winch would sup-
port and not destroy him. The troops of wild horses are said to smell the
approach of an enemy at a very considerable distance. In his aomestic state,
the horse does not examine the different food which is placed before him,
with his eye, but with his nose ; and if the smell displeases him, no coaxing
will induce him to eat it. He examines a stranger by the smell, and by
very intelligible signs, expresses the opinion which he forms of him by this
inquisition The horse will evidently recognise his favourite groom when
he has nothing else to indicate his approach but the sense of smell. Ihese
cavities are likewise organs of voice. The sound reverberates through
them, and increases in loudness, as through the windmgs of a French horn.

The extension of the nostril at the lower part of these cavities is an
important part of the face, and intimately connected with breedmg,
courage, and speed. The horse can breathe only through the nose
All the air which goes to and returns from the lungs must pass through
the nostrils. In the common act of breathing, these are sufficiently
large ; but when the animal is put on his speed, and the respiration
is quickened, these passages must dilate, or he will be much distressed.
The expanded nostril is a striking feature in the blood-hotse, especially
when he has been excited and not over-blown. The sporting man
will not forget the sudden effect which is given to the countenance ot
the hunter, when his ears become erect, and his nostrils dilate as he first
hears the cry of the hounds, and snorts, and scents them afar off; and the
painful and spasmed stretching of this part, in the poor over-driven post-
horse, will shew how necessary it is that the passage to ^ungs should
be free and open. The nostril should not only be large but the skin and
substance which cover the entrance into the nose should be thm and elast'^^^
that they may more readily yield, when the necessity of the an.ma requires
a greater supply of air, and afterwards return to their natural dimeiv-
sions. Therefore, nature, which adapts the ammal to his situation and use,
has n-iven to the cart-horse, that is seldom blown a confined nostril and
surrounded by much cellular substance, and a thick skin ; and to the horse
of more breeding, whose use consists in his speed and his continuance, a
wider nostril, and much more flexible.

The inhabitants of some countries were accustomed to slit the nostrils
of their horses, that they might be less distressed in the severe and long-con-
tinued exertion of their speed. The Icelanders do so to the Present day
There is no necessity for this, for nature has made ample F^vision for all
the ordinary and even extraordinary exertion we can require from the horse .
Some very powerful muscles proceed from different parts of the face, to the
neShbourhood of the nostrils, to draw them back, and dilate them Four
of ther^ are given in this cut, which is introduced here to complete our

^ 1. CI p.^xn^iotp Horseman" wa8 published in 1857, recommends

* De Grey, whose ' Complele^ H^^^^^^ P ^^^^

that a stumblnig or cnppled hor^e shoUU nave f^.^ ^^^ .^

:St^" t';iAe'';SdoT^^ n'^;. t -^Wmore." Farru^rs adopt many absurd
praclicei now-a-days, but nothing half so barharous as th«.

AJJATOMY OF THE NOSE AND LIPS.

Ill)

present subject, and which will be often referred to in the -ourse of onr
work ; /, m, o, and p, are muscles employed for this purpose.

THE MUSCLES, NERVES, AND BLOOD-VESSELS OF THE HEAn ani.

TIPPER PART OF THE NECK. '

a The upper part of the ligament of the «eck.

b The levator humeri (elevator of the shoulder), arising from the tubercle of the occiput,
the mastoid (nipple-shaped) process of the temporal bone, and the transverse pro-
cesses (cross projections) of th« four first bones of the neck, and the ligament of
the neck, and going to the muscles of the shoulders, and the upper bone of the
arm : to draw forward the shoulder and arm j or tiu-n the head and neck ; and,
when the two levators act, to depress the head.

0 The tendon common to the complexm major (larger complicated), and splenius (splint-

like) : — to the mastoid process of the temporal, to hold up the head, or the muscles

on one side alone acting, to turn it.
d The stemo-maxillaris (belonging to the breast-bone), and upper jaw, from the cartilage

in front of the chest to the angle of the lower jaw : to bend the head, or, if one

only act, to bend it on one side,
e The slylo^axillaris, from the styloid (pencil-shaped) or coracoid (beak-shaped) process

of the occiput, to the angle of the jaw : to pull the jaw backward and open it.
/ The subscapulo hyoideus, from under the shoulder-blade, to the body of the os hyoidei

(the bone at the toot of the tongue formed like a Greek u, u) : to draw back that

bone.

9 The masseter (chewing) ; a most powerful muscle, constituting the cheek of the horse :
— from the upper jaw-bone into the rough surface round the angle of the lower:
iu conjunction with the temporal muscle to close the mouth and chew the food.

>i The orbicularis (cii'cular) surrounding the eye and closing the lids.

1 The zygomalicus, from the zygomatic arch and masseter to the corner of the mouth, to

draw back the angle of the mouth.
k The buccinator (trumpeter), from the inside of the mouth and cheeks, to the angle of

the mouth, to draw it back.
/ The nasalis labii superiors (belonging to the nose and upper lip), from a depression at

the junction of the superior maxillary and malar bones, to the angle of the nostril :

—to raise the lip, and dilate the nostrils,
w Dhator naris lateraRs (side dilator of the nostril), reversed to show the vessels and nerves

which it covers, going from the covering of the nasal and frontal bones, to the angle

of the mouth, and side of the nostril : — to retract the upper lip and dilate the nostril*
n Dilulor maffiim (great dilator), assisting in the same ofBcc.

120 THE IJORSK

0 Pep^ euor labn m/eriorii (i)uller down of the under lij.), tu the wdus of the uti.kr up :
to pull it down.

J, Or6.W«n* orw (circular muscle of the mouth) , surrounding the mouth: to cose th«

lips, and dilate the nostrils.
cj The upi-er portion of the parotid gland (gland near the ear reversed, to shew the blood-

vessels and nerves beneath it.
r The parotid duct piercing the cheek, to discharge the sahva mto the mouth.
, The maxiUary gland (gland of the lower jaw) with its duct.

/ The jugular (neck) vein, after the two branches have united. , . ,

„ At this letter, the submaxillary artery, a branch of the jugular and the parotid due

pass under and within the angle of the lower jaw ; they come out again at w, and

climb up the cheek to be distributed over the face.
V Tlie vein and artery, passing under the zygomatic arch.

^ A branch of the fifth pair, the sensitive nerve of the face, emerging from under the pa-

y The mafnt'i of the porlio dura (hard portion) of the seventh pair, .tiie motor
(moving) nerve of the face coming out from beneath the parotid gland, to spread
over the face.

z Branches of both nerves, with sraaU blood-vessels.

There are also four distinct cartilages attached to the nostrils, which, by
their elasticity, bring back the nostrils to their former dimensions, as soon as
the muscles cease to act. The bones of the nose (a a, p. 66, and /, \x bS),
are also sharpened off to a point, to give wider range for tiie action ot he
muscles; while the cartilages are so contrived, as not only to discharge the
office we have mentioned, but to protect this projection of bone from injury.

There are two circumstances, which, more than any others, will enable
the veterinarv surgeon, and the owner of a horse, accurately to judge of
the character and degree of many diseases, and to which very tew
pay sufficient attention! these are the pulse, of which we shall presenUy
speak, and the colour of the membrane of the nose at which we
have hinted, a few pages back, and of which we would again remind
the reader. It is the custom of most veterinary surgeons, and ol
almost every horseman who takes any pains to ascertain for himself the
state of his sick horse, to turn down the ""^^^ eyelid and to fo. m h s
opinion by the colour which its lining presents. If it be very red, there is
cSiderable fever ;-if it be of a pale pinkish hue, there is little danger,
coiihiueiauic jcYci , r r ^resented to the view is more

The nose is more easdy got at ; — the suilace presemeu , .

extensive :-the sympathy with almost all the important organs is greater —
and the changes produced by disease are more striking and more cone u-
sive Let the reader first make himself well acquainted with the uniform
pale" pmk appearance of that portion of the membrane which covers the
Fowei part of' the cartilaginous partition between the nostrils, when the horse

sTu health and quiet ■ then the increased blush of red, betokenmg some
excUenient 'of the system ;-the streaked appearance of inflammation com-
menced, and threatening to increase-the intense florid red,^ acute inflam-

na ion —the pale ground with patches of vivid red, shewing the half sub-

JlS^ hnt still existing fever; the uniform colour, although somewhat
f^^h!n niiral ^^^^^ to a healthy circulation ; the pale-

in tenS^ radiations of crimson, inducing the suspicion of urk.ng

3'andthe.^rkU^^^^

hassUidiedthei^. will highly

appreciate.

GLANUKJiS.

121

NASAL GLEET, OR DISCHARGE FROM THE NOSE.

The most frequent disease of this cavity is an increased and tiii.-k-pr
discharge of fluid from the nose. It may be properly called a Nasal
Gleet. There is a constant secretion of fluid to lubricate and moisten
the membrane that lines the cavity of the nose, which, under catarrh or cold
is increased in quantity, and altered in appearance and consistence'
This will properly belong to our account of catarrh or cold ; but that
to which we immediately refer is a continued and oftentimes profuse dis-
charge when every symptom of catarrh and fever has passed away ; an
almost incredible quantity of thickened mucus, of different colours :— if the
horse is at grass, almost as green as the food on which he lives;— or, if he
be stabled, white, straw-coloured, brown, or even bloody, and sometimes
evidently mingled with matter or pus ; and either constantly running, or
snorted out in masses many times in the day ; teasing the horse, and a^per-
fect nuisance in the stable, and to the rider. We have known this con-
tinue several months, and eventually destroy the horse.

If the discharge be not offensive to the smell, nor mixed with any mat-
ter, it is probably merely an increased and somewhat vitiated secretion
from the cavities of the nose; and, all fever having disappeared, will fre-
quently yield to small doses of blue vitriol, from one to two drachms, and
given twice in the day. If fever or copgh remain, the cough medicine
which will hereafter be described must be combined with the tonic. If
the discharge be mingled with pus, and very offensive, the vegetable tonics,
gentian and ginger, may be added to the copper in doses of two drachms
of the former, and one of the latter ; but there is then reason to apprehend
that the discharge will not be controlled, and will terminate in glanders.
Turning into a salt marsh will occasionally effect a cure, when both the
mineral and the vegetable tonics have failed. (12.)

glanders.

The next and most formidable of all the diseases to which the horse is
subject, is Glanders. It is described by writers fifteen hundred years
ago, and it was then, and is now, not only a loathsome, but an incurable
disease; we shall therefore principally confine ourselves to the considera-
tion of its symptoms, nature, and causes, and prevention, and degree of
contagion, and these will afford too much matter of interest to the farmer.

If we could obtain an authentic history of the glandered horse, we should
find that, in the majority of instances, if the disease were bred in him, he
had been dull, off his feed, losing flesh, and his coat staring ; and that these
appearances had fOr several weeks preceded the characteristic symptoms of
glanders. These symptoms, however, may lead to, or be the causes of
other diseases, or they may pass away, and the horse may return to perfect
health. That which would be considered as the earliest, and an unques-
tionable symptom of glanders, would be an increased discharge from one
or both nostrils ; different from the discharge of catarrh, because it is
usually lighter and clearer in its colour, and more glutinous or sticky.
When rubbed between the fingers it has, even in an early stage, a peculiar,
clammy, bird-limy feel. It is not discharged occasionally and in large
quantities, like the mucus of catarrh, but it is constantly running from the
nostril.

It is a singular circumstance, for which no satisfactory account has yet
been given, that when one nostril alone is attacked, it is in a great ma-
jority of cases the near or lell. M. Dupuy, tlie director of the veterinary

122 THE IiUKSli.

school at Toulouse, gives a most singular account of this. Ife says that
out of eight hundred cases of glanders that came under his notice, on.y
One was affected in the right nostril.

This discharge, in cases of infection, may continue and in so slight a
degree as to be scarcely percep'ible, for many weeks or months before
the health and capabilities of the horse seem to be mjured. It wi
remain for a long time almost transparent yet y V "i^"
will begin to be mingled with pus; retaining, however its ^^icky character,
and being rarely offensive in the early stages The co"stant flow of
this secretion, and its stickiness, with the absence of jo^g^ «^
before or during the discharge, will be the only symptoms. I" Focess ol
time, however, pus mingles with the discharge, and then another and a
characteristic symptom appears. Some of this is absorbed, and the neigh-
bouring glands become affected ; and, if there be discharge from both nos-
trils, the glands within the under jaw will be on both ^jdes «nkrged^^ If
the discharge be from one nostril only, the swelled gland will found on
that side alone. Glanders, however, will frequently exist at an early stage
without these swelled glands, and some other diseases, as catarrh will pro-
duce them. Then we must look out for some P^^^^^^f
glands, and we shall readily find it. The swelling may be at first some-
what large and diffused, but the surrounding enlargement
and one or two small distinct glands remain ; and they aje not m the centre
of the channel, but adhere closely to the jaw on the affected side.

The membrane of the nose may now be examined, and will m^termlly
guide our opinion. It will either be of a dark purplish hue, or abnost of
a leaden colour, or of any shaxle between the two ; or, if ^here be
the redness of inflammation, it will have a purple tinge ; but there jver
be the faint pink blush of health, or the intense and vivid ^ed f «sual m-
flammation.' Spots of ulceration will probably appear on the ™e^br^n«
covering the cartilage of the nose- not simple sore places, or streaks ot
Xasion, and quite fuperficial, but small ulcers usually poaching to a cir-
cular form, deep, with the edges abrupt and P;;""^;"^"/- ^J^^!" '^'^ Ca?e
oearances are observed, there can be no doubt about 'fj^^l^- J^^^
should be taken, however, to ascertain that ^^ese ulcers do^ act"^^^^^^^^
exist, for spots of mucus adhering the membrane have been m^^^^^^
once taken for them. The finger should, if possible, be P^=«f/j™i^^^
posed ulcer, to determine whether it can be ^'P^d ^^^jy. ^^"^
Collected, as we have already hinted when describing 1 e due that con
vevs the tears to the nose, that the orifice of that duct just within the no.
tril and on the inner sidL of it, has been mistaken for a cancerous ulcer
Sis orifice on the continuation of the common skin of the muzzle which
run a"itt e way up the nostril, wliile the ulcer of glanders is on the prope
membrane of the nose above; and the line of separation between the twa
is evident on the slightest inspection

It is proper to state that this discharge has continued unattended oy any
other disease, or even bv ulceration of the nostril for two or three years,
aid yet the ho^se was decidedly glandered from the beginning, and capable

^^Zfutefsl^ tt meUane of tlie nose have appeared, the constit.
tionwillbe evidently affected. The horse will lose flesh ; his beUy w
be tucked up ; his coat will be unthrifty, and readily come off , cough ml
be heard; the' appetite will be impaired; the strength f-l ; ^^^^^^^
charge fr^m the nose will grow more purulen , discoloured, bloody, stu k
ing; the ulcers in the nose will be larger and more numerous, and.

GLANDKHS.

123

air-passages being obstructed, a grating, choking noise will be heard at
every act of breathing. The lungs are now diseased ; they are filled with
tubercles or ulcerations ; and the horse at length dies, an emaciated and
loathsome object.

The symptoms frequently vary, and to a most puzzling degree. The
discharge will be so slight as scarcely to be perceived, and known only
by its stickiness ; and the glands will not be in the least degree enlarged.
At other times a very small enlarged gland may be found, adhering to the
'aw, and may be stationary month after month, and the surgeon "may be
told that there has never been discharge from the nose. He will, how-
ever, be wrongly informed here ; it has most assuredly existed, althouo-h
perhaps to no great degree, at some former period, and he will generafly
without much difficulty discover it then, although perhaps in so small a
quantity that the groom or carter will deny its existence ; and he will prin-
cipally satisfy himself with respect to it, by its gluey feeling.

Glanders have often been confounded with strangles, and by those who
ought to have known better. Strangles are peculiar to young horses.
The early stage resembles common cold, with some degree of fever
and sore throat ; generally with distressing cough, or at least frequent
wheezing; and wJien the enlargement appears beneath the jaw, it is not a
single small gland, but a swelling of the whole of the substance between
the jaws ; growing harder towards the middle ; and after a while appearing
to contain a fluid, and breaking. In strangles the membrane of the nose
will be intensely red, and the discharge from the nose profuse, and puru-
lent, or mixed with matter almost from the first ; and when the tumour has
burst, the fever will abate, and the horse will speedily get well.

Should the discharge from the nose continue for a considerable time
after the horse has recovered from strangles, as it sometimes does, there is
no cause for fear. Simple strangles need never degenerate into glanders
Good keep, and small doses of the blue vitriol given internally, will gra-
dually make all right

Glanders have been confounded with catarrh or cold, but the distinction
between them is plain enougb. Fever accompanies cold, and loss of appe-
tite, and sore throat (the quidding of the food, and gulping of the water
are sufficient indications of the latter of these) ; the discharge from the nose
is profuse, and perhaps purulent; and the glands under the jaw, if swelled,
are moveable, and there is a thickening around them, and they are tender
and hot. With proper treatment the fever abates ; the cough disappears ;
the swellings under the throat subside, and the discharge from the nose gra-
dually ceases, or, if it remain, it is usually very difl'erent from that which
characterizes glanders. In glanders, there is seldom cough of any con-
sequence, and, generally, no cough at all.

A running from the nose, small in quantity, and from the smallness of
its quantity drying about the edges of the nostril, and so presenting some
appearance of stickiness, will, in a few cases, remain after severe catarrh
and especially after the influenza of spring ; and these have gradually as-
sumed the character of glanders, and more particularly when they have
been accompanied by enlarged glands and ulceration in the nose. Here
the aid of a judicious veterinary surgeon is indispensable; and he perhaps
vrill experience considerable difficulty in deciding the case. One circum-
stance will principally guide him. No disease will run on to glanders
which has not, to a considerable and palpable degree, impaired and broken
down the constitution ; and every disease that docs this will run on to
glanders. He will look then to the general state and condition of the

1-24 THE HORSE.

tiorse, as well as to the situation of the glands, the nature of the discharge

and character of the ulceration. _i j * „,u:„i,

T- n II I • • 1 1 t an pvnpriment may be resorted to, wmcn
II after al he .s m ^^^^ZTU^ch only the safety of a va-

wears uk leed the ^P^^ "f^-^^^J^y: he will inoculate an ass or a

luable an,mal, or ot a whole team, ^an ustUy ^^^^^^ discharged from
horse already condemned to the nouuus v» _i„,-jp-„ farcv

the nose. If the horse be glandered, the symptoms of glanders or tarcy
will appear in the i.,culated animal |n the cour e of a^^w days.^_^^

The history we have given of the «W f ^^^^^^^^^^ the

clearly point out Its na are It /"'^^^^^^^^^ „r minute tumours

-the n^^S^i^" 9 h:ltsf

" be de^eaed except by a scarcely perceptible /"""'^^^^^^"'^J^^^^i^r!^,:
caused by the slight irritation wMch ^^^^^^^^^ supp at^an^^^^^^^ ;
dually become more numerous ^^^ey cluster to t^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^
and small ulcerations are formed. The ulcers aiscnar^c i
which is absorbed and taken up by the -'ghb^uring gWs^^ nd w^
greater or less rapidity, vitiates the --^ff '"^the su^^^^^^^
hie of communicating the disease to others^ f/Jh^Srane of the nose,
selves with saying that it is an "'^^^'^/^ T„Tvery short time, or
which may assume an aciite or chronic torm, or m a vc j

exceedingly slowly, run on to ^l^^'"^^'""; , .^..ribed it, but, before its ter-
The malady proceeds as we have ^^J^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^ of glanders with-
mination, becomes connected with farcy Few hordes di ^
out exhibiting some appearance of farcy , and tarcy m »
almost invariably accompanied by glanders :-<Ae2/ are d,j;eremj

stages of the same disease. . . original sea

There can be no doubt that the membrane of the nose « ^ '^J^

of glanders ; that the disease is for -'^ZZ1S^:^t^or^^^^^^^ is
tion of the tubercles must proceed to s'W"'-.'^^!"" J^^^^^ , ^ ^he whole
formed on which the poisoning of the ^o-^'^^"^'?" ^ ^h^ho e h de-
circulation does at length become e«;P°^«°"^d^, V
stroyedby the general irritation and disease P^^^";^"; ^^j.^t^d by conta

""^m;;:^::S:.agemer. we ^^^^^^i:":':^!

ofglanders than contagion. The air which is n^^^^^^^^ ^ ^^.^^^

changed and empoisoned in its passage ^^rouf the lu g ^^^^^.^^^^^

supply is necessary for the support I'^f'/Julted air from again and
ba^Sy^o support life but „ The

again passmg to the lungs, ^"^ P'"^"';^^ „g,^^^^^^
membrane of the nose possessed .f^^^^^JJ ^'^'^^'^u stables
smell, is easily irritated by f^^ VO^^^^^--^ Coleman relates a

oltenest witness the ravages of g anders l^ro ^^.^
case, which proves to demonstraUon the rapjd not been long

. „c.«..>t L«,«». ... tb. V..e™.., Art, .... ui. p. .M.

GLANDERS.

125

hreiiUieil, but there are other and more powerful sources of mischief. Tlie
(h\ng and the urine are suffered to remain fermenting-, and giving out in-
jurious gases. In many dark and ill-managed stables, a portion of the
dung may be swept away, but the urine lies for days at the bottom of the
bed, the disgusting and putrifying nature of which is ill concealed by a little
fresh straw which the lazy horsekeeper scatters over the top.

The stables of the gentleman are generally kept hot enough, and far too
hot, although, in many of them, a more rational mode of treatment is beo-in-
ning to be adopted ; but they are lofty and roomy, and the horses are not
too much crowded together, and a most scrupulous regard is paid to
cleanliness. Glanders seldom prevail there. The stables of the farmer are
ill-managed and tilthy enough, and the ordure and urine sometimes remain
from week to week, until the horse lies on a perfect dunghill, while there
is no declivity to drain away the moisture, nor any regular pavement to pre-
vent it from soaking into the earth, nor any water to clean even the sur-
face, but the only instrument of purification is an old stumped broom.
Glanders seldom prevail there ; for the same carelessness which permits
the filth to accumulate, leaves many a cranny for the wind to enter, and
sweep away the deleterious fumes from this badly roofed and unceiled place.

The stables of the horse-dealer are hot enough ; but a principle of strict
cleanliness is enforced, for there must be pothing to offend the eye or the
nose of the customer; and there glanders are seldom found: but if the
stables of many of our post-horses, and of those employed on our canals,
be examined, almost too low for a tall horse to stand upright — too dark for
the accumulation of filth to be perceived- too far from the eye of the mas-
ter,— ill-drained, and ill-paved, — and governed by a false principle of eco-
nomy, which begrudges the labour of the man, and the cleanliness and
comfort of the animal; — these will be the very hot-beds of the disease,
and in many of these establishments it is an almost constant resident.

When speaking of inflammation of the eye, and the effect of ill-ventilated
stables in producing it, we remarked that the urine of the horse contained
an unusually large quantity of hartshorn ; that the litter wetted by it
was disposed most rapidly to ferment, and that the gases extricated must
be extremely prejudicial to so delicate an organ. It may, then, be easily
imagined that the constant presence of those pungent fames, and the irrita-
tion which they would cause on that membrane which is the very seat of
Snell, must predispose for, and often generate a disease which is primarily
m affection of this membrane.

Glanders may be produced by any thing that injures, or for a length of
time acts upon, and weakens the vital energy of this membrane. They
have been known to follow a fracture of the bones of tlie nose. They have
been the consequence of violent catarrh, and particularly the long continued
discharge from the nostrils, of which we have spoken. They have been pro-
duced by the injection of stimulating and acrid substances up the nostril ;
and every thing that weakens the constitution generally, will lead to glanders.
It is not only from bad stable-management, but from the hardships which
they endure, and the exhausted state of their constitution, that post and
machine-horses^re so subject to glanders ; and there is scarcely an inflam-
matory disease to which the horse is subject, that is not occasionally
wound up and terminated by the appearance of glanders.

Glanders, however, are highly contagious. The farmer cannot be too
Rrell aware of this ; and, considering the degree to which they often pre-
fail, the legislature would be justified in interfering by some severe enact-
ments, us they have done in the case of the small-pox in the human subject

,.^8 TIIK HORSE.

The earW and marked symptom of glanders is a discharge from the nr strils
ane eanj anu •»'»"^ > 1 „ ,^ ^fore it becomes purulent, be

of a pecuhar characte, ^/"'^ f^^^J^J^^'^Xe, as the nostrils. it\vill produce
rubbed on a wound, or on a mucous buna^c, nr hreath

a similar disease. Glanders are not ^""""^T;.!'! ^ih t^prev^^^^^^
If the division between two horses were s^^^^^^^^y J^'f prevent all

smelling and snorting at each other, and l^.^Xfyf;^ J "^^^^^^

drunU L out of ^^^^^^^^n^^^^^ ^ ^hTluf ^f' rand^rrhi been
fected W.t^^f « ,f ^S^""^^^^^^ without effect; yet in

mixed up mto a ball, ar,d S^^^ ^ ^^j^.l died. The mouth

another experiment of the same ' , j go^e horses

or gullet had Vro^^^^XZlZf iZ^-^^^^^^^ ^^"^
have «^ten the hay left by jhose ^^^^^^^^ ff^ .^^^^^^ The

sequence has followed but o^"^" . ^^u^a, or fall on some

glanderous matter must come ^".^^^^^f .^T Ise and hrough which it
membrane, thin and delicate like that ,""ff,^^;,,3";;^o%md
may be absorbed. It is easy, then ^^^TZelT- eatfng out of the same
other, and to recognize each other by he ' ^ ^^^^^^

manger, and drinking from the same P-j;f j^^^/^V^^^^^ when he

be very readily communicated. One horse h^^^ ^^^^ ^^^.^^

was in the act of snorting, ^"^^.^^'^^f.^'^T, the wind across a

inoculation. We would deeply ™P/<^«V^ °" .'^f. i,ind of work,

ao glandered horse should be ^^P^^y^^ '''I^^IJ^^^^^ a glandered

or permitted to remain for a day on h-s premises • nor shou g ^^^^
horse be permitted to work on any ^oad. or even to pa t ^^^^ y^^^^^

nized veterinary establishment. , , implied in what we have

t Ja„Te"i:ng established a^- slow progress^^ T^^^^

discharge has existed for rA^Sme^r bjt in the^majority

diminished, and ha. -fjf/^*"' ^^^^ while, and then

ofthese supposed cases the matter was ^ ciuanlity: or ,f

bursting from .Is confinement "f''^ ' ^i„,,i,,„ twcntyfour

^'""t'^'XcotefSdof^onsum;;";, and "died. Wa v.ew these
months, has become tarciea, u Jy^^r^n^ thai some have occurred,

cures with much suspicion: ^u^^^^' ,f ^^^^^^^^^ opinion of the incurable
they are so few and far between, """^ ^^^^^^^^^^ knowledge, is

natireof the disease, in ^ scarcely a /rug to which a

scarcely affected. As for ' them have had a temporary

fair trial has not been given, and many ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^^

reputation; but they have Pf^'^^. i'ish-flv have held out longest.

loLger used. The ^.^^j; ^^^^^^^^^^^ have done wonders ;

and in a few cases, either nature, or iue=

GLANDERS.

127

but, ill the majority of instances, they have palpably failed. Where the life
of a valuable animal is at stake, and the owner takes every precaution In
prevent infection, he may subject the horse to medical treatment ; but we
indignantly object to the slitting of the nostril, and scraping of the carti
lage, and searing of the gland, and firing the frontal and nasal bones, and
to those injections of pepper and mustara, corrosive sublimate and vitriol
by which the horse has been tortured, and the practitioner disgraced. At
the veterinary school, and by veterinary surgeons, it will be most desirable
that every experiment should be tried to discover a remedy for this pest ,
but, in ordinary instances, he is not faithful to his own interest or that oi
his neighbours, who does not remove the possibility of danger in the most
summary way.

Supposing that glanders have made their appearance in the stables of a
farmer, is there any danger after he has removed or destroyed the infected
horse ? — certainly there is, but not to the extent that is commonly sup-
posed. There is no necessity for puUing down the racks and mangers, or
even the stable itself, as some have done. The poison resides not in the
breath of the animal, but in the nasal discharge, and that can only reach
certain parts of the stable ; and if the mangers, and racks, and bales, and
partitions, are first well scraped, and next scoured with soap and water,
and then thoroughly washed with a solution of the chloride of lime, (one
pint of the chloride to a pailful of water,) and the walls are lime-washed, and
Hie head-gear burned, and the clothing baked and washed, and the pails
new painted, and the iron-work exposed to a red heat, all danger will
cease.

The tricks which some dealers resort to at fairs, and markets, in order to
conceal the existence of glanders, are most infamous, and should be visited
with the severest penalty of the law. Having given the horse a brushing
gallop, that he may thoi'oughly clear the nose, some of them blow
powdered alum up the nostrils a little while before he is shewn ; others
use white vitriol ; and although the horse may be sadly tortured, about
which they care nothing, the discharge is for some hours stayed. Others
roll up a pledget of tow, and introduce it into the nostril, sufficiently high
to escape common observation. Both these tricks may be discovered by
the uneasiness of the animal, and his repeated efforts to sneeze, as well
as by his general appearance, and if the disease be far advanced, most
assuredly by the red or raw^ appearance of the uose, and bv the stinking
breath,

Happy should we be, if we could say any thing satisfactory of the preven-
tion of glanders. The danger from exposure to infection can scarcely be
avoided by those who travel much, and whose horses must stand in stables
the inmates . of which are so promiscuous, and so frequently changed.
Although we cannot prevent contagion, we have more power in preventing
the disease from occurring without contagion, and that is a point of im-
portance, at least if the opinion of Professor Coleman be correct, that not
one horse in a thousand receives the disease from contagion. To this, how-
ever, we cannot subscribe, for not only the history of cavalry regiments, but
the experience of every breeder and proprietor of horses will prove the
iufectious nature of the complaint.

No fact is more certain, than that he who will keep a glandered horse in
his stable, or work him in his team, will sooner or later lose the greater part
of his stud. However, the generation of the disease may certainly be
lAuch prevented, and the first and most effectual mode of prevention will

128 THE HORSE.

be to keep the stables cool and well ventilated, for the hot and poisoned a.t
of low and confined stables is one of the most prevalent causes ot

^^NexI'to ventilation stands cleanliness; for the foul air from the fer-
mentino. litter, and urine and dung, must not onW be highly injunous to
l ealth ienerally, but irritate and predispose to '"^^--f ^i^^L
membrane which is the primary seat of the disease If to this be added
^Jo-Tar exercise, and occLional green meat during the summer, and carrots
Se wiiUer w^^ shall have stated all that can be done in the way of preven-
ion Tl^to^ horse in his cool or cold stable, and during the greater
part" oTthe year running loose when not at work, would be exempt from
Sfanders if at the market and the fair, he were not so much exposed
to contag on In truth, glanders may be considered as the cons^
to coniagion. " ^ j g^j^^h America and in Arabia

rv"'^^ u^tot^ l^it w'^^^^^^^^^^^ the European plan of stabling has
\ l in^r^rced 2-landers have followed in its train: and therefore if
rv meanfr r^sS to for the cure of glanders, the first, and per-
tZs Z oZ effectual one would be to remove every exciting cause
otMhe diseasl to restore the horse almost to a state of nature ; to

FARCY.

L different types or stage, of the jf ^' progress a'nd this most

The small arteries are employed in ^"^^ ''"f "P,','^;^^^ up and car-
parts of the body ; and another set of vessels are busied ,n akm p
^yingaway that which is worn ou and i^^^^^^^^^^ ^..^

which thousands of thes h^e t^^^^^^^ ^^^^ .^^ ^^^.^^

are not only employed in ^« " be in contact with the

,lous -J?«^--V:^^^^^^^^ JoUecttogether and form

skm. The httle ^^^^^'^ J^^^^ ^jth the superficial veins, and there-

larger branches, which run comp y i ^^^^ ^^^^^^^^

The inflammation, ^^^ich pursues tne ^^^^^^ ^^^^^

these tubes, that is, towards the reservoir

FAJICY

129

enters the heart se.ms to be arrested by these valves, and they inflame and
swell; and therefore the first indication of this disease, even beC
droop;ng.or loss of conditio.., or of appetite, is generally the appearance of
htt e tumours-/«rc2/ i^d^-close to some of the veins, followi.la- the cours^
of the vems, and connected together by a kind of cord, which farriers caU
corded veins. When they are few and small they may possibly exist for severa
weeks without being observed ; but at length they increase in number and
in size, and become painful and hot, and some of them begin to ulcerate
Ihey appear usually about the face or neck, or inside of the thigh and in
Ihe latter case there is some general enlargement of the limb, and lameness
In some cases, however, the horse will droop for many a day before the
appearance of the butto?is ov farcy buds ;— his appetite will be impaired •—
his coat will stare ;— he will lose flesh. The poison is evidently at work, but
has not gained sufficient power to cause the absorbents to swell. In a few
instances these buds do not ulcerate, but become hard and difficult to dis-
perse. The progress of the disease is then suspended, and possibly for
many months the horse will a|)pear to be restored to health ; but he bears
the seeds of the malady about him, and, ail at once, the farcy assumes a
yiruient form, and hurries him off. These buds have sometimes been con-
founded with the little tumours or lumps of surfeit. They are "-enerallv
liigtier man these tumours ;— not so broad ;— have a more knotty feel
and are principally found on the inside of the limbs, instead of the out-
side.

The increase of these buds marks the progress of the disease, and that pro-
gress is retarded by the resistance of these valves. The ulcers spread
around, and are cured with considerable difficulty. Larger tumours ap-
pear in the groin and between the fore-leg, and ulcerate and spread, and
the hollows and burrowings run deep in every direction, and the horse be-
comes a miserable and loathsome object. Glanders speedily appear, and
deat/i ensues.

Few things are more unlike, or more perplexing, than the different forms
which farcy assumes at different times. One of the legs, and particularly
one of the hinder-legs, will suddenly swell to an enormous size. At night
the horse will appear to be perfectly well, and, in the morning, one leg will
be three times the size of the other, with considerable fever, and scarcely
the power of moving the limb.

We do not mean that enlargement of the hind leg, with red shining
skin, and exudation of fluid on the skin, reaching from the fetlock to the
heel, round and smooth, very painful, attended with extreme lameness, and
which the groom calls a farcy humour. This will yield to frequent fomen-
tation, and a good dose of physic. It is effusion of fluid beneath the skin,
from want of exercise and over-feeding. The enlargement of farcy occu-
pies more of the limb, and presents an uneven surface, with sudden projec-
tions and depressions, and betrays in some part the corded absorbent, and
the inflamed and swelled valve.

At other times the head will be subject to this enlargement— the muzzle
will particularly swell, and a stinking discharge will issue from the nose.
Sometimes the horse will gradually lose flesh and strength ; he will be
nide-bound —mangy erupiioiis will appear in different parts ; the legs will
swell ; cracks will appear at the heels, and the inexperienced person may
conceive it to be a mere want of condition combined witli grease

Farcy, like glandewj, springs from infection, or from bad stable ma-
nagement. It is produced by all the causes which give rise to glanders;
but with this difference, that it is more frequently generated, and is some

K

130

THE HORSE.

times strangely prevalent in particular districts It will attack, at the same
time, several horses in the same ill-conducted stable, and others m the
neighbourhood, who have been exposed to the same pred.sposmg causes
The practitioner is always afraid of seem£? too much of th.s .'I'^^/^^e ^^en
he Jets with one case of farcy, where there has been gross >nattent.on to
the horses Some have denied that it is a contagious disease. They must
me 1. Pxnprience It is true that the matter of farcy must come -

fnTontt ^^a TaTor sore, in order to communicate the disease ; but
LccuTomerls horses are to nibble and play J^th -di ^^^^^^^^ and so^ a.
the corners of the mouth are frequently rendered by the bit it is easy to
ma.'irthat this may oRen be effected ; and experience tells us, that a
ho £ havSo flrcv-ulcers cannot be suftered to remain with others wi.1.-
ourextreme risk. • We recollect an instance in which virulent and fatal
fercy v^asTommunicated by a scratch from the currycomb, which had been
previously used on a glandered horse. u„u,,r,
^ The treatment of farcy varies with the form it assumes. In the bu ton
or bud farcy, a mild dose of physic should be first administered fhe
Sids lould be then carefully examined, and if any of them have broken
the budding iron, of a dull red heat, should be applied to them • or if mat-
ter should be felt in them, shewing that they are d-PO-d to b-ak they
should be penetrated with the iron. These wounds
snected and if, when the slough of the cautery comes off, they look pale,
S fful, and Spongy, and discharge a thin -^^-'^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^
.luently washed with a lotion, composed of a drachm of ^orrosue sumi
mate dissolved in an ounce of rectified spirit; the other buds should hke-
Tse be ermrned, and opened with the iron as soon as they ev.den ly con-
Tan matter When the wounds begin to look red, and the bottom of them is

Sed t^J^^t^ wiUnott suffiTent; and the disease mus^be

rosive sublimate. Duimg tnis tne a i ^^^^^^ ^^^^

with a free circulation or air ; and green "'^'^''> ,
wiui d iicc ^ ^ allowance of corn. It ne

Z L reduced as not to be able to stand, was drawn into a held ot
ahor.e ^."'^^Xtd to take his chance: the consequence was, that when
Kd^" wH^^^^^^ he was able to rise and search Jor -or.

ne nan eaiLii a j. disease, and n

»„d eventually rccov-.f^ \"wrtr a ment w'ill frequeutly succeed. If,
£'1;: „t,:ds"tvX" d:the absorbent, should continue .0 be corded,
. blister, or light firing mil P^^'.^^^^/^Stiexperieuced one attack

with ^^^t^'l^ff, ^i'^; "'^^^^.^of one drachm of the former and four of the
turpentine, in the proporuons ui uii^

• Blaine's Vetennai-y OutlineB. p. 467.

THE Lirs.

latter, made into a ball with linseed meal, should be given, and ereenmp«»
or carrots, when circumstances will permit. * ^

In the species of farcy attended with enormous swellinfr, it will be nn,
dent to bleed moderately as well as to physic. The iron will not be necel
sary but the same alterative medicine will be useful, and the lee- should'
be frequently fomented with warm water. In both cases, althoush the air
should be fresh and cool, the horse should be warmly clothed.

The Water Farcy, confounded by name with the common farcy, and by
which much contusion has been caused and a g-reat deal of mischief done
is a dropsical affection of the skin, either of the chest or of the limbs gene-
rally, and belongs to another part of our subject.

A tumour termed a Polypus sometimes occupies one of the nostrils
It will grow to a very large size, obstructing the breathing, and sadly an-
noying the horse. As this can only be removed by an operation, which a
veterinary surgeon alone is competent to perform, we do not describe it
particularly. (14.)

THE LIP3.

The hps of the horse are far more important organs than many suppose
They are, in a manner, the hands of the horse ; and if any one will take the
trouble to observe the manner in which he gathers up his corn with them
and collects together the grass before he divides it with his nippers, he will
be satisfied that the horse would be no more able to convey the food to his
mouth without them, than the human being could without his hands.
This has even been put to the test of experiment. The nerves which sup-
ply the lips were divided in a poor ass, to illustrate some point of physio-
logy. The sensibility of the lips was lost, and he knew not when he
touched his food with them ; the motion of the lips was lost, and he
could not get the oats between his teeth, although the manger was full
of theni ; at length, driven by hunger, he contrived to lick u°p a few of
them with his tongue, but when they were on his tongue, the greater part
of them were rubbed off before he could get them into his mouth. It is on
account of this use of the lips, that the faces of ail quadrupeds are so
lengthened that the lips may be brought into contact with the food, without
inconvenience or injury to other parts of the face. Several muscles go to
the lips from different parts of the jaw and face. Some of them are shewn
in the cut, p. 119. The orbicularis or circular muscle, ^, employed in
pushing out the lips, and closing them, and enabling the horse to seize and
hold his food, is particularly evident ; and in our explanation of the cut, the
action of other muscles, i, k, m, and o, was described. The nerves like-
wise, y, taking their course along the cheek, and principally supplying the
Jips with the power of motion, and those, z, proceeding from the foramen
or hole in the upper jaw, deserve attention.

The lips are composed of muscles for the sake of strength, and of a mul-
titude of small glands, which secrete a fluid that covers the inside of the lips
and the gums, in order to prevent friction, and likewise furnishes a por-
tion of the moisture so necessary for the proper chewing of the food. The
skin covering the lips is very thin, because, if these are the hands of the
horse, they should possess considerable feeling; and for the same purpose

• The old f'arners had a strange and barbarous way of attempting to cure tlie farcy.
They mixed togetlier a variety of stimulating drujjs, and sewed theru in the horse's ear,
aud set him to hard work on straw and water

K 2

mE HORSE.

likewise, they are scantily covered with hair, avid that >^a.r is fine and short ,

and long hairs or feelers, called the beard, are superadded for the same
purpose The horse is guided and governed principally by he mouth
and therefore the lips are endowed with extraordmary seusib.l.iy, so that
U an^^d eels tie slightest motion of the hand of the r.der or dr.ver, and,
me anim.li leeis uie ^ thou"-hts. The fineness or goodness of the

Wrconst^rr h Sng of the m%h and depends on the '

Znness of this membrane. We shall say more of this, when we have de-

'"^^ it oT5[Jh:r::tirr be thm, if the beauty of the head be
warded for if they are loaded with fat they cannot be so sensible as they
ou ht to be yet! although thin, they should evidently possess power, and
be s tronX and regularly closed. A firm, compressed mouth gives a
fovourable and no deceptive idea of the muscular power of the ammal
Lips apart from each other, and hanging down, indicate weakness or old

^^^h^dt^rft^iS^

carried well, and the horse will hang heavy on hand, if there be not

" T^f a^S^f^'t^tps are frequently made sore or wounded by the
smil e^s^r^ shortess'of the sna'ffle. af.d by the ^^^^
tightness of the bearing rein. This rem not y ^^-^^^^^^
appearance in harness, and P^^ces the head m that position ^
bit most powerfully presses upon the Ja- ^ ^he- s no poss b y
driving without it, unless the arm o the driver were as «
Hercules- and most certainly there is no safety if it be not nsea
Tie few I'orses who will not Lar, or lore ^j^^--^'^^^^^^^^^^^ ^
to let them bore upon themselves tha.1 ^J.^^'^^^Jdl low be dis-

out this control, many of them would hang 1 1^ r h^ds
posed every moment to stumble, and -ouM de al, pujl^^^^^^^ ^ ^
o run away. There is, and can be "o necessiiy, which is

bearing-rein so tight as to cramp he rnuscles of hea^^^^^^^^ .^^^^^
iudicaredby the — ^^^^^^ bLgLhead
be cramped to such Y''^^^; , The ti-ht rein injures and excoriates
to the ground, when turned to grass ^ \^ ^ poor

that by' the sudde^i and forcible P-->"f J^/^J^

would still every moment occur, the corners of the mou^ determined
c it through to a --^'^^J^^tf bear^^^^^^^ than is generally

horse, there f "^^^.^/^^f ^^rTe kes to feel, and it is necessary for him in
W must have the bearing-rein, whatever some men oi
the swifi gallop, vve mu crueUv.
humanity may say against »t , but we neea

THE PAL.\TE.

133

niE BONES OF THE MOUTH.

The bones m ami gWmg form to the niouth, are fhe superior maxillarv
or upper jaw (6, p. 63, and I, p. G6), containing- the g-rinders, the antS
nor maxillary, or lower jiart of the iipjjer jaw (6, p. 63, n, p. 66, r p 68)
containing the upper-nippers or cutting-teeth ; the palatine bone (below 8
p. 68), and the posterior maxillary or under jaw (a, p. 63, and w, n 68)'
contaimng- all the under teeth. We will speak of Ihcm very shortly, in the
order in which we have mentioned them.

The superior maxillary is, with the exception of the lower jaw, the largest
bone m the face. It unites above with the lachrymal bone (/, p. 66) ; and
more on the side, with the malar or cheek bone, /c ; and a portion of it, con-
tnuied upward, and underneath, enters into the orbit. . Above, and on the
front of the face, it unites with the bones of the nose,y, and below, with
the inferior maxillary, n. That which most deserves notice in it, externally
IS the ridge or spine, seen at b, p. 63, but better delineated in the cut of
the head, p. 67, continued from the base of the zygomatic arch, and across
the malar bone. It and the surface beneath serve to give attachment to
the masseter muscle, concerned almost as much as the temporal one in
,the act of chewing. The dark spot (m, p. 66, and seen likewise' at
p. 63) marks the foramen or hole, through which a branch of the fifth pair
of nerves proceeds to give sensibility to the lower part of the face. As it
approaches the teeth, this bone separates into two plates, and these are
divided by long partitions, which contain and firmly hold the upper
grinders. The lower plate then projects inwards, and forms (t, p. 68) the
principal portion of the roof of the mouth, and the floor of the cavity of the
nose. The corresponding bone on the other side meets its fellow in the
centre of the palate. The upper jaw-bone contains in it large cavities,
beside the cavities for the teeth, and these open into and enlarge the cavity
of the nose. They are connected with the voice, bnt not with t\ui smell,
for the expansion of the olfactory or smelling nerve has never been traced
beyond the bones and membranes of the proper cavity of the nose. The
maxillary sinuses are generally filled with mutter in bad cases of glanders.

Below these are the anterior maxillary bones (/ p. 63, a. p. 6S), con
taining the upper cutting teeth, with the tushes belonging both to the upper
and anterior bones. These are the bones to which (see cut, p. 68) the
upper hp is attached. The superior Euid anterior maxillary bones are sepa-
rated in animals with long faces, like the horse, that by overlapping each
other strength might be gained.

The palatine bone forms but a very small portion of the palate,
surrounds the edge of the communication between the cavity of the nose
and the back parts of the mouth.

THE PALATE.

Adhering to a portion of all three of the bones just described, and being
the lining of the roof of the mouth, is the hard palate, ((!, p. 6S,) composed
of a firm dense substance divided into several ridges called bars. The
cut gives a \ iew of them.

The cut will point out the bleeding place, if the horse should be attacked
with the megrims on a journey, and the rider or driver should not have a
lancet. Precisely in a line between the middle and second cutting teeth,
and a little more than an inch within the mouth, the artery and vein make
a curve. They may there be cut down upon with a sharp knife, and a

134

THE HORSE.

plentiful stream of blood will be obtained, which will usually stop of itself
when two or three quarts of blood have been obtained. The artery being
cul across will shrink, and soon cease to bleed, and the application of a
spon-e filled with cold water will generally stop the bleeding of the ve,n.
No injury will result from the division of the nerve, for it is a mere nerve
of feeling, distributed over those parts.

CUT OP THE PALATE.

a The palate divided into ridges ot
bars.

b A strip dissected up to show the ves-
sels and nei-ve beneath,
c The palatine artery.
d Tlie palatine vein.
e The palatine nerve between the ar-
tery and the vein.
/ The cheek divided, showing the di-
rection of the muscular fibres.
g The grinders.
h The nippers.
i The tushes.

ShouM the cut be .ade l^;rj:X^rl^iZt^X
middle of the second incisor tooth, the ^^^^ery may oe the blood.

but not divided, and there "^^y^^^^^^y g^^"V^\^7,„J,7he^^^^^^^^ thus
We recollect a horse which almost ^led o death f om the arte y^ ^^g^^^^^

wounded. If, however, a large and firm P'^^^ °; ' g.
round a piece of twine, and that tied firmly ^-^^^^j^^^J^'^S thVs in a verv
sure on the part will effect the desired P^.^'P^'f "^^^^^^.""^^^^ pledget',
few cases fail, a gag may be easily contrived to press upon I
and the bleeding will i.nmediately cease bleeding when the horse

We are speaking of this ^ "^'''^.^-^.^^I^f^'i^^ the cutting of the

and pain to the horse in stopping the bleedmg.

LAM PAS.

feeds badly ^^^^^^^^ and it may aLe from inflamma
on the bars. This is cancel > ^^^^^ shedding his

tion of the gums, P;opa£vted b^a^^' ^^^^ ^^^ers ;) or from some

teeth; (and y^^'"/ ^'^"/.'^^^^^^^^^^

sliglit febrile tendency m the constauiic^n J ^^^^ ^^^^^

has lately been taken up Irom grass, and has been

ciently exercised. ... subside without medical

In the majority of cases the sweUing will soon

THE LOWER JAW.

I3!j

creaiment ; or a few mashes, and genue alteratives, will relieve the animal.
A few slight cuts across the bars with a lancet or penknife, and taking
care to avoid the principal artery and vein of the palate, the situation of
which has been just pointed out, will relieve the inflammation, and cause the
swelling to subside ; indeed, this scarification of the bars will seldom do
harm, although it is far from being so necessary as is supposed. To the
brutal custom of the farrier, who sears and burns down the bars with a
red hot iron, we do most peremptorily object. It is torturing the horse
to no purpose ; and it is rendering that part callous, on the delicate sensi-
bility of which all the pleasure and safety of riding and driving depend. It
rnay be prudent in case of lam pas to examine the grinders, and more par-
ticularly the tushes, to see whether either of them is endeavouring to make
its way through the gum. If with the gum lancet, or penknife, two incisions
across each other be made on the tooth, the horse will experience immediate
relief. (15.)

THE LOWER JAW.

The posterior or lower jaw may be considered as forming the floor of the
mouth, (a, p. 63, or w, p. 68.) The body or lower part of it contains the
under cutting teeth, and the tushes ; the sides are two flat pieces of bone,
containing the grinders. On the inside, and opposite to a, p. 63, is a hole
through which blood-vessels and nerves enter to supply the teeth, and
some of which escape again at another hole on the outside, and near the
nippers. The branches are broader and thinner, rounded at the angle of
the jaw, and terminating in two processes. One, the coracoid, from its
sharpness or supposed resemblance to a beak, passes xmder the zygomatic
arch, (see p. 63,) and the temporal muscle, arising from the whole surface
of the parietal bone (see p. 70), is inserted into it, and wrapped round it ,
and by its action, principally, the jaw is moved, and the food is ground.
The other, the condyloid, or rounded process, is received into the glenoid
(shallow) cavity of the temporal bone, at the base of the zygomatic arch,
and forms the joint on which the lower jaw moves. This joint is easily
seen in the cut at page 63 ; and being placed so near to the insertion ot
the muscle, or the centre of motion, the temporal muscle must act with
very considerable mechanical disadvantage, and must possess immense
power.

This joint is admirably contrived for the purpose which the animal re-
quires. It will admit freely and perfectly of the simple motion of a hinge,
and that is the motion of the jaw in nipping the herbage and seizing the
corn. But the grass, and more particularly the corn, must be crushed
and bruised before it is fit for digestion. Simple champing, which is the
motion of the human lower jaw, and that of most beasts of prey, would
very imperfectly break down the corn. It must be put into a mill; it
must be actually ground.

It is put into a mill, and as perfect a mill as imagination can conceive.

The following cuts represent the glenoid cavity in a carnivorous, or flesh
eating, and herbivorous, or grass-eating animal, viz. the tiger and the
horse : the one requiring a simple hinge-like motion of the lower jaw
to tear and crush the food ; the other a lateral or grinding motion
to bring it into a pulpy form. First examine this cavity in the tiger,
represented at B. At the root of the zygomatic process D, is a
hollow with a ridge along the greater part of the upper and inner side of
it, standing to a considerable height, and curiing over tlie cavity. At the

THE HORSK

lower and opposite edge of the cavity, but in the outside, is a similar ridge,
E likewise rising abruptly and curling over. At C is another and more
pe'r ect view of this cavity in a different direction. The head of the lower
iaw i<= received into this hollow, and presses against these ridges, and is
partially surrounded by them, and forms wUh them a very strong joint
where dislocation is scarcely possible, and admitting the hinge-l.ke or
cranching motion to its fullest extent ; permittmg the animal violently to
'eize his prey, to hold it firmly, and to crush it to pieces ; but, from the
;xtent and Jurling form of the ridges, forbidding, except o a very slight
degree, all lateral, and grinding motion, and this because the animal does

"^The^ food of the horse must be ^rownd-simple bruising and champing
would not reduce it sufficiently small for the purposes of digestion. Then
Observe the different construction to effect this. A gives the glenoid cavity
of the horse. First, there is the upper ridge assuming a rounded torm, t,
and therefore called the mastoid process; and-a peculiarity m the horse-
the mastoid process of the s9«amo«5 portion of the temporal bone: suffi-
denUv strong to support.the pressure and action ot the lower jaw when
c opp ng the food or seizing an enemy, but not ericircling the head of tha
bone and reaching only a little way along the side of the cavity where it
terminates, having' its Jdges rounded off so as to ad"u, and to be ev.
denllv destined for a circular motion about it. Then, at the otner ana
W.r ed-e of the cavity, and on the outside, G, is placed, not a curling ridge
as in th/tter bu Tmere tubercle: and for what reason ? evidently to
hn^R t iTs ateral or circular motion-to permit it as far as the "fcessities
of t he animal require it, and then to arrest it-but how ? not suddenly or
ab uptk but this tubercle, of which we have already spoken as « re"gthen-
Tno th s portion of the zygomatic arch. yet. now discharging another office^
l^lVa nZth and gradual ascent to it, up which the lov^-er jaw may climb
to a ce^ain extent^nd then, by degrees, be stopped. We speak not now
of the moveable cartilage which is placed in this cavity and between the
bones to render the motion easier and freer. It is found in this joint
in every quadruped ; and it is found wherever motions are rapid and of

long continuance ^^e animal and his

So great ^^e confor^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ _

destination, tha a tok^^^^^^^ determine wheUier the animal to

tion of the glenoid "^^'^y^" ^^^tcd no lateral motion of the

which it belongea -'^^ all kinds of food, and requiring

Se^J^^'^^'dn^^r; J herbivorous, and needing the con-

^^ttT^^'it^^'^^— d^^ ^" ^^"^^'"^'^

THE TEETH.

13;

Strong one, constitaiting the cheek of the horse arising from the sunerior
maxillary under the ndge continued from the zygomatic arch, and inserted
nito the lower jaw, and particularly round the rough border at the anile
ot the jaw This acts with the temporal muscle in closing the jaw and
m giving the direct cutting or champing motion of it. J >

Inside the lower jaw, on each side," and occupying the whole of the
hollowed portion of them, and opposite to the masseters, are the pterygoid
muscles, going from the jaws to bones more in the centre of the channel
likewise shutting the mouth, and also, by their alternate action, giving that
grinding motion which we have described.

The space between the branches of the lower jaw, called the channel, is
ot considerable consequence. It may be a little too wids, and then the
face may have a clumsy appearance ; but if it be too narrow, the horse
will never be able to bend liis head freely and gracefully ; he will be always
pulling and boring upon the hand, nor can he possibly be well reined in.

The jaws contain the teeth, which are the millstones employed in this
operation. The mouth of the horse at five years old contains forty teeth,
viz. six nippers or cutting teeth in front, a tush on each side, and six
molars, or grinding teeth, above and below; they are contained in cavities
. Bi the upper and lower jaws, surrounded by bony partitions, to which they
are accurately fitted, and by which they are firmly supported. For a little
way above these bony cavities, they are surrounded by a hard substance
called the gum, so dense, indeed, and adhering so closely to the teeth and
the jaws, as not to be separated without very great difficulty ; singularly
compact, that it may not be wounded by the hard or sharp particles'^ of the
food, and almost devoid of feeling, for the same purpose.

Seven or eight months before the foal is born, the germs or beginnings
of the teeth are visible in the cavities of the jaws. The tooth grows, and
presses to the surface of the gum, and forces its way through it ; and at
the ti me of birth the first and second grinders have ap-
peared, large compared with the size of the jaw, and
seemingly filling it. In the course of seven or eight
days the two centre nippers are seen as here repre-
sented.

They likewise appear to be large, and to fill the front
of the mouth, although they will afterwards be found to
be small, compared with the permanent teeth that follow.
In the course of the first month the third grinder ap-
;■ % U pears above and below, and not long after, and generally

/ f \ before six weeks have expired, another incisor above and

" below will be seen on each side of the two first, which

have now considerably grown, but not attained tneir
perfect height. This cut will then represent the ap-
pearance of the mouth.

At two months, the centre nippers will have
Breached their natural level, and between the second
sand third month the second pair will have over-
/ taken them. They will then begin to wear a little,
' and the outer edge, which was at first somewhat
raised and sharp, is brought to a level with the inner
edge, and so the mouth continues until some time
between the sixth and ninth month, when another
nipper begins to appear on each side of the two first,
making six above and below, and completing the colt's

TlIK HORSE.

,nouth; after which, the only observable difference, until between the secon.!

and third year, is in the wear ^J^^^ the farrier, and much

The term mpper ,s famd.ar to the horse ^^^^ ^^^^^

better expresses the ^^^^^^^^ '^^^^hoe^er has observed a horse in the act
which is adopted by ^^'^''^.^^X ihe head^^^^ accompanies the separation

eXo^n^V^^-^^^^^ '''''' - '-"^ ^'^^

called he enamel, ^ndeexl Jt i teeth which appears

the action of a file f °;'„V^3 ^^ey are to be so much employed

above the gum. and ""t only so but as th y ^^^^^ ^^^^^

in mppmg the f J^f ' ^"^ ^at^^^^^^^^^ be gradually worn away, a portion
ployment even this hard substance muht ^ J inward, and

the age of the animal. ^. . j altogether a

Dealers often laft o the^^^^
vulgar error. Ihe marK never uub i i j ^ enamel,

the blackness at the bottom is rubbed off ^^^^^^t hollow towards

ThecoU'smppin^^^^^^^^^^^^^ the outer edge

the mouth, and present '^^ ^^.^^ ^ ^^-^^^^^ above the maer

ed-re" This, however, soon begins to wear
down until both surfaces are level, and the
mark, which was originally long and narrow
becomes shorter, and wider, '-^"^ fainter M
six months the four nippers are beginnmg to
^ear to a level. The annexed -t w^ -^^^^^^^
some idea of the appearance of the teetn at
tvvSve months. The four middle teeth are evi-
dently level— the corner ones beconung so ihe
mark in the two middle teeth is wide and faint;
in the two next teeth It is darker, and longer
and narrower; and in the corner teeth it is

darkest, ana longest ''f ^_ -finders They will not guide

We may now speak of the ^«<lk^/^^^^'.^^ ^rn^ders X J ,^

us far in ascertaining the age of the ^"^^^l' J^^^^^ them. The

tnem ; but there are some^n^^^^^^^^^^

foal « born with two g^^^^^^^^^ j^^^^, expiration of a

within three or four days a.ter ine u r , grinders are, like

month they are succeeded by a thu d, more b^^^^^ i ^

the cutting teeth, --red w^ h^-^^^^^^ They have a

though several portions of enamel ente^^^^ employed in grindmg

great deal more to do than "^fP"!' has, therefore, made an

iwn the hardest l-^^-^ J^^^^^^^ enlurance.
additional provision for their stren ui ^ ^^^^

This cut represents a grinder sawn across.

THE TEETH.

139

gular and intncate machine ; but the explana-
tion of It IS not difficult. The tooth is formed
and prepared m cavities within the jaw-bones
A dehcate membranous bag', containing a jeliv-
like substance, is found, in tlie unborn animal
in a little cell within the jaw-bone. It assumes'
by degrees, the form o'f the tooth that is to'
appear, and then the jelly within the membrane
begins to change to bony matter; and a hard
and beautiful crystallization is formed on the membrane without and so
we have the cutting tooth covered by its enamel. In the formation, how-
ever, of each of the grinders of the horse, there are originally five of these
membranous ha^s in the upper jaw, and four in the lower, filled with jelly
1 his jelly by degrees, gives place to bony matter, which is thrown out by
little vessels penetrating- into it, and is represented by the darker portions
of the cut with central black spots. The crystallization of enarofl can be
traced around each, and so there would be five distinct bones or teeth
A third substance, however, is now secreted, (which is represented by
the white spaces,) and is a powerful cement, uniting all these distinct
bones into one body, and making- one tooth of the five : this benm- done
another coat of enamel spreads over the sides, but not the top a^nd the
tooth IS completed. By no other contrivance could we have the grindiii"
tooth capable, without injury and without wearing, to rub down the hay
and oats, and beans, which constitute the stable- food of horses. The teeth
of the animal who lives on flesh, and the upper part of whose teeth alone
are covered with this enamel, and even the nipping teeth of the horse, with
the simple well of enamel running a certain way down their centre, would
soon be rubbed down and destroyed. It is necessary to have columns of
enamel penetrating through the whole substance of the tooth. There is
another advantage ;— the bony matter, and the cement by which the dif-
ferent shells are united, and which occupy the spaces between the columns
of enamel, soon begin to wear away, while the enamel remains; and
thence results the irregular surface of the grinding teeth, being that kind
of surface which it is necessary for them to possess, in order to effect the
purpose for which they were intended.

The grinders in the lower jaw, having originally but four of these bags or
shells, are smaller, and narrower, and more regular, than the upper ones.
They are not placed horizontally in either jaw ; but in the lower, the hio-her
side is within, and shelving gradually outward; in the upper jaw^'tlie
higher side is without, shelving inward, and thus the grinding motion is
inost advantageously performed. There is also an evident difference in
the appearance and structure of each of the grinders, so that a careful ob-
server could tell to which jaw every one belonged, and what situation it
occupied— but we should depart from the object of our work if we entered
mto these miiuitii.

At the completion of the first year, a fourth grinder usually comes up, and
the yearling has then, or soon afterwards, six nippers, and four grinders
above and below in each jaw, which, with the alteration in the appearance
of the nippers we have just described, will enable us to calculate pretty
nearly the age of the foal, subject to some variations arising from the period
of weaning, and the nature of the food.

At the age of one year and a half, the mark in the central nippers will
be much shorter and fainter ; that in the two other pairs will have under-
gone an evident change, and all the nippers will be flat.

THE HORSE.

M.woyea,s a,, this »;«. — ^.I^TZ'^^^L^^n

deserves attention, as giving an accurate represenuiuu 1 1

the lower jaw of a two year-old coU. ^^^.^^ ^ ^^^^^ ^^.^^^^^ ^.^^ ^^^^^

out and now, likewise, will commence ano-
ther process. The first teeth are arlapted
to the size and wants of the young animal.
Thev are sufficiently large to occupy and
to fill the colt's jaws ; but when the jaws
are expanded with the increasing growth ot
the animal, the teeth are separated too tar
from each other to be useful and another
and larger set is required. Evident provi-
: ;>n is made for these, even before the colt is
foaled. In cavities in the jaw beneath he
' - first and temporary teeth, are to be seen the

nrsi anu 1 (juallv ncrease, and

rudiments of a second Permanent set Jhese g adu y^ ^^^^ ^^^^^

some with greater rapidity than "^^^^^f^' ^ l*-'^^^^^^^^^ that the first

fangs of the first teeth, the consequence of this ^es^"^; disappears ;

teetl. are forced out, but the l^-tion P-sed upon g-d-, y i^p^^^^^^
it is «6sor6ed— taken up, and earned ^^^y' ^^^t of the system,

whose office it is to get rid of the worn <^»; "^f ^^X^^l and^^ress
This absorption continues to proceed as \he second teetn i
upon their Vredecessors, until ^l^e whole ot the fang is go.i^^^^^^^^^^
of the tooth, or that part of it which was ^^ove the gu™ °

firm hold, drops out, and the ^^'^""^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ do not rise

and permanent. In a few instances, however, the ^^-^^J^f ^^^.^ .
immediately under the temporary or milk teeth but disappearance
and then, instead of this S'-^ual process of ab^m^ptio^
from the point of the root "PW-rls, e .''^^t ben^S ^^'^ ? ,he tooth dimi-
diminishes throughout /hole bulk the crown ^ the fore-

nishes with the root ; and the whole is P.^^^f °"^°^erable time, under the
part of the first grinder, and ^^-^^^^J^Sso e^^^^^^ the ^ums, and
name of a u^olf's tooth, causing swelling and ^"J^'J^J^^. ite^absorbed^
frequenUy wounding the cheeks, ^^ese vvould be grad^^^^^^
bu?the/rocess might f ow and the^^^^^^^^^^^^ either^y punch-

therefore It ,s proper to ge rid ot these a ^ceived. (17.)

ing them out, or drawing them ^^^^Jj^fJh earliest appeared, and.

This change of teeth commences in those wmcn m ^^^^^

therefore, th^ front or first grinder gives way at a„e o^ t y
is succeeded by a larger and Permanent tooth. Now^^^^^^^^
commences, in too many cases, the roguery ^or^^^J^^^^^^ a three-

A colt rapidly increases in value, as ^l^[Z^.^ZTy^^^^ one;

year-old iolt is worth twenty-five ^^^^'f-^^^^J^^^ early in the

and if a dealer has a strong and ^'^^^l^ «f ^.'T^.T' ^^^^^ he is anxious
year, and whose form Po;;^-^^^^^^^^^^ this, he must

to pass him If he -^"/"^^^'iX- and between two years and a half and
1^::::^^^^^^ - displaced, and succeeded by two per-

Penod^tween -
and the coming upot ^ °' if he should iall away considerably

Tl^^Z Srill'S inashes and corn, or cut meaU

THE TEETli

14.J

This cut, will represent a three year-
old mouth. The central teeth are larger
than the others, with two grooves in the
outer convex surface, and the mark is
long, narrow, deep and black ; and not
having yet attained their full growth
they are not so high as the others. The
mark in the two next nippers is nearly
worn out, and it is wearing away in
the corner nippers. Is it possible to
give this mouth to an early two-year-
old ? The ages of all horses are reckoned
from May, but some are foaled even so

, early as January, and being actually four

months over the two years, if they have been well nursed and fed, and are
strong and large, they may, with the inexperienced, have an additional year
put upon them. The central nippers are punched or drawn out, and the
others appear three or four months earlier than they otherwise would In
the natural process, they could only rise by long pressing upon, and
. causmg the absKDrption of the first set. The first set mechanically oppose
their rising, and that opposition being removed, it is reasonable to imagine
that their progress will be more rapid. Three or four months will be
gained, and these three or four months may enable the breeder to term him
a late colt of a preceding year. To him, however, who is accustomed to
horses, (although it is long practice alone which could give this facility of
•udgment,) the general form of the animal, the little development of the
forehand, the continuance of the mark on the next pair of nippers, its more
evident existence in the corner ones, some enlargement or irregularity
about the gums from the viol«ice used in forcing out the teeth, the small
growth of the first and fifth grinders, and the non-appearance of the sixth
grinder, which if it is not through the gum at three years old, is swelling
under it, and preparing to get through, any or all of these circumstances,
carefully attended to, will be a sufficient security against deception.

It is so unusual to look at the teeth in the upper jaw of a young horse,
that the dealer who wishes to give a false appearance of age, frequently
confines his operation to the lower jaw, and, in consequence of this, when
the teeth of the lower jaw are thus made to push out, they are still below
the gum in the upper jaw, although, in the natural process, they are cut a
little sooner in the upper than in the lower jaw. It may, therefore, be
good policy always to examine both jaws.

A horse then at three years old ought to have the central permanent
nippers growing — the other two pairs wasting — six grinders in each .jaw,
above and below— the first and fifth molars level with the others, and the
sixth protruding. The sharp edge of the new incisors, although it could
not be well expressed in our cut, will be very evident when compared with
the neighbouring teeth

As the permanent nippers grow, and press upon the teeth at their side,
those teeth will begin gradually to diminish. Not only will the mark
be wearing out, but the crowns of the teeth will be considerably smaller.

Al three years and a half, or between that and four, the next pair of
nippers will be changed, and the mouth at that time cannot be mistaken
The central nippers will have attained nearly their full growth ; a vacuity
will be left where the second stood, or they will b(;gin to peep above the
gum, — and the corner ones will be diminished in breadth — worn down —

142 'iHil HORSE

secondpan- of grinders will be s^^^^^^^^ addilional year, bat

attempt of the dealer to give to three that which we have

the fraud may be detected by an examination simim

already described. ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^e central nippers

will be fully developed; the sharp
edge somewhat worn off; the mark
shorter, wider and fainter: the next,
pair will be up, hut they will be small,
with the mark deep, and extending
quite across them; and the corner
nippers, larger than the inside ones
yet smaller than they were, flat, and
Jhe mark nearly effaced; the six h
grinder will have risen to a level with
the others, and the tushes will begin
to appear.

L_^>,^^_ _i. - Now, more than at any other tinie,

„i„ *e de*, be anxious to P"' -^.'^^^''tra^^LTea-wtr';. "
the difference between a four-jeai-old co t «na a n , ,^

between the nippers and the S^'}^^'^^^;^^^^ but this distance in-

latter, and nearer in the lower jaw tlj m the uppe , ,,^,^^,^t
creasing in both jaws with the age f *e ammai^ v ^^^^ .^^

resembles a cone ; it protrudes about an -ch fiom t g^.^,
extremity sharp-pointed and ^^^^^^ At the a ^
speaking, the tushes are ^''"f ^ Pf.^" ^^^^^"lopLnt. All mares, however,
not appear to prevent or ^-^f;d.^l';>^\^^7,S the jaw, and they appear
have [he beginnings of them in the chambers ^^j^^ .^^^^ :_perhaps

externally in the majority of oW mare ^ I he.r ^ ^^^^^
in the wild state . ^^e ammal they ar^^w^^^^^^^^ ^

can more firmly seize, and more aeep y ,^^1^6 of the tush, and

The breeder often attempts to hasten the aip ^ ^^.^.^^^

he cuts deeply through ^^e gum to remo^ gain a few

would afford. To a httle extent ^"^^^^^j^ J he gum is not like
weeks, but he cannot g-" -^^^ 'J^dTs much more fasily overcome
that of a solid and firmly "^^V^"';^^ ^here is much uncertainty as

by the regular Foce- ot nature^ f ^ly try from the iourth year to four
to the api>earance of the tush and y^ ^^^^ ^^^^

years and SIX mon hs. ^^'^f ' gg^l'for, while its fang is deeply
^tS^inrin^^^^^^^^

Itr— at t^^ .he last import-

At four years and a halt or ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ,^,pp^rs

ant change takes place in mou ^^^^ ^^^^^.^^ ^.pp^^^

are shed, and the P^^"^^"^"^;";'^^;^" beginning to show marks o usage.
consideraWyworn.and the next pair aie , n^^^^ ^^^^ .^^^^^.^

The tush has now protruded, and is general y

THE TEETH

143

pearance of Ihe animal,
.centre nippers, and the

externally it has a rounded prominence, with a groove on either sidp \
wthrn ,t ,s evidently hollowed. Our readers need not be i^fiL torn Si

r hoL:^'d thT^i;^:.:.^^ ^"'"'^^ ^--^

At five years the horse's mouth is
almost perfect. The corner nippers
are quite up, with the long deep mark
irregular on the inside ; and the other
nippers bearing evident tokens of in-
creasing wearing. The tush is much
grown ; — the grooves have almost, or
quite disappeared ; and the outer sur-
face is regularly convex : — it is still as
concave within, and with the edge
nearly as sharp as it was six months
before ; the sixth molar is quite up,
and the third molar is wanting. This
last circumstance, if the general ap-
and particularly before, and the wearing of the
f, „ ,, ■ : , • -- growth and shape of the tushes, be likewise care-

tully attended to, will prevent deception, if a late four-year-old be attempted
o be substituted for a five. The nippers may be brought up a few months
before their time, and the tushes a few weeks, but the grinder is with
difficulty displaced. The three last grinders and the tushes are never shed.

At six years the mark on the centre
nippers is worn out. There will still
be a difference of colour in the centre
of the tooth. The cement filling the

ifga--r crs^^ \m WW by the dipping in of the

ifM/ ^ - igSg, enamel will present a browner hue

ff ^ ^l"*'' than the other part of the tooth, and

it will be evidently surrounded by an
edge of enamel, and there will even
remain a little depression in the centre,
and also a depression round this ca'se
of enamel; but the deep hole in the
centre of the teeth, with the blackened
surface which it presents, and the
elevated edge of enamel, will have
Persons not much accustomed to horses have been sadly
They expected to 'find a plain surface of an uniform colour,

disappeared.

puzzled here. a pimu su.ittuc a.11 uiiiioriii coiour,

and knew not what conclusion to draw when there was both discolouration

and irregularity.

In the next incisors the mark is shorter, broader, and fainter ; and in the
corner teeth the edges of the enamel are more regular, and the surface
is evidently worn. The tush has attained its full growth, being nearly or
quite an inch in length, convex outward, concave within, tending to a
point, and the extremity somewhat curved. The third grinder is fairly up,
and all the grinders are level.

Now, or perhaps at a perioa of six months before, the horse may be
said to have a perfect mouth. All the teeth are produced, fully grown,
and have hitherto sustained no material injury. During these importanJ
changes of the teeth the animal has suffered less than could be supposed
possible. With children, the period of teething is fraught with danger.

THE HORSE.

A hnnfireds of them die, from the irri-
Dogs are subject to ^""vulr.ions, and hu^^^^ ^^^^^ . the horse

tation caused by the cuttmg and palate are occasionally

appears to feel little ^n<;o»veuienc ^ 1 g remove t^lm^

:-S,^^^eSo;^^p-eUgro.nddow.^
ment cannot be extracted from it _„ .v,„ in the wa

Af seven years, the mark m the way
in which we have described >t, is worn
out in the four central mppers, and
?ast wearing away in the corner teeth ;
Srhe tush isbeginning to be altered.

?t is rounded at the point ; rounded
a the edges; still round without; and

beginning to get round inside.

Meiaht years old, the mark IS gone
from aUthJbottom nippers; the tush

is rounder in every ^^^y'^^^. ^he
mark is now said to be out ot tUe
J^outh There is nothing remaining
Tn the bottom nippers which can af^r-
wards clearly shew the age of the
horse or justify the most experienced
e^nlerin giving positive op^^

Dishonest dealers have been saia
to?etttoamethod of prolonging
the mark in the lower ">ppers. Jt ,
called bishoping, from the name oi
U>e scoundrel who inven ed • fhc

horse of ^f'^:::':xZrii^

Kisdiiir^h-^v^

\_J^^^'^===^-^--^ in a seven-year- old horse, j ^ ^^^^
i, then burned with a heated iron. -/.XyTorhldl^inpant'man
neS pair of nippers are -^f ;7,^i i^but the irregular appearaxict
Culd very easily be i'^P^^^^.^i^Xt stain Ground the tushes, the sharp,
Tf the cav ty, the diffusion of the black stam

and tlie marks on the "PP^'^" PP ^^^eful examiner.

friction and wear as the '"d^^' ■ without motion, and has y
forcibly upon the food: the upper j
resist that pressure.

THE TEETH.

14!

Tlicre are various oi)iiiions as to llie intervals betwoon tu. a-
of the marks from tl.e dUlevent cuttino- teetii S ^ ^^aveJ^'^'r^''^^^
two years and others at one. We are"i»cliaed to don the TJZ^
an.l then the ag, would be thus determined: at ni rilrs the! r'"":;
be worn from the middle nippers-from the next nair at hfn ""''^
the upper nippers at eleven'^Durin^ the e per cd t e u^^^^^^
.mKler,.ou.n, a^anifest change: it is%lunter^horL^and Jound t "V"
what degree th.s takes place in the different periods, long and mo ^fevour
or r .tTr '^an alone enable the horsemaT o deci

The tushes are exposed to but little tear and wear. The friction ao-ai,.«f
hem must be slight, proceeding only from the passag^of he fooT bv
them and from t^ie motion of the tongue, or from 'the bTt; and tlLr altera^
tion of form although generally as we have described them, is frennen W
uncertam. The tush will sometimes be blunt at eight, an<l r^ma ^poh ted
ate ghteen ; and occasionally, according to the dfrection which the^take
or degree m which they rub against each other, the tushes on the d'^rent
sides w, present an apparent variation of one or two years The uppe
■ tush, although the latest in appearing, is soonest worn Lay

Are there any circumstances to guide our judgment after this? There are
.hose which will prepare us to guess at the age of the horse, or to app oach

vh oh '-[r \T °^ ""''1 ^'^^'^'"^^ ^^'-y there ar^e^ none

must now Zfl determine; and the indications of age

must now be taken fronj the shape of the upper surface of the nippers
At eight, they are all oval, the length of the oval running across fromTooth
to tooth : but as the horse gets older, the teeth diminish in size, and they
at first dimmish m width, and not in thickness. They become a little
apart from each other, and their surfaces are rounded. At nine the centre
mppers are evidently so,— at ten, the others begin to have the' oval shor-
tened. At eleven, the second pair of nippers are quite rounded, and at
thirteen, the corner ones have that appearance. At fourteen, the faces of
the central nippers become somewhat triangular. At seventeen, ttiey are all
so. At nmeteeri, the angles begin to wear off, and the central teeth are
again oval, but in a reversed direction, viz, from outward, inward ; and at
twenty-one, they all wear this form. This is the opinion of some conti-
nental vetennary surgeons, and Mr. Percival first presented them to us in
an English dress. We believe the statement is correct to a very con-
siderable extent, but we leave our readers to form their own judgment

It would be folly indeed to expect accuracy at this advanced age of the
horse, when we are bound to confess, that the rules we have laid down for
determinmg this matter at an earlier period, although they are recognised
by horsemen generally, and referred to in courts of justice, will not guide
us in every case. Stabled horses have the mark sooner worn out than
inose that are at grass, and a crib-biter may deceive the best judge by one
or two years. The age of the horse, likewise, being uniformly calculated
from the 1st of May, it is sometimes exceedingly difficult, or almost im-
possible, about that time, to determine whether the animal be a late foal of
one year, or an early one of the next. At nine or ten, the bars of the
mouth become less prominent, and their regular diminution will designate
increasing age. At eleven or twelve, the lower nippers change their ori-
ginal upright direction, and project forward or horizontally ; and they
become yellow and covered with tjirtar. They are yellow, because the
teeth must grow to answer to the wear and tear of thein ; but die cname]

I.

THE HORSE

which covered their surface when they were first P^-^^I^J;;^^^^

paired, and that which wears this yellow colour .n o d •« ^he part

^hich, in youth, was in the socket, and therefoj. d-^^^^^^^^ f ena-l.

wPi. at first considerably the highest.

enin

eyes, and '^e J^^le ;^ tn^^^^^^ „f ^

.1' W-ncTof findgal,,, spaviae. and tumours of ever,

'''of the natural aire of the horse we should form a very erroneous rati

ages of thirty-five, thirtyseven and th,rty-n,ne. j^'-^^j^^y ^^'^^'^^twcJ
that received a ball in his neck, at the battle of Preston, m 1^^^' ^"J^^^"'^
was extraetfd at his death, in 1758 ; and Mr. Perc.val gives an account ai
a barge horse that died in his sixty-second year.

Tlfere cannot be a severer satire on the English nation "Jf^^^
the absurd practice of running our race-horses at ^,^,^,^1^1^ ^^^"^
and working others in various ways, long be^^re their ^/^^ ^^^^^^^
their strength come, and cruelly exacting from ^^^^^I^.^^^st^^^^^^^
powers, their age does not average a sixth Pa^t of thatot he Ij^^^^^^'^^j^^,
horse. The scientific author of the " Animal Kingdom /J^^^^^^^^^^'
" it mav be safely asserted, that more horses are consumed in England m
every ten years, tLn in any other country in the world, m ten times that

^^^^!; ISSSS li br too ;ongcon.de.d as o^^^^

pr.,fit and loss ; and it has been thought to be cheaper « b^jS f^J^^,^^,?^
Lrse early into work, and in a short time ^-'^^^I'l'^^^^^
than to maintain him for a long period, and a consitiera 1
almost useless. The matter requires much consideration, and we
much reformation too. (16.)

DISEASES OF THE TEETH.

Of the diseases of the teeth in the horse, we know little. Canous or hoi-

-HEt— ^^^^^

Su its' MaTb=i ulcers have been produced in the mouth, by the
'"^re^'ett'sometimes grow ures„larl, m lensth. is parttaMy

*r"'=r%rmoSurTh ',S"of X' tSrXojn, on.

portion of one of them. Shoots up ^^^^^^^^ ^

Sometimes it penetrates the bars aoove, , ^ith the grind

ration ; at other times t mterferes ^^f^^'^,^,^ the "c.use

i„g motion of the i^^'^^,^^^^^^ be used, and ihe projecting portion

be ng suspected. Here the saw snomi
reduced to a level with the other teeth The horse wlncli

THE TONGUE.

147

siil)jcct«l to tliis operation shonlfl aftcrwiirds he frco.iPnil. „^ i .
especially if he lose condition : and, indeed, cverrho; 1 af^e^^^^^^^^^^ ^"^
out of condition, without fever, or any other appLent cause
h.s teeth and mouth carefully examined, and e.^SyTf re^uids ?n T
chewm. and then dropping) his food, without Jy indic'aUo. of' ol' ttoS'
1 r !, . somewhat on one side, while he eats, in order to .i

the food between the outer edges of the teeth. A horse that has once S
very irregular teeth ,s materially lessened in value, for, although thev r^av be

r: o?zr TsT

THE TONQUE.

The tongue is the organ of taste, and employed in disposing the food for
grinding between the teeth, and afterwards collecting it together aml con
vcying It to the back part of the mouth, in order to be swallowed It is"
also the mam instrument in drinking, and the canal through wh ch
TZ ur"""%'V^' °^ The root of it is firmly fixed

k Ion! T °^ '"r"^' ^ «f 'ni^s'^les ; the fore part

..s loose m the mouth. It is covered by a continuation of the mem
brane which Imes the mouth, and which, doubling beneath and con
the"lf V fTJT the tongue, is called Its frJum or h ldTe. Oa
the back of the tongue, this membrane is thiekenid and roughened and iL
covered with numerous conical papilla, or little eminences,^on wh ch the

of t'te cJen^l "th''^'^' ^^P^"^' ^ ^^ich the sense

of taste depends. The various motions of the tongue are accomplished by
means of the ninth pair of nerves. The substance°of the tongui is com^
posed of muscular fibres, with a great deal of fatty matter interposed
between them, and which gives to this organ its peculiar softness

DISEASES OF THE TONOUE.

The tongut /s sometimes exposed to injury, from carelessness or violence
in the act of drenching, or administering a bail, being pressed against,
and cut by the edges of the grinders. A little diluted tincture of myrrh
or alum, dissolved in water, or even nature unassisted, will speedily heal
the wound. The horse will bite his tongue,— most frequently in his sleep.
It the injury be trifling, it requires little care ; but in some instances, a por-
tion of the tongue will be torn or nearly bitten oflP, and the assistance of a
veterinary practitioner will be needed.

Bladders will sometimes appear along the under side of the tongue,
which will increase to a considerable size, and the tongue itself will be
much enlarged, and the animal will be unable to swallow, and a great
quantity of ropy saliva will drivel from the mouth. This disease often
exists without the nature of it being suspected. It resembles what is
called the Main in the cow, which is a very serious complaint in that
animal, frequently connected with much fever, and terminating in .suffo-
cation. If the mouth of the horse be opened, one large bladder, or a suc-
cession of blarlders of a purple hue, will be seen to extend along the whole
of the under side of the tongue. If they be lanced freely and deep/'/, from
end to end, the swelling will very rapidly abate, and any little fever thai
remains may i)e subdued by cooling medicine. The cause of this dis-
ease is not clearly known. Jt iisualiy proceeds, perhaps, from indigestion
connected with a general tendency to inflammation. (ID.)

L 2

148 THK HORSK.

THE SALIVARY G1-AND9.

In on]ev that the food may be properly ground down to prepare it for
diirestion, it is necessary that it should bs previous y moistened. The food
oflhe stalled horse, however, is dry, and h>s meal .s ^^"erally con^^^^^^
without any iluid being offered to him. Nature has made a provision for
rh It ha's placed in the neighbourhood of the mouth vanoi. i ds
to secrete and that plentifully, a limpid fluid, somewhat salt to the
;Le £ fluid is con'veyed frL the S^-ds into the mo^^^^^ by v- o
ducts in the act of chewing, and being mixed with t ie f°;f ' ^^^^^^^^^
more easily ground, more easily passed afterwards into the stomach, and

""^^^^tse is the parotici gland Csee cut, p. 119). It is
plald iriheLlow which extends from the ^ot o^he ear to -^gle
of the lower iaw. A portion of it, g, is represented as turned up, to stiew
S^e lituadon of the blood-vessels undorneath. In almost every case of
'old, co^^^^^^^^^^ with sore throat, tl- P-tid gland is en arged a„^^^^
immediately evident to the feeling and even to the eye Jt is eomposecl
of a great number of small g^-"^^^"""^^"^ 1 H^iel tub^^^^^
proceeding from each, to c.rry off ^ ---^^he'T-

^^sHnrre^igtof^LterTw^^^^^^^ the submaxillary

pass unoer ^»e g ^^^^^ ^^gain at

"'"it rihe d of seen epSed from the other Vessels, climbing up
The cheeic and piercing it to discharge its contents into the n^outh, oppo-
sHe to the se ond grinder. The quantity of fluid thus poured into the

In bad strangles, and ^o'^^^^-^^V^JolTwrn arise in some part of the
to a great size and ulcerate, or an [ "^^^^^ I fistulous ulcer

duct, -and the accumulating fluid wil ^^^^^^^^^^ y^^^^^'^^ '^eon alone will be
will be formed, very difficult to heal. A ve e .nar^^^^^^

competent to the t—^^^ ^

nr^Tf h; ul er be in tSe duct, either to restore the passage through
the" ^ua ort fot a new one. or to cut off the flow of the saliva by the

'thetc^ndtirt"^^^^ saliva i. from the .u.^.x.ZZ.r, gands, - ^

under the ^aw^ On^ ^J^JZZ::^:^:^^:^ sid^^of t
maxillary glands «"."Py ^^^^P^J^^^ glands, each with its proper

lower jaw and cons t^^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^.^^ ^ d,ct or

duct, which unite "S^^^^^^ at the root of the tongue, and opens

vessel, that pierees through the muscie . ^j- ^j,^ ^^..^^e.

in little projections or heads XTro t teeth- When the horse has catarrh
about an inch and a half from thetro t teein ^^^^^^ ^^^^^

or co.d, these glands, like the par^^^^^^^^ ,„der the

place aaer strangles and several d stinct Ker j j^j^.d from those

jaw. We have aJready stated, that they may oe ui „

STRANGLKS.

US

swellmt^s which accompa^iy or indicate glanders, by their beina- laro-pr
generally not so distinct, more in the centre of the channel or st^f
between the jaws, and never adhering to the jaw-bones. The farriers
call themv)\Es, and often adopt cruel and absurd methods to disperse
tliem, as burning them with a lighted candle, or hot iron, or even cuttine:
tliem out. Tiiey will, in the majority of instances, gradually disperse as
the disease which produced them subsides ; or they will yield to slightly
stmiulating embrocations ; or, if they are obstinate in their continuance
they are of no further consequence, than as indicating that the horse has*
laboured under severe cold or strangles.

During catarrh or inflammation of the mouth, the little projections
marking the opening of these ducts on either side of the bridle of the tongue
are apt to enlarge, and the mouth under the tongue is a little red, and hot
and tender. The farriers call these swellings barbs or paps, and as soon
as they discover them, mistaking the effect of disease for the cause of it,
set to work to cut them close off. The bleeding which follows this opera-
tion somewhat abates the local inflammation, and affords temporary relief:
but the wounds will not speedily heal ; the saliva continues to flow from',
the orifice of the duct, and running into the irregidarities of the wound,
cause it to spread and deepen ; and even when it heals, the mouth of the
duct being frequently closed, and the saliva continuing to be secreted
by the submaxillary gland, it accumulates in the duct, until that vessel
bursts, and abscesses are formed, which eat deeply under the root of the
tongue, and long torment the poor animal, and when closed, after a great
deal of trouble, are very apt to break out again for months and years
afterwards.

All that is necessary with regard to these paps or barbs is to abate the
inflammation or cold which caused them to swell, and they will very soon
and perfectly subside. He who e\er talks of cutting them out is not fit to
be trusted with a horse.

A third source of saliva is from glands under the tongue (the sublingual
glands), which open by many little orifices under the tongue, resembling
Httle folds of the skin of the mouth, hanging from the lower surface of
the tongue, or found on the bottom of the mouth. These hkewise some-
times enlarge, during cold or inflammation of tlie mouth, and then they
are called gigs, and bladders, and Jlafs in the mouth. They have the
appearance of small pimples, and the farrier is anxious to cut them off,
or burn them down. The better way is to let them alone, for in a few
days they will generally disappear. Should any ulceration follow them, a
little tincture of myrrh, or a solution of alum, will readily heal them.

Beside these three principal sources of saliva, there are little glands to
be found thickly studded on every part of the mouth, cheeks, and lips,
which pour out a considerable quantity of fluid, to assist in moistening and
preparing the food.

Connected with these glands, and particularly witli the submaxillary and
parotid glands, and being either an inflammation of them, or ot the cellu-
lar substance around them, is

THE STRANGLES.

This is a disease principally incident to young horses— usually appearing
between the fourth and fifth year, and oftener in the spring than in anj
other part of the year. It is preceded by cough, and can at
hrst be scarcely distinguished from common cough, except that there is

15a THK llORSE.

more discharge from the nostril, of a yellowisli colour n.ixe.l wilh mailer
but ircnerally without smell ; and likewiso a considerable d.scl.arge o opj
Ihdd^from the mouth, and greater swelhng than "if;^^^^;",^:;'^
This swellin- increases with uncertain rapidity, accompanied by some tever,
di^nclmalion t eat, partly arising |Vom the fever, but -re f^m the pain
the animal feels in the act of chewing. There is '^^"f ^.^f f/^^^^^^^^^^
a o-ulD or two the horse ceases to drink, yet is evidently desiious ot more.

attenTp'tto swallow, and sometimes when not f-^'l^'/
couo-h comes on which almost threatens to suffocate the animal, and thence
Sablv re iSme of the disease. The tumour is about the centre of the
Eiel^nLrX jaw, it soon fills the whole of the ^P-, and -v.^^^^

one uniform bc^ly and ^t •rSit^'oHt""^

::^s:iSi:f:^^^ --ms a T^ns^idiy^^^^

although some degree of weakness may hang about lum foi a considerable

""Sf the cause of the disease we can say but little. Few horses, pos-
sibW none escape its attack ; but, thatattack having passed over, the annual
lie f^^rn it f r ti e remainder of his life. Catarrh may precede or may

V :r. ;t Thprp are stran^-e stories told with regard to this , but the expia

i,. .he f,.r,„aU„„ and Buppumf on °f , J ''.^^^^^^^

thickness of the horse's sk.n must l-^^yj ^^^^.^^ d^^^^^^^^ impossibility

^ prl^lous to a. opening

of ttie tCioHr, abate the internal inflammation and soreness of the throat,
and thus lesson the co^i|. and w.^^^^^^ ^ ^^^^^^

'"r.hruM be deeply at d freely lanced. It is a bad, although ire-
matter, -J^^^X^^^ burst naturally, by which a ragged
quent practice, to s""^' ^ ^ ^-^ treatment. If the incision
ulcer is formed, verj f J ,f .natter will be formed :
is deep and large enough ']^ ^^^^' ^^ff^^^d to run out slowly, all
and that which already formed may ^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^

WOUNDS IN THE JMOUTII.

fully be distinguished from the opprfission and choakiiig occasioned b/ (hP
pressure of the tumour, it will be proper to bleed. In the majoritv of
v:ases, however, bleeding will not only be unnecessary, but injurious It
will delay the suppuration of the tumour, and increase the subsequent
siebihty. A few cooling medicines, as nitre, emetic tartan, and perhaps
digitalis, may be given, as the case requires. The appetite, or rather the
ability to eat, will return with the opening of the abscess. Bran-mashes
or fresh cut grass or tares, should be liberally supplied, which will not only
afford sufficient nourishment to recruit the strength of the animal, but
keep the bowels gently open. If the weakness be not great, no further
medicine will be wanted, except a dose of mild physic, to prevent the
swellings or eruptions which sometimes succeed to strangles. In cases of
debility, a small quantity of tonic medicine, as camomile, and gentian with
ginger, in doses of a couple of drachms, may be administered.

As strangles seem to be a disease from which few horses escape, and which,
although attended with little danger, is sometimes tedious in its progress^
and accompanied by much debility, some foreign veterinary surgeons have'
endeavoured to produce a milder disorder by inoculating, either with the
matter from the tumour, or the discharge from the nose ; and it is said
that, a disease, with all the characters of strangles, but shorter and rnilder
in its course, has supervened. English practitioners have not, we believe,
tried the experiment (20.)

CANKER AND WOUND6 IN THE MOUTH.

I'he mouth is injured much oflener than the careless owner suspects, by
the pressure of a sharp bit. Not only are the bars wounded and deeply
ulcerated, but the lower jaw between the tush and the grinders is some-
times toiTi even to the bone, and the bone itself affected, and portions of
it come away. It may be necessary to have a sharp bit for the headstrong
and obstinate beast, yet if that be severely and unjustifiably called into
exercise, the animal may rear, and endanger himself and his rider ; but
there can be no occasion for a thousandth part of the torment which the
trappings of the mouth often inflict on a willing and docile servant, and
which either render the mouth hard, and destroy all the pleasure of riding,
or cause the horse to become fretful or vicious.

Small ulcers are sometimes found in various parts of the mouth, said to
be produced by rusty bits, but oflener arising from contusions inflicted by
the bit, or from inflammation of the mouth. If the curb-bit is in fault, a
snaffle or Pelham bit should be used ; if there be inflammation of the
mouth, a little cooling medicine may be administered; and to the ulcers
whemselves, tincture of myrrh, diluted with an equal quantity of water, or
an ounce of alum dissolved in twenty times the weigiil of water, may be
applied with advantage.

THE PHARVNX.

Proceeding to the back of the mouth, we find the phkkvi^x (carryhig Oi
conveying the food towards the stomach.) It begins at the root ot the
tongue, (see 7, 8, and 9, p. 68 ;) is separated from the mouth by the soft
palate (7) which hangs down from the palatine bone at 8, and extends to
ihe epiglottis or covering to the windpipe. When the food has been suff.
Hently ground by the teeth, and mixed with the saliva, it is gathered
together by the tongue, and then by the action of the cheeks and tongue and

lo2

THE llORSK.

Lack part of the moutli, forced against the soft pahile, which giving, way, and
being raised upwards towards the entrance into the nose, prevents tlie food
from going that way. It passes to the pharynx, and the soft palate falhng
down again, prevents its return to the mouth, and prevents, likewise, ex-
cept in extreme cases, the act of vomiting in the horse. Whatever is re-
turned from the stomach of the horse, passes through the nose, as the cut
will make evident. .

The sides of the pharynx are lined with muscles which now begin power-
fully to contract, and by that contraction the bolus is forced in untd it
reaches the gullet (10), which is the termination of the pharynx. Before,
however, the food reaches the gullet, it has to pass over the entrance into
the windpipe (3), and should any portion of it enter into that tube, much
nconvcnience and danger might result ; therefore, this opening is not only
ined by muscles by which it may be closed at the pleasure of the anunal,
but it is likewise covered by a heart-like elastic cartilage, the epiglottis (2),
with its back towards the pharynx, and its hollow towards the aperture.
The epia-lottis yields to the pressure of the bolus passing over it, and lies
flat on the entrance into the windpipe, and prevents the possibility of any
thing entering into it ; and no sooner has the food passed over it than it
rises again by its own elasticity, and leaves the upper part of the wind-
pipe once more open for the purpose of breathing. The voice of animals
is produced by the passage of air through this aperture, communicating
certain vibrations to folds of the membrane covering the part, and thest
vibrations are afterwards modified in their passage through the cavities ot
the nose. To understand the diseases of these parts, we must considei
the anatomy of the neck generally

Chapteh IX.

THE ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NECK AND NEIGHBOURING

PARTS.

The neck of the horse and of every animal belonging to the class mam-
malia, except one species, is composed of seven bones called vertebra;
moveable or turning upon each other (see cut, p. 63). They are connected
together by strong ligaments, and form so many distinct joints in order to
mve sufficiently extensive motion to this important part of the body. 1 he
bone nearest to the scull is called the atlas, (see cut, p. 63, and g, p. 68,)
because in the human being, it supports the head. In the horse, the head
is suspended from it. It is a mere ring-shaped bone, with broad projec-
tions sideway ; but without the sharp and irregular processes which are
found on all the others. The pack-wax, or ligament, by which the head
is principally supported (/ p. 68), and which is strongly connected with all
the other bones, passes over this without touching it, by which means he
head is much more easily and extensively moved. 1 he junction of the
atlas with the head is the seat of a very serious and troublesome ulcer,
termed

POLL-EVII..

From the horse rubbing and sometimes striking his poll against the
lower ed.re of the manger, or hanging back in the stall, and bruising the

THE POLL KVIL.

153

part with the halter; or from the frequent and painful stretchino- of H,p
l.gaments and muscles by unnecessary tight reining, and ncc^sionallv
we fear, from a violent blow on the poll, carelessly or wantonly inflicted
inflammation comes on, and a swelling appears, hot, tender, and painful'
We have just stated, that the ligament of the neck passes over the atlas or
first bone, without being attached to it, and the seat of inflammation is 'be
tween the ligament, and the bone beneath ; and being thus deeply situated
It is serious in its nature and difficult of treatment.

The first thing to be attempted is to abate the inflammation by bleedin«-
physic, and the application of cold lotions to (he part. By these means
the tumour will sometimes be dispersed. This system, however, must not
be pursued too far. If the swelling increases, and the heat and tender-
ness likewise increase, matter will form in the tumour ; andthen our object
sill, be to hasten its formation by warm fomentations, poultices, or
wirnulatmg embrocations. As soon as matter is formed, which may
be known by the softness of the tumour, and before it has time to spread
around and eat into the neighbouring parts, it should be evacuated • and
now comes the whole art of treating poll-evil ; the opening into the tumour
muM be so contrived that all the matter shall run oiit, and continue after
wards to run out as it is formed, and not collect at the bottom of the ulcer
irntating and corroding it. This can be effected by a seton alone The
needle should enter at the top of the tumour, penetrate through its bottom
and be brought out at the side of the neck, a little below the abscess. Without
any thing more than this, except frequent fomentation with warm water, to
keep the part clean, and to obviate inflammation, poll-evil, in its early stage
will frequently be cured. If the ulcer has deepened and spread, and threatens
to eat into the ligaments of the joints of the neck, it may be necessary to
stimulate its surface, and perhaps painfully so, in order to bring it to a
healthy state, and dispose it to fill up ; and, in extreme cases, even the scald-
ing mixture of the farrier may be called into requisition. This, however,
will be ineffectual, except the pus or matter is enabled, by the use of setonsi
perfectly to run out of the wound ; and the application of these setons will
require the skill and anatomical knowledge of the veterinary surgeon. In
very desperate cases, the wound may not be fairly exposed to the action of
our caustic applications, without (he division of the ligament of the neck,
by which we have described the head as being almost entirely supported.
This, however, may be done with perfect safety, for although the ligament
is carried on to the occipital bone, and some strength is gained by this
prolongation of it, the main stress is on the second bone ; and the head
will continue to be supported, although the ligament should be divided
between the second bone and the head. The divided ligament will soon
unite again, and its former usefulness will be restored when the wound is
healed.

The second bone of the neck is the dentata, having a process like a
(ooth, by wliich it forms a joint with the first bone. In the formation of
that joint, a portion of the spinal marrow, which runs through a canal hi
the centre of all these bones, is exposed, or covered only by ligament; and
by the division of the marrow at this spot, an animal is instantly and hu-
manely destroyed. The operation is called pithing, from the name (the pith)
g'ven by butchers to the spinal morrow.

The other neck, or rack bones, as they are denominated by the farrier,
B, p. 63, are of a strangely irregular shape, yet bearing considerable resem-
blance to each other. They consist of a central bone, perforated for the [las-
sage of the spinal marrow, with a ridge on (he top, for the attachment cf the

154

THE HORSE.

ligament of the neck, and four irregular plates or processes from the sides,
fcir the attach n»ent of muscles ; at the base of one of which, on either side,
are holes for the passage of large arteries and veins. At the upper end of
each, is a round head or ball, and at the lower end, a cavity oi cup, and
the head of the one being received into the cup of the other, they are
united together, forming so many joints. Tliey are likewise joined toge-
ther by ligaments from these processes, as well as the proper ligaments of
the joints" and so securely, that no dislocation can take place between any
of them, ' except the first and second, the consequence of which would be
the immediate death of the animal.

The last, or seventh bone, has the elevation on the back or top of it con-
tinued into a long and sharp prolongation (a spinous process) ; and is the
beginning of that ridge of bones denominated the withers (see cut, p. 63) ;
and as it Is the base of the column of neck-bones, and there must be great
pressure on it from the weight of the head and neck, it is curiously con-
trived to rest upon and unite with the two first ribs, which also we shall
presently describe as being very peculiarly and strongly constructed. (21.)

THE MUSCLES AND PROPER FORM OF THE NECK.

The bones which we have just mentioned serve as the frame-work to which
are attached numerous muscles concerned in all the motions of the head
and neck. The power of the ligament of the neck is precisely adapted to
the wein-lit of the head and neck. They are supported by it, without mus-
cular aid, and without fatigue to the animal ; but to raise the head higher,
or to lower it, or to turn it in everj- direction, a complicated system of
muscles was necessary. Those, whose office it is to raise the head, are most
numerous and powerful, and are placed on the upper and side part of the
neck. Ourcut, p. 119, gives a few of them.

c marks a tendon common to two of the most important ot tliem, tiie
svlenius or splint-like muscle, and the complexus major, or larger compli-
cated muscle The splenius constitutes the principal bulk of the neck
above, arising from the ligament of the neck all the way down it, and
' ^ going to the processes of all the

bones of the neck, but the first,
and flat tendons running from
the upper part of it, to the first
bone of the neck, and to a pro-
cess of the temporal bone of the
head. Its action is sufficiently
evident, namely, very powerfully
to elevate the head and neck.
The principal beauty of the neck
depends on this muscle. It was
admirably developed in the
horse of whose neck the an-
nexed cut gives an accurate de-
lineation.

If the curve were quite regu-
lar from the poll to the withers,
we should call it a perfect neck.
It is rather a long neck, and
we do not like it ihe less fol

TIIK FORM OF THE JMECK.

155

(hut. ill the carriage horse, a neck that is not half concealed by the collar
is indispensable, so far as appearance goes ; and it is only the horse witb
a neck of tolerable letigth, that will bear to be reined up, so as to givt
this part that arched and beautiful appearance which fashion demands
It is no detriment to the riding horse, and there are few horses of extraor-
dinary speed, which have not the neck rather long. The race horse at the
top of his speed not ordy extends it as far as he can, that the air-passages
may be as straight as he can make them, and that he may therefore be able
to breathe more freely, but the weight of the head and neck, and the effect
increasing with their distance from the tnmk, add materially to the rapidity
of the animal's motion, by throwing his weight considerably forward. It
has been said, that a horse with a long neck will bear heavy on the hand.
We do not believe that either the length of the neck, or even the bulk of
the head, has any influence in causing this. They are both counterbalanced
by the power of the ligament of the neck. The setting on of the head is
most of all connected with heavy bearing on the hand, and a short-necked
horse will bear heavily, because, from the thickness of the lower part of the
neck, consequent on its shortness, the head cannot be rightly placed. The
head and neck, however, should be proportioned to each other. A short
head on a long neck, or a long head on a short neck, would equally offend
the eye.

Connected with this splenius muscle, and partly produced by it, we would
direct the attention of the reader to the thickness and muscularity of the neck
in this cut, as it springs from the shoulders ; the height at which it comes
out from them, forming nearly a line with the withers ; and the manner m
which it tapers as it approaches the head, and this muscle diminishing in
size. The neck of a well formed horse, however fine at the top, should be
muscular at the bottom, or the horse to which it belongs will generally be
weak and worthless. Necks devoid of this muscularity are called loose
necks by horsemen, and are always considered a very serious objection to
the animal. If the neck be thin and lean at the upper part, and be other-
wise well-shaped, the horse will usually carry himself well, and the head
will be properly curved for beauty of appearance, and ease of riding.
When an instance to the contrary occurs, it is to be traced to very im-
proper management, or to the space between the jaws being unnaturally
small.

The splenius muscle, although a main agent in raising the heed and
neck, may be too large, or covered with too much cellular substance or fat,
and give an appearance of heaviness or even clumsiness to the neck.
This peculiarity of form constitutes the distinction between the perfect
horse and the mare, and also the gelding, unless castrated at a very late
period. Horses with thick, heavy crests are usually slow and sluggish.

This tendon, c, belongs also to another muscle, which make suj) the prin
cipalbulk of the lower part of the neck, and is called the complexus major
or larger comijlicated muscle. It arises partly as low as the transverse pro-
cesses of the tour or five first bones of the back, and from the five lower
bones of the neck ; and the fibres from these various sources uniting
together, form a <'ery large and powerful muscle, the largest and strongest
in the neck. As it approaches the head, it lessens in bulk, and terminates
partly with the splenius in this tendon, but is principally inserted into the
back part of the occipital bone, by the side of the ligament of the neck.
In our cut, p. 154, almost its whole course can be distinctly traced. Its
office is to raise the neck and elevate the head ; and being inserted
into svich a part of the occii)ut, it will more particularly protrude the nose,

TIIK HORSE.

while it raises tfie head. Its action, however, may be (oo powerful ; it
may be habitually so, and then it may produce deformity. The back of
the head being thus pulled back, and the muzzle protruded, the horse
caimot by possibility carry his head well ; he will become what is techni-
cally called a star-gazer heavy in hand, boring upon the bit, and unsafe.
To remedy this, recourse is had, and in the majority of cases without avail,
to the martingale, against which the horse is continually fighting, and
which is oflen a complete annoyance to the rider. Such a horse is almost
useless for harness.

Inseparable from this is another sad defect, so far as the beauty ot the
horse is concerned ;— he becomes ewe-necked ,— he has a neck like a ewe--
not arched above, and straight below, until near to the head, but hollowed
above and projecting below ; and the neck rising low out of the chest, even
lower sometimes than the points of the shoulders. There can scarcely be
anything more unsightly in a horse. The head of such a liorse can never be
got down ; and the bearing rein of harness must be to him a source of
constant torture*

Among the muscles employed in raising the head, are the cmnplcxus
minores, smaller complicated, and the recti, straight, and the obhque
muscles of the upper part of the neck, and belonging principally to the two
first bones of the neck, and portions of which may he seen under the tendon
of the splenins c, and between it and the ligament a. r x,- u

Among the muscles employed in lowering the head, some of which are
given in the same cut, is the sterno-maxillaris, d, belonging to the breast-
bone, and the upper jaw. It can likewise be traced, although not quite
distinctly, in the cut, pace 1.54. It hes immediately under the skm. It
arises from the cartilage projecting from, or constituting the front ot the
breast-bone, (H, p. 63), and proceeds up the neck, of no great bulk or
strength : for when the weight of the head is so nicely balanced by the
power of thehgament, a little addition to that weight will pull it down ;
whereas, the muscles that raise the head must necessarily ha^ very great
stren"-th, for they will have all its weight to support. About three
fourths of its length upward, it changes to a flat tendon, which is seen
(d n 119) to insinuate itself between the parotid and submaxillary glands,
in order to be inserted into the angle of the lower jaw. It is used m
bending the head towards the chest. • ; v

Another muscle, the termination of which is seen, is the levator hximen
raiser of the shoulder, b. This is a much larger muscle than the last
because it has more duty to perform. It rises from the back of the head
and four first bones of the neck and the ligament of the neck, and is
carried down to the shoulder, mixing itself partly with some of the muscles
of the shoulder, and finally continued down to and terminatmg on the
humerus (J, p. 63). Its office is double : if we suppose the horse m action,
and the head and neck fixed points, the contraction of this muscle wiU
,lraw forward the shoulder and arm : if the horse be standing, and
the shoulder and arm be fixed points, this muscle will depress the head

"""Littlfmore of a practical nature could be said of the musc^s of the
neck altZgh they would be proper and interesting studies for the ana-

r nn^ thprefore we will only observe that they are all in pairs. One

torn St; and there ore we will oy ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^.^^

out supposing hat one ^^"f J,^^ ^''^^^''t,,^,, turned towards that side,
would lie raised, but it would at the &anie tunc ul iumt«.i

BIX)0D.VESSELS OF THE NECK.

157

Jf one only of the depressor muscles were to act, the head would be bent
down, but it would likewise be turned towards that side. Then it will be
easily seen that by this simple method of having the muscles in pairs, pro-
vision is made for every kind of motion, upwards, downwards or on either
side, for which the animal can possibly have occasion.

This is the proper place to speak of the ma?ie, that long hair which
covers the crest of the neck, and adds so much to the beauty of the ani-
mal. It sometimes grows to a considerable length. There is a horse
m the king's stables, the hair of whose mane is more than a yard in
length ; and it is said that a horse was once exhibited with a mane three
or four yards long. The mane is apt to become entangled, if it be not
regularly combed. The teeth of the comb should be large, and sufficiently
far apart. There never can be occasion to pull the mane, as grooms are
too much accustomed to do, tugging it out in little parcels. It will then
never lie smooth. A strong comb, with only two or three teeth in it, will
keep it sufficiently thin and smooth.

THE BLOOD-VESSELS OP THE NECK.

.Running down the inner part of the neck are the principal blood-vessel^
going to and returning from the head, with the windpipe and gullet.
Our cut could not give a view of the arteries which carry the blood from
the heart to the head, because they are too deeply seated. The external
arteries are the carotid, of which there are two. They ascend the neck on
either side, close to the windpipe; until they have reached the middle of
the neck, where they somewhat diverge, and lie more deeply ; they are
covered by the sterno-maxillaris muscle, which we have just described ;
and are separated from the jugulars by a small portion of muscular sub-
stance. Having reached the larynx, they divide into two branches, the
external and the internal ; the first goes to every part of the face, and the
second, to the brain.

The vertebral arteries run through canals in the bones of the neck, sup-
plying the neighbouring parts as they climb, and at length enter the scull
at the large hole in the occipital bone, and ramify on and supply the brain.

We can conceive few cases in which it would be either necessary or
justifiable to bleed from an artery. Even in mad-staggers the bleeding is
more practicable, safer, and more effectual, from the jugular vein than from
the temporal or any other artery. If an artery be opened in the direction
in which it runs, there is sometimes very great difficulty in stopping the
bleeding ; it has even been necessary to tie the vessel in order to accomplish
this purpose. If the artery be cut across, its coats are so elastic that the
two ends are immediately drawn apart under the flesh on each side, and
are thereby closed ; and after the first gush of blood no more can be ob-
tained.

THE VEINS OF THE NECK.

The external veins which return the blood from the head to the
heart are the jugulars. The horse has but one on either side. The
human being and the ox have two. It is the principal vessel by which the
blood is conveyed from the head. The jugular is said to take its rise from
the base of the scull ; it then descends, receiving other branches in its
way towards the angle of the jaw, and behind the parotid gland; and
emerging from that, as .seen at t p. 120, and being united to a large

/ '-.8 THK liORSK.

branch fVom the face, it takes its course down tlie neck. Veterinary
snrgeons and horsemen have aojree.l to adopt tlie jugular, a htUe way
below the union of these two branches, as the place for b!eedmg_; and a
very convenient one it is; for it is easily got at. and the vessel is large.
Of the manner of bleeding, and the states ot oonstuut.on and d'sease in
which it is proper, we shall speak hereafter, confining ourselves at present
to an occasional consequence of bleeding, namely,

INFLAMMATION OF THE VEIN.

It is usual and proper, after bleeding, to bring the edges «f ^he cj.t ca^^^^^
together, and to hold them in contact by uisertmg a pm through the skm
wiUi a little tow twisted round it. In ninety-nme cases out of a hundred
the wound quickly heals, and gives no trouble; but m ^ '"^^'^^^^^^^
from usi..- a blunt instrument, or a dirty or rusty one; or stnk ng too hard
and bruishig the vein with the thick part of the fleam; or pidling the k n
too far from the neck, and suffering some blood to ^^^i^^f ,. J^^^^,';
the cellular texture; or neglecting to tie the ho'«e "P ^ ^ « ™^
and thereby enabhng him to rub the bleedmg place agams he m^^g^^^
and tear out the pin ;; or from the ammal being ^^/^^^^
afterward, and the collar pressing the blood agamst the onfice or the
reins or the bridle rubbing against it; or havmg several blows c msi y
gllen and a large and ragged wound made; or from some d'sposi on to
fnflammaUon about the ho^s^e, for the bleeder is not always /-l^'jhe
wound does not heal. The edges of it separate, and are ^^^^ ^U^^^^
a discharce of thin bloody fluid proceeds from the cut, followed perhaps
Tn a few days by matter; the neck swells, and is hot and tender; the vein
narticuLly abole the wound, is hard and cordy ; the wordiness of the
S increases more and more upward ; and httle abscesses begin to foroi
Ibou re ordinal wound. This is sometimes a very senous case, fo
£ infliction coiUinues to spread ly wards, and de^^^^^^^^^^

easy to i.nagine why it spreads upward, ^^^^^.^"f ^^^^^^^^^^^^'J^becom
the wound, and nothing remains \here to irritate ; but the v^m becom m

d:fa,i;T„cr:l;:e:Sthrl"lL:and i„fl.™n,^io„ produced by U,a.

spreads \" '''^ ^^^^^^^^ /om the heart. In the vein, of

i;I a dreg1t wi;Kkewi;e»preaf op-lard, and then towards the hear,,
heeanse *e eoagn.ation tahe. p.aee 1^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

Theapp . cation of the ^^^^^ ,^,^l|.„„
stimulate, and ca^^^^^^^^^^ i' « for the veterinary snrgeon to

iSUftt «ih"^^ "'i^' » '""■«'•

or dissect out U,e ^jj-'-^^^^X not be irreparably injnred ;

Should the vera lie tle*troyed, tnc ^

and perhaps, at no great '^■^^VT^S ^d^^^ of the bl.K,d.

is in^nious in makutg P'""'XiUm the heart to the different parts o(
All the vessels conveyntg the blooc from tne nra
,he frame, or bringiug .t back aga.n to the Mart. CO

THE WIND-PIPE.

159

other by so many channels, and in such various ways, that it is imnossihl.
by the closure or loss of any one of them materially to impede the flow „f
the vital current. If the jugular be destroyed, the blood will civZ-Z
thioug-h other vessels almost as freely as before. (23.)

THE WINDPIPE.

In tne fore part of the throat (6, p. 68) is placed a curiously constructed
tube, extending- from the back part of the mouth to the lungs, and designed
for the conveyance of air to and from these organs. The windpipe of
the horse is composed of nearly sixty rings of cartilage, connected together
bj strong and elastic ligaments. The rings are broad in front, narrowing
beniud, and there overlapping each other, so as to be capable of consider-
ab.tf extension and contraction ; and across the posterior part run strong
mcacular fibres, which give to that portion of the tube a power of action,
depending not indeed on the will, but on sympathy with other parts
concerned in breathing.

This singular and beautiful mechanism deserves serious attention. It is
necessary for the comfort, and even the existence of the animal, that this
•air-t<ibe should be free from compression, and always open ; and it is
attached to the neck, long, and capable of the most varied motion. Would
any tube composed of an uniform substance, however elastic, maintain its
form and size amidst all these complicated motions? When the horse is
browsing, the windpipe is an inch or more longer than when the neck is
arched ; there is, therefore, the ligamentous substance between the circular
rings, which will lengthen the tube when required, and immediately con-
tract to its former dimensions when the force that caused the elongation is
removed. When the head is bent, and the neck is arched, and in various
positions of the neck, a portion of the windpipe is violently pressed upon ;
therefore there are the cartilaginous rings — cartilaginous that they may
yield to pressure, and immediately recover their form when the pressure is
removed ; and lapping over each other, that the difference of calibre or size
in the tube may be as great as the necessities of the animal may occa-
sionally require, and muscular at the back, that all these powers of elasti-
city may be exerted to the fullest extent. The cartilaginous rings, again,
are broad and strong in front where danger may threaten, and softer and
more yielding behind, where the bones of the neck afford secure protection.

The windpipe is lined by a membrane, likewise curiously contrived. It
is smooth and plain in front under the broad cartilaginous rings, and where
little change of dimension can t-ake place ; but behind, it is puckered into
several folds, running down the windpipe, and not across it, and adapting
itself easily to any change in the size of the tube.

Then it is easy to imagine that the windpipe of a good horse should be
large to admit the passage of a greater quantity of air; and in horses from
which speed is required, as in the blood-horse, the windpipe is compara-
tively larger than in other breeds devoted to slower work.

The windpipe should project from the neck. It should be as it were
detached from the neck, for two important reasons ; first, that it may easily
enter between the rhannels of the jaw, so that the horse may be reined up
without suffering inconvenience ; and, next, that being more loosely attached
to the neck it may more readily adapt itself to the changes required, than
if it were enveloped by fat or muscle, to a certain degree unyielding : there-
fore, in every well-formed neck, and it will be seen in the cut, (p. I.'j4,)
it h indispe.isable that the windpipe should be prominent and loose on the

,gy THE IIORSK.

neck. Wc <lo not rcqtiire tliis in the heavy cart-horse, a.ul we do not ofu>n

fi^a it, because he is It so much exposed ^ Z':T^t^^^
hurry respiration, and require an enlargement .n Uie uize of the pnncpu.

air-tube

THE LARYNX,

At the to,) of the windpipe is placed the larynx, which has been partially
At the top o» J from the sudden bending or motion of the

Sit liable\o'mort freque;. and to greater injury th-

Tlu e „ ;t ;c Pnmnnsed of stronger cartilages than that tube, r irsi

cricoid, ring-like cartilage (U' P- TJi.s oid

stren"-th in a part so exposed to injury, but not so stru ^ pnio-lottis
because so mJch danger cannot threaten ^-m behind^ Of the ep glott .
or covering of the entrance into the wmdp.pe (2, P-.^S,) and ot tne y
noid! or funnel-shaped cartilages forming that opening (3, p. 68). we have
already spoken.

ROARING.

The larynx and upper part ot the windl^pe are s^^^^^^^ rfe:;di~
The tirst we shall mention f f^, '/^^^^^^ up hill,

uttered by the horse when briskly '""^^f ,^ J'^Krce v but when the
In moderate exercise it ^^^^'^^'^'ll^ ^'^^^^^^

animal is in brisk exercise it may be heard at the di threatening
It may be -sily detected by slr^^ th hors^^^^^ y.

him with a stick, when he ^J' f ^J^"'^-",^ inflammation of the part.

It usually is explained as the '^""^^J'^^"^' " .^bstance, is thrown out,
A fluid, rapidly changing into -'Ztr^lvJ^^^^^^ windpipe, m^.-
and adheres to the sides of larynx and pp ^^^^^^ ^^^^^^

verially obstructing the P=^«-f V^^"^^^ r^^'^eh hurried, the air vhistles
When the horse is blown, his br«^^^^^ ^o be the most general cause
through these obstructions, bd^ v tlnsjo^^^^ .g

"Lterr%SlU7-t onfy be ocLslonally. but ordinardy required

"'S^ch lighthowever, has lately been —^^^^^ ^^^Ve'"^

plaint. Z^TZ: ^^^^^^^^ of the larynx

hesebandshasbeenfound but some 1^^^^^ 1

and upper part ^^e w.ndp pe^^^^^^^^^^^ Then we

pressed; "-"^ "^^^^ f/.^^^^^^^^^ olheV causes of roaring, and some

have been compelled to l«o^ "^^^ j-^^^j rp^e parts may have been
very probable ^ave bf n j^^^^^^^ air-tube may have become

«nbject to inflammation, and some pa .^^^^^^.^^-^^^ „f strangles may

thickened and / ; larynx or windpipe, followed by some

have been commumcated to tne y ^^^^^^^^ ^ousequence ot strangles,
alteration of structure. 1^°^""? Viously unsuspected, is tight reining,
A more frequent cause, prev ^ . .^^^^^ become roarers.

UOARINQ.

at once presents Itself in the continued and painml pressure on these mrt<,
caused by reining in the carriage-horse, and teachin£r him to bear himS;
well We have seen the larynx, and that portion oV the windpipe imme
diately beneath it, flattened, and bent, and twisted in the strangest wav"
which could not have been produced by disease, but by mechanical in
jury alone. The mischief is usually done with young horses. The arched
neck and elevated head of the carriage-horse is an unnatural position
trom which the animal, most habituated to it, is eager to be relieved'
Horse-breakers, and coachmen, and carters, should be made to understand
that when the horse's head is first confined by the bearing rein, great gen-
tleness, and care, and caution, are necessary. Injury must be done if the
throat be violently pressed upon, and especially when it is exposed to addi-
tional danger, from the impatience of the animal, unused to controuJ, and suf-
fering pain. The head of the riding-horse is gradually brought to its proper
place by the hands of the teacher, who skilfully increases, or relaxes the pres-
sure, and humours and plays with the mouth; but the poor carriage-horse is
confined by a rein that never slackens, and his nose is bent in at the expense
of the larynx and windpipe, and the injury is materially increased, if the head
be not naturally well set on, or if the neck be thick, or the jaws narrow
■ The shape of the larynx and wind-pipe will occasionally be altered if
they be thus squeezed between the jaws, and the bones of the neck • or the
muscles which expand the opening into the windpipe for the purpose of
natural breathing, and especially of quick and hurried breathing, will be so
compressed, that they will be incapable of full action, and by degrees will
lose the power of action, even when not pressed upon, and, in fact, become
palsied ; and therefore, the opening not being sufficiently enlarged durin<r
the rapid breathing of the animal, moving with speed, the air will rush
vio ently through the diminished aperture, and the sound termed roarins
wil be produced. °
It is a common opinion that crib-biting frequently terminates in roaring
There is nothing in crib-biting that can possibly lead to roarin<r- but
there is a method adopted to cure crib-biting, than which nothing can be
more likely to produce it : we mean the straps which are so tightly buckled
round the upper part of the neck, and which must compress, and some-
times distort or paralyse the larynx.

The habit of coughing a horse, to ascertain the state of his wind is an
occasional cause of roaring. The larynx or trachea is violently and pain-
hilly squeezed m this operation ; and the violence being often repeated, in-
flammation and injury may ensue.

_ The treatment of roaring is very unsatisfactory. If we have been correct
m our account of the nature and cause of the disease, a cure seems to be
perfectly out of the question. If it arise from a distorted larynx, there is
no mechanical contrivance that can restore the natural and perfect struc-
ture ; if from a band or ring of lymph diminishing the size of the passage,
we know not by what means that can be removed ; or if the muscles of the
larynx be palsied, we know not the stimulus that can rouse them again to
action, or the manner in which that stimulus is to be applied.

In the early stage of the disease, whether it proceed from violent pressure
on the part by improper curbing, oi be connected with, or consequent on
catarrh or strangles, or the enlargement of some neighbouring part, inflam-
mation will be present, and we shall be justified in having recourse to those
measures which will abate inflammation. Bleeding will not be improper
if roaring is the consequence of previous disease; it will be indispensable,
if it be connected with present disease of the ohcst. The degree to which
the bleeding should be carried will dcpewd on the degree of genenil or local

M

TIIE HORSE.

inflammalion. To bleeding should succeed purgmg. aud to JW'; ™''!'''°"
thai will lessen the force of the circutel on,-a, n.lre, ''"f«-;-^'"; J^^
digitalis. These should be followed by bhsters, to 'emove the '"fla"'""'' ™;
if possible, from an intcrual aud imporlant part o the skm I I e^^^^^^^^^^^
■uly at first be coofinedto the upper part of f = ' 4 'ui T„ Sreme

the^e.theyshotjde—

l;SerrcS 'lntr"ld.pipe andeith^

h?:rtt°:g^riis\:irsre:;Tarf;o%s.^

^=o„gh£ .do, »ho ..^

SorfurT'sote ' rctUi'o„ers)ave talked -tiug iuto t^c -
pipe,toex.racttl.ba„doj^r^o^^^^^^^^^^^

TtS r;„r^ W! t^r {2re f^'-n- itheir folly deserves
fort:tt\Vfrrrrerl"=

-irls-a-'SS Jh^rrr^STe^rltteotiou. or
entered into the calculation, of the agriculturist.

THE (KSOPHAGUS, OR GULLET.

down the neck close to the "■"■'XPtrii "f !he ne* to seTwl»^^^^^ it
gi,e a ball to a horse we *=Jte'^ ,f ^rbtwe^^ the first two

snhtTiier pittaio^ig the ^p- ^ ,tvr;oS"of''.hr i^:

diaph,^.,n, or f ^riff, cu.e« ~ „„
— the outer one ot slight loose ceuuia nntermost layer having

eular, and divided into ^wo distinct lay r the outerm^^^^^^^^^ .^^

the fibres le"?,^^--^ ' ^e ^ eP^^ "^^^ ''"^ °'

shortening, widened for the '^^cepuori

inner layer runn ng -ul-ly^und the tube^^^ ^^^^^ I,^ ,,,, ,,,,,
•^"'5'^ ^nrbv «ssi^^^^^^^^^ dr've it into the stomach. The inner

"'"pk"' 'Th^s in a few lasesbeen striclured. or contracted in some par ,

go that the ood ,^^ture be near the entrance into the stomach,

great difficulty. If the s^nct ^

there IS no "-^"^^^y' J'^.^an determine how fur relief is practicable. Sub-
veterinary surgeon ca" , gran and chatf swallowed
stances have sometimes stucj^ ^ ^he ^^^ ^^^^.^^ some part of the
greedily, or too large or /mi d symptoms. The tube used for the hove
gullet, aud caused ^"y^^Sfee S foreign substance ; but should this

Rlone is competent to perform

THE CHEST.

Chapter X.

THE CHEST AND ITS CONTENTS- THE HEART AND THE LUNGS.

Cut of thf Chest.

■ The first rib.

h The cartilages of the eleven hindermost, or /«Ae ribs, connected together, and unitinR

with that of the seventh or last Irue rib.
e The breast-bone.

d The top or point of the withers, which are formed by the le.igthe.ied spinous, or upright
processes of the ten or eleven first bones of the back. The bones of the back are
eighteen in number.

e The ribs, usuaUy eighteen on each side j tlie seven first united to the breast-bone by car

tilage ; the cartilages of the remaining eleven united to each other, as at b.
* That portion of the spine where the loins commence, and composed of five bones
7 The bones forming the hip or haunch, and into the hole at the bottom of which the

head of the thigh-bone is received.
A Tlie portion of the spine belonging to the haunch, and consisting of five pieces.
The bones of the tail, usually thirteen iu number.

The form of the chest is of the greatest importance. It contains the
heart and the lung-s ;— the one employed in circulating- the blood, and the
other m restormg- to it the power of supporting life ; and on the size and
the soundness of these organs, the health and the strength of the ani-
mal pnncipally depend. The speed and wind of the horse are most
mtimately connected with the size of the lungs. In proportion to the
quantity of air which they contain, and the less frequent necessity of
renewing that air by the act of breathing, will the animal be at his
ease, or distressed, when violent exertion is demanded of him. There-
fore, one of the first things which the judge of the horse examines,
•s the capacity of the chest; and if he finds considerable depth in the
girth, and roundness behind the point of the elbow;— the horse carrying
what is called a good barrel ;— he is satisfied as to the capacity of
the chest. The /orm of the chest has as much to do with the value of the
horse as its capacity. An ox may have a chest rounded before as well as
behind, and then there will be room enough for the heart to circulate, and
the lungs to purify sufficient blood to clothe him with all the muscle and
fat he was intended to yield: we require from him no speed, and, therefore,
his legs will not fail him, should too much weight be thrown on them,
noi will he be disposed to stumble and fall. One principal quality of the
horse, however, is his speed ; and if undue weight be thrown before, his
legs and feet will be battered, and injured, and worn out by the unavoidable
concussion to which they will be exposed in the trot or the gallop ; and

M 2

THE HORSE.
HUewise the centre or buUc of his w^^^^^

the natural situat.on of his feet ^^'ril auCh we want capacity ot
fore, for the hght carnage and , e s^ldle ajt^o^ ^^^^^^^^^ ^.P^ ^J^^^

chest, we want ,t not too much bet«^; ^^^-^^ ^j,, ^^^^^^ be the

atthe |>rai and aswelhng ou^^^ ^ th arrow chests may have plenty of

theyhavenottheappetUeortheen. -

r^c\of those^vho^^^^^^^^^^^ T^or;ref of draught is e.ual to the
The heavy cart f "''"V^c" llur requires the broad chest, not only

city to the cav>ty within t but ,f ^^ch. the chest is

muscles on and between ttie . . . t^i^jj. . and the action

alternately expanded and contracted '"jhejt ot ^eathm^^^
of v^hich is so necessary when breathing i ^^^f^'e increased expan-
Again, depth of chest will adnivt of a gj^^^d^l ^^^^^^ ^hat which is

sion,%han will a chest IVV^^^f'^ntiltoT^^^^^ -1'"^^
.omewhat straight ^e f sily bent nito a c r^^^^^^^^ ^^^^

already rounde can ^o.rofy^e^^^^^^^ rnor^^^^^ ^^^.^^
heavy horse, with all nis capac employed in the accumulation

pable of speed, because all this ^Xl/t.^eased when exertion causes the
ilf flesh and fat. and can be ^7 ^^^^'^^^^^^^^^^^ rapid. The flatter

flow and the change of blood to co"«'J^^^^^^ ^^^e animal may

chest may be -adily expanded^^^^^^^^^^

require. A judge ^'"^^^^'^t ^^y be free and speedy, but there

•""f!;;n^p::;nt of consequence — ^FS^ t ^
length or shortness of the carcase ; oj^^^^^ ,,ere is but little

backward. Some h«;«cs are ^^;hat is caUed j^.t rib and the hip-bone In
space (see cuts pp. 63 163) be^^^^^^^ ^^i^^^t I the falling

olhers the distance is cons.derablj^ greater

in of the flank. The question here^s ^^a^^e vi^e q ^^.^ ^.^^^^

If he have to carry a heavy weight a^^^^^^^ ^^J^^ ^^^^ „^her.

home,-let the last rib, aiui hip bone D ^.^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^

There is more capacity ^^^f ^^^^^^/^^^^ endurance. A hackney

the points of support; theie is more v ^ ^.^^^^ ^^^^^

(and we would almost say a hunter can cajcely be ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^.^^

If speed however, be require^^^^ ^^^^^
of the hinder limbs ; ""^ ^^is can omy ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^j.^

between the last nb f-f '^l'^^;^Zn. hTm, and be satisfied if he obtains
up his mind as to what he wants tr^m n ^ ^^.^

ir^iSe Si::.^ — Sn which cannot^ossibly exist in the
same animal. ^ ^he spine .A above; the ribs c,

oJe^'r; alSe;Lt™or b,i.-bo,J. . l«nc.h. (.5.)

THE SPINE AND BACK.

• / fhain of bones from the poll to tlie

THE SPINE

165

now proceed to that portion of tne spine which forms the roof of the rh.-
and belly. It consists of twenty-three bones from the neck to (^. i? f *
eighteen, called dorsal veriebrJ, composing the back ; and five '
tebra,, occupymg the loins. On this part of the animal Ihe Tei^L or'
Durden IS la.d and there are two principal things to be considered, easiness
of carnage and strength. If the back were con.posed of nu. . din' ma
tenals. if .t resembled a bar of wood or iron, tne jar or' jolt ng fn
the rapid motion of the animal, conld not possibly be endured. To a^o 3

hnn;''''''^^/'' ""'''''i ''^'■"'"S' ^""'^ 5s divided into numerous
bone ; and between each pair of bones, there is interposed a cartilaginou
substance, most highly elastic, which will yield and giVe way to every iar
not so much as to occasion insecurity between the bones, or to permit
considerable motion between any one pair; yet forming altogether an
rSTi 5 elasticity, so springy that the rider sits almost undis-

turbed, however high may be the action, or however rapid tlie pace

Mrength is as important as ease ; therefore these bones are united to-
getherwith pecu .ar firmness. The round head of one is exactly fitted
the I'r. r l""^ that immediately before it ; and between them is^placed
the elastic ligamentous substance we have just described, so stron«- /hat in
endeavouring to separate the bones of the back, the bones will breat oone^
*.han this substance will give way. Beside this there are Titaments
mnnmg along the broad under surface of these bones; ligaments between
each of the transverse processes, or side projections of W bones a.'d
hgaments between the spinous processes, or upright projections ; and a
continuation of the strong ligament of the neck running along the whole
course of he back and loins above these, lengthening Tnd contract ng. as
m the neck, with the motions of the animal, and forming a powerful
bond of union between the bones.

By these means the hunter will carry a heavy man without fatigue or
strain through a long chase ; and those shocks and jars are avoided which
would be annoying to the rider, and injurious and speedily fatal to the horse
These provisions, however, although adequate to common or even severe
exertion, will not protect the animal from the consequences of brutal usage;
nr t^ ""'^ overweighted, or violently exercised

or too suddenly pulled upon his haunches, these ligament arc strained •—
mflammation follows ;-and the ligament becomes changed to bone, and the
jomts of the back lose their springiness and ease of motion ; or rather in
point ol fact cease to exist. On account of the too hard service required
from them, and especially before they have gained their full streno-th,
there are few old horses, who have not some of the bones of the back or
Joins anchylosed, united together by bony matter, and not by ligament.
VVhen this exists to any considerable extent the horse is not pleasant to
ride; he turns with difficulty in his stall ;— he is unwilling to lie down, or
When down to rise again ;— and he has a curious straddling action. Such
holies are said to be broken backed, or chitiked in the chine.

fracture of the bones of the back rarely occurs, on account of their
being so strongly united by ligaments, and defended by muscular substance.
It a fracture of these bones does happen, it is during the violent struggles
after the horse has been cast for an operation.

The length of the back is an important consideration. A long-backed
horse will be easy in his paces, because the increased distance between the
fore and hind legs, which are the supports of the spine, will afford greater
room for the play of the joints of the back. A long spring has much more
play than a short one, and will better obviate concussion. A lono--backed
horse is likewise formed for speed, for there is room for him to bring- Mc

«

1

IQg THE HORSE.

hinder Icffs more tinder him in the act of gallopping, and thus more power-

fX mS or drive forward the body: but, on the other hand, a long-

mily propel or nnve iuiv»a j overweiffhted. A long

Dacked horse w.ll be weak ^ the back, ^ ^as.ly ^^^^^-^

spring -7 be eas,ly bei^ and I "Ji^h' mechanical disadvantage

placed further from f^f^^'^*^^ them. A short-backed horse may

upon Ihem, and be "^"^^ ''^^'J heaviest weight, and possess

'^:ir::^7^:^l^i^ t ^ - ^^-^ -

and he maybe apt overreach himselh carcase depends entirely on

The comparative advantage of a long or ^^o" purposes the horse

the use for which the horse is ^"t^"^^^' .J^";/"X^^^possess health
with a short carcase is very F^P^'^^f ^^^^J'^^^^^efwalW ha^rdy. He will
and strength; for horses of this make are Foverbi^ly y
have sufficient ease t^^^^^^^^^ and^sp^^^ ^.^^^

purpose. Length ot back wni ^'^''^ . j , ^^en the loins are wide,

and then continue in an straight line to the loi^^^^ ^

This is a very serious ^jf"'' '-^''"^^ „f , J' ° It is almost im-

materially "fift^be nl th™^^^^ Ihe shoulders, or

THE I.UIN3.

The loins are attentively examiued b^every ^od 'S'ZZcv'^lZ
,„,rcel, be too b,W^^^^^ „„ ,Ms. The

Strength of the hmder exirem , ^ transverse or side

breadth of ~ . ^ ]^Xn.s of the loins are likewise

processes of that part ^J^ '^^ dove-tailed kind of union sub-

lurger than ^hose of the back and ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^

sists between these bones, m^^^ The union of the back and loins should
rerretfy%^ r^'*^^^^^^^^^

^^nt ^Sran^r-e^S Is ^n indieation^ot weaws.

THE WITHERS.

f *Vip dorsal vertebrae, or bones of the
The spinous or "P^gbt FOcesse« o*^^^^^^
back, above the upper part of the shouiaer, a

TIIK VVITHEIIS.

167

85 are the transverse or side processes of the bones of the loins. Tiicv are
flattened and terminated by rough, bhinted extremities. The elevated
ridge which they form is called the withers, ft will be seen in the cuts
(pp. 63 and 163), that the spine of the first bone of the back has but little
elevation, and is sharp and upright. Tiie second is longer and inclined back-
ward ; the third and fourth increase in length, and the fifth is the lon<rest •

they then gradually shorten until the twelfth or thirteenth, which becomes
level with the bones of the loins.

High withers have been always, in the mind of the Judge of the horse,
associated with good action, and generally with speed. The reason is
plain enough : — they afford larger surface for the attachment of the muscles
of the back ; and in proportion to the elevation of the withers, these muscles
act with greater advantage. The rising of the fore parts of the horse, even
in the trot, and more especially in the gallop, depends not merely on the
action of the muscles of the legs and shoulders, but on those of the loins
inserted into the spinous processes of these bones of the back, and acting
with greater power in proportion as these processes, constituting the withers,
are lengthened. The arm of the lever to which the power is applied will
be longer ; and we well know that in proportion to the length of this arm
will be the ease with which a weight is raised. Therefore good and high
action will depend much on elevated withers.

It is not difficult to understand how speed will likewise be promoted by
the same conformation. The power of the horse is in his hinder quarters.
In them lies the main spring of the frame, and the fore quarters are only
elevated and thrown forward to receive the weight forced on them by the
action of the hinder quarters. In proportion, however, as the fore-quarters
are elevated, will they be thrown farther forward, or, in other words, will
the stride of the horse be lengthened : they are elevated and thrown forward
in proportion to the elevation of the withers, and therefore in this point of
view the form of the withers is very much connected with speed. Yet
many racers have the forehand low. The unrivalled Eclipse (see p. 47)
was a remarkable instance of this ; but the ample and finely proportioned
quarters, and the muscularity of the thigh and fore-arm, rendered (he aid
to be derived from the withers perfectly unnecessary. The heavy draught
horse does not require elevated withers. His utility depends on the power
of depressing his fore-quarters, and throwing their weight fully into the
collar ; but for common work in the hackney, in the farmer's horse, and
in the hunter, well-formed withers will be an essential advantage, as con-
tributing to good and safe action, and likewise to speed.

MUSCLES OF THE BACK.

The most important muscles which belong to this part of the frame
can be very imperfectly delineated in any cut ; we have endeavoured, how-
ever, to give as complete a view of them, and of all the superficial muscles
of the frame, as we could. They are principally those which extend from
the continuation of the ligament of the neck, along the whole of the back
and loins ; and likewise from the last cervical bone ; — the superjicialis and
transversalis cosfarum, or superficial and transverse muscles of the ribs,
going from this ligament to the upper part of the ribs, to elevate them, and
so assist in the expansion of the chest ; also the large mass of muscle, the
longissimus dorsi, or longest muscle of the back, from the spinous and
transverse processes of the vertebrae to the ribs, and by which all the motions
of the spine, and back, and loins, of which wc have spoken, arc principally
produced ; by which the fore quarters are raised upon the hind, or tlie

THE HORSE.

mC ihpm is made a fixed point.
Wun\ upon the fore, according as ^'tl'^"- "^.J,^
This is the principal a-ent in rearing and kicking.

,:UT OF THE MUSCLKS OF THE HORSE

The last we shall mention is ^^^P^^^^^l,^^^^^^^^^
back, from the spinous f ^.^^c^lo^t the withers, and broadly

those of the fore part;-thick s [on aDO^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ,y

attached to them ; and more powerfully a a^^^^^^^ proceeding on to the
in proportion to the elevation "J ^^e w to ;^ ^.^^ '^„„,erned, as we have

''''

action, and contributing to speed. ^ ^ ^^^ ^f^^^^ accidents

FISTULOUS WITHERS.

When the sadc.e h. ^^^^ ^ jJ^Si^ T^^:^^
tumour will be formed, ^«^^^XSons recommended in the treatment of
dispersed by the cooling ^PP' ^^^^^^^^^/^hese, the swelling should remain
polUvii (p. 153) ; but " ;|7/^';'^h,u^^ b;come larger and more tenders
Stationary, and more ^^f^^fy^^ ^.^d stimulating embrocations should be
warm fomentations and P«"^ ^^'^J^^^^ of poll-evil, in order to hasten the
applied diligently to it, as t« ^h^^ ^^uer^an be fairly detected, a seton
formation of matter. As soon as the m ^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^j^^ .j,,

should be passed from the ^«P^\°7„d continue to run out as it is after-

whole of the ^^^^^^i^^T^^^^ --^ rr'^^'' ^'^^ "

rec— 10 a1i:nilar disease in the poll.

TIIE RIBS.

IG9

In neg eclcd fis ulous withers the ulcer may be larger and deeper and
more destructive than in poll-evil. It may burrow beneath the shoulder
blade, and the matter may appear at the point of the shoulder or the
elbow ; or the bones of the withers may become carious. (26.)

WARBLES, SITFASTS, AND SADDLE GALLS.

On other parts of the back, tumours and very troublesome ulcers mav
be produced by the same cause. The little tumours resulting from the
pressure of the saddle are called warbles, and when they ulcerate they fre
quently become sitfasts. The ulcer has a portion of callous skin in the
centre of it, resembling leather in its appearance, and so closely adhering;
as not to be separated without great force or absolute dissection • and
hence the name given to this peculiar ulcer. Warbles are too often but
little regarded. They will frequently disappear without medical treatment
but they will, at other times, degenerate into sitfasts. If it be practicable'
the horse should have rest, or, at all events, the stuffing of the saddle should
be so contrived that every degree of pressure be removed from the part-
then goulard and vinegar or brine should be frequently applied for the
.purpose of dispelling the enlargement. Should this prove ineffective and
the sitfast appear, let it by no, means be torn out, but apply a mild blister
winch will cause it speedily to separate ; and then let the wound be dressed
with Friar's balsam, or Turner's cerate, or both.

For saddle galls there is no better application than strono- salt
and water, mixed with a fourth-part of tincture of myrrh. Common
sense and common humanity would suggest the necessity of chambering-
the saddle and the collar, and not suffering the animal, with sore places
as broad as the hand, to be unnecessarily tortured by the rubbing; of the
rough and hardened stuffing.

THE RIBS.

Sir « ^ ' °^ They are usually eighteen on

ether side and, in a few instances, nineteen or twenty. They arl crooked
head'of e h 'k I' b."^- "-'^d to the spine by a t/ue joint, the

head of each nb being received between the bodies of two of the bon;s of
horses ' Th form so inany arches, differing in roundness in different

horses. The first rib (a) is placed at the base of the column of the
oHh^^ 7 strong in order to support the weight and pressure

of the head and neck, and to be a fixed point for the other ribs to act upon
n expanding and contracting the chest. The second is longer and straight,
to assist m the same office, and to sustain the stress which arises from the
suspension of the trunk between the shoulders. The other ribs (e) have
the arched form which we have described. The lower extremity of the rib
lb attached I o or composed of cartilage, a yielding elastic substance, to
enable the ribs to be more easily moved by the muscles of respiration, and
to bring them back again to their natural situation and shape when the
muscles cease to act. These cartilages are received into, and constitute
joints with the sternum or breast-bone, formed almost in the shape of the
prow of a ship (c), and with a projection of cartilage at each end. The pro-
jection before is evident to the eye in the living horse, and is called the point
of the breast. This is occasionally injured by blows, or by the pressure of
the collar, and first a tumour, and then an ulcer is formed which is very apt
to become fistulous, and must be treated like poll-evil or fistulous withers.
The breast bone is in the colt composed of six bones, which in the full-

j.Q THE IIOHSK.

• i <i^,r/»n nr pio-ht of the ribs the number occa-

grown horse un.te '"^o one^ Seven or e. M o, y.^^menis.
sionally varyni- are attached ^he ^lornu j j ^^^^
These are called the <me r.bs, and ^h^^ ^"^/^^^^ f^i,, ^ibs ;-they

the seventh. The remaining ten f ^ ^^J^^^^er ; and their direction
become ^^radually shorter, and "^/-Jf.l^^^lX of the thorax and belly,
is more backward, in order to "'crea^^^ '^tS cLt lages are not attached '
and to strengthen the roof of he be^^ ^^^^

terially increased, and the ribs are mucn n J motion, are two

Between the ribs, and "^^^" y ribsV According as the

layers of muscles, the inter cost als^i^^^^^ ^J^,,,,,
ribs are brought nearer to, or layers are curiously

chest will be increased or diminished. Jj^Jf^^ ^ J^ib, they woul^
contrived If the fibres ran ^^-f^^^- J^^^.^X ^Se contraction, and
exceedingly short; a short '""f ^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ be produced. They
a very slight change of form « ,^ ^^^^^J'^'^e than double the length
run diagonally from rib to rib, ^ h"^ ^^^^^ de-ree of contraction is
ihat they could otherwise have been ; and ^^JJf^^^^^^^^^ ^^^e perfectly
doubled, and the ribs are moved tnrougn a, y i

run one way,

to produce this effect, the muscular ^^"^^^ °^ in the form of

and those of the inner layer a contrary rossmg eac^ oth ^.^^

an X. When these ^-J-^^^^^f ^^^^^^^^ l^r to each other, they are
hinder ones, although the ribs are fj"^^ ^ to contract the

thrown outward, and the real f^^''''\'^^^^^^ to imagine, but

cavity of the chest. This is ^''haps. ^omewn powerfully
H is die actual explanation « 1- jtte^^^ ^h Jibs ^^^^^^ ^^^F^^^^
forward, and when drawn forward, they musi
(he chest is necessarily expanded.

MUSCLES OF THE BREAST.

Of the proper form of the trunk we have ^^r^fL^e^^^^^^^^^^^
important Lscles attached to the breast, and he^^^^^ ^^^^^

have a breast tolerably expanded I" ^ J^^fg.fes, the pedorales trans-
paKe 168, are seen a very important P^'^ ^he front of the chest,

Sor pectoral rnuscles,f« fore and

and extending ^af Lrosl he inward part of the arm, and

upper part of the breast-bone .f^'-'^'lf^^^^^ r^xl^ confine the arm to
reach from the elbow almost down to t e^nee y^ ^.^ ^^^^

the side in the ^^^^^^ ^o °n o^ ^^Itt ^^^^ ahorse pushed beyond his
,,.hat horsemen would call, f,"^ what^s seen

natural power, " all abroad ^ther muscle^^^ p ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^
the great and little pectoris, ^^^^er above^^ ^^^^^^^^^^ ^

breast-bone to tlie arm, to ^raw ^-k thej^^ ^^^^^^ ^1^^
bring the ^l^o^^d^^^Py^f to tsfstTn the same office. A horse, there-

ir^::^^^^^^^ --^^ ^^^^^-^ - "^^^^^^

^Telween the legs and along the b-^^^^^^^ P^P^ ^ ''''''
to insert rowels, in cases of inflamed lungs.

THE HKAliT.

17,

CHEST-FOUNDER.

These muscles are occasionally the seat of a singular and somewhat mv
terious disease. The old farriers used to call it anlicor and chest-founder
The horse has considerable stiffness in moving, evidently not referable to
the feet • There is tenderness about the muscles of the breast, and occa
sionally swelling, and after a while, the muscles of the chest waste consi-
derably. We believe it to be nothing more than rheumatism, produced by
suffering the horse to remain too long tied up, and exposed to the cold, or
riding him against a verj bleak wind. Sometimes a considerable degree of
fever accompanies this ; but bleeding, physic, a rowel in the chest, warm
embrocations over the parts affected, warm stabling, and warm clothing,
with doses of a drachm or two of antimonial powder, will soon subdue the
complaint. (27.)

DROPSY OF THE SKIN OF THE CHEST.

Dropsical swellings often appear between the fore-legs, and on the chest
They are effiisions of fluid underneath the skin. They accompany various
diseases, particularly when the animal is weakened by them, and sometimes
appear when there is no other disease than the debility, which, in the
spring and fall of the year, accompanies the changing of the coat. The
treatment will vary with the cause of the affection, or the accompanyinrr
disease. Small punctures with the lancet will seldom do harm ;— friction
of the part, if it can be borne, will be serviceable ; — mild exercise should
be used ; — diuretics given, mixed with some cordial, with liberal food, as
carrots, malt mashes, and occasionally a very mild dose of physic, and that
followed by tonics and cordials, with diuretics. The vegetable tonics, as
gentian and columbo with ginger, will be most effectual.

The cavity of the trunk consists of two compartments, divided from each
other by the diaphragm or midriff. The first, into which we have traced
the gullet and the wind-pipe, contains the heart and the lungs. It is lined
by a delicate membrane called the pleura (the side, or membrane of the
side), which likewise extends over and affords a covering to the lungs.
A portion of it, dipping down from its attachment to the spine, separates
the chest into two parts, each of which contains one of the lobes or di-
visions of the lungs; and this portion, the mediastinum (standing in the
middle), forms a kind of hag enveloping the heart. The use of this mem-
brane is to throw out a fluid to moisten the different surfaces, and prevent
all dangerous friction or rubbing between these important parts ; and also,
to support these organs in their natural situation.

THE HEART.

The heart is placed between a doubling of the pleura, and is likewise sur-
rounded by a membrane or bag of its own, called the pericardium (about
the heart). This likewise throws out a fluid, for the purposes above-men-
tioned. When the pericardium or the heart itself becomes inflamed, this
secretion is much increased ; and so much fluid accumulates as to obstruct
the beating of the heart. This disease is called dropsy of the heart. It
is not easily distinguished frominflammation of the lungs ; but this is a
matter of little consequence, for the treatment would be nearly the same in
both.

The heart is the engine by which the blood is circulated through the
frame. It is composed of foui cavalies, two above called auricles, from theii

1/2 THE HORSE.

supposed resemblance to a dog's ear, and two ventric.es or little belheh^
occupying the substance of the heart. The blood which has circulated
through the frame, and nourished it, returns o the hear through U.e
veins It enters the auricle on the "ght side, where it accumulates
as in a reservoir, until there is enough to fill the ventricle below. The
j-nricle then contracts, and throws the blood into the ventricle. That
contracts in its turri, a id drives the blood, not back again into the auricle
or here is as complete a valve as that in the sucker of a pump to prevent
this but throuffh an aperture that leads to the lungs The blood tra-
ters'es as we shall presently see, all the little vessels and cells of the lungs.
Ind u;dergoes an important change there, and is carried to the left auricle ;
thence it descends to'the left ventricle, and by the ^o^Jl'^l^^^l ^^
ventricle is propelled into the arteries. The first artery, the aorta, rises
C the'leftUtricle, and the blood, by the ^-ce communicajed^^^^^
thP sudden contraction of the ventricle and assisted by the elastic power
of the atrierwhTch keeps them open and free from obstruction, and also
bv tl^^ presTure of the muscular and elastic coats, endeavouring to return to
the r fo™ dimensions, pursues its course through every part of the frame.

The ™t is subject to disease. It powerfully sympathises with the ma
ladt of every part An injury of the foot will speedily double the quick
ness of he blaLgs or pulsations of the heart. It sometimes is inflamed,
wuLut previous fffection of any other part This is not -6-^^"^"^. Out -
most dangerous disease, and is characterised by a pulse quick and st ong
and a bom.ding action of the heart that may Uy^^^^^^^^^^ a ^he

side and even heard at the distance of several yards 11 ere is also a
pecuhar alertness and quickness in every motu,n of the animal; and an
ener-v of expression in the countenance exceedingly '•^^""arkable. Speedy
and copious blood-letting will alone avail to save the horse; for the hearty
over excS and called on to perform this double work, must soon be
exhausted.

THE ARTERIES,

The vessels which carry the blood from the heart are '^fj^^'/^^J^T^

bS *a7p;"ed Ve mlt coall the muscSlar, by »hich tbi. conlrac-
on is mor^wcrfun perforo,ed, and the blood urged on ,n ,ls course ;

contraction of the heart, constitutes

THE PUI..SE.

rvu ico U a vcrv useful assistant to the practitioner of human medicine.
The pulse IS a very useii surgeon, whose patients cannot de-

and much more so to the veter y ^^^g^^ ^^^^^^^
scribe either the ««at or degree ^^^^^^

tions in ^^y^^'^'l^.^^^^^^^^^ and of the frame generally. In a

«o express the >'-"ta!_"'"°* ^''^^^^u! 'former's horse about thirty-six limes
.tate of health the heart beats - th fo™ horse, theVulsations

'"To""l2 'Ttsr^d^ott^^^^^^^^^^

r^ari: s'i;.gu y little in l-ses of the same size and breed, and

THE PULSE.

17.3

where it is found there can be little materially wion^. The most con-
venient place to feel the pulse, is at the lower jaw, (p. U9) ^ little
bc/iind tne s])ot where the submaxillary artery and vein, and the parotid
duct, come from under the jaw. There the number of pulsations will be
easily counted, and the character of the pulse, a matter of fully equal im-
portance, will be clearly ascertained. Many horsemen put the hand to
the side. They can certainly count the pulse there, but they can do no-
thing' more. We must be able to press the artery against some hard body,
as the jaw-bone, in order to ascertain the manner in which the blood flows
through it, and the quantity that flows.

When the pulse reaches fifty or fifty-five, some degree of fever may be
apprehended, and proper precaution should be taken. Seventy or seventy-
five will indicate a somewhat dangerous state, and put the owner and the
surgeon not a little on the alert. Few horses long survive a pulse of one
hundred, for by this excessive action the energies of nature are speedily
worn out.

Some things, however, should be taken into account in forming our
conclusion from the frequency of the pulse. Exercise, a warm stable, fear,
will wonderfully increase the number of pulsations.

■ ^ When a careless, brutal fellow goes up.to a horse, and speaks hastily to
him, and handles him roughly, he adds ten beats per minute to the pulse ;
and will often be misled in the opinion he may form of the state of the
animal. A judicious person will approach the patient gently, and pat and
sooth him, and even then the circulation, probably, will be little disturbed ;
and he should take the additional precaution of noting the number and
quality of the pulse, a second time, before he leaves the animal.

If a 97fici pulse indicate irritation and fever, a sZozw pulse will likewise
characterise diseases of an opposite character. It accompanies the sleepy
stage of staggers, and every malady connected with deficiency of nervous
energy.

_ The heart may not only be excited to more frequent, but also to more
violent action. It may contract more powerfully upon the blood, which
will be driven with greater force through the arteries, and the expansion
of the vessels will be greater and more sudden. Then we have the hard
pulse, — the sure indicator of considerable fever, and calling for the imme-
diate and free use of the lancet.

Sometimes the pulse may be hard and jerking, and yet small. The
stream though forcible is not groat. The heart is so irritable, that it contracts
before the ventricle is properly filled. The practitioner knows that this
shews a dangerous state of disease. It is an almost invariable accompani-
ment of inflammation of the bowels.

A weak pulse, when the arterial stream flows slowly, is caused by the
feeble action of the lieart. It is the reverse of fever, and expressive of
debility.

The oppressed pulse is when the arteries seem to be fully distended with
blood ; there is obstruction somewhere, and the action of the heart can
hardly force the stream along, or communicate pulsation to the current.
This is the case in sudden inflammation of the lungs They are overloaded
and gorged vnth blood, which cannot find its way through their minuta
vessels. This accounts for the well-known fact of a copious bleeding in-
creasing a pulse previously oppressed. A portion being removed from thti
distended and choked vessels, the remainder is able to flow on.

There are many other varieties of ilie pulse, which it would be tediouj
hete to partictdarise, and we will con(:hide our remarks on it by observing
that, during the act of bleeding. Hs state should be carefully observed

,74 THE HORSE.

Many vete.inary snrgcons. and genUemen o , ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

quantity of blood to be s^^ censurable in the

the opcrat.on. Th,s ,s unpard^^^^^^^^^ ^j^^^,

owner of the horse ^^e horse is bi«i i . ^^.^^^

is some state of d-ease, md.cated by a^^^^^ .^.P^^^

we are ^»d«^^°""7, «"j*j;;,3/be abstracted t produce the desired effect. -
tell what quantity of blood i^u^ J^^^ object is accom-

The change of the pulse can a.o ^^^.^^
pushed ; therefore, ^^P^^^S^^^^^ quantity,lontin«e
the act of bleeding, and, comparaiivti) ^ onnressed pu se be-

to take blood, until, in inflammation '^f he lungs the oPPJ^e^^e P
oomes fuller and more distinct, or the strong pulse ot consiaei
TdenUy softer, or the animal -hibits symptoms of fa^^^^^^^^^ (~ • ^^^^
The arteries divide as they Proceed through the fmmy nd^

into innumerable minute ^ub^^' ^fj^^^i ^.^'^^^^^ g^^^^^^^ cannoV
even become so small as to elude the sight. The slightest pun

be inflicted without wounding some ot theni separation of

In these little tubes, the ^'"^"^ «[,;,^^^„°tLsCence o'^ this, the

all the various secretions is performed, and m begin
blood is changed ; and when t^ese capi^ ar es mute tOo^the '^^^
to enlarge, it is found to be no onger^^^^^^^^^^

but venous, or of ^^^^^^^^^^^^^.^ wl^^^^^^^ one ends and the other

changing its character. „„fi,o*;o nprves wind round these

Branches from the gangl.al or «y"^P^^?^f "f^eirT^^^^ When
vessels, and endue them with energy to f ^;^^harf f
the nerves communicate too much energy ^"^ tl^^se vesse ^.4 ^^^^^

act with too much VO^^r ^nfammaton_^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^
action be confined to a small space or a ngle organ, .^^^^^.^^^^
as inflammation of the eye, f V,^ the arterial system,

spreads from its original seat, e^J^brac s t^^^^

fever is said to be present, and which "puaiiy ncr

the local disturbance increases, and subsides with it.

INFLAMMATION.

Local inflammation is^d^ac^ris^^;^

The redness proceed^ ^^^^^ JeVeased^^^^^^^^ of the vessels. The swelling
the part, occasioned by ^^^^ '"^^'/'^^^^ ^he deposit of fluid in the neigh-
arises from the same^ause^^^^^^^^ hTof the b'ody is produced by the gi.-
bounng substance .J^^Z^^ in the blood, in passing from an arterial to
dual change which takes Plac^^^^ „f

a venous state. If "'^Jf^'^^ ^^ano e is effected, more heat will necessarily
flamed part and in ^h'ch t^s chan ^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^

^^d^t^uttliitrmJstt^pro^^^ a^d the participation of the nerves
.nthLlisturbance ofthe surroundm^^^^^^^ inflammations, and shall

.pSo?Xrr^« — ^

SKr; de^g^ome inflammation ; but it will neces.-
rily include the following particulars

INFLAMMATION.

If inflammation consist of increased flow of blood to and through the
part the ready way to abate the inflammation, is to lessen the quantitv
of blood. If we take away the fuel, the fire will go out. All other means
are comparatively unimportant, compared with bleeding. Blood may be
taken from the jugular, and so the general quantity may be lessened; but
if it can be t:iken from the neighbourhood of the part, it will be
productive of tenfold benefit. One quart of blood taken from the foot in
acute founder, by unloading the vessels of the inflamed part, and enabling
them to contract, and, in that contraction, to acquire tone and power to
resist future distention, will do more good than five quarts taken from
the general circulation. An ounce of blood obtained by scarifying- the
swelled vessels of the inflamed eye, will give as much relief as a copious
bleedmg from the jugular. It is a principle in the animal frame which
should never be lost sight of by the veterinary surgeon, or the horseman,

that if by bleeding the process of inflammation can once be checked, if it

can be suspended but for a little while,— although it may return, it' never
returns with the same degree of violence, and in many cases it is got rid of
at once. Hence (he necessity of bleeding early, and bleeding largely in
mflammation of the lungs, or of the bowels, or of the brain, or of any'im-
.portant organ. Many horses are lost for want of bleeding, or from insuf-
ficient bleeding, but we never knew one materially injured by the most
copious abstraction of blood in the early stage of acute inflammation.
I he horse will bear, and with advantage, the loss of an almost incredible
quantity of blood. Four quarts taken from him, will be comparatively little
more than one pound taken from the human being. We can scarcely con-
ceive a considerable inflammation of any part of the horse, either proceeding
from sprains, contusions, or any other cause, in which bleeding, local (if
possible) or general, or both, will not be of essential service.

Next in importance to bleeding is purging. Something may be removed
from the bowels, the retention of which would increase the general irrita-
tion and fever;— the blood will be materially lessened, for the quantity ol
serous or watei'y fluid which is separated from it by a brisk- purge, the
.action of which in the horse continues probably for more than twenty-fom
hours, is enormous; and while the blood is thus determined to the bowel;-,
less even of that which remains will flow through the inflamed pari'
When the circulation is directed to one set of vessels, it is proportionably
diminished in other parts. It was first directed to the inflamed parts, and
they were overloaded and injured : it is now directed to the bowels, and
the inflamed parts are relieved. While the purging continues, there is also
some degree of languor and sickness felt, and the force of the circulation is
thereby diminished, and the general excitement lessened. The farmer
will, therefore, see the importance of physic in every case of considerable
external inflammation. If the horse is laid by for a few days from injury
of the foot, or sprain, or poll evil, or wound, or almost any cause of in-
flammation, a physic ball should be given.

In cases of internal inflammation, much judgment is required to deter
mine when a purgative maybe beneficial or injurious. In inflammation of
the lungs or bowels it should never be given. There is so strong a sym
pathy between the various contents of tlie cavity of the cliest, that no one
of them can be inflamed to any great extent, without all the others being
disposed to become inflamed ; and, therefore, a dose of physic in inflamed
hu gs would be frequently as fatal as a dose of poison. The excitement
produced on the bowels by the j)urgative will soon run on to inflammation,
which no medical skill can stop.

The means of abating external inflammation are various and Beeminj,ly

176 TIlTi HORSR.

contradictory. The heat of the part very naturally and properly led
to the application of cold embrocations and lotions. Heat has a strong
tendency to equalize itself, or to leave that substance which has a too great
quantity of it, or little capacity to retain it, for another wh.ch has less of
it, or more capacity to retain it. Hence the advantage of cold applications
b; which a great deal of the unnatural heat is speedily taken away from the _
inflamed part. The foot labouring under inflammation is put into cola
wattr orthehorseis made to stand in water or wet clay and various
Told a^pl cations are used to sprains. The part is wetted with diluted
vkfeA^r or goulard, or salt and' water. We believe that when benefit is
derived from these Applications, it is to be attributed to their coldness alone,
an tha ^te and when especially cooled below the natural temperature
Tquiteas W as anything else. An ounce of nitre dissolved m a pint
of water ^^^^ lower the temperature of the fluid many degrees ; but the
^of^n r:;urt be apphed immediately after the salt ^e- dissoW^

^^r^^i:^lr:?t;sr ^^'s:f£f^^

vaSur by L^ heat of the skin, a considerable degree of cold ,s produced.

Lerthe limb or the part have the full benefit of this, by ben^

A bandage may be afterwards applied to strengthen the hmb, but during

mallow, or even of poppy heads, or any "ostrum that ^^^^ ^

part is exposed to the influence ^^/^^^ ^^^^^^^ k'ept up.

or days without intermission, and ^P"^^^^ The advantage

the distended vessels w^l be very - --^^^^^^^^^ by

derived from a poul ice is alt ibuted to tnc ne composed of

'.tfdr4t'wlirae'Ldu..i.U,e.aUplas„ attains .ts proper con-
sistence. 1^ or a l,^,t application is to be

ficial inflammation, and m the ea ly su^^^^^^ or fully established, warm
but when the inflammation is deeper seatea, or lu

fomentations may be most serviceable. inflammation. We

Stimulating applications are [^^^l"^ f JJ^,, ^j^u e suppuration of the
have shewn the action of a blister in '^^J*^ "'^^^^ .^^ed. a stimulat-
ttimcur of strangles. When the udUMumalion is deeply

FEVER.

\7r

ng appl.ca ,on to the skin will cause some irritation and infl
there anclessen or sometin,es remove the original o e; he no ^hr^'*'°1
rowels and bhsters in inflan.n.alion of the chest. Inflamma ,o„ n "l"
degree cannot exist in parts so near to each other. K ^ xnte it I '^"^
we shall abate ,t n> the other, and also by the discharoe which we e .hT?
from the one, we shall lessen the determination of bloo.Uo" he otl r

W h one caufon we will dismiss this p.rt of our subject st mtLtin.
«nd bhstermg- applications shotjid never be applied to a nar't I Z t ^
flamed. We shall not put out a fire by heap ,1 more fuel m/on U ^
the nnschief which the farrier often dLs b^y rubbin" hi L'inable oT
on a recent sprann hot and tender. Many a horse h^as beerruTned by tl :

ui '"i u " r"'- =^"'1 tenderness have disappeared by l e

use o cold lofons or fomentations, and the le.r „r sprained part remai s n-
aiged or even bony matter threatens to be deposited, we may be iustified
in exc.t.ng inflammation of the skin by a blister, in order to rou e ^he
deeper seated absorbents to action, and enable th;m to t.^ up t^ de-

FEVER

Fever is general increased arterial action, either without any local affec-

?n s^I parrp^ ''-'^''^ ---^^

hnwL!''^ ^T"- ^^'^^ ^'"'''^ ^^^^ it ^''i^ts in the horse,

bu they must have been strangely careless observers of the diseases of
that an.mal The truth of the matter is, that the usual stable mana-^ement
and genera treatment of the horse are so absurd, that various parts'of him
verv bnl^ f "^V" i"fl-"-^tion, that pure fever will exist but a

very httle time without degenerating into inflammation of these parts.
Ihe lungs are so weakened by the heated and foul air of the ilWentilated
stable, and by sudden changes from almost insufferable heat to intense
cold; and the feet are so injured by hard usage and injudicious shoeing,
that, sharing from the beginning in the general vascular excitement whicll
characterises fever they soon become excited far beyond other portions of
the rame ; and that which commenced as fever becomes inflammation of
the lungs or feet. Pure fever, however, is sometimes seen, and ruu.s its
course as fever.

It begins frequently with a cold or shivering fit, although this is not
issentia to fever. The horse is dull, unwilling to move, with a staring cuat,
and cold legs and feet. This is succeeded by warmth of the body; unequal
distribution of warmth to the legs ; one hot, and the other three cold, or
some unnaturally warm, and others unusually cold, although not the
deathy coldness of inflammation of the lungs; the pulse quick, soft, and
often indistinct ; breathing somewhat laborious ; but no cough, or pawing, or
W '"^ ^t the flanks. The animal will scarcely eat, and is very costivn
While the state of pure fever lasts, the shivering fit returns at nearly the
same hour every day, and is succeeded by the warm one, and that often
py a very slight sweating one; and this goes on for several days until local
inflammation appears, or the fever gradually subsides. No horse ever
died of pure fever; if he is not destroyed by inflammation of the lungs, or
feet, or bowels succeeding to the fever, he gradually recovera.

What we have said of the treatment oC local inflammation will sum-

J 78 THE HOR8E.

c-,e„U, iudicale that wl.ich we ^1'°"^ --^.Trl/ thfX. f;:.".;;
genemi increased action of the l«ort » f „f h

Appear, the nece«it, for -S' ^f^t^^^ U .hi finger being Kept
the degree of fever, and usnuHy '""""""h ' „„„„ n,. svslem. The bowels
on the°a.tevy) untU of the lun.s, and

shoul(ibfe gently opened ; but 'c ^^ro-ation in that disease, will ,pre-
the uniformly injurious ^7^^^";"!%"^^^^^^^ One drachm and a half of
vent the administration of.'^" ''^'=^7 ?"If ^-'y tVie proper fever medichie,
aloes may be given r^.^j'^^Xtc 'a^ r wtuluii^ more of an ape-
. until the bowels are slightly veUxeo, ■ ^^^^tar, and nitre

rient quality should be ad.Bui,stere^^^^ ^f^ ^^^Zns regulated by the
should be given morning "g'^'^'y ^^.i^Uay to white hellebore m

circumstances of the case, these shou d give i,,fl,„,^,Uon ot

doses of half a drachm twice in the ^^7^ clothed, but be

the luno-s should appear, ine "0'^='^^"

placed in a cool and ^.^^^-^^"^^It'f.e eased arterial action, proceeding from
Symptomatic fever is generally increased arieria , y ^^^^^

some local cause. No organ -^-Jf^^ig dltu^^^^^^^^ the whole
inflamed without the "^'Shboun g par^ bmg j^^^^^^^^^,, ,f the
system gradually participating in the d'sturo ^^^^^^^ ^.^^^^^

feet or of the lungs never existed long as to any

being accompanied by some ck^^^^^^^ te • resemble that of simple fever.
The treatment of «y™Ptomatic teyer ^^^^

-X tU^er K tlZ:!^^"^ existed there can be sub-

^--'-ZIX^^ on different surfaces ot
The arteries ternunate occasional y m open g ^.^^^^^^^

the body. On the skin they P""^^-*^^J^\ttrre which prevents friction. In
cavities of the frame they.y-W the mo'«^-e ^ ^,,,„tially different

other parts they terminate gl^"j^;^^%™u : such are fhe parotid and
from the blood is secreted ^eP^^^^^ ^,Hous organs or labora-

sahvary glands, the ^^^^^^ys the spleen ai ^^^^^^j^^,, for the multi-

tories which P--^« -.^^ J^^l te-inaU of arteries is in vein,
farious purposes ot hte, Dui uie (^^j.;

1 to the heart the blood which had been con-
These vessels carry back o the n ^ ,,ave but two coats, a

veyed to the different parts by the ar^e , ^^^^ comparatively

macular aud a membranous , both oMhem ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^.^^^ ^^^^
weak. They are more nume ous and muc . ^ ^^^.^^^^ .^^^
consequently the blood, lessened i q ^ ^ ^^^^^^ ^„ partly by

rated from it, flows more ^Joj^y ^^^^^-'ii^ j.^art; partly, in the extrenut.es
the first impulse communicated to it by t

and external portions of the frame by P^ rincipally caused by the
ir> the cavity oi the chesty >t -^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^i have closed upoj
sudden opening of the ye«^\"^ ^,j^rebY causing a vacuum which the blood
and driven ""t their con^ rious valves in L veins which prevent the
rushes on to fill. \"ere a
blood from flowing backward.

BOa AND BLOOD SPAVIN.

, . ]> iheir coats are thin compared with
The veins of the horse altho^l the.^^ ^,^,^,^,^ent3 (varicose veins)
those of the arteries, are not subjeci

BLEEDING.

whidi are so frequent, and often so painful, in the legs of the human beino-
The legs of tlie horse may exhibit many of the injurioe.s ccsequences ol
hard work, but the veins will, with one exception, be unaltered in structure
Attached to the extremities of most of the tendons, and between the tendous
and other parts, are little bags containing a mucous substance to enable
the tendons to slide over each other without friction, and to move easily on
the neighbouring parts. From violent exercise these little bags are' liable
to enlarge. VVindgalls and thoroughpins are instances of this. There is
one of, them on the inside of tl>e hock at its bending : this sometimes
becomes considerably increased in size, and the enlargement is cnlled a bog
spavin. A vein passes over this bag, which is pressed between the enlarge'-
ment and the skin, and the passage of the blood through it is impede'd ;
the vein is consequently distended by the accumulated blood, and the
distension reaches from this bag as low down as the next valve. This
iS called a blood-spavin. Blood- spavin then is the consequence of bog-
spavin. It very rarely occurs, and is, in the majority of instances, con-
founded with bog-spavin.

Blood-spavin does not always cause lameness, except the horse is very
hard worked, and then it is doubtful whether the lameness should not be
^ttnbuted to the enlarged mucous bag rather than to the distended vein.
Both of these diseases, however, render a horse unsound, and materially
lessen his value. ~

Old farriers used to tie the vein, and so cut off altogether the flow of the
blood. Some of them, a little more rational, used to dissect out the bag'
which caused the distension of the vein : but the modern and more pru-
dent way is to endeavour to promote the absorption of the contents of the
bag. This may be attempted by pressure long applied. A bandage may
be contrived to take in the whole of the hock except its point ; and a com-
press made of folded linen being placed on the bog-spavin, may confine the
principal pressure to that part. It is, however, very difficult to adapt a
bandage to a joint which admits of such extensive motion; therefore most
practitioners apply two or three successive blisters over the enlargement,
when it usually disappears ; but unfortunately it returns again if any
extraordinary exertion is required from the horse. (30.)

Of the wounds of veins, and their consequent inflammation, we have
spoken when describing the veins of the neck. The veins are selected iij
preference to the arteries for the purpose of bleeding, because they are
more superficial and larger, and blood can be more easily and certainly
procured from them, and the flow of the blood can be more easily stopped.

BLEEDING.

This operation is performed with a fleam or a lancet. The first is uir
common instrument, and the safest, except in skilful hands. The lancet,
however, has a more surgical appearance, and will be adopted by the vete-
rinary practitioner. A bloodstick, a piece of hard wood loaded at one end
with lead, is used to strike the fleam into the vein. This is sometimes
done with too great violence, and the opposite side of the coat of the vein is
wounded. Bad cases of inflammation have resulted from this. If the fist
be doubled, and the fleam is sharp and is struck with sufficient force with
the lower paH, of the hand, the bloodstick may be dispensed with.

For general bleeding the jugular vein is selected. The horse is blind
folded on the side on which he is to be bled, or his head turned well away .
tlie hair is smoothed along the course of the vein with the moistene»]
finger; then with the third and lUtle finger* of the left hand, which holds

N 2

180

THE HORSE.

the fleam, pressure is made on the vein sufficient to bring: it fairly ii.to
view, but nor, to swell it too much, for then, presenting a rounded surface, it
would be apt to roll or slip under the blow. The point to be selected is
about two inches below the union of the two portions of the jugular at the
angle of the jaw (see cut, p. 119). The fleam is to be placed in a direct
line with the course of the vein, and over the precise centre of the vein
as close to it as possible, but its point not absolutely touching the vein A -
sharp rap with the bloodstick or the hand on that part of the back of the
fleam immediately over the blade, will cut through the vein, and the blood
will flow A fleam with a large blade should always be preferred, for tlie
operation will be materially shortened, which will be a matter o some con-
sequence with a fidgety or restive horse; and a quantity of blood drawn-
speedily will have far more effect on the system than double the weight
slowly taken; while the wound will heal just as readily as if made by a
smaller instrument. There is no occasion to press so hard agamst the
neck with the pail, or can, as some do ; a slight P'^^f ""-^V will
has been large enough, and straight, and in the middle of the vein will
cause the blood to flow sufficiently fast ; or the finger being introduced
into the mouth between the tushes and the grinders, and gently moved
about, will keep the mouth in motion, and hasten the rapidity of the stream
by the action and pressure of the neighbouring muscles

When sufficient blood has been taken, the edges of the wound s l ould be
brouo-ht closely and exactly together, and kept together by a small, sharp
p n be ng passed through them. Round this a little tow, or a few hairs
from the'n^ane of the horse, should be wrapped, so as to cover the whole
of he incision ; and the head of the horse should be tied up for several
hours to prevent his rubbing the part against the manger. I"
L edo-es of the wound together, and introducing the pjn, care should be
aken not lo draw the skin'too much from the neck, "^^--^ ^^^^^^^^
insinuate itselfbetween the skin and the muscles beneath, and cause an
unsi"-htlv and sometimes troublesome swelling. r u- u

?be Wood should be received into a vessel the dimensions of which are
exac ly known, so that the operator maybe able to calcu ate at every period
onhe b eeding the quantity that is subtracted. Care hkew.se should be
tiken that the'blood'flow in a regular st-am into the cerjtre^^^^^^^^^
for if it be suffered to trickle down the sides, it will not afterwaids "ncler o
tho e hano-es by which we partially judge of the extent of /nAamma ion
The pulse, however, and the symptoms of the case collectively, will forni a
bettercri ;rh3n than any change in the blood. Twenty-four hours after the
ooeration the edges of the wound will have united, and the pin should be
w^Sawn Wh^en the bleeding is to be repeated, if more than three or
Tour trhave elapsed, it will be more prudent to make a fresh incis.on
r-ithpr than to open the old wound.

Few dt ections are neceesary for the use of the lancet They who are
foni to nnerate with it, will scarcely require any. If the point be
:lcS shar'p the llncet can scarcely be' too\road shouldered ; and an
Mifficen y snarp ^^^^^ j^^^j^i^^ than that in common

abscess lancet f'!^^'^^^^^^ ^^^^ invented by Mr. Weiss in the Strand,
use. A spring lancet f ^ , J f,.^^ ^ .^^Her vein salely

by which any --^^^^^^^t^ZTt h^^^^^^^ too much care cannot be
and certainly. W ^^/^^er "nstrum i ^^^^^ ^ ^^^^^

S^:S.f;;^:d j;:;St:;;a:i;f operation, otherwise in a
^ery sliLt t!me the edges will begin to be corro^^^^^^^

1^01 general bleeding the jugula, vem s selected as the ^^g^^^^ ^v^^
ficml vein, and most easily got at. In every

THE LUNG55.

181

and ii\ cases of fever or extended itiflammatory action, it ;« i m
the best place for bleedin,. In local inflamn^ation " "fe

taken from any of the superficial veins. In sn])posed affections of tl^
shoulder or of the fore-leg- or foot, the plate, vein, which comes from tl e
niside of the arm, and runs upwards directly in front of it towards thp
jugular, may be opened. In affections of the hinder extremity blood is
sometimes abstracted from the saphcena, or thig-h vein, which runs across
the mside of the thig-h. In foot cases it may be taken from the coronet
or, much more safely, from the toe ; not by cutting- out, as the farrier does'
a piece of the sole at the toe of the frog-, which sometimes causes a wound
difficult to Ileal, and followed by festering, and even by canker ; but cutting
down with a fine drawing-knife called a searcher,' at the union between
tne crust and the sole at the very toe until the blood flows, and, if neces-
sary, encouraging its discharge by dipping the foot in warm water. Tlie
mesh-work of both arteries and veins will be here divided, and blood is
generally obtained in any quantity that may be needed. The bleedinn-
may be stopped with the greatest ease, by placing a bit of tow in the li'tle
groove that has been cuV and tacking the shoe over it. (31.)

THE LUNGS.

Ihe chest, likewise, contains the lunj^s, most important from the office
which they discharge, and the diseases to which they are liable. There are
two lungs, the right and the left, separated from each other by the mediasti-
num. The right lung is larger than the left, because the heart, inclining to
the left, leaves less room on that side of the chest. Each of the lungs is
likewise partially divided into lobes ; the right lung contains three, and the
left two. When the windpipe enters the chest, it divides into two parts, one
^oing to each lung ; and when these reach the substance of the lungs, they
separate into innumerable branches, each terminating in a little \ag or
cell. These branches, with the cells attached to them, bear no slight'' re-
semblance to bunches of minute grapes. Around these cells %read
countless blood-vessels, being the extreme ramifications of those which
conveyed the blood from the right side of the heart to the lungs, and the
commencement of those which carry it back from the lungs to The left side
of the heart ; and the cells and the blood-vessels are connected together by
an intervening substance of a fibrous and cellular texture. °

The office of the lungs may be very shortly stated! The blood passing
through the capillaries of the body, md contributing to the nourishment ol"
the frame, and furnishing, all the secretions, becomes, as we have described,
changed. It is no longer able to support life : it is possessed of a poi-
sonous principle, and that principle is a superabundance of a substance
called carbo7i, which must be got rid of before the blood can again be
usefully employed. There is an ingredient in the atmospheric air called
oxygen, which has a strong attraction for this carbon, and which will unite
with it v/herever it finds it. The chest enlarges by the action of the dia-
phragm, and the intercostal and other muscles, as we have narrated ; and
the lungs expanding with the chest, in order to fill up the vacuum which
would otherwise exist between them and the sides of the chest, these cells
enlarge, and a kind of vacuum is formed in each of them, and the air
rushes down and fills them, and being divided from the venous and
poisoned blood by these membranes alone, it is enabled to act upon tht
blood, and attracts from it this carbon, and thus j)nrifies it, and renders
It arterial blood, and fit for the purposes of life. This being accomplisiied,
the chest contracts, and the hmgs are pressed into smaller compass, ancl

,32 THE HORSK.

a portion o' the air, impregnatod with the carbo.,. and rendered poisonous
hiCturn is squeezed out. Presently the chest expands agaui and the
n us turn, is squct admitted, which is shortly

lungs expand with it, and fres pu the blood ; and these

nrpQSpd nut aoain, empoisonecl oy ine i-«uuuii ,

nl bToodls = of r,fe. a„,l the" acuoj of ...

rir?^;:: Je wood .o« ^^^p'-^js-fj- ^^^^^^^^^^^ t

„„<, <1-P brealh.o.-^a^^ - ile^uate'supply, and .he connexion of .hi,
cons ches. .. on er to y.e H endurance of .he horse hence

capaci.y of .he ches. ' « , .™„j„„ „f the Rirlhs affords to a horse
the wonderfnlrchef which l emerejooscnin J ,„„,„<.t to a

=a.«rrfrTps^^^^^^^^

blood be employed in the ^row h of the animaj, a^^^^^^^ ^^^F^^^
i-r;!;^^^;^'^^^^^^^^^^^ the corresponding

1;^^"' "al^r o^r'b^eS^uVa^^^^^^^^^ - worth nothing

his speed for our ^er^^^' difficulties with which the veterinary practi-
at all. and hence some «f ^J^^^^'f ''^'j^^ on the human body will

tioner has to struggle A ^""^TiTL so far removes a severe affection as
obtain the S-^i\"de of his pat e„t - - ^ .nhough his

to enable h.m to live on with ^ - considerably impaired ; but

activity and his power o exert on mj cons d y^^^^p ^^^^^^^

the veterinary surgeon •^/''""f * ^"-Xt^e ^ that which it is abso-
the animal perfectly sound-unless, in fact, he does
lutely impossible to accomplish.

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS.

• 1 nil tbn<5P whom we have subdued that, previous

There is no amma^^among aU those w^^^^^^ as the horse ; there is no

to his ^.^^'f he L been en isted in our service, is so liable to disease,
animal which, ^^^^ do we account for this ? Few things

and especially of the lungs. How ^.H^ ^f the

can be more u^urim^^^^^^ to cold, to which, under the

lungs, than the sudden ^"f^ - . ^. . ^^e spring and autumn,
usual stable ''ll ,Wes s^^^^^^^^ degrees higher than that of

the temperature o^ hea -^^^f^lf; '^^^^ thirty decrees. The ne-
the open air ; in w>"ter t is q j ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^he

cessary effect of this must be to ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^

part, most ^.'^^'^^ '^J^' ^^Zs heated but empoisoned air that the
lungs. It IS, however, n«t °nj^ contaminated breath, and of

horse respires ;-compose^a " , , f^^,^ ^.^ine, strongly impreg-

jro7.t'rn:^";.:rr.rin3:;er.pira.io„ . s„dae„„ s-opped

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS,

183

jolrl and cough are the Hrst consequences. What must inevitably happen
CO the horse that stands, twenty hours out of the four and twenty, in a
heated atmosphere, and stands there warmly clothed, and every pore of his
skin opened, and the insensible perspiration, and the sensible too, pro-
fiisely pouring out, and then, with his coat stripped from his back, is
turned shivering into a nijiping winter's air? The discharge from the
skin is at once arrested, and llie revulsion, or pernicious effect of tlie sudden
stoppage of a natural evacuation, falls on the lungs, too much weakened,
and disposed to inflammation by heated air and poisonous fumes.

These simple observations are pregnant with interest and insirac-
tion to all connected with horses. He who would have his stud free
from disease, and especially disease of the hmgs, must pursue two ob-
jects, coolness and cleanliness. In the gentleman's stable, the first of these
is studiously avoided, from the prejudice or the idleness of the groom,
and from these stables proceed most of the cases of inflamed lungs ;
especially when this heat is combined with that temporary but mischie-
vous nuisance, the repeated breathing of the same air during the night,
and that air more vitiated by the fumes of the dung and urine. In the
stables of the post-master, where not only closeness and heat, but the filth
that would not be endured in a gentleman's establishment, are found, both
inflammation of the lungs and glanders prevail ; and in the stables of
many agriculturists, cool enough from the poverty or the carelessness of
the owner, but choked with filth, inflammation of the lung'' is seldom seen
but mange, glanders, and farcy abound.

Inflammation of the substance of the lungs is sometimes sudden in Us
attack, but generally preceded by symptoms of fever. The pulse is occa-
sionally not much increased in frequency, but oppressed and indistinct ;
the artery is plainly to be felt under the finger, and of its usual size, but
the pulse no longer indicates the expansion of the vessel, as it yields to the
gush of blood, and its contraction when the blood has passed ; it is rather
a vibration or thrill, communicated to a fluid already over-distending the
artery ; in a few cases, even this almost eludes the most delicate touch
and scarcely any pulsation is to be detected. The extremities are cold ;- •
the nostril is expanded ;— -the head thrust out, and the flanks begin to heave.
There is a peculiarity in the working of the flank. It is not the deep
laborious breathing of fever, nor the irregular beating of broken win(l,
in which the air appears to be drawn in by one effort, while two
seem to be necessary to expel it; but it is a quick hurried motion,
evidently expressive of pain, and of inability to complete the action, on ac-
count of the pain, or of some mechanical obstruction. The membrane of
the nose is of an intensely florid red — more vivid in the inside corners ot
the nostrils, and remaining concentrated there if at times it should seem
to fade away higher up. The countenance is singularly anxious, and
indicative of suffering, and many a mournful look is directed at the flanks.
The horse stands in a singular manner, stiff, with his forelegs abroad, that
the chest may be expanded as much as possible, and he is unwilling to move,
lest for a moment he should lose the assistance of the muscles of the arms
and shoulders, in producing that expansion; and, for the same reason,
iie obstinately stands up day after day, and night after night; or if he lies
down from absolute fatigue, it is but for a moment.

In many instances, however, the approach of the disease is very trcach-
erous, and the most careful practitioner may be deceived. The groom
may perceive that the horse is somewhat off his feed, and 'lull, but he pays
little attention to it ; or if it arrests his notice, he oniy finds that the coat
stares i\ little, that the legs are colder than usual, and the breathing in a

134 THE HORSE.

slin-ht decree quickened and shortened. In other cases, the symptoms are
those of common fever, catarrh, or distemper; and the charactenst.rs of
true inflammation of the lungs appear late and ""^.^P^^' fjy- ..^^J/^ ^^"^^^^
leo- and ear the quickened, not deepened mspiration, the disinchnalion
to^lie down.' and the a.,xious countenance, will always alarm the expen-

WhatveVmav be the state of the pulse at first, it soon becomes op-
JJserir eS^^ and at length almost mpercept.ble The

Tan is kboudnn- in vain to push on the column of blood with which the
vSs 1 are d e'ded, and the flow of which is obstructed by the clogged-
vessels aie cusiem ^^.^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ l^^f^re, be-

up passages of Inngs. A ^e ^ ^oon

come more mtense y so-U .^^^^^^ the nostril fades

narticnates in it, and the Dieain loo. anc . , ,. .„„,v, Uo ctiU

Lvay or darkens to a livid purple. The animal ^--^^l-^-^h. He st
persists in standing, although he often staggers and almost falls , at len.tli

''^i::^fS^e^^ti^y uncertain. It will occasionall,
desTroy in Lrthan twenty-four hours, and then l-S^ p-s^^^^^^^^^^^
fused and disorganised mass of blackness, and T^^f, ^^^^"XXtely
nerson to imao ine that long inflammation had gradually so conipieieiy
En down tire substance of the lungs. Such a horse - j/^f

More frequently the is
ciently pervious for some blood to be ^'^"^'^'"f ' ^een taken to subdue
too great to be subdued, or I""?^'-;"^^"^^]^^ and
it ; and it runs its usual course, -/^^ P^^^f ^^^^ would prove recent
the lungs are found not only black, but V^^f J^ and unsuspected disease,
and violent inflammation and n t any old and uirs J ^^^^ ^^^^^

S^:r brrSulng "nd thi offensive discharge from the

A'frenuent, and to the practitioner and the owner a most annoyingjer-
JJ^ of i;flamu.tion of tl^l;^|^^ dropsy in he c^t The cU.a.e
seems to be subdued; the horse s ^^^^^ '^J^l him are deceived into the
legs and ears become warm ' J^^^^^^^^f ^ji?,! ,^,^eon is sometimes

belief ^^^^^t:^^ pTent^ makes hhn hope the best,
deceived. Ihe anxiety w i vellow d scharge from

although \s frightened;if sud-

the nostril, the pulse ^ ^ considerably raised in the act of

denly moved, and -J-^^^ ^J^,!^ fduwn. Many dayi or some weeks will
drenching, and he ™ely or "ever ^^^gatisfactory appearances ; and a

• pass on, with these ,f '"^'^'^f f",,„ed by balancing them against each
udginent of the result can >. '^^'^ ^^^^^^ and he very

mher. At length the pat.ent ^^^^'''^^^t of the chest are found nearly filled
soon dies. On opening h.m, both ^'^^^J* expansion of the

■^vith fluid, impeding the pulsation ofj '^^^^^^^^
lungs, and destroying the horse by sutfocation.

INFLAMaiATION OF THE LUNCm

Althoug,, the life of tlie horse may be .saved, the consequences of i„fl.,„

ness of the animal. As .n many external inflammations considerable thioS"

of the par long remains, so a deposit of the coagnlable portion of
blood may be l-e(t m the substance of the lungs, occupying the nlace J
many of the air-cells, and preventing the contraction and closing of c, hers
Thus produces the pecuharity of breathing, almost incompatible with speed
or contn.uance, cMed thick wind ; and frequently precedes broken S
when from the violent action of the lungs, and that iction thus impeded bO
the obstruction we have described, some of the air-cells become ruptured
Too frequently, considerable irritability remains in the membrane linino^

e^Ln? H ' K . V" '^'^ air-passages, and a cough is

es abhshed, which, from its continuance, and the difficulty of its removal is
called chrome covgh. We have already considered inflammation of U e
lungs, as one of the causes oi' roaring.

The treatment of inflammation of ^he lungs must evidently be of the
most decisive kind We have to struggle with a disease intense in its cha
racter, and we must attempt radically to cure, and not merely to palliate it
We mast look to the future usefulness of the horse, and no't to^the pos-

an existence almost uncomfortable

t bled nof ?vf '"T*^ '^^^^ j"^^ commenced, the horse should

be bled not only untrl the pulse begins to rise, but until it afterwards
begins to flutter or to stop, or the animal is evidently faint. The efffect of
the bleeding, and not the quantity of the blood taken, should be regarded
for the inflammation being subdued, the lost blood will soon be s^upplied
again. This ,s one of the cases in which it is absolutely necessary that
the surgeon or the owner, should stand by with his finger on the pulse
and mark the effect that is produced. If, ^ix hours afterwards, the horse'
continues to stand stiff, and heaves as quickly and as laboriously as before!
and f^e legs are as intensely cold, and the membrane of the nose as red
the bleedmg should be repeated, until the same effect again follows
In the majority of cases the inflammation will be now subdued. A third
bleeding may, however, sometimes be necessary, but must not be carried
to the same extent, for it is possible, by too great evacuation of blood, to
subdue not merely the disease, but the powers of nature. If, after this
the legs become cold, and the heaving returns, and the membrane of the
nose reddens, and the horse persists in standing, bleedings to the extent
ot two or three quarts will be advisable, to prevent the re-establishment of
the disease. In all these bleedings, let not the necessity of a broad shoul-
dered fleam or lancet, and a full stream of blood be forgotten. These are
circumstances of far more importance than is generally imao-ined The
appearance of the blood will be some guide in our treatment of the case,
ine tfiickness of the adhesive buffy, yellow-coloured coat, which in a few
Hours will appear on it, will mark with some degree of accuracy the extent
of the mflammation ; but let it be remembered, that only which existed at
the time of ihe bleeding. Not regardless of the appearance of the blood,
but not putting too much faith in it, we must look to the horse to deter-
mine how far that inflammation may have been diminished, or a repetition
of the bleeding be necessary.

When the bleeding has evidently taken effect, we must consider by what
means we may further abate, or prevent the return of the inflammation.
We should blister the whole of th" brisket, and the sides, as high up as
the elbows. Blisters are fai preferable to rou'els. They act on a more ex-
tensive surface ; they produce a great deal more inflammation; and thcv
are speedier ir their action.

THE HOUSE.

18G

To ensure the ..1 op-tio.> o|- the bli.er
shaved, and an ointment '=«'"P"^^dJ/"^jf,7i„ ^The lard and the resi.
and four of lard and one «f ^/^^^^^^^^^^^^ afterwards added,

should be melted together and the P"^^"^'^^" ^ thumb, and.

To form a rowel, the skm >s ^^^^f^^between the l^n^^^^^^ ^^^^

with a lancet or with -^^^^^^^^^^ rowellin, .cis-

mch m length. Ihe ii^g*^'^; J . ^ l^^^ Holborn, or from any
sors, whieh are - P-^-^j/^^Xcect a.^ the skin is forcibly sepa-
vetennary ;"f^";;";i,7^r;e'llular substance beneath, until there ,s a crcu-
rated from the muscular or ceuu inserted,
lar cavity two or three -nches w de I^t« ^^.s^ p

sufficient to fill it, and P-^^^^ ^ ^^char^e If a little of the tow be
causes considerable inflammation ^-^^ conveniently dribble

left sticking out of the ^--^^^ e'ery day, with or without the oint-
down it. The tow should be changed every y, ^^^^
ment according to th-c -on of Jhe rowe,, ^or ^ ^y^^ ^^^^

The large piece of stitt leainer, w«u , ^ frequently, in the

rier. is objectionable, ""^''^o^s to Luse a ^^^^^^^^^^
extraction of it, tearing (he skin so as to cause a la inflammation
The bUster --tirn^ w.U no^^^^^^^^^^^^ too IcJ ac7on is going on there,
of the chest is at it. greatest mten^ y . occasionally will not act in

for any to be excited elsewhere The bl^;'^'^ o';"^ ^ ^^J^e are exhausted,
the latir stages the <lisease because the power^^^^^

It is always a -"^^-^-^^^^^^^^^^^ the bhster, is when the

not take effect. 1 he best l>me lo" u ^ ^. ^hen by the irrita-

inflammation is somewhat subdued by th^ ^^^^^^^^^^ „f disease, the

time. - J- •„„ Tf thp natient was a human being the

Next comes the aid of nriedicme ^'^^f ao this: for from
surgeon would immediately P^^S^ ^^^^j^ 7J ti.e horse, we should

sympathy between the bowel and thejung ^ ,,,„,ferring of it

either produce a fatal extension ot .nflamma ^.^ ^

in a more violent form, and ^'^^Jf^" ^"^^ salts,
back-rake, administer c yste.s -P-l^J^f::,^^^' given. It may be a mild
St Ife ;r n??:r the'^Sumi. being : it is a very dangerous one fo.

a little relaxed the bowels^
medicines. The J^^J.^^^^Vthe fi wonder that the edifice

vent rottenness «f ^ S^,,'" SaTi^^ emetic tartar, should be

is frequently destroyed. JNitre, ai ua , until an mter-

given in the'doses -l-^^^^^Xce" Man^^^

Lttent state of the pulse is Fodu^fcn.pl^^^^ six or eight hours, and
in doses of half a ^1-^^^";' ^^^^^^ a^ ^ It is continued until the horse
they say -'th^""f ^ d^^^^^^^^ his mouth, and he becomes hah
hangs his head, and salua dnvei ^^^^ a tew hours,

stupid, and half dehnou ^ ^hef ^y P^^ ^^^^^^ ^
and the inflammation «fti^e chest is . ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^ d

on the principle ofthe bhster . the de^e^^^^^ .^^ „,embranes, divert the
the temporary excitement ot he ^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^-^^ t„,,e ior

inflammation or a portion of >t; jo^^^^^^ vVa confess that we pr ter the
the parts somewhat to recover their tone.

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNUS. jg;

digitalis, emetic tartar, and nitre : they considerably lower the pulse and
they are safe. '

It is of importance that we determhie the blood, or a portion of it from
the inflamed and over-distended part to some other reo-ion. On this prin
ciple we warmly clothe the horse labouring under this disease, that we
may cause the blood lo circulate freely through the vessels of the skin, and
that we may keep up the insensible perspiration, and perhaps produce some
sweating. But do we put the horse in a warm place ? No ; for then we
should bring the heated and poisoned air in contact with the inflamed lungs
and increase the excitement, already too great. It is an absurd practice
to shut up every door and window, and exclude, if possible, every breath
of air ;~rather let every door and window be thrown open, and let pure and
cold air find access to these heated parts. It is interesting to see how
eagerly the horse avails himself of the relief which this affords him. li
no direct draft blows upon him, he can scarcely be placed in too cool a box
Now and then the whole skin of the horse may be rubbed with the
brush,- if it does not teaze and hurry him ; but it is indispensable that the
legs should be frequently and well hand-rubbed to restore the circulation
in them, and they should be covered with thick flannel bandages. As to
food, we do not want him to take any at first, and most certainty the horse
should not be coaxed to eat. A very small quantity of hay may be given
to amuse him, or a cold mash, or green meat, but not a particle of corn.

In eight-and-forty hours the fate of the patient will generally be decided.
If there be no remission of symptoms, the inflammation will run on to
congestion of the lungs, and consequent suffocation, or to gangrene. We
must, in this case, give the medicines more frequently ; repeat the blister ;
bleed, if the state of the animal will bear it; and rub the legs or even scald
them. If the strength now rapidly declines, the horse may be drenched
with gruel, and tonic medicine may be tried, as chamomile at first, and,
this not recalling or increasing the fever, a little ginger and gentian may be
added.

Should the heaving gradually subside, and the legs get warm, and the
horse lie down, and the inflammation be apparently subsiding, let not the
owner or the practitioner be in too great haste to get the animal well.
Nature will slowly, but surely and safely, restore the appetite and strength ;
and it is very easy to bring back the malady in all its violence by attempt-
ing to hurry her. The food should be the same, cold mashes, green meat,
or a little hay, if green meat cannot be procured, and thin gruel drunk from
the pail — not given as a drench. Should the horse be very weak, or scarcely
eat, tonics may be tried. The way should be felt very cautiously with the
chamomile, and the sedative medicine again be immediately resorted to
if there be the slightest return of fever. To the chamomile, the gentian and
ginger may be gradually added, but no mineral tonic. • After a while, hay
may be offered, and a little corn, and the horse be suffered very gradually
to return to his former habits.

The causes of inflammation of the lungs are changes from cold to heal,
or heat to cold ; exposure to cold while the horse is hot ; washmg with
cold water immediately after exercise ; sudden exposure to cold, after
coming from a very hot stable; frequent checks while hunting; travelling in
the face of a cold wind ; the transference of general fever to the lungs
previously disposed to inflammation from the usual stable management ;
and necrlected catarrh, or catarrh treated with stimulants instead of cooling
medicines. Any change from heat to cold, or from coKl to heat, will pro-
duce it with almost equal certainty ; the removal from a warm stable !o a
cold one, or from a cold one to a vvarnner ; from grass to the stable, and

Igg THE HORSE.

from the .table to ffrass will equally give rise to disease of the lungs It
is generally the eft^ct of our e-ne- ^^^^^^^^

We shall presently state the fy^'j^Y^.^^y^ distinguished
lungs may be d>stmg.ushecl from ^^^^^J^^^^' Jf^^^^ j J^he latter disease

from inflammauon of the bowe Is^^^^^^^^ pulse, ^^^^^ .^^.^^ ^^^^

js small and wiry ;— by the '"emu. the belly, stamp

rnuch and by the belly being

anVr hot. Uen the bowel, are intlamed. (3..)

PLEURISY.

Hi^eHo we have

but inflammation may attack the memorane „ confined to that mem-

of the chest and be principally o^^^^^^^^^^

brane. This is termed ^^XlunJand tre symptoms are not very rtis-
mation of the substance of ^he lungs, and the sy p ^^^^^ ^^.^

similar. The g"idh.g distinction w U be the p^se. A ^^^^

disease still traverses the ^^^^^X^^^^^^^ of inflamma-

pressed pulse, but rather the J/,"^^ ; rmeinbra^ of the nose

tion ; the extremities are cold but not co a, i j tj^^ the in-

the obstinacy of standmg the ^'^f J^/^^a of the ribs and the

-^lutSi^ :X^^t;atc^oS^U and the chest will be

of thJ lungs. Blisters and -^atwe med c ne mu^^^^^ administered with
The only important difference '^^''^^^^''^^l^^^^.-J.^ of the chest to give
rxiore safety than in the former disease i^^^^t'be Attempted. It cannot
escape to the fluid that is thrown out may 1 „f

do harm, but it has very seldom Baved o " -^P-'^"^ ,,ence
animal. If the operation be f f f^^^^^ 'this may be ascertained

of the fluid is suspected and tl^ ^^'^^^^^onld be effected with the com-
we have already described. The openu^ s ^^^^^^^

.on trochar used for tapping ^^^^.^^^^^^^^^^^^^ the ca'rtilages. Diu-

sl^uld be administered. (5..)

CATAanH, OR COMMON COLD.

This is a complaint of ^"^::^:i^ZZ^^'^^-

„.uch dif^iculty^ ',tt"^^ o a sUghJ discharge f^m the

It is accompanied by a ''^^'^j"^;*^' ^^h^f^ed ; a diminution of appetite, ano
nose and eyes; a coat somewh.^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^ ^

cough sometimes pamful and ^-^^^^^ ^.^der inflammation ot the

und some doses of the medicine ^e^o'"'^;^^ ^j,^ very painful and

lungs, will speedily effect a e^e- J^'^^ut then the disease is degcneratmq;
obstinate, it may be necessary to Weed , but
into bronchitis or catarrhal lever. (..«.;

CATARRHAL FKVEH.

The divisions of the windpipe just before it enters the lungs, and the
numerous vessels uito which it immediately afterwards branches' out
called the bronchial tubes, and inflammation of the membrane that 'lines
tiiem is termed

BRONCHITIS.

It is catarrh extending to the entrance of the lungs. It is characterised by
quicker and harder breathing than catarrh usually presents, and by a
peculiar wheezing, which is relieved by the coughing up of mucus.

It is to be treated by bleeding, far less copious than in inflamr/iation of
the lungs, or even in catarrh. The horse will bear to lose only a very small
quantity of blood when labouring under inflammation of the bronchial pas-
sages. The chest should be blistered, and digitalis given, and the other
treatment similar to that for inflamed lungs, with the exception of the
bleeding. Thick wind is a frequent consequence of neglected bronchitis

(34.)

CATARRHAL FEVER.

.This malady has various names among horsemen, as epidemic catarrh,
influenza, distemper. By the latter name it is. generally distino-uished
in racmg stables. It usually commences, like inflammation of the lungs
and fever, with a shivering fit; to which rapidly succeed a hot mouth
greater heat of the skin than is natural, heaving of the flanks, and cough.
The eyes are red and heavy, and the membrane of the nose red, but con-
siderably paler than that of inflammation of the lungs, and even occa-
sionally bordering on a livid hue. From the very commencement of the
disease there is some discharge from the nose; at first of a mere watery
nature, but soon thickening, and containing flakes, some of which stick
to .the membrane of the nose, and have been mistaken for ulcers. This
discharge, at no great distance of time, becomes mattery and offensive
The glands likewise of the throat and under-jaw become enlarged, and the
membranes of the nostril and the throat are inflamed and tender, and there-
fore the food is "quidded,"and there is difficulty even in swallowing water
particularly if it be cold. The horse sips and slavers in the pail, and repeat-
edly coughs as he drinks. The cough is sometimes frequent and painful ; so
much so, that the horse repeatedly stamps with his feet, and shows sio-n's of
impatience and suffering in the act of coughing. To these symptoms rapidly
succeeds very great weakiiess. The horse staggers, and sometimes almost
falls as he moves about his box ; or he supports himself by leaning his sides
or his quarters against the box. To the inexperienced observer this early
and excessive weakness will be very alarming, and he will give up the horse
as ost. The legs generally swell, and enlargements appear on the chest and
belly. These, however, are generally favourable. The pulse is quickened.
It rises to sixty or seventy, but the number of its beatings, and the cha-
racter of the pulse, which is seldom very hard, depend much on the degree
of fever which accompanies the disease.

After a few days the cough becomes less frequent and painful; the glands
of the throat diminished ; the horse begins to eat a little green meat, and
IS more cheerful. In some cases, however, the membrane of the nose
reddens, or streaks of red run through the lividncss ; and the legs become
cold, and the countenance haggard, and inflammation of the lungs is at
hand. At other times the breath is offensive ; the discharge from the nose
bloody ; the evacuations loose, and slimy, and bloody ; and the animal Ls

THE HORSE.

consequence of common cold . "^J^ ^^^^^^t the mkldle of spring and

vmcxplained influence ot the frenuent. Many horses in the

thR commencement of autumn U j"" . country, will be attacked by it.

same district, or in almost every .^j^^lt every cold will dege-

If the spring or autumn be wet ana ^ ^^^^^^ ^^i^h lead us to con-

nerate into it ; and there ^re too many ^ ^.^^^^

elude that it is infectious. A » residence of the purchaser

They were all but one sent unmedu^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ employed for some

at a considerable distance. Ihe a ^.^^^ distemper,

purpose, and afterwards "^^^^j;"i'"J;,as taken home. Three months
and on recovering sufficiently to travel, ^^^^^^^ j^^^^ p^,.

had now elapsed since the P"'-'^^^^^',^' ^^,^ after this horse arrived, they
fectly healthy ; but in less than a fortmght alter

all sickened with distemper. much judgment. It is clearly

The treatment of catarrhal fever , equires muc ^J^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^

febrile in its commencement ; but it

weakness. We will suppose that he ^^^^^^ ^le, regulated in quantity
mencement. Bleeding will then ^^ J^^^^J"';',^^ ' never intention-
by the degree of fever ; -^f y./^ ^^^^^^ ^"^.^^^ .topped wher.
ally pursued until the animal is ^amt ^^^^j^ be re-

there is the slightest appearance «f ^'"tne^"^ ^^e membrane of the nose
peated if the pulse is frequent and strong , or u ^^^^^^ ^^^^^^

fs getting red, -d tlje le^^^^^^^^^^ ^Z^^^^ the etf.t of it
rapidly coming on ; but u snouiu u

carefully watched. ^wo or three days, and the

If the disease has been suffered to run on tor ,„„,iaer all the

horse begins to stagger, the Factit oner or the o ^^^^ ^^^^^^.^^

symptom^s well before he ventures to bleed. He ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^

of the mouth, quickness ^"^^ff^^/jbW notwithstanding considerable
ness of the legs, will require the loss of blm)d n

weakness ; but if the animal is strength, bleeding will be

is livid, and he is fast losing condition as vvei b
better avoided. cbould be evacuated ; and there is

It is of importance that the ^oj^^.. ^ffative medicine as in mflam-
not so much danger in the use f * j'^^V^.b^does aloes may be given in
mation of the lungs. Two drachms ot m ^^^^^ ^^^^^^^
the form of ball, or in solution ^ m ^fter that, if the faeces have

be given, and even a third do^e twelve liou ^ ^^^^ ^ administer

not been loosened ; takmg care to back raKe

injections of thin gruel. ^vhihited should be the same as in in-

The sedative medicines at fi'^^t^^^'^^'^'^f ^'^titv • but as soon as the
flammation of the lungs, and - the ^'^..^.^ ,a.e; should

fever begins to remit, two d;acbms of ,be fever stiU

be added to each dose ; ^^d' . ^^^^^f ^^^^^^ on, but with caution

,nore subsiding, the ^^^farWa^^^^

Warm clothing is necessary, and If^^ "^^'^^'^ j j,! inflammation of tht
tl box should%till be airy. It should lot^ ^.^^ ber the

lungs. If the throat be so sore th"^^/-"^ ^ould be blistered. U will be
parotid or the submaxillary g^^^ds ^r both, sho^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ,

L better to blister them o"ce t^a^i to o^^ ^^^^ y^^ ^
ineffective applications. T^f^^'f 'fl^'^j^ation of the membrane ot the nose
and the natural progress of the "^^^'^Xi frequently put in the manger,
and throat hastened by ho. mashes being n i

CATAKRHAL FEVER.

191

or. if the horse is not too much distressed by it, hung: under his nostril "
a common nose-bag. When this is resorted to, a hood about the hea'd
will be particularly necessary.

A great deal of weakness soon follows an attack of catarrhal fever and
it will then be necessary, even while we are subduing the fever, to support
the strength of the animal. He should be otFered bran-mashes, malt-
mashes, damped hny, green meat, or carrots. If lie refuses to take
them, they should be insirmated between his grinders ; when, being com
pelled to bruise them a little in endeavouring to get rid of them, and
thus experiencing their taste, he will often be induced to eat several little
portions. If he obstinately refuses to feed, he must be drenched -with
thick gruel ; but this will seldom be necessary if all water be refused him
from the earliest period of the disease, and a pail with thinner gruel he
suspended in some part of his box. When he finds that he can get no-
thing else, he will drink sufficient of this to afford him all the nutriment we
require. The preservation of due warmth in the extremities is as necessary
here as in inflammation of the lungs, and should be attempted by warm
bandages, and frequent hand-rubbing.

The terminations of this disease most to be dreaded are inflammation
of the lungs, and putrid fever. We know how best to guard a<rainst the
former, and we shall presently speak of the latter. When, however the
disease hangs long upon the horse, there is usuallv much mischief done in
the chest, although the animal may recover. Thick wind, broken wind,
and chronic cough are its occasional consequences ; and likewise, as the
disease has affected so great a portion of the air-passages, a peculiar liability
to cold and cough, and, not unfrequently, an unpleasant and troublesome
discharge from the nose will remain. Of the latter we have spoken
under the title of nasal gleet, p. 121 ; the others will presently come under
consideration. The farmer will not forget the infectious nature of this
disease, and will immediately separate the sick animal from his companions.

The disease with which catarrhal fever is most likely to be confounded
is inflammation of the lungs ; and as the treatment of the two is in some
particulars so different, the farmer should be enabled readily to distino-uish
between them. If a little care be used this will not be difficult. ^The
febrile character of the pulse ; the eariy discharge from the nose ; the want
of intense redness in the lining of the nose ; the frequent and painful
cough ; the enlargement of the glands, and soreness of the throat ; the
rapid loss of strength, the sometimes constant, and at others variable
warmth of the legs ; the fidgettiness and pawing, will sufficiently distin-
guish catarrhal fever from the oppressed pulse, red nostril, heaving fiank,
httle cough, fixedness of limbs, and coldness of the extremities which
accompany and characterise inflammation of the lungs.

THE MALIGNANT EPIDEMIC.

Tins commences with nearly the same symptoms as catarrhal fever; it
probab.y at the beginning is catarrhal fever, but more than usually violent,
and sooner exhausting the powers of the frame.

Its symptoms are rapid loss of strength, stinking breath, fcetid discharge
from the nostrils, all the evacuations becoming highly offensive, the
pulse rapid, small and weak, and the animal obstinately refusing to eat. It
soon runs its course. Gangrene soon succeeds to inflammation, and
rapidly spreads from the ])art first inflamed through the whole of the
cellular substance, and over every portion of the frame. When veterinary
science was in its infancy, this pest used periodically to appear, and carry

j()2 THE HORSE.

offlmnarecls ofliorses; and that breeder is fortunate, who does not now
somethnes sulier fro.n its rava-es. The treatment of it is very unsat.s-
f-otorv The prevention may be a little more in our power, by eudea^our-
ina-to setrid of the previous disease by one bleediufr, when, m. some
seLonsr catarrhal fever appears under a form ^'f ^ rl^" ^

and bv bleedir,o- with extreme caution, or not bleedmg at all, when deb.hty
b ims to appear. A mild puroative may be first admnnstered to carry .
off a nortion of the offensive matter contained in the bowels; after wh ch,
cLlk a d ffh -er. and opium, and gentian, and columbo, with port-w.ne,
mf be Si!; given, with green meat, or thick gruel ; but except the
" rse be valuable, the chance of saving him is so slight, and probably the
'langer of spreading the pest so great, that prudence will prompt h.s

'"f osttequenfil occurrence among the consequences of catarrhal fever,
and inflammation of the lungs, is

CHRONIC COUGH.

It would occupy more space than we can devote to this part of our subject,
to speak of all the causes of obstinate cough. The irritability of so great
a nortion of the air-passages, occasioned by previous and violent inffam-
m tion of them, is the most fre,,uent. It is sometimes connected w.ta
wo ms. There is much sympathy between the lungs and the -n estines
Td the one very readily participates in the irritation produced m the
oZ. That it is caused by inlanders, can be easily imagined, because
that disease is, in its early' stage, seated in or near the pn'-pal a.r-
passages, and little time passes before the lungs ^e^-^e afte^^^^^^
ihe necessary attendant of thick wind and broken wmd, foi these proceed
from alterations of the structure of the lungs.

Notwithstanding the clearness of the cause, the cure is not so eMdent.
If ahaT^h hollow cough be accompanied by a slanng coat, and the ap-
pearait e of worms,-a few worm-balls may expel these parasites, and
mrve the irritation of the intestinal canal. If it proceed from >"'tab.l ty
of the a r passages, which will be discovered by the horse coughing^ after

S a ven Wfiotrellcc. e,,,eci»lly when macle up with lar.wh.ch seem,
.l'.flrP i the sliohtest degree with hi;, food or his work. A blister, ex-

r„rLT; th^gi"^ re whole eouL 'of .he windpipe, u„U. it enters

f-"? ir r;*irrerit°" St 2:: ^t^^^-

:SedT:;f oae„ reUe-^d when spr.n^ tares are „ven.

Carrots afford decided relief. „„ccrlain and all onr means and

The seat "f.^.e d^e«se nowevex. « - .„^,rf,,,„g,
appliances so inefncacious, ana uit i-uug,

THICK-WIND:

193

sometLmes interfering not at all with the health of the animal, that it
is scarcely worth while to persevere in any mode of treatment that is not
evidently attended with speedy benefit. The principal consideration to
induce us to meddle at all with chronic cough is the knowledo-e that
horses afflicted with it are more liable than others to be affected by cliano-es
of temperature, and that inflammation of the lung-s, or of the respiratory
passages, often assumes in them a very alarming character; to which
perhaps, we may add, that a horse with chronic cough cannot legally or
properly be warranted sound.

When ch ronic cough chiefly occurs after eating, the seat of the disease
is evidently in the substance of the lungs. The stomach distended with
food presses upon the diaphragm, and the diaphragm upon the lungs ;
and the lungs, already labouring under some congestion, are less capable of
transmitting the air. In the violent effort to discharge their function,
irritation is produced ; and the act of coughing is the consequence of that
Irritation. This is allied with, or soon runs into (36.)

THICR-WIND.

Thick-wind consists in short, frequent, and laborious breathino-s, and
■ especially when the animal is in exercise; the inspirations and expirations
oaen succeeding each other so rapidly as evidently to express distress, and
occasionally almost to threaten suffocation. Some degree of it frequently
exists in round-chested and fat horses, that have little or no breeding.
The reason of this is sufficiently plain. The circular chest affords sufficient
room for the expansion of the lungs when the animal is at rest, and suffi-
cient room for the accumulation of a great deal of fat and flesh ; but when
the horse is stronglj exercised, the circulation of the blood is hurried, and
its change from arterial to venous, or from vital to empoisoned blood, is
more rapid. The circular chest cannot then enlarge to any great deo-r'ee :
yet the blood must be purified in greater quantity, and therefore what
cannot be done by increase of surface, must be accomplished by frequency
of action. Heavy draught horses are invariably thick winded, and so are
almost all horses violently exercised on a full stomach.

A horse labouring under any inflammatory affection of the lungs is
thick-winded, because the pain which he feels in the act of breathing will
not permit him to respire deeply, and therefore, he must breathe quickly.
A horse unused to exercise is thick-winded, because the lungs will not
soon accommodate themselves to a new and laborious action.

The principal cause, however, of thick wind is previous mflammation,
and particularly inflammation of the bronchial passages. The throwing
out of some fluid, which is capable of coagulation, is the result, or the
natural termination of inflammation. This deposit in the substance of
the lungs, or in the bronchial tubes, from inflammation of these organs,
must close many of the air-cells, and lessen the dimensions of others. 'J hen
if the cells, fewer in number and contracted in size, be left for the purposes
of breathing, the rapid and laborious action of the lungs must supply the
deficiency, and especially when the animal is put in that state in which he
requires a rapid change of blood.

The examination of thick-winded horses has thrown considerable light
on the nature of the disease. In the majority of instances some of the
small air- cells have been found filled up with a dense substance of a blue
or flarker colour. In others, the minute passages leading to the cells have
Deen diminished, and almost obliterated, the linings of these passages
being unnaturally thickened, or covered with hardened mucus ; and where

O

194 THS HORSE.

neither of these appearances could be observed the linmg of tVe cens has
exhibited evident marks of inflammation, so that absolute pam prevented
the full expansion or contraction of the lungs. ,

Thick-wind is often the forerunner of broken-wmd. It is easy to under-
stand this • for if so much labour is necessary to con ract the a>r-cells, and
^, force o«\ the wind, and the lungs work so rapidly and so violent y m
eShig Uiis' some of the cells, weakened by disease, will probably be

OfTht treatment of thick-wind we have little to say Attention to diet.
Ot the treatment i „,,erloadino- of the stomach, and the avoidance
and the.prevention of the o edoad n^ ^^^.^^^ ^.^^^^^^

of exercise ^^^^^^ ^^."^^^^^ exten?ofthe horse's power, without

one that has been badly trained.

BKOKEN-WlND

This is easily distinguished from thick-wind. In thick-wind the breathing

Z £d ^riJ^thH' edi„S.y abcult to force . out .,.n, and

alterations of structure ^^'^^^^^"^ °" ".f pure blood must be

^""^^'V°^VlVttrr;^not the am Sc"^^^ - - -y to sup-

;oL'S.t'ihe':ro!;^^^ ^« --i-^^^ -

pose a horse to be SJ- fder and o have filled ^.^^^^
straw and h^y' a lesf than the natural compass.
Let the horse be no ^ ^^.^^ „f ^i.e cells

be P'"'fi^^'^"f^^? V^^^^^^^ broken- winded horses on the race-

give way-. Therefore "° ^. ^ required from them, their

course, for aUhough every e-^^^^^^^f ^ P^^^^ is not distended, and the
food lies in ^^^Pf care is taken that their exertion shall be

lungs have room to P '^y- empty. Carriage and coach horses

required when the ^^^T uli theVbrfng the disease to their work, fo,

BRUKKN-WIND.

195

use these pages are principally designed. The farmer's horse is the hmW.n
wmded horse, because that on which he is fed is bulky and t„o nfv
selected on account of its cheapness; becanse there is ii tie reiS^'"
the management of most of the farmers' stables, or the work of his S "
and because after many an hour's fasting the horses are often suffered to
porge themselves with this bulky food ; and then, with the stonTch press-
ing npon the lungs, and almost impeding ordinary respiration, they are nut
aga.n to vvork, and sometimes to that which requires considerable exertion
A profitable lesson may be learned from this statement. The farmer
perhaps may contrive to give his horses a little more corn, and a little less
hay, and straw, and chaff, without much additional expense ; he may con
tnve, too, to shorten the period of fasting, and therefore prevent the
ravenous manner m which agricultural horses often feed ; and more reo-u-
larity may take place between the periods of feeding and of work We
have recommended the nose-bag, as a preventive of stomach-stago-e^s ■ we
*'^!i,f^^^.'""^^*'y''^^°'"'"^"^'t as a preventive of broken-wind

This disease depends as much upon the cramped state of the luno-s from
the pressure of an overgorged stomach in tTie ordinary state of the ai imaT
as on the effects of over-exertion. The agriculturist knows that many a
horse becomes broken-wmded in the strlw-yard. There is little nutri^
inent m the provender which he there finds, and to obtain enou h for he
support of life, he , s compelled to keep the stomnch constant; fuH and
pressmg upon the lungs. Some have come up from grass broken-winded
that went out perfectly sound. The explanation of this case is the ame
The stomach was habitually gorged with coarse and innutritive herbage
a d Its pressure on the lungs cramped and confined their action, and pToI
duced those violent efforts which burst some of the air-cells, and especial^
when m their gambols in the straw-yard or in the field, or sometimes bein^
wantonly driven about the lungs were suddenly called upon to perform
extraordinary work. There are difficulties attending this explanaSTf
he disease but it cannot be denied that the dissection of horse^s whTh had
broken-wind has almost mvariably presented these enlarged air-cells, one of

TheTiTe n?'TV^' T"any of their natural dimensions.

The cure of a broken-winded horse no one ever witnessed; yet much
may be done m the way of palliation. The food of the animal sZld
consist of much nutriment condensed into a small compass; the quantity
of oa s should be mcreased, and that of hay proportionably diminished; the
bowels should be gently relaxed by the frequent use of mashes; the water
should be given sparingly through (he day, although at night che thirst of
the animal should be fully satisfied ; and exercise should never be taken
when the stomach is full It will scarcely be believed how much relief
these simple measures will afford to the broken-winded horse, and of how
much exertion he maybe gradually rendered capable. Some treated on
this plan have even been hunted, and have acquitted themselves well in
the held. Carrots are very useful to the broken -winded horse not only as
containing much nutriment and considerable moisture, so that less water
may be required, but from some property which they possess renderin<T
<.nem beneficial in every chest affection. A broken-winded horse turned
out to grass will never improve, on account of the almost constant disten
sion of the stomach; but iie nia,y be led on more succulent substances, as
turnips and mangel-wurzel, with evident advantage. They are easy of
digestion, and they soon pass out of the stomach.

Medical treatment is of little avail, except that organs so violently excited
as the lungs of broken-winded horses frequently are, must be subject to
.nflammation. and the difficulty of breathing in thecie horses is sometimes

() 2

res THK HORSE.

sadly increased. A little blood may then V.e subtracted ; and other mtani
taken which have been recommended for inflammatory affections of the
chest. In cases of frequent or periodical returns of diff.culty of breathing
to which these horses are very subject, a course of mild aperients, umted
with mercury, have been given with decided advantage Two drachms of
aloes, and one of calomel, may be given twice m the week. The barbarous
pract ce of some farriers of making holes near the anus, and sometimes m
other parts to let out the broken wind, cannot be too strong y reprobated.

Thick wind and broken-wind exist in various degrees, and many shades
of difference Dealers and horsemen generally have characterized them
bv names that can boast no elegance, but are considerably expressive of
thV state of the animal. Our readers should -^^^e ignorant of^t^^^^
Some horses make a shrill noise when m quick action-they are saicl to be
PrERS This is a species of Roaring. There is usually a ring of coagu-
S^d mattlr round ^he inside of the ^^^^^^^^^i^^^^^^
materially diminished, and the sound produced ^" q""^'^.^^^^^^
evidently be shriller. Sometimes the pipmg is produced by a contraction

'"ThrWHiSt'>ut^r^^^^^^^^^^^ the wheezer,but only when in

detect the whistler. . . , ^^^g j^orse

When the obstruction seems to be P^'"^ " Pl^"^^^^^^^

loudly puffs and blows, and the nostrils are f. ated to the ^^most

flanks L comparatively quiet. This animal

With all his apparent distress, he often P0^««^.«^^ S^^^ f^^t.^j '

The sound is unpleasant, but the lungs perfectly soim^^^^ ^^^^^^^

Every horse violently exercised on a full ^^ojach or wn ^^^^^

with fat: will grunt very much like a hog. Pre^^j^g'^'^t ^ ,o much

roaring. (37.)

THE DIAPHRAGM.

Chapter XI.

THE BELLY AND ITS CONTENTS

THE DIAPHRAGM.

The chest is separated from the abdomen or belly, by the diaphragm or
midriff, which extends obhquely from the loins to the breast-bone. In its
natural state it is convex, or projecting forward towards the lungs, and
concave or hollow backward towards the stomach and intestines. On the
side towards the chest it is covered by the membrane which invests the
lungs, and towards the belly by that which covers the intestines It
IS attached to the spine, the ribs, and the breast-bone by tendinous or
fleshy expansions, and in the centre it is composed of strong muscular
fibres. It IS one of the most important muscles of the frame. It is as we
have described it, the principal agent in breathing. When it acts its
fibres are shortened ; it loses its convexity and becomes plane ; the cheLt is
thereby enlarged, and the lungs enlarge with the expansion of the cavity in
which they are placed ; and air rushes in, and inspiration is performed
When the fibres of the diaphragm cease to act, that muscle returns to its
natural form ; it becomes again convex ; it presses upon the lungs and
helps to force out the air, and expiration is accomplished. It assists like-
wise in the natural cpnstant motion of the bowels, and lends its powerful
aid m the expulsion of the dung and urine, and in the birth of the youna-
animal. It is most concerned in coughing, yawning, si"-hin"- &c The
membrane which covers the diaphragm is very subject to inflammation.
Whether the original seat of disease be in the lungs or the bowels the
diaphragm soon becomes inflamed and irritable, which accounts for the
breathing of the horse being so much affected under every inflammation of
the chest or belly. The diaphragm is likewise occasionally ruptured,
principally from violent exertion. It has so much to tlo in the act of
breathing, that it is not to be wondered if, when the respiration is exceed-
ingly hurried, this muscle should give way. The symptoms of ruptured
diaphragm are very obscure. There 'are none on which we can perfectly
depend. This, however, is a matter of little consequence, for it is uni
formly fatal. If the rupture be small, some portion of the intestines
insinuates itself, and becomes entangled, and the passage is incurably
obstructed ; and if the aperture be large, so much of the intestine passes
through as to press upon the lungs, and render breathing impossible.

Three large vessels pass through the diaphragm ; the great artery which
conveys the blood from the heart to the hinder part of the frame, and which
goes through a kind of division of the diaphragm, so that it cannot be
pressed upon ; the great vein carrying the blood from the hinder parts and
the liver to the heart, and which penetrates the firm tendinous part of the
diaphragm so as likewise to be preserved from pressure ; and the gullet,
which passes through the most fleshy portion ol the diaphragm, and is liable
to be compressed by the constant action of this muscle, which, however, is
a matter of little consequence, for there is sufficient power in the muscles
of the gullet to propel the food through the diaphragm into the stomach.
The gullet terminates in ^gg j

198

THE HORSE.

THE STOMACH,

Which is found on the left side of the belly, lying upon the largt intestine*
its fore part close to the liver ; and its left side in contact with the diaphragm .
This situation of the stomach will at once explain the reason ^^'hy a horse
is so much distressed, and sometimes irreparably injured r!^f , ^"^J
immediately after a full meal. The stomach must be displaced and driven
back in the belly by every contraction of the diaphragm or act of inspira-
Sin then in proportion to the fulness of the stomach will be the weight to
broVercome, and^he labour of the diaphragm, and the exhaustion of the
animal Tf he stomach be much distended, it may be too weighty to be
fo c^d sufficiently far back to make room for the quantity of air which the
anTmal in a stat/of exertion requires. Hence the frequency and labour of
theTreath and the quickness with which such a horse is blown, or, pos-
sn^lv dest;oved. Hence the folly of giving too ful a meal, or too much
water before'the horse starts on a journey or for the chase ; and nence
Hkewise the absurdity and danger of that unpardonable custom of some
g^rrio gatp the horse after his drink, in order to warm it in his belly,

"'ThThrse^wrdestined to be the servant of man, and to serve him at

all hours and whether fasting or full: it would seem therefore, that to

fe sen the inconvenience or danger of the pressure of the stomach on the

dlaXa-m a smaller stomach, in proportion to his size, is given to the horse

?han toiost any other animal. The bulk of the horse, and the services

reauired oThim, demand much nutriment; and his nutriment ,s of such a

^?r. that it must occupy a very considerable space, yet his stomach, com-
nature that >tjn^s^ occupy y ^^^^ ^^^^^ being ; and

pared with h s bulk, ^« ^^'^ ^" ^^j^^,^ ^,1, inconvenience from

therefore, a h n^gh he^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^„,h as other

cannot cause him any annoyance.

CUT OF THE STOMACH.

THE STOMACH. ,gg

a The; oesophagus or gullet, extending to the stomach.

b The entrance of the gullet into the stomach. The circular layers of the muscles r
very thick and strong, and which; by their contractions, help to render it'^d!ffic!il
for the food to be returned or vomited,
c The portion of the stomach which is covered by cuticle or insensible skin.
d d The margin which separates the cuticular from the villous portion.
* e The mucous or villous (velvet) portion of the stomach, in which the food is prindpaUv
digested. v«^y

f The communication between the stomach and the first intestine.

g The common orifice through which the bile and the secretion from the p»,'acreas past

into the first intestine. The two pins mark the two tubes here united.
h A smaller orifice, through which a portion of the secretion of tlie pancreas enters the

intestines.

The orifice by which the gullet enters the stomach is called the cardtax:
b, from its nearness to the heart, or sympathy with it. It is constantly
closed by strong muscular fibres, except when food is passino- into the
stomach. It IS the construction of the soft palate, however, as has been
already described, and not this closing of the cardiac orifice of the stomach
that chiefly prevents the act of vomiting in the horse. '

The stomach has four coats. The outermost is the lining of the cavity
of the belly, and the common covering of all the intestines ; by which they
are all confined m their respective situations, and from which a fluid is
given out, which prevents all friction between them. This is called the veri-
ioneitm, or that which stretches round. ^

The second is the muscular coat, consisting of two layers of fibres one
running lengthways, and the other circularly, and by means of which a
constant gentle motion is communicated to the stomach, by which the food
is more thoroughly mixed together, and prepared for digestion, and by the
pressure of which also the food when properly prepared is pushed on into
the intestines.

The third, or cuticular, ^skin-like coat,) c, covers but a portion of the
inside of the stomach. It is a continuation of the lining of the gullet
There are numerous glands on it, which pour out a mucous fluid ; and it
IS, probably, intended to be a reservoir in which a portion of the food is
retained for a while, and softened and better prepared for the action of the
other or true digestive portion of the stomach. The cuticular coat occupies
nearly one half of the inside of the stomach.

The fourth coat is the mucous or villous (velvet) coat, e, where the work
of digestion properly commences. The mouths of numerous little vessels
open upon it, pouring out a peculiar fluid, the gastric (stomach) juice,
which- mixes with the food already softened, and converts it into a fluid
called chyme. As this is formed, it passes out of the other orifice of the
stomach, the pyloric, (a door to guard,) /, and enters the first small intes-
tine ; the harder and undissolved parts being turned back to undergo
further action.

The stomach of the horse being small, this wonderful change which is
eflfected in the food, and the nature of which has never been thoroughly
understood, proceeds very rapidly. The horse, in a short time, will eat a
great deal more than the stomach will hold, and room can only be made
for the reception of the fresh food by that which had been previously re-
ceived being discharged through the pyloric orifice.

Of one disease of the stomach, arising from over distension, stomach-
Wag-g-er*, we have already spoken. In a few instances the stomach hag

.,00 THE HOUSK.

been l<nown to be distended with air, but there are no character'.stic 8)-mp-
ioms by which this may be distinguished from distension by food, and
the treatment would be the same.

Of inflammation of the stomach in the horse, except from poisonouj
herbs or drugs, we know little. It very rarely occurs and then can h
difficulty he dikinguished from inflammation of the bowels, and in both
diseases the assistance of a skilful vetermary surgeon is required.

Few horses are destroyed by the poisonous plants m our meadows.
Natural instinct teaches them to avoid those which would be injurious.
More are destroyed by the leaves of the yev^ than by any other vegetab e
n^sl A leep ness, from which the animal can scarcely be roused, s eals
over him arid L dies without any symptom of pain.-Ten grams of the
?arina Tf the croton nut shouM be given, as soon as the poisoning is sus-
necfed he should be drenched largely with equal parts of vinegar and tli n
Tuel and the croton repeated in six hours, if ,t has not previously

""^T^fwaUr Drovwort, common in ditches and marshy places, is gene-
ral W refused by hoVses ; but brood-mares, with appetite somewhat vitiated
tl th ir beiig in foal, have been destroyed by it The antidote would
he vineo-ar and -ruel, and bleeding if there be inflammation.

iZwaTparshy deserves not all the bad reputation it has acquired
altLuVrwhen eaten in too great quantities, it has produced the
horse and which has been strangely attributed to a harmless beetle that

" Of Se'com«^« Hemlock and the Water Hemlock we know no har^ so
far as the horse is concerned. We have repeatedly seen him eat the latter

^'S?^::^:S^cSr t^^rlS^l^n^; ^rsernc was former^

"^^T^^nl profuse perspiration, thready pulse, rapid

particular partsblaclc and ga^^^^^^ be, for arsenic,

, ^''Te or e a c t or soap and water, given in great quan-

lime water, or ^^h^' ' an« . ^ ^ ' corrosive sublimate, the white of
titles with the .^f ";^^^^^-P"7i^:i, IZch, or arrow-root. If the poisoning be
eggs mixed with ''^"Xjls^eM by mixing a little of the fluid

malicious, arsenic ^^^l^l'^ f Jeak solution of blue viti^ol, to which a little
taken from the intestines ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^-^^ .,d^,,Uy become green ; or, if
hartshorn has been ^--thf^^^^^^ stomach or small intestines be

a little of the more solid '^""te ts oi ceived.
thrown on a red-hot iron, a smell of J^^hc will 1 ^^^^
For corrosive sublimate there is a smipkr test ^^^^^^ ^p^ ^^^^^^.^^^

the^^rop. and the .old

BOTS.

201

will immediately be stained ; or mix a little of the suspected fluid with lime
water, and the corrosive sublimate, if there be any, will be thrown to the
bottom, of an orange colour ; or if hartshorn be used, the precipitate will
be white.

BO'S

In the spring and early part of the summer, horses are much tro'ubled by
a grub or caterpillar, which crawls out of the anus, fastens itself under the
tail, and seems to cause a great deal of itching or uneasiness. Grooms
are sometimes alarmed at the appearance of these insects. Their history
is curious, and will dispel every feai with regard to them. We are indebted
to Mr. Bracy Clark for almost all we know of the hot.

CUT OF THE BOT.

a and b The eggs of the gad-fly, adhering to the hair of the horse.

c The appearance of the hots on the stomach, firmly adhering by their hooked
mouths. The marks or depressions are seen which are left on the coat of the
stomach when the hots are detached from their hold.
d The hot detached.

e The female of the gad-fly, of the horse, prepared to deposit her eggs.
f The gad-fly by which the red bots are produced.
ff The smaller or red bot.

A species of gad-fly, e, the oestrus equi, is in the latter part of the
summer exceedingly busy about the horse. They are observed to be dart-
ing with great rapidity towards the knees and sides of the animal. The
females are depositing their eggs on the hair, and which adhere to it by
means of a glutinous fluid with which they are surrounded, (a and b.) In
a few days the eggs are ready to be hatched, and the slightest application
of warmth and moisture will liberate the little animals which they contain.
The horse in licking himself touches the egg, it bursts, and a small worm
escapes, which adheres to the tongue, and is conveyed with the food into
the stomach ; there it clings, by means of a hook on either side of its
mouth, to the cnticular portion of the stomach, c; and its hold is so firm
and so obstinate, that it will be broken before it will be detached. It re-
mains feeding there on the mucus of the stomach during the whole of the
winter, and to the end of the ensuing spring ; when, having attained a con-

202 - THE HORSE.

T J u • j-.^t;„or» in iinderfTO a certain transformation,

tin o?^ st^aV the food, passes out of it >v.th the chyme, and »
at length evacuated with the dung ^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^

The larva or '"^SS^^^^'"'^"'"" ^lis or grub ; in which state it hes
contracts in s ze, and b^^f , '^Ztg i om its confinement, assumes
inacuve for a few ^^.^^^^^j^t^^m^ impregnated, quicUy deposits her
tlTn\hl,:e%t^o? tSse whichL isUt h.ely to licK, and so the

late the stomach and mcrease its ^^^^J^^^^l^^J^^' \^ roughness, assist
digestive portion of the stomach ^ ^^^"y^',^""";;^,^,^ office is performed
the trituration or rubbmg down ^ down. They

in that imrt of the stomach-the fo^^ rs softened not r ^^^^^j

cannot be injurious to the 1^''';^^'^]^^^^^^ them, and their pre-
when the cuticular part ot ^^oma h - fi^ed h ^^^^^^^
sence is not even suspected until Jhej appear stomach
be removed by medicine, because they are no m tha^^^^^^^^

to which medicine is usua^l^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ ,,,,,

rm"t:=.,-^r Z^:rZJ^^^ -m off when they

INTESTINES

CUT OF THE INTESTINES.

THR INTESTIJNliS. . 203

a The commencoinunt of the small intestines. The ducts which convey the bile and th«

secretion from the pancreas are seen entering a little below.
b The convolutions or windings of the small intestines,
c A portion of the mesentery.
cl The small intestines terminating in the coecum.

e The ccecum or blind gut, with the bands running along it, puckering and dividing it

into numerous cells.
/ The beginning of the colon.

g The continuation and expansion of the colon, divided like the eoecum into ccUb.
/» The termination of the colon in the rectum.
I The termination of the rectum at the auui

The intestines of a full grown horse are not less than ninety feet in
length. The length of the intestines in different animals depends on the
nature of the food. The nutritive matter is with much more difficulty ex-
tracted from vegetable than animal substances, therefore the alimentary canal
is large, long, and complicated, in those which, like the horse, are fed on
herbs alone. They are divided into the small and large intestines ; the
former of which occupy about sixty-six feet, and the latter twenty-four.
The intestines, like the stomach, are composed of three coats. The outer
one consists of the peritoneum, that membrane which we have already
described as covering the contents of the belly. By means of this coat the
bowels are confined in their proper situations ; and, this membrane being
smooth and moist, all friction and concussion are avoided. Did the bowels
float loosely in the belly they would be subject to constant entanglement
and injury amid the rapid and violent motions of the horse

Th« middle coat, like that of the stomach, is muscular, and composed ot
two layers of fibres, one running longitudinally, and the other circularly ;
and by means of these muscles, which are continually contracting and re-
laxing from the upper part downward, the food is forced along the bowels.
The inner coat is the mucous or villous ; — mucous, because it abounds
with small glands which pour out a mucous fluid to lubricate the passage
and defend it from irritating or acrimonious substances ; and villous from
its soft velvet feel. This coat is crowded with innumerable little mouths,
which are the commencement of minute vessels, by which the nutritive
part of the food is taken up ; and these vessels, uniting and passing over
the mesentery, carry this nutritive matter to a receptacle for it, whence it is
conveyed into the circulation and distributed to every part.

The intestines are more particularly retained in their places by the me-
sentery, c, (middle of the intestines,) which is a doubling of the peritoneum,
including the intestine in its bottom, and likewise inclosing between its
folds the arteries and veins, and nerves, and the vessels which convey the
nutriment from the intestines to the circulation. The mesentery has some-
what the appearance of an expanded fan, and all these things ramifying
between its transparent folds, give it a beautiful appearance.

The first of the small intestines is the Duodenum, a, so called be-
cause, in the human subject, it is about twelve inches long. In the horse it
is nearly two feet in length. It is the largest in circumference of all the small
intestines. It receives the food converted into chyme by the digestive power
of the stomach, which in it undergoes another and very important change ;
a portion of it is converted into cfnjle. It is mixed with the bile and the
secretion from the pancreas, which enter about five inches down the intes-
tine. The bile seems to be the principal agent in this change ; no sooner
does it mingle with the chyme, than the fluid begins to be separated into two
distinct ingredients ; □ white thick liquid, termed chyle, and containing th*

204

THE HORSE.

nutritive part of the food, and a yellow, pulpy substance, which becomes
the excrement. As these matters pass on by the motion of the intestines,
the separation becomes more complete ; the chyle is gradually taken up
by the mouths of these numerous little vessels, which are called the lacteals,
and at length the excrement alone remains.

The next portion of the small intestine is the Jejunum, so called, be-
cause it is generally empty. The passage of the food seems to be very
rapid through it. It is smaller in bulk, and paler in colour, than the
duodenum.

To this succeeds the Ileum ; but there is no point at which it can be
said that the jejunum terminates, and the ileum begins, except, that the
latter is said to be about one-fifth longer than the former. The whole of
these small intestines will contain about eleven gallons of water. _

At the termination of the ileum, d, commence the large intestines. The
first of them is the Coecum (blind), c, it has but one opening into it, and

consequently every thing that passes
through it, having reached the blind
or closed end, must return, in order to
escape, ft is not a continuation of
the ileum, but the ileum pierces the
liead of it, as it were, at right angles,
(cZ,) and projects some way into it,

and has a valve at its extremity, so
that what has traversed the ileum,
and entered the head of the colon
whence the coecum arises, cannot re-
turn into the ileum. Along the outside
of the coscum run three strong bands,
each (if them shorter than that intes-
tine, and therefore puckering it up,
and forming it into tliree sets of cells, as shewn in the accompanying

side cut. . . , , XL .1 u

That portion of the food, then, which has not been taken up by the
lacteals or absorbent vessels of the small intestines, passes through this
valvular opening of the ileum, and a part of it enters the colon, while the
remainder flows into the coecum. Then, from this being a blind pouch
and from the cellular structure of this pouch, the food must be detained
in it a very long time; and in order that, during this detention, all the
nutriment may be extracted, the coecum and its cells are largely supplied
with blood-vessels and absorbents. It is principally the fluid part of the
food that seems to enter the coecum. A horse will drink at once a great
deal more than his stomach will contain, or even if he drinks a less
onantity it remains not in the stomach or small intestines, but passes on to
the coecum and there is retained, as in a reservoir, to supply the wants of
the svstem ' In his state of servitude the horse does not often drmk more
than twice or thrice in a day, and the food of the stabled horse being
chiefly dry, this water stomach is most useful to him. The coecum will

^^Theffrei" portion of the food, and the more solid part of it, goes on to
the cohm (s S). This is an intestine of exceedingly large dimensions ; it
s caoable of containing no less than twelve gallons of hquid or pulpy food.
At it's union with the^coecum and the ileum although larger than the
latter intestine ( f), it is of comparatively small bulk, but it soon swe s
ou to t "rlus extent. It' has likewise, in the greater part of Us
course, three bands like the coecum, which also divide it, internully, into the

COLIC.

205

same description of cells. The intetilion of this is evident,— to retard the
progress of the food, and to give a more extensive surface on which the
vessels of the lacteals may open : and therefore, in the colon, all the chyle
is finally separated and taken up. When this is nearly accomplished, the
construction of the colon is somewhat changed : we find but two bands
towards the rectum, and these not puckering the intestine so much, or form-
ing such numerous or deep cells. The food does not require to' be much
longer detained, and the mechanism for detaining it is gradually disap-
pearing. The blood-vessels and absorbents are likewise rapidly diminishr
ing. The colon, also, once more contracts in size, and the chyle having
been all absorbed, the remaining mass, being of a harder consistence,
is moulded into pellets or balls in its passage through these shallower
cells.

At the termination of the colon, the Rectum (straight gut) commences.
It is smaller in circumference and capacity than the colon, and serves as a
reservoir for the dung until it is evacuated. It has none of these bands, be-
cause, all the nutriment being extracted, the passage of the excrement'that
remains should be hastened and not retarded. This descends to the lower
part of the rectum, which somewhat enlarges to receive it ; and when it has
accumulated to a certain extent, the animal, by the aid of the diaphragm
and the. muscles of the belly, pres-.es it out, and it is evacuated. A cu-
rious circular muscle, and always in action, called the sphincter (binder
together), is placed at the anus, to prevent the constant and unpleasant
dropping of the faeces, and to retain them until the animal is disposed vo-
luntarily to expel them.

DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES

These form a very important part of horse surgery, and many erroneous
notions are prevalent respecting them. The first disease we will consider is

SPASMODIC COLIC.

We have said, that the passage of the food through the intestinal canal
is effected by the alternate contraction and relaxation of the muscular coat
of the intestines. When that action is simply increased through the whole
of the canal, the food passes more rapidly, and purging is produced ;
but the muscles of eveiy part of the frame are liable to irregular and
spasmodic action, and the muscular coat of some portion of the intestines
may be thus affected. A species of cramp may attack a portion of the in-
testines. The spasm may be confined to a very small part of the canal.
The gut has been found, after death, strangely contracted in various places,
contraction not extending above five or six inches in any of them. In
the horse, the ileum is the usual seat of this disease. It is of much import-
ance to distinguish between spasmodic colic and inflammation of the
bowels, for the symptoms have considerable resemblance, although the
mode of treatment should be very different.

The attack of colic is usually very sudden. There is often not the slightest
warning. The horse begins to shift his posture, look round at his flanks
paw violently strike his belly w'th his feet, lie down, roll, and that fre

206 THR HORSK.

quently on his back. In a few minutes the pain seems to cease, the horse
shakes himself, and begins to feed ; but, on a sudden, the spasm returns
more violently, every indication of pain is increased, he heaves at the flanks,
breaks out into a profuse perspiration, and throws himself more violently
about In the space of an hour or two, either the spasms begmto relax, and
the remissions are of longer duration, or the torture is augmented at every
paroxysm, the intervals of ease are fewer and less marked, and mflamma-
tion and death supervene. .ujr -a'

Of the symptoms by which it may best be distmguished from mflamma-
tion of the bowels, we shall speak when we treat of that disease. Among
the causes of colic are, the drinking of cold water when the horse is heated.
There is not a surer cause of violent spasm than this. Cohc will some-
times follow the exposure of a horse to the cold air or a wind after
violent exercise. Green meat, although, generally speakmg most beneficidl
to the horse, yet given in too large a quantity, or when the horse is hot,
will frequently produce gripes. In some horses there seems to be a con-
stitutional predisposition to colic. They cannot be hardly worked, or ex
posed to inusual cold, without a fit of it. In '"^"Y ^^en these

horses have died, stones have been found in some part of the alimentary

^'^Fortunately, we are acquainted with several medicines that allay these
soasms • and the disease often ceases almost as suddenly as it ap-
neared Turpentine is one of the most powerful remedies, especially if
Slen in union with opium. Three ounces of spirit or oil of turpentine,
with an ounce of laudanum, given in a pint of warm ale, will frequently
have an almost instantaneous effect. The account which have just
ffiven of the coecum will not be forgotten. Even a small quantity of fluid
will seldom be detained in the stomach, but will pass through the ileum to
The cLnm or water-stomach, and in this passage will come in immediate

contact with the spasmed part. j ^ * ui j

If relief be not obtained in half an hour it will be prudent to bleed, be-
cause the continuance of violent spasm will produce i"fl^' nidation. Some
practitioners bleed at first, and it is far from bad practice ; for although
thTrrorUY of cases will yield to turpentine, opium, and aloes, an early
Itrr-y occasionally 'prevent the -urpce of inflam^^^^^^^^^
least mitiffate it. If it be clearly a case of colic, half of the first dose may
be rep"S with a full ounce of Barbadoes aloes dissolved in warm water
The stimulus produced on the inner surface of the bowds by the purg^'ve
ray co3eract the irritation which caused the spasm. The belly should be
weU tubbed with a brush or warmed cloth, but not bruised and injured by
The broom handle rubbed over the belly by two great fellows with all their
Itren^^^h The horse should be walked about, or trotted moderately. The
rioUon thus produced in the bowels, and the friction of one intestine

- V^%irtoir^^^^^^

"^^Z:^:^^^ The patent syringe will here

^^hen retfhas been obtained, the clothing of the horse, saturated with

• f!^^ Ihnnld be removed, and fresh, dry clothing substituted,
perspirat on should b^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ bran

mashes t theTwi o three next days, and dnnk only lukewarm water

£me persons give gii^^ and even gin and pepper, m cases of gnpe .
Tht however is a pra'cti^e to which we strongly object ; ,t may be useflil,
Ihis, however, is a of colic, but if there be any inflamma-

or even sufficient, in ordinary cases ui u-^u, ini.irioim (39 )

tion or tendency to inflammation, il cannot fail to be highlv iniur.ous.(39.;

INFLAMMATION OF TliE BOWEL&.

2C7

CALCULI, on STONES IN THE INTESTINES.

We have mentioned these as a cause of colic in horses that are subject to
frequent attacks of it. Some indigestible substance lodges in the coecum
or colon : earthy, or half-digested vegetable matter gradually accumu-
lates around this, and a ball, weighing many pounds, is sometimes
formed. This will produce colic, or obstruct the passage of the gut, or, by
its pressure, produce inflammation ; but as there are few or no symptoms
by which the presence of these stones is clearly indicated, and few, or
rather, no certain means, by which they may be removed, we will pass on
to an occasional consequence of colic. (40.)

INTUSUSCEPTION OF THE INTESTINES

The spasmodic action of the ileum long continued, may be siicceeded by an
mverted action from the ccecum towards the stomach, more powerful than
the natural action ; and the contracted portion of the intestine is thus forced
into a portion above it that retains its natural calibre ; and the irritation
caused by this increases the action, until more is forced in, and an obstruc-
tion is formed which no power can overcome. Even the natural motion of
the bowels will be sufficient to produce intususception, when the contrac-
tion of a portion of the ileum is very great. There are no symptoms to
indicate the presence of this, except continued and increasing pain ; or
if there were, all our means of relief would here fail.

ENTANGLEMBNT OF THE BOWELS

This is another and more singular consequence of colic. Although the
ileum is enveloped in the mesentery, and its motion to a considerable
degree confined, yet under the spasm of colic, and during the violence with
which the animal rolls and throws himself about, portions of the ileum
become so entangled as to be twisted into nooses and knots, drawn toge-
ther with a degree of tightness scarcely credible. Nothing but the extreme
and lengthened torture of the animal can lead us to suspect that this lias
taken place, and, could we ascertain its existence, there would be no
cure. (41.)

inflammat:on of the bowels.

There are two varieties of this malady. The first is inflammation of the
external coats of the intestines, accompanied by considerable fever and cos-
tiveness. The second is that of the internal or mucous coat, usually the
consequence of an over-dose of physic, and accompanied by violent purg-
ing. We will here speak of the first of these affections. It has been
divided into inflammation of the peritoneal coat, and that of the muscular :
but the causes, symptoms, and treatment of both are so much alike, that it
would be raising unnecessary difficulties to endeavour to distmguish
between them. Inflammation of the external coats of the stoniach, whether
the peritoneal or muscular, or both, is a very frequent and fatal disease.
It speedily runs its course, and it is of great consequence that its early
symptoms should be known. If the horse has been carefully observed,
restlessness and fever will have been seen to precede the attack ; in many
cases a direct shivering fit will be observed ; the mouth will be hot, and the
nose red. The horse will soon express the most dreadful pain by pawing,
striking at his belly, looking ^^ildly at his flanks, groaning and rolling

208

THK HORSE.

The pulse will be quickened and small ; the ears and legs cold , the belly
tender and sometimes hot ; the breathing quickened ; the bowels costi\e;
and the horse becoming rapidly and fearfully weak.

It may be useful to give a short table of the distinguishing symptoms of
colic and inflammation of the bowels, because the treatnrent recommended
for the former would often be fatal in the latter.

COI.IC. INFLAMMATION OF THK BOWELS.

Sudden in its attack. Gradual in its approach, with previous

indications of fever.

Pulse rarely much quickened in the early Pulse very much quickened, but small, and
period of the disease, and during the intervals often scarcely to be felt
of ease : but evidently fuller.

Legs and ears of the natiural temperature. Legs and ears cold.

Relief obtained from rubbing the belly. Belly exceedingly tender and pamful to

the touch

ReUef obtained from motion. Motion evidently increasing the pain.

Intei-vals of rest. Constant pain.

Strength scarcely affected. Rapid and great weaknesg.

The causes of this disease are, first of all, and most frequently, sudden
exposure to cold. If a horse that has been highly fed, carefully groomed,
and kept in a warm stable, be heated with exercise, and have been for
some hours without food ; and in this state of exhaustion be suffered to
drink freely of cold water, or be drenched with rain, or have his legs and
belly washed with cold water, an attack of inflammation of the bowels will
often follow. An overfed horse subjected to severe and long-continued
exertion, if his lungs were previously weak, will probably be attacked by
inflammation of them ; but if the lungs were sound, the bowels will on the
following day be the seat of disease. Stones in the intestines are an
occasional cause of inflammation, and colic neglected, or wrongly treated,
will terminate in it. - < i

The treatment of inflammation of the bowels, like that of the lungs,
should be prompt and energetic. Tlie first and most powerful means of cure
will be bleeding. From six to eight or ten quarts of blood should be taken
as soon as possible, and the bleeding repeated to the extent of four or five
quarts more if the pain be not relieved, and the pulse have not become
rounder and fuller. The speedy weakness that accompanies this disease
should not deter from bleeding largely. It is the weakness that is the
consequence of violent inflammation of these parts, and if that inflamma-
tion be subdued by the loss of blood, the weakness will disappear. The
bleeding should be effected on the first appearance of the disease, for tliere
is no malady that so quickly runs its course.

Next to bleeding will follow clysters. Although the bowels are usually
confined, we cannot administer a strong purgative*; the intestines are
already in far too irritable a state. The clyster may consist of warm water,
or very thin «-ruel, in which half a pound of Epsom salts, or half an ounce of
aloes has been dissolved, and too much fluid can scarcely be thrown up. If
the common ox-bladder and pipe be used, it should be frequently replenished ;
but with Heed's patent pump, already referred to, sufficient may be injected
to penetrate beyond the rectum, and reach to the colon and coecum, and

* The human practitioner gives, under this disease, and with advantage, very powerfU
dolJof purg2rmedicine;lnd'hemaybe disposed to demt^ to the caut.ous mode of
nro^eedinrwe recommend ykth regard to the horse. Although we may not be able to
^ivriih^ a^sScrrtheorctlcal riaaon in defence of our treatment, we can appeal to the
l^reJlenc^ ^fe^ry veirinary surgeon, that a strong dose of physic given m inflammation
cf the bowels wou' 1 be certain poison.

INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWKLS

(lispo.^e them to evacuate their contents. The horse may likewise be
encouraged to drink plentifully of warm water or thin gruel.; and draun-hts,
each containino- a couple of drachms of dissolved aloes, may be given every
six hours, until the bowels are freely opened.

Next, it will be prudent to endeavour to excite considerable external
inflammation, as near as possible to the seat of internal disease, and there-
fore the whole of the belly should be blistered. In a well-marked case of
this inflammation, no time should be lost in applying fomentations, but the
blister be at once resorted to. The tincture of Spanish flies, whether made
with spirit of wine or turpentine, should be well rubbed in. The legs should
be well bandaged, to restore the circulation to them, and thus lessen the
flow of blood to the inflamed part, and for the same reason the horse should
be warmly clothed, but the air of the stable or box should be cool.

No corn or hay should be given during the disease, but bran-mashes,
and green meat if it can be procured. The latter will be the best of all
food, and may be given without the slightest apprehension of danger.
When the horse begins to recover, he may get a handful of corn two or
three times in the day, and, if the weather be warm, may be turned into
a paddock for a few hours in the middle of the day. Clysters of gruel
should be contiiuied for three or four days after the inflammation is begin-
ning to subside, and good hand-rubbing applied to the legs.

The second variety of inflam.mation of the bowels affects the internal or
mucous coat, and is generally the consequence of physic given in too great
quantity, or of an imjjroper kind. The purging is more violent, and con-
tinues longer than was intended ; the animal shews that he is suffering
great pain ; he frequently looks round at his flanks ; his breathing is
laborious, and the pulse is quick and small ; not so small, however, as in
inflammation of the peritoneal coat, and, contrary U) some of the most
. frequent and characteristic symptoms of that disease, the mouth is hot, and
the legs and ears are warm. Unless the purging is excessive, and the
pain and distress great, we should hesitate at administering any astringent
medicine at first. We should plentifully administer gruel, or thin starch,
or arrow-root, by the mouth and by clyster, removing all hay and corn,
and particularly green meat. We shouH endeavour thus to sheath the
irritated surface of the bowels, while we permitted any remains of the
medicine to be carried off". If, however, twelve hours should pass, and
the purging and the pain remain undiminished, we should continue the
gruel, but add to it chalk, catechu, and opium, in doses of an ounce of
the first, a quarter of an ounce of the second, and two scruples of the last,
repeated every six hours. As soon as the purging begins to subside, the
astringent medicine should be lessened in quantity, and gradually dis-
continued. Bleeding will rarely be necessary unless the inflammation be
very great, and attended by symptoms of general fever. The horse should
be warndy clothed, and be placed in a warm stable, and his legs should he
hand rubbed and bandaged.

Violent purging, and attended with much inflammation and fever, will
sometimes occur from other causes. Green meat will sometimes purge.
A horse worked hard upon green meat will scour. The remedy is change
of diet, or less labour. Young horses will scour, and sometimes without
any apparent cause. Astringents should be used with much caution here.
It is probably an effort of nature to get rid of something that oHends. A few
doses of gruel will assist in effecting this purpose, and tfie purging will
cease without astringent medicine.

Some horses that are not wdl-ribbcd home, (having too j^reat space
between the last nb and the hip-bone,) are subject to purging if more than

P

SIO

THK IIORSR.

usual exertion Is required from them. They are recognised by the term
of washy horses. They are often free and fleet, but destitute of continuance.
They should have rather more than the usual allowance of corn, with beans,
when at work ; and a cordial ball, with one drachm of catechu, and ten
e-rains of opium will often be serviceable either before or after a journey .

^ (42.)

WORMS

Worms of different kinds inhabit the intestines ; but except when they exist
in very great numbers, they are not so hurtful as is generally supposed,
although the groom or carter may trace to them hidebound, and cough,
and loss of appetite, and gripes, and megrims, and a variety of other
ailments Of the origin or mode of propagation of these parasitical
animals we will say nothing ; neither writers on medicine, nor even on
natural history, have given us any satisfactory account of the niatter.

The long white worm {lumbricm teres) much resembhng the common
earth-worm, and, being from six to ten inches long, inhabits the small in-
testines. It is a formidable looking animal, and if there are many of them
they may consume more than can be spared of the nutritive part of the food
or the mucus of the bowels ; and we think that we have seen a tight skm,
and rough coat, and tucked up belly, connected with their presence. Ihey
have then, however, been voided in large quantities, and when they are not
thus voided we should be disposed to trace these appearances to other
causes. A dose of physic will sometimes bring away almost incredible quan-
tities of them. Calomel is frequently given as a vermifuge. The seldomer
this drug is administered to the horse the better. It is the principal ingredient
in some quack medicines for the expulsion of worms in the human subject,
and thence, perhaps, it came to be used for the horse, but in him we
believe it to be inert as a vermifuge, or only useful as qmckeniug „he
operation of the aloes. When the horse can be spared, a strong dose ot
physic is an excellent vermifuge, so far as the long round worm is con-
cerned ; but perhaps a better medicine, and not interfering with either the
feediuff or work of the horse, is two drachms of emetic tartar, with a scruple
of ginger, made into a ball, with linseed meal and treacle, and given every
mornincr half an hour before the horse is fed.

A smaller, darker coloured worm, called the needle worm, or oscflm,
inhabits the large intestines. Hundreds of them sometimes descend into
the rectum, and immense quantities have been found in the ccecum. 1 hese
are a more serious nuisance that the former, for they cause a very trouble-
some irritation about the fundament, which sometimes sadly annoys the
horse. Their existence can ^enerally be discovered, by a small portion o
mucus, which hardening, is converted into a powder, and is found about
the anus. Physic will sometimes bring away great numbers of these
worms but when there is much irritation about the tail, and much of this
mucus'indicating that they have descended into the rectum an injection of
^qSart of linseed oil, or of an ounce of aloes dissolved in warm water,
will be a more effectual remedy. ^
The tape worm is seldom found in the horse.

PHYSICKING.

This would seem to be the most convenient place to speak of pliysicl?;"8
This ^""'^^^^^""Z" necessary under various diseases, but which

& erhe%lrur^^ more if ses, and in fact absolutely^estr^^^^
more of them, than any other thing that can be mentioned. When a hon*

PHYSICKING.

9.U

comes from grass to hard meat, or from the cool open air to a heated
stable, a dose of physic or even two doses may be useful to prevent the
tendencv to inilammation which must be the necessary consetiuence of
so sudden and great a change. To a horse that is becoming too fat, or
has surfeit, or grease, or mange, or that is out of condition from inactivity
of the digestive organs, a dose of physic is often most serviceable ; bul we
do enter our protest against the periodical physicking of all horses in the
spring and the autumn, and more particularly against that severe system
which is thought to be necessary to train them for work, and the absnid
method of treating the horse when under the operation of physic.

A horse should be carefully prepared for the action of physic. Two or
three bran-mashes given on that or the preceding day are far from suffi-
cient, when a horse is about to be physicked, whether to promote his condi-
tion or in obedience to custom. Mashes should be given until the dung
becomes softened ; a less quantity of physic will then suffice, and it will
more quickly pass through the intestines, and be more equally diffused over
them. Five drachms of aloes, given when the dung has thus been softened,
will act much more effectually, and much more safely than seven drachms,
when the lower intestines are obstructed by hardened fseces

On the day on which the physic is given, the horse should have walking
exercise, or may be gently trotted for a quarter of an hour twice in (he
day ; but after the physic begins to work, he should not be moved tirom
his stall. Exercise then would produce gripes, irritation, and possibly
dangerous inflammation The common and absurd practice is to give (lit
horse most exercise aftev the physic has begun to operate.

A little hay may be put into the rack ; as much mash may be given as
the horse will eat, and as much water, with the coldness of it taken off, as
he will drink. If, however, he obstinately refuses to drink warm water, it
is better that he should have it cold, than to continue without taking any
fluid ; but he should not be suffered to take more than a quart at a time,
with an interval of at least an hour between each portion.

When the purging has ceased, or the physic is set, a mash should be
given once or twice every day until the next dose is taken, between whicl-.
and the setting of the first ther£ should be an interval of a week. The
horse should recover from the languor and debility occasioned by the first
dose, before he is harassed by a second.

Eight or ten tolerably copious motions will be perfectly sufficient (o
answer every good purpose, although the groom or the carter may not be
satisfied unless double the quantity are procured. The consequence of too
strong purgation will be, that a lowness and weakness will hang about the
horse for many days or weeks, and inflammation will often ensue from the
over-irritation of the intestinal canal.

Long continued custom has made aloes the almost invariable purgative
of the horse, and very properly so ; for there is no other at once so sure
and safe. The Barbadoes aloes, although sometimes very dear, sliould
alone be used. The dose, with a horse properly prepared, will vary Irom
five to seven drachms. The preposterous doses of nine, ten, or even
twelve drachms are, happily for the horse, generally abandoned. «-"^<.""'
has assigned the form of a ball to physic, but good sense will in due tm e
introduce the solution of aloes, as acting more speedily, effectually, and

'^The only other purgative on which dependence can be placed is the
CROTON. The fariim o"r meal of the nut is used ; but from its acnnio, y ,t
should be given in the form of ball, with linseed meal The dose vanes
from a scruple to half a drachm. It acts more speedily than the aloes.

213 THE HORSK,

witliout the nausea which they produce ; but it causes more watery stool»;
and consequently more debihty.

Linseed oil is an uncertain but safe purgative, in doses from a pound
to a pound and a lialf. Olive oil is more uncertain but safe ; and castoh
OIL, that mild aperient in the human being, is both uncertain and unsafe.
Epsom salts are inefficacious, except in immense doses of a pound and a
half, and then not always safe. (43.)

The horse, and particularly the perfect horse, is occasionally subject to

HERNIA OR RUPTURE.

A portion of the intestine protrudes out of the cavity of the belly either
through some natural or artificial opening. In some jjases it may be
returned, but from the impossibility of applying a truss or bandage it soon
returns again. At other times the opening is so narrow, that the gut,
gradually'' distended by feeces, or thickened by inflammation, cannot be
returned, and strangulated hernia is then said to exist. The seat of hernia
is either in the scrotum of the perfect horse, or the groin of the gelding.
The causes are violent struggling when under operations, over-exertion,
kicks, or accidents. The assistance of a veterinary surgeon is here indis-
pensable. (44.)

THE LIVER.

Between the stomach ana the diaphragm, its right lobe or division in con-
tact with the diaphragm, the duodenum and the right kidney, and the
middle and left divisions with the stomach, is the liver. It is an irregu-
larly shaped, reddish-brown substance of considerable bulk, and performs
a very singular and important office.

We have already stated (p. 176) that the blood, which has been conveyed
to the different parts of the body by the arteries, is carried back to the
heart by the veins; but that which is returned from the stomach and
intestines, and spleen, and pancreas, and mesentery, instead of flowing
directly to the heart, jmsses first through the liver. It enters by two large
vessels which spread by means of innumerable minute branches through
every part of the liver. As the blood traverses this organ, a fluid is sepa-
rated from it, called the bile. This is probably a kind of excrement, the
continuance of which in the blood would be injurious ; but while this is
thrown off, another important purpose is answered ; the process of digestion
is promoted, and particularly by the bile changing the nutritive part of the
food from chyme into chyle, and separating it from that which, containing
little or no nutriment, is voided as excrement.

The bile, thus formed, is in most animals received into a reservoir
the sall-bladder, whence it is conveyed into the duodenum {g, p. 202)
at the times, and in the quantities, which the purposes of digestion
require- but the horse has no gall-bladder, and, consequently, the bile
flows into the intestine as fast as it is separated from the blood. The
reason of this is plain ; a small stomach was given to the horse, that the
food might quickly pass out of it, and the diaphragm and the lungs might
not be injuriously pressed upon, when we require his utmost speed ; and
that we might use him with little danger compared with that which would
attach to other animals, even when his stomach is distended with food.
Then the stomach, so small, and so speedily emptied must be oftener
replenished; the horse must be oftener eating, and food must be oilener
passing out of his stomach ; and, consequently, there is no necessity tor this

JAUNDICE.

213

reservoir. The ox occupies a long time in filling his paunch, and it is onlv
dmmg rumuiation that the food passes into the true stomach to be digested
The meal of the dog is speedily swallowed. They need a gall-bladder to
contain the bile, which continues to be secreted when it cannot be used •
buA to the horse, so frequently eating, it would be useless.

INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER

[s a disease of rare occurrence in the horse. He is not exposed to the causes
which produce that complaint in other animals. Although his food is some-
times highly nutritive, the work which is exacted from him prevents it from
unduly stimulating this importint organ; and when inflammation of the
liver does occur, it is with so much difficulty distinguished from that of
the bowels, that if yellowness of the eyes and skin are not present, even
the professional man is liable to be deceived.

Bleeding from, or rupture of the liver, is another disease of old
horses, and especially of those that have been highly fed. It is generally
fatal, but of unfrequent occurrence ; it is recognised by the frequent and
feeble pulse, the pawing and sighing of the animal, the coldness of the
extremities," whiteness of the eye and mouth, fulness of the belly, and
speedy debility. A veterinary surgeon is alone competent to give assistance
here. (45.)

JAUNDICE,

Commonly called the yellows, is a more tractab'e disease, and a little
more frequent. It is the introduction of bile into the general circula-
tion, and which is usually caused by some obstruction in the ducts or
tubes which convey the bile from the liver to the intestines. The
horse, however, has but one duct, through which the bile usually flows as
quickly as it is formed, and there is no gall-bladder in which it can become
thickened, and even hardened into masses so hard as to be very appro-
priately called gall-stones. Jaundice does, however, occasionally appear
either from an increased flow or altered quality of the bile, or obstruction
even in this simple tube. The yellowness of the eyes and mouth, and of
the skin where it is not covered with hair, mark it sufficiently plainly.
The dung is small and hard ; the urine high coloured ; the horse languid,
and the appetite impaired.

It is first necessary to inquire whether this affection of the liver be not
the consequence of the sympathy of this organ with some other part ; for,
to a very considerable degree, it frequently accompanies inflammation of
the bowels and the lungs. These diseases being subdued, jaundice will
disappear. If there be no other disease to any great extent, we must
endeavour to restore the natural passage of the bile by purgatives, not
consisting of large doses, lest there should be some undetected inflamma-
tion of the lungs or bowels, in either of which a strong purgative would
be dangerous ; but given in small quantities, repeated at short intervals,
and until the bowels are freely opened. Two drachms of aloes, and one of
calomel, given twice every day, will be as much as can at all times be
administered with safety. Bleeding should always be resorted to, regu-
lated according to the apparent degree of inflammation, and the occasional
stupor of the animal. Plenty of water slightly warmed, or thin gruel,
should be given ; the horse should be warmly clothed, and the stable well
ventilated, but not cold. Carrots or green meat will be very beneficial
Should the purging, when once excited, prove violent, we should be in no
haste to jstop it, unless inflammation is beginning to be connected with
it, or the horse is very weak. The medicine recommended under diarrhoea

2u TUE IIORSK

,nay then be exhibited. A few slight tonics should be ^ven when the
horse is recovering from an attack of strangles Two drachms each o,
gentian and chamomile, with one of ginger, will form a useful ball. (46.)

THE SPLEEN.

TU. or,a„. .no,™ W a,e na,„e^of the «... U a

brown substance, broad and hick at J"^^^ \t the short ribs,
lying along the left side of the stom^^^^^^ ,
It is of a spongy nature divided >nto »u ^ ^^^^

honeycomb and ^^J^^^^^^Jefbe

The particular use «f ^ ^been "e^^^^^ ^PP^'"""' ^"•'"'^ '°

some cruel experiments it has been remo ^ , i^^^^ ^^ca-

digestion, or any other function. It is, ^^"^[f ' ' ^ reservoir or

sionally, or it would not have been S^ven. « £ stomach more than
receptacle for any fluid that may be conveyed into the stom
is sufficient for the purposes of digestion. p.-wed and has been

The spleen is sometirnes very extraordinar ly^
ruptured; but we are not aware of any symptoms uy
discovered.

THE PANCREAS.

I the aomestic animals which are used for food tWs orp.i is c^led the
s^,eetbread. It hes between the stomach and left k.d^e^^^
resembles in structure the .f ^^^^^^y 5^=^"/^^ 'J " ommon saliva. The
mouth, and the fluid which it ^^^/^^^^ JfL^ which enters at the

pancreatic fluid is carried '"to the . "itestines Dy a ^.^^^^ ^.^^^

Lnie aperture with that from the hver Its use^^ ^^^^^^^^^

or the chyme, or to assist in separaUon ot^ c^^^^^
matter, has never been ascertained, but it is clearly p y
process of digestion. pancreas of the horse is liable.

We know not ot any disease ^"/^'^^ '"^^Pf animals is opened, a mem-
As soon as the belly of most of ^^-'J^Z ^o^^Z^^^ thl cavity ; it is
brane is perceived spreading over all the contents

denominated

THE OMENTUM,

or ca.l. It is a doubling of the pe— ^l^t^^
layers of it. It has been supposed to be plac^^ ^^^^

and the walls of the belly, to Pi:!^ J^^^, cannot be its principal use
rapid movement of the animah^^T^^^^

in the horse, from whom the most r^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^.,^^1
him it is unusually «bor^ extend in y ^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ,
portion of the colon. ^^^"S^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ M species of rupture, when
--y/^^^^^^^^ thJ^ugh so.Se accidental opemng m

the covering of the belly. ^^^titv of watery fluid unnecessary for the

Thebloodcontains a great quanmy^^^ ^^.^^ ^^tters

nutriment or repair ot the ^ra ^ accumulate too much,
which would be noxious if suttered

THE KIDNEYS

„e .c«ve,y employed ^t'i^i^'^^^

DIIJRKTICS.

animal. The kidneys are two large glandular bodies, placea under the
loins, very much of the shape of a kidney bean. The right kidney is most
forward, lying under the liver ; the left is pushed more backward by the
stomach and spleen. A large artery runs to each, carrying not less than
a sixth part of the whole of the blood that circulates through the frame.
The artery divi.les into innumerable little branches most curiously compli-
cated and coiled upon each other; and the blood, traversing these convo-
lutions, has its watery parts and others the retaining of which would be
injurious, separated from it.

The fluid thus separated varies materially both in quantity and composi-
tbn, even during health. There is no animal hi which it varies so much
as in the horse." There is no organ in that animal so much under our
command as the kidney ; and no medicines are so useful, or may be so
injurious, as diuretics. In speaking of fever and inflammation of the lungs,
and indeed inflammation generally, we have recommended the use of nitre
and digitalis, not only on account of their febrifuge or sedative effects, but
because they act as diuretics. They stimulate the kidneys to separate more
aqueous fluid than they otherwise would do, and thus lessen the quantity
of blood; the quantity which the heart is labouring to circulate through
the frame, and the quantity which is determined or driven to a part already
overloaded. The main objects we have to accomplish in these diseases
is to reduce the force of the circulation, and to calm the violence of excite-
ment ; and diuretics, by lessening the quantity of blood, are useful assist-
ants in accomplishing these purposes. It is, however, in the varieties of
dropsy that their benefit is most evident. The horse is more subject to
effusions of fluid in particular parts than any other domestic animal.
Swelled legs is a disease peculiar to him. The ox, the sheep, the dog, the
ass, and even the mule, have it very seldom ; and for (he removal of this
deposit of fluid in the cellular substance of the legs we have recourse to
diuretics. The kidneys are stimulated to separate more than the usual
quantity of water from the blood. In order to make up this deficiency in
quantity, the absorbents set to work, and they take up and pour into the
circulation the fluid which had been effused in the legs. The legs of many
horses cannot be rendered fine, or kept so, without the use of diuretics ;
nor can grease, often connected with these swellings, producing them or
caused by them, be otherwise subdued. We therefore rank diuretics
among the most useful of the veterinary medicines.

In injudicious hands, however, these medicines are sadly abused.
Among the absurdities of stable management there is nothing so injurious
as the frequent use of diuretics. Not only are the kidneys, so oflen over-
excited, weakened, disposed to disease, but the whole frame becomes
debilitated, for the absorbents ha\e carried away a great part of that which
was necessary to the health and condition of the horse, m order to supply
the deficiency of l)lood occasioned by the inordinate discharge of urine. There
is likewise one important fact of which the groom or the horseman seldom
thinks ; that when he is removing these humours by the imprudent use of
diuretics, he is only attacking a symptom or a consequence of disease, and
not the disease itself. The legs will fill again, and the grease will return.
While the cause remains, the eflFect will be produced. We shall say more
of this when we treat particularly of these diseases of the extremities.

In the administration of diuretics there are two things to be chiefly attended
to. The first is that which seems to be contradictory, but the good effecf
of which the testimony of every intelligent man will confirm — let the hors'.
have plenty to drink. Not only will inflammation be prevented, but tlie
operation of the medicine will be much promoted. If more water than

2|g THE HORSE.

.isual be drunk, a great deal more will be evacuated. The next caution is.
that during? the administration of a diuretic neither the cloth.ng nor the
stable should be too warm, otherwise that which was intended to stimulate
the kidney will pass off by perspiration ; for it se^^ms to be a law ot he
frame, that what increases the discharge Irom the skm proport.onably

'ThT bt: diuredf Ind'wS Vn simply to promote an increased secre-
tion fomth^ kidneys, supersedes every other, is turpentine ; either the
commoTliquid turpentine in doses of half an ounce, and made m o h ball
wTh Unseed meal, and half a drachm of ginger ; or, what is better, the
Tame quantity of powdered resin, with two drachms of Imseed meal and
half a drachm of ginger, formed u.to a mass with "^-^'L^/y^^^^^
of inflammation or fever, nitre or digitalis should be used. The spirit ot
IrousXr cream of Uar, and balsam of capivi have some diu.etic
effect.

INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEY

Is no uncommon disease in the horse, and is more unskilfully and fatally
reated thTaTost any other. The early ^y-P^^^ ^e ^^^^^^

jrenerallv but the seat of the disease soon becomes evident. Ihe norse
friraJi'iously round at his flanks ; stands with his ^""d- ^^^^^^^^^^
straddles as he walks ; expresses pain in turnmg; shrinks when the loins
are tessed and some degl-ee of heat is felt there. The urine is voided m
are pressea, ana s=oi ° , • j high-coloured, and sometimes

tm^SfTb ad" Ae hand must'be introduced into the rectum.
If t^e ide L fS full and hard under the rectum, there ,s mflammaUon
If the °f J'A'Vj. if the bladder be empty, yet on the portion of
ttr.:^es"U^:r "/over it there i. more than n-ra, heat and^ten-

bf e'^t^yl-a^Thr isltcrS Vat or tenderness there is

inflammation of the kidney. frequent cause

Among the causes are improper food jhere is no q

than hay that has been mow^burn , « o^ts ^h^^^^^ ^ ....i^e a

should look well ^" Jhis. CJa^^^ fed on them, the continual excite-

diuretic property, and if horses are long ^ ^ inflammation.

^""^ P-^"- inflammation of the

Too P;.^^f and weakness of that organ, that disposes

kidney; or a ^'^^T^^^' ^^at would otherwise have no injurious effect,
to inflammation f^"""/^"^.^^^ being urged on, far or fast, by a

If a horse is sprained ui ^^ms, » ^ haunches, the inflam-

heavy rider or by b-^S f ^^^^^ speedily transferred to the

mation of the ^^J^n"^^^ Exposure to cold is another fre-

kidneys, with which ^heyj^ "^^''^Sw if the horse be drenched with rain,
,iuent origin of this malady, ^5^^'^"^ particularly, if he were previ-

or the wet drips "P«"i^i« ^^'^^^ ""'^ Xse orl^^^ had been previously
ously disposed "'AammaUon, or^ t^^^^^^ o ^^^^^^^ ^ ^

weakened. For this reason hackney-coacn ^ unwholesome pro .rnd.r
the vicissitudes of the weather, and often tea o
have, or should have, their loins protected by a Icaiuer

THE BLADDER.

217

The treatment will only vary from that of inflammation of other parts,
by the consideration of the peculiarity of the organ affected. Bleeding must
be promptly resorted to, and carried to its full extent. An active purge
should next be administered ; and a counter-inflammation excited as near
as possible to the seat of disease. For this purpose, the loins should
be fomented with hot water, or covered with a mustard poultice; but
no cantharides or turpentine must be used, and, most of all, must no
diuretic be given internally. When the groom finds this difficulty or sup-
pression of staling, he immediately has recourse to a diuretic ball, to force
ou the urine • and by thus farther irritating a part already too much ex-
cited, he adds fuel to fire, and frequently destroys the horse. When the
action of the purgative begins a little to cease, white hellebore may be
administered, in doses of a scruple three times a day, with or without
emetic tartar. The horse should be warmly clothed ; his legs well band-
aged, and plenty of water offered to him. The food should be carefully
examined, and anything that could have excited, or that may prolong the
irritation, carefully removed. (47.)

DIABETES, OR PROFUSE STALING,

Is a comparatively rare disease. It is the consequence, generally, of
undue irritation of the kidney, by bad food or strong diuretics ; and
sometimes follows inflammation of the kidney. It can seldom he traced
in the horse to any disease of the digestive organs. The treatment is ob-
scure, and the result often uncertain. It is, evidently, increased action
of the kidney, and therefore the most rational plan of treatment is to en-
deavour to abate that action ; and nearly the same course should be pur-
sued in the early stage of diabetes, as in actual inflammation ; but the
lowering system should not be carried to so great an extent, To bleeding,
purging, and counter-irritation, medicines of an astringent quality should
succeed, as catechu, the powdered leaf of the wortle-berry (uva ursi), and
opium, in doses of two drachms each of the two first, and half a drachm
of the last. Very careful attention should be paid to the food. The hay
and oats should be of the best quality ; and green meat, and especially
.jarrots, will be very serviceable. (48.)

THE BLADDER.

The urine separated by the blood is discharged by the minute vessels, of
which we have spoken, into some larger canals, which terminate in a
cavity or reservoir in the body of the kidney, called its pelvis ; and thence
is conveyed by a duct, called the ureter, to a larger reservoir, the bladder.
It is constantly flowing from the kidney through the ureter; and were there
not this provision for its detention, it would be incessantly and annoy-
ingly dribbling from the animal. The bladder lies in, and, when distended
by urine, nearly fills, the cavity of the great bones of the haunch, termed
the pelvis. It has three coats— the outer one covering the greater part of
it, and being a portion of the peritoneum ; the muscular, consistuig of
two layers of fibres, as in the stomach ; the external, running longitudi-
nally, and the inner circularly, so that it may yield to the pressure of the
urine as it enters, and contract again into an exceedmgly small space as it
runs out, and by that contrac^tion assist in the exj)ulsioii of the urme.
The inner or mucous coat contains numerous little glands which pour out
a mucous fluid to defend the Ijlndder from the acrimony of the urine. The
bladder terminates in a small neck, round which is a strong muscle, keeping

218

TIIK iiOKSE.

the passage closed, and retaining the urine until, at the will of tlie animal,
or when the bladder contains a certain quantity of fluid, the muscular coat
begins to contract, an^, the lungs being filled wiih a.r, the d';^pl'ragm is
rendered convex towards the intestines, and presses then on the bladder,
and by these united powers, the fluid is forced through the sphincter muscle
at the neck of the bladder, and escapes.

INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER.

There are two varieties of this disease, inflammation of the body of the
Dladder and of its neck. The symptoms are nearly he same with those
oftflammat^ of the kidney, except that there is --^y -/"J^i^-^^
of urine and there is heat felt in the rectum over the s itua ion ot the
b adder The causes are the presence of some acrid or irntant matter ,n
^e urTne, or of calculus or stone in the bladder. With reference to inflam-
m:tr:f the body of the bladder, mischief has «---ally been d by
the introduction of caniharides or some other '''"^^^ "^^^^f"^^ '° 7^^^
the period of horsing in the mare. The treatment will be the same as in

I'fla'mmation of thelcidney, except that it is of --^^-"^J^^t 1 ge
horse should drink freely of water or gruel, and that grue or mucjage

of any kind may, by one who understands the anatomy of the animal, be

i^asilv introduced into the bladder of the mare.

'tn^nfl— ion of the neck of the bladder there is the frequeM
voidincr of urine in small quantities, generally appearing in an advanced
Ita^e of the disease, and often ending in almost total suppression There is
aShis circumstance, which can never be mistaken by him who w.U pay
1; nt auention to the case, that the bladder is di^^ended w.tWrme^^^^^
ma? be distinctly felt under the rectum. It is spasm of the Pf^^, closing
Te^neck of ^e bladder so powerfully, that the contraction of the bladder,
and the pressure of the muLles, are -able to force cm^ %'^:Zsm must
Here the object to be attempted is sufficiently plain. 1 his spasm mu i
Here tne odJ^ci k ^^^.^ ^^^^^ largely, and

ledb CO fot: bleeding, sho^d be added -^^^^^

physic. Sho..d not ^^^^^l^Z'^^^'r^'^^-^':!!. into a ba^
spasm must be tried. A aracnra ui " V bl ster

or drink, may be given every two or h-;/--;/™e easily evacuated
is applied externally In the mare the blad'lJJ" J ^^^^^.^^

by means of a cathe er « J' ^^^^J^^^ bladder of a horse.

wZTar;;er^^^^^^^ ^vStr surgeon alone is competen.^ ^

STONE IN THE BLADDER

„«,r,„nnnd fluid : in a state of health it contains a great
The urine IS a very c^^^^^^^^^ ^bich under disease ar.

many acids and alkalies va y j j conceive thai

increased both ^r^-as^lS s»^^^^^^ the rest, and assume a

some of these shall be "^'^f ^^^^y , Sidney, and in the bladder. This is
solid form both in the Pf v« « the k^cU^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ These

known to be the case both in the ^.^^^^ ^^^^

calculi or stones are in the horse louu surgeon. The explana

bladder, contrary to the expenence of h« hun^an^surg ^^^^

— ns descend tVom the kidney

BRKEDINQ.

219

to the bladder by their weight. The belly of the horse is horizontal, and
the force of gravity can in no way affect the passage of the calculus ; there-
fore it remains in the pelvis of the kidney, until it increases so much in
size as often to fiiU it. We know not of any symptoms which would satis-
factorily indicate the presence of a stone in the kidney ; and if the disease
could be ascertained, we are imable to say what remedial measures could
be adopted.

The symptoms of stone in the bladder much resemble those ot spasmodic
colic, except that on careful inquiry it will be found that there has been
much irregularity in the discharge of m ine, and occasional suppression of
it. When fits of apparent colic frequently return, and are accompanied by
any peculiarity in the discharge of urine, the horse should be carefully
examined. He should be thrown. If there be stone in the bladder, it
will, while the horse lies on its back, press on the rectum, and may be
distinctly felt if the hand be introduced into the rectum. Several cases
liave lately occurred of successful extraction of the calculus ; but here it
will be necessary to have recourse to the aid of a veterinary practitioner. (50)

Many horses occasionally void a considerable quantity of gravel, some-
times without inconvenience, at others with evident spasm or pain. A
diuretic might here be useful, as increasing the flow of urine, and possibly
washing out the concretions before they become too numerous or bulky.

The urine having passed the neck of the bladder, flows along the urethra,
and is discharged. The sheath of tne penis is sometimes considerably
enlarged. When at the close of acute diseases, there are swellings and
effusions of fluid, under the chest and belly, this part seldom escapes
Diuretics, mixed with a small portion of cordial medicine, will be beneficial,
although in some extreme cases slight scarifications may be necessary.
The inside of the sheath is often the seat of disease ; the mucous matter
naturally secreted there to defend the part from the acrimony of the urine,
accumulates and becomes exceedingly offensive, and produces swell-
ui"-, tenderness, and even excoriation, and sometimes considerable dis-
cha'ro-e. A little fomentation with warm water, and the cleansing of the
part "with soap and water, aided perhaps by a diuretic ball, will speedily
remove every inconvenience. Carters are much too apt to neglect cleanliness
in this respect.

Chapter XII.

BREEDING, CASTRATION, &c.

This may be a proper period to recur to the important subject of
breeding, narticulariy important when there cannot be a doubt that our
breed of useful horses has, within the last twenty years, most materially
degenerated. Our running-horses still maintain their supremacy ; ou
carriage-horses are not much lessened in excellence aiid ^aUie but our
hunters and hackneys are not what they used to be. We shall endeavour
to point out the cause of this. ' cimnl*. •

Our observations must be of a general nature and «J,^^y f
and the first axiom we would lay down is, that ^ " ^f^^

that the progeny will inherit the qualities, or he mingled qualities, of the
. parents. ^ We would refer to the subject of diseases and again state our
perfect conviction that there is scarcely one by which either of the parents

220

THE HORSE.

IS affected, that the foal will not inherit, oi , at least, the predisposition ta
it: even the consequences of ill usage or hard work will descend to the
progeny. We have already enlarged on this, but its importance will be a
sufficient apology for the repetition. We have had proof upon proof, that
blindness, roaring, thick wind, broken wind, spavins, curbs, rincboncs,
and founder, have been bequeathed, both by the sire and the dam, to the
offspring. It should likewise be recollected, that although these blemishes
may not appear in the immediate progeny, they frequently will in the next
generation. Hence the necessity of some knowledge of the parentage
both of the sire and dam.

Peculiarity of form and constitution will also be inherited. This is a
most important, but neglected consideration ; for however desirable, or
even perfect, may have been the conformation of the sire, every good point
may be neutralized or lost by the defective form, or want of blood, of the
mare. There are niceties in this, of which some breeders used to be aware,
and they employed their knowledge to great advantage. When they were
careful that the essential points should be good in both parents, and that
some minor defect in either should be met, and got rid of, by excellence in
that particular point in the other, the result was creditable to their judg-
ment, and highly profitable. The unskilful or careless breeder will often
so badly pair the animals, that the good points of each will be, in a
manner, lost : the defects of both will be increased, and the produce will
be far inferior to both sire and dam.

Of late years, these principles have been much lost sight of in the breed-
mg of horses for general use ; and' the following is the explanation of it.
There are nearly as good stallions as there used to be. Few but well-
formed and valuable horses will be selected and retained as stallions. They
are always the very prime of the breed ; but the mares are not what they
used to be. Poverty has induced many of the breeders to part with the
mares from which they used to raise their stock, and which were worth
their weight in gold ; and the jade on which the farmer now rides to
market, or which he uses in his farm, costs him but little money, and is
only retained because he could not get much money for her. It has like-
wise become the fashion for gentlemen to ride mares, almost as frequently
as geldings ; and thus the better kind are takfen from the breeding service,
until old age or injury renders them worth little for it An intelligent
veterinary surgeon, Mr. Castley, has placed this in a very strong light, in
the third volume of the *' Veterinarian," p. 371.

We would wish, then, to impress it on the minds of breeders, that pecu-
liarity of form and constitution are inherited from both parents ; that the
excellence of the mare is a point of qui e as much importance as that of
the horse ; and that out of a sorry mare, let the horse be as perfect as he
may, a good foal will rarely be produced. All this is recognised upon the
turf,' although poverty or carelessness have made the general breeder

neglect or forget it. j
It is recognised in the midland counties m the breed ot cart-horses ; and
ihe strict attention which has been paid to it, has brought our heavy horses
to almost the same perfection in their way as the blood-horse. It is strange
that in our saddle-horses, our hunters, and, to a great degree, our
carriage-horses, this should be left to chance. The breeder begins to care
little about the quality of t^ie mare, and the progeny is becoming com
paratively of little worth. Experience, it is said, will make fools wise
but experience will here be bought at a very dear rate, both as it regards
the breeder and the community. •

That the constitution and endurance of the horse arc iiihorited. no

BRKKDINU.

221

Sporting^ man ever doubted. The qualities of the sire or the dam descend
from generation to generation, and the excellences or defects of certain
horses are traced, and justly so, to some peculiarity in a far distant
ancestor.

It may, perhaps, be justly affirmed, that there is more difficulty in se-
lecting a good mare to breed from, than a good horse, because she should
possess somewhat opposite qualities. Her carcase should be long, to give
room for the growth of the foetus, and yet with this there should be com-
pactness of form and shortness of leg. What can they expect who go to
Smithfield Market to purchase a number of worn-out, spavined, foundered
mares, about whom they fancy there have been some good points, and
send them lar into the country to breed from, and, with all their variety of
shape, to be covered by the same horse? In a lottery like this, there may
be now and then a prize, but there must be many blanks. " If horse-
breeders, possessed of good judgment, would pay the same attention to
breed and shape as Mr. Bakewell did with sheep, they would probably
attain their wishes in an equal degree, and greatly to their advantage,
whether for the collar or the road, for racing or for hunting*."

As to the shape of the stallion, little satisfactory can be said. It must
depend on that of the mare, and the kind of horse wished to be bred ; but
if there be one point which we should say is absolutely essential, it is
this, " compactness"— as much goodness and strength as possible con-
densed in a little space. If we are describing the reverse of the common
race of stallions for hunters and coach-horses, the fault lies with the bad
taste and judgment of the majority of breeders.

Next to compactness, the inclination of the shoulder will be regarded.
A. huge stallion, with upright shoulders, never got a capital hunter or
hackney. From him the breeder can obtain nothing but a cart or dray-
horse, and that, perhaps, spoiled by the opposite form of the mare. On the
other hand, an upright shoulder is desirable, if not absolutely necessary,
when a mere draught horse is required.

It is of no little importance, that the parents should be in full posses-
sion of their natural strength and powers. It is a common error, that
because a mare has once been good, she is fit for breeding when she is no
longer capable of ordinary work. Her blood and perfect frame may en-
sure a foal of some value, but he will inherit a portion of the worn-out
constitution of her from whom he sprung.

On the subject of breeding in and in, that is, persevering in the same
breed, and selecting the best on either side, much has been said. The
system of crossing requires much judgment and experience; a great deal
more, indeed, than breeders usually possess. The bad qualities of the cross
are too soon engrafted on the original stock, and once engrafted there, ai'e
not, for many generations, eradicated. The good ones of both are occa-
sionally neutralized to a most mortifying degree. On the other hand, it is
the fact, however some may deny it, that strict confinement to one breed,
however valuable or perfect, produces gradual deterioration. The truth
here, as in many other cases, lies in the middle ; crossing should be
attempted with great caution, and the most perfect of the same breed
should be selected, but varied, by being frequently taken from different
stocks. This is the secret of the course. The pure south-eastern blood is
never left, but the stock is often changed with manifest advantage.

A mare is capable of breeding at three or four years old ; some have
injudiciously commenced at two years, before her form or her strength is

• Parkinsoa on the Breeding nuU Management of Live Stock, vol. ii,, p. 59.

222 ™E IIOTISR

c""t - near,, twenty ; but if she has

sne may conviuue lu mirks of t, let her have been what she

'jritt^rrshrwnrre*: r .pect^Uon, of .he b^Ce. in he,

%r„,are e„,n. in. ^^^^^^^^^

„ go wdh foal *™" „„„„„ to foal five weeks earlier, while

lanty about this, borne nave oee Wnd the eleven months,

We may however, take e'even starting-post, and whether they are

horses, that are brought f ^'j^^V^^^V'^J^k a^ the same age, it is of
foaled early in January or late >"/P"\';^"^^^^^^^ ^arly as possible: in a
u.portance that the mare ^^^^ZlZJe coZ^^^^^^^^
two or three-year-old, four "^""^J^^^J" ^^.i foals are almost worth-
the growth and strength ; yet many ot ^ j^j^^^i nutriment which

lessNecause they have been deprwed ,f jjf .^ ^^^^^ ^f May is the
nature designed for them IWthe^^^^^^^^ early'part of

ClThrrre^wTutd b^^~fficientfood for her and her colt,
moderate work, and that not ^^^^ J'^^^^^^^X^^ when she is ex-

^Iflt-ru-^^^^^^^^^^^^ -
under the frequent inspection the mare should

• When nearly half the f^Xwe^^ feeds of corn

have a little better food. She ^l'^'^'^}^^^^^ ^re accustomed to slink
in the day. This is about the P^^od ™ tney ^^e
their foals, or when abortion occurs : '^GoTd feeding and moderate ex-
owner should be frequently upon "i'^'"- ^"V" ^, ^^^^^ ^hat has once
ercise will be the ^^^^ preventives agau^st ttu^^^ ^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^

slinked her foal is ever I'^ble to the ^ame accKle ^^^^ ^^.^ ^^^^^^^

never be suffered to be with other "^^"^^"^""^^ti^g . for such is the power
occurs, which is between the fourth and fifth mo^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^^

of imagination or of ^Y-Pf ^y m Uie re tha^^ ^.^^ ^^^^^

abortion, the greater number of those u ^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ p^^^^„^

same fate. Farmers „S„n lies in the imagination.

some supposed infection =-T^he '^^rS^^ m health while

If a mare has been ^/g^^^'^^y .^.'^"JS act of parturition. If there
she was in foal. Jl^^le danger jU aUend^^^^^^ P^^^. .^^

be false presentation of he te^'^^^^jr ^.^.i^^r than injure

r m:S.rby~enranW^^ which are often made

sheltered pasture, with a hov 1 or shed o ra^^^ _^

B8, supposing she has f"^^"^;" f P'!f he bieeder may depend upon it. that
a Couple of feeds of corn da^y^ ^^.^J ^^e foal at this time,

nothing is gained starvmg th^ m«th^^ ^^^^ ^^J^ . .^.^ ^ f 1^
It is the most important time in the ^^^^ end r-

economy, his growth be a^f ^tcd now t P ^ J^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^.^^^^ i „e
ance will ever afterwards testily tne ei

BREAKINQ-IN,

223

com should be given in a trough on the ground, that the foal may partake
of it with the mother. When the new grass is flush and plenty, the corn
may be gradually discontinued.

Our work is intended, principally, for farmers : they well know that the
mare may be put to moderate work again a month after the foaling. The
foal is at first shut in the stable during the hours of work ; but as soon as
it acquires sufficient strength to toddle after the mare, and especially when
she is at slow work, it will be better tor the foal and the dam that they
should be together. The work will contribute to the health of the mother ;
the foal will more frequently draw the milk, and thrive better ; and will be
hardy and tractable, and gradually familiarized with the objects among
which it is afterwards to live. While the mother, however, is thus
worked, she and the foal should be well fed ; and two feeds of corn, at least,
should be added to the green food which they get when turned out after
their work, and at night. The mare will usually be found at heat at or
before the expiration of a month from the time of foaling, when, if
she be kept principally for breeding purposes, she may be put again to
the horse.

In five or six months, according to the growth of the foal, it may be
weaned. It should then be housed for three weeks or a month, or turned
into some distant rick-yard. There can be no better place for the foal than
the latter, as affording, and that without trouble, both food and shelter.
The mother should be put to harder work, and have drier meat. One or
two urine balls, or a physic ball, will be useful if the milk should be trou-
blesome, or she should pine after her foal.

There is no principle of greater importance than the liberal feeding of the
foal during the whole of his growth, and at this time in particular.
Bruised oats and bran should form a considerable part of his daily pro-
vender. The farmer may be assured that money is well laid out which
is expended on the liberal nourishment of the growing colt : while, liow-
ever, he is well fed, he should not be rendered delicate by excess of care.
A racing colt is sometimes stabled ; but one that is destined to be a hunter,
a hackney, or an agricultural horse, should merely have a square rick,
under the leeward side of which he may shelter himself, or a hovel, into
which he may run at night, or out of the rain. The process of breaking-in
should commence from the very period of weaning. The foal should be daily
handled, partially dressetl, accustomed to the halter, led about, and even
tied up. The tractability, and good temper, and value of the horse, depend
a great deal more upon this than breeders are aware : this should be done
as much as possible by the man by whom they are fed, and whose manage-
ment of them should be always kind and gentle. There is no fault for
which a breeder should so invariably discharge his servant as cruelty, or
even harshness, towards the rising stock ; for the principle on which their
after usefulness is founded, is early attachment to, and confidence in man,
and obedience, implicit obedience, resulting principally from these.

After the second winter, the work of breaking-in may commence in good
earnest. He may first be bitted, and a bit carefully selected that will not
hurt his mouth, and much smaller than those in common use ; with this
he mav be suffered to amuse himself, and to play, and to champ for an
Ijour, on a few successive days.

Having become a little tractable, portions of the harness may be put upon
hiin, and, last of all, the blind winkers ; and a few days afterwards he may
go into the team. It would be better if there could be one before, and one
behind him, beside the shaft horse. Let there be first the mere empty
waggon. Let nothing be done to him except that he may have an occa-

224 THE HORSE.

Bional pat or kind word. The other horses will keep him moving, and \u
his place ; and no threat time will pass, sometimes not even the first day,
beff)re he will begin to pull with the rest : then the load may be gradually

increased. t . i

The agricultural horse is wanted to rule as well as to draw. L.et liis
first lesson be given when he is in the team. Let his feeder, if possible,
be first put upon him : he will be too much hampered by his harness, and
bv the other horses, to make much resistance ; and, m the majority o(
cases will quietly and at once submit. We need not repeat, that no whip
or spur should be used in giving the first lessons in riding.

When he begins a little to understand his business, backing, the most
difficult part of "his work, maybe taught him ; first to back well without
anything behind him, then with a light cart, and a terwards with some
serious load ; and taking the greatest care not seriously to hurt he mouth
If the first lesson causes much soreness oi the gums, the colt will not
readily submit to a second. If he has been rendered tractable before by
kind usage, time and patience will do all that can be wished here. Some
carters are in the habit of blinding the colt when teaching him to back : it
may be necessary with the restive and obstinate one, and should be used

only as a last resort _ r • r

The colt having been thus partially broken-in, the necessity ot imphcit
obedience may be taught him. and that not by severity, but by firmness
and steadiness ; the voice will go a great way, but the whip or the spur
is sometimes indispensable— not so cruelly applied as to excite the animal
to resistance, but to convince him that we have the power to enforce
submission Few, we would almost say, no horses, are naturally vicious.
It is cruel usage which has first provoked resistance; that resistance has
been followed by greater severity, and the stubbornness of the animal has
increased : open warfare has ensued, in which the man seldom gained an
advantage, and the horse was frequently rendered unserviceable. Correc-
Uon may, or must be used, to enforce implicit obedience after the educat on
as proJ^eded to a certain extent, but the early lessons should be inculcated
with kindness alone. Young colts are sometimes very perverse ; inanv
rvs will occasionally pass before they will permit the bridle to be put o.^
or the saddle to be worn ; one act of harshness will double or tr^^bleth^
time Patience and kindness will, after a while, prevail. On some morn
nT'of better humour than usual, the bridle will be put on, and the saddle
win be worn ; and this compliance being followed by kindness and soothing
on the part of the breaker, 'and no inconvenience or pain being suffered by
the animal, all resistance will be at an end. „ , e tu^

The same principles will apply to the breaking-in of the horse for he
road or the chase. The handling, and some portion of instructio ., should
rmmence from the time of weaning. The future tractabi lity of the horse
win much depend on this. At two years and a half or three years he
reo-uSr process of breaking-in should come on. If it be delayed untd the
S al is four years old, his strength and obstinacy will be more difficult
to rerrome We carmot much improve on the plan usually pursued by
tL breaW except that there should be much more kindness and pa
the breaker, excel , ^^^^^ are accus-

tience and ^ J^^^ ^'f f ^^re '^ttent.on to the form and natural

tomed to ejdubi and a S^f , cavesson (or

action of Jiorse. A ^^^^^^ .^^ ^.^^^ ^^^^

apparatus to ^^"f"''^^"'; .^in then led round a ring on soft ground,
"V%''f T mo'^ld and augh his paces. Next to preserving the
tempfr rdtciryTurhorse/therc is Lthing of so much importance

BREAKING-IN.

225

as to teanh him every pace, and every part of his duty, distinctly and
thoroughly. Each must constitute a separate and sometimes long--contiimed
lesson, and that taught by a man who will never suffer his passion to get
the better of his discretion.

After the cavesson has been attached to the headstall, and the long rein
put on, the first lesson is, to be quietly led about by the breaker , a steady
boy following behind, by occasional threatening with the whip, but never
by an actual blow, to keep the colt up. When the animal follows readily
and quietly, he may be taken to the ring, and walked round, right and left,
in a very small circle. Care should be taken to teach him this pace tho-
roughly, never suffering him to break into a trot. The boy with his whip
piay here again be necessary, but not a single blow should actually fall.

Becoming tolerably perfect in the walk, he should be quickened to a
trot, and kept steadily at it; the whip of the boy, if needful, urging him
on, and the cavesson restraining him. Tliese lessons should be short.
The pace should be kept perfect and distinct in each ; and docility and
improvement rewarded with frequent caresses, and handfuls of corn. The
length of the rein may now be gradually increased, and the pace quickened,
and the time extended, until the animal becomes tractable in this his first
lessons, towards the conclusion of which, crupper-straps, or something
similar, may be attached to the clothing. These, playing about the sides
and flanks, accustom him to the flapping of the coat of the rider. The an-
noyance which they occasion will pass over in a day or two ; for when the
animal finds that no harm comes to him on account of these straps, he
will cease to regard them.

Next comes the bitting. The bit should be large and smooth, and the reins
should be buckled to a ring on either side of the pad. There are many curious
and expensive machines for this purpose, but the simple rein will be quite
sufficient. The reins should at first be slack, and very gradually tightened.
This will prepare for the more perfect manner in which the head will be
afterwards got into its proper position, when the colt is accustomed to the
saddle. Occasionally the breaker should stand in front of the colt, and
lake hold of each side rein near to the mouth, and press upon it, and
thus begin to teach him to stop and to back at the pressure of the rein,
rewarding every act of docihty, and not being too eager to punish occasional
carelessness or waywardness.

The colt may now be taken into the road or street to be gradually accus-
tomed to the objects among which his services will be required. Here,
from fear or playfulness, a considerable degree of starting and shying may
be exhibited. As little notice as possible should be taken of it. The
same or a similar object should be soon passed again, but at a greater dis-
tance. If the colt still shies, let the distance be farther increased, until he
takes no notice of the object ; then he may be gradually brought nearer to it,
and this will be usually effected without the slightest difficulty : whereas,
had there been an attempt to force the animal close to it in the first instance,
the remembrance of the contest would have been associated with the object,
and the habit of shying would have been established.

Hitherto, with a cool and patient breaker, the whip may have been
shown, but will scarcely have been used ; the colt must now, however, be
accustomed to this necessary instrument of authority. Let the breaker
walk by the side of the animal, and throw his right arm over his back,
holding the reins in his left; and occasionally quicken his pace and, at the
moment of doing this, tap the horse with the whip in his right hand, and
at first very gently. The tap of the whip and the qu.ckenu.g of the pace
will soon become associated together in the mind of the animal. If neces

22-, THE HO^SE.

Bary, Uie taps may gradually fall a little heavier, and the feeling of pain be
the monitor of the necessity of increased exertion. The lessons of reining
in and stopping, and backing on the pressure of the bit, may contmue to
be practised at the same time.

He may now be taught to bear the saddle. Some little caution will be
necessary at the first putting of it on. The breaker should stand at the
head of the colt, patting him, and engaging his attention while one assist-
ant, on the off-side, gently places the saddle on the back of the an.ma ; -
and another, on the near side, slowly tightens the girths. If he submits
quietly to this, as he generally will, when the previous process of breaking in
has been properly conducted, the ceremony of mounting may be attempted
on the following or on the third day. The breaker will need two assistant^
to accomplish this operation. He will remain at the head of the colt,
patt uHSd making much of him. The rider will put his foot into the
stirrup, and bear a little weight upon it, while the man on the off-side presses
equally on the other stirrup-leather; and, according to the docility of the
animal, he will gradually increase the weight, until he balances himself on
the sti;rup. If Uie colt be uneasy or fearful, he should be spoken kind y
to and patted, or a mouthful of corn be given to him : bu if he offers
serious resist;nce, the lessons must terminate for that day; he may pro-
bablv be in better humour on the morrow.

When the rider has balanced himself for a minute or two, he may
e-entlv throw his leg over, and quietly seat himselt m the saddle. Ihe
breaker will then lead the animal round the ring, the rider sitting perfec y
^till After a few minutes he will take the reins, and handle them as gently
as possible, and guide the horse by the pressure of them; patting hin.
frequently, and especially when he thinks of dismounting.^^nd alter
hS dismounted offering him a little corn or green.meat. The use of
ehi in checking him, and of the pressure of the leg and he ouch o
tl e heTl in quickening his pace, will soon be taught, and the education will

^^ThrliLTeTaving thus far submitted himself to the breaker these pat-
tings a^d re^ards^nust be gradually diminished, and implicit obedience,
mildly but firmly enforced. Severity will not often be necessary ; in the
Lieat majority of cases it will be altogether uncalled for: but should the
f;tmal hi a m'oment of waywardness, dispute the command o the breaker
he must at once be taught that he is the slave of man, and that we have
theToter by other mlans than those of kindness to bend him to our
wUl.^ The education of the horse is that of the ch. d. Pleasure is as
much as possible, associated with the early lessons ; but firmness, or, it
ne^d be, coercio;, must confirm the habit of obedience. Tyranny and
"ruelty will, mor; speedily in the horse than even in the child, provoke
;^e wL to disobey ; and, on every practicable occasion, the resistance to
command The restive and vicious horse is, in ninety-nine cases out of a
^inS ed made so by ill-usage, and not by nature. None bu those who
11 tike the trouble to try the experiment are aware how absohite a com-
d the due admixture of firmness and kindness will soon give us over

wi
man
any horse.

CASTRATION.

rrv. -la* whirh this important operation will be best performed

CA-STRATION.

however, should noi be too hot, nor the flies too numerous. We enter our
decided protest against the recommendation of some valuable, but incau-
tious agricultural writers, that ' colts should be cut in the months of
June or July, when flies pester the horses, and cause them to be conti-
nually moving about, and thereby prevent swelling.' One moment's re-
flection will convince the reader that nothing can be more likely to produce
inflamjnntion, and consequent swelling and danger, than the torture of
the flies hovering round and stinging the sore part.

If the horse is designed either for the carriage or for heavy draught,
the farmer should not think of castrating him until he be at least a twelve-
month old ; and, even then, the colt should be carefully examined. If he
is thin and spare about the neck and shoulders, and low in the witheiw,
he will materially improve by remaining uncut another six months ; but
if his foie-quarters are fairly developed at the age of a twelvemonth, the
operation should not be delayed, lest he become heavy and gross before
and perhaps have begun too decidedly to have a wiW of his own. No
specific age, then, can be fixed ; but the castration should be performed
rather late in the spring or early in the autumn, when the air is temperate,
and particularly when the weather is dry. No preparation is necessary foi
the sucking colt, but it may be prudent to bleed and to physic one of more
advanced age. In the majority of cases, no after treatment will be ne-
cessary, except that the animal should be sheltered from intense heat, and
more particularly from wet. In temperate weather he will do much better
running in the field than nursed in a close and hot stable. The moderate
exercise which he will take in grazing will be preferable to perfect inaction.
A large and well-ventilated box, however, may be permitted.

The manner in which the operation is performed will be properly left to
the veterinary surgeon ; although we must confess that we are disposed to
adhere to the old way of opening the bag on either side, cutting off the tes
tide, and preventing bleeding by searing the vessels with a hot iron. There
is at least an appearance of brutality, and, we believe, much unnecessary
pain inflicted, when the spermatic cord (the vessels and the nerve) is tightly
compressed between two pieces of wood, as in a powerful vice, and left
there either until the testicle drops off, or is removed on the following day
by the operator. To the practice of some farmers, of twitching their
colts at an early period, sometimes even so early as a month, we have
stronger objection. When the operation of twitching is performed, a small
cord is drawn as tightly as possible round the bag, between the testicle
and the belly ; the circulation is thus stopped, and, in a few days, the tes-
ticles and the bag drop off" : but the animal sufflers sadly, — it is occasion-
ally necessary to tighten the cord on the second or third day, and inflam-
mation and death have frequently ensued. (51.)

Chapter XIII.

THE FORE LEGS.

We arrive now at those parts of the frame most essentially connected
with the action and value of the horse, and oftenest, and most annoymgly,
the subjects of disease. The extremities contain the whole apparatus oi
motion, and it is with the action, and speed, and strength of the horse that
we are most concerned.

Q 2

228

THE HORSE.

We beg-in with the fore extremity, and witii its upper part the shoulder.
It is seen at G, pasje 63.

THE SHOULDER

The scapula, or shoulder-blade, situated forward on the side of the
chest is a bone of a somewhat triangular shape, with its apex or point
downward, and its base or broad part upward. The point lies between
the first and second ribs ; the hinder part of the base reaches as far back
as the seventh rib ; it therefore extends obliquely along the chest. It is
divided, externally, into two unequal portions by a ridge or spine running
throuo-h almost the whole of its extent, and designed, as we shall pre-
sently show for the attachment of important muscles. The broad or upper
part having no muscles of any consequence attached to it, is terminated by

cartilage. , , . . „

We have stated that the muscles of the hinder legs are principally con-
cerned in the motion of the horse. They impel the machine forward, and
the main uses of the fore extremities are to lift the fore part of the horse from
the ground, that it may be thus impelled to throw forward the legs as
far as possible that they receive this weight at due distance, and to sup-
port the force and shock of that weight when it reaches the ground. We
will inquire as we proceed how far one or all of these objects are accom-

^^'The shoulder-blade is united to the chest by muscle alone. There is
a large muscle, with very remarkable tendinous fibres, and cf immense
strength (the serratus major, greater saw-shaped muscle), attached to the
chest? and to the extensive smooth internal surface of the shoulder-blade,
and by which, assisted, or rather strengthened, by the muscles of the
breast, the weight of the body is supported, and the shock of the widest
leap, or the most rapid motion, sustained. Had there been a bony union
between the shoulder and the body, the vital parts contained in the chest
could not have endured the dreadful shock which they would occasionally
have experienced ; nor could any bone have long renamed whole if exposed
to suchViolence. The muscles within the shoulder-blade act as powerful
and safe springs. They yield, as far as necessary, to the force impre..sed
upon them ; by their gradual yielding they destroy the violence of the
shock, and then, by their elastic power, immediately regain their former
situation.

SPRAIN OF THE SHOULDER.

In some violent and unexpected shock these muscles are occasionally in-
iured Although we do not believe that, in one case in twenty, the farrier
is ri-ht when he talks of his shoulder-lameness, yet it cannot be denied,
that^the muscles of the shoulder are occasionally spramed. This is effected
oftener by a slip or side-fall, than by fair, although violent exertion. It is
of considerable importance to be able to distinguish this shoulder-lameness
?rom"njuries of olher parts of the fore extremity. We shall look in vain
for much tenderness, or heat or swelling : it is a sprain o muscles deeply
spated and where these symptoms of injury cannot possibly exist It, on
stand n^ before the horse, and looking at the size of the two shoulders, or
lthe the-.r points, one should appear evidently larger than the other, we
must not consider this as indicative, of sprain of the --f s o^ ^^^^^
shoulder It probably arises from bruise of the point of the shoulder,
fvhich a flight examinaUon will determine • or the whole of the limb, this

PLANTING DIRECTION OF THE SHOULDER.

22")

portion of which is enlarged, may be sound, while the other may be shrunk
from want of equal exertion, arising from injury of long standiii<r. Xhe
heat and tenderness, if there be any, will be found within the arm, close to
the chest; and will belong more to the muscles of the breast than to those
under the shoulder.

The symptoms, however, of shoulder-lameness can scarcely be mistaken;
and, when we relate them, the farmer will recollect, that they very seldom'
occurred when the village-smith pointed to the shoulder as the seat of
disease, and pimished the animal for no purpose. In sprain of the shoulder
the horse will evidently suffer extreme pain while moving, and the muscle
underneath being inflamed and tender, he will extend it as little as possible.
He will drag his toe along the ground. It is in the lifting of the foot that
the shoulder is principally, moved: if the foot be lifted high, let the horse
be ever so lame, the shoulder is little, if at all affected. The lame limb is
suffered to bear the weight a much shorter time in this than in any other
kind of lameness. In sprain of the back sinews, it is only when, the horse
is in motion that the injured parts are put to most pain; the paia is
greatest here when the weight rests on the limb, and, therefore, there is a
peculiar quickness in catching up the limb, in shoulder-lameness, the mo-
ment the weight is thrown on it. This is particularly evident when the
horse is g'omg down hill, and the injured limb bears an additional portion
of the weight. In the stable, too, when the horse points or projects one
foot before the other, that foot is usually flat on the ground. In shoulder-
lameness the toe alone rests on the ground. The circumstance which
most of all characterizes this affection, "is, that when the foot is lifted, and
then brought considerably forward, the horse will express great pain, ,
which he will not do if the lameness be in the foot or the leg. ^e have '
dwelt longer on this point, that our readers may be enabled to put to the
test the many cases of shoulder-lameness which exist only in the imagi-
nation of the groom or the farrier.

In sprain of the internal muscles of the shoulder, few local measures can
be adopted. The horse should be bled from the vein on the inside of the
arm (the plate vein), because the blood'^ is then abstracted more imme-
diately from the inflamed part. A dose of physic should be given, and
fomentations applied, and principally on the inside of the arm, close to
the chest; while the horse is kept as quiet as possible. The injury is too
deeply seated for exiernal stimulants to have very great effect, yet a blister
will very properly be resorted to, if the lameness is not speedily removed.
The swimming of the horse is an inhuman practice ; it tortures the animal,
and increases the inflammation. The pegging of the shoulder (puncturing
the skin, and blowing into the cellular structure beneath, until it is con-
siderably puffed up) is another relic of ignorance and barbarity.

SLANTING DIRECTION OF THE SHOULDER.

The lessening or breaking of the shock, from the weight being thrown
violently on the fore legs, is efl'ected in another way. It will be observed,
that (see G and J, p. 63) the shoulder-blade and" the lower bone of the
shoulder are not connected together in a straight line, but form a very con-
siderable angle with each other. This will be more evident from the fol-
lowing cut, which represents the fore and hind extremities in the situations
which they occupy in the horse.

This angular construction of the limbs reminds us of the similar arrange-
ment of the springs of a carriage, and the ease of motion, and almost p|;r-
tect freedom from jolting, which arc thereby obtained.

230

THE HORSE.

We will not say that the form of the spring was borrowed from this
construction of the limbs of the horse, but the effect of the carriage-spring
beautifully illustrates the connexion of tlve different bones in the extremi-
ties of this quadruped.

will show that just in moportion as the point of the shoulder if brought
S warrand elevated, will be the forward action and elevation of the limb,
orThe space passed oVer at every effort. At each contraction of the muscles
wh ch extendPfrom G to J, or from the shoulder-b ade to the bone of the
Trm will the point of the shoulder be projected and elevated In the
nnH'olTshouldrr it can scarcely be carried beyond the point at which it is
f ° in these cuts In the oblique or slanting shoulder it commences
^! il from Uia point; therefore it is that a slanting shoulder ,s indis-
p^nsa^in a ho'se^from wl^ good action and considerable speed are

'^?r^u^^; shoulder accomplishes another very useful object. The mus-
The slanting shm^^^^^^^^ shoulder-blade to the lower bone of the shoulder are
cles " t^^^^^ .iven to the whole of the limb. The extent

the powers 7^"^=^ 7/'"", 'depend much on the force exerted or the
and -^"ergy of ^'^^^ m»^'^ ^^e circumstances in the relative situa-

strength of the muscle but^^^ .^^^^^^^^

lT;osltUy'rn?o7:Ulweare endeavouring to raise a certam

weight.

SLAJVTING DIRECTION OF THE SHOULDER.

231

A is a lever, restinfr or turning on a pivot B ; C is the weight to be
raised, and D is the power and the situation at which the power i^ applied.
If we apply our strength in a direction perpendicular to the lever, as repre-
sented by the line E, we can easily calculate the strength which we must

exert. In proportion as the distance of the power from the pivot or centre
of motion exceeds that of the weight from the same place, so will be the
advantage gained. The power here is twice as far from the centre as the
weight is, and therefore we gain advantage in the proportion of two to one-
or if the M-eight be equal to 200 lbs., a force of 100 lbs. will balance it. If
we alter the direction in which the power is applied, and suppose it to be
ni that of the line F, will 100 lbs. now do? No; nothing like it. How
shall we calculate, then, the power that is necessary? We must prolong
the hue of direction until another line, falling perpendicularly from the
lever, and commencing at the centre of motion, will cut it; and the length
o, that line will give us the actual effect of the strength we employ. Now,
this new line is but half as long as the distance of the weight from the
centre of motion, and therefore we lose advantage in the proportion of two
to one; or a strength equal to 400 lbs. must be exerted to raise the 200
lbs., and so on in proportion to the deviation from the right or nernen-
dicular line. ' ^

Let us next take the shoulder of the horse. The point of the shoulder,
the shoulder joint, is the pivot or centre of motion ; the leg attached to the
bone of the arm is the weight ; the shoulder-blade being more fixed is the
part whence the power is exerted ; and the muscles extending from the one
to the other are the lines in which that power is exerted. These lines
approach much more nearly to a perpendicular in the oblique than in the
upright shoulder (see cut). In the upright shoulder, the shoulder-blade
and the bone of the arm are almost in a straight line, and the real action
and power of the muscle are most strangely diminished. In this point of
view the oblique shoulder is most important. It not only gives extensive
action, but facility of action; the power of the muscles is more than doubled
by being exerted in a line approaching so much nearer to a perpendicular.

Ihere is yet another advantage of the oblique shoulder. The point of
the shoulder is projected forward; and therefore the pillars which support
the fore part of the horse are likewise placed proportionably forward, and
they have less weight to carry ; and are exposed to less concussion, and
especially concussion in rapid action. The horse is also much safer ; for
having less weight lying before the pillars of support, lie is not so likely
to have the centre of gravity thrown l)efore and beyond thetn by an acci-
dental trip ; or, in other words, he is not so likely to fall ; and he rides more
pleasantly, for there is far less weight bearing on the hand of the rider,
and annoying and tiring him. It likewise happens unfortunately that
nature, as it were to supjily the deficiency of action and of power in an
upright shoulder, has accumulated on it more muscle, and therefore the
upright shoulder is proverbially thick and cloddy : and the muscles of the

232 THE HORSE.

breast which were designed to strengthen the attachment of the shouUlera
lo the chest, and to bind them together, must, when the P'"^' /jf the
shoulder hes backward, and under the horse. be proport.onablj_ thickened
and strengthened, and the horse is thus stdl more heavy before, more
unpleasant, and more unsafe to ride. , u o "vr^t hnvp

Then ouo-ht every horse to have an obhque shoulder? No! We have
been spkking of those which are designed to ride pleasantly, or from w uch
extensive and rapid action i. required. In them we have said that an
Ob que sltoulder^ is indisi^nsable : but there are others -^-h a- never
ridden- whose pace is slow, and who have i.othmg to do but to throw as
murh ;erght as possible into the collar. To th^m an upr^ht shoulder is
Tn advlSe because its additional thickness gives them additional weight
to throw Tnfo\he collar, which the power of their hinder quarters is fully
sufficieiTt to accomplish; and because the upright position of he shoulder
ti^es that direction to the collar which enables the horse to act upon every
mrt of it • and that inclination of the traces which will enable his weight or
Tower to be most advantageously employed. Of this, however we shall
LtTeTspeak when we com'e to describe the implements of agriculture, and
particularly the construction of wheel carriages. „r ^e„rs been

An improved breed of our heavy draught horses has of late years been
attempted and wilh much success. Sufficient uprightness of shoulder s
reSd for the purposes of draught, while a slight degree of obhqmty
has mate^lly quickened the pace and improved the appearance.

Ab^av^ t junction with the humerus, or lower bone of he shoulder, the
J^Z-LL forms what is called ^be point of the shoulder. There is a
round blunted projection, best seen in the cut (p. 230). Abe neck ot ne
sZlder blade then forms a shallow, cavity, into which the head of the

"T?e"c"vity1s thdtw because extensive motion is required, and because
bo^h ofTe bo es being so moveable, and the motion of the one connected

«h with that of tie other ^^-Jo-^-" ^^^^^^^

if one of them had been tixed. A capsular ligament or one cxtenaing

the"" of iL shoulder-blade and the .^--XtiS:? htXuT
de,dorviole„ce;eventur„,ngmana™^

i„ very obstinate oa«s a bU.J.^ .n^^^^^^^^

■ * ''T'f /;,f t7nse may not be uninteresting to the lover of .he
• r.,1nd%" guidfhirtnag Jent as to the eapabiUty and proper forn,
of that noble animal.

CUT OF MUSCLES ON THE OUTSIDE OF THE SHOULDER.
1 I ».onf a nortion of the muscle (the trapezius, quadrangular
a f \d ^ ':^.P^^^^f;^V°^^^^^ bones of the withers, broadly and

muscle), which '^'^J^^J^e^Vol ^the neck (a portion of which is seen at
strongly, and from ^he gament ol ^J^^^ ^ .^^^^^^

6), and narrowing below, and e m g ,houldcr-blade. It

mto a prominent ^^^^^I^"^^ and the upp.r part of the shoulder

SSlnd isr;: rr:;rgrnVoportion to Z hel^ht of the withers.

SLANTING DIRECTION OF THE SHOULDER.

233

and the slanting of the shoulder. Its use is evidently to support the
shoulder, to raise it, and likewise to draw it backward ; therefore, con-
stituting one of the most important muscles connected with the action of
the horse, and illustrating the advantage of high withers and a slanting
shoulder. A portion of it is represented as turned back, to show other

muscles beneath. A mo-
ment's inspection will con-
vince the reader, that al
though we may have beeri
justitied in objecting to e
low forehead and thick
shoulder, yet still some ful-
ness and fleshiness are ne-
cessary, even about the
withers; otherwise, although
there may be height of
withers, and obliquity of
shoulder, to give extensive
action, there will not be
sufficient muscular power to
work the machine with
either quickness or continu-
ance.

At c is a portion of the
levator humeri (the raiser
of the shoulder), descending
even from the tubercle at the
back of the head (see cut,
page 03), and from the base
of the temporal bone, and
attaching itself to the first
four bones of the neck, and
to the ligament of the neck ;
inserting itself into the
covering of the muscles of
the shoulder, and the mus-
cles about the point of the
shoulder, and at length ter-
minating in a ridge on the
lower bone of the shoulder.
It IS a muscle of immense power and great utility, raising and drawing
forward the shoulder and the arm, and, when these are fixed, turning the
liead and neck if one acts, and depressing them if the muscles on both
sides act at the same time.

At d is a portion of the great saw-like or tooth-shaped muscle ot the
shoulder, constituting the bulk of the lower part of the neck ; deeply
seated ; arising, as here seen, from the five last bones of the neck, and
the two first ribs, and the lower portion of it springmg from all the true
ribs; all the fibres tending towards, and inserted into the niner surface
of the shoulder; and by means of which the shoulder ,s attached o the
chest, and the immense weight of the body supported. We have already
spoken of the use of this muscle in obviating concussion

When the horse is standing, this muscle occasionally discharges another
important function. The shoulders and legs are then rendered fixed,
and immoveable by the weight of the body ; and this muscle no longer

THE HORSE.

.ein, able to .ove the lunbs e^- Ij^^ / VS^^

of the chest and '^"^^f^^^^^ disease, a borse= ■abouria.r

fore, as we, have stated J:*"; "j^ bstinately stand ni-ni and day, that

under inflammation of the ^^"f J^*^^^^^^^^^^ respiration, which is become

he may obtain ^he assistance of h^ muscle P^^^

laborious and pamful; we rega.u n y b ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^j^^

favourable symptoms * ,^an occur, Dec ^^.^

breathing is so much relieved that he neeas

"Ife is a small portion of the splenius muscle, of which we have spoken
when describing the neck, p. 1&4. ^j^^ of the raiser of

/represents a muscle sometimes described as p ^^^^ t^^e,

thi shoulder, arising from the -^J^^P^^ par of tSe neck, iLrted into
running down ^^^^^T'^'^f^^Z^^^^^^ shoulder, and thence

^le^l^U^^^^^^^^ --"af- speed with the head pro-

^"it is a portion of the sterno-ma^iUar^, or muscle common to the fore-

pan o'f Ihe Lest and the lower jaw, and ^--^^f^.^^^S^/^o ^he lower bone
^ A gives the principal muscle extending from^^^^^^^

of the shoulder, and employed - drawmg ^^^^^^^ action is

blade, and bending the J^/J^;, ,ery en^"--^ inserted in
required from th.s muscle thei^Bfore It ^ advantage, and that

such a direction as to act '^J^^fl'^l^^.^^^^i,,„oii^^
advantage increased ^" P^"?"-^' /° t^^^ is situated, as its name

The muscle at i, antea sptnatus i\f'fl^^You\der before the spine or
.ould intimate on the exte-^^^^^^^^^^ ^/procleds towards the bone of the
ridge,and mis the whole of that^ .^^^^ ^^^^ prominences in

r;t^of r vC'tJon. ..uscle, and extends the arm and

that space. It likewise goes the lower bone^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^
serted into the outer and upper head ot the Done.

ward and upward. ^ the shoulder-blade and

At is a muscle common to the Drea« breast-bone,

called Utile pectoral, -^^J^^tXu^Ser^iS and the muscles of the
and reaches to the covenng ^he shomo j ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^

shoulder. Its action, ni ^^^^^^^ of Uie lower bone of the

^°5:;^StSa;n ora ve. — -rt^^LSr t^r ^S:

arm. extending f'^^'f, th" dbow, and the inside of the arm,

shoulder-blade, to the Pf^^t j^"^^^; and at r and s are the three d.v,-
and which will be P^^^^^^J^ in the same office, arising from the
sions of another muscle concernea ^^^^^ and likewise attached

shoukler-blade and the lower bone ot t

to the point of the elbowi)y a ver> st^on ^^^^^^^^^

This cut represents the muscles t^^^^^^^^ ^he pectorals iransvcrsus
arm. ^ i« a very prominent one. u ^^^^^ ^^^^ four bones o

(themusclecrossingthebreast)_ It a ^^.j « mserted

the chest, and runs across to the inner i

THE LOWER BONE OF THE SHOULDER

235

into the tendinous substance cover-
ing the muscles of the forearm, and
reaching a considerable way down the
arm. The use of this muscle is ob-
vious and important. It binds the
arm to the side of the horse; it keeps
the legs straight before the horse when
he is at sp«ed, that the weight of
the body may be received on them in a
direction most easy and safe to the
horse and to the rider, and most ad
vantageous for the full play of all the
muscles concerned in progression.
Considering the unevenness of surface
over which a horse often passes, and
the rapid turnings which are sometimes
necessary, these muscles have enough
to do : and when the animal is pushed
beyond his strength, and these muscles
are wearied, and the forelegs spread
out, and the horse is " all abroad,"
the confused and unpleasant manner
of going, and the sudden falling off in
speed, are well known to every rider.

THE LOWER SONE OF THE SHOULDER.

Forming a joint with the shoulder-blade at the point of the shoulder
is the humerus, or lower bone of the shoulder (J. p. 63, and p. 230). It is
a short strong bone, slanting backward in an opposite direction to the shoul-
der-blade. At the upper part it has a large round head, received into the
shallow cavity of the shoulder-blade It has several protuberances for the
insertion of muscles, and is terminated below by two condyles or heads,
which in front receive the principal bone of the arm between them as
in a groove, thus adding to the security and strength of the joint, and
limiting the action of this joint, and of the limb below, to mere bending and
extension, without any side motion. Farther behind, these heads reoeive the
elbow deep between them, to give more extensive action to the arm. In
a well-formed horse this bone can scarcely be too short, in order that the
fore-legs may be as forward as possible, for reasons at which we have
already glanced; and because, when the lower bone of the shoulder is long,
the shoulder must be too upright. Dislocation can scarcely occur in either
of the attachments of the bone, and fracture of it is almost impossible.
The lower bone of the shoulder, and the shoulder-blade, are by horse-
men confounded together, and included under the appellation of the *Ao?//-
der, and in compliance with general usage we have described them as
combining to form the shoulder.

Among the muscles arising from the lower bone of the shoulder, are
two short and very strong ones, seen at the lower r and a, the first pro-
ceeding from the upper part of this bone to the elbow, and the second from
the internal part, and likewise going to the elbow, and both of them being
Dowerful agents in extending the leg.

In front, at y, is one of the muscles of the lower bone of the shoulder

235 THE HORSE.

the external one, employed in bending the arm; arisin- from ihe imicr
and back part of the neck and body of the lower bone of the shoulder,
turning obliquely round that bone, and inserted mto the muer and up-
per part of the bone of the arm.

THE ARM.

The arm extending from the elbow to the knee (see K and L, p. 63, and
also cvXp 230), consists, in the young borse, of two d.stn.ct bones.
The long and fri .t bone, called the, radms, ^^^^^''ly fj^'^ft, rece.vmg
into ts Spper end the lower heads of ihe lower bone of the shoulder ; and
he lower^^nd corresponding with the upper layer of the bones of the
knee The short and hinder bone is called the ulna It has a very long
and powerful projection, received between the heads of the lower bone
o? the^ Lulder^ aid called tbe elbow ; it then stretches down narrowmg
bv decrees (see L, p. 63, and the cut, p. 230) to below the middle of he
front bone where it te minates in a point. The two bones are un.ted
[rether b'v larUlao-e and ligament, but these are by degrees absorbed and
chfntd to' bonrand befofe the horse becomes old the whole of the arm

'''tt^lr^^M.i, from theslanting direction of the lower bone of
the shouWer, the weight of the horse, and the violence of the concussion, w.ll
be shared betwLth and therefore less hable to mjure

dther and the circumstance of so much weight and ar beu.g communicated
to tS^ will account for the extensive and peculiarly strong union between
hese bone n the young horse, and the speedy inflammation of the un.tmg
substance and absorption of it, and substitution of bone and complete bony
un^on between the radius and ulna, in the old horse. The immense mus-
cles wh ch are attached to the point of the elbow likewise render it neces-

q, r, and s, proceeuiui, agents in ex-

to act with most advantage ^^^^^^^^ ^3^^^

The principle of the ^^^^''^ ^ojhj^^ ,,„,re of motion ; the whole

beautifully ^PP^'^^fJ;- f to be raised ; and the power by

°^J^^\""7oCra s d i^on act of progression, the extending of the
which It IS to be raised in one i^^^ proportion as the weight

imb, IS the "'"^f from the centre of motion, as it is in the

is more distant than the powe ^ ^^^^^^^^^

construction of this ° ^ ' f^, ^^ight, ta\ing the Rnee to be th«

to be exerted We will s ppo elbow-joint, that the limb weighs

centre of it ^^^'S^^^^^" "'^ JSs two inches from the joint ; then an
60 lbs., and that the elbow p«> ects tw ^.^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^.^

energy equal to nine times the wei h , o , ^^^^^^ ^^^^

and extend the limb, because th weight ^^^^^.^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^

centre of motion than the power s. new n

the point of the elbow •> -'^ o.dy six

Uie leg remaining ihe same, lliree art one »• 6

THE ARM.

limes the force, or 360 lbs., will be required, makino- a differencp in
saving of muscular action, equal to 180 lbs. in each extension of the nVm
If a few pounds in the weight of tlie rider tell so much for or against the
horse m a long race, this saving of power must make an almost incalculable
difference; and, therefore, judges of the horse rightly attach so much im
portance to the depth of the elbow, or the projection of the point of thp
elbow from the joint.

When describing the proper obliquity of the shoulder, we proved that
the power was exerted with most advantage in a line perpendicular to
the arm of the lever, and that the slightest deviation from that line was
manifestly disadvantageous. If the reader will examine the cut Jie will
perceive that muscles from the shoulder and the bone of the arm take
a direction much nearer to a perpendicular line in the long than in the
short elbow, and therefore act with proportionably greater advantao-e • and
if we add this advantage from the direction in which the power is'ap'plied
to that which we gain from the increased length of the bone we shall be
justified m affirming that the addition of one-third to the leno-th or projec-
tion of the elbow would be attended by a saving of one-half in the ex-
penditure of muscular power. There is, however, a limit to this In
propctrtion as the elbow is lengthened, it must move over a greater space
m order to give the requisite extension to the limb ; and consequentlv the
muscles which act upon it must be lengthened, otherwise we mio-ht have
easy but confined action. There must be harmony of proportion in the
different parts of the limb, but a deep elbow, within a certain ran-e is
always connected with increased power of action. ° '

The elbow is sometimes fractured. If the animal be placed in the hands
of a skilful veterinarian, although the chances of cure are certainly ao-ainst
the horse, yet the owner need not despair. Absolute and long-conthiued
rest, and that produced by means of a sling, will be indispensable

ii.nlargements sometimes appear about the elbow, either the consequence
of a violent blow, or from the calkins of the shoes injuring this part when
he horse sleeps with his legs doubled under him. If a seton be passed
through the tumour it will sometimes rapidly diminish, and even disap-
pear; but if it be of considerable magnitude, the skin should be slit open
along the middle of the swelling, and the tumour dissected out.

Ihe elbow-joint is sometimes punctured, either accidentally, or throuo-h
he brutality of the groom or carter. The swelling is often rapid and eV
tensive, and fatal inflammation may ensue. Rest, and the closure of the
wound, are the most important considerations.

There are other muscles of the fore-arm employed in extending the
inb. At ^, page 233 is the principal one, called the extensor of the leg;

f Lrl'T'' ^""^^^^ ^"i""' ^"'^ °'-"'="P'"' P^'-t of the arm. It arises

f r P^;' of the body of the lower bone of the shoulder, and

rom Its outer head. As it descends down the arm, it becomes tendinous ;
tne tendon passes under one of the ligaments of the knee; it then
spreads out, and is inserted into the fore and upper part of the shank bone.
It is also seen at 6, page 235.

The next muscle in situation and importance is seen at w, and called liie
eoctemor of the foot. It rises from the outer head of tlie lower bone of the
shoulder, and likewise from the outer head of the bone of the arm. It be-
comes tendinous as it proceeds, and passes under a strong ring at t.he knee,
by which it is confined in its proper situation ; it then runs along the front of
the shank-bone, tied down by strong cellular substance; passes over the
ietlock, and part of the upper pastern ; is inserted into the lower part of the
upper pastern, into the lower pastern, and the coffin-bone or bone of the

238

THE HORSE.

that bone. ^^^^^^ extensor muscle, and at z a

At M, page 233, is the tenaon confining it in its situa-

curious oblique one Pf/^'"? .f^.^if ^ je ding or traightei^ing the leg.
tion, and likewise .tse fassisUngm^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^

The are |ven in the cut page 233^

powerful. Two ot -"^J^"! . ■ ^^^^ ggen at 6, page 235. It is
The first is at t, page 266 , n is a shank-bone, because it

called the -^^dle /exor or be.dmg^mu^ ^^^.^^^ ^^^^

lies precisely on the muld « f back p^^^^^^^^ .^^^^^^^^ .^^^

the inner head of the lo^^"^ "^""^^ , ^ The other is seen at v, page

of the bones on the '"^J^^^'f /^J.^^X leg, because it lies on the outer

233. It is called the external flexor ot t'l^ J, ^^^^

side of the arm, towards the back. arises tro tendinous,

lower bone of the shoulder; ^dvancmg towards tl^e knee,

and the tendon divides into two P^^t-^s one of wbch ,s in

same bone of the knee, and the other into the oute s

leg. The internal flexor is seen at . page 235. It p ^^^^

the /exor o/ the arm. rises iiom j between

shoulder-blade in the form of a large and oiin^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^

two prominences in the upper pan o^^^^^^^^^ ^^.^^^^^^^

shoulder, in as perfect ^ P^'^^^n it and the tendon there is an

islined with smooth cartilage; ; t without friction,

oily fluid, so that the tendon P'^y; ^^^^ ^ adof the lower bone

H-iving escaped from this pulley jP^^^^^^^'^^^"^ fleshy body, still con-
of the shoulder, the cord swells ^to a oun J.^J^ ^^^^^.^^^^

taining many tendinous fibres. ^^^fP'^ '7'' reached the arm, it is

is applied almost close to the ce^'j^^fj^'^tWrty times nearer the centre
raised is far distant firom it. ^^e power s tn^ ^t of

of motion than is the Jf.^^^ 'j.^^^f^^^^^^^^^^ must act with a force of
the arm and the r-t he Hmb at_b^^ ^^.^^^.^^ ^^^^ ^.^^

thirty times sixty, or 1800 l^s^ in the direction of the

of the force strangely ^^^^f JT^he jimb, and the mechanical disadvan-
.mscle is nearly the same as Oi^^^^ of Uie hm ^^^^ ^^^^ .

;?.S;h""Se coadjutors, act with a force of ten times
1 800 or 18,000 lbs. .^nPtiditure of muscular power ?— First, that

Beauty of form, however is the leas ^ ^^^^ ^j^^^h we

THE ARM.

239

in velocity. The product of the power, and the space passed over by the
arm of the lever to which it is attached, must always be equal to the pro-
duct of the weig^ht, and of the space passed over by the arm that supports
it ; and if a power, equal to thirty times the weigiit, is obliged to be ex-
erted at the upper part of the bone of the arm, the centre of that bone,
which may be considered as the centre of ihe weight, will pass over thirty
times the space, and the extremity of the limb will pass over sixty times
the space. The muscle will contract with a great deal of rapidity, but the
foot will move with sixty times that rapidity, in order to pass over sixty
times the space in the same time. This is precisely what we want. Exten-
sive and rapid motion are the excellences of the horse. He is valuable in
proportion as he has them, combined with stoutness ; and by this con-
formation of the limb alone could he obtain them. Therefore the tendon
is at first unusually strong; it plays through the natural but perfect pulley
of the bone of the arm without friction ; the body of the muscle is mixed
with tendinous fibres, and the insertion into the fore-arm is very extensive,
lest the application of such immense force should tear it from its adhe-
sions. There is sufficient strength in the apparatus ; the power may be
safely applied at this mechanical disadvantage ; and it is applied close
to the joint to give an extent and rapidity of motion which could not
otherwise have been obtained, and without which the horse would have
been comparatively useless.

At the back of the arm are other flexor muscles of great power, to
bend the lower portions of the limb. We have described two of them
belonging to the arm and the leg, aud we must not pass over the very
peculiar ones acting on the feet. Only a small portion of one of them can
be seen in our cut, page 233, at 1.

The first is the perforated flexor muscle : the reason of the name will
presently appear. It arises from the lower and back part of the inner head
of the lower bone of the shoulder, and intermixed with, or rather between
the origins of the muscle next to be described, and called the perforating
muscle. As it descends along the bone of the arm, it becomes tendinous;
and, approaching the knee, it is bound down by arches or bands of ligament,
that it may not start in sudden and violent action. Proceeding from the knee,
it widens, and partly wraps round the tendon of the perforating muscle, and
they run down together in contact, yet not adhering ; freely playing over
each other, and mucous fluid obviating all friction. Both of them are in-
closed in a sheath of dense cellular substance, attached to them by numerous
fibrils ; and they are likewise supported by various ligamentous expansions.
Near the fetlock the tendon still farther expands, and forms a complete ring
round the tendon of the perforating muscle. This is seen at J, p. 111.
The use of this will be best explained when we are treating of the fetlock.
The perforated tendon soon afterwards divides, and is inserted into the
smaller and larger pastern bones, and flexes or bends them.

The next is the perforating flexor muscle. It has nearly the
same origin as the other, but with somewhat distinct heads. It con-
tinues muscular farther down the arm than the perforated, and lies
before it. At the knee it passes, like the perforated, under strong
ligamentary arches, which confine it in its situation. It then becomes
round, and is partly wrapped up in the perforated ; and at the fetlock is
entirely surrounded by it. It emerges from the perforated when that
tendon divides, and continues its progress alone after the other has inserted
itself into the pasterns, and, passing over the navicular bone, terminates on
the base of the coffin-bone, or bone of the foot.

It ia sufficientlv plain that the arm should be large and muscular

240 THE HORSE.

otherwise it cannot discharge all these duties. Horsemen differ on a va-
riety of other points, but here they are agreed. A full and swelling fore-
arm is the characteristic of every thorough-bred horse, and for speed and
continuance he is unequalled. Whatever other good pomts a horse may
nossess if the arm be narrow in front and near the shoulder, flat on the
Se and altogether poor in appearance, that horse is radically defect.ve :
he kn neUhe^r raise his knee for rapid action, nor throw h,s legs suffi-

'"Th^rrrstuld likewise be long. In proportion to the length of
the muscle is the degree of contraction of which it is capable ; and in pro-
nortro^to the deo-ree of contraction in the muscle will be the extent of
Zt on rn the part of the limb beneath. A racer, with a short arnri
wo^Wbrsadly deficient in stride; a hunter, with the same defect, would
not be able to double his legs well under him in the leap. There is, how-
ever a medium in this, aid th. advantage f l-^^il^^^^^^^;^/
denend on the use to which the horse is applied. The lady s horse, tne
c ivalrv hor e every horse in which prancing action is esteemed a beauty
a^in which utility^, to a certain degree, sacrificed to appearance, must,
notbetoo lng in th; arm. If he be long there, he will be proport on-
ab V 'hort in theleg; and although this is an undoubted excellence, whether
^p 'ed o continuance be regarded, the short ""^ f^^. ^^^J^^^^

and imposin- action which fashion may require : and, in addition to this
a horsTwiL s^hort legs may not have quite so easy action as another whose
length is in the shank rather than in the arm.

THE KNEE.

The Knee fM p. 63, and cut, p. 230) constitutes the joint or joints be-
Ihe Knee U", P- "J' . . \ le"-; and it is far more complicated

''"-fctt^rttTte^Uon of this complicated structure ? A joim We™,
the^eibow and tKc fetiock wa. absoiute y

horse. An inflexible p.llat of b„,, ,if4d far enough for

fron, the ground, -^/'^ ^

rapid or safe motion, it was lUiewibe ucu j,

jofnt should be so constituted -^l^^^^l^l^^ I^^i to resist all
straight direction «h«uld possess sumc^^^^ ^^^^^

common work and accidents B^^^^^^ ^

r d?ir::d ^oidd V^^^^^^^^^^^ --j^^^- heads of aU

dreadful, and 'P^^, 1^ cartila-e, to protect them from injury by

bones -«,,7-thiTluX a4^^^^^ insufficient here. Six distinct
concussion, but =„,ered above and below by a thick

bones, then, Place^d her^^^^^ ^ ^.^^ ted

coating of cartilage C"""*^^ concussion is thus spread over

S^tht%onne.i;m, de^^^^^^^^^^

These SIX d'^^tinct bones unvted o ^^^^^ ^^^^ apposition of any

ligaments, will also attord a fa-: st o „ ^.^^^^^^^
two bones, however perfect and st'-on » . ^ ^^dition to the
by whatever other ligaments it could be sirengu

THE KNEE.

241

connexion between the individual bones, there is. a perfect capsular liga-
ment here, extending from the bone of the arin to those of the leg;
und the result of the whole is, that, although the centre of such a column
must be the weakest part, and most liable to bow out and give way, the
hardest work and the severest accidents produce little deformity, and no
dislocation in the knee : nor do the shocks and jars of many a year cauee
inflammation or disease. It is an undeniable fact, that such is the perfect
construction of this joint, and to so great a degree does it lessen concus-
sion, that the injuries resulting from hard work are, almost without an
exception, found below the knee.

The seventh bone, the trapezium, so called from its quadrangular figure,
is placed (see M, p. 63) behind the others, and does not bear the
slightest portion of the weight, ft, however, is very useful. Two of the
flexor muscles, already described, proceeding from the bone of the arm,
are inserted into it ; and thus, being thrown off the limb, have a less oblique
direction given to them ; and, therefore, according to the principle of the
lever, act with considerably more power. It is also useful in another way.
As the tendons of the various muscles descend the limbs, they are tied
down, as we have described, by strong ligamentous bands : this is particu-
larly the case in the neighbourhood of the joints. The use of this is
evident. The extensor tendons, which lie principally on the front of the
leg, are prevented from starting, and strengthened and assisted in their
action; but the flexor tendons which lie at the back would be liable to
friction, and their motion would be impeded, if they were bound down too
tightly. This projecting bone prevents the annular or ring-like ligament
from pressing too closely on the main flexor tendons of the foot; and while
it leaves them room to play, leaves room likewise for a little bag, filled with
mucus to surround them, which mucus, oozing slowly out, sujiplies the
whole course of the tendons down the legs with a fluid that takes away
the possibility of injurious friction.

The knee should be broad. It should present a very striking width,
compared with the arm above, or the shank below. The broader the
knee is, the more spaee there is for the attachment of muscles, and for the
accumulation of ligamentous expansions and bands. In proportion to the
breadth of the knee there will be more strength ; and likewise the direction of
some muscles will be less oblique, and those of others will be more removed
from the centre of motion ; and, in either case, much power will be gained.

BROKEN KNEES.

The treatment of broken knees is a subject of considerable importance, for
many horses are sadly blemished, and others are destroyed, by wounds iu
the knee-joint. The horse, when falling, naturally throws his knees for
ward ; they receive all his weight, and are sometimes very extensively
lacerated. The first thing to be done is, by very careful washing with
warm water, to cleanse the wound from all gravel and dirt. It must then
be ascertained whether the joint is penetrated. The grating of the probe
on one of the bones of the knee, on the depth to which the probe enters
the wound, will oWen too plainly indicate that the joint has been opened.
Should any doubt exist, let a linseed-meal poultice be applied. This will
at least act as a fomentation to the wound, and will prevent or abate
inflammation ; and when, twelve hours afterwards, it is taken off, the
synovia, or joint-oil, in the form of a glairy, yellowish, transparent fluid, will
be seen, if the capsular ligament has been penetrated. Should doubt remain
after the first poultice, apply a second.

R

242

THE HORSE.

The opening of the joint being ascertained, the first and immefliate care
is to close the'' orifice; lor the fluid which separated and hibricated the
bones of the knee being suffered to flow out, they will be brought into
actual contact with each other; they will rub upon each other; the delicate
membrane with which they are covered will be highly inflamed; the con-
stitution will be speedily affected, and a degree of fever will ensue that will
destroy the horse : and, in the mean time, of all the tortures that can be
inflicted on the poor animal, none can equal that which accompanies
inflammation of tiie membranes lining the joints.

The maimer of closing the orifice must be left to the judgment of
the veterinary surgeon, who alone is capable of ])roperl\ treating such a
case. It may be effected by a compress enclosing the whole of the wound,
and not to be removed for many days ; or it may be attempted by the old
and generally successful method of applying the hot iron over the wound,
and particularly over the spot where the ligament appears to be lacerated.
A poultice may then be placed on the part, and the case treated as a com-
mon wound. Should the joint-oil continue to flow the iron may be ap-
plied a second, or even a third time. By the apyilication of the iron, so
much swelling is produced on the immediate puncture, arid in the neigh-
bouring parts^as mechanically to close and plug up the orifice.

If, however, the opening into the joint be extensive, and the joint-oi!
continues to flow, and the horse is evidently suflering much pain, humanity
will dictate that he should be destroyed. The case is hopeless. A high
degree of fever will ere long carry the animal off, or the inflammation will
cause a deposit of matter in the cavity of the joint which will produce in-
curable lameness.

The pain caused by the iron is doubtless great ; it is, however, necessary :
but let no reader of ' The Horse' permit the torturing experiments of the
farrier to be tried, who will frequently inject stimulating fluids, and even
oil of vitriol, into one of the most sensible and irritable cavities in-the whole

frame. .„ . i r ,i

A person well acquainted with the anatomy of the part will judge ot tlie
probability of a favourable result, not merely by the extent, but by the situ-
ation of the wound. If it is low down and opposite to the bottom row, a
small opening into the joint will be easily closed; a larger one need not
cause despair, because there is little motion between the lower row and the
bones of the leg. If it be high up, there is more danger, because there is
more motion. If it be situated opposite to the union of the two rows, the
result is most to be dreaded, because between these is the principal motion
of the joint, and that motion would not only disunite and irritate the exter-
nal wound, but cause dreadful friction between the bones brought into actual
contact with each other, through the loss of the joint-oil.

When the skin has been lacerated, although the wound may be healed,
some blemish will remam. The extent of this blemish will depend on the
extent and nature of the original wound, and more especially on the nature
of the treatment which has been adopted. Every caustic apphcation will
destroy more of the skin, and leave a larger mark. Should the blemish
be considerable, a mild blister may be applied over the part, afler tfie
wound has healed. It will stimulate the hair to grow more rapidly
and thickly round the scar, and particularly hair of the natural colour ; and
by contracting the skin it will lessen the scar itself Many persons have
creat faith in ointments, which are said to promote the growth of the hair.
If they have that property, it must be from stimulating the skm, m which
the roots of the hair are embedded. These ointments must contam a
aniall portion of blistering matter, in the form of turpentine, or the Spanish-

THE LEG.

243

fly. The common application of gunpowder and lard may, by blackening
tlie pjirt, conceal the blemish, but can have no possible effect in quickening
the growth of the hair.

In examining a horse for purchase, the knees are very strictly scru
tinized. A blemish on them should not induce us at once to condemn
the animal ; for a bad rider, or the merest accident, may throw the safest
horse. A broken knee, however, is a suspicious circumstance, and calls
for the most careful observation of the make and action of the horse. If
it be accompanied by a thick and upright shoulder, and legs far under the
horse, and low slovenly action, he is unwise who does not take the hint :
this faulty conformation has produced its natural consequence. But if the
shoulder be oblique, and the withers high, and the fore-arm strong, the
good judge will not reject the animal, because he may have been acciden-
tally thrown. (53.)

• THE LEG.

The part of the limb between the knee and the fetlock consists of three
bones — a large one before, called the cannon or shank, and two smaller or
splint bones behind (see N, p. 63). The shank-bone is rounded in front,
and flattened, or even concave behmd. It is the straightest of the long
bones, as well as the most superficially situated, for in some parts it is
covered only by the skin. The upper head is flat, with sliglv' depressions
corresponding with the lower row of the bones of the knee. Th i ower
head is differently and curiously formed. It resembles a double pulley.
There are three elevations, the principal one in the centre, and one on each
side ; and between them are two slight grooves ; and these so precisely cor-
respond with deep depressions and slight prominencies in the upper head
of the larger pastern, and are so enclosed and guarded, by the elevated
edges of that bone, that when the shank-bone and the pastern are fitted to
each other, they form a perfect hinge : they admit of the bending and
extension of the limb, but of no lateral or side motion ; which is a circum-
stance of very great importance in a joint so situated, and having the
whole weight of the horse thrown upon it.

The smaller bones are placed behind the larger on either side ; a slight
projection only of the head of each can be seen in front. The heads of these
bones are enlarged, and receive part of the weight conveyed by the lower
row of the bones of the knee. They are united to the larger bone by
the same kind of substance which is found in the colt between the bone of
the elbow and the main bone of the arm ; and which is designed, like
that, by its great elasticity, to lessen the concussion or jar when the weight
of the animal is thrown on them. They reach from one-half to two-thirds
of the length of the shank-bone, and, through their whole extent, are
united to it by this substance ; but, as in the elbow, from the animal being
worked too soon, or too violently, inflammation ensues, and bony matter
is deposited in the room of the ligamenli)us ; and a bony union takes
place instead of the natural one. There is no doubt that the ease of mo-
tion is somewhat lessened by this substitution of bone, but other elastic
prnciples are probably called into more powerful action, and the value of
the horse is not perceptibly impaired ; although it is hard to say what secret
injury may be done to the neighbouring joints, and the cause of which,
lameness appearing at a distant period, is not suspected.

In this process, however, mischief does often immediately extend to the
neighbouring parts. The disposition to deposit bone reaches beyond the
circumscribed space between the larger and smaller bones of tht leg ; and

11 2

2-14

THK IIORSK.

a tumour, first call )us and afterwards boii>, is found, with part of its base
resting on the line of union between tnese bones. Tliis is called a

SPLINT.

The splint is invariably found on the outside of the small bone, and gene-
rally on the inside ot the leg (c, p. 255.) Why it should appear on the outside
of the small bones it is difficult to explain, except that the space between
these bones is occupied by an important mechanism, which will be pre-
sently described ; and, as in the case of abscess, a natural tendency was
criven to them to determine outward, that vital parts may not be
injured. The cause of their almost exclusive appearance on the inside of
the leg admits of easier explanation. The inner splint-bone is placed
nearer the centre of the weight of the body than the other, and, from the
nature of its connexion with the bones of the knee, actually receives more
of the weight than does the outer bone, and tlierefore is more liable to mjury.
and inflammation, and this consequent deposit of bone. The inner bone
receives the whole of the vi'eight transmitted to one of the small bones of the
knee. It is the only support of tliat bone. A portion only of one of the
bones rests on the outer splint-bone, and the weight is shared between it
and the shank. In addition to this, it is the absurd practice of many
smiths to raise the outer heel of the shoe to an extravagant degree, whicli
throws still more of the weight of the horse on the inner splint-bone.
These tumours occasionally appear on other parts of the shank-bone,
being the consequence of violent blows, or other external injuries.

Vvlien the splint is forming, the horse is frequently lame. The peri-
osteum or membrane covering the bone is painfully stretched ; but when
this membrane has accommodated itself to the tumour that extended it,
the lameness subsides and altogether disappears, unless the splint be m a
situation in which it interferes with the action of some tendon or ligament,
or in the immediate neighbourhood of a joint. Pressing upon a li-
gament or tendon, it may cause inflammation of those substances ; or,
beino- close to a joint, it may interfere with its action. Sjilints, then, do
not necessarily cause unsoundness, and may not lessen in the slightest
de<rree the action or value of the horse. All depends on their situation.
When we have described the situation and course of the suspensory liga-
ments, we shall be enabled to enter more fully into this.

The treatment of splints, if it be worth while to meddle with them, is
exceedingly simple. The hair should be closely shaved off round the
tumour ; a little strong mercurial ointment rubbed in for two days ; and
this should be followed by an active blister. If the splint be of recent
formation, it will usually yield to this, or to a second blister. Should it
resist these applications, it can rarely be advisable to cauterize the part,
unless the tumour interferes materially with the action of the suspensory
ligament ; for it not unfrequently happens, that, although the splint may
have apparently resisted this treatment, it will afterwards, and at no great
distance of time, beffin rapidly to lessen, and quite disappear. There is
also a natural process by which tlie greater part of splints disappear when

the horse gets old. , . , , i • • *i

As for the old remedies, many of them brutal enough,— bruising the
splint with a hammer, boring it with a gimlet, chipping it off with a
mallet, sawing it off, slitting down the skin and periosteum over it sweat-
in- it down with hoi oils, and passing setons over it.-the voice of huma-
nity, and the progress of science, will consign them to speedy oblivion.
The inside of the leg, immediately under the knee, and extending to tne

SPLINT.

245

head of the inner spnnt-bone, is subject to injury from what is termed the
speedy ciit. A horse with high action, and in the fast trot, violently strikes
this part either with his hoof or the edge of the shoe. Sometimes bony
sniargement is the result, at others great heat and tenderness ; and the
]»in from the blow seems occasionally to be so great that the horse drops
as if he were shot. The only remedy is to take care that no part of the
shoe projects beyond the foot ; and to let the inner side of the shoe, except
the country be very deep, or the horse used for hunting, have but one nail,
and that near the toe. This part of the hoof, being unfettered with nails,
will expand when it comes in contact with the ground, and contract when
in air and relieved from the pressure of the weight of the body ; and,
although this contraction is to no great extent, it will be sufficient to carry
the foot harmlessly by the leg. Care should likewise be taken that the
shoe be of equal thickness at the heel and the toe, and that the bearing be
equal on both sides.

Immediately under the knee we find one of those ligamentous rings by
which the tendons are so usefully bound down and secured ; but if the
hinder bone of the knee, the trapezium, described at p. 241, be noi
sufficiently prominent, this ring will confine the flexor tendons of the foot
too tightly, and the leg will be very deficient in depth under the knee. This
is called being tied in below the knee. (Jb, p. 255.) Every horseman recognizes
it as a most serious defect. It is scarcely compatible with speed, and most
assuredly not with continuance. Such a horse cannot be ridden far and
fast without serious sprain of the back sinews. The reason is plain :
the pressure of the ring will produce a degree of friction inconsistent with
the free action of the tendons ; more force must, therefore, be exerted in
every act of progression ; and, although the muscles are powerful, and
sufficiently powerful for every ordinary purpose, the repetition of this extra
exertion will tire and strain them. A more serious evil, however, remains to
be stated. When the back sinews or tendons are thus tied down, they are
placed in a more oblique direction, and in which the power of the muscles is
exerted with greater disadvantage ; and, therefore, both for extraordinary,
and even ordinary action, a greater degree of exertion is required, and
fatigue and sprain will frequently result. There are few more serious defects
than this tying-in of the tendons immediately below the knee. The fore-
leg may be narrow in front, but it must be deep at the side, in order to
render the horse valuable ; for then only will the tendons have free action,
and the muscular force be exerted in the most advantageous direction.
The recollection of the reader will convince him, that there are few good
race-horses whose legs are not deep below the knee. If there are ex-
ceptions, it is because their exertion, although violent, is but of short
duration. The race is decided in a few minutes ; and, during that little
period, the spirit and energy of the animal may successfully struggle with
the disadvantages of form ; but where great and long-continued exertion
is required, as in the hunter or the hackney, no strength can long contend
against this palpably disadvantageous misapplication of muscular power.

As they descend the back part of the leg, the tendons of the perforated and
perforating flexor muscle should be far and distinctly apart from the shank-
bone. There should be space free from thickening for the finger and
thumb on either side to be introduced between them and the bone, and that
extending from the knee to the fetlock. In a perfect leg — and towards its
lower part, there should be three distinct and perfect projections visible to
the eye, as well as recognizable by the finger, the sides of the shank-bone,
the most forward of the three ; next, the suspensory ligament ; and hinder-
most of all, ,he flexor tendons. When 'hese are not to be distinctly seen or

THE HORSE.

felt, or there is considerable thickening abont them and between tnem.
(i, p 255) and the leg is round instead of flat and deep, there has !.een
what is commonly, but improperly, called, (54.)

SPIIAIN OF THK BACK.-SINEWS.

These tendons are enclosed in a sheath of dense cellular subslance, to
confine t"em in their situation, and to defend them from mjury. Bet^^een
Jhe tendon and the sheath there is a mucous fluid to prevent fnct.on : but
he horse has been overworked, or put to sudden and violent exert.on,
The endon presses upon the delicate membrane Uning the sheath and m-
flanSonl produced, and a different fluid is thrown out, winch coa^^w-
ZaS i d adhesions are formed between the tendon and the sheath and
e mo'^n of the lirnb is more difficult and painful At other Umes from
,dole^t or long-continued exertion, some of the fibres which t^ the ten-
dons down arf ruptured. A slight injury of this nature is of ed -^p-m
of the back-sinews or tendons; and when it is r^^''^/^;'""^' ^^^^
said to have broken down. It should be ^^--"^ered ^owe^^^^^^ the
tendon can never be sprained, because it is inelastic and incapable ot ex
tensk,n and the tendon, or its sheath, are scarcely ever ruptured, even m
whaUs'calkd breaking down. The first injury is confined to inflamma-
"on of the sheath, or%upture of a few of the attachmg fibres The m
flammation of the part, however, is often very great, the pam intense
and he lleness Ixcessive. The anguish expressed at every bendmg o
the Ihnb. and the local swelling and heat, will clearly indicate the »eat of

'"•"l^'every serious affection of this kind, care should be taken that the
locaUnflammation does not produce general disturbance of the S3.tem;
and therefore, the horse should be bled and physicked. The b eedmg
mav' be al the toe, by which an important local, as well as general effect.
wiU be produced. The vessels of the part will be reheved while
Tever will r prevented. Let not the bleeding be performed in the usua
fa^rTer^s way of first paring down the sole, and then taking ou a piece o
Ua the t^^ of the ?rog fin which case - ^^^l^^^
lo heal and throuo-h which fungous granulations from the sensib e paris
beneat^iultinttely spring :Vt afier the sole has b- -U^^^^^^^^
let a groove be cut with the rounded head of a small d'^wmg kmte at
tl.e iunction of the sole and the crust (see z in the next cut, P- 249). Ihe
Iro-e n at the toe will thus be opened, or the groove may be widened
\ until it be found When the blood begins to appear, the vein

by a smaH lancet thrust horizontally under the

.nrl almost anv quantity of blood may be easily procuied. Ihe im-
sole and almost a y q^a y : ^^^^^ ^^^^^

'""T When ^sufficient c^^^^^^^^ been drawn, a bit of tow may be
i^Shitr ~d%heU on Tlie bleedmg will be im-

Lediately -PP^j^^V"^^^^^^^ near the part, but let

As a local appl c^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ U. the

the leg be well ''''^2rjZ\v \:nr^^ ; and, between the lomentations,
day, and ha f an hour a each tim ; ^ j.^^b that

let the leg be ^"closed in a poultice ^.^^^^ Gou

pleases the l^^^ t^^e beneficial Effect of both depends

lard's extract to the P"" ^^^^'^ ^i,, ,^^i,u,,e of the poultice. The

ffi^hiir ^Ir^^:." view, is to abate the inflammation o,

SPRAIN OF THE BACK-SINEWS.

247

the part, and no means are so likely as these to effect that purpose. Every
stimulating application will infallibly aggravate the mischief.

The horse beginning to put his foot better to the ground, and to bear
pressure on the part, and the heat having disappeared, the object to be
accomplished is changed ; recurrence of the inflammation must be pre-
vented, the enlargement must be got rid of, and the parts must be
strengthened. The two latter purposes cannot be belter effected than
by using an elastic bandage — one of thin flannel will be the best. This will
sustain and support the limb, while by few means are the absorbents sooner
induced to take up the effused coagulable matter of which the swelling is
composed, than by moderate pressure. If the bandage be kept wet
with vinegar, to each pint of which a quarter of a pint of spirit of wine
has been added, the skin will be slightly stimulated and contracted, and
the cold produced by the constant evaporation will tend to subdue the
remaining and deep-seated inflammation. This bandage should be daily
tightened in proportion as the parts are capable of bearing increased pres-
sure, and the treatment should be persisted in for a fortnight : if, at the
expiration of that period, there be no swelling, tenderness, or heat, the
horse may gradually, and very cautiously, be put to his usual work.

Should there, however, remain the slightest lameness or considerable
enlargement, the leg must be blistered ; and, indeed, it would seldom be
bad practice to blister after a case of severe spruin : for the inflam-
mation lies deep in the sheath of the tendons, and the part once sprained
long remains weak, and subject to renewed injury, not only from unusual,
but even ordinary exertion. If the blister be resorted to, time should be
given for it to produce its gradual and full effect, and the horse should be
turned out for one or two months ; and here we must be permitted to
repeat, that a blister should never be used while any heat or tenderness
remains about the part, otherwise the slightest injury may be, and often is,
converted into incurable lameness.

Very severe sprains, but much oftener sprains badly treated, may re-
quire the application of the cautery. If from long-continued inflamma-
tion the structure of the part is materially altered, if the swelling is be
coming callous, or the skin is thickened and prevents the free motion of
the limb, no stimulus short of the heated iron will be sufficient to rouse the
absorbents to remove the injurious deposit. The principal use of firing
is to rouse the absorbents to such increased action that they shall take up
and remove the diseased thickness of the skin, and likewise the unnatural
deposit in the cellular substance beneath. The firing should be applied
in straight lines, because the skin, contracting by the application of
the cautery, and gradually regaining its elastic nature, will thus form
the best bandage over the weakened part. Here, even more particularly
than in the blister, time should be given for the full action of the firing.
This removal of diseased matter is a work of slow progress. Many weeks
pass away before it is perfectly accomplished ; and, after firing, the horse
should have at least a six months', and it would be better if he could be
given a twelve months' run at grass. When the animal has been set to
work in a few weeks, and the enlargement remains, or lameness returns,
the fault is to be attributed to the impatience of the owner, and not to the
want of power in the operation, or skill in the operator.

Farriers are apt to blister immediately after firing. A blister may be
useful six weeks or two months after firing, if lameness remains; but can
never be wanted inimediatcly after the severe operation of the cautery. It
Ihe iron has been skilfully applied, subsequent blistering inflicts on the

248

TIIE HORSE.

animal, a^eady sufficiently tortured, much unnecessary and useless pain,
and should never be resorted to by him who possesses the slightest feeling
of humanity.

In examining a horse for purchase, the closest attention should be
paid to the appearance of these flexor tendons. If there be any thickness
of cellular substance around them, that horse has been sprained violently,
or the sprain has not been properly treated. This thickening will probably
fetter the motion of the tendon, and dispose the part to the recurrence of
inflammation and lameness. Such a horse, although at the time perfectly
free from lameness, will be regarded with suspicion, and cannot fairly be
considered as sound. He is only patched up for a while, and will pro-
bably fail at the close of the first day's hard work. (55.)

WIND-OALLS.

Approaching nearer to the fetlock, we occasionally find considerable en-
largements, oftener on the hind leg than the fore one, which are denomi-
nated wind-galls (e, p. 255). Between the tendons and other jjarts, and wher-
ever the tendons are exjjosed to pressure or friction, and particularly about
their extremities, little bags or sacs are placed, containing and suf-
fering to ooze slowly from them a mucous fluid. From undue
pressure, and that most frequently caused by violent action and straining
of the tendons, these little bags become injured ; they take in inflammation,
and they grow large and hard. The tendons are mostly inserted into the
neighbourhood of joints, and there is most motion and pressure, and con-
sequently these enlarged mucous bags (hnrsteB mucoscB) are oftenest found,
about the joints. There are few horses perfectly free from them. When they
first appear, and until the inflammation subsides, they maybe accompanied
by some degree of lameness ; but otherwise, except when they attain an
enormous size, they do not interfere with the action of the animal, or cause
unsoundness. The farriers used to suppose that they contained wind-
hence their name, wind-galls ; and hence the practice of opening them, by
which dreadful inflammation has oaen been produced, and many a valuable
horsG dGstroy6(i.

A slight wind-gall will scarcely be subjected to treatment ; but if these
tumours are numerous and large, and seem to impede the motion of the
limb, they may be attacked first by bandage. The roller should be of flannel
and soft pads should be placed on each of the enlargements, and bound
down tightly upon them. The bandage may be wetted with the lotion re-
commended for sprain of the back-sinews. The wind-gall will often diminish
or disappear by this treatment, but will too frequently return when the
horse is again hardly worked. A blister is a more effectual remedy; and
firing still more certain, if the tumours be sufficiently large and annoying
to justify our having recourse to measures so severe. In bad cases the
cautery is the only cure, for it will not only effect the immediate absorption
of the fluid, and the reduction of the swelling, but, by contracting the skin,
will act as a permanent bandage, and therefore prevent the reappearance o'
the tumour. (5C.)

THE PASTERNS.

At the back of the shank just below the knee, and in the space between
the two splint-bones, are found two extraordinary and important ligaments,
pictraordinary as being elastic, and important as being admirably adapted

THE PASTERNS.

249

to obviate concussion. They have their origin from the head of the shank-
bone, and also from the heads of the splint-bones; them descending down
the leg, they fill Che groove between the splint-bones, but are not attached
to either of them ; a little lower down they expand on either side, and, ap
preaching the pasterns, they divide, and are inserted into two little bones
found at the back of the upper pastern, one on each side, called the sessa-
moid bones. (See p. 63, and in this cut which represents the pastern and
foot, sawn through the middle.) They form a kind of joint both with tlie
lower head of the shank-bone, and the upper pastern-bone, to both of
which they are united by ligaments (i and g), but much more closely tied
to the pastern than to the shank. The flexor tendons pass down be-
tween them through a large mucous bag to relieve them from the friction
to which, in so confined a situation, they would be exposed. This liga-
ment is continued over the sessamoids, and afterwards obliquely forward
over the pastern to unite with the long extensor tendon, and downward to
the perforated tendon, which it surroun'ds and fixes in its place and also
to the smaller pastern bone.

a The sliank-bone.

A The upper and larger pastern-bonc.

c Tlie sessamoid-bone.

d The lower or smaller pastern-bone.

e The navicular or shuttle-bone.

f The cofEn-bone or bone of the foot.

, The suspensory ligament inserted -^f^^X^^^"^^^ past«rn-bone
A A contmuat,on of the suspensory '•g;"^"'\~t^„id bone to the larger pastern
i The small inelastic hgament, tying down the stssamom b r-

"^Tk long ligament reaching Irom the pastcm-bone to the knee.

I The extenwr tendon inserted into both the i-asterns and the coflhu-bouu.

THE HOHSF

m The tendon of the perforating flexor inserted into the coffin-bone, after having

passed over the navicular bone.

n The seat of the navicular joint lameness,
o The inner or sensible frog.
p The cleft of the horny frog.

q A ligament uniting the navicular bone to the smaller pastern.
r A ligament uniting the navicular bone to the coffin-bone.
s The sensible sole, between the coffin-bone and the horny sole.
/ The horny sole.
« The crust or wall of fhe foot.

V The sensible laminae to which the crust is attached.
w The coronary ring of the crust.

« The covering of the coronary ligament from which the crust is secreted.
z Place of bleeding at the toe.

It will be easy to perceive, from this description of the situation of (be
suspensory ligament, why splints placed backward on the leg are more
likely to produce lameness than those which are found on the side of the
leg-. They may interfere with the motion of this ligament, or, if they are
large, may bruise and wound it.

The principal action of these ligaments is with the sessamoid bones,
which they seem to suspend in their places, and they are therefore called the
suspensory ligaments. The pasterns (see cut, p. 249) are united to the
shank in an oblique direction, differing in degree in the different breeds of
horses, and in each adapted to the purpose for which that breed was de-
signed. The weight fulls upon tlie pastern in the direction of the shank-
hone, and the pastern being set on obliquely, a portion of the weight must
be communicated to the sessamoids. Much jar is saved by the yielding of
the pasterns, in consequence of their oblique direction; and the concus-
sion which would be produced by that portion of weight which falls oiv
the sessamoid-bones is completely destroyed, for there is no bone under-
neath to receive it. They are suspended by this ligament — an elasftc
ligament, which gradually yields to, and is lengthened by, the force im-
pressed upon it, and in this gradual yielding and lengthening, all painful
or dangerous concussion is rendered impossilile.

If the ligament lengthens, the sessamoid-bones must descend when the
weight is thrown on them, and it would appear that they do so. If the
horough-bred horse with his long pasterns is carefully observed as he
stands, the tuft at the fetlock will be some inches from the turf; but when
he is in rapid motion, and the weight is thrown violently on this joint, the
tuft descends and sweeps the very ground. This, however, is the combined
action of the fetlock and pastern-joints, and the sessamoid-bones. The
sessamoids do not actually descend ; but they revolve, they partly turn over.
The strong ligament by which they are attached to the pastern-bone acts as
a hinge, and the projecting part of the bone to which the suspensory liga-
ment is united, turns round with the pressure of the weight; and so that
part of the bone becomes lower. How is it raised again? This ligament,
strangely constructed as a ligament, is elastic. It yields to the force im-
pressed upon it, and lengthens; but as soon as the foot is lifted from the
ground, and the weight no longer presses, and (he force is removed, its
elastic power is exerted, and it regains its former dimensions, and the ses-
samoid-bone springs back into its place, and by that forcible return assists
in raising the limb*.

* Mr. Percivall very clearly describes this : ' Furthermore it seems to us that these
eldKtic parts atsist iu the elevation of the I'flet from the ground in those paces in which

THE PASTERNS

2bl

The length and obliquity of the pastern vary, we have said, in the differ
cnt breeds of horses, and in proportion to the length and slanting direction
of the pastern is the springiness of the horse and the easiness of his paces.
The pastern must be long in proportion to its obliquity, or the fetlock would
be too close to the groinid, and, in rapid action, would come violently upon
k. It is necessary that the fetlock should be elevated a certain distance
•from the ground, and this may be effected either by a short and upright,
or a long and slanting pastern. In proportion as the pastern is oblique or
slanting, two consequences will follow : less weight will be thrown on the pas-
tern, and more on the sessamoid, and, in that proportion, jar or concussion
will be prevented ; and the jar of the weight which is thrown on the pas-
tern will be lessened by the very obliquity of the bones, agreeably to what
we have already stated of the angular construction of the limbs.

Every advantage has, however, to a certain extent, its corresponding
disadvantages. In proportion to the obliquity or slanting of the pastern,
will be the stress on the fetlock-joint, and, therefore, the liability of that
joint to injury and strain ; and also the liability to ' sprain of the back-
sinews,' from the increased action and play of the flexor tendons; and
likewise to injuries of the pastern-joints, for the ligaments will be weak
in proportion to their length. The long and slanting pastern is an
excellency in the race-horse, from the springiness of action and greater
extent of stride by which it is accompanied. A less degree of it is ne-
cessary in the hunter who is to unite continuance of exertion with ease
of pace, and who, in his leaps, requires almost as much springiness as
the race-horse ; but for the wear and tear of the hackney a still less de-
gree of obliquity should be found. There should be sufficient to give
pleasantness of going, but not enough to endanger continuance and
strength. Experience among horses will alone point out the most advan-
tageous direction of the pastern, for the purpose required; but the slightest
observation will prove the necessity of considerable variety in the structure
of this part. Let the reader imagine the heavy dray-horse with his short
and upright pasterns, contending in the race ; or the race-horse with his
long and weak pasterns, endeavouring to dig his toe into the ground to
move some heavy weight. The concussion is little in a cart-horse because
nis movements are slow^ and therefore the upright and strong pastern is
given to him, which he can force into the ground, and on which he can
throw the whole of his immense weight. The oblique pastern is given to
the race-horse because that alone is compatible with extent of stride and
great speed. Except a horse for general purposes, and particularly for
riding, be very hardly used, a little too much obliquity is a far less evi'
than a pastern too upright. The upright pastern is unsafe. The very
circumstance which enables the dray-horse to throw himself into his collar,
throws the riding-horse down ; and while the jolting of the upright pas-
tern is an insufferable nuisance to the rider, it is injurious to the horse, and
produces many diseases in the feet and legs. A riding-horse, with up-
right pasterns, will soon begin +0 knuckle over, even with ordinary work ;
and this will be followed by ringbone, ossification of the cartilages, and
contracted feet.

they are called into sudden and forcible action. Tlie suspensory ligament, by its reac-
tion, instantaneously after extension, aids the flexor-muscles in bendmg the pastern-jomts.
The astonishing activity and expedition displayed in the movements of the race-horse at
speed, seem to be referable, in part, to the promptitude with which the suspensory liga-
ment can act before the flexor-muscles are duly prepared ; the latter, we should say,
cfticfi, as it were, and then direct the limb first snatched fiom the ground by the powers of
v.lasticity ' — Purcivali's Lectures on the Veterinary Ait, vol. i., p. 334

2*2

TllK HUHSK

RUPTURE OF THE SUSPENSORY LIQA-MENT.

The sjispensory ligament is sometimes ruptured by extraordinary exertion.
The sessamoids are then let down, and the fetlock almost touches the
ground. This is generally mistaken for rupture of the flexor tendon; but
one circumstance will sufficiently demonstrate that it is the suspensory liga-
ment which is concerned, viz. that the horse is able to bend his foot. Rup-
ture of this hgament is a bad, and almost desperate case. The horse is fre-
quently lame "for life, and never becomes perfectly sound. Keeping him
altogether quiet, bandaging the leg, and putting on a high-heeled shoe, will
afford the most probable means of relief.

THE FETLOCK.

The fetlock-joint is a very complicated one, and from (he stress which is
laid on it, and its being the principal seat of motion below the knee, it is
particularly subject to injury. There are not many cases of sprain of the
back-sinew which are not accompanied by inflammation of the ligaments of
this joint ; and many supposed cases of sprain higher up are simple affec-
tions of the fetlock. It requires a great deal of care, and some expe
rience, to distinguish the one from the other. The heat about the part,
and the point at which the horse least endures the pressure of the finger,
will be the principal guides. An affection of the fetlock -joint demands
blistering more promptly and severely than one of the sheaths of the
tendons.

GROGGINESS.

The peculiar knuckling over of the fetlock -joint, and tottering of the whole
of the fore-leg, known by the name of grogginess, and which is so oRen
seen in old and over-worked horses, is seldom an affection of either the
fetlock or the pastern-joints simply, although these have their full share ni
the mischief that has been produced by tasking the poor animal beyond
his streno-th. Sometimes it is diffioult to fix on any particular joint ; at
others, it seems to be traced to a joint deep in the foot, where the flexor ten-
don runs over the navicular bone. I't seems oftenest to be a want of power
in the ligaments of the joints generally, produced by frequent and severe
sprains, or by ill-judged and cruel exertion ; and, m the majority ot
cases, admits of no remedy ; especially as dissection often discovers ulcera-
tion within the joints, and of the membrane which lines the cartilage, and
even of the cartilage itself, which it was impossible to reach or to remove.

(57.)

CUTTING.

The inside of the fetlock is often bruised by the shoe or the hoof of the
opposite foot. Many expedients have been tried to remove this ; the inside
heel has been raised and lowered, and the outside raised and lowered ;
and sometimes one operation has succeeded, and sometimes the contrary ;
and there was no point so involved in obscurity, or so destitute of principles
to guide the practitioner. The most successful remedy, and that which m the
great majority of cases supersedes all others is to put on « shoe, of even
thickness from heel to toe ; to let the bearmg be perfectly level ; and then to
drive but one nail, and that near the toe, in the ms.de of the f o^' ^vh'ch
is placed on the foot by which the injury is done ; care being taken that the

CUTTING. 253

shoe shall not extend beyond the edge of the crust, and the crust being
rasped a little at the quarters. The principle on which this shoe acts has
been stated when we spoke of the speedy cut. There are some defects,
however, in the natural form of the horse, which are the causes of cutting,
and which no contrivance will remedy ; as when the legs are placed too
near each other, or when the feet are turned inward or outward. A horse
with these defects should be carefully examined Rt the inside of the fetlock,
and if there be any sore or callous places from cutting, there will be sufficient
reason for rejecting the animal. Some horses will cut when they are
fatigued, and many colts will cut before they arrive at their full strength.

(58.)

Fig. 1.
a The upper pastern.
b The U)wer pastern.
g The navicular bone.
(1 The coffin-bone.

Fig. 2.
a The sessamoid-bone.
h The upper pastern,
c Tlie lower pastern.
d The navicular bone,
e The coffin-bone, with the horny lamiu*.

The upper pastern bone (6, p. 249, and a in the first figure, and b in
the second in this cut) receives the lower pulley-like head of the shank-
hone, and forms a hinge-joint admitting only of bending and extension,
ljut not of side motion ; it likewise articulates with the sessamoid-bones.
Its lower head has two rounded protuberances, which are received into
corresponding depressions in the lower pastern. On either side, above the
pastern-joint, are roughened projections for the attachment of very
strong ligaments, both the capsular ligaments, and many cross ligaments,
tvhich render the joint between the two pasterns sufficiently secure.

The lower pastern (d, p. 249, and b in the first figure, and c in the se-
cond in this cut) is a short and thick bone, with its larger head downward.
Its upper head has two depressions to receive the protuberances on the
•ower head of the upper bone, bearing some resemblance to a pulley, but
not so decidedly as the lower head of the shank-bone. Its lower head re-
sembles the lower head of the other pastern, and has two prominences,
likewise somewhat resembling a pulley, and by which it articulates with
vhe coffin-bone; and a depression in front, corresponding with a projection
in the coffin-bone; and also two slight depressions behind, receiving
eminences in the navicular bone. Neither of these joints admU ot any
lateral motion. The ligaments of this joint, which is called the coiiin-joint,
are, like those of the pastern-joint, exceedingly strong, both the capsular
and the cross ones. The tendon of the extensor muscle is inserted into the
fore part, both of the upper and lower pastern-bones, as well as into the
upper part of the coffin-bone {I, p. 249) ; and at the back of these bones
the suspensory ligament is expanded and inserted, while a portion of it
goes over the fore part of the upper pastern to reach the extensor tendon.
These attachiPents in front of the bones are seen m the accompanying cut, in

254

TtlK HORSE.

which a represents the lower part of the shank-

bone ; 6 the sessamoid-bones ; c the upper pastern,
d the lower pastern ; and e the coflin-bone ; f are
tlie branches of the suspensory ligaments going to
unite with the extensor tendon ; g the long extensor
tendon ; h ligamentsconnectingthe two pastern-bones
together; and i the lateral cartilages of the foot. And
now, having arrived at the foot, which is the most
complicated and important part in the frame of a
horse, we shall defer the consideration of the coffin
and navicular bones until we have described the
hinder extremities. We may, however, observe that
both these joints are subject to sprain, and pariicu-
larlj the colRn-joint.

SPIIAIN OP THE COFFIN-JOINT.

The proot of this is when the lameness is sudden, and the heal and tender-
ness are principally felt round the coronet. Bleeding at the toe, physic, fo-
mentation, and blisters are the usual means adopted. This lameness is not
easily removed, even by a blister ; and if removed, like sprains of the fet-
lock and of the back-sinews, it is apt to return, and, finally, produce a
great deal of disorganization and mischief in the foot. This wrick, or
sprain of the coffin-joint, sometimes becomes a very serious affair, not
being always attended by any external sweUing, and being detected only
by heat round the coronet, the seat of the lameness is often overlooked by
the groom and the farrier ; and the disease is suffered to become confirmed
before its nature is discovered. There is no species of lameness more
confounded with affections of the shoulder than this, because it is the cus-
tom of these ignorant and prejudiced persons to trace every lameness to the
shoulder which is not palpably referable to another part. (59.)

From violent or repeated sprains of the pastern or coffin-joints, or exten
sion of the ligaments attached to other parts of the pastern-bones, inflam
mation takes place in the periosteum, and bony matter is formed, which
often rapidly increases, and is recognised by the name of

RINQBONE.

Ringbone commences in one of the pasterns, and usually about the pas
tern-joint, but it rapidly spreads, and involves not only the pastern-bones,
but the cartilages of the foot. When the first deposit is on the lower pas-
tern, and on both sides of it, and produced by violent inflammation of the
ligaments of the joints, it is recognised by a slight enlargement, or bony
tumour on each side of the foot, and just above the coronet. (See /in
the followino- cut.) This is more frequent in the hind foot than the fore,
because, from the violent action of the hind legs in propelling the horse
forward', the pasterns are more subject to ligamentary injury behind than
before • yet the lameness is not so great, because the disease is confined
principally to the ligaments, and the bones have not been injured by
concussion • while from the position of the fore limbs and their exposure
to concussion, there will generally be in them injury of the bones to
be added to that of the ligaments, fn its early stage, and when recog-
nised only by a bony enlargement on both sides of the pastern-jouit,
or in some few cases on one side only, the lameness is not very con-
siderable, and it is not impossible to remove the disease by active blister
ine: or by the application of the cautery : but there is so much wear
and tear in this part of the animai, Uiat the inflammation and the disposi-
tion to the formation o*- bone rapidly spread The pasterns first becoau

CUT OF THE LEG.

265

connected together by bone instead of ligament, and thence results what is
called an anchylosed or fixed joint. Its motion is lost. From this joint
the disease proceeds to the cartilages of the foot, and to the union between
the lower pastervi, and the coffin and navicular bones ; and the motion ot
these parts likewise is impeded or lost, and the whole of this part of the foot
becomes one mass of spongy bone. From this disposition to spread, (and
at first round the pastern-joint, which is situated just above the coronet,)
tills disease has acquired tlie name of ringbone.

Ol/r OF THE LEG,

This cut will show the situation and
appearance of this and some other de-
fects of the fore-leg. a will represent
the capped hock or enlargement ol
the joint of the elbow ; 6 the tying-in
of the leg below the knee; c the
most frequent situation of splint on
the side of the shank-bone, and not
producing lameness after ils first form-
ation, because it does not interfere
with the motion of the knee, or injure
the suspensory ligament, d ia the si-
tuation and appearance of the enlarge-
ment accompanying sprain of the back-
sinews. This, however, is an aggravated
case; and the sprain may be great, and
the lameness distressing, without all
this swelling. e is the place of w'md-
/ gives the appearance of ring-
bone, when it first appears on the side
of the pastern, about the joint, and
where there is naturally some prominence
of bone ; g is the situation of sand crack
in the fore-leg. h the situation of the
mollenders.

Ringbone is one of the most serious
iameaiesses with which the horse can
be afflicted. It is unsoundness when
existing in the slightest degree, for the
lateral enlargement may speedily extend ;
and when the bony deposit begins to
spread, the disease is incurable.

The fbre-lcgs, when viewed in front,
should be widest at the chest, and should
gradually approach to each otliei- as we
descend towards the fetlock. The
degree of width must depend on the
purpose for which the horse is wanted.
The legs of a heavy draught-horse can
scarcely be too far apart. His rounded
chest enableft him to throw more wcighl
into the collar; and being seldom, if ever
required for speed, he wants not that oc-
casionally increased expansion of chest
which the circular form is not calcu-
lated to give, A hunter, a hackney, and
a coach-hor.ie, should have aulTicient

256

THE HORSE.

expansion of the chest, or the legs sufficiently wide apart, to leave
rooni for the play of the lunges ; but depth more than roundness of chest i»
here required, because the deep chest admits of most expansion, when
the horse, in rapid action, and the circulation proportionally quickened,
needs more room to breathe . yet if the breast be too wide, there will be
considerable weight thrown before, and the horse will be heavy in the hand,
and unsafe.

Whether the legs are near to each other or wide apart, they should be
straight. The elbow should not have the slightest inclination inward or
outward. Tf it inclines towards the ribs, its action will be confined, and
the leg will be thrown outward when in motion, and describe a curious
and awkward curve ; and this will give a peculiar rolling motion, unplea-
sant to the rider and unsafe to the animal. The toe will likewise be
turned outward, which will not only prevent the foot from coming flat on
the groimd in its descent, but be usually accompanied by cutting, even
more certainly than when the toe turns inward. If the elbow is turned out-
ward, the toes will necessarily be turned inward, which is a great unsight-
liness, and to a certain degree injurious. The weight cannot be perfectly
distributed over the foot ; the bearing cannot be true ; there will be undue
pressure on the inner quarter, a tendency to unsafeness, and a disposition
to splint and corn. The legs should come down perpendicularly from the
elbow. If they incline backward and under the horse, there is undue
stress on the extensor muscles ; and the legs being brought nearer the
centre of gravity, undue weijj,ht is thrown forward, and the horse
is liable to knuckle over and become unsafe ; if the legs have a direction
forward, the flexor muscles are strained, and the action of the horse is awk-
ward and confined. The toe should be found precisely under the point of
the shoulder. If it be a little more forward, the horse will probably be
deficient in action ; if it be more undei the horse, unsafeness will be added
to still greater defect in going.

Chapter XIV.

THE HIND LEGS,

THE HAUNCir.

In describmg the hinder extremities, we must begin with tne bones of the
haimch. The haunch (see O, p. 63, and the cut, p. 230) is composed of
three bones. The first is the ilium, principally concerned in the formation
of the haunch. Its extended branches behind the flanks are prominent in
every horse ; and when they are more than usually wide, the animal is said
to be ragged-hipped. A branch runs up to the spine at the commence-
ment of the sacral vertebrs E, and here the haunch-bones are firmly united
witii the bones of the spine. The ischium, or hip-bone, is behind and
below the ilium. Its tuberosities or prominences are seen under the tail,
(cut, p. 63). The pubis unites with the two former below and behind.

From the loins to the setting on of the tail, the line should be carried on
almost straight, or rounded only in a very slight degree. Thus the haunch-
bones will be most oblique, and will produce a corresponding obliquity, or
slanting direction in the thigh-bone— a direction m which, as we stated when
.lescrihing the fore legs the muscles act with most advantage. This direr-

THE THIGH.

•257

tion of the liaunch is characteristic of the thorough-bred norse ; and, by
the degree in which it is found, we judge as much as by anylhmg
of tiie breeding of the animal. If the bones at D and E, p. 63, took
a somewhat arched form, as they do in the cart-horse, it is evident that
the bone O must be more upright, the thigh-bone P would likewise be
more upright, the stifle Q would not be so far under the body, and the
power of die horse would be considerably impaired. The oblique direction
of the haunch and thigh-bones, produced by the straightness of the line of
the spine, does not, as is commonly supposed, afford increased surface for
the attachment of muscles, but places the muscles in a direction to act with
great advantage. It is in the advantageous direction, quiie as much as in
the bulk of the muscle, .that the strength of the horse consists. It will be
seen, from our cuts, that the angles formed by the fore and hind extre-
mities have different directions. One points forward, and the other back-
ward. We should expect this ; for thus the action of the fore-legs least
interferes with the chest, and that of the hind legs with the belly.

Width of haunch is a point of great consequence, for that actually affords
more room for the attachment of muscles ; and even though it should be
so great as to subject the horse to the charge of being ragged-hip'ped, and
may somewhat offend the eye, it is no detriment to action. If the
loins be broad, and the horse be well ribbed home, the protuberances of
the ilium can scarcely be too far apart. Many a ragged-hipped horse has
possessed both fleetness and strength, but few which were narrow acro.ss
the haimch could boast of the latter quality.

The opening through the centre of these bones, which constitutes the
passage through which the young animal is expelled from the mother,
is large in the mare, and in every quadruped, because there cannot be,
from the form of the animal, any danger of abortion from the weight of
the foetus pressing on the part.

The only parts of these bones exposed to mjury or fracture are the
tuberosities or prominences of the haunch. A fall or blow may chip off and
disunite a portion of them. There are no means of forcibly bringing the dis-
united parts together, and retaining them in their natural position. Nature,
however, will cause them to unite, yet generally attended by deformity and
lameness. A charge, or very strong adhesive plaister, across the haunch
may be useful, as helping, in some slight degree, to support the parts,
and hold them together.

THE TIIIGH.

in the lower and fore part of the hip-bones is a deep cavity or cup for the
reception of the head of the upper bone of the thigh *. Although in the ac-
tion of the hind legs there cannot be the concussion to which the fore-legs
are exposed (for the weight of the body is never thrown violently upon
them), yei in the powerful action of these limbs there is much strain on the
joints, and we shall find, therefore, that there are, in all of them, admirable
provisions against injury. The head of the upper bone of the thigh is re-
ceived into a deep cup (the acetabulum), by which it is surrounded on every
side and dislocation from which would seem almost impossible. But the

• This, although the true thigh-bone, is so concealed by thick muscles, antl seemingly
by the continuation of the carcass, that its situation and shape are not visible to the eye ;
and it is generally overlookerl by horsemen, who call tlie next bone exteiulmg from the
stifle to the hock, the thigh: therefore, to render ourselves intelligible we term this the
upper bene of the thigh. S

258 THE HORSE.

bony cup may gWe way ? No ! provision is made aE^ainstthis : all three of
the haunch bones unite in. the formation of this cup, and the sutures by which
these bones are held together are of such a nature, that one would think no
shock, or exertion, or accident, could disunite them. There is even some-
thing; more added to make the attachment doubly sure. Besides the usual
capsular and other lio;ameuts, a singularly strong one rises from the base of
the cup, and is inserted into the head of the upper bone of the thigh, .
and would seem to render separation or dislocation altogether impossible
and yet such is the amazing power of the muscles of the hind limb, that
with all these attachments, sprain of the ligaments of the haunch joint, or
the round hone, as horsemen call it, and even dislocation of the head of the
thigh-bone, are occasionally found.

The upper bone of the thigh we should expect to be, from the powerful
muscles that are attached to it, a very strong bone, and it is both the largest
and strongest in the frame. It is short and thick, and exhibits the most sm-
gular prominences, and roughnesses, and hollows, for the msertion of the
immense muscles which belong to it. Four prominences, in particular,
called by anatomists trochanters, two on the outside, one on the inside,
and one near the head of the bone, afltord attachment to several im-
portant muscles. The head of the bone is placed at right angles with
its body, by which this important advantage is gained, that the motion of
the thigh-joint is principally limited to that of bending and extending,
althouo h it possesses some slight lateral, and even some rotatory or round
action.'' The lower head of the upper bone of the thigh is complicated in
its form. It consists of two prominences, which are received nito corre-
spondhig depressions in the next bone, and a hollow in front, ni which
the bone of the knee plays as over a perfect pulley.

A short description of the mxiscles of the hinder extremities may not
be uninteresting to the horseman. The next cut will give a few of them.

The muscles of the hind extremity are more powerful in action than
those of any other part of the frame, therefore there is a provision made
to hold them down in their respective situations, and thus contribute to
their security and strength. When the skin is taken from the hmd limb,
we do not at once arrive at the muscles, but they are thickly covered by
a dense, strong, tendinous coat, which reaches over the whole of the
haunch and thigh, and only ceases to be found at the hock where there are
no muscles to be confined. If the power of the muscles be sufficient to
dislocate and fracture the thigh-bone, they need the support and confinement
of this tendinous coat. When this tendinous band is dissected off, another
is found beneath, which is represented at a, raised and turned back,
lar-er than the former, thicker and more muscular. It proceeds from the
haunch-bones to the stifle, upon the fore and outer i^art of the haunch
and thioh, and is intended to tighten and strengthen the other.

Under the part of this flat and binding muscle, which is represented in
our cut as raised, is a large round muscle proceeding from the ihum, not far
from the cup which receives the upper bone of the thigh, and running straight
down this bone, and thence its name rectus, it is inserted into the bone
r.f the stifle An inspection of the cut, p. 63, will shew that it is so situated
as to be enabled to exert its great power in the most advantageous way.
It is a very prominent muscle, and forms what we may term the edge of the
,hin-h forward. It terminates in a tendon, which is sho. t and very strong,
and which is. before its insertion into the patella, united with the prolongation
o the tJ;Klinous substance at g, in the cut, p. 260 and also with the eiu^^^^
of the muscle at i, in that cut, and at c, in the following cut and which is
proper^ called r«;<,^., from its great hulk. Some have divided this into two

THE THIGH

239

CUT OF THE MUSCLKS OF THE INSIDE OF THE THIGH.

muscles, '.he external and
internal. They proceed,
the external from the
outer surface of the upper
bone of the thigh ; the
internal from the inner
surface ; and are inserted
into the upper part of
the bone of the stifle, both
on the inner and outer
side. These muscles act
at considerable mechani-
cal disadvantage ; they
form a very slight angle,
not at all approaching to
aright angle; but they
are muscles of immense
size, and occupy all the
fore part of the thigh,
from the stifle upwards.
They are powerful ex-
tensors of the thigh, and
of the hinder leg gene-
rally, for they are all in-
serted into the bone of
the knee, and that is con-
nected by strong tendons
with the bone of the true
leg. We shall have more
to say of the action of
this muscle when we have
described the bone of the
knee.

On the inside of the thigh are several other large fleshy muscles, as distinct
to the eye as these, and which will be recognized after the slightest observa-
tion of the thigh of the living horse. First, we have a long, narrow, prominent
mu.scle, the sartorius, or tailor's muscle, enabling him to sit cross-legged,
d, arising from the edge of the haunch-bone, about half way down it, and
inserted into the inner and upper part of the lower bone of the thigh, for
thus we call this bone extending from the stifle to the hock, and which in the
human being would be properly the leg. It bends the leg, and turns it
inward, not useful in the latter case in progression, but in many of the
natural actions of the horse.

Next comes abroad thin muscle, e, which cannot be mistaken, occupying
the greater portion of the surface of the inner part of the thigh, and parti-
cularly the prominent part of it. It is called the gracilis, or slender
muscle. It arises from the lower part of the haunch-bone, and, in its
passage downward, uniting with the last muscle, is inserted with it into
the inner and upper part of the lower bone of the thigh. It also turns the
leg. If its direction be considered, it acts with evident aavantage ;
but its insertion into the bone of the lower bone of the thigh is very dis
advantageous. It applies its power very close to the joint or centre of
motion, and the weight, consisting of the whole limb, and which may be
Mipposed to be concentrated about its middle, is far distant.

S 2

250

THE HORSE.

Still, on the inside of the thigh, and forminG: the posterior edge of the
thigh inwards, and contributing much to its bulk, is another ot the
principal muscles of the tliigh, /, proceeding from the first bones of the tail,
from the tuberosity of the ischium, and from the tendmous expansion
which we have described, and principally inserted into the upper and fore
part of the upper bone of the thii- li, but a portion of it going to the head of
the lower bone. That part which goes to the upper bone of the thigh acts -
with very a:reat mechanical advantage (see cut, p. 65), and most powerfully
bends the thigh on the pelvis, and lifts and extends the limb. It is one of
the most effectual of the extensor muscles. Considering the weight of limb
which it has to raise and extend, it had need to possess great power
At is another muscle, concerned in the same office.

We now turn to some of the muscles which are very evident to llie eye
on the outside of the thigh.

CUT OF THE MUSCLES OF THE OUTSIDE OF THE THIGH.

First is the outer Gluleeus,
or buttock muscle, d, being
Httle more than a fleshy slip
attached to the muscle next to
be described. It arises as high
up as the spine. It runs along
the back part of the thigh in
the form of a ridge, and is
inserted into the smaller outer
prominence of the upper bone
of the thigh. Next is the
great glut(EUs muscle, arising
from the spinous and trans-
verse processes of several of
the bones of the loins, and
from the sacrum, and from the
different edges of the ilium,
and inserted into the great
protuberance of the upper bone
of the thigh (page 63), behind
and a little above the joint
that unites the thigh to the
haunch-bone. It is seen at c, in
this cut ; constitutes the upper
and outer part of the haunch,
and gives that fulness and
roundness to it, which good
judges so much admire in the
quarters of the horse. It is
one of the main instruments
in progression. When the
thigh has been brought for-
ward under the body by the muscles already described the f^^ ^
of these glutiEi muscles is to extend the haunch, and fcn-ce oi F ^ct the
body onward. To effect tliis they must be very powerful, '•^"-^ J^^^^ f" «
they are so large, and rise from such an extensive surface ; -"^/'^^
to act at o-reat mechanical advantage, and so, in one sense they do ^
spr n nng from the loins and ilium .nd the sacrum they act almost ,n a

THE THIGB.

261

right or perpendicular line ; in tliat line in which we have seen that the
greatest power is gained. A leference to the plate of the skeleton will
place this in a striking yjoinl of view; and this advantage is the more
necessary, because, as is almost uniformly the case, there is a corresponding
disadvantage to be overcome. These muscles are inserted into the great
trochanter or protuberance of the upper bone of the thigh, and that is but
a very little way removed from the joint or centre of motion. The power
is close to the centre of motion ; the weight supposed to be concentrated
in the middle of the limb, is far off. It is more than 30 times as far as
the power, and this muscle must act with a disadvantage of more than
30 to 1 : or, if the hinder extremity, and the weight of the trunk
above amount to six hundred pounds, the force applied, or the power of
the muscle, must be equal to 30 times 600, or 18,000 pounds. The nu-
merous origins of these muscles, and the extensive surfaces whence they
arise, and their immense bulk, render them equal to this ; and then, as we
have demonstrated with regard to the flexor muscles of the arm, what is
lost in power is gained in velocity ; for while this portion of the upper
thigh bone moves rapidly through a certain space, by the powerful con-
traction of the glutasi and other muscles, the extremity of that bone moves
through thirty times the space, and the extremity of the whole limb or the
foot moves through more than 100 times that space, and hence results,
and hence only could result the speed of the horse.

Now comes another consideration ; — in ])roportion as this protuberance
behind and above the joint is lengthened, so is the shorter arm of the
lever lengthened, and so is power or muscular exertion spared. This
protuberance is lengthened in proportion to the length of the croup, and
the depth of the quarters, and hence the importance of this conformation.
We have explained this as it regards the depth of the elbow. It holds
more especially good here, because these are the parts with which the
speed and power of the horse are most concerned. The quarters com-
mence, by the common consent of sporting men, from about the middle
of the back, and extend to the hock downward, and to the tail behind ;
and although little regarded by those who are unaccustomed to horses, and
the just proportions of those parts understood but by few who pretend to
know the horse,- the quarters are by far the most important points in his
frame. Their muscularity will indicate power, and the depth of the
quarters the proper direction and the advantageous action of that power.

These is another and smaller shilants muscle under that we have last
described, arising likewise from the back of the ilium, and inserted into
the same protuberance of the thigh bone, and assisting in the same office.
It is not visible in our cut. There are also several other muscles pro-
ceeding from different parts of the haunch bones, and inserted about tlie
heads of the upper thigh bone, and performing the same work ; but there
are two muscles to which we must particularly refer. The first occupies
the outer part of the quarter behind, and is beautifally developed in the
blood horse ; it is found at e, p. 260. It arises high up from the bones of
the spine, from others at the root of the tail, from the protuberances of
the ischium (vide cut, p. 63), and from other bones of the pelvis. It in fact
consists of three muscles but is usually described as one muscle with three
heads. Triceps femoris (the three-headed muscle of the thigh). It is inserted
into the upper part of the lower bone of the thigh, and its office is the
same as the last, to draw back the thigh when placed under the trunk,
and by so doing urge forward the body. Being iuseilcd nearly in a per-
pendicular direction, it has great power but that power is employed

262

THE HORSE.

disadvantageously, on account of beingf placed so near the joint or centre
of motion.

The muscle at /, descending likewise from the sacrum, and from the
first bones of the tail, runs down posterior to the last muscle, and forms
the hinder border of the haunch. It is inserted into the lower bone of the
thigh, and assists in performing the same kind of motion. All these
mulcles are particularly prominent in the thorough-bred horse, and are the
source of his strength and speed ; and hence another very important point
in the horse. These muscles, to perform their full action, should be so
developed, that the horse, when the observer stands behind him, although
wide enough at the loins and haunch, should yet be perceptibly wider at
the thighs." The following cut, containing one excellence above, and many
defects^elow, will illustrate our meaning.

CUT OF THE HAUNCH AND HIND LEGS.

STRAIN OF THE ROUND BONE.

The joint of the upper bone of
the thigh with the haunch is com-
monly called the whirl or round
bone. It has been stated, that it
has, in some rare instances, been
dislocated and fractured: it is,
however, much oftener sprained,
but not so often as the groom or
farrier imagine. There is nothing
peculiar in the lameness to detect
injury of this part, except that fre-
quently the horse will drag his
leg after him on the toe. Injury
of the round bone, or hip joint, -
will be principally discovered by
heat and tenderness in the situation
of the joint. A part so deeply
seated is treated with difficulty.
Fomentations should first be used
to abate the inflammation, and after
that an active blister should be
".pplied. Strains of this joint are
not always immediately relieved,
and the muscles of the limb con-
siderably waste ; and therefore it
may be necessary to repeat the
blister, while absolute rest should
accom])any every stage ot the .
treatment. It may even be re-
quisite to fire the part, or, as a
last resort, a charge may be put
over the joint, and the horse turned
out for two or three months. (61.)

THE STIFLE.

?,G3

THE STIFLE

Tiie upper bone ot the thig-h is united to the lower by a somewhat com-
piiciilL'd joint. It terminates by two round prominences behind, whicli
are received into sliirht depressions on the upper surface of tlie lower bone;
and in front is a curious groove over which plays a small irregular bone,
tlie patella or stifle .bone. The whole is called by farriers the stifle joiut.
The patella (Q, p. 63) auswers to the kneepan in the human subject. Some
of the tendons of the strongest muscles of the upper bone of the thigh are
inserted into it, and continued, from it over the lower bone. This important
joint is hereby mucii streuglhened ; for the proper ligaments between the
upper and lower bones, and these additional tendons and ligaments from the
patella, must form altogether a very powerful union. The patella likewise
answers another and even more important purpose. The tendons of some
strong muscles are inserted into it. When these muscles are not in action,
tlie patella lies in the groove which nature has contrived for it ; but when
they begin to contract, it starts from its partial hiding-place, becomes pro-
minent from the joint, and alters the line of direction in which the muscles
act : it increases the angle, and thus very materially increases the power
of the muscles.

The lower bone of the thigh is double : the larger portion, in front,
extending from the stifle to the hock, is called the tibia. The smaUer bone,
or fibula, beiiind, see R, p. 63, reaches not more than a third of the way down.
It is united to the shank bone, like the splint bone, by a cartilaginous sub-
stance, which soon is changed for bone. Of the use of these little bones
we cannot speak

The lower bcMie of the thigh forms an angle with the upper, tiie reverse
of that which exists between the upper bone and the pelvis. The object
of this is twofold, — to obviate concussion, and to give a direction to the
muscles favourable to their powerful action ; and in proportion to the
acuteness of the angle, or the degree in which the stifle is brought under
llie horse, will these purposes be accomplished. There is a great deal of
difference in this in different horses, and the construction of this part of
the frame is a matter worthy of more regard than is generally paid to it.

This part of the thigh should likewise be long. In proportion to the
length of the muscle is the degree of contraction of which it is capable ;
and in prriportion to the contraction of the muscle is the extent of motion
in the limb: but it is still more necessary that this part of the thigh should
have plenty of muscle, that strength may be added to this extent or compass
of motion. We should not expect much endurance from a horse with a thin
arm : a horse with thin and la-nky thighs cannot possibly be good for anything.
In our cuts, p. 259 and 260, the principal muscles of this part of the thigh
are delineated. They are usually somewhat prominent, and may readily
be traced in the living animal : a very brief notice of them may not be
uninteresting.

We will first take the external ones, beginning in front. Tlie continua-
tion from g, p. 260, is the tendinous expansion given to bind and strengthen
the.se muscles.

71 is a very important muscle : it is the principal extensor muscle of the
hind-leg {exlensor pedis, extensor of the foot). It arises from the lower
part of the upper hone of the thigh, and from the upper part of the lower
bone. It is a strong, round, llcsliy muscle: a little before it reaches the
hock it will be seen 1o assume a tendinous form. It is covered and
defended by a slieath of its own •. and <he cut will show llie bauds by which

264

THK HORSE.

it is tied down in its place, within which it plays. It is seen coiili-
nuino its course on ihe front of the cannon or shank bone. Having
arrived at the fetlock joint, it begins to expand, and is finally inserted into
the upper part of the coffin-bone, or bone of the foot, after having given
various fibres to both the pasterns. The course of the corresponding ten-
do-n in the fore-leg is given in the cut, p. 249, fig. I.

At m, p. 260, is another of the extensor muscles, called the perontEus, ■
from a name given to the fibula. It arises from the whole course of the
fibula and also becomes tendinous before it reaches the hock. About half
way down the shank it is found in the same sheath with the principal
extensor muscle, and is inserted with it into the coffin-bone. '1 he office
of the extensor muscles is to raise the foot from the ground, and to brmg
it forward under the body. „ ^ i

At 0 is the flexor pedis, one of the ijrincipal flexor (bendmg) muscles
of the fool, arising from the upper part of the tibia. As it approaches the
hock it is distinguished by its large round tendon, which is seen to enter
into a groove at the back of v\ie hock. It is continued down the back of
the le- like a similar muscle in the fore-leg, is the perforating flexor
muscle of the hind-leg, and assists in bending the pastern and coffin

•""Ti's' a very slender muscle, arising from the head of the fibula, and pro-
ceeding over the external part of the thigh, and, just above the hock,
uniting with the tendon of the perforating muscle.

/ is a very powerful muscle, springing from the head of the upper bone
of the thigh, and, midway down the lower bone of the thigh, ending in a
flat tendon, which is inserted into the point of the hock. Its use is to
extend the hock. It is evidently most advantageously situated for powerful
action ; for it acts almost at right angles, and its effect is increased in pro-
portion to the projection of the point of the hock.

We will now turn to the inner side. See cut, p. 2o9.

m gives a portion of the muscle which we have just described.

71 an inside view of the perforating flexor muscle of the toot.

I is the peronoeus. . . ■ c tv,„ i«„,o^

0 is the perforated flexor tendon, having its origin from near the lower
head of the upper bone of the thigh ; becoming tendinous as it P^^ses down
the thi-h ; expanding over and surrounding the point of the hock and
a si ting n extending it ; and then pursuing its course down the posterior
part of The leg, in a manner so much resembling that of similar endons in
the fore-leg, Uiat we shall content ourselves with referring to a description
of the perforated and perforating flexor tendons at page 23J.

At e is a continuation of the gracilis muscle, p. 259 over the stifle.

At h is the extensor pedis already described, p. 263. with >ts tendon.

At i is a muscle used to bend the hock, the fexor metatarsi, or bender
of the leg ; arising from the lower part of the upper bone of the thigh, and
h served into the upper part of the shank-bone ; and also the inner small
Xit bone It is a muscle of considerable power, although disadvan-
Lgeously situated, both as to its direction and its being inserted so near to

'^"iltis a short muscle extending from the upper to the lower thigh

Ai K IS a UpnHino- the stifle and turnnio: the limb inward.

'^'S^ir^.^^S.^ of .ome of .Ue principal biood-vessei.

^1X::°or'L' insit^rr^high, r.^. p r.presc„« ,he cou™
In the cut or ine ii blood-vessels belonging to the groin; at

f-X:^— ™"! oMI,e vein im.edi.e., underthe sUin. T,.

TITOROUGH-PIN— THE HOCK.

265

principal nerves on the fore-part of tlie inside of the thigh pursue tlieir
course at t, in the direction of the cutaneous vein ; and those of the pos
terior part are seen at x, and at « are those important ligamentous bands at
the bending of the hock which confine the tendons.

In the cut of the outside of the thigh, page 260 p will give the course
of the anterior arteries and veins ; q the course of the princi]jal nerves,
«nd coming into sight below ; and r the bands described in the former
plate.

Also, in the cut of the outside of the shoulder and arm, p. 233, the figures
1, 2, and 3, designate the places of the principal artery, nerve, and vein
of "the leg; 4 gives the subcutaneous vein running within the arm ; and 5,
the subcutaneous vein of the sid^ of the chest.

In the cut of the inside of the arm, p. 235, the lines above represent, in
the order from the front, the principal nerves, arteries, and veins of the
shoulder and arm, and, on the muscles, k gives the principal subcutaneous
vein of the inside of the arm, and i the artery by which it is accompanied.

The stifle joint is not often subject to sprain. (62.) The heat and
tenderness will guide to the seat of injury. Occasionally, dislocation of
the patella has occurred, and the horse drags the injured limb after him,
or rests it on the fetlock; — the aid of a veterinary surgeon is here re-
quisite. The muscles of the inside of the thigh, generally, have some-
times been sprained : this may be detected by diffused heat, or heat on
the inside of the thigh above the stifle; — rest, fomentations, bleeding,
and physic, will be the proper means of cure. (63.)

THOROUGH-PIN.

We have observed that there are placed in the neighbourhood of joints,
certain bags, containing a mucous fluid for the purpose of lubricating the
parts, and that these sometimes become inflamed and enlarge. We have
spoken of wind-galls and their treatment. A similar enlargement is found
above the hock, between the tendons of the flexor of the foot, and the ex-
tensor of the hock. As from its situation it must necessarily project on
both sides of the hock, in the form of a round swelling, it is called a
thorovgh-pin, a, p. 262. It is an indication of considerable work, but,
except it be of very great size, it is rarely attended by lameness. The
mode of treatment must resemble that recommended for wind-galls.
Although thorough-pin cannot be pronounced to be unsoundness, yet it
behoves the buyer to examine well a horse with thorough-pin, and toascei-
tain whether undue work may not have injured him in other respects. (64.)

THE HOCR.

W^e now arrive at a very important joint, often the evident, and much
oftcner the unsuspected seat of lameness, and the proper formation of
which is essentially connected with the excellence and value of the horse.
We shall describe it a little at length.

The inferior head of the tibia is formed into two deep grooves, with
three sharpened ridges, one separating the grooves, and the other two
forming the sides of them. It is seen at a in the following cut. It
rests upon a very singular bone, b, called the astragaluts (shaped like
the die or dice used by the ancients), wiiich has two circular risings
or projections, and with a depression between them, answering exactly
to the irregularities of the tibia, and these are received and morticed into
each other. At the posterior part its convex surface is received into a

THE HORSE.

CUT OF THE HOCK.

concavity iieaT the
base of another bone,
and with which it
is united by very
strong ligaments
This bone c, is caller^
the OS calcis, or bone
of the heel, and it
projects upwards,
flattened at its
sides, and receives,
strongly implanted
into it, the tendons
of powerful muscles.
These bones rest on
two others, the os
cuboides, d, (cube-
formed) behind, and
the larger cundfoj-m
or wedge-shaped
bone e, in front. The
larger wedge-shaped
bone is supported by
two smaller ones
/, and these two
smaller ones and
the cube bone by the
upper heads of the
shank-bone g, and
the splint-bones h.
The cube-bone is
placed on the exter .
nal splint-bone, and
the cannon-bone; the
small wedge-bune
principally' on the
inner splint-bone
not seen in the cut
and the middle
w edge bone rests on
the shank-bone only, g. These bones are all connected together by very
• nnl ir.aments which prevent dislocation, but allow a slight degree of
S among Ih'em, and Ihe surfaces which are opposed to each other are

♦Viif'klv covered by elastic cartilage. . , ^ ^

ConXhio- the situation and action of this joint, the weight ano
str?s Thrown upon it must be exceedingly great and it must be hab e
stress J^lYO^" ^ ^ ^ powerful motion. What are. the provisions to

to much injury ^"^^P'^^'^ ^Hey-like heads of the tibia, and the as-

prevent '"J^^^? ,^1 ^ f m^^^^^ and confined by powerful liga

tragalus, received deep^.^^^^^ ^^^^ ^.^^ ^J^^.^^^^ ^^.^^^

merits, f ■^'^.^^^^y;;;;'^"-/; .-apid action, or on an uneven surfoce. The
the joint might be eM'"^;;^ " ^^^^ Uie stress or weioht thrown
sHghtest inspection of tl e^^^^ ^^^w ^^^^^^^ perpendicularly, but

\l^::^:^:^o:X<^^^ .-t deal of concuss.n is avoided, o,

ENLARGEMENT OF THE HOCK— CURB.

267

more readily diffused among the different bones; and the joint consistinij
of six bones, each of them covered with elastic cartilage, and each admitting
of a certain degree of motion, this diminished concussion is diffused among
them all, and thereby neutralized and rendered harmless. Each of these
bones is covered not only by cartilage, but by a membrane secreting the
synovia or oily fluid of which we have spoken in other joints ; so that
these bones are formed into so many distinct joints, separated from each
other, and therefore guarded from injury, yet united by various ligaments,
possessing altogether sufficient motion, yet bound together so strongly as to
defy dislocation. When, however, we consider the work which this joint
has to perform, and the thoughtlessness and cruelty with which that work is
often exacted, we shall not wonder if this necessarily complicated mecha-
nism is sometimes deranged. The hock is, from its complicated structure
and its work, the principal seat of lameness behind. Nine-tenths of the
lamenesses that occur in the hind-leg are to be traced to this joint, and
when, after careful examination,- we are unable to find any other seat of
lameness, we shall usually be justified in affirming that the hock is
affected,

ENLARGEMENT OF THE HOCK,

First, there is inflammation, or sprain of the hock-joint generally, arising
principally from sudden violent concussion ; from check at speed ; or from
>ver-weight, and attended with enlargementof the whole joint, and great ten-
derness and lameness. This, however, like other diffused inflammations, is
not so untractable as intense inflammations of a more circumscribed nature ;
and by rest and fomentation, or perchance firing, the limb recovers its action,
and the horse becomes fit for ordinary work. The swelling, however, does
.lot always subside. Enlargement, spread over (he whole of the hock-joint,
remains. A horse with an enlarged hock must always be regarded with
suspicion, and is in truth unsound. The parts, altered in structure, are to
a certain degree weakened. The horse may discharge his usual work
through life, without return of lameness, but if one of those emergencies
should occur when all his energies require to be exerted, the disorganised
and weakened part will fail. The purchase, therefore, of a horse with en-
larged hock v/ill depend on circumstances. If he has other excellencies,
he will not be uniformly rejected ; for he may be ridden or driven mode-
rately for many a year without inconvenience, yet one extra hard day's
work may lame him for ever.

CURB.

There are oftener injuries of particular parts of the hock-joint. We hav^
had occasion frequently to describe the ring-like ligaments, which, in the
neighbourhood of joints, so usefully tie down the tendons. From sudden
or over exertion these ligaments may be extended, and inflammation,
swelling, and lameness may ensue ; or the sheaths of the tendons in the
neighbourhood of joints from their extent of motion in these situations,
may be susceptible of mjury. Curb is an atfection of this kind. It is an
enlargement at the back of the hock, about three or four inches below the
point of the hock. It is represented at d, p. 262, and it is either a strain
in the ring-like ligament wnich binds the tendons down m their place, or in
the sheath of the tendons; oftener, we are inclined to think, of the liga
ment than of the sheath. Any sudden action of the limb of more than
usual violence may produce it, and therefore horses are found to ' throw

THE HORSE.

out curbs afl€r a hardly coutesled race, an extraordinary leap, a severe
ga lo," over Wavy ground, or a sudden check in the frallop \
are narlicularlv liable to it, and horses that are cowhoM (v,de cut, p. 262).
r£e\ockland,egs..^^^^^
SgfbViu h rSr l°'Zls%r,bru,ed ti,etnnu..r li.,n,ent .nst be

'"trSre'-ASrac^^^^^^^^^^
app^elncrf^theLeUingisuota,^^^^^^

!;:rrd1he",fo™e:an S'jhe hor'Lau aud\Ee vetennary surgeon have
beln id uie norb , detected by observing the leg sideway.

overlooked .t It s be td^^^^^ = inflammation, and th.s

Ihe fi'-^^^^J/J^. " ^' by cold evaporating lotions, frequently

will be most readily accompiibucu i . ° . j vinejrar,

applied to the part Equal portions ^l^^^ ^.^.C^^o^^^^^^

afford an exceUent a^^^^^^^^^
a bandage on. It ^^^ f^t and lame ^^bcutaneous vein, whose

dent to physic the horse, and to bleed ^ ^^l^^

as the heat h'"' heen^^uhdued 1 ,ed. In severe cases U

sr:rtStr.7drra:r^rirnb:ted,thestrok^

be in straight lines . , . , „u„„i,,tc and lonff-continued rest is

more requisite than in curb. An inju y ^ j,^^

sru'^rirsbLZ^ 1^^^^^^^^^^^

thenr.peives to the slight enlarge ^ j j ^^,^^1 strength .

their natural situation, ^nf haje lost a poit.on o^^^ extraordinary
some latent dispos;t.on to rdapse may con i ^^^^^^ ,,„,„bered,

tional weakness of these parts. (65.)

BOG-SPAVIN.

, , • 1 tif^iw furnished With mucous bags, to lubricate the dif-
The hock IS P^^"/ '^^^^y Some ofthese are found on the

ferent portions of this complicated Jon 262.

inside of the joint. -»^;^? t;t5\Zn.e inflamed, and considei^bly
From over-exertion of the joint tney subcutaneous vein

;lrotrS;lsi;:oT'»,li'':v:''son,e or these enlarged bags,

BONE SPAVIN

271

ro the union of the tibia a, and the astrac^alus b ; when the joint, in w hich
is the chief motion of the hoclc, is attacked, the lameness is indeed formi-
dable, and the horse becomes nearly or quite useless. A recollection of
the situation of the different bones of the hock may, in some measure
Cfuide the purchaser as to the probable value and use of the spavined horse-
but he must not depend on this, for deep-seated deposits of bone,
which the eye cannot reach, may interfere more with the action of the joint,
than any outward enlargement, however great.

Spavined horses are generally capable of slow work. They are equal
to the greater part of the work of the farm, and therefore they will not be
always rejected by the small farmer, and may generally be procured at
little price. These horses are not only capable of agricultural work, but
they generally improve under it ; they become less lame, and even the
bony tumour to a certain degree diminishes. There is sufficient moderate
motion and friction of the limb to rouse the absorbents to action, and cause
them to take up a portion of the bony matter thrown out, but not enough to
renew or prolong inflammation. We cannot say that the plough affords a
cure for spavin, but we have seen many instances in which the spavined
horse has very materially improved at it.

For fast work, and for work that must oe regularly performed, they are
liot so well calculated ; for this lameness behind produces great difficulty
in rising up, and the consciousness that he will not be able to rise without
painful effort, prevents the horse from lying down at all; and a horse that
cannot rest well, cannot long travel far and fast. This is well known to
postmasters. A foundered horse may do his work, for as soon as he has
satisfied his appetite he is down ; but the horse that will seldom or never
lie down, must be speedily worn out.

Our cut shews ate, the natural situation of spavin, but there is some-
times an expansion of the heads of the bones of the leg, that looks very
much like it, and has been mistaken for it. Both hocks should be exa-
mined, for it is rare that there will be an unnatural growth of bone of pre-
cisely the same form and appearance in both ; and if there be a natural pro-
jection, or breadth of the heads of the bones, all the other joints will pre-
sent the same bold character.

The treatment of spavin is simple enough, but not always effectual.
The owner of the horse will neither consult his own interest, nor the dic-
tates of humanity, if he suffers the chisel and mallet, or the gimblet, or the
pointed iron, pr arsenic to be used; yet measures of considerable seve-
rity must be resorted to. Repeated bHsters will usually cause either the
absorption of the bony deposit, or the abatement or removal of the inflam-
mation of the ligaments. As a last resort, however, the hot iron may be
>ipplied.

We have thus presented our readers with a- fearful list of diseases Be-
longing to the hock, but our catalogue is not completed. It is well known
that the horse is frequently subject to lameness behind, when no ostensible
cause for it can be found, and there is no external heat or enlargement to
indicate its seat. Farriers and grooms pronounce these to be affections of
the stifle, or round-bone ; or if the gait of the horse and peculiar stiffness
of motion point out the hock as the affected part, yet the joint may be of
its natural size, and neither heat nor tenderness can be discovered. The
groom has here a method of unravelling the mystery : he says that it is tiie
beginning of spavin ; but months and years pass away, and the spavin does
not appear, and the horse is at length destroyed as incurably lame. Horse-,
men are indebted to Mr. W. J. Goodwin for the discovery of the seat of fre-
quent lameness behind Our cut represents two layers of small bones on

272

THE HORSE.

the inside of the hock ; the larger wedge-like bone e above ; and the mid-
dle ^ and the smaller one below, and it will be seen that almost the whole
of the weight of the horse, communicated by the tibia a, is thrown upon
these bones. The cube-bone d does little more than support the point
of the hock c. It is then easy to suppose, that in the concussion of hard
work or rapid travelling, these bones, or the delicate and sensible membranes
in which they are wrapped, may be severely injured. Repeated dissections,
of horses that have been incurably lame behind, without any thing external
to point out the place or cause of lameness, have shewn that inflammation
of the membranes lining these joints, and secreting the fluid that lubricates
them, has taken place ; and has been accompanied by all the pain of joint
disease, and evils corresponding to those which we have described,
when treating of broken knees, and the consequent inflammation of the
membrane and internal part of the joint. Indeed, so clearly is this
now established, that when, after careful and repeated examination by a
competent person, no seat or cause of lameness can be discovered, we
■shall be right nineteen times out of twenty, in deciding that it is disease in
this portion of the hock. No enlargement, no heat, will indicate its exist-
ence, but when it has been long established, and ossified matter has been
thrown out between these bones, it will, like the true spavin, spread, and
appear either on the inside of the hock, or surrounding the whole of the
joint.

In these cases, then, of mysterious lameness, and when, after the
removal of the shoe, and the most patient search, we have failed in dis-
covering a cause of lameness elsewhere, we shall be justified in considering
this as the affected part, and treating it accordingly : and as the injury is
deep, and in the very centre of the joint, we must adopt severe measures
in order to reach it. We must blister immediately, and repeat the blister,
and enjoin perfect quietude and rest ; but here, as in the bone-spavin,
and oftener than in that disease, all our appliances and means may be
fruitless. Our only hope lies in an early attempt to combat the evil;
and in all these obscure cases, he is unjust to himself who does not
speedily have recourse to their advice, to whom science and practice have
given a facility in detecting latent disease (67.)

THE POINT OF THE HOCK.

If the reader has not forgotten what we have said concerning the projection
of the elbow, he will be convinced that the form of the hock is materially
connected with the value of the horse. The most powerful of the flexor
or bending muscles are inserted into the point of the hock, or the ex-
tremity oflhe OS calcis c; and in proportion to the projection of the hock,
or, in other words, the length of this bone, will two purposes be effected.
The line of direction will be more advantageous, for it will be nearer to a
perpendicular ; and the arm of the lever to which the power is applied will
be leno-thened, and mechanical advantage will be gained to an almost
incredfble extent. Suppose this bone of the hock to be three inches in
leni-th ; the joint formed by the tibia and the astragalus is evidently the
cen'tre of motion ; and the weight, concentered about the middle of the
shank, is the obstacle to be overcome. If the weight be four times as far
from the centre of motion as the power, a force equal to four tunes the
weight would raise it. It is, however, here to be remem^^red, that it is
not merely the weight of the leg which is to be raised, but l./e weight ot
the horse, for the time resting upon the leg, and that weight to be pro-
pelled or driven forward. At what shall we calculate this ? We may

CAPPED-HOCK, Sit.

ftiiny suppose that the muscles whose tendons are inserted into the point
of the hock exert an energy equal to 40001bs. Let us further suppose,
that an inch is added to the point of the hock, which will be an addition
of one-third to its lenj^th : a muscular power of less than SOOOlbs. will now
effect the same purpose. The slightest lengthening, therefore, of the
point of the hock will make an exceedingly great difference in the muscular
energy by which the joint is moved ; and a difference that will wonderfully
tell in a long day's work. On this account, the depth of the hock, or the
length of the bone of which we are speaking, is a point of the greatest
importance.

There is, however, a limit to this. In proportion to the length of
this bone must be the space which it passes over in order sufp.-
ciently to bend the limb; and in that proportion must be the contraction
of the muscle ; and consequently the length of the muscle, that it may be
enabled thus to contract; and, therefore, if this bone were inordinately
lengthened, there would require a depth of quarter which would amount
to deformity. A hock of this disadvantageous length is, however, rarely
or never met with, and it is received among the golden rules in judging
of the horse, that this bone of the hock cannot be too Ion"-.

CAPPED HOCK.

The point of the hock is sometimes swelled. A soft fluctuating tumour
appears on it. This is an enlargement of one of those mucous bags of
which we have spoken, and which surrounds the insertion of the tendons
into the point of the hock. It is seldom accompanied by lameness, but yet it
is a serious business. It is usually produced by blows, and, in the majority
of instances, by the injury which the horse inflicts upon himself by kicking :
therefore a horse with a capped hock is properly regarded with a very
suspicious eye. The whole of the hock should be most carefully examined, in
order to discover whether there are other marks of violence, and the previous
history of the animal should, if possible, be obtained. Generally the kicking
is in harness, but some horses have the habit of kicking in the stall : it is
possible, however, that lying on a thin bed, or on no bed, may bruise
the hock and produce the swelling, or it may even result from sprain
of the hock ; but we repeat that it is far oftener the consequence of exter-
nal violence.

Here again it is exceedingly difficult to apply a bandage ; and puncturing
the tumour, or passing a seton through it, would be a most injudicious and
dangerous practice. Blisters, repeated as long as may be necessary,
are the proper means to be employed. Sometimes the tumour will dis-
appear of Itself, but at others it will attain a very large size, or will assume
a callous structure that will bid defiance to all the means we can employ,

(68.)

MALLENUERS AND SALLENDERS.

In ihe inside of the hock, or a little below it, as well as at the bend of the
knee, (see A, page 254,) there is sometimes a scurfy eruption called
HALLENDERS in the fore leg, and sallenders in the hind leg. They
seldom produce lameness, but if no means are taken to get rid of them, a
discharge proceeds from them which it is aflerwards difficult to stop ,
and certainly they have an unsightly appearance, and generally arguts
bad stable management. A diuretic ball should be occasionally given, and

t

•274

TlIK IKJRSK.

a!i oiiitnienl, C()nij)Oseil of one part of sugar of lead, two of tar, and six ol
lard, rubbed over tlie part. Should this fai' the weak mercurial ointment
should he. used.

C0W-K0CK.S.

Tlie line of direction of the legs beneath thz liocks should not be <Hs-
reg-arded. The leg should descend perpendicularly to the fetlock. The
weight and stress will thus be equally diffused, not only over the whole ol
the hock, but also the pasterns and the foot. Some horses, however, have
their hocks closer than natural to each other, and the legs take a divergen.
direction outward, and the toes likev/ise are turned outward. These
horses are said to be cat or cow-hocked. They are generally supposed to
possess considerable speed, and we believe I hat they do ; and we thus
account for it. The cow-hocked horse has his legs not only turned nrore
outward, but bent more under him, and this increases the distance between
the point of the hock and the tendons of the perforating muscle : see b, cut
j)age 262. It increases the space which is usually occupied by thoroughpin,
rt, Tn the same page. Then the point of the hock, moved by the action of
the muscle is enabled to describe a greater portion of a circle ; and in pro-
portion to the increased space passed over by the point of the hock, will
the space passed over by the limb beneath be increased, and so the stride
of the horse may be lengthened, and th-is far his speed may be increased.
But this advantage is more than counterbalauced by many evils. This
increased contraction of the muscles is an ex;jenditure of animal power,
and, as we have already stated, the weight and the concussion being so
unequally distributed by this formation of the limbs, some part must be
overstrained and overworked, and injury must ensue. On this account it
is, that the cow hocked horse is more subject than others to thoroughpin
and spavin ; and is so disposed to curbs, that these hocks are denominated
bv horsemen curby hocks. The mischief extends even farther than this.
Such a horse is peculiarly liable to windgall, sprain of the fetlock, cutting,
and knucklhig.

A slight inclination to this form in a strong powerful horse may not be
very objectionable, but a horse decidedly cow-hocked should never be
selertpH

BTRING-HALT

Before we quit the hock, we must notice a peculiar involuntary twitching
of the hind leg, or convulsive action of the muscles by which it is
bent, and which is termed string-halt. This is evidently an affection of
some of the nerves which communicate motion to these muscles. It is an
irre<rular action of nervous energy ; but what particular fibril is affected,
or what muscle is chiefly spasmed, has never been ascertamed. It is
nrincipally ol^served when the horse first comes from the stable, and
rrradually ceases after he has been exercised a while. It is unpleasant
to the rider but it cannot be denominated unsoundness ; on the contrary,
common op'inion has given to the horse with string-halt a more thart usual
share of stren"-th ann ^endurance ; and if it be an excess of nervous energy,
althouoh irregularly exerted, we shall find no difficulty in associating it
with general powerful muscular action. However this may be, the preose
natur^ of the defect has never been determined, nor has any cure tor it
been discovered.

SWELLED LECIS.

'275

THE HIND LEG.

Tlje coMslruction of the hind leg, and the injuries to which it is subject,
are so similar to those of the fore leg, that we shall content ourselves
with referring to our description of them given at page 243, only observing
that the shank bone is longer than that of the fore leg ; the outer splint
bone is considerably larger than the inner one, and the pasterns are longer
than those of the fore leg, and less oblique.

On the back part of the leg (/, page 262) are sometimes excrescences,
called by farriers rat-tails, from the appearance they give the hair.
They will generally yield to the mild mercurial ointment, but in very bad
cases it may be necessary to remove them with a knife.

Before we quit the legs, we must notice two frequent and very troublesome
diseases. The first is

SWELLED LEGS

The fore legs are sometimes subject to considerable enlargement, but
much oftener the hind ones. Occasionally when the horse does not
seem to labour under any other disease, and sometimes from an ap-
parent shifting of inflammation from other parts, (inflammation of the lungs
or the eye not unfrequently thus changes its seat,) the hind legs suddenly
swell to an enormous degree from the hock, and almost from the stifle to
the fetlock, attended by heat, and extreme tenderness of the skin, and
excessive and very peculiar lameness. The pulse likewise becomes quick
and hard, and the horse evidently labours under considerable fever. It is
acute inflammation of the cellular substance of the legs, and that most
sudden in its attack, most violent in its degree, and therefore attended
by the pouring out of a great deal of fluid, in this cellular substance.
It occurs in young horses, and in those which are over-fed and little
exercised, without previous inflammation in any other part. Fomentation,
diuretics, or physic, or, if there be much fever, a moderate bleeding, will
often relieve the distention almost as suddenly as it appeared.

The kind of swelled legs, most frequent of occurrence, and most trou-
blesome, is of a difierent nature, or rather it is so various in its kind
and causes, and consequences and mode of treatment, that it deserves
attentive consideration. One principle, hov/ever, will guide us to a right
opinion and treatment of it, — that it is produced either by actual or compa-
rative debility or loss of power in the part attacked. Horses seemingly
in perfect health, and with a full allowance of food, if suffered to remain
several days without exercise, will have swelled legs. The arterial capillary
vessels have conveyed a great deal of fluid to the extremities ; — from
over-feeding and want of muscular exertion and the perspiration connected
with it, the fl aids have accumulated, and are lodging in the extremities,
because the vessels have not power to return them. The heart is acting
upon an additional quantity of fluid, while, by the want of exercise, the
limbs are deprived of the principal power by which the fluids are returned ;
for the blood is materially assisted in its return through the veins by the
action of the muscles, and the absorbents are roused to action by the
exercise and motion of the different parts. The cure, therefore, is suffici-
ently plain: by physic or diureUcs, the quantity of the fluid is lessened, and
by exertion increasing the perspiration, it is likewise diminished, and, what
is more important, both the veins and the absorbents are assisted in their
action. ^ ^

THE HORSK

Horses taken from grass and brought into close stables very speedil

y

nulr.

have swelled legs, because the difference of food, and increase of

inent, rapidly increase the quantity of the circulating fluid ; while the want
of exercise takes away the means by which it might be got rid of. The
remedy here needs not to be stated. Swelled legs, however, may proceed
from general debility; they may be the consequence of starvation, or dis-
ease that has considerably weakened the animal ; and these parts, bein""
farthest from the centre of circulation, are the first to shew the loss of poweT'
by the accumulation of fluid in them. Here the means of cure would be
to increase the general strength, with which the extremities would syin
pathise, and mild diuretics and tonics are evidently indicated.

Horses in tiie spring and fall are subject to swelled legs. The powers of
the constitution are principally employed in providing a new coat for the
animal, and the extremities have not their share of vital influence.
Mingled cordials and diuretics are indicated here — the diuretic to lessen
the qu»!itity of the circulating flood, — the cordial to invigorate the
frame.

Swelleci legs are most teasing in horses that are in tolerable or good
health, but whose work is somewhat irregular. The pleasure-horse and the
hunter are the frequent subjects of this complaint. The cure is to give more
equable exercise; — to walk the horse out daily when the usual work is not
required, and by some mechanical means to supply to the extremities the
want of the motion of the parts, and the consequent urging on of the
return of the fluid. Friction by hand-rubbing is an excellent means or
fining the legs, at least for a time. Bandages have a greater and more du-
rable effect, for nothing tends more to support the capillary veins, and rouse
the action of the absorbents, than moderate pressure. Hay-bands will
form a very good bandage for the agricultural horse, and their effect will
probably be increased by previously dipping them in water. As to me-
iicines we have little to say : the fewer of them that are given in these
oases the better. The diuretic, or urine-ball, the constant resource of the
die groom or carter, is particularly objectionable. Its frequent and undue
stimulus of the urinary organs will be followed by speedy, and often
iTicurable debility. If the swelling bids defiance to exercise and friction
and bandage, the aid of the diuretic may be resorted to, but never until
these have failed, unless there be an evident tendency to grease or
humour.

GREASE.

Swelled legs, a.tnough distinct from grease, are apt to degenerate into it.
This disease, therefore, comes next under our consideration. It is an in-
flammation of the skin of the heel, sometimes of the fore, but oftener of the
hind foot. It is not a contagious disease, although when it once appears
in a stable it frequently goes through it, for it is usually to be traced to
bad stable management. The skin of the heel of the horse somewhat
differs from that of any other part. There is a great deal of motion in the
fetlock, and to prevent the skin from excoriation or chapping, it is neces-
sary that it should be kept soft and pliable; therefore, in the healthy state
of the part, the skin of the heel has a peculiar greasy feel. Under in-
flammation, the secretion of this greasy matter is stopped — the heels be-
come red, dry, and scurfy ; and being almost constantly in motion, cracks
soon succeed: these sometimes extend, and the whole surface of the
hee! becomes a mass of soreness, ulceration, and fungus.
The heel is subject to this virulent inflammation, on account of its situation.

GREASK

277

Tar removed from the centre of the circulation. It is likewise exposed to
more variations of temperat ire than any other part of the frame. As the
horse stands in the closed st able, the heat of the part is increas ;d by being
deeply imbedded in straw. When the stable door is open, the heels are
nearest to the door, and most powerfully receive the current of cold air;
and when the horse is taken from the stable to his work, the heels are
covered with mire and wet, ami chilled by the slow and long process of
evaporation, which is taking place from them. We cannot wonder then
at the frequency with which the heels are attacked with inflammation,
nor the difficulty there is in subduing that inP.Ammation. In the
winter season, chaps and cracks will occasionally appear in the best con-
ducted stables ; but where the comfort of the animal is neglected, and
every kind of filth is suffered to accumulate, the disease will be more fre-
quent and more virident.

The fanner's horse is not so subject to grease as many others, because
he is not usually exposed so much to sudden and extreme changes of
temperature, and the heels particularly are not thus exposed. In many
instances he lives almost entirely out of doors, or, if he is stabled, the
stables of the little farmer are not always air-tight. The wind finds its
way through many a cranny, instead of entering at the door alone, and
blowing upon the heels.

A great deal of error has prevailed, and it has led to much bad practice,
in connecting grease with the notion of humours flying about the horse,
which must have vent somewhere, and which attack the heels as the
weaker parts of the frame. Thence arise the physicking, and the long'
course of diuretics, which truly weaken the animal, and often do irreparable
mischief Grease is a local complaint ; — it is produced principally by
causes which act locally ; and it is most' successfully treated by local appli
cations. Physic and diuretics may be useful in abating inflammation; hni
the grand object is to abate the inflammatory action which exists in the
skin of the heel, and to heal the wounds, and remedy the mischief which it
has occasioned.

The first appearance of grease is usually a dry and scurfy state of the
skin of the heel, with redness, heat, and itchiness. The heel should be
well washed with soap and water ; as much of the scurf should be de-
tached as is easily removable : white ointment composed of one drachm
of sugar of lead, rubbed down with an ounce of lard, will usually supple
and cool, and heal the part.

When cracks appear, the mode of treatment will depend on their extent
and depth. If they are but slight, a lotion composed of a solution of two
drachms of blue vitriol, or four of alum, in a pint of water, will often
speedily dry them up and close them. But if the cracks are deep, with
an ichorous discharge, and the lameness considerable, it will be necessary
to poultice the heel. A poultice of linseed meal will be the most effectual,
unless the discharge is thin and offensive, when an ounce of finely
powdered charcoal should be mixed with the linseed meal, or a poultice
may be made of carrots boiled soft, and mashed. The efficacy of a carrot
poultice is seldom sufficiently appreciated in cases like these.

When the inflammation and pain have evidently subsided, and the cracks
discharge good matter, they maybe dressed with an ointment composed of
one part of resin, and three of lard, melted together, and one part of cala-
mine powder added, when these begin to get cool. The healing will be
quickened if the cracks are occasionally washed with either the vitriol, or
alum solution. A mild diuretic may here be given every third day, but 8
mild dose of physic will form the best medicine that can be administered.

278

THE HORSE.

After the chaps or cracks have healed, the legs will sometimes continue
gorged and swelled. A flannel bandage evenly applied over the whole of
the swelled part will be verj- serviceable, or, should the season admit of
it, a run at grass, particularly spring grass, should be allowed. A blister
is inadmissible, from the danger of bringing back the inflammation of the
skin, and discharge from it ; but the actual cautery, taking especial care
not to penetrate the skin, must occasionally be resorted to.

In some cases the cracks are not confined to the centre of the heels, but
spread over them, and extend on the fetlock, and even up the leg, while
the legs are exceedingly swelled, and there is a watery discharge from the
cracks, and apparently oozing through the skin at other places. The parts
are exceedingly tender, and sometimes hot, and there is an appearance which
the farrier thinks very decisive as to the state of the disease, and which
the better informed man should not overlook, — the heels smoke ; — the skin
is so hot, that the watery fluid partly evaporates as it runs from the cracks,
or oozes through the skin.

There will be great danger in suddenly stopping this discharge. Inflam-
mation of a more important part has rapidly succeeded to the injudicious
attempt. The local application should be directed to the abatement of the
inflammation. The poultices just referred to should be diligently used
night and day, and especially the carrot poultice ; and, when the heat and
tenderness and stiffness of motion have diminished, astringent lotions
may be applied ; either the alum lotion, or a strong decoction of oak bark,
changed, or used alternately, \)ut not mixed. The cracks should likewise
be dressed with the ointment above-mentioned ; and the moment the horse
can bear it, a flannel bandage should be put on, reaching from the coronet,
to three or four inches above the swelling.

The medicine should be confined to mild diuretics, mixed with one-third
part of cordial mass, or, if the horse be gross, and the inflammation run
high, a dose of physic may be given. From the account we have given,
it will easily be distinguished in what cases physic is indicated, and in what
states of the con.-ititution or disease we may be content with diuretics. If
the horse be strong, and full of flesh and fat, physic should always precede,
and sometimes supersede the diuretics ; in cases of much debility, diuretics
with aromatics or tonics will be preferable.

The feeding will likewise vary wi'tli the case, but with these rules, which
admit of no exception, that green meat should be given, and more especially
carrots, when they are not too expensive, and niashes, if the horse will eat
them, and never the full allowance of corn.

Walking exercise should he resorted to as soon as the horse is able to
bear it, and this by degrees may be increased to a gentle trot.

From bad stable management at first, and neglect during the disease,
a yet worse kind of grease is occasionally found. The ulceration extends
over the skin of the heel and the fetlock, and a fungus sj/rings from the
surface of both, highly sensible, bleeding at the slightest touch, and inter-
spersed with scabs. By degrees, poriions of the fungus begin to be covered
with a horny substance, protruding in the form of knobs, and collected
together in bunches. These are known by the name oi' grapes. A slink-
ing and very peculiar discharge proceeds from nearly the whole of the un-
natural substance. The horse evidently suffers much and is gradually
worn down by the disease. The assistance of a veterinary surgeon is here
unlispensabltJ.

Some horses are more subject to grease than others, particulnriy
draught horses, both heavy and light, but particularly the former, and ii
they have no degree of blood in them. It was the experience of this whicb

GREASE.

nartW coutributed to the gradual change of coach and othei draught horses
o those of a lighter breed. It may, however, be affirmed without danger
of error, that, in the great majority of cases, grease arises from mismanage-
ment and neglect; and the farmer and the horse- proprietor would not be
unjust to their servants, and would materially promote their own interest,
if they exacted a fine for every case of grease that occurred in their stable.

Every thing that has a tendency to excite inflammation in the skm of the
heel is a cause of grease. Therefore, want of exercise, for the reasons
which we have stated when treating of swelled legs, is a frequent cause;
The fluid which accumulates about the extremities, aiid is unable to return,
3 a source of irritation by its continued pressure. When high feeding is
added toTrreo-ular or deficient exercise, this disease is evidently s . 1 more
Sly t^°be produced. Want of cleanliness in the stable is a fruitful source
of this comdaint. When the heels are embedded in filth th^yjire weak
cned by the constant moisture surrounding them, and irritated W the ac
mony of the dung and the urine, and Utile prepared to endure the evapo-
ration and cold to which they are exposed when the horse is taken out of
the stable. We believe, however, that the absurd prac ice of washing the
feet and legs of horses when they come from their work, and e. her care-
lessly sponging them down afterwards, or leaving them to dry as they may,
is bv far the most common origin of grease. , , , . ,,

When the horse is warmed by his work, and the heels share in the warmth,
the momentary cold of washing may not be injurious it tlie animal be
immediately rubbed dry ; yet even this would be better avoided : but to wash
out the heels, and then leave them partially dry, or perfectly wet, and
suffering from the extreme cold which is produced by evaporation from a
wetted surface, is the most absurd, dangerous, and injurious practice that
can be imagined. It is worse when the post-horse or the plough -horse is
pluno-ed up to his belly in the river or pond, immediately after his work.
The owner is little aware how many cases of inflammation of the lungs,
and bowels, and feet, and heels, follow. It would, therefore be aii excel-
lent rule never to wash ihe heels of these horses. After they have been
suffered to stand for twenty minutes in the stable, during which time the
horse-keeper or the carter may be employed in taking care of he harness
or carriage, or beginning to dress the horse, the greater part of the dirt
which had collected about the heels may be got rid of with a dry brush ;
and the rest will disappear a quarter of an hour afterwards under the opera-
tion of a second brushing. The trouble will not be greater, and the heels
will not be chilled and subject to inflammation. , u • r

There has been some dispute as to the propriety of cuttmg the hairtrom
the heels. Custom has very properly retained the hair o"°"r farm-horses
Nature would not have given it had it not been useful. It guards ne
heel from being injured by the inequalities c;f the ploughed f ^'^ ' P'^"
vents the dirt in which the heels are constantly enveloped, 'J^^
and caking on and irritating the skin ; it hinders the usual '""'f '^^ ™
is mixed with the clay and mould from reaching the skui, P^^'"''"
an equal temperature in the parts. If, however, the hair ^'^ ^^'"^^^^^
remain on the heels of our iarm-horses, there is greater necessU to.
brushing and hand rubbing the heels, and never ^^.^J'^^T.^'f;'^,;/"
water used in washing will readily penetrate through •''^"^'^^J
be absolutely impossible to gfet rid of it again. l^f/^/^^^^^^X atu-
the heels alLgeLr, or as many ca^^^^^^
mulate from month to month, rather than wasu uieui ,
be idle and injurious treatment, but ,t would be f« ^he '^^^^^^^^

Fashion and uliUt- have removed the hair from the heels of our hackr eys

TUK HORSK.

and carriage-hor>,es. In the usual stale of our roads this defence is not
warned, or, rather, the haii would be a perfect nuisance. The hand-
7. 2 ^T^^'^'S will be an easy process ; or if the heels must be
washed, let them be carefully and thoroughly dried. We close this part
Of our treatise by repeatingr that grease is the child of neff licence and
mismanagement. It is driven from our cavalry, and it will be the fault
ot the g-entleman and the farmer if it be not speedily banished from everv
stable. (69.) ^

Chapter XV.
THK FOOT.

The foot is composed of the horny box which covers the extremities of
the horse, and the contents of that box. We will first consider the hoof,
or box, which is composed of the crust or wall, the bars, the sole, and the
horny frog-.

THE CRUST OR WALL OF THE HOOF.

The crust, or wall, is that portion which is seen when the foot is placed
on the ground, and reaches from the termination of the hair to the ground.
It is deepest in front, where it is called the toe (see cut, p. 255) ; shal-
lower at the sides, which are denominated the quarters; and of least extent
behind, where it is termed the heel. It is placed fiat on the ground, but
ascends obliquely backward, and possesses different degrees of obliquity in
different feet. In a sound hoof, the proper degree of slanting is calculated
at forty-five degrees, or the fourth part of a semicircle. When it is more
oblique, or the crust is said to have " fallen in," it indicates undue flatness
of the sole, or, if the obliquity be very much increased, pumiced, or convex
sole. If it be more upright than the angle we have mentioned, it shews
a contracted foot, and a sole too concave ; so that there is no necessity to
take up the foot in order to ascertain either of these states of it. It is also
of importance to observe whether the depth of the crust appears rapidly or
slowly to decrease from the front to the heel. If the decrease be little, and
even at the heel the crust is high and deep, it indicates a foot liable
to contraction, and sand-crack, and thrush and inflammation, and the
pastern is upright, and the paces of the horse are not pleasant. If the crust
diminish rapidly in depth, and the heels are low, this is accompanied by
too great slanting of the pastern, and disposition to sprain of the back
sinew ; the foot itself is liable to be weak and flat and bruised, and there
Is likewise more tendency to that frequent but obscure lameness of which
we shall have occasion to treat, termed the " navicular-joint disease." The
foot has spread out too much at the side, instead of growing upward, and
therefore it is too much exposed.

The crust in front is rather more than half an inch in thickness, and
becomes gradually thiimer towards the quarters and heels. If, therefore,
there be but half an inch for nail-hold at the toe, and not so much at the
quarters, we need not wonder if horses are occasionally wounded in shoe-
ing, and especially when some of them are so unmanageable while undei
going that process.

While the crust gets thinner towards both quarters, it is thinner at the
inner quarter than it is at the outeij because more weight is thrown 'ipon

THE CRUST OF THE HOOF.

281

It than upon the outer. It is more under the horce ; it is under the inner
splint-bone, on which so mUch more of the weijrht rests than on tlie outer,
and, being thinner, it is able to expand more; its elasticity is called more
into play, and concussion and injury are avoided. When the expansion of
the quarters is prevented by their being nailed to an unbending shoe, the
inner quarter suffers most. Corns are oftenest found there ; contraction
begins there; sand-crack is seated there. Nature meant that this should
be the most yielding part, in order to obviate concussion, because on it
the weight was principally thrown, and therefore when its power of yielding
is taken away it must be the first to suffer.

A careful observer will likewise perceive that the inner quarter is a little
higher than the outer. While it is thin to yield to the shock, its increased
surface gives it sufficient strength.

On account of its thinness, and the additional weight which it
bears, the inner heel wears away quicker than the outer ; a circumstance
that should never be forgotten by the smith. His object is to give
a plain and level bearing to the whole of the crust. To accomplish
this, it will be often scarcely necessary to remove anything from the
inner heel, for it is already removed by the wear of the foot. If he
forgets this, as he too often seems to do, and takes off with his knife or
"his buttress an equal portion all round, he leaves the inner and weaker
quarter lower than the outer; he throws an uneven bearing upon it; and
produces corns and sand-cracks and splints, which a
little care and common sense might have avoided.
The crust does not vary much in thickness, (see a, page
249, and b in the accompanying cut,) until near the
top, at the coronet, or union of the horn of the foot
with the skin of the pasterns where {w, page 249) it
rapidly gets thin. It is in a manner scooped and
hollowed out. It likewise changes its colour and its
consistence, and seems almost like a continuation of
he skin, but easily separable from it by maceration, or
disease. This thin part is called the coronary ring, x, p. 249 ; and it
receives within it, or covers, a thickened and bulbous prolongation of the
skin, called the coronary ligament, (see b in the accompanying cut.) This
requires a better name, for it has not a portion of ligamentous structure
in it. This prolongation of the skin is thickly supplied with blood-vessels.
It is almost a mesh of blood-vessels connected together by fibrous
texture, and many of these vessels are employed in secreting or forming
the crust or wall of the foot. Nature has enabled the sensible laminae of
the coffin bone c, which will be described presently, to secrete some horn,
in order to afford an immediate defence for itself when the crust is
wounded or taken away. Of this we have proof, when in sand-crack, or
qu ttor, we are compelled to remove a portion of the crust. A pellicle of
horn, or of firm hard substance resembling it, soon covers the wound ;
but the crust is principally formed from this coronary ligament. Hence it
i.s, that in sand-crack, quittor, and other diseases in which strips of the
t crust are destroyed, it is so long in being renewed, or growing down. It
must proceed from the coronary ligament, and so gradually creep down
the foot with the natural growth or lengthening of the horn, of which, as
in the human nail, a supply is slowly given to answer to the wear and
tear of the part.

lielow the coronary ligament is a thin strip of horny matter, which
has been troxed from the frog, and has been supposed by some to be
connected with the support or action of the frog, but which is evidently

283

THE HORSE.

inltnded to add to the security of the part 0,1 which it is Tound ai.d to
b>nd tog^ether those various substances which are collected at t ''comnet

i /'o' oV'^hrr ^'^t ^^"P,"^«kiu which suZnds

Uie root of the human nail, and whicli is ])laced there to strenothen the
union of the nail with the substance from which it proceeds ^

The crust is composed of numerous fibres running at the toe in a
straight direction from the coronet to the ground, but at the quarters
taking an oblique direction from the heel forwards. This construHirm
IS best calculated to enable the foot to expand when it comes ?n contact
with the ground and by that expansion permitting the gradual descent ot
the bones ot the foot, and obviating much concussion. The crust is thinner
at the quarters and towards the heels, because those are the parts at which
the principal expansion must take place. These fibres are held together
by a glutinous substance, but -in such a manner as to permit a slio-ht deo-ree
ot sejiaration, or to bestow the power of expansion on the foot ; "and wlien
recently separated from the fool, it is an exceedingly elastic substance and
very tough, that if may not chip and break with the violence to which
it IS often exposed.

In the absurd method of stable management, to which we shall have
occasion again and again to refer, it sometimes loses much of this touffh
ness, and becomes brittle and liable to chip and break. Inflammation of
the internal part of the foot, by the increased heat which is produced
will cause brittleness of the hoof; deficiency of moisture and neglect o.'
stopping will produce the same effect. Manv horses are peculiarlv liable
to brittle hoofs during the summer ; this is a very serious defect "piid in
some cases so much of the hoof is gradually broken awav, that there is no
hold left for the nails. A mixture of one part of oil of tar, and two of
common fish oil, well rubbed into the crust and the lioof, will restore the
natural pliancy and toughness of the horn, and very much contribute to the
quickness of its growth.

The wall of the hoof should be smooth and level : protuberances or riiio-s
round the crust indicate that the horse has had fever in the feet ; and that°o
such a degree as to produce an unequal growth of horn, and probably to
leave some injurious consequences in the internal part of the foot. If there
be a depression or hollow in the front of the foot, it betrays a sinking of the
eoffin-bone, and a flat or pumiced sole ; if the hollow be at the quarters,
it is the worst system of bad oontraciion.

a The external crust sctu at
the (juarter.

i> The coronary ring,
c The httle horny plates
lining the; crust.

d The sauie oontiuuedovei
the burs.

e e The two concave suriacut
of tlie inside of tlie nuniv

-0 iioir.

V ^

f That which externally it
the cloft of the liog.
g The bars

h The rounded part ot the
heo)s, bulougingto the fro^;.

THE BARS. i:S3

The colour of the lioof is a matter of some consequence. There is
^ common, and we believe a well-founded prejudice against white feet, and
especially whiteness of the near foot. White horn is said to be weaker than
that of the usual dark colour; the sole is almost uniformly flat, and the

'^"The'insideT ^he crust is covered by numerous thin horny leaves, e,
tcndinff all round it, and reaching from the coronary' ring to the toe.
Thev are about 500 in number, broadest at their base, and terminating:
in the most delicate expansion of horn. They very much resemble the
nner surface of a mushroom. In front they run in a direction from
the coronet to the toe, and towards the quarters they are more slanting
from behind forward. They correspond with similar cartilaginous and
fleshy leaves on the surface of the coffin-bone, caUed from their con-
strucLn, sensible laminae, or lamella (little leaves that have feeling) and
the one bein- received within the other, they form together a most elastic
body, by which the whole weight of the horse is supported.

THE BARS,

ao The frog,
b Tliesole.
c c Tin; bi^rs.
dd The crust.

\t the back pan of the toot, the wall of the hoof, instead of being
continued round, and forming a circle, is suddenly bent iii, as in the
accompanying cut. where d represents the base of the crust, and c this
inflexion o'r bending of it. The cut will shew that we do not refer to that
bend, which forms the cleft of the frog, but to a more sudden one, con-
stituting the commencement of the bars. The bars are, m fact, a
continuation of the crust, forming an acute angle, and meeting at a pomt
at the toe of the fi-og a : and the inside of the bars, like the ins.de of the
crust (see the preceding cut), presents a continuance of the horny leaves
which we have just described, shewing that it is a part of the same sub-
stance, and helping to discharge the same office.

It r.eeds only the slightest consideration of the cut, or of the natural
hoof, to shew the importance of the bars. The arch which they form on
either side, between the frog and the quarters, is admirably contrived, botl^
to admit of, and to limit to its proper extent, the expansion of the toot.
When the foot is placed on the ground, and the weight of the animal is
thrown on the little leaves, of which we have just spoken, we can imag ne
these arches shortening and widening, in order to admit ot the expa s on
of the quarters ; and we can see again the bow returning to natural
curve, and powerfully assisting the foot in regaining its "^^^ ''''^"^^^ '
can also perceive what protection these bars must ^S'^'^^^^J^'^e ,

traction, or wiring in of the quarters. If they are f ken away there
win be nothing to resist the falling of ^^-^t^^TS:::^.

rain' Z7e:iheton^;'^^^ frog and the

t& proLction which tl^y give against the Vro^^?^^l^Z
side parts of the foot. Then appears the necessity ol spa, . g and '^•^v.ng
them prominent when the foot is paired for shoemg. It >s the custom with

284

THE IIOKSE.

too many smiths to cut them perfectly away. Tliey imagine that that
gives a more open appearance to the heels of the horse^-a smnim^
width which may impose upon the unwary. Horses shod for the purno^
of sale have usually the bars removed with this view • and the smiths in
the neighbourhood of the metropolis aud large towns, shoeing for dealers
loo often habitually pursue, with regard to all their customers, the iniurious
practice of removing the bars. The horny frog, deprived of its guard
will speedily contract, and become elevated and thrushy; and the whole of
the heel, deprived of the power of resilience or re-action, which the curve
oetwcen the bar c and the crust d affords, will speedily fall in. Therefore
when treating of shoeing, we shall lay it down as a golden rule, that the
bars should be left prominent, and we shall shew why it is of essential
importance that the shoe should rest on the angle formed by the crust and
the bar.

THE FROG.

In the space between the bars, and accurately filling it, is the frog. It
IS a triangular portion of horn, projecting from the sole, almost on a level
witli the crust, and covering and defending a soft and elastic substance
called the seiisible frog. It is wide at the heels, and there extending above
a portion of the crust ; narrowing rapidly when it begins to be confined
between the bars, and terminating at a point at somewhat more than half
the distance from the heel to the toe. It consists of two rounded or pro-
■ectmg surfaces, with a fissure or cleft between them, reaching half way
down the frog, and the two portions again uniting to form the point or
toe of the frog. The frog is firmly united to the sole, but it is perfectly
distinct from it. It is of a different nature, being sorter, and far more
elastic ; and it is secreted from a different surface, for it is thrown out
from the substance which it covers. Without entering into many of
the questions which have been agitated, with far too much warmth
among veterinarians, as to the uses of the frog, it is sufficient to refer to
our cut, and consider the form and situation of this part. It very much
resembles a wedge with the sharp point forwards ; and it is placed towards
the back part of the foot. The foot is seldom put flush and flat upon the
ground, but in a direction downwards, yet somewhat forwards ; then the frog
evidently gives safety to the tread of the animal, for it, in a manner,
ploughs itself into (he ground, and prevents the horse from slipping.
This is of considerable consequence, when we remember some of the
paces of the horse, in which his heels evidently come first to the ground,
and in which the danger from slipping would be very great. We need
only refer to the gallop of speed as illustrative of this.

The frog being placed at, and filling the hinder part of the foot,
discharges a part of the duty sustained by the crust ; for it supports the
weight of the animal. It assists, likewise, and that to a material degree,
in the expansion of the foot. It is formed internally of two promi-
ntnceson the sides (see «, p. 283), and a cleft in the centre, presentiii"- two
concavities Avith a sharp projection in the middle, and a gradually rounded
one or, each side. It is also composed of a substance peculiarly flexible and
elastic. What can be so well adapted for the expansion of the foot, when
a portion of the weight of the body is thrown on it? How easily will
these irregular surfaces yield, and spread out, and how readily return again
to tlieir natural state? In this view, therefore, the horny frog is apowerfiil
agent in opening the foot ; and the diminution cf the substance of the
frog. i>nd its elevation above the ground, are both the cause and the con-

YIIR SOLE.

285

sequence ot contraction : the canse, as being able no longer powerfully to
act in expanding- the heels ; and the consequence, as obeying a law of nature,
by which that which no longer discharges its natural function is gradually
removed. It is, however, the cover and defence of the internal and sensible
frog, at which we are not yet arrived, and therefore we are at present
unable to develop its full use ; but we have said enough to shew the
absurdity of the common practice of unsparingly cutting it away. To
discharge, in any degree, some of the offices which we have assigned to
it, and fully to discharge even one of them, it must come in occasional
contact with the ground. In the unshod horse it is constantly so : but
the additional support given by the shoes, and more especially the hard
roads over which the horse is now compelled to travel, render this complete
exposure of the frog to the ground, not only unnecessary, but injurious.
Being of so much softer consistence than the rest of the foot, it would be
speedily worn away: occasional pressure, however, or contact with the
ground, it must have.

The rough and detached parts should be cut off at each shoeing, and
the substance of the frog itself, so as to bring it just above or within the
level of the shoe. It will then, in the descent of the 'sole, when the weight
of the horse is thrown upon it in the putting down of the foot, descend
likewise, and pressing upon the ground, do its duty ; while it will be de
fended from the wear, and bruise, and injury which it would receive if it
came upon the ground with the first and full shock of the weight. This
will be the proper guide to the smith in operating, and to the proprietor
in the directions which he gives ; and the lattej should often look to this,
for it is a point of very great moment. A few smiths carry the notion of
frog pressure to an absurd extent, and leave the frog beyond the level ot
the^ sole, — a practice which is dangerous in the horse of slow draught,
and destructive to the hackney or the hunter ; but the majority of them
err m a contrary way, and, cutting off too much of the frog, lift it above
the ground, and destroy its principal use. It should be left just above, or
within the level of the shoe.

THE SOLE.

This is the under concave and elastic surface of the foot (see b, p. 283), ex-
tending from the crust to the bars and frog. It is not so thick as the crust,
because, notwithstanding its situation, it has not so much weight or
stress thrown on it as there is on the crust ; and because it was intended
to expand, in order to prevent concussion, when, by the descent of the
bone of the foot, the weight was thrown upon it. It is not so brittle as the
crust, and it is more elastic than it. It is thickest at the toe (see t, page
249), because the first and principal stress is thrown on that part. The
coffin bone/ is driven forward and downward in that direction. It is
likewise thicker where it unites with the crust than it is towards the centre,
for a similar and evident reason, because there the weight is first and
principally thrown.

In a state of nature it is, to a certain degree, hollow. The reason of
this is plain. It is intended to descend or yield with the weight o. the
horse, and by that gradual descent or yielding most materially lessen the
shock which would result from the sudden action of the weight ot the
animal in rapid and violent action ; and this descent can only be given by
a hollow sole. A flat sole, already pressing upon the ground, could not
be brought lower , nor could the functious of the frog be then discharged •

THE HORSE.

nor would the foot have so secure a hold. Then if the sole be naturally
hollow, and hollow because it must descend, the smith must not interfere
with this important action. When the foot will bear it, he must pare on',
sufficient of the horn to preserve the proper concavity, a small portion at
the toe and near the crust, and cutting deeper towards the ce.itre; and
he. must put on a shoe which shall not prevent the descent of the sole ;
which not onlv shall not press upon it, but shall leave sufficient room be-
tween it and the sole to admit of this descent. If the sole is pressed upon
by the coffin-bone, by the lengthening: of the elastic leaves, and the shoe
will not permit its descent, the sensible part between the coffir -bone and
the horn will necessarily be bruised, and inflammation and lameness will
ensue It is from this cause, that if a stone insinuates itself between
the shoe and the sole, it produces so much lameness. Of the too great
concavity of the sole, or the want of concavity, we shall treat when wc
arrive at the diseases of the foot.

THE COFFIN BONE.

We proceed to the interior part of the foot. The lower pastern a sniall
Dortion of which (see d, page 249) is contained in the horny box, has
oeen already described. Beneath it, and altogether inclosed in the hoot
is the coffin-bone, or proper bone of the foot, (see / page 249, and d,
fig 1 pa"-e 253). It is fitted to, and fills the fore part of the hoot,
occupying about half of it. It is of a light and spongy structure (see d,
firr 1 pa-re 253), and filled with numerous holes. Through these pass the
blood-veslels of the foot, which are necessarily numerous, considering the
important and various secretions there carrying on, and the circulation
through the foot it is plain could not possibly be kept up, if these vessels
did not run through the substance of the bone. The holes about the body of
the coffin-bone convey the blood to the little leaves with which it is covered ;
those near the lower part go to the sole. Considering the manner in
which this bone is inclosed in the horny box, and yet the important
surfaces around and below it which are to be nourished with blood, the
circulation which is thus carried on within the very body of the bone is
one of the most beautiful provisions of nature that is to be found in the
whole of the frame. No inconvenience can arise from occasional or
constant pressure, but the bone allows free passage to the blood, and
protects it from every possible obstruction. r »j >,.,4 w ;=

The fore-part of the coffin-bone is not only thus perforated, but it is
curiously roughened for the attachment of the numerous little leaves about
to be described. On its upper surface it presents a concavity for the head
of the lower pastern, p. 253. In front, immediately above rf, is a striking
orominence, into which is inserted the extensor tendon of the foot. Atthe
back 6 p 249, it is sloped for articulation with the navicular bone and
more underneath, is a depression for the reception of the per orating flexor
tendon, m, continued down the leg, passing over the navicular bone at »,
and at leno-th inserted into this bone. On either side, as seen p. 254.
retioiSis called the wings, or heels of the coffin-bone, and at b«
bottom iUs hollowed to answer to the convexity of the mternal part of the

'"^That which deserves most attention in the coffin-bone is the production
of Lmer^us little laves round its front and sides. They are prolongations
ff tr thick and elastic membrane covering the coffin-bone, and consist
Of «Lrtil^ incus, fleshy plates, proceeding from ,t, running down the coffin-

SENSIBLE SOLE AND FROG.

287

bone, and corresponding with, and received between the horny leaves that
line tiie inside of the crust. The horny little leaves are secreted from, or
produced by the fleshy, and being', as we have stated, five hundred innum
ber, their union with each other is so strong, that no violence can separate
them. While the animal is at rest, the whole weight of the horse is supported
by them, and not by the sole. Tliis extraordinary fact has been put to the
test of experiment. The sole, bars, and frog were removed from the foot
of a horse, and yet as he stood, the coffin-bone did not protrude, or in (he
slightest degree descend; but when the rapidity with which the foot de-
scends is added to the weight of the horse, these little leaves, horny and
fleshy, gradually lengthen, and suffer the bones to press upon the sole.
The sole then descends, and, in descending, expands; and so, by an
admirable mechanism, the violent shock which would be produced by
the pressure of such a weight as that of the horse, and the velocity with
which it descends, is lessened or destroyed, and the complicated apparatus
of the foot remains uninjured. When the foot is again lifted, and the weight
which pressed upon it is removed, the principle of elasticity is called into
exercise, and by it the sole resumes its concavity, and the horny frog its
folded state ; — the quarters return to their former situation , — the little
leaves regain their former length, and every thing is prepared for a repeti-
tion of action.

THE SENSIBLE SOLE

Between the coffin-bone and the horny sole is situated the sensible sole s,
p. 249, formed above of a substance of a ligamentous or tendinous nature,
and below of a cuticular or skin-like substance, plentifully supplied with
blood-vessels. It was placed between the coffin-bone and the sole, by its
yielding nature to assist in preventing concussion, and also to form a supply
of horn for the sole. It extends beyond the coffin-bone, but not at all under
the frog; leaving a space for the frog, it proceeds over the bars, and there is
covered with some laminae, to unite with those which we have described,
page 283, as found in the bars. It is here likewise thicker, and more
elastic, and by its elasticity is evidently assisting in obviating concussion.
It is supplied with nervous fibres, and is highly sensible, as the slightest
experience in horses will evince. The lameness which ensues from the
pressure of a stone or of the shoe on the sole is caused by inflamma-
tion of the sensible sole. Corns result from bruise and inflammation of
the sensible sole, between the crust and the bar.

THE SLiNSIBLE FROQ.

The coffin-bone does not occupy more than one half of the hoof. The
posterior part is filled by a soft mass, partly ligamentous, and partly ten
dinous (o, page 249). Its shape below corresponds with the cavities of
the horny fnjg , in front it is attached to the inferior part of the coffin-bone ;
and farther back it adheres to the lower part of the cartilages of the heels,
where they begin to form the rounded protuberances which constitute the
heel of the foot. It occupies the whole of the back part of the foot, above
the horny frog, and between the cartilages. Running immediately above
the frog, and along the greater part of it, we find the perforans flexor
tendon, which passes over the navicular bone, e, p. 249, and is inserted into
the heel of the coffiu-bone.

TIIK HOUSE.

THE NAVICULAR-BONE.

This navicular bone is placed behind and below the lower pastern-bon*
and behind and above the heel of the cofriu-bone, e, p. 249, so that it
forms a joint with both bones, and answers a very important office in
strenftheuinir the union between these parts ; in receiving a portion of the-
weight which is thrown on the lower pastern; and in enabling the flexor
tendon to act with more advantage. Supposing that this tendon were in-
serted into the coffin-bone, without the intervention of the navicular-bone, it
would act in a very disadvantageous way, in bending the pastern, for it is in-
serted near the end of the coffin-bone, and the weight, concentrated about the
middle of the bone, is far off, and requires a power to raise it proportionate to
♦he distance between the weight and the power, from the centre of motion,
which is here the place where the tendon passes over the end of the coffin-
bone: but when the navicular bone is interposed, the centre of motion be-
comes the posterior edge of that bone, where it is in contact with the tendon,
and then it will be seen that the distance of the power from the centre of
motion is nearly or quite the same as the weight, and very great expenditure
of muscular power will be saved. In the one case, the power must be at least
double the weight, in the other they will be nearly equal; and also the angle
at which the tendon is inserted, is, like the angle produced by the introduc-
tion of the knee-bone, considerably more advantageous. We are inclined
to believe that this is the principal use of the navicular-bone ; but at the
same time we are aware of the benefit which accrues (see page 249) from a
portion of the weight being taken from the coffin-bone, and thrown on the
navicular-bone, and from it on the tendon, and the tendon resting on the
elastic frog underneath. The navicular bone is sometimes, but inaccu'-ately,
said to descend with the motion of the foot. It does not do that ; it cannot ;
for it is connected both with the pastern and coffin-bones, by inelastic liga-
ments When, however, the horny bulb wi A its tuft of hair, at the back of
an oblique fetlock, descends in the rajnd gallop, and almost touches the
ground, the navicular bone, being as it were a part of the pastern must
descend with it : but with this exception, both in tlie extendmg and the
bendino- of the pastern, the navicular bone turns or rolls upon the other
bones, "father than descends, or ascends, and with this remarkable advan-
tan-e, that when the pastern is extended (see page 249), the navicular
bo"ne is placed in that situation which enables the flexor tendon to act
with greatest advantage, in again bending the foot.

TUE CARTILAGES OF THE FOOT.

There is a <rroove extending along the upper part of the coffin-bone, and on
cither side.'except at the protuberance which receives the extensor tendon
d R 253 occupied by cartilage, which, like the crust, is convex outwards,
and concave inwards, and which extends to the very posterior part of the
foot • ri'^ing about the quarters, half an inch or more above the hoot, and
diminishing- in height forward and backwaid. These cartilages occupy a
grX portion of the foot than does the coffin-bone, as will be seen m he
cut naie 254, where they are represented as extendmg far behind the
coffin b?ne They are held in their situation not merely by this groove,
buflly other connexions with the coffin-bone, the navicular-bone, and i\v.
flexor tendon, and are thus perfectly secured

INFLAMMATION OF THE FOOT.

289

Below are other cartilages connected with the under edg-es of the former
and on either side of the frog. '

Between tliese cartilages is the sensible frog, filling up the whole of
the space, and answering several important purposes, being an elastic
bed on which the navicular-bone, and the tendon (see page 249), can play
with security, and without concussion or shock — by which all concussion
communicated to the cartilages of the foot is destroyed — and by whicii
these cartilages are kept asunder, and the expansion of the upper part of
the foot preserved. As the descent of the sole increases the width of the
lower part of the foot, so the elevation of the frog, a portion of it bein'r
pressed upward and outward by the action of the navicular-bone and
tendon, causes the expansion of its upper part. Precisely as the strong
nuscle peculiar to quadrupeds at the back of the eye (see page 88), bein"-
forcibly contracted, presses upon the fatty matter in which the eye is
imbedded, which may be displaced, but cannot be squeezed into less
compass, and which, being forced towards the inner corner of the eye, drives
before it that important and beautiful mechanism the haw, so the 'elastic
and yielding substance the frog, being pressed upon by the navicular-
bone and the tendon, and the pastern, and refusing to be condensed into
less compass, forces itself out, on each side of them, and expands the
lateral cartilages, and which again, by their inherent elasticity, recur to
their former situation, when the frog no longer presses them outward.
It appears, that by a difl'erent mechanism, but both equally admirable
and referable to the same principle, viz. that of elasticity, the expansion of the
upper and lower portions of the hoof are effected, the one by the descent
of the sole, the other by the compression and rising of the frog.

It is this expansion upward, which contributes principally to the preser-
vation of the usefulness of the horse, when our destructive methods of
shoemg are so calculated to destroy the expansion beneath. In draught
horses, from the long continued as well as violent pressure on the frog
and from the frog on the cartilage, inflammation is occasionally produced'
which terminates in the cartilages being changed into bony matter.

Chapter XVI.

THE DISEASES OF THE FOOT.

Of these we have a long list to lay before our readers, but that will not be
wondered at by those who have duly considered the complicated structure
, \\r "^-^ '^^^ ^° perform, and the injuries to which it is
exposed. We begin with that which is the cause of many other diseases of
the toot, and connected with almost all.

INFLA.MMATION OF THE FOOT, OR ACUTE FOUNDER.

The sejisible lamellae, or fleshy plates on the front and sides of the coffin •
bone, being replete with blood-vessels, are, like every other vascular part,
liable to inflammation, from its usual causes, and particularly from the
violeiKie with which, in rapid and long-continued action, they are lengthened
and strained. When in a severely contested race they have been stretched
to the utmost; while, at the fullest stride of the horse, his weight was thrown
on ttiem with destructive force ; or, when the feet have been battered and

U

L'"0 THK EORSK.

bruised in a hard day's journey, no one will wonder if inflamnjation of the
over-worked parts should ensue, and the occurrence of it may ])rolj&bly be
produced and the disease ao-gravated by the too prevalent absurd mode of
treating the animal. If a horse tiiat has been ridden or driven hard be suffered
to stand in the cold, or if his feet be washed and not speedily dried, he is very
likely to have " fever in the feet." There is no more fruitful source of inflam-
mation in the human being, or the brute, than these sudden changes of ten>
perature. This has been explained as it regards grease, but it bears more
immediately on the point now under consideration. The danger is not
confined to change from heat to cold ; a sudden transition from cold to heat
is as injurious, and therefore it is that so many horses, after having been
ridden far in the frost and snow, and placed immediately in a hot stable,
and littered up to the knees, are attacked by this complaint. The feet and
die lungs are the organs oftenest attacked, because they have previously
suffered most by our mismanagement, and are most disposed to take on
disease. Whatever would cause slight inflammation of other parts, or
trifling general derangement, will produce all its miscfiief on these organs.

Sometimes there is a sudden change of inflammation from one organ to
another. A horse shall have laboured for several days under evident
inflammation of the lungs ;— all at once that will subside, and the ineam-
mation will appear in the feet, or inflammation of the feet may follow
similar affections in the bowels or the eyes.

To the attentive observer the symptoms are clearly marked, and yet there
is no disease so often overlooked by the groom and the carter, and even by the
veterinary surgeon. The earliest symptoms of fever in the feet are fidgetiness,
frequent shifting of the fore-legs, but no pawing, much less any attempts to
reach the belly with the hind-feet. The pulse will soon be quickened, the flanks
heaving, the nostrils red, and the horse, by his anxious countenance, and
perhaps by moaning, indicating great pain. Presently, he will look about
his litter, as if preparing to lie down, but he does not doit immediately ; he
continues to shift from fool ; he is afraid to draw his feet sufficiently under
him for the purpose of lying down : but at length he drops. The circum-
stance of his lying down at an early period of the disease will sufficiently
distinguish inflammation of the feet from that of the lungs, in which the
horse obstinately persists in standing until he drops from mere exhaustion ;
nid his quietness when down will distinguish it Irom cholic ormflammation
of the bowels, in both of which the horse is frequently up and dovvn and
rolling and kicking when down. When the grievance is in the feet, the horse
experiences so much relief, from getting ridof the weight painfully distending
the inflamed and highly sensible little plates, that he is glad to lieas long as he
can He will likewise,' as clearly as in inflammation of the lungs or bowels,
point out the seat of disease by looking at the part : his muzzle will some-
limes rest on the feet or the affected foot. He must be inattentive who
is not aware what all this indicates , , , , ^ n

If the feel be now examined, they will be evidently hot; the horse will
express pain if they are slightly rapped with a hammer, and the artery at
ihe pastern will throb violently. No great time will now pass, if the disease
lie suffered to pursue its course, before he will be perfectly unable to "se ;
or "if he is forced to get up, and one foot be lifted, he wUl stand with
diificulty on the other, or perhaps drop at once from intensity of pam.

The treatment will resemble that of other inflammations, wittj such
differences as the situation of the disease may suggest I^l^^^jg/,^ '"(^^^P';^-
sable ; and that to its fullest extent. If the disease be '^""^"^Vl^hi toe
feet four quarts of blood should be taken as soon as possib e from the toe
of each at the situation pointed out. fig. 2, p. 249. and m the manner

PUMICED FEET.

already described; — poultices of linseed meal, made very sofl, should cover
the whole of the foot and the pastern, and l)e frequently renewed which wih
promote evaporation from the neighbonrinn- parts, and possibly throiio-h the
lAjres of the hoof, and, by softening and suppling the honf, will relieve its
painful pressure on the. swelled and tender parts beneath. More fully to
accomplish this last purpose, the shoe should be rcmo\ id, the sole pared
as thin as possible, and the crust and particularly the quarters well rasped.
All this must be done gently, and with a great deal of patience, for the poor
animal can scarcely bear his foot to be meddled with. There is doubt as to
the propriety of administering physic. The horse may find it difficult or
impossible to rise, in which case much inconvenience will ensue from the
operation of physic : or there may be danger, from the intense character
which fever in the feet often assumes, of producing a change of inflamnfa
tion to the bowels or lungs, in which the irritation of physic would probably
be fatal. Sedative and cooling medicines should be diligently adminis-
tered, consisting of digitalis, nitre, and emetic tartar, in the proportions
already recommended.

If no amendment be observed, three quarts of blood should be taken
from each foot on the following day, and, in extreme cases, a third bleeding
of two quarts may be justifiable, and, instead of the poultice, cloths kept
wet with water in which nitre has^A^een dissolved immedialely before, and
in the proportion of an ounce of iiit'i'6 to a pound of water, may be wrapped
round the feet. Alwut the third day a blister may be tried, "taking in the
whole of the pastern and the coronet; but a cradle must previously be put
on the neck of the horse, and the feet must be covered after the blister, or they
will probably be saycjly, blemished. The horse should be kept on mash diet,
unless green mf;at caii be procured for him; and even that should not be
given too liberally, nor should he, in the slightest degree, be coaxed to eat.
When he appears to be recovering, his getting on his feet should not be
hurried. It should be left perfectly to his own discretion ; nor should even
walking exercise be permitted until he stands firm on his feet ; when, if
the season will permit, two months' run at grass will be very serviceable.

It is not, however, always, or often, that inflammation of the feet is thus
easily subdued ; and, if it be subdued, it sometimes leaves after it some
fearful consequences. The loss of the hoof is not an unfrequent one. About
six or seven days from the first attack, a slight separation will begin to
appear between the coronet and the hoof. This should be carefully
remarked, for the separated horn will never again unite with the parts
beneath, but the disunion will extend, and the hoof will be lost. It is true
that a new hoof will be formed, but it will be smaller in size and weaker
than the first, and will rarely stand hard work. When this separation is
observed, it will be a matter of calculation with the proprietor of the horse
whether ho will suffer the medical treatment to proceed. (70.)

PUMICED FEET.

The se.isible and horny little plates which were eiongatea and partially
separated during the intensity of the inflammation will not always perfectly
unite again, or will have lost much of their elasticity, and the coffin-bone,
no longer fully supported by them, presses upon the sole, and the sole
becomes flattened, or even convex, or projecting, by this unnatural weight,
and the horse acquires a pumiced foot. This will also happen when the
animal is used too soon after an attack of inflammation of the feet, and
before the little plates have regained sufficient strength to support tde
weight of the horse, or to contract again by their elastic power when they

U 2

292

THK HORSE.

have yielded (f< the weif^ht. When the coffin-Done is thus thrown on the
sole, and renders it pumiced, the crust at the front of the hoof will "-^ fall in,"
leaving a kind of hollow about the middle of it.

Pumiced feet, especially in horses with large wide feet, are produced not
nnfrequently without this acute inflammation. Undue work, and especially
much battering of the feet on the pavement, will extend and sprain these
little plates so much, that they will not have the power to contract, and thus
the coffin-bone will be thrown backward on the sole. A very important
law of nature will unfortanately soon be active here : when pressure is
applied to any part, the absorbents become busy in removing that part ; so,
when the coffin-bone begins to jjress upon the sole, the sole becomes thin
from the increased wear and tear to which it is subjected from contact
whh the ground, and also because these absor])ents are rapidly taking it
away.

This is one of the diseases of the feet for which the'-e is no cure. No
skill is competent to effect a re-union between the separated fleshy and
horny leaves, or to restore to them the strength and elasticity of which they
have been deprived, or to take up that hard horny substance which very
speedily fills the space between the crust and the receding coffin-bone
Some efforts have been made to palliate the disease, but they have beer,
only to a very slight extent successful. If horses, on the first appearance
of flat foot, were turned out in a dry place, or put into a box for two or
three months, sufficient stress would not be thrown on the leaves to increase
the evil, and time might be given for the growth of horn enough in the sole
to support the coffin-bone ; yet we much doubt whether these horses would
ever be useful even for ordinary purposes. The slowest work required of
them would drive the coffin-bone on the sole, and gradually the projection
would reappear, for no power and no length of time can again unite the
separated leaves of the coffin-bone and the hoof. All that can be done in
the way of palliation is by shoeing. Nothing must press on the projecting
and pumiced part. If the projection be not great, a thick bar shoe is the
best thing that can be applied, but should the sole have much descended,
a shoe with a very wide web, bevelled off so as not to press on the part, may
he used. These means of relief, however, are only temporary, the disease
will proceed : and, at no great distance of time, the horse will be useless.
* ' (71.)

CHRONIC FOUNDER.

This is a name conveniently contrived to express those alterations of the
foot, and the gradual lameness which either shoeing or mismanagement
occasions. It is often a mere cloak for our ignorance of these subjects.
The diseases of the foot and their remedies are very imperfectly understood
even by the most skilful practitioners.

We may, perhaps, most conveniently divide the slow and fatal progress
from soundness to incurable lameness into two classes— that which is accom-
panied by contraction, and that which exhibits little or no alteration in the
external appearance of the foot

CONTRACTION.

Our cut, page 283, will give us a fliir idea of the young healthy foot,
approaching nearly to a circle, and of which the quarters form the widest
part, and the inner quarter (this is the near fbot) rather wider than the
outer. This shape is not long preserved in many horses, but the foot
increases in lenn-th, and narrows in the quarters and particularly at the

CONTRACTION,

293

heel, and the fro^ is diminished in width, and the sole becomes more con-
cave, and the heels higher, and lameness, or at least a shortened and feeling
action, ensues.

Here we must premise that there is a great deal more horror of con-
tracted heels than there is any occasion for. Many persons reject a horse
at once if the quarters are wiring in; but the fact is, that although this is
an unnatural form of the hoof, it is slow of growth, and nature kindly
makes that provision for the slowly altered form of the hoof, which she
does in similar cases : she accommodates the parts to the change of form.
As the hoof draws in, the parts beneath, and particularly the coffin-bone
and the heels of the coffin-bone, diminish ; or, after all, as it is more a change
of form than of capacity, as the foot lengthens in proportion as it narrows,
so the coffin-bone lengthens, and is as perfectly adjusted as before to the
box in which it is placed ; and its little leaves are in as intimate and perfect
union with those of the crust as before the hoof had begun to change. On
this account it is that many horses with very contracted feet are perfectly
sound, and no horse should be rejected merely because he has contracted
feet. He should undoubtedly be examined more carefully, and with con-
siderable suspicion ; but if he has good action, and is otherwise unexcep-
tionable, there is no reason that the purchase should be set aside. For our
own parts, we had rather have a horse with contracted feet, if he went
sound, than another with open but weak heels. We should expect from
him much more work, and we should not be disappointed.

We must also protest against the opinion that contraction is the neces-
sary consequence of shoeing. There can be no doubt that an inflexible
iron ring being nailed to the foot prevents, to a very considerable degree,
the descent of the sole and the expansion of the heels below ; and it i's
likewise probable, that when the expansion of the heels is prevented they
will often begin to contract. But here again, nature, cut off from one
resource, finds others. If one of the jugular veins be lost, the blood finds
its way by other channels, and the horse does not appear to suffer in the
slightest degree : and so if the expansion of the heels below is diminished,
that of the cartilages above is made more use of. If the coffin-bone has not
so much descent downward, it probably acquires one backward, and the func-
tions of the foot are usefully if not perfectly performed. The plain proof of
this is, that although (here are many horses that are injjired or ruined by bad
shoeing, there are others, and they are a numerous class, who suffer not at
all from good shoeing, and scarcely even from bad. Except it be from acci-
dent, how seldom is the farmer's horse lame; and it might even be further
asked, how seldom is his foot much contracted ? Some gentlemen who
are careful of their horses have driven them twenty years, and principally
over the rough pavement of towns, without a day's lameness. Shoeing
may be a necessary evil, but it is not the evil which some speculative per-
sons have supposed it to be : and the undoubted fact is, that when the
horse is put to real hard work, and when the injury produced by shoeing
in destroying the expansibility of the foot would most of all shew itself,
the foot lasts a great deal longer than the leg ; nay, horsemen will tell us
that one pair of good feet is worth two pair of legs.

Having thus premised that contraction is not necessarily accompanied
oy lameness, and that shoeing, with all its evils, does not necessarily injure
the foot, we proceed to consider those cases of contraction, too numerous,
which are the consequence of our stable management, and which do
cripple and ruin the horse. We are not aware of anything in (he appear-
ance of the feet which would enable us to decide when contraction is or

294

TilK HORSR

is not destructive to the usefulness of the animsil ; his manner of go'mtr,
and his capability for work, must be our guides. Lameness usually
accompanies the beg;inning of contraction ; it is the invariable attendant
on rapid contraction, but it does not always exist when the wiring in is
slow or of long standing.

A. very excellent writer, particularly when treating of the foot of the
horse, Mr. Blaine, has given us a long and co-rect Hst of the causes of in-
jurious contraction, and most of them are, fortunately, under the control o<
the owner of the animal. He places at the head of them, neglect of paring
The hoof is continually growing, the crust is lengthening, and the sole
is thickening. This is a provision for the wear and tear of the foot in an
unshod state ; but when the foot is protected by a shoe, and none of tiie
liorn can be worn away by coming in contact with the ground, the growth
of horn continues ; the hom" gets high, and the sole gets thick ; and in
consequence of this, the descent of the sole and the expansion of the heels
are prevented, and contraction is the result. The smith might lessen, if
not prevent the evil, by carefully thinning the sole and lowering the heels
at each shoeing; but the first of these is a matter of considerable labour,
and the second could not be done effectually without being accompanied
by the first, and tlierefore they are both neglected. The prejudice of
many owners of horses assists in increasing the evil. They imagine that
a great deal of mischief is done by cutting away the foot. Mischief may be
the result of injudicious cutting, when the bars are destroyed and the frog
is elevated from the ground ; but more evil results from the unyielding
thickness of horn impairing the clastic and expansive principle of the foot.
If gentlemen would stand by, and see that the sole is properly thinned,
and the heels lowered, and occasionally, perhaps, give the workman a
trifling gratuity for his increased labour, they would be repaid in the
comfort and usefulness of the horse.

Ill-judged economy is another source of this disease. If the shoes of
one veterinary surgeon will, with ordinary work, last a little more than
three weeks, while another contrives to make his last six, he is supposed
to be the belter workman and the more honest man, and gets the greater
part of the custom; and his shoe is suffered to remain on during the
whole time, to the manifest injury of the feet, and that injury materially
increased, by the grwter thickness and weight of these shoes, and the
tightness with which they are fastened on, the nails being necessarily
placed nearer to the quarters, and possibly an additional nail or two used
in the fastening, and these a|)plied at the quarters. There is no rule
which admits of so little exception,— that once in about every three weeks
the growth of horn which the natural wear of the foot cannot get rid of,
should be pared away— the toe should be shortened— the sole should be
thinned, and the heels lowered. Every one who has carefully observed
the sha|)e of the horse's foot, must have seen, that in proportion to its
iiei'rht or nclected growth, it contracts and closes upon the foot round
the'coronet. A low-hceled horse may have other serious defects, of which
it will be our duty to speak, but he has seldom a contracted foot.

Another source of contraction is the want of natural moisture. The
unshod colt has seldom contracted feet, nor does the horse at grass acquire
them, because the hoof is kept cool and damp by occasional rain and by
the regular dew. It is thus rendered supple, and its elasticity is preserved,
and the expansive power of the foot is uninjured. The, lioof of the stabled
liorse sometimes has not one drop of moisture on it for several days. The
effect of this, in causing the horn to shrink, is sufficiency evidenU Hence

CONTRAuTlON.

293

the propriety ot stopp.ng the feet. The intelligent and careful groom will
not omit it a single night. Cow-dung, with a small portion of clay to
give it consistence, is a common and very good stopping : a better one is
a piece of thick felt cut to the shape of the sole and soaked in water ; this
may be procured, ready prepared for use, at any saddler's. The common
stopping of tar and grease is peculiarly objectionable, closmg the pores
of the feet, and ultimately increasing the dryness and bnttleness which it
was designed to remedy.

The usual management of the farmer's horse, which is often turned out
after his daily task is exacted, or at least whose work returns with the
day, and is generally performed where the feet are exposed to moisture, is
an excellent preventive against contraction

Some intelligent persons have complained much of the influence of
litter. If the horse stand many hours in the day with his foot embedded
in straw, it is supposed that the hoof must be unnaturally heated ; and it
is said that the horn will curl and contract under the influence of heat. It
is seldom, however, that the foot is so surrounded by the litter, that its
heat will be sufficiently increased to produce this eSect on the thick horn.
The heels, sometimes embedded in straw, and then receiving the current of
cold air which blows in from the door, may suffer, and grease may result,
but the foot is not sufficiently long or deeply covered by the litter to
produce a temperature high enough to warp the hoof. We confess, there-
fore, that we are not the disciples of those who would, during the day,
remove all litter from under the horse ; we do not like the naked and
uncomfortable appearance of the stable ; and we cannot forget the difference
in our own feelings, whether we stand for an hour or two on the hard
stones, or a soft carpet, and especially whether we beat our feet upon the
one or the other. We are disposed to say that humanity and a proper
care of the foot of the horse should induce us to keep some litter under
him during the day ; but his feet need not sink so deeply in it that their
temperature should be much atTected.

Thrushes are much oftener the consequence than the cause of contrac-
tion. The horny frog, yielding to the pressure of the contracted quarters,
is diminished in size, and the lower portion of the fleshy frog becomes
imprisoned, irritated, and inflamed, and pus or matter is discharged at
the cleft ; yet there are many heels in the last stage of contraction, which
are not thrushy. On the other hand, thrush never long existed, accom-
panied by much discharge, without producing a disposition to contraction ;
therefore, thrush may be considered as, both the cause and consequence of
contraction.

The removal of the bars takes away a main impediment to contraction.
Their use in assisting the expansion of the foot has been already stated, and
should a disposition to contraction be produced by any other cause, the
cutting away of the bars would hasten and aggravate the evil ; but the loss
of the bar would not of itself produce contraction.

The contraction, however, which is connected with permanent lameness,
nlthongh increased by the circumstances which we have mentioned, usually
derives its origin from a different source, and from one which acts violently
and suddenly. Inflammation of the little plates covering the cot^n bone
is the most usual cause ; and a degree of inflammation not sufficiently
intense to be characterised as acute founder, but quickly leading to sad
results, may and does spring from causes almost unsuspected Ihere
one fact to which we have aiUuled, and that cannot be doubted, hat con
traction is exceedingly rare in the agricultural horse, but frequently occura

29fi

THE HORSE.

in the stable of th« gentlenuin and the coach proprietor : it is rare, whcrr
the horse is seemi»gly neglected and badly shod ; and frequent, where
every care is taken of the animal, and the shoes are unexceptionable and
skilfully applied. Something may depend upon the breed. Rlood
horses are particularly liable to contraction ; — not only is the foot naturally
small, but it is disposed to become narrower at the heels. The broad, flat
foot of the cart-horse is subject to diseases enough, but contraction is
seldom one of the number. In horses of equal blood, not a little seems
to depend upon the. colour, and the dark chesnut is proverbially prone to
contraction.

There is, however, something in the management or use of the horse
that lies at the root of the evil, and that is not difficult to discover or to
understand. The over-feeding of many horses disposes them to inflam-
mation, and with this disposition they are suffered to stand inactive in the
stable for one, or two, or three days : the exquisitely sensible little plates
are scarcely elongated ; they are becoming unused to exertion ; they are
diminishing from lack of use. The horse is then taken from the stable, and,
without preparation, is galloped over the stones, or is ridden far and fast
on the road or in the field. Is it to be wondered at, if the sudden concus-
sion of the whole foot and the violent elongation of the little plates should
produce sufficient pain and inflammation to interfere with the function,
and alter the structure of various parts of the foot ? From the alteration
of siriicture or partial separation between the external and internal portions
cf the foot, the expansion of the quarers becomes limited, or ceases, and
m consequence of this, the crust becomes contracted and falls in.

Wliatever be the cause of that rapid contraction or narrowing of the
heels which is accompanied by severe lameness, the symptoms may be
easily distinguished. While standing in the stable, the horse will point
with, or place forward, the contracted foot, or, if both feet be affected, he
will alternately place one before the other: when he is taken out of the stable,
he will not, perhaps, exhibit the decided lameness which characterizes sprain
of the flexor tendon, or some diseases of the foot; but his step will be pecu
liarly short and quick, and the feet will be placed gently and tenderly on
the ground, and scarcely lifted from it in the walk or the trot. It would
seem as if the slightest irregularity of surface would throw the animal
down, and so it threatens to do, for he is constantly tripping and stumbling.
If the fore-feet are carefully observed, oneorbothof them will be narrowed
across the quarters and towards the heels. In a few cases, the whole of the
foot appears to be contracted and shrunk ; but in the majority of instances,
while the heels are narrower, the foot is longer. The contraction appears
sometimes in both, heels ; at other times in the inner heel only, or, if both
be affected, the inner one is ivired in the most ; either generally from the
coronet to the base of the foot, or, in some instances, only or principally
at the coronet ; oftener near the base of the foot ; but in most cases the
hollow is greatest about mid-way between the coronet and the bottom of the
foot. This irregularity of contraction, and uncertainty as to the place of iu
jn ove that it is some internal disorganization, the seat of which varies with
♦he portion of the attachment between the hoof and the foot which was
principally strained or injured. In every recent case the contracted part
will be hotter tlian the rest of the foot, and the sole will, in the majority of
cases, be unnaturally concave, and that sometimes to a very great degree.

Of. the treatment of contraction attended with lameness we have very
little to say that will be satisfactory ; nuniberlcKS have been the mechanical
contrivances to yppose the prop;ress of contraction, or to force back the

CONTRACTION

297

foot to its original shape, and many of them have enjoyed considerable bnt
short-lived reputation. A clip was placed at the inside of each lieel of the
shoes, which, resting- on the bars, was intended to afford an insurmount-
able obstacle to the further wiring in of the foot, while the heels of the
shoe were bevelled outward to give the foot a tendency to expand. The
foot, however, continued to wire in, iiutil the clip was imbedded in the
horn, and worse lameness was produced.

A shoe jointed at the toe, and with a screw adapted to the heels, was
contrived, by which, when softened by poulticing, or immersion in warm
water, the quarters were to be irresistibly widened. They were widened
by the daily and cautious use of the screw until the foot seemed to assume
its natural form, and the inventor began to exult in having discovered
a cure for contraction ; bnt no sooner was the common shoe again applied
and the horse returned to his work, than the heels began again to narrow,
and the foot became as contracted as ever. Common sense would have
foretold that such must have been the result of this expansive process ; for
the heel could have been only thus forced asunder, at the expense of partial
or total separation from the interior portions of the foot with which they
were in contact.

The contracted heel can rarely or never permanently expand, for this
plain reason, that although we have power over the crust, we cannot make
the lengthened and narrowed coffin-bone resume its natural shape, or restore
the portion of the frog which has been absorbed.

If the action of the horse be not materially impaired, it is better to let the
contraction alone, be it as great as it will. If the contraction has evidently
produced considerable lameness, then the owner of the horse will calculate
between his value if cured, the expense of the cure, and the probability
of failure.

The medical treatment can only be undertaken by a skilful veterinarian,
and it will principally consist in getting rid of any inflammation that may
then exist, by local bleeding and physic ; next, paring the sole to the utmost
extent that it will bear ; rasping the quarters as deeply as may be, so that
they shall not be too much weakened, or the coronaiy ring (see b, p. 281)
injured; then rasping deeply likewise at the toe, and perhaps- scoring at
the toe. The horse is afterwards made to stand during the day in wet
clay, placed in one of the stalls of his stable, and he is moved at night into
another stall, and his feet bound up thickly in wet cloths; or he is turned
out into wet pasturage, with tips, or, if possible, without them, and his
feet are frequently pared out, and the quarters lightly rasped. In five or
six months the horn will have grown fairly down, when he may be taken
up, and shod with shoes, unattached by nails on the inner side of the foot,
and put to gentle work. The foot will be found very considerably enlarged,
and the owner will, perhaps, think that the cure is accomplished ; and the
iiorse may, jjossibly, for a time stand very gentle work, and the inner side
ot the foot being left at liberty, its natural expansive process may be
resumed. The internal part of the foot, however, has not healthily
filled up with the expansion of the crust. If that expansion has been
effected forward on tlie quarters, the crust will no longer be in contact
with the lengtliened and narrowed heels of the coffin-bone; there will
not be the natural adhesion and strength, and a very slight cause, or
even the very habit of contraction, will, in spite of all our care and the free-
dom of the inner quarter, in very many histances, cause the foot to wire in
again as badly as before. (72.)

208

THE HORSE,

THE NAVICULAR-JOINT DISEASE.

Many horses with well-formed and open feet become sadly and permanently
lame ; and veterinary surgeons have been much puzzled to find out why.
The farrier has had his convenient explanation " the shoulder ;" but the
scientific practitioner has not been able to discover an ostensible cause or
lameness in the whole limb. There is no one accustomed to horses who -
does not recollect many an instance of this. Mr. James Turner has, ot
late years, thrown very considerable light on the seat and cause of this
disease, although, as in contracted feet, the most skilful surgeon will rarely
effect a cure.

By reference to our cut, e, page 249, it will be seen that, behmd and
beneath the lower pastern-bone, and behind and above the heel of the coffin-
bone, is a small bone called the navicular or shuttle bone. It is so placed
as to strengthen the union between the lower pastern and the coffin-bone,
and to enable the flexor tendon, which passes over it, in order to be inserted
into the bottom of the coffin-bone, to act with more advantage; it forms a
kind of joint with that tendon. There is a great deal of weight thrown on
the navicular-bone, and from the navicular-bone on the tendon ; and there is
a great deal of motion or play between them in the bending and extension
of the pasterns. Now it is very easy to conceive that from sudden con-
cussion, or from rapid and overstrained motion, and that perhaps after the
animal has been some time at rest, and the parts have not adapted them-
selves for motion, that there may be too much play between the bone and
the tendon ; that the delicate membrane which covers the bone, or the
cartilage of the bone, may be bruised, and inflamed, and destroyed ; and
that all the painful effects of an inflamed and opened joint may ensue, and
the horse may be dreadfully lame. Numerous dissections have shewn that
this joint, formed by the tendon and the bone, has been the frequent, and,
we believe it to be, the almost invariable seat of these obscure lamenesses.
The membrane covering the cartilage of the bone has been found m an
ulcerated state ; the cartilage itself has been ulcerated and eaten away ; and
the bone has become carious or decayed, and bony adhesions have often
taken place between the navicular and the pastern and the coffin-bones, and
this part of the foot has become completely disorgamsed and useless. J his
ioint is probably the seat of lameness, not only in flat and perfect feet, but
in those which become lame a/i!er contraction ; for in proportion as '""er
frog is compressed bv the contraction of the heels, and the frog is absorbed
by that pressure, and the sole is become concave, and the horny frog, and
the coffin-bone too, thereby elevated (see cut. page 269). will (here be less
room for the action of this joint, and more danger of the tendon and the
delicate membrane of the navicular-bone being crushed between that bone

and the horny frog. . .

Stable manan-ement has little to do with the production of this disease,
any further than if a horse stands idle in the stable several days, and the
structure of the foot, and all the apparatus connected with motion, become
unused to exertion, and indisposed for it, and he be thet- suddenly and vio
lentlv pxercised, this membrane is very liable to be bruised and injured.
Irre-uiar and undue exercise are the causes in all feet ; but the contracted
fool," from its alteration of form, is most in danger. ^ «

The cure is extremely uncertain. The first object is to abate the mflam-
mation in this very susceptible membrane. Local b eeding, poulticing
and physic will be our principal resources. ^ ^

must, if possible, be removed by the means already pointed ou , If there
be not contraction, it will be prudent to remove all surrounding pressure

SAND-CKACK.

299

bv paring the sole ano rasping the quarters, and using the shoe without
nails on the inner quarter. This is a case, however, which must be turned
over to the veterinary surgeon, for he alone, from his knowledge of the
anatomy of the foot, and' the precise seat of the disease, is competent to
•'reat it. If attacked on its earliest appearance, and before ulceration ot
ihe membrane of the joint has taken place, it may be radically cured, but
ulceration of (he membrane will be with difficulty healed, and caries of the
bone will for ever remain. Blistering the coronet will often assist in pro-
motino- a cure by diverting the inflammation to another part, and it will
materfally quicken the growth of the horn ; and a seton passed through
the frog by a skilful operator, and approaching as nearly as possible to the
seat of disease, has been serviceable.

In cases of old contraction, attended by a short and feeling step, neuro-
tomy, or the cutting out of a portion of the nerve, (for an explanation of
the nature and effects of which see page 110,) may be resorted to with
decided advantage. Not only will the lameness be removed, but, by the
foot being again brought fully and firmly upon the ground, the inner side
of tlie shoe being unfettered by nails, a portion of the contraction may be
removed by the sole being allowed to descend and the foot to expand at
each contact with the ground.

Even when the navicular joint is particularly suspected, if there be no
apparent inflammation, (and that would be readily detected by the heat of
the foot,) neurotomy may be practised with the hope of alleviating the suf-
ferings of the animal, and thus removing a portion of the lameness ; but if
the lameness be extreme, either with or without contraction, and especially
if there be heat about the foot, the operation is dangerous. There is, pro-
bably, ulceration of the membrane — possibly, decay of the bone ; and the
additional friction to which the parts would be subjected, by the freer action
of the horse, the sense of pain being removed, would cause that ulceration
or decay to proceed more rapidly until the foot would be completely disor-
ganized, or the tendon would be gradually worn through by rubbing against
the roughened surface of the bone. (73.)

SAND-CR^CK,

This, as its name imports, is a crack or division of the hoof from above
downward, and into which sand and dirt are too apt to insinuate them-
selves ; or, as some say, because it most frequently occurs in sandy dis-
tricts, the heat of the sand applied to the feet, giving them a disposition
to crack. They occur both in the fore and the hind lieet. In the fore feet
they are usually found in the inner quarter (see g, p. 254), but occasionally
in the outer quarter, because at the quarter is the principal stress or effort
towards expansion in the foot, and the inner quarter is weaker than the
outer. In the hind feet the crack is almost invariably found in the front,
because in the digging of the toe into the ground in the act of drawing
the principal stress is in front.

This is a most serious defect. It indicates a brittleness of the cru^l,
Bometimes natural, but oftener the consequence of mismanagement or dis-
ease, which, in spite of every means adopted, will probably be the source of
future annoyance. On a hoof that has once been thus divided no depend-
ence can be placed, unless, by great care, the natural suppleness of the
horn has been restored and is retained

Sand-crack may happen in an instant from a false step or over-exertiun ;
and therefore a horse, although he may spring a sand-crack withm an
hour after the purchase, cannot be returned on that account.

300

THE liORSE.

It is always necessary to examine the inner quarter of the loot at tlie
time of purchase, for it lias more than once occurred that, by low dealers,
and particularly at fairs, a sand-crack has been neatly covered with pitch,
and then the whole of the hoof having been oiled, the injury was so
adroitly concealed that an incautious person might be easily deceived.

The' crack sometimes does not penetrate through tlie horn : it then
causes no lameness ; nevertheless, it must not be neglected. It shews that
brittleness vrhich should make the purchaser pause ; and, if proper means
are not taken, it will generally soon reach to the quick. It should be pared
or rasped fairiy out; and if the paring or rasping- has been deep, the foot
should be strensrthened by a coating of pitch, Avith coarse tape bound over
it, and covered by another coating of pitch, and which may be moulded
and polished so as to be scarcely distinguishable from the natural horn.
Every crack should be pared or rasped to ascertain its depth. If it
penetrates through the crust, and no lameness exists, and is situated low
down on the foot, a firing iron, red-hot, should be run pretty deeply above
and below it to prevent its lengthening; the edges should be a little thinned
to remove any painful or injurious pressure ; and it should be bound up in
the manner directed, taking care that the shoe does not press upon the crust
immediately under the crack.

If the crack has penetrated through the crust, and lameness has ensued,
the case is more serious. It must be carefully examined to ascertain that
no dirt or sand has got into it ; the edges must be considerably thinned ;
and if any fungus is beginning to sprout through the crack, and is impri-
soned and pinched there, it must be destroyed by the application of the
butyr (chloride) of antimony. This is far j^referable to the cautery, because
the ed"-es of the horn will not be thickened or roughened, and thus become
a source of after irritation. The iron must then be run deeply above and
below the crack, as in the other case ; a pledget of dry tow must be placed
in the crack, with another over it, and the whole bound down as tightly as
possible. On the third day the part should be examined, and the caustic
again applied if necessary ; but if the crack be dry, and defended by a hard
horny crust, the sooner the pitch plaster is put on the better. The most
serious case is when, from tread or neglect, the coronet is divided. The
growth of horn proceeds from the coronary ligament, and unless tins is
perfect the horn will grow down divided. The method to be here adopted
is to run the back of the firing-iron over the coronet at the division. Some
inflammation will ensue, and when the scab produced by the cautery peels
off, as it will in a few days, the division will be obliterated, and sound and
united liorn will grow down. In this case, as in almost every case of sand-
crack, the horse should be kept as quiet as possible. It is not in the power
of the surn-eon to effect a perfect cure if the owner will continue to u.se the
animal. When the horn is divided at the coronet it will take five or six
months for it to grow fairly down, and not before it is grown fairly down
should the horse be used, even for ordinary work : but when the horn is
ffrown an inch from tlie coronet the horse may be turned out, the foot being
well defended by the pitch plaster, and that renewed as often as it becomes
loose, a bar shoe being worn chambered so as not to press upon the hoof
immediately under the crack, and that shoe being taken off, the sole pared
out, and any bulbous projection of the new horn being removed once in

every three weeks. „ , , r , u ^ r .

To remedy the undue brittleness of the hoof, we know no better apiilitd
tion than that recommended in page 182, the sole being- covered at the
same time with the common cow dung or felt sioppmg. (74.)

FALSE QUARTKR.

30)

TRKAD, OR OVERREACH.

Under this term are comprised bruises and wounds oftlie coronet, pro-
duced usually in the iiind-feet, by the awkward habit of settings one
foot upon another, and in the fore-foot by the hinder one over-reaching
it, and wounding the other near the heel. When properly ti-eated, a tread
is seldom productive of much injury. If the dirt be well washed out of it,
and a pledget of tow dipped in Friar's balsam be bound over the wound, it
will, in the majority of cases, speedily heal. Should the bruise be exten-
sive or the wound deep, a poultice may be applied for one or two days,
and then the Friar's balsam, or digestive ointment. Sometimes a soft
tumour will form on the part, which will be quickly brought to suppuration
by a poultice, and when tiie matter has run out the ulcer will heal by the
application of the Friar's balsam, or a weak solution of blue vitriol.

A tread, or wound of the coronet, should never be neglected, lest gravel
should insinuate itself into the wound, and form deep ulcerations called
sinuses or pipes, and which constitute quittor; and more particularly the
caustic, too frequently used by farriers, should be carefully avoided, not
only lest quittor should be formed, but lest the coronary ligament should
'je so injured as to bs afterwards incapable of throwing out perfect horn-
This defect is called

FALSE QUARTER.

In the coronary ligament by which the horn of the crust is secreted is either
divided by the original cut or bruise, or eaten through by the caustic, there
will be a division in the horn as it grows down, either in the form of a per-
manent sand-crack, or one portion of the horn overlapping the other. This
is not only a very serious defect, and a frequent cause of lameness, but it is
exceedingly difficult to remedy. The coronary ligament must be restored
to its perfect state, or at least to the discharge of its perfect function. Much
danger would attend the application of the caustic in order to effect this.
A blister is rarely sufficiently active, and the application, not too severely,
of a heated flat or rounded iron to the coronet at the injured part affords
the best chance of success ; the edges of the horn on either side of the
crack being thinned, the hoof supported, and the separated parts held
together by a firm encasement of pitch, as described when speaking of the
treatment of sand-crack. The coronet must be examined at least once in
every fortnight in order to ascertain whether the desired union has there
taken place ; and, as a palliative, during the treatment of the case, or if
the treatment should be unsuccessful, a bar shoe may be used, and care
taken that there be no bearing at or immediately under the separation of
the horn. This will be best effected, if the crust be thick and the quarters
strong, by paring off a little of the bottom of the crust at the part, so that
it shall not touch the shoe ; but if the foot be weak, an indentation, or
hollow, should be made in the shoe. Strain or concussion on the imme-
diate part will thus be avoided, and in sudden or violent exertion the crack
will not be so likely. to extend upward again to the coronet, when whole
and sound horn has begim to be formed there.

In some cases false quarter assumes a less injurious character. The
horn grows down whole, but the ligament is unable to secrete that which
is perfectly healthy, and therefore there is a narrow slip of horn of a different
and lighter colour. This is sometimes the best result that oan be procured
wlien the surgeon has been able to obliterate the absolute crack or separation.
It in, however to be regarded as a defect, not sufficient to condemn the

502

THE HOKSK.

horse, but indicating that he has had sand-crack, and that a disposition to
sand-crack may possibly remain. There will also, in the generality ol
cases, be some degree of tenderness in that quarter, which may produce
slight lameness when unusual exertion is required from the horse, or the
shoe is suffered long to press on the part.

QUITTOR,

This has been described as being the result of neglected or bad tread or
overreach: but it may be the consequence of any wound in the foot and
in any part of the foot. In the natural process of u ceration, matter is
thrown out from the wound. This precedes the actual healing of the part.
The matter which is thrown out in wounds of the foot is usually pent up
there, and, increasing in quantity, and thus urging its way in every d.rec-
tion, it forces the fleshy little plates of the coffin-bone, from the horny ones
of the crust, or the horny sole from the fleshy sole, or even eats deeply into
the internal parts of the foot. These pipes or sinuses run m every direc-
tion, and constitute the essence of qiuttor. .

If it arise from a wound in the bottom of the foot, the matter which is
rapidly formed is pent up there, the nail of the shoe or the renriains
in the wound, or the small aperture which was made is immediately closed
ao-ain. This matter, however, continues to be thrown out, and it separates
the horny sole from the fleshy one to a considerable extent, and at lenglti
forces its way upward, and appears at the coronet, and usually at tlie
quarter, and there slowly oozes out ; but the aperture and the quantity
discharged are so small that the inexperienced person would form no idea
of the extent of the mischief within, and the difficulty of repairing it. The
opening may scarcely admit a probe into it, yet over the greater pait of
the quarter and the sole the horn may have separated from the foot, and .he
matter may have penetrated under the cartilages and ligaments, and into
the coffin joint; and not only so, but two mischievous results have been
nroduced,-the pressure of the matter wherever it has gone has formed
SceraUons that a're indisposed to heal, and that 7"-^ w^^ Sn'w
strono- and painful stimulants to induce them to heal ; and. worse than this
the horn, once separated from the sensible parts beneath, will never again

"t.:^U^^ciently plain that the a^d of a skimil practitic^er is here
reauisite and also the full exercise of the patience of the propriet< r of the
horse It may be necessary to remove much of the horny sole which will
be speedily reproduced when the fleshy surface beneath can be trough to a
ealthv condition : but if much of the horn at the quarters must be taken
riy Yve or^x months may probably elapse before it will be sufficiently

some caustr^iu alone produce a healthy action on the ulcerated surfaces
some caustic ^f'^^terest and of humanity we protest against that

hn tal n actife o at least the extent to which it is carried, of coring out
brutal 1 "J"ce °r a ^^^^ ^ ^^^^ ^.^^^^^^ ^^^^ p^,^,

' hfcl^'no p S ^ which is pursued by many ignorant

Trnkhs The unLaUhy%urface must be removed, but the cartilages and
smitnt,. ine uuu J ^ , ^ not be sacrificed.

Ho-aments, and even P«' alone be able to counsel the pio-
The experienced ^^^^""f y^^/jXmifirmed quittor, there is reasonable
prietor of the horse when, ^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ,f J anatomy of the foot is
LTsslCrabirViT^idettTh.^ indispensable to the action of

PRICK IN THE SOLE OR CRUST,

303

the animal, may have been irreparably injured or destroyed, or to save tiiese
parts from the destructive effect of torturing caustics. When any portion
of the bone can be felt by the probe the chances of success are diminished,
and the ow ner and the operator should pause. When the joints are exposed
the case is hopeless; yet, in a great many instances, the bones and the
joints are exposed by the remedy and not by the disease. One hint may
not be necessary to the practitioner, but it may guide the determination and
hopes of the owner : if, when a probe is introduced into the fistulous orifice
on the coronet, the direction of the sinuses or pipes is backward, there is
much probability that a perfect cure may be effected ; but if the direction of
the sinuses be forward, the cure is at best doubtful. In the first instance,
there is neither bone nor joint to be injured ; in the other, the more im-
portant parts of the foot are in danger, and the principal action and con-
cussion are found.

Neglected bruises of the sole sometimes lay the foundation for quittor.
When the foot is flat, it is very liable to be bruised if the horse is ridden fast
over a rough and stony road; or a small stone, insinuating itself between
the shoe and the sole, or clipped and confined by the curvature of the shoe
will frequently lame the horse. The heat and tenderness of the part, th
occasional redness of the horn, and the absence of puncture will clearly
mark the bruise. The sole must then be thinned, and particularly over the
bruised part, and, in neglected cases, it must be pared even to the quick, in
order to ascertain whether the inflammation has run on to suppuration.
Bleeding at the toe will be clearly indicated, — poultices, — and such other
means as have either been described under " Inflammation of the Feet,"
or will be pointed out under the next head. The principal causes of bruises
of the foot are leaving the sole too much exposed by means of a narrow-
webbed shoe, or the smith paring out the sole too closely, or the pressure
of the shoe on the sole, or the introduction of gravel or stones between the
shoe and the sole. (.75.)

PRICK OR WOUND IN THE SOLE OR CRUST.

This is the most frequent cause of quittor. It is evident that tlie sole is
very liable to be wounded by nails, pieces of glass, or even sharp flints, but
much more frequently the fleshy little plates are wounded by the nail in
shoeing; or if the nail does not penetrate through the internal surface of
the crust, it is driven so close to it that it presses upon the fleshy parts
beneath, and causes irritation and inflammation, and at length ulceration.
When a horse becomes suddenly lame, after the legs have been cartfully
examined and no cause of lameness appears in them, the shoe should be
taken off^. In many cases the offending substance will be immediately de-
tected, or the additional heat felt in some part of the foot will point out the
seat of injury ; or, if the crust be rapped with the hammei ah round, the
flinching of the horse will discover it; or pressure with the pincers will
render it evident.

When the shoe is removed for this examination the smith should never
be permuted to wrench it off", but each nail should be drawn separately, and
examined as it is drawn, when some moisture appearing upon it will not
unfrequcntly reveal the spot at which matter has been thrown out. In the
fore-foot the injury will generally be found on the inner quarter, and on the
hind-feet near the toe, these being the thinnest parts of the fore and hind-
feet.

Sudden lameness occurring withni two or three days after the horse has
bren shod will lead us to suspect that the smith has been in fault ; yet no

204

THE HORSK.

one who considers the thinness of the crust, and the difTiculty of shoeing
many feet, will blame him for sometimes pricking the horse. His fault will
consist in concealing or denying that of which he will almost always he aware
at the time of shoeing, from the flinching of the horse, or the dead sound, or
the peculiar resistance that may be noticed in the driving of the nail. We
would plead the cause of the honest portion of a humble class of men,
who discharge this mechanical part of their business with a skill and good
fortune scarcely credible ; but we resign those to the reproaches and th^
punishment of the owner of the horse, who too often and with bad policy
deny that which accident or, possibly, momentary carelessness, miglit have
occasioned, and the neglect of which is fraught with danger, although the
mischief resulting from it might at the time be easily remedied.

When the seat of mischief is ascertained, the sole sliould be thinned
round it, and, especially at the nail-hole, or the puncture, it should be pared
to the quick. The escape of some matter will now probably tell the nature
of the injury, and remove its consequences. If it be puncture of the sole
by some nail, or any similar body, picked up on the road, all that will be
necessary is a httle to enlarge the opening, and then to place on it a pledget
of tow dipped in Friar's balsam, and over that a little common stopping ;
or, if there be much heat and lameness, a poultice should be applied

TJie part of the sole wounded and the depth of the wound will be taken
into consideration. It will be seen, by reference to the cut in page 249,
that a deep puncture towards the back part of the sole, and penetrating even
into the sensible frog, may not be productive of serious consequence. There
is no great motion in the part, and there are no tendons or bones in
danger. A puncture near the toe may not be followed by much injury.
There is little motion in that part of the foot, and the internal sole covering
the coflin-bone will soon heal ; but a puncture about the centre of the sole
may wound the flexor tendon where it is inserted into the coffin-bone, or
may even penetrate the joint which unites the navicular-bone with the
coffin-bone, or pierce through the tendon into the joint which it forms
with the navicular-bone, and a degree of inflammation may ensue, which,
if neglected, may be fatal. Many horses have been lost by the smallest
puncture of the sole in these dangerous points. All the anatomical skill
of the veterinarian should be called into requisition, when he is examining
the most trifling wound of the foot.

If the foot has been wounded by the wrong direction of a nail in shoeing,
and the sole be well pared out over the part on the first appearance of
lameness, little more will be necessary to be done. The opening must be
somewhat enlarged, the Friar's balsam a[)plied, and the shoe tacked on,
with or without a poultice, according to tlie degree of lameness or heat,
and on the following day all will often be well. It may, however, be pru-
dent to keep the foot stopped for a few days. If the accident has been
neglected, and matter begins to be formed, and to be pent up and to
press on the neighbouring parts, and the horse evidently suffers extreme
pain, and is sometimes scarcely able to put his foot to the ground, and
much matter is poured out when the opening is enlarged, further precau-
tions must be adopted. The fact must be recollected that the living and
dead horn will never unite, and every portion of the horr.y sole that has
separated from the fleshy sole above must be rentoved. The separation
must be followed as far as it reaches. Much of the success of the treat
inent depends on this. No small strip or edge of separated horn must
be suffered to press upon any part of the wound. The exposed fleshy sole
must then be touched, but not too severely, with the butyr (chloride) of
antimony, some soft and drv tow placed over the part, and the foot

CORNS.

stopped and a poultice placed overall if (he inflammation seems to reaiiir*. it
On the following- day a thin pellicle of horn will frequently bo found, ovp,
A part or the whole of the wound. This should be, yet very lio-htlv touohpd
again with the caustic ; but if there be an appearance of fundus sprouting
from the exposed surface, the application of the butyr must be more
severe, and the tow again placed over it, so as to afford considerable
yet uniform pressure. Many days do not often elapse before the new horn
covers the whole of the wound. In these extensive openings the Friar's
ba sam will uot often be successful, but the cure must be effected by the
judicious and never too severe use of the caustic. Bleeding at the toe, and
physic, will be resorted to as useful auxiliaries when much inflammation
arises

In searching the foot to ascertain the existence of prick, there is often
something very censurable in the carelessness with which the horn is cut
away between the bottom of the crust and the sole, so as to leave little or no
tiold tor the nails, while some months must elapse before the horn will
grow down sufficiently far for the shoe to be securely fastened

When a free opening has been made below, and matter has not broken
out at the coronet, it will rarely be necessary to remove any portion of
the horn at the quarters, although we may be able to ascertain by the u e
;at\Cve\hr:olf °' ^'^ ^^"^^ extends for a con^siderable

CORNS.

In the angle between the bars c, p. 283, and the quarters, the horn of the
sole has sometimes a red appearance, and is more spongy and softer than at
any other part. The horse flinches when this portion of the horn is pressed
upon, and there is occasional or permanent lameness. This disease of the
toot IS termed corns : bearing this resemblance to the corn of the human
neing, that it is produced by pressure, and is a cause of lameness, but dif-
tering from it in that the horn, answering to the skin of the human foot,
is thin and weak, instead of being thickened and hardened. When it is
neglected, so much inflammation is produced in that part of the sensible
sole, that suppuration follows, and to that, quittor, and the matter either
undermines the horny sole, or is discharged at the coronet.

i he cause is pressure on the sole at that part, by the irritation of which
a small quantity of blood is extravasated. The horn is secreted in a less
quantity, and of a more spongy nature, and this extravasated blood becomes
inciosea m it,

s tw i, a^nd ,h ? ^°l^.'"^lo«ed between the external crust which
D 28S 1 i ' "^^'."^ opposing that contraction (see cut.

t rarft'o see^r^'l "\ '\ ^" " ^'"'^ ^"^-"-d ; hence i

o remSn on ^hen the shoe is suffered

externT.r,?* ^^'^""^es imbedded in the heel of the foot: the

nn fhi« Z \ on the outside of it, and the bearing is thrown

on this angular portion of the sole. No part of the sole can bear conti-
Wh'^ f 'nflammation and corns are the result. From the

•engin ot wear the shoe sometimes becomes loosened at the heels, and
gravel insinuates itself between the shoe and the crust, and accumulates ii,
mis angle, and even eats into it and wounds it. The bars are too fre
quently cut away, and then the heel of the shoe must be bevelled inward
Au ^"swer to this absurd and injurious shaping of the foot •

ana by this slanting direction of the heel of the shoe inward, an umn

306 THE HOKSE.

tural disposition to contraction

ways, in being pressed upon by he shoe ana ^ q

tb/outer crust -^^^^ ft wE ^tl'^^^^ 1- dis.
unnecessanly narrow at t» e heels by w

posed to bear pre.su.^ ^1^';^^^^ J, the foot, the smith should

accidental bruises. If, in the P^"' S j the horn

leave the bars promnient, he too t'^^^f^^'f crust • or if he cuts away

in the angle between the ^ars a..d t he exte^ al c^^^^^^ ^^^^^^

the bars, he scarcely ^o^ches the horn at th s po ^^^^ ^^^^^^^

horse has been shod a f^''^"'/^*' ^^^J '^^^.^J^'hick^ at the heels, is, and
corns.. The ^^^^^i;'^:^^^^^^^^^^ bearing there is

while'the projection of the heel of the crus^ ai^ the b^^^^.^^
defence from external injury. Corns seem to oe^ ^
almost inevitaole consequence «f f^«^'"f' when the sole
manner destroying, the ^^P^^^-^^^^'^yf/^^/rbacWard and down
attempts to descend, or the coffin ^o^e ^^VthHortion of the sole ;
direction (see cut, p. 249), imprison and uyuie ^h'^ l^/^^" j-^^^^^, or
and this evil consequence is increased .the shoe is _^ ^^^^^^^^^
kept on too long, or when the panng is " ^ .

is thrown out,

to'the bars. By this """^^^^^^f ^'i^"!^"^'^^^^ which is then

and enters into the P«7 /^.^ ^"^'J^^^a^^^^^^^^^^^

secreted : therefore we judge of the existence anu

the colour and sofUiess of the horn at this pk^^^^ ^ ^

The cure >^ d'^cult ; [^^^^ "'t rid of he habit of throwing out this dis-
nressure here, it is difficult to get nu ui

eased horn when it is once contracted. ^^^^^^ ^^^^^

The first thing to be done is well to V^^l^^is the extent of the disease
and the bars. Two objects are -"^JJ^ ^y tffis the ext ^^^^^ ^

be ascertained, and one cause of '^^^^^f ^^^^ ^e pared out to the
knife must be used for this purpose The corn ^ust P ^^^.^^^^^^^^
very bottom, taking care not to wound the ^ ;^^^^„derneath. If this
whether there be ^ny effusion of blood or m^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^
be suspected, an opening must be niade hrou n
evacuated, the separated horn taken he^ cou.s^

sinuses explored, and the 5^«^^V"flnid iTSr ot' antimony should be

Should there be r.^^^^^f'^rflbfcor'n after the Sorn has been thinned
applied over the -hole exteiUo^he corn, ^^^^^^^^ ^^.^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^

as closely as possib e The object oi i^^^-shoe may be put on.

throw out 7- ^h^tlrl sSbet^^^^^^ ™^

so chambered '^^^l^^''^^^^^^ not constantly, for there are tew

may be worn for one "J^^^wo shoc ngs bar-shoe ; and the want

frogs that would hear the eons an^^P^^^^ ^^^.^ ^^^^ p,,

lefaroSrudtS rtXof tL heels, whicl would of itself be an

inevitable source t^e corn is either confined to the inner

In the great majority o* eases tn ^^^^ ^^^^ ^

quarter of the foot or crust contraction being most frequent m

imagined, from ^^hat we have sa ^^^^ .^^^^^^ ^.^^^ ^^.^^^

lt;:S,&7& ^^^^ country be not t.. heavv, or
Uie pace re(iuired from the horse too great.

THKUSH.

307

Next is (0 be considered the cause of the corn, which a careful exanii
nation of the foot and tlie shoe will easily discover. The cause being
ascertained, the effect may, to a grea-t extent, be afterwards removed. Turn-
ing- out to grass, after the horn is a little grown, first with a bar-shoe, and
nfterwards with the shoe fettered on one side, or with tips, will often be
serviceable. A horse that has once had corns to any considerable extent
should, at every shoeing, have the seat of corn well pared out, and the
hutyr of antimony applied. The seated shoe (hereafter to be described)
should be used, with a web sufficiently thick to cover the place of corn,
and extending as far back as it can be made to do without injury to the
fi-og.

Low weak heels should be rarely touched with the knife, or anything
more be done to them than lightly to rasp them, to give them a level sur-
face. The inner heel should be particularly spared. Corns are seldom
found in the hind feet, because the heels are stronger and the feet are not
exposed to so much concussion ; and when they are found there they are
rarely or never productive of lameness.

THRUSH

Is a discharge of ofFensive matter from th« clefl of the frog. It is inflam
matron of the lower surface ot the sensible frog, and during whicli pus is
secreted together with, or instead of horn. When the frog is in its sound
state the cleft sinks but a little way into it; but when it becomes contracted
or otherwise diseased, the cleft extends in length, and penetrates even to
the sensible horn within, and through this unnaturally deepened fissure the
thrushy discharge proceeds. It is caused by anything that interferes with
the healthy structure and action of the frog. We find it in the hinder
feet oftener and worse than in the fore, because in our stable management
the hinder feet are too much exposed to the pernicious effect of the dung
and the urine, moistening, or as it were macerating, and at the same time
irritating them. The distance of the hinder feet from the centre of the
circulation would, as in the case of grease, more expose them to accumu-
lations of fluid and discharges of this kind. In the fore feet thrushes are
usually connected with contraction. We have stated that they are both the
cause and the effect of contraction. The pressure on the fi-og from the
wiring in of the heels will produce pain and inflammation, and the inflam-
mation, by the increased heat and suspended function of the part, will
dispose to contraction. Horses of all ages, and in almost all situations,
are subject to thrush. The unshod colt is frequently thus diseased.

Thrushes are not always accompanied by lameness. In a great many
cases the appearance of the foot is scarcely, or not at all altered, and the
disea.se can only be detected by close examination, or the peculiar smell of
the discharge. The frog may not appear to be rendered in the slightest
degree tender by it, and therefore the horse may not be considered by
many as imsound. Every disease, however, should be considered as legal
unsoundness, and especially a disease which, although not attended with
present detriment, must not be neglected, tor it would eventually injure and
lame the horse. All other things being right, a horse should not be rejected
because he has a slight thrush, for if the shape of the hoof be not altered,
experience tells us that the thrush is easily removed ; yet if the thrush
be not soon removed, it will alter the shape of the foot and the action of
the horse, and become manifest unsoundness. The progress of a neglected
thrush, although sometimes slow, is sure. The li-og begins to contract in
size, it becomes rough, ragged, brittle, tender. The discharge is more

X 2

308

TIIE HOUSE.

copious and more offensive— the horn gradually disappears- a muss of
hardened mucus usurps its place-tb is easily peels off, and the sensible
fro- remains exposed~the horse cannot bear it to be touched— fungous
granulations spring from it-they spread around-the sole becomes under .
run, and canker steals over the greater part of the foot.

There are few errors more common or more dangerous, than that the
existence of thrush is a matter of little consequence, or even, as some
suppose, a benefit lo the horse,-a discharge for superabundant humours,-
and that it should not be dried up too quickly, and in some cases not
dried un at a If a young colt, fat and full of blood, has a bad thrush,
tith much d1 charo-e, I ma? be prudent to accompany the attempt at cur.
bv a Tse of phYSC^r a course if diuretics; a few diuretics may not be
in'iurbus when we are endeavouring to dry up thrush in older horses : but
disease can scarcely be attacked too soon or subdued too rapidly, aiul
e pec ally a disease which steals on so insidiously, and has such fatal con-
seruencesln its train. If the heels once begin to contract through the
Wful effect of thrush, it will with difficulty, or not at all. be afterwards

''There' are many recipes to stop a running thrush. Almost every appli-
cattn of In astringent but not too caustic nature will have the effect
The common ^gyi.tiacum (vinegar foiled with honey and verdigrease
is a verv ffood liiiimeut; but the most effectual and the safest, dry
n.. «p he discharo-e speedily, but not suddenly, is a paste composed of
wo Ounces of blue and one of white vitriol powdered as finely as pos-
l7h\e and rubbed down with one pound of tar and two of lard A pledget
of ow covered with it should be introduced as deeply as possible yet with-
out f^rce. into the cleft of tjie frog every night, ^^^^^Ze
inn- before the horse goes to work. Attention should at the same time, as
other lUases of the foot^ paid to the apparent cause of the complaint,
and thL cause sh^^ be carefully obviated or removed. Before the apph-

the horn or hardened discharge removed ; and '^^ [""'^l^"^ ^^^^f '^^^

piogrchs, auu 1,1 J iu„ r>nf1 likew se covcred With it. lurn-

common stopping, or using the felt pad, ''7"^'^^ ^''f . . r . gxcep*

ing out would be prejudicial rather ^han of benefit to thrus^^^^ excepf
the dressing be continued, and the feet defended from moisture.

CANKER

Is a separation of the horn from the sensible part of the foot, and the
snrot tino o fungous matter instead of it, and occupying a portion of o
:^rnt;°whole of the sole and f.g. It ^^^^^^^^^^ t

'^"'^'' ^ifZ:^:^^ onsequ^nc; oflgLted thru J. than ot any
'"u^- r . nf thXT^ oftenest found in, and is almost peculiar

otherdiseaseofthe toot Itis partly from constitutional pre-

to the heavy breed of ca horoc resu g P^ J ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^.^ ^^^^^^

disposition. Horses ^^^^^^^^ our dray horses,-are subject

their ^.^th^^^^^^^^ had an attack of ' grease, or their heels

to canker, especially ^'^ ^hey lme I u. canker is certainly

are J.f -tuallyh.ck and^^^ tliis disadvantage, that in order

l^S^eS yJ'lS 'ir^cLary raise the heels of the hinder (Vet so

CANKER.

309

Iiigh, that all pressure on the frog is taken away, its functions are
destroyed, and it is rendered liable to disease. Canker, however, arises
more from the peculiar injury to which the feetof these horses are subject from
the enormous shoes with which they are covered, the bulk of the nails
with H hich these shoes are necessarily fastened to the foot, and the strain of
the foot, in the violent although short exertion in moving heavy weights ;
but most of all from the neglect of the feet, and the filthiness of the stable
m these establishments. Although canker is a disease most difficult to
remove, it is easily prevented. Attention to the punctures to which these
heavy horses, with their clubbed feet and brittle hoofs, are more than any
others subject in shoeing, and to the bruises and treads on the coronet, to
which with their awkwardness and weight they are so liable, and the greasy
heels which a very slight degree of negligence will produce in them, and
to the stopping of the thrushes, which are so apt in them to run on to the
separation of the horn from the sensible frog, will most materially lessen
the number of cankered feet. Where this disease often occurs, the owner of
the team may be well assured that there is gross mismanagement either in
himself, or his horsekeeper, or smith, or surgeon, and it will rarely be a
difficult matter to detect the precise nature of that mismanagement.

The cure of canker is the business of the veterinary surgeon, and a most
harassing and tedious business it is. The principles on which he pro-
ceeds are first of all to remove the extraneous fungous growth, and here
probably he will call in the aid both of the knife and the caustic, or
the cautery ; he will cut away every portion of horn which is in the
slightest degree separated from the sensible parts beneath. He will next
endeavour to discourage the growth of fresh fungus, and to bring the
foot into that slate in which it will again secrete healthy horn: here
he will remember that he has to do with the surface of the foot ; that this
is a disease of the surface only, and that there will be no necessity for
those deeply-corroding and torturing caustics which will eat to the very
bone. A slight and daily application of the chloride of antimony, and that
not where the new horn is forming, but only on the surface which conti-
nues to be diseased, and accompanied by as firm but equal pressure as can

be made — and the careful avoidance of the slightest degree of moisture the

horse being exercised or worked in the mill, or wherever the foot will not be
exposed to wet— and that exercise adopted as early as possible, and even
from the beginning if the disease is confined to the sole and frog— these
means will succeed if the disease is capable of cure. Humanity, perhaps,
will dictate, that, considering the long process of cure in a cankered foot!
and the daily torture of the caustic, and the suffering which would other-
uise result from so large or exposed a surface, the nerves of the leg should
be divided to take away the sense of pain ; but then especial care'must be
taken that the horse is placed in such a situation, and exposed to such
work, that, being insensible to pain, he may not injuriously batter and bruise
diseased parts.

Medicme is not of much in the avail in the cure of canker. It is a mere
local disease ; or the only cause of fear is, that so great a determination ol
blood to the extremities, having existed during the long progress of the
cure, it may in some degree continue, and produce injury in another form
Grease has occasionally followed canker. They have, although rarely,
been known to alternate. When one has become better, the other has
appeared, and that for a considerable period. It may, therefore, be pru
dent, when the cure of a cankered foot is nearly effected, to subject the
horse to a course ot alteratives or diuretics.

310

THK HORSE.

OSSIFICATION OF THE CARTILAOES

We have spoken (page 288) of the side cartilages of the toor occupj^ng '
fsee cut paffe 254) a considerable portion of the external side and back
nart of the foot They are designed to preserve the expansion of the uppe*
^ t of the foot and to'preserve^t, when thatof the lower part ,s hrnUed o^
destroyed bv shoein-. These cartilages are subject to niflammation, and
fhe result of^ha^^^^^^^ is, that" he cartilages are absorbed and bone

s subsStu^ed in their stead. This ossification of the cartdages frequently
accompanies ringbone, but it may exist without any affection of U.e pa. ern
joint It is oftenest found in horses of heavy draught. It arises not so
Cch from concussion, as from a species of sprau. for pace of^ ^^^^^

horse is slow. The cause, indeed, is ^«V"'^"'^f °^V^1°J 'I aTri^^^^
we have too numerous instances. Very few heavy draught horses arrive
at oldae-e without this change of structure. .

?n thf healthy state of the foot, these cartilages will ^eadi Y y-M to the
nressure of the fingers on the coronet over the quarters, but, by degrees,
fhrreTstale becoLs greater, and at length bone ^^ orrneA^^^^
Yield no more No evident inflammation of the foot, or gieat oi pemaps
n ™Tble lameness accompanies this change : a mere shght deg.-ee
of s iffness may have been observed, which, in a horse of more rapid pace
w odd have b/en lameness. Even when the change - con,ple^^^^^^ the
is not in many cases any thing more than a «]>g»^^ "^'^^^V/,^^'^^^^^^^^
nr not at all interferii.o- with the usefulness of the horse. When t'.'>s alteiea

r^clu:! ai;:^^^^^ in the lighter horse, the lameness /-ide^^.^^^
mpa.m should betaken to arrest the progress of the change, mese aie
SSfrs ort h,g ; but, ..ler these p«U have become bo„y. no operation

will restore the cartilage. mu:„ u^a

Connected with ringbone the lameness may be very great This ha.

Dcen spoken of in page 254.

WEAKNESS OF THE FOOT.

This is more accurately a bad forrnation tha^^^^^^^^^

result of disease, but in many instances he natural c°"«\^"f

The term v^eak foot is familiar to 7^^^ toman and ^^-eq

too severely felt by all who have to do ^ th ho ses. In t^ i„,.ariably

the crust from the coronet to the toe, a les angle s aim y

formed, -0-^^,^^^^^^^^ th^ lin.

degrees ; and after ^he horse has oeen between the coronet

' T^'^^^:^^'^^ Tccom^paniment of pumiced
'f * t u it Is often seenTn weak feet, which, although they might become
teet, but It IS ' , , otherwise have the sole convex. The

pumiced by to be, but it has not the smooth,

crust is not only less oUique^^^^^^^^ sometimes irregularly

even appearance of he^good fo^^^^^ 1^^ ^^^^^^ ^.^^^^^

roughened, but \ ^^^.^^s too much the appearance of a cone ; the

form of the crust ^^^.^^^^ P-^'"^^^^^ ^^e in proportion to the coronet; and
bottom of the foot is unnaturally ' ^ ^i,^,, ^ should be.

the whole of the foot y;^^ J^^^^^^^^ and circular

When the oot ' [^^^'^/'^...^^^^^ Uvat would mislead the inexperienced,
appearance, with "^^^^^ of structure ; but, being

and indeed be consRlered as almos P ^^ .^^ ^^^^^^ ,,,,

THE CONCAVE-SEATED SHOE.

311

small ill size. They are not cut away by the smith, but they can be
scarcely said to have any existence ; the heels are low, so low that the
very coronet seems almost to touch the ground ; and the crust, it examined,
seems scarcely thick enou!?h to hold the nails. Horses with these feet can
never stand much work. They will be subject to corns, to bruises of the
sole to convexity of the sole, to punctures in nailing, to breaking away or
the crust, to inflammation of the foot, and to sprain and injury of the pas-
tern, and the fetlock, and the flexor tendon. These feet admit of little im-
provement. Shoeing as seldom as may be, and with a light, yet wide
concave web; little or no paring at the time of shoeing, with as little violent
work as possible, and especially on rough roads, may protract for a long
period the evil day, but he who buys a horse with these feet will sooner or
later have cause to repent his bargain.

Chapter XVII
ON SHOEING.

The period when the shoe began to be nailed to the foot of the horse is
uncertain. William the Norman introduced it into otir country.

We have seen, in the progress of our inquiry, that while it aflFords to the
foot of the horse that defence which seems now to be necessary against the
destructive eflects of our artificial and flinty roads, it has entailed on the
animal some evils. It has limited or destroyed the beautiful expansibility
of the lower part of the foot ; it has led to contraction, although that
contraction has not always been accompanied by lameness ; in the most
careful fixing of the best shoe, and in the careless manufacture and setting
on of the bad one, much injury has often been done to the horse ; yet,
as we have already stated, to nothing like the extent which some have
fancied or feared.

THE CONCAVE-SEATED SHOE.

The proper form and construction of the shoe is a subject deserving of
very serious inquiry, for it is most important to ascertain the kind of shoe
that will do the least mischief to the feet. We subjoin a cut of that which
we strongly recommend for general purposes. It is in use in many of our
best forges, and is gradually superseding the flat and the simple concave
shoe. The following cut exhibits the near fore shoe.

It presents a perfectly flat surface to the ground, to give as niany points
of bearing as possible, except that, round the outer edge, there is a groove
or fuller, in which the hail holes are punched, so that, sinking into the
fuller, their heads project but a little way, and are soon worn down level
with the shoe. The ground surface of the common shoe used in the
country is somewhat convex, and the inward rim of the shoe comes first on
the ground : the consequence of this is, that the weight, instead ot being
borne fairly on the crust, is supported by the nails and the clenches, which
must be injurious to the crust, and often chip and tear it.

Tlie web of the shoe is of the same thickness throughout, from the toe to
Ihft heel ; and it is suificieMl.y vvi<k to guard the sole ironi bruises, and

THE HURSE.

as wide at the heel as the frog will permit, in order to cover the scut ol
corn.

On the foot side it is seated. The outer part of it is accurately flat, and
of the width of the crust, and designed to support the crust, and the
crust only, for it has already been proved that by the crust alone, or rather
by the union between the numerous little plates proceeding from the crust
und the covering of the coffin-bone, the whole weight of the horse is sup-
ported. Towards the heel this flattened part is wider and occupies the
whole breadth of the web, to support (see page 283) the heel of the
crust and its reflected part the bar: thus, while it defends the horn in-
cluded within this angle from injury, it gives that equal pressure upon the
1 ar and the crust, which is the best preventive against corn, and a powerful
< bstacle to contraction.

It is fastened to the foot by nine nails, five on the outside, and four on
the inner side of the shoe; those on the outside extending a little farther
down towards the heel, because the outside heel is thicker and stronger,
and there is more nail-hold ; the last nail on the inner quarter bemg farther
from the heel on account of the weakness of that quarter. For feet not too
large, and where moderate work only is required from the horse, four nails
onVe outside, and three on the inside, will be sufficient; and the last nail
Deing far from the heels, will allow more expansion there.

The inside part of the web is bevelled off, or rendered concave, that it
.nay not press upon the sole. Notwithstanding our iron fetter, the sole
does althou"-h to a very inconsiderable extent, descend when the foot of
the I'lorse is put on the ground. It is unable to bear constant or even
occasional pressure, and if it came in contact with the shoe, the sensible
sole between the horny soie and the coffin-bone, would be bruised, and
lameness would ensue. Many of our horses, from too early and undue
work have the natural concave sole flattened, and the disposition to de-
scend aiKi the degree of descent are thereby increased. The concave shoe
nrevents, even in this case, the possibility of injury, because the sole can
ncvei descend in the degree in which the shoe is bevelled. A shoe bevelled
still further is necessary to protect the projecting or pumiced foot.

THE PREPARATION OF THli rOOT.

313

While t.ie horse is travelling, dirt and gravel are apt to insinuate them-
fifilves between the web of the shoe and the sole. If the shoe were flat
they would be easily retained there, and would bruise the sole and be pro-
ductive of injury ; but when the shoe is thus bevelled off, it is scarcely pos-
sible for them to remain. They must be shaken out every time the foot
comes in contact with the ground.

The web of the shoe is likewise of that thickness, that when the foot is
properly pared, the prominent part of the frog shall lie just within and above
its ground surface, so that in the descent of the sole the frog shall come
sufficiently on the ground, to enable it to act as a wedge, and to expand
the quarters, while it is defended from the wear and injury it would receive
if it came on the ground with the first and full shock of the weight.

The nail holes are, on the ground side, placed as near the outer edge ot
the shoe as they can safely be, and brought out near the inner edge of the
seating. The nails thus take a direction inward, resembling the direction
of the°cru5i Itself, and take firmer hold ; while the strain upon them in the
common shoe is altogether prevented ; and, the weight of the horse being
thrown on a flat surface, contraction is not so likely to be produced.

The smith sometimes objects to the use of this shoe on account of its
not being so easily formed as one composed of a bar of iron, either flat or
a little bevelled. It likewise occupies more time in the forming ; but these
objections would vanish, when the owner of the horse declared that he
would have him shod elsewhere ; or when he consented, as in justice he
should, to pay somewhat more for a shoe that required better workman-
ship and longer time in the construction.

THE PREPARATION OF THE FOOT.

We will suppose that the horse is sent to the forge to be shod. If the
master would occasionally accompany him there, he would find it much to
his advantage. The old shoe must be first taken off. We have something
to observe even on this. It was retained on the foot by the ends of the
nails being twisted off, turned down, and clenched. These clenches
should be first raised, which the smith seldom takes the trouble thoroughly
to do : but after going carelessly round the crust and raising one or two
of the clenches, he takes hold first of one heel of the shoe, and then of the
other, and by a violent wrench separates them from the foot, and by a
third wrench, applied to the middle of the shoe, he tears it off. By this
means he must enlarge every nail hole, and weaken the future hold, and
sometimes tear off portions of the crust, and otherwise injure the foot.
The horse generally shews by his flinching that he suffers by the violence
with which this preliminary operation is performed. The clenches should
always be raised or filed off; and where the foot is tender, or the horse is
to be examined for lameness, each nail should be partly punched out
Many a stub is left in the crust, the source of future annoyance, when this
unnecessary violence is used.

The shoe having been removed, the smith proceeds to rasp the eag^s ol
the crust. Let not the stander-by object to the apparent violence which he
uses, or fear that the foot will suffer. It is the only means he has, with
safety to his instruments, to detect whether any stubs remain in the uaii-
holes ; and it is the most convenient method of removing that portion ot
the crust into which dirt and gravel have insinuated themselves.

Next comes the important process of paring out, with regard to ivliich
•t is almost impossible to lay down any specific rules. This, how-
ever, we can say with confidence, that more injury has been done by the

314

THE HORSE.

neglec of parmo, ha„ by carrying it to too great an extent'. The act
of paring ,s a work of much more labour than the proprietor of the
horse often imagines; the smith, except he be overlLked, w II 'ive'
himself as httle trouble about it as he can ; and that, which in the unsC
too , would be worn away by contact with the ground, is suffered to accu-
mnlate month after month, until the elasticity of the sole is destroyed, and
It can no longer descend, and the functions of the foot are impeded, and
toundation is laid for corn, and contraction, and navicular disease, and in-
flammation. That portion of horn should be left on the sole, which will
defend the internal parts from being bruised, and yet suffer the external
sole to descend How is this to be measured ? The strong pressure oi
the thumb of the smith will be the best guide. The buttress, that mo«t
destructive of all instruments, being banished from the respectable iorae
the smith sets to work with his drawing knife, and he removes the growth
ot horn, until the sole will yield, although in the slightest possible deo-ree
to the very strong pressure of his thumb. The proper thwkness of horn
will then remain.

If the foot has been previously neglected, and the horn is become very
hard, the owner must not object if the smith resorts to some means to
soften It a little ; and if he takes one of his flat irons, and having heated it
draws it over the sole, and keep it a little while in contact with-it. When
the sole is thick, this rude and apparently barbarous method can do no
Jarm, but it should never be permitted with the sole that is reo-ularlv
pared out. " ^

The quantity of horn to be removed in order to leave the proper degree
of thickness will vary with different feet. From the strong foot a great deal
must be taken. From the concave foot the horn may be removed until
the sole will yield to a moderate pressure. From the flat foot little need be
pared ; while the pumiced foot will spare nothing but the ragged parts.

The paring being nearly completed, the knife and the lasp of the smith
must be a little watched, or he will reduce the crust to a level with the
sole, and thus endanger the bruising of the sole by its pressure on the
edge of the seating. The crust should be reduced to a perfect level, all
round, but left a little higher than the sole.

The heels will require very considerable attention. From the stress
which is thrown on the inner heel, and from the weakness of the quarter
there, it usually wears considerably faster than the outer one; and, if an
equal portion of horn were pared from it, it would be left lower than the
outer heel. The smith should, therefore, accommodate his paring to the
comparative wear of the heels, and be very careful to leave them precisely
level.

If the reader will recollect what we have said of the intention and action
of the bars, he will readily perceive that the smith should be checked
in his almost universal fx)ndiiess for opening the heels, or, more truly
removing that which is the main impediment to contraction. That portion
of the heels between the inflection of the bar and the frog should scarcely
be touched, at least nothing but the ragged and detached parts should be
tut away. The foot may not look so pretty, but it will last longer without
contraction.

Th*j bar likewise should be left fully prominent, not only at its first 'ii
flection, but as it runs down the side of the frog, Tne heel of our shoe h
desi gned to rest partly on the heel of the foot, and partly on the bar. for
reasons that have been already stated.- If the bur is weak, the growth of
it should be encouraged, and it should be scarcely touched at the shoeing
until it has attained a level with the crust. We recall to llie iccollection oi

THE FTITTING ON OF THE SHOE.

315

our readers, the observation which we have made in page 2S3, that the
destruction of the bars not only leads to contraction by removing a power-
ful impediment to it, but by adding a still more powerful cause m the
slanting direction which is given to the bearing at the heels, when the bar
does not contribute to the support of the weight. . . „ .

It will also be apparent that the horn between the crust and the bar
should be carefully pared out. Every horseman has observed the rehe
which is given to the animal lame with corns when this angle is well
thinned ; a relief, however, which is bxit temporary, for when the horr,
grows again and the shoe presses upon it, the torture of the animal is

renewed. , , . ^ j -n i

The de-rree of paring to which the frog roust be, subjected will depena
on its prominence, and on the shape of the foot. The principle has already
been stated, that it must be left, so far projecting and prominent, that il
shall be just within and above the lower surface of the shoe, it will then
descend with the sole, sufficiently to di-scharge the functions which we
have attributed to it. If it be lower, it will be bruised and injured ; if it be
hi«rher, it cannot come in contact with the ground, and thus be enabled to
do'its duty. The ragged parts must be removed, and especially those
occasioned by thrush, but the degree of paring must depend entirely on

this principle. , . j

It appears, then, that the office of the smith requires some skill and judg-
ment in order to be properly discharged ; and the horse proprietor will find
it his interest occasionally to visit the forge and complain of the careless, or
idle, or obstinate, and reward, by some tritling gratuity, the expert and
dili"-ent. He should likewise remember that a great deal more depends
on W paring out of the foot than on the construction of the shoe ; that
few shoes, except they press upon the sole, or are made outrageously bad,
will lame the horse ; but that he may be very easily lamed from ignorant
and improper paring out of the foot.

THE PtfTTINa ON OF THE SHOE.

The foot being thus prepared, the smitn looks about for a shoe. He
should select one that as nearly as possible fits the foot, or may be altered
to the foot. He will sometimes care little about this, for he can easily
alter the foot to the shoe. The toe-knife is a very convenient instrument
for him, and plenty of horn can be struck off with it, or removed by the
rasp, to make the toot as small as the shoe ; while he cares little, although
by this destructive method the crust is materially thinned where it should
receive the nail, and the danger of puncture is increased, and the danger of
pressure upon the sole is increased, and a foot so artificially diminished in
size will soon grow over the shoe, to the hazard of considerable or perma-
nent lameness.

While choosing the shoe we must once moie reier lo tne snape or our
pattern shoe ; the web is of equal thickness from toe to heel. A shoe
thinner at the heel than at the toe, by letting down the heel too low, is apt
to produce sprain of the flexor tendon, and a shoe thicker at the heels
than at the toe is fit only to elevate the frog, to the destruction of its
function, and to its own certain disease, and also to press upon and to
batter and to bruise that part of the foot which is soonest and most de.s-
inictively injured.

31(5

THE riORSK

CALKINS

It is expedient not only that the foot and ground surface of the shoe
should be most accurately level, but that the crust should be exactly smoothed
and fitted to the shoe. Much skill and time are necessary to do this
perfectly with the drawing knife. The smith has adopted a method of
more quickly and more accurately adapting the shoe to the foot. He pares
the crust as level as he can, and then he takes the shoe, at a heat some-
thing below a red heat, and applies it to the foot, and detects any little
elevations by the deeper colour of the burned horn. This practice has been
much inveighed against ; but it is the abuse and not the use of the thing
which is to be condemned. If the shoe be not too hot, nor held too long
on the foot, an accuracy of adjustment is thus obtained, which the knife
would be long in producing, or would not produce at all. If, however
the shoe is made to burn its way to its seat with little or no previous pre-
paration of the foot, the heat must be injurious both to the sensible and
insensible parts of the foot.

The heels of the shoe should be examined as to their proper width
Whatever be the custom of shoeing the horses of dealers, and the too pre-
valent practice in the metropolis, of giving the foot an open appearance,
although the back part of it is thereby exposed to injury, nothing is more
certain, than that in the horse for work, the heels, and particularly the
seat of corn, can scarcely be too well covered. Part of the shoe projecting
outward can be of no possible good, but rather an occasional source of
mischief, and especially in a heavy country. A shoe, the web of which
projects inward as far as it can, without touching the frog, affords protec-
tion to the angle between the bars and the crust.

Of the manner of attaching the shoe to the foot the owner can scarcely
be a competent judge; he can only take care that the shoe itself shall not
be heavier than the work requires — that for work a little hard the shoe
shall still be light, with a bit of steel welded into the toe — that the nails
shall be as small, and as few, and as far from the heels, as maybe con-
sistent with the security of the shoe ; and that, for light work at least, the
shoe shall not be driven on so closely and firmly as is often done, nor the
points of the nails be brought out so high up as is generally practised.

There are few cases in which the use of calkins (a turning up and elevation
of the heel) can be admissible in the fore-feet, except in frosty weather, to
prevent the slipping of the feet. If, however, calkins are used, let them be
placed on both feet. If the outer heel only be raised with the calkin, as is
too often the case, the weight cannot be thrown evenly on the foot, and
undue straining and injury of some part of the foot or of the leg must be the
necessary consecjuences. Few things deserve more the attention of tlie
horseman than this most absurd and injurious of all the practices of the
forge One quarter of an hour's walking, with one sid* of the shoe or boot
raised considerably above the other, will painfully convince us of what the
horse must suffer from this too common method of shoeing. We cannot
excuse it even in the hunting shoe. If the horse be ridden far to cover, or
galloped over much hard and flinty ground, he will inevitably suffer from this
unequal distribution of the weight. If the calkin be put on the outer heel
to prevent the horse from slipping, either the horn of that heel should be
lowered to a corresponding degree, or the other heel of the shoe shovdd be
raised to the same level by a gradual thickening. Of the use of calkms m
♦he hmder foot, we shall presently speak.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF SHOES

317

CLIPS^

These are portions of the upper edge of the shoe, hammered out, and
turned up so as to embrace the lower part of the crust, and which is usual y
pared ont a little to receive the clip. They are very useful as more securely
Lttachin- the shoe to the foot,and relieving the crust from tha stress upon the
nails wWch would otherwise be injurious. A clip at the toe is almost necessary
in every draught horse, and absolutely so in the horse of heavy draught, to
prevent the shoe from being loosened or torn off by the stress which is thrown
Spoil the toe in the act of drawing. A clip on the outs^e of each shoe at
Ihe beginning ofthe quarters will give security to it Clips are likewise
necessary on the shoes of all heavy horses, and of all others who are dis-
posed to stamp, or violently paw with their feet, and thus incur the danger
of displacing the shoe; but they are evils, in that they press upon the crust
as it grows down, and should only be used when circumstances absolutely
require them.

THE HINDER SHOE.

In forming the hinder shoes it should be remembered that the hind limbs are
the principal instruments in progression, and that in every act of progres-
sion, except the walk, the toe is the point on which the whole frame ofthe
animal turns, and from which it is propelled. This part, then, should be
strengthened as much as possible; and, therefore, the hinder shoes are
made\roader at the toe than the fore ones, and the toe of the foot, which
is naturally broader than that of the fore-foot, is still further widened by
rasping. Another good effect is produced by this, that the hinder foot being
shortened there is less danger of overreaching or forging, and especially
if the shoe be wider on the foot surface than on the ground one ; and thus
the shoe is made to slope inward, and is a little within the toe of the crust.

The shape ofthe hinder foot is somewhat different from that ofthe fore
foot ; it is straighter in the quarters, and the shoe must have the same
shape. For carriage and draught horses generally, calkins may be put
on the heels, because the animal will be thus enabled to dig his toe more
firmly into the ground, and urge himself forward, and throw his weight
into the collar with greater advantage. But the calkins must not be too
high, and they must be of an equal height on each heel ; otherwise, as has
been stated with regard to the fore feet, the weight will not be fairly distri-
buted over the foot, and some part of the foot or of the leg will materially
suffer. The nails in the hinder shoe may be placed nearer to the heel than
in the fore shoe, because, from the comparative little weight and concus-
sion thrown on the hinder feet, there is not so much danger of contraction.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF SHOES.

The shoe will vary in substance and weight with the kind of foot, and the
nature of the work. A weak foot should never wear a heavy shoe, nor any
foot a shoe that will last longer than a month. Here, perhaps, we may be
permitted to caution the horse-proprietor against having his cattle shod
too much by contract, unless he binds down his farrier or surgeon to
remove the shoes once at least in every month ; for if the contractor, by a
heavy shoe, and a little steel, can cause five or six weeks to interver>«»
Between the shoeings, he will do so, although the feet of the horse must
necessarily suffer. The shoe should never be heavier than the work re-
quires. An ounce or two in the weighf of the shoe will sadly tell before

31S THE HORSE

the end of a hard day's work. This is acknowledged in the hunter's shoe,
which is narrower and lighter than that of the hackney with even smaller
feet than the hunter ; and it is more decidedly acknowledged in the racer,
who wears a shoe only sufficiently thick to prevent it irom bending when -
used.

THE HUNTING SHOE.

The hunter's shoe is different from that of the hackney in shape as well a«
weio-ht It is not so much bevelled off as the common concave seated
shoe. Sufficient space alone is left for the introduction of a picker between
the shoe and the sole, otherwise, ingoing over heavy ground, the d^yj""'
set in, and by its tenacity loosen, and even tear off the shoe The heels
Ukewbe are somewhat shorter, that they may not be torn off by the toe of
the hind-feet when galloping fast, and the outer heel is frequently and m-
udiciously turned up to prevent slipping. The reader wil remember
what we have just said of this. If calkins are necessary, let, at least, both
heels have an equal bearing.

THE BAR-SHOE,

A bar-shoe is a very useful contrivance. It is the continuation of the
fommon shoe round the heels, and by means of it the pressure may be
^al^n off some tender part of the foot and thrown on another which s
betr aL riear it, o\ more widely and equally ^^^^l^^^^
foot It is princinally resorted to in cases of corn, the seat ot which il
pTrLtl v ;« 'erT--L /umiced feet, the soles of which -y ^^^^^^
above the o round and secured from pressure,-m sand-crack, when the pres
sure may be removed from the fissure and thrown on either side of it-.n
thrushes when the frog is tender, or is become cankered, and requires to be
frenuSy d essed. and the dressing can by this means alone be retained
In tS ca^ the bar-shoe is an excellent contrivance, if worn only for one

ttlhoti?^ or as long as the disease -quires it to^^^^^^^^^
be left off as soon as it can be dispensed with, ^f;]]'^^ i^^^^ff fh^f^^^^

cor,, or sa„<l-<-rack. the crust and the f"? '^ot^d be preusejy^n a leveu
and the bar »h„„M be the !»' ,» t ' ^^^"^

beari„g a, pos.,b e o„ the frog ' ^^..^J f,,, Je„.,er safe when

!^'„c.f ;rdT;^ '^^ ;l„1bc-Lr the; areV to be trenched
off in a heavy, clayey country.

TIPS.

, . u c. vouphiu"- onlv half roilnd the foot, and worn while
Tips are short «hoes, reach - only^^

the horse IS at grass to pre ent the c^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^
ness ot the ground, or by the p ^ ^^^^^^^^^ ^ ^^^^^^^^^ ^

the same time being tree, the •Q«\"fl "

the same time L.t...j^ ,

esp^^nding and regaining its natural shape

FFXT OR LEATHER SOLES.

319

THE EXPANDING SHOE.

Our subject would not be complete if we did not describe the supposed
expanding shoe. It is either seated or concave like the common shoe,
with a joint at the toe, by which the natural expansion of the foot is
said to be permitted, and the uijurious consequences of shoeing pre-
vented. There is, however, this radical defect in the jointed shoe, that the
nails occupy the same situation as in the common shoe, and prevent, as do
the nails of the common shoe, the gradual expansion of the sides and
quarters, and allow only of a hinge-like motion at the toe. This is a most
imperfect accommodation of the expansion of the foot to the action of its
internal parts, and even tiiis accommodation is atlbrded in the slightest
possible degree, or rather can scarcely be atforded at all. Either the nails
fix the sides and quarters as in the common shoe, and then the joint at
the toe is useless; or, 'if that joint merely opens like a hinge, the nail-
holes in the shoe can no longer correspond with those in the quarters
which are unequally expanding at every point ; and, therefore, there will
be more stress on" the crust at these holes, which will not only enlarge
them and destroy the fixed attachment of the shoe to the hoof, but
will often tear away portions of the crust. This has, in many cases, been
found to be the effect of the jointed shoe : the sides and quarters of the
,oot have been broken until it has beconie difficult to find nail-hold. This
shoe, to answer the intended purpose, should consist of many joints, run-
ning along the sides and quarters, which would make it too complicated
and expensive and frail for general use.

While the shoe is to be attached to the foot by nails, we must be content
with the concave seated one, taking care to place the nail-holes as far
from the heels, and particularly firom the inner heel, as the state of the foot
and the nature of the work will admit ; and where the country is not too
heavy nor the work too severe, even omitting the nails on the inner side of
the foot. Shoes nailed on the outer side, and at the toe, are niore
secure than some would imagine, while the inner quarter will be left free,
to prevent contraction, or to arrest its progress.

The attempt, however, to lessen the evils produced by shoeing is most
praiseworthy; and men like Mr. Braey Clark deserve the respect and the
thanks of the public, although their labours may not be crowned with suc-
cess. Every contrivance permanently to fix the shoe on the foot without
the use of nails has failed ; but a make-shift shoe has been contrived, and is
to be procured at most saddlers, which is easily carried in the pocket, and
put on in a minute or two if a shoe is lost in hunting or on the road ;
and which will remain securely attached to the foot, and prevent injury to
it, during a journey of thirty or forty miles.

FELT OR LEATHER SOLES.

When the foot is bruised or inflamed, the concussion or shock produced by
the hard contact of the elastic iron on the o-round mves the animal mucb
pain, and causes a short and feeling step, or even lameness, and aggravate.-)
the injury or disease. A strip of felt or leather is sometimes placed between
the seating of the shoe and the crust, which, from its want of elasticity
deadens or materially lessens the vibration or shock, and the horse treads
more freely and is evidently relieved. This is a very good contrivance
while the inflammation or tenderness of the foot continues, but a very bad
practice if constantly adopted. The nails cannot be driven so surely or so
securely when this substance is interposed between the shoe and the fool :

320

THE HORSK.

the coiiiraction and swelling of the felt or leather from the effect of
moisture or dryness will soon render the attachment of the shoe less firm ;
there will be too much play upon the naiJs ; the nail-holes will enlarge,
und the crust will be broken awiiy.

Afler wounds or extensive bruises of the sole, or where the sole is thin
and fiat and tender, it is sometimes covered with a piece of leather, fitted
to the sole, and nailed on with the shoe. This may be allowed as a tem-
porary defence of the foot ; but there is the same objection to its permanent
use from the insecurity of fastening, and the strain on the crust, and the
frequent chipping of it : and there are these additional inconveniences, that
if the hollow between the sole and the leather be filled with stopping and
tow, it is exceedingly difficult to introduce them so evenly and accurately
as not to produce some partial or injurious pressure — that a few days' work
will almost invariably so derange the padding as to produce partial pres-
sure— that the long contact of the sole with stopping of almost every kind
will produce, not a healthy, elastic horn, but horn of a scaly, spongy
nature — and that if the hollow be not thus filled, gravel and dirt will insi-
nuate themselves, and cause unequal pressure, and eat into and injure the
foot. (76.)

Chapter XVIII.
OPERATIONS.

These belong more to the veterinary-surgeon than to the proprietor of the
horse, but a short account of the manner of conducting the principal ones
should not be omitted.

It is frequently necessary to bind the human patient, and in no painful
or dangerous operation should this preliminary be omitted. It is more
necessary to bind the horse, who is not under the control of reason, and
whose struggles may not only be injurious to himself but dangerous to the
operator.

The trevis is a machine indispensable in every continental forge ; even
the quietest horses are there put into it to be shod. It is found in many of
our coimtry forges, and is occupied by horses that cannot otherwise be shod
without manifest danger to the smith. It seldom, however, finds a place
in our improved forges, although it would be useful for docking, firing,
and many other purposes. The horse is confined within enormous bars of
wood, and slung there, but many have been destroyed in their determined
resistance to such restraint.

The side-line is a very simple and useful method of confinii>g the horse,
and places him in sufficient subjection for the operations of docking,
nicking, and slight firing. The long line of the hobbles, or a common cart-
rope with a noose at the end, is fastened on the pastern of one hind-leg.
The rope is then brought over the neck and round the withers, and there
tied to the portion that comes from the leg. The leg may thus be drawn
so far forward, that while the horse evidently cannot kick with that leg, he
is disarmed of the other ; for he woidd not have sufficient support under him
if he attempted to raise it. Neither can he easily use his fore-legs, or, if
he attempts to use them, one of them may be lifted up, when he becomes
nearly powerless. If necessarjy. the aid of the twitch or the barnacles may
be resorted to.

BLEKDINQ.

For every minor operation, and even for many that are of more import-
ance, this mode of restraint is sufficient ; especially if the operator has
active and determined assistants : and we confess that we are no friends to
the casting of horses if it can possibly be prevented. When both legs are
included in the hobble or rope (as in another way of using- the side line),
the horse may appear to be more secure, but there is greater danger of his
falling in his violent struggles during the operation.

For castrating and severe firing the animal must be throw^n. The cm-
otruction of the hobbies is well known to every farrier, and almost to every
proprietor of horses. We will only say that the safety of the horse and of
the operator will require the use of the improved hobbles, by which any
leg may be released from confinement, and returned to it at pleasure; and,
when the operation is ended, the whole of the legs may be set at liberty at
once without danger. The method of putting the legs as closely together as
possible before the pull, — the necessity of the assistants all pulling together
— and the power, which one man standing at the head and firmly holding
the snaffle bridle, and another at the haunch pushing the horse when
he is beginning to fall, have in bringing him on the proper side, and on the
very spot on which he is intended to lie, need not to be described. This
however, is a method of securing the horse to which we repeat that we are
not partial, and to which we should not resort except necessity compelled,
for in the act of falling, and in the struggles after falling, many accidents
have occurred both to the horse and the surgeon.

Among the minor methods of restramt, but sufficient for many purposes,
are the twitch and the barnacles. The former consists of a noose passed
through a hole at the end of a strong stick, and in which the muzzle is
inclosed. The stick being turned, the muzzle is securely retained,
while the horse suffers great pain from the pressure — sufficiently great
to render him comparatively inattentive to that which is produced by the
operation ; at the same time, he is afraid to struggle, for every motion
increases the agony caused by the twitch, or the assistant has power to
increase it by giving an additional turn to the stick.

The barnacles are the handles of the pincers placed over and inclosino-
the muzzle, and which, being compressed by the assistant, give pain almost
equal to that of the twitch. These may appear to be barbarous modes of
enforcing submission, but they are absolutely indispensable In a few
instances, the blindfolding of the horse terrifies him into submission ; but
this is not to be depended upon. The twitch should be resorted to when
the least resistance is offered ; and when that, as it occasionally does, ren-
ders the horse more violent, recourse must be had to the side-line or the
hobbles.

In painful examination of the fore-leg or foot while on the ground, the
other foot should be held up by an assistant ; or, if his aid be required in
an operatbn, the knee may be fully bent, and the pastern tied up to the
arm. When the hind-leg is to be examined in the same way, the fore-leg
on that side should be held or fastened up. (77.)

BLEEDING.

The operation of Bleeding has been already described (p. 179), but we
would remind our readers of the necessity, in every case of acute infiam
mation, of making a large orifice, and abstracting the blood as rapidly as
possible, for the constitution will thus be the more speedily and bene-
ficially affected ; and also, of the propriety of never determining to take
a precise quantity of blood, but of keeping the finger on the artery until

Y

go2 THE llORhK.

ti- n.ilse beo-ins to c^-aage ;-until the strong pulse of fever becomes,
sd-te'r, or the^aniu^al is fa-nt/or the, oppressed pulse of inflammat.on of the

hmffs is rounder and fuller. ^^o^iUi^npr -

In cases of inflammation, and in the hands of a skilful PracUtioner
bleeding is the sheet-anchor of the vetennanan ; yet few thuigs are more
to be reprobated than the indiscriminate bleedmg- of the groom or the

The chan«-e which takes place in the blood after it is drawn from the
vein is very diligently noticed by many practitioners, and is certainly de-
le Lff of sLe attention. The blood coagulates soon after it ,s taken from
'he vefn The coagulable part is composed of two substances, that which
Mvercoiour 0 the blood, and that in which the red particles float. These,
bv de^?ees separate from each other, and the red particles smk to the bot-
?L ^If the coagulation takes place slowly, the red particles haye^ more
re\o':5\hro?gh the fluid a~^

•r o'f clgulaTioT^^^^^^^^ o?t coat, ar^eUcative of inflam-

matinn and of the degree of inflammation.

iTa healthy state ^of the system, the coagulation - '^^^^^^^

toms, should be the chief ob^cts of re|ard^^

ULISTERINO.

Of B..^s we -e also spo^wl..

to which they are appbcable. The rrinc p^e ^ .^^

two intense inflammations can ex i t n ^-f^^^^" .erimo-
the system at the Bume me. H^^^^ J«^P\ Lammation, and to lessen
11 ous substance to the skin, to exciie exien a „.p„erailv not fard s-

of draw away Inflammation in some deeper ^^ated^d generally "
tant part. Thus we blister the sides m '"A^'^^^'J"/;;;^^ ^fbstance

rron7or the heel in i>f "^ ^^^^^ of the

Blisters have likewise P^"';;/;/ of strangles

neighbouring f ^ .ouse "fe absorbents to more ener-

''^^^f J f of the nractitioner will decide when the desired effect will
The judgment ^^e pra^^^^^^^^^ ^^^.^^^ continuance of

be best produced ^ sudden a ^^^.^^ .

one of a miUler nature I flam>«at.o ^^^^^^ ^^^^^^

old enlargements and «J«'''"g;j^7;„,,rs call sweating down. ^ . ^
Stimulants-by the P^^ce ^ vvhic^^^^^^ ^^J^^ ^^^^^ S ^

,;^':::^T^o^':^ lord and resm already u.ent.oned

323

p. 186. The best liquid or sweating blister is &n infusion of the fly in
turpentine, and that lowered with neat's foot oil according to the degree ot
activity required.

lu preparing the horse for blistering, the hair should be clipped or
shaved as closely as possible, and the ointment thoroughly r.ibhed in.
Much fault is often found with the ointment if the blister does not rise,
when the real blame should be attributed to the idleness of the operator.

The head of the horse must be tied up for the first two days ; except
that, when the sides are blistered, the body-clothes may be so contrived as
to prevent the horse from nibbling and blemishing the part, or blistering
his muzzle. At the expiration of twenty-four hours, a little olive or neat's
foot oil may be applied over the blister, which will considerably lessen the
pain and supple the part, and prevent cracks in the skin that may be
difficult to heal. The oil should be applied morning and night, until the
scabs peel off. When they begin to loosen, a lather of soap and water
applied with a sponge may hasten their removal, but no violence mi^t be

Every particle of litter should be carefully removed from the stall, for the
sharp ends of the straw coming in contact with a part rendered so tender
and irritable by the blister, will cause very great annoyance to the animal.
After the second day the horse may be suffered to lie down ; but still the
possibility of blemishing himself should be prevented by a cradle or wooden
necklace, consisting of round strips of wood, strung together, reaching from
the lower jaw to the chest, and preventing the horse from sufficiently
turning or bending his head, to get at the blistered part.

A blister thus treated will rarely produce the slightest blemish. When
the scabs are all removed, the blister may be repeated, if the case should
appear to require it, or the horse may be turned out.

In inflammations which threaten life, a blister can scarcely be too active
or too extensive. In inflammation of the lungs it should reach over the
whole of the sides, and the greater part of the brisket ; for, should a portion
of the fly be absorbed, and produce strangury (inflammation, or spasmo-
dic affection of the neck of the bladder,) even this new irritation may assist
in subduing the first and more dangerous one ; but in blistering for inju-
ries or diseases of the legs or feet some caution is necessary. When
speaking of the treatment of sprain of the back sinews, p. 247, we stated,
that ' a blister should never be used while any heat or tenderness remains
about the part,* for we should then add to the superficial inflammation,
instead of abating the deeper seated one ; and enlargements of the limb and
ulcerations might follow, which would render the horse perfectly unser-
viceable. When there is a tendency lb grease, a blister is a dangerous
thing, and has often aggravated the disease. In winter, the inflam-
mation of the skin produced by blistering is apt to degenerate into grease ;
therefore, if it should be necessary to blister the horse during that
season, great care must be taken that he is not exposed to cold, and, par-
ticularly, that a current of cold air does not come upon the legs.

The inhuman practice of blistering all round, and perhaps high on the
leg at the same time, cannot be too Strongly reprobated. Many a valuable
horse has been lost through the excessive general irritation which this
has produced, or its violent effect on the urinary organs ; and this has been
particularly the case, when corrosive sublimate has entered into the com
position of the blister.

If strangury should appear, the horse should be plentifully supplied with
linseed tea, which is thus best prepared — a gallon of boiling water is poured

y 2

.,24 THE HORSE.

on half a pound of linseed ; the infusion suffered to stand till nearly cold
and the clean muciUiginous fluid then poured off. Three-quarters of a
pound of Epsom salts should also be given, dissolved m a quart of water _
and, after that, a ball every six hours, composed of a scruple of opium, and
a drachm of camphor, with linseed meal and treacle.

Half a pound or a pound of good mustard powder, made mto a paste
with boilin"- water, and applied hot, will often produce as good a blister
as cantharides, with far more swelling. It is a preferable one, where, as in
inflammation of the kidneys, the effect of cantharides on the urinary organs
is feared. Hartshorn is not so effectual. Tincture of croton makes an
active liquid blister. (78.)

FIRING.

Whatever seeming cruelty may attend this operation, it is in many cases
Sensable. The principle on which we have recourse to H is similar to
tS whTch justifies the use of a blister; by producmg superficial mflain-
ma ioTwe n ay be enabled to remove a deeper seated one, or we may excte
Se absorbents to take away any unnatural bony or other tumour : it has
lo th s additional advantage, that, while it raises intenser external mflaiy-
mation than we can produce by other means, it is the most powerful agent
Tat we Lve at our disposal. Humanity, however, will dicta e, tha on
account of the inflammation which it excites, and the pain which it inflicts
U should only be had recourse to when milder means have failed, except n
those caseTin which experience has taught us that milder means rarely

'"Thfpart which is to be submitted to the operation is shaved, or the hair
is rut from U as closely as possible with the trimming scissors. This ,s
neLssarv to lfnV he i?on into immediate contact with tjie skin, and like-
w e to prevent t^^^ smoke that will arise from the burned hair from obscu -
wise lu i-iicYt Vinrcp miit;t then be thrown, lius is

^"'.r-fto ist r hor« • bu nfpern 'can fire accrJtely, or will, U.e

smooth— the iron iisen at, u _,:^i,tcr or o-,eater pressure according

less rapidly -er the s^.n,^ tfZ^^ the line produced by the

to the degree of heat-to bur^^^^^^^^^ jjo-ht than dark, and, by all means, to
iron is of a ^jo^j^^f^^^ teUno- the additional cruelty of deep firing
avoid penetrating the slun. burned through,

out of the question, ^IJ^^^'^^^^^^^^^ will ensue, which will be with

Uiflammation, and ulceration, and siou^^^^ .rnavoidably leave unnecessary

^uch difficulty ^^-^^^^^ valuable horLs. It may happen,

blemish, and winch ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ Jf the animal the skin will be una-

neverlheless, that by a ^^^^f ^ P J^^,;,,^ requires much skill and tact, and
voidably cut through. The act o i^^^ ^

the practitioner f ^^^^f ^'^t unfrequently occur, that the skin, v^^'

FIKING.

326

nuist not be attributed to any neglect or unskilfulness of the sumeon and
the ulceration thus produced will be slight and easily treated, "comijared
with that caused by the actual burning through of the skin. '

Some practitioners blister immediately after firing. As a general
usage it is higWy to be reprobated. It is wanton and useless cruelty ; but
it may be required in bony tumours of considerable extent, and Ion-
standing, and interfering materially with the action of the neighbouring-
joint. Spavin accompanied by much lameness, and ring-bone spreadinn-
round the coronet, and involving the side cartilages, or the pastern joint"]
may justify it. The inflammation is rendered more intense, and of consi-
derably longer duration. In old affections of the round bone it may be
admitted, but no excuse can be made for it in slighter cases of sprahi or
weakness, or staleness.

On the day after the operation, it will be prudent gently to rub some
neat's foot oil, or lard over the lines. This will soften the skin, and render
It less hkely to separate or ulcerate ; a bandage would add to the irritation
of the i^art. Any cracks of the skin, or ulcerations that may ensue must
be treated with the calamine ointment already recommended.

• It will be evident that there is an advantage derived from firing to which
a blister can have no pretension. The skin, partially destroyed by the iron
is reinstated and healed, not merely by the formation of some new matter
filling up the vacuity, but by the gradual drawing togetlier and closing of
the separated edges. The skin, therefore, is lessened in surface • it is
tightened over the part, and it acts as a salutary and jjermanent banda-e
Ut the effect of pressure in removing enlargements of every kind as wefl
as giving strength to the part to which it is applied, we have re'peatedly
spoken ; and it is far from being the least valuable effect of the opera-
tion of firing, that, by contracting the skin, it affords a salutary, equable
and permanent pressure. It was on this principle, but the practice cannot
be defended that colts which were not very strong on the legs, used to be
fired round the fetlock, and along the back sinew, or over the hock to
brace and strengthen the parts. It is on the same principle that a racer' or
hunter that has become stale and stiff, is sometimes fired and turned out
I' or whatever reason the horse is fired, he should, if practicable, be turned
out, or soiled in a loose box, for three or four months at least. The full
and thlTenS? T f™™ '^'^ *^^ternal irritation is not soon produced,

fhii i !f T^^ P"""''"'^ P™^^^^^ "lore slowly In the

Oil kened and tender state of the skin, and the substance beneath! for some

infllmmi Sn " "'^^^y *° ^-'^^ ^ -vv

existed ^""''^ ""'"'^'"^ ^^^"^ ^^^^ ^h'^^h before

onW whoTl' n tumified . parts begm to lessen, and they
litl^nit ^ f ^^^Penence in these cases would imagine how long!
He tfpr f ^"'""'^"-y e^^'-C'se, the process of absorption is carried on.
ontUf;^ ^ "^""'"^ ^''P^'^^ ^h^t '""'^h good should accrue from the

TnTh K . f"u"' ""^^ ''""^^"t t° e've "P his horse for three or four
L w I 1- i! ^ sooner, and a worse lameness should fol-

low, let him blame his own impatience, and not the inefficiency of the
tT' r- the surgeon.

1 he firing in every case should be either in longitudinal or parallel
lines. On the back sinews, the fetlock, and the coronet, this is peculiarly
requisite, for thus only will the skin contract so as to form the greatest and
most equable pressure.

The practitioner may pride himself in the accuracy of his diamonds
'ozeiiges and featheis. but plain straight lines, about half an inch from each

THE liORSK.

other, wilt for„> O.c most ;i<^vantageous njo^ of firing^ ^^.£^0'"
of deeply seated iufla.nmation, by exc.tu g ^^^^^^^ that in no

the skin, is as well ^'^'-^^^^^ ^'^^^.^^Z^^^^^^^^ of the skin be so

way can the pressure ^^^^^ resu ts trom ^^^^^ ^^^^^

advantageously employed, to which we nw,

the slightest blemish. (79.)

SETONS

A Kt, mpans of an instrument resembling a
Are pieces of tape or cord, passed by means o^ an ^.^^ ^^^^

large^eedle either through absces es or the j,a ^^^stances be-

sinuses, or between the skm ^"^^ ^^^^^^^^'^^being tied together, or by a

charge which is intended to be «^tablishea ^^^^ when passed

In abscesses. S'leh as tumours m the withers or tn p , ^^.^^^^

from the summit to the ^^^^ul n' a^y^ q-ntity of it that

useful, as discharging the ^"^^^^/"Xree of inflammation which they
may be secreted to flow out ; and, ^^^^^^^ th^ow out healthy gra-
excite on the inside of the tumour, ^^^^f^f In deep fistulous

nulations which g-fally occupy and M^^^^^ ^^^^ f the

'z::^:^^:^! z:^^^- - u^er . ,o...

fistulous withers is of so much benetit. discharge in the neigh-

Setons are sometimes useful /[^^^"'^"^ti^g and carrying away a
bourhood of an inflamed PJ^t and thus d^ver g ^^^.^^ ^^^^ ^.^^^^^^
portion of the fluids which overload or wou ^^^^^^ ^.^^

,he vessels of that part: t^us a setcM - i^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^
derable advantage, when the eyes are

that we far prefer a rowel ^^^^Xtelrle^'^nd different inflammation m the
With this view, and to f^^^^e a new an -^^ deeply seated

neighbourhood of a par ^ '^^^'^^J j'^f^tr " irt, a seto'n has occasional y
and so difficult to be got at as the navicuUr joi , object to

been used with -a-^-f ^.^ff^o^ ^ "or^^^^^^^ eve^y disease of the
the indiscriminate use of the trog seiou

-Un. P="° a ana a «>„te, is far beUer .ha„

either of them. „-»;na. the absorbents to action for the removal of

On the principle of exc ting absorb .^^ .^^ ^^^.^^^ ^^^^

tumours, as spavin or «P'«"^^ \„7firW «till more energetic. Many
,nore eff-ectual than ff "/^i^by to%eton being torn out. and u Ice-
horses have been blemished for ^^^^ .^^^^ ; while week alter week has
rations, difficult to ^e^l, havmg been P ^^^.^
often passed on, and the J^^,^ ^hich it caused, being ui the least
without the tumour, or the i»m
degree diminished. (SO-)

NICKING

327

DOCKINQ.

The shortening of the tail of the horse is an operation which fashion
and the convenience of the rider require to be performed on most of those
animals. The length of the dock, or stump, is a matter of mere caprice.
To the close-cropped tail of the waggon-horse, however, we decidedly object,
from its perfect ugliness, and because the animal is deprived of every defence
against the flies. The supposition that the blood which should have gone
to the nourishment of the tail, causes greater development and strength
in the quarters, is too absurd to deserve serious refutation. It is the
rump of the animal being wholly uncovered, and not partly hidden by
the intervention of the tail, that gives a false appearance of increased
bulk

The operation is simple. That joint is searched out which is the nearest
to the desired length of tail. The hair is then turned up, and tied round
-with tape for an inch or two above this joint; and that which Hes imme-
diately upon the joint is cut off. The horse is then fettered with the
side line, and the veterinary surgeon with his docking machine, or the
farmer with his carving knife and mallet, cuts through the tail at one
stroke. Considerable bleeding now ensues, and frightens the timid or
the ignorant ; but if the blood were suffered to flow on until it ceased of its
own accord, the colt, and especially if he were very young, would rarely be
seriously injured. As, however, the bleeding would occasionally continue
for some hours, and a great quantity of blood would be lost, and the animal
would be somewhat weakened, it is usual to stop the haemorrhage by the
application of a red-hot iron to the stump. A large hole is made in the
centre of the iron, that the bone may not be seared, which would exfoliate,
if it were burned with any severity, or drop off at the joint above, and thus
shorten the dock. The iron rests on the muscular parts round the bone,
and is brought into contact with the bleeding vessels, and very speedily stops
the hemorrhage. Care should be taken that the iron is not too hot, — and
that it is not held too long or too forcibly on the part, for many more
horses would be destroyed by severe application of the cautery, than by the
bleeding being left to its own course. Powdered resin sprinkled on the
stump, or indeed any other application, is worse than useless ; it causes
unnecessary irritation, and sometimes extensive ulceration ; but if the
simple iron be moderately applied, the horse may go to work immediately
after the operation, and no dressing will be afterwards required. If a
slight bleeding should occur after the cautery, it is much better to let it
alone, than to run the risk of inflammation or locked-jaw, by re-applying
the iron with greater severity.

Some farmers dock their colts a few days after they are dropped. This
is a commendable custoni on the score of humanity ; no colt was ever lost
by it ; and we do not believe that the growth of the hair or the beauty of
the tail is in the least impaired.

NICKING.

This barbarous operation has been long sanctioned by fashion, and the
breeder and the dealer must have recourse to it, if he would obtain a ready
sale for his colts. It is not, however, practised to the extent that it used
to be, nor attended by so many circumstances of cnielty.

We must here introduce a small portion of our anatomy, which we had
reserved for this place. We have spoken, p. 165, of the eighteen dorsal

.ViS THE IIURSK.

vertebi-iu or bones of the back (see d, page 163), and the five lumbar ver-
tebrae, or bones of the loins ( /; p. 163). The continuation of the spine
consists of the sacrum or five bones, /i, p. 163, which, although separate in
the colt, are in the full grown horse united into one mass. The bones of the
ilium, the upper and side portion of tlie haunch, articulate strongly with
the sacrum, forming a bony union rather than a joint. The spinal mar-
row, and the blood-vessels generally, here begin to diminish, and nume-
rous branches of nerves are given out, which, joined by some from the ver-
tebra of the loins, form the nerves of the hind legs.

The bones of the tail, page 163, are a continuation of those ot the
sacrum They are fifteen in number, gradually dimimshing in size, and
iosino- altogether the character of the spinal vertebrae. Prolongations o
the spinal marrow run through the whole of them, and likewise arterial
vessels, being a continuation of those which supply the sacrum. A great
deal of attention is paid by those who are acquainted with the horse to
this continuation of the sacral and tail bones. From the loins to the set-
tin- on of the tail, the line should be nearly straight, or inclining only a
littfe way downward. There is not a surer test of the breed of the horse,
than this straight line from the loins to the tail ; nor, as we have shown,
when speaking of the muscles of the quarters, is there any circumstance
so much connected with the mechanical advantage with which these mus-

The tail was given to the horse to perfect the beauty of his form ; to
assist in directing his course when he has not the guiding hand ot nian;
and more particularly to enable him to defend himself from the insects by
which in every climate he is annoyed. . . .

There are three sets of muscles belonging to the tail, one raismg it (a,
page 260), another depressing it (6, page 260), and a third set giving i a
side motion in every direction when acting singly, or very powerluUy
lowering it when acting together. It would seem that the depressor and
lateral muscles are much more powerful than the erector muscles, and
that when the horse is undisturbed, the tail is bent down close on the but-
tocks; but when he is excited, and particularly when he i^ ^t speed,
the erector muscles are called into action, the tail is elevated and there is
given to him an appearance of energy and spirit which adds mate-
rially to his beauty. To perpetuate this character of fire, the opemti°» «
nickins was contrived. The depressor muscles, and par of the lateral
ones are cut through; and the erector muscles are left without any anta-
gonists, and keep the tail in a position more or less erect, .af°[«ing to the
thim of the operator, or the depth to which the incisions into the muscles

''The'opemtTofis thus performed. The side line is put on the horse,
or some deem it more prudent to cast him, and that Trecautu,n we
lid be disposed to recommend. The hair at.the end of the tai is se-
curely tied together for the purpose of afterwards attaching a weight to ,t
The ooerator then grasps the tail in his hand, and lifting it up, feels

lor ihTcen re of one of the bones (the prominences at the extremities
for the ce« or o .^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^

will giude h™,^°/ '!)'J7, horse. He then with a sharp knife divides
accomplish this If it be a , ^ i,^;,,, ^hout two inches

s:';::;;;:;::;;7us::rti\;eat at;^ .e oe„.e c o„. or

NICKING.

329

the bones; the reason of which is, that the incision, in order perfectly to
divide the muscles that bring down the tail, must be so deep, as, in the
neighbourhood of a joint, to endanger the wounding of the ligament which
ties the bones together, or the substance which is interposed between the
joints, and thus by destroying the joint to render the tail deformed.

On a hackney or cocktail, a third incision is made ; for fashion has de-
cided that his tail shall be still more elevated and curved. Two incisions
only are made in the tail of a mare, and the second not very deep.

When the second incision is made, some fibres of the muscles between
the first and second incisions will project into the wounds, and which
must be removed with a pair of curved scissors. The same must be done
with the projecting portions from between the second and third incisions ;
and the wounds should be carefully examined to ascertain that the muscles
have been equally divided on each side, otherwise the tail will be carried
awry. This being done, pledgets of tow must be introduced deeply into
each gap, and confined, but not too tightly, by a bandage. A very profuse
bleeding will alone justify any tightness of bandage ; and the ill conse-
quences which have resulted from nicking are mainly attributable to the
unnecessary force which is used in confining these pledgets. Even if the
bleeding, immedi-ately after the operation, should have been very great, the
roller must be loosened in two or three hours, otherwise swelling and in-
flammation, or death, may possibly ensue. Twenty-four hours after the
operation, the bandage must be quite removed ; and then, all that is neces
sary, so far as the healing of the wounds is concerned, is to keep then'
clean. *^

If, however, the tail were suffered to hang down, the divided edges ol
the muscles would come again in contact with each other and clo-^e •
the natural depression of the tail would remain ; and the animal would
have been punished for no purpose. The wounds must be kept open, and
that can only be accomplished by forcibly keeping the tail curved back
for two or three weeks. For this purpose, a cord, one or two feet in len<rth'
IS affixed to the end of the hair, which terminates in another divided
cord, each division going over a pulley on either side of the back of the stall
A weight Jt hung at either extremity, sufficient to keep the incisions pro-
perly open, and regulated by the degree in which this is wished to be
accomplished. The animal will thus be retained in an uneasy position,
a thougli, after the first two or three days, probably not one of acute pain
It is barbarous to increase this uneasiness or pain by affixing too jrreal
a weight to the cords; for it should be remembered, that the proper ele
vaied curve is given to the tail, not hy the weight keeping it in a certain
r^ositionfora considerable time, but by the depth of the first incisions, and
the degree in which the wounds are kept open. By every ounce of weight
beyond that which IS necessary to keep the incisions open, unneces.slry
suttering is inflicted. Some practitioners use only one pulley; others do
no "se any, but put on a light girth, and tie a cord from the end of the
tail to the girth bending it over the back. The double pulley, however
IS uie least painful to the horse, and more perfectly secures the proper ele-
vation and straight direction of the tail.

The dock should not, for the first three or four days, be brought higher
than the back. Dangerous irritation and inflammation would probably be
produced. It may, after that, be gradually raised to an elevation of forty-
hve degrees. The horse should be taken out of the pulleys, and gently
exercised once or twice every day ; but the pulleys cannot finally be dis-
pensed with, until a fortnight after the wounds have healed, because the
process of contraction, or the approacU of the divided parts, goes on for

THE HORSK.

some time after the skin is perfect over the incisions; and the tail would

thus sink below the deRire<l elevation. , , , ■

if Th. tail ha» not been imT,ecessarilye:<ten,led by enormous weights,
If the tail has ' " , , „ ' but if considerable inflammation

I'jde^uTre t^l^' L * f^m the pulle,, and diligently fo-

r w^rhsimple warn, w.^^^ tder-lht^hfirse

-istr^b^s^r^^^^^^^^^

rm^UlTSSdbelnpla.tedana combed ont every
fourth or fifth day.

Chapter XIX.

THE VICES. AND DISAGREEABLE OR DANGEROUS HABITS OF THE

HORSE.

THE horse has many excellent qualities ^^^^^ XeT:':^'':^^
and these occasionally amonnt.ng '^J^'^' J^^jIrcT^^ more
buted to natural temper ; for the human scarce y

peculiarities of habit -"^''^^^ r human Sn' a^^^^ a

'^'^ — r ^:^een both Ignorant and

brutal, and they have become obstinate and vicous.

RESTIFNE«8.

At the head of the vices of the ho.e we ^^^^^^^^^^^

noying. and the dangerous oj all t . Uje p ^^^^^

and worse education ; and, "'"^^ug^hgr it appears in the form of

stamped by education, it is '""^.'^^'^^^-.J^^^'^^^ that threatens

kicking, or rearing, or plungmg, - ^g o^ m an^ ^

danger to the "^^^^^^r/^^ animal ; or the horse may

rider may to a certain ^56'^^', f "^^hments, and with some particular
have his favourites, or form his attacnmeii ' . ^ j^ers can-

person he may be compamt.vely or perfec Uy man^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^,

Sot long depend T%Xe' To^ iSy ^rs of eu^^^^ or escaping from
him. We will speak of '"°"^/Ss under which restifness displays
danger, as it -gards^ the prin .pa form^^^^

Se neither ^^^VS^^n, nor consults his safety, who attempt.

Mr. Castley, truly says, in ^ whether from some mismanage-

vicious habits of horses may ong'^^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^.^
ment, or from natural badness ot t^^^^^ u
shire a mistetch, 7heneve these an ,,,,, altogether

becomes in some degree confirmed y^ ^^J^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^ ,

forgev it. In ^^fe^-^^^f . .^'^u'l^^'kicks once in harness, no matter from
kind of aphorism, that .t * j^J^ afterwards. A good coachman
what cause, he will be liable to ^^^^^ ^-^ ,,e cannot make

may drive him, it is tiue-and may ma

RKSTIPNESS.

him forget his vice ; and so it is in ildiiig-. You may conquer a restifl
horse ; you make him ride quiet for months, nay, almost for years together,
but I affirm, that under other circumstances, and at some future opportu-
nity, he will be sure to return to his old tricks again.'

Mr. Castley gives two singular and conclusive instances of the truth of
this doctrine. ' When a very young man,' says he, ' I remember pur-
chasing a horse at a fair in the north of England, that was offered very
cheap on account of his being unmanageable. It was said that nobody
could ride him. We found that the animal objected to have anything
placed upon his back, and that, when made to move forward with nothing
more than a saddle on, he instantly threw himself down on his side with
great violence, and would then endeavour to roll upon his back.

' There was at that time in Yorkshire, a famous colt-breaker, known by
the name of Jumper,* who was almost as celebrated in that country for
taming vicious horses into submission, as the famed Whisperer was in
Ireland. We put this animal into Jumper's hands, who took him away,
and in about ten days brought him home again, certainly not looking
worse in condition, but perfectly subdued and almost as obedient as a dog:
for he would lie down at this man's bidding, and only rise again at his
(Command, and carry double or anything. I took to riding him myself^
and may say, that I was never better carried for six or' eight months,
during which time he never shewed the least vice whatever. I then sold
him to a Lincolnshire farmer, who said that he would give him a sum
mer's run at grass, and shew him a very fine horse at the great Ilorn-
castle fair.

' Happening to meet this gentleman the following year, I naturally
enough inquired after my old friend. " Oh," said he, " that was a bad
business — the norse turned out a sad rebel. The first time we attempted
to mount him, after getting him up from grass, he in an instant threw the
man down with the greatest violence, pitching him several yards over his
head ; and after that he threw every one that attempted to get on his back
If he could not throw his rider, he would throw himself down. We could
do nothing with him, and I was obliged at last to sell him to go in a stage-
coach." '

In the next story. Jumper's counterpart and superior, the Irish Whis-
perer, is brought on the stage, and, although he performs wonders, he
cannot radically cure a restiflf horse. ' At the Spring Meeting of 1804,
Mr. Whalley's King Pippin was brought on the Curragh of Kildare to

Those of our readers who were connected with the contested elections for York-
shire, will recollect Jumper, covered with orange plush from top to toe, and scam-
pering in every direction over the country. Sometimes he would exchange this for
a bear-skin, enveloped in which, and mounted occasionally on a buffalo, he was a most
formidable object. He had extraordinary power over animals of various species, for he
(amed to the saddle a buffalo for Mr. Tempest, and a pair of rein-deer for harness for
Lord Fitzwilliam. But his charm consisted chiefly in fearlessness, and brute force, ac-
companied by considerable tact. He would generally try rough measures first ; luid in
his perilous encounters with some of his troublLSome scholars, had nearly every bone
m liis body fractured. Sullivan's method was altogether different — force was rarely re-
sorted to. The enemy surrendered to him at discretion and without a struggle. Jumper,
however, seemed to have some charm about him, for when he had, by dint of punishment,
striven in vain to conquer an unruly horse in the market-place of Wakefield — he alighted
— stood on the near side of the horse — brought the animal's head almost back to his off
shoulder by forcibly pulling at the off rein, and then sternly gaied at him over the withers
for two or three minutes. The animal began to tremble, and broke out into a profuse
perspiration. Jumper (hen loosened his hold of the rein, and patted and caressed the
horse, who immediately folVawed hiim round tho ui'irVet-place perfectly tamed.

332 THE HORSE.

run. He was a horse of the most extraordinary savage and vicious .lis-
position. His particular propensity was ih^l of Jlyi7,g at and ^orrymg
iny person who canie within his reach, and M he had ^" "Pl'^f ""^^y;
would get his head round, seize his rider by the leg w.th h,s tef h and
drag him down from his back. For this reason he was a ways ridde n

what is called a su,ord ; which "°*l>i"S,""r ;, ^iTf.H^^
havino- one end attached to the cheek of the bndle, and the other to the
g-S " of the saddle, a contrivance to prevent a horse of tins kmd from

^■^"kC P:;;n had long been difficult to manage and dangerous to go
near bul on the occasion in question he could not be got out to run at all.

co""/d X bridlelpon his head. It being Easter Monday
a^d coLequently a great holyd^ay, there was a 1-f ^ -"-""^^^^^^t
assembled at the Curragh, consisting pnnc.pally of ^^^l'^^^^^^^^^
santrv and one countryman, more fearless than the re.t of the lookers on

l^Z or perhapsLver d-.jgj;- ~ ^ l^TuSil
discretion vo unteered his services to bndle me norbe. j.^

fommS himself in this operation, than ^^^^^^ ^^'^^(^^^^^^^
where about the shoulders or chest, and says Mr. Watts (Mr. Lasllej s

informant), " I know of nothing I can ^Tjf^'-^t , 'd° ^er^^^^
shaking a rat." Fortunately for the poor fellow, his body was very t ncKiy

foverJwith clothes for on such o-J°-/,rJ?^rercU'a aVt^e
fond of displaying his wardrobe, and it he lias ifiree coat*

-^it™t^alability sW the i.^i;;cl^l h^^
o-allantly volunteered the forlorn hope. His person was ^e^l^f^J^f,
foped in'extra-teguments, that the -v^^^^^^^^^^
and I understand that he escaped with but little injury,
rent and totally ruined state of his holyday toggery^

introduced into it-in short, as quiet almost as a ^heep.

' He came out the same meeting, and won a race 7,^^^^
tinufd satisfactory for a long time ; 6.^ ^zS ;4 ^7^^^^^
his vice returned, and then he is said to have killed a man,

was destroyed.' • onmp account of

It may iiot be uninteresting in this connexion, f^^^^^^j^ "wcr
this tamir of quadruped vice. However «\;-;j";,^;tcS t^^^^^^
may seem to be, there is no doubt of the ruth of the account t ^^^^^
of him. The Rev. Mr. Townsend, in his Sta^^^^^^^
introduced him to the notice of the V^^^SJ'^'^^^^^^^
long spread over that part of - -d. We, h^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ p^^^

t^lhe tr^ee^ns^tiri^^^^^^^ elBn sprite, rather than of a

rude and ig"«rant horse-bi-eaker ^^^^
' He was an awkward the Whisperer ; his

of Sullivan, but b^^^^/.^^Xff The ^Lname he acquired from the
occupation as horse-breaking ^^^^^^^^ ^^e animal what he

vulgar notion of his ^^'"^^^"^l' ^-^^ i,,e singularity of his method seemed
wished by means of - ^hispe, . d . neighbourhood, the

,n some degree to .l^^^ify the altnhuie ^^^^^^t if any m

notoriety of the fact made it seem less

RESTIKNESS.

Stance of similar subjugating- talent is to be found on record. As far
as the sphere of his control extended, the boast of rem", vi.di vici
was more justly claimed by Sullivan than by Caesar himself.

' How his art was acquired, ard in what it consisted, is likely to be for
ever unknown, as he has lately (about 1810) left the world without
■ divulging it. His son, who follows the same trade, possesses but a small
portion of the art, having either never learned the true secret, or being
incapable of putting it into practice. The wonder of his skill consisted in
the celerity of the operation, which was performed in privacy without any
apparent means of coercion. Every description of horse, or even mule,
whether previously broken or unhandled, whatever their peculiar habits
or vices might have been, submitted without show of resistance to the
magical influence of his art, and in the short space of half an hour became
gentle and tractable. This effect, though instantaneously produced, was
generally durable. Though more submissive to him than to others, they
seemed to have acquired a docility luiknown before.

' When sent for to tame a vicious beast, for which he was either paid
according to the distance, or generally two or three guineas, he directed
the stable, in which he and the object of the experiment were, to be shut,
with orders not to open the door until a signal was o-iven. After a tete-
a-tete of about half an hour, during which little or n'o bustle was heard,
the signal was made, and, upon opening the door, the horse appeared lyino^
down, and the man by his side, playing with him like a child with a puppy dog!
From that time he was found perfectly willing to submit to any discipline
—however repugnant to his nature before.' ' I once,' continues Mr. Town ■
send, ' saw his skill tried on a horse, which could never before be brought
to stand for a smith to shoe him. The day after SuUivan's half hour's
lecture, I went, not without some incredulity, to the smith's shop, with many
other curious spectators, where we were eye-witnesses of the complete
success of his art. This, too, had been a troop horse, and it was sup-
posed, not without reason, that after regimental discipline had failed, no
other would be found availing. I observed that the animal appeared ter-
rified whenever Sullivan either spoke or looked at him; how that
extraordinary ascfendancy could have been obtained, is difficult to con-
jecture.

' In common cases this mysterious preparation was unnecessary He
seemed to possess an instinctive power of inspiring awe, the result' per
haps, of natural intrepidity, in which, I believe, a great part of his art
consisted; though the circumstance of the tele-d-tele shows that, on par-
ticular occasions, something more must have been added to it A facilltv
like this would in some hands have made a fortune, and I understand that
great offers were made to him, for the exercise of his art abroad But
hunting was his passion. He lived at home in the style most agreeable
lo his disposition, and nothing could induce him to quit Duhaliow and the
fox hounds.

Mr. Castley witnessed the total failure of the younger Sullivan. He
says, We have m the regiment a remarkably nice horse, called Lancer,
that has always been very difficult to shoe, but seven or eig'iit years ago,
when we first got him, he was downright vicious in that respect. When
the regiment was stationed at Cork, the farrier-major sought out the pre-
sent Sullivan, the son of the celebrated Whisperer," and brought him up to
the barracks in order to try his hand upon Lancer, and make hiin more
peaceable to shoe ; but I must say this person did not appear to possess
any particular controlling power over the animal, more than any other
man. Lancer seemed to pay no attention whatever to his charm, and a»

334

THE HORSR.

last, fairly beat him out of the forge. Time, however and a long ptrse-
verance in kind and gentle treatment, have effected what force could not
The horse is now pretty reasonable to shoe.

BACKING OR GIBBING.

one of the ^^^^^ ^^^^^ ytS^.h^^rCd^^^

^sZ:Z^L ^.J the habit of baling at ^rst
sraHing and that more from playfulness than des,re of m.clnef. A mo-
derate application of the whip w> 1 usually be effectual. Others ev^^^^^
startino- exhibit considerable obstinacy and v.ciousness. This is frequently

?r'""M,r^f L ErtooTuic^ fo'cert o "l-e win possWy .ake a dislike

E£r£S^^feti^^^fS:"|3

'^'Xri'!S'^^y slone should be put behind the wheel before siting
„ht't;fhol%nLg it more difficult to back tha^ «

-r„a.lJ^atrr'Vfire:Sit"o^/.ei>:^:o—
will assist in accomplishmg the cure. ^ ^^^j^

When, however, a horse, thmkmg that has had «n°" .^^^^

Has been ^P-P-J^^^^^^^^^^^ L° a more Lious

pressure of the collar, swerves, anu g , afterwards, reason-

matter. Persuasion should ^e/e f f be t^^^^^^

able coercion, but no cruelty : for the brutality ^/^^^ j^^^,, i„to the
attempting to compel a gibbing horse to ^^row h.mse f liab.tuall^^^^
collar, never yei accomplished the P"^P«f Jf^^^He wHl have recourse
whipped into motion, but if he has on;« begun ^^^^ g b, he w,

^J^^^, - r^SlySthat he w^l become insen-

""'li ^'^isnis most f nf r-s:

bacU, unless there is plen y o and, ^by t,^^^^^^ ^^^.^^

make him back in the precise o r ^^^^ ^^^^^^

Such a horse should be --ed^^^^^^^^^ ^ 'panicularly as the near-wheeler ;

work. ^i^-.f^rTt^r^^^^^^^^^^ "^^y serviceable^

or, in the middle of a team at a r ^.^^ dragged

It will be useless for h.m to attempt f-.^^ing the inutility

.long by his crP-l-"«jttducecTto work 'as we'll as any horse in the
of resistance, he will soon be '"J"^^ ^^us employed, but. like res-

DITING.

33^

occupation. The disposition to annoy will very soon follow the power
to do it. Some instances of complete reformation have occurred, but they
have been rare.

When a horse, not often accustomed to gib, betrays a reluctance to
work, or a determination not to work, common sense and humanity will
demand that some consideration should be taken, before measures of
severity be resorted to. The horse may be taxed beyond his power.
He soon discovers whether this is the case, and by refusing to proceed,
tells his driver that it is so ; and the utmost cruelty will not induce many
horses to make the slightest effort, when they are conscious that their
strength is inadequate to the task. Sometimes the withers are wrung, and
the shoulders sadly galled ; and the pain, which is intense on level ground
and with fair draught, becomes insupportable when he tugs up a steep
acclivity. These things should be examined into, and, if possible, rectified ;
for, under such circumstances, cruelty might produce obstinacy and vice,
but not willing obedience.

Those who are accustomed to horses know what seemingly trivial cir-
cumstances occasionally produce this vice. A horse, whose shoulders are
raw, or that have frequently been so, will not start with a cold collar. When
the collar has acquired the warmth of the parts on which it presses, the
animal will go without reluctance. Some determined gibbers have been
reformed by constantly wearing a false collar, or strip of cloth round the
shoulders, so that the coldness of the usual collar should never be felt ;
and others have been cured of gibbing by keeping the collar on night and
day, although the animal is not able to lie down so completely at full
length, which the tired horse is always glad to do. When a horse gibs,
not at starting, but while doing his work, it has sometimes been useful
to line the collars with cloth instead of leather ; the perspiration is readily
absorbed, the substance which presses on the shoulders is softer, and it
may be far more accurately eased off at a tender place.

BITING.

This is either the consequence of natural ferocity, or a habit acquired from
the foolish and teasing play of grooms and stable boys. When a horse is
tickled and pinched by thoughtless and mischievous youths, he will first
pretend to bite his tormentors ; by degrees he will proceed farther, and
actually bite them, and, very soon after that, he will be the first to challenge
to the combat, and without provocation seize some opportunity to gripe
the incautious groom ; and then, as the love of mischief is a propensity
too easily acquired, this war, half playful, and half in earnest, will become
habitual to him, and will degenerate into absolute viciousness. Nothing
can here be done in the way of cure ; kindness would aggravate the evil,
and no degree of severity will correct it. Prevention, however, is in the
power of every proprietor of horses. While he insists on gentle and humane
treatment of his cattle, he should systematically forbid this horse-play. It
is that which can never be considered as operating as a reward, and thereby
rendering the horse tractable ; nor does it increase the alfection of the
animal for his groom, because he is annoyed and irritated by being thud
incessantly teased.

THE HORSE.

OETTINQ THE CHEEK OK THE UlT INTO THE MOUTH,

Some horses that are disposed to be mischievous try to do this, and ,
are very expert at it. They soon find what advantage it gives them over
their driver, who by this manoeuvre loses almost all command. Harsh
treatment is here cOi>~>pletely out of the question. All that can be done is,
by some mechanical contrivance, to render the thing difficult or impos-
sible, and this may be managed by fastening a round piece of leather on
the inside of the cheek of the bit.

KICKING.

This, as a vice, is another consequence of the culpable habit of grooms
and stable-boys of teasing the horse. That which is at first an indication
of annoyance at the pinching and tickling of the groom, and without any
design to injure, gradually becomes the expression of anger, and the effort
at mischief. There is no cure for this vice ; and he cannot be justified who
keeps such a kicking horse in his stable.

Some horses acquire a habit of kicking at the stall or the bail, and par-
ticularly at night, from mere irritability and fidgettiness. The neigh-
bouring horses are disturbed, and the kicker gets swelled hocUs, or
some more serious injury. This is also a habit very difficult to correct
if suffered to become established. Mares are far more subject to it than
horses.

Before the habit is inveterately establisVied, a thorn bush or a piece of
furze fastened against the partition or post will sometimes effect a cure.
When the horse finds that he is pretty severely pricked he will not long
continue to punish himself. In confirmed cases it may be necessary to
have recourse to the log, but the legs arc often not a little bruised by
it. A rather long and heavy piece of wood attached to a chain is buckled
above the hock, so as to reacli about half way down the leg. When the
horse attempts to kick violently, his leg will receive a severe blow from
this, and the repetition of the blow will soon teach him to be quiet.

A much more serious vice is kicking in harness. From the least annoy-
ance about the rump or quarters, some horses will kick at the most vio-
lent rate, and destroy the bottom of the chaise, and endanger the limbs of
the driver. Tnose that are fidgetty in the stable are most apt to do
this. If the reins should perchance get under the tail, the violence of the
kicker will be most outrageous ; and while the animal presses down his
tail so tightly that it is almost impossible to extricate the reins, he con-
tinues to plunge until he has demolished every thing behind him.

This is a vice standing foremost in point of danger, and which no treat-
ment will often conquer. It will be altogether in vain to try coercion here.
If the shafts are very strong and without flaw, or if they are plated with
iron underneath, and a stout kicking strap used, which will barely allow
the horse the proper use of his hind limbs in progression, but not permit
him to raise them sufficiently for the purpose of kicking, he may be pre
vented from doing mischief ; or if he is harnessed to a heavy cart, and
Ihus confined, his eflbrts to lash out will be restrained : but it is a very
unpleasant thing frequently to witness these attempts, although ineffectual,
to demolish the^vehicle ; and the shafts or the kicking strap may possibly
break, and extreme danger may ensue. A horse that has once begun to
kick, whatever may have been the original cause of it, can never be de-
pended on again ; and he will be very unwise who ventures behmd bim.

KIJJNNINU AVVAV

3i>7

ONSTliADINESS WHILST BEING MOUNTED.

When this merely amounts to eag'eruess to start (very unpleasant, uideed
at times, for many a rider has been thrown from his seat before he was
fairly fixed in it), it may be remedied by an active and good horseman
We have known many instances in which, while the elderly, and. inactive
and fearful man, has been making; more than one ineffectual attempt to
vault into the saddle, the horse has been dancing about to his annoyance
and danger ; but the animal had no sooner been transferred to the
management of a younger and more agile rider, than he became perfectly
subdued. Severity vp^ill here, more decidedly than in any other case, do
harm. The rider should be fearless; — he should carelessly and confidently
approach the horse, mount at the first effort, and then restrain him
for a while, patting him, and not suffering him to proceed until he
becomes perfectly quiet. These horses should not be too highly fed, and
.should daiiy have su.fficient exercise.

VVhen the difficulty of mounting arises not from eagerness to start, but
unwillingness to be ridden, the sooner such hor.se is disposed of the better.
He may be conquered by a determined rider, but a skilful and determined
horseman alone will manage him ; and even he will not succeed without
frequent and even dangerous contests that will mar all the pleasure of
the ride. ■

REARING.

This sometimes results from playfulness, earned indeed to an unpleasant
and dangerous extent ; but it is oftener a vice, and is a desperate and fre-
quently successful effort to unhorse the rider. The horse that has twice
decidedly and dangerously reared, should never be trusted again, unless
mdeed it be the fault of the rider— unless he has been using a deep curb
and sharp bit. Some of the best horses will contend against these and
then rearing may be immediately and permanently cured by using a snaffle
bridle alone.

The horse-breaker's remedy, that of pulling the horse backward on a
soft piece of ground, is worthy of him, and would be practised only by
reckless and brutal men. Many horses have been injured in the spine
and others have broken their necks, by being thus suddenly brouo-ht over •
while even the horse-breaker, who fears no danger, is not always able to
extricate himself from the falling horse. If rearing proceeds from vice
and IS unprovoked by the bruising and laceration of the mouth, it fully
partakes of the inveteracy which attends the other divisions of restiveness.

RUNNING AWAY.

Some headstrong horses will occasionally endeavour to bolt with the best
riclei Others, with their wonted sagacity, endeavour thus to dislodge
tne timid or unskilful. Some are hard to hold, or bolt only during the
excitement of the chace ; others will run away, prompted by a vicious
propensity alone. There is no cure here. That method which alfords
any probability of success, is to ride such a horse with a strong curb and
7*^^'^' ^° ^'^^^ ^™ always firmly in hand; and if he will run away,
ami the place will admit of it, to give him (sparing neither curb, whip, nor
spur) a great deal more running thnn he likes.

Z

338

THE HORSE.

VICIOUS TO CLEAN.

It would scarcely be believed to what an extent this exists Tn some horses
that are otherwise perfectly quiet. It is only at great hazard that they can
be cleaned at all. The orit^in of this is probably some maltreatment.
There is a "reat difference in the sensibility of the skin in different horses.
Some seem" as if they could scarcely be made to feel the whip; others
cannot bear a fly to alight on them without an expression of annoyance.
In vouno- horses the skin is peculiarly delicate. If they have been curned
with a broken comb, or hardly rubbed with an uneven brush, the recol-
lection of the torture they have felt makes them impatient, and even
vicious, during every succeeding operation of the kind. Many grooms
likewise, seem to delight in producing these exhibitions of uneasiness and
vice ; although when they are carried a little too far, and to the hazard of
the limbs of the groom, the animals that have been almost tutored into
these expressions of irritation, are brutally kicked and punished.

This, however, is a vice which may be conquered. If the animal be
dressed with a lighter hand, and wisped rather than brushed jd ^^^
places where the skin is most sensitive be avoided as nmch as thorough
ci;anliness will allow, the horse will gradually lose the recollection of
former ill-treatment, and become tractable and quiet. (.81.)

VICIOUS TO SHOE.

The correction of this is move peculiarly the business of the smith ; yet the
Taster should diligently concern himself with it, for ,t is oftener the con-
sequence of injudicious or bad usage than of natural vice. It may be
Txrc ed tSat there will be some difficulty in shoemg a young horse tor
Sfi St few times. It is an operation which gives him a little uneasiness,
^he mlrto whom he is most accustomed should go with h.m to the

n o " " j;r:L» are rendered so b, harsh usage

Should be a "^'^/"J^^'^'y ' . him, without the master-farriers

understand Uja "o ^ - . ™t -d^^he,^^^^^ ^^^^ P ^,

usual habU of obed^^^^^^^^ but dangerous.

,s connected with '^hoeing, tney ^^^^ ^^.^^^

This is a very i^^^^'ruVgles, but also from the correction

sional severe injury from h.s « f^^^^ ^j^^,, y^^^ i„ jeopardy,

of the irritated J^^'^'^Vmes a little too hard-handed. Such a

may be forgiven f he ^« j.^^,,, to be pricked and

horse is very ^able, a d wi ho" J^^^^^^^^^ confirmed, and should in-
lamed in shoeing ; and it U ^^^^^ ^.^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^

crease, and it at le'^g^'^^*^^" ^ ^^at many years will not pass ere some
trevis, the owner "^''y assu.e^^^ therefore, mild

formidable and even atal acade U w ^^^^^P ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^
treatment will not correct tne vk*..

rid of

CRlB-BITlNG.

339

Horses have many unpleasant habits in the stable and the road, which
cannot be said to amount to vice, but which materially lessen their value.

(82.)

SWALLOWING WITHOUT GRINDING.

Some greedy horses swallow their corn without properly gdndrng it, and
the power of digestion not being adequate to the dissolving of the husk,
no nutriment is extracted, and the oats are voided whole. This is parti-
cularly the case when horses of unequal appetite feed from the same
manger. The greedy one, in his eagerness to get more than his share,
holts a portion of his corn whole. If the farmer can, without considerable
inconvenience, so manage it that every horse shall have his separate divi-
sion of the manger, the horse of smaller appetite and slower feed would
have the opportunity of grinding at his leisure, without the fear of his
share being stolen from him by his neighbour.

Some horses, however, are naturally greedy feeders, and will not, even
when alone, allow themselves time to chew or grind their corn. In conse-
quence of this, they carry but little flesh ; they are not equal to severe
work; and, if their rack has been supplied with hay when the corn was
put into the manger, their stomachs will become distended with half-
chewed and indigestible food ; they will be incapable of exertion for a long
time after feeding, and, occasionally, dangerous symptoms of staggers will
occur. The remedy is, not to let such horses fast too long. The nose-bag
should be the companion of every considerable journey. The food should
likewise be of such a nature that it cannot be easily bolted. Chaff should
be plentifully mixed with the corn, and in some cases, and especially in
horses of slow work, should, with the corn, constitute the whole of the
food. Of this we shall treat more largely under the article ' Feeding.'

In every case of this kind the teeth should be very carefully examined.
Some of them may be unduly lengthened, particularly the first of the grin-
ders ; or they may be ragged at the edges, and may scratch and wound the
cheek. In the first case the horse cannot properly masticate his food ; in
the latter he will not : for these animals, as too often happens in sore
throat, would rather starve than put themselves to much pain.

CRIB-BITING.

This is a very unpleasant habit, and a considerable defect, although not so
serious a one as some have represented. The horse lays hold of the
manger with his teeth, violently extends his neck, and then, after some con-
vulsive action of the throat, a slight gruntinc is heard, accompanied by an
apparent sucking or drawing in of air. Wiiether, however, air is actually
drawn in, and thus the horse becomes more subject to colic than one
without this trick, or whether a portion of air is expelled, shewing the pre-
vious existence of flatulence and a disposition to colic, are points that have
not been settled among veterinarians.

The horse is evidently making the edge of the manger a fixed point, by
means of which he may overcome that obstacle which ihe formation of
the soft palate and the back part of the mouth (see page 152) would
present to either the expulsion or drawing in of the air, if accomplished
through the medium of the mouth. When we consider, however, that any
air expelled from the stomach might easily find a passage through the
nostril, without the action of crib-biting ; while it would be difficult or
impossible, without some alteration in the natural form and action of the
Darts at the back of the mouth, and particularly the depression of the

Z 2

310

THE HORSE

epifjlottis or covering of the windpipe, to convey air to the stomach, we are
inclined to conclude, that this fixed point is used to enable the animal to
accomplish this alteration, and suck up and convey a portion of air into '
the stomach.

The effect of crib-biting is plain enough. The teeth are injured and
worn away, and that, in an old horse, to a very serious degree ; a con-
siderable quantity of corn is often lost, for the horse will frequently crib
with his mouth full of corn, the greater part of which will fall over the
edge of the manger ; and much saliva flows out while the manger is thus
forcibly held, the loss of which must be of serious detriment, as impairing
the digestion. The crib-biting horse is notoriously more subject to colic
than other horses usually are, and to a species difficult of treatment, and
even dangerous. Although many a crib-biter is stout and strong, and
capable of all ordinary work, these horses do not generally carry much
flesh, and have not the endurance of others. On these accounts, crib-
biting has very properly been decided to be unsoundness.

It is one of those tricks which are very contagious. Every companion
of a crib-biter in the same stables is likely to acquire the habit, and it is
the most inveterate of all habits. The edge of the manger will in vain be
lined with iron, or with sheep-skin, or with sheep-skin covered witli tar
or aloes, or any other unpleasant substance. In defiance of the annoyance
which these may occasion, the horse will in a very short time again attack
his manger. A strap buckled tightly round the neck, by compressing the
windpipe, will prevent the possibility of this action ; but the strap must be
constantly worn, and its pressure is too apt to produce a worse affection,
viz. an irritation in the windpipe, which terminates in roaring.

Some have recommended turning out for five or six months ; but this has
never succeeded except with a young horse, and then rarely. The old
crib-biter will employ the gate for the same purpose as the edge of his
manger, and we have seen him gallop across a field for the mere object
of having a gripe at a rail. Medicine will be altogether thrown away in
this case.

The only remedy is a muzzle, with bars across the bottom ; sufficiently
wide to enable the animal to pick up his corn and to pull his hay, but not
to grasp the edge of the manger. If this be worn a very long time, the
horse may be tired of attempting that which he cannot accomplish, and
may possibly for a while forget the habit ; but in the majority of cases the
desire of crib-biting will return with the power of gratifying it.

The causes of crib-biting are various, and some of them beyond the
control of the proprietor of the horse. We have said that it is often the
result of imitation; but it is more frequently the consequence of idleness.
The high-fed and spirited horse must be in mischief, if he is not usefully
employed. Sometimes, but we believe not often, it is produced by partial
starvation, whether in a bad straw-yard, or from unpalatable food. An
occasional cause of crib-biting is the frequent custom of grooms, even when
the weather is not severe, of dressing them in the stable. The horse
either catches at the edge of the manger, or at the edge of the partition
on each side, if he has been turned, and thus he forms (he habit of
laying hold of these substances on every occasion.

WIND-SUCKING.

This bears a close analogy to crib-biting. It arises from the same causes ;

the same purpose is accomplished; and the same results fbliow. The

horse stands with his neck bent ; his hwid drawn inward; his hps alter-

OVERREACH.

341

nately a little opened and then closed, and a noise is heard as if he were
sucking. If we may judge from the same comparative want of condi-
tion, and the flatulence which we have described under the last head either
some portion of wind enters the stomach, or there is an Injurious ioss of
saliva. This dinn'nishes the value of the horse almost as much as crib-
biting ; it is as contagious, and it is as inveterate. The only remedies, and
they will seldom avail, are tying the head up, except when the horse is
feeding, or putting on a muzzle, with sharp opikes towards the neck, and
which shall prick him whenever he attempts to rein hi.s head in for the
purpose of wind-sucking.

CUTTING.

Of this habit we have already spoken at page 252, and we would advise the
owner of a cutting horse, without trying any previous experiments of raising
or lowering the heels, to put on the cutting foot a shoe of even hickness
from heel to toe, not projecting in the slightest degree beyond the rust, and
the crust itself being rasped a little at the quarters ; and to let that shoe
be fastened as usual on the outside, but with only one nail on the inside
and that almost close to the toe. The principle on which this shoe acts
has been explained at page 243.

N01 LYING DOWN.

It not uncommonly happens that a horse will seldom or never lie down in
the stable. He sometimes continues in apparent good health, and feeds
and works well; but generally his legs swell, or he becomes fatigued
sooner than another horse. If it is impossible to let him loose in the stable,
or to put him into a spare box, we know not what is to be done. No
means, gentle or cruel, will force him to lie down. The secret is that he
is tied up, and either has never dared to lie down through fear of the con-
finement of the halter, or he has been cast in the night, and severely
injured. If he can be suffered to range the stable, or have a comfortable
box, m which he may be loose, he will usually lie down the first night
Some few horses, however, will lie down in the stable, and not in a
loose box. A fresh, well-made bed will generally tempt the tired horse
to he down. (83.)

OVERREACH.

This unpleasant noise, known also by the terms ' clicking,' ' overreach ' &c
arises from the toe of the hind foot knocking against the shoe of the fore
toot. In the trot, one fore leg and the opposite hind leg are first lifted
irom the ground and moved forward, the other fore leg and the opposite
hincl leg remaining fixed ; but, to keep the centre of gravity within the base,
and as the stride, or space passed over by these legs, is oilen greater
than the distance between the fore and hind feet, it is necessary that the
lore feet should be alternately moved out of the way for the hind feet to
^^'^T Then, as occasionally happens with horses not perfectly broken,
and that have not been taught their paces, and especially if they have high
hinder quarters and low fore ones, if the fore feet are not raised in time, the
hind feet will strike them. The fore foot will generally be caught when it has
just begun to be raised, and the toe of the hind foot will meet the middle
of the bottom of the fore foot. It is a very disagreeable noise, and not alto-
gether free fiom danger ; for it may so happen that a horse, the action of

S4'i

THK liORSRH.

whose feet generally so much interferes with each other, muy advance
the hind foot a little more rapidly, or raise the tore one a little rr.ore slowly,
so that the hlow may fall on the heel of the shoe, and loosen or displace
it; or the two shoes may be lockea together, and the animal may be
thrown ; or the contusion may be received even higher, and on the tcuaons of
the leg, when considerable swelling and lameness may follow.

If the animal is young, the action of the horse may be materially im-
proved ; otherwise nothing can be done, except to keep the toe of the
hind foot as short and as round as it can safely be, and to bevil off and
round the toe of tire shoe, like that which has been worn by a stumbler for
a fortnight, and, perhaps, a little to lower the heel of the fore foot.

A blow received on the heel of the fore foot in this manner has not
unfrequently, and especially if neglected, been followed by quittor.

PAWINO.

Some hot and irritable horses are restless even m the stable, and paw
frequently and violently. Their litter is destroyed, the floor of the stable
broken up, the shoes worn out. the feet bruised, and the legs some-
times sprained. If this habit does not exist to any great extent, yet the
stable never looks well. Shackles are the only remedy, with a cham
sufficiently long to enable the horse to shift his posture, or move in ins
stall ; but even these must be taken off at night, otherwise the animal will
seldom lie down.

QUIDDINO.

A horse will sometimes partly chew his hay, and suffer it to drop from his
mouth. If this does not proceed from irregular teeth, which it will be the
business of the veterinary surgeon to rasp down, 't wdl be found to be
connected with sore-throat, and then the horse will exhibit some other
ymptom of indisposition, and the swallowing of water will -compan.ed
by a peculiar gulping effort. In this case the disease (catarrh, with sore
throat) must be attacked, and the quidding will cease.

ROLLING.

This is a very pleasant and perfectly safe amusement for a horse at grass
but cannot be indulged in the stable without the '-•ha^ce of his bem
dangerously entangled with the collar rein, and being ^^ t- Yet a thou n
the horse is cast, and bruised, and half-strang ed, "'^ !

F^"^ ^ d J ^ I ^ t^^h len^:

h'orcdlar tr elwn but not to allow of his head resting on the
gZSS ;lTau:C^^^^^^^^^^ over, a horse is obliged to place his head

quite down upon the ground.

SHYING.

We have briefly treated of the cause of ^i'^^-'SSs^o" of
that while it is ofte. the result of if,"' It has

h^^Vlitlit-; irilfl^e'S -'4trisVuet . Vice of

343

half or quarter-bred horses, than of those who have hi them more of the
genuine racing- blood.

In the treatment of shyingr, it is of great importance to distinguish be-
tween that which is the consequence of defective sight, and that which results
from fear, or newness of objects, or from mere affectation or skittishness.
For the first, the nature of which we have explained at page 98, every
allowance must be made, and care must be taken that the fear of correction
be not associated with the imagined existence of some terrifying object.
The severe use of the whip and the spur cannot do good here, and are
likely to aggravate the vice tenfold. A word half encouraging and half
scolding, with a gentle pressure of the heel, or a s'light touch of the spur,
will tell the horse that there was nothing to fear, and will give him con-
fidence in his rider on a future occasion. It should be remembered,
however, that although a horse that shies from defective sight may be taught
considerable reliance on his rider, he can never have the cause of the habit
removed. We may artificially strengthen the human sight, but the horse's
must be left to itself.

The shying from skittishness or affectation is quite a different affair, and
must be conquered : but how ? Severity is out of place even here. If he
is forced up to the object by dint of correction, the dread of punishment
will afterwards be associated with that object, and on the next occasion, his
startings will be more frequent and more dangerous. The way to cure him
is to go on, turning as Httle as possible out of the road, giving the animal a
harsh word or two, and a gentle touch with the spur, and then taking no
more notice of the matter. After a few times, whatever may have been the
object which he chose to select as the pretended cause of affright, he will
pass it almost v/ithout notice.

In page 225, under the head ' breaking in,' we have described how the
colt may be cured of the habit of shying from fear or newness of objects ;
and if he then be accustomed as much as possible to the objects among
which his services will be required, he will not possess this annoying vice
when he grows to maturer age.

Mr. John Lawrence, in his last pleasing work on the Horse, says,
' These animals generally fix on some particular shying butt: for example,
I recollect having, at different periods, three hacks, all very powerful ; the
one made choice of a wind-mill for the object or butt, the other a tilted
waggon, and the last a pig led in a string. It so happened, however, that
I rode the two former when amiss from a violent cold, and they then paid
no more attention to either windmills or tilted waggons than to any other
objects, convincing me that their shying when in health and spirits was
pure affectation; an affectation, however, 'which may be speedily united
with obstinacy and vice. Let it be treated with marked displeasure,
mingled with gentle, but decided firmness, and the habit will be of short
endurance*.'

• ' We will suppose a case, a very common one, an every-day one. A man is riding a
young horse upon the high-road in the country, and meets a stage-coack What with the
noise, the bustle, the imposing appearance altogether, and the slashing of the coachman's
whip, the animal at its approach erects his head and crest, pricks his ears, looks affrighted,
and no sooner comes alongside of the machine than he suddenly starts out of the road.
His rider, annoyed by this, instantly commences a round of castigation with whipj spur,
and curb, in which he persists until the horse, as well as himself, has lost his temper ; and
then one whips, spurs, and pulls, and the other jumps, plunges, frets, and throws up his
head, until both, pretty well exhausted by the conflict, grow tranquil again and proceed on
their journey, though not for some lime afterwards in their former mutual confidence and
satisfaction. Should they in their road, or even on a distant day, meet with another coacli,
what is the consequence P That the horse is imt only more alarmed than before ; but now

344 THE HORSE.

Shvin^ on comin- out of the Stable is a habit that can rarely or never b.-.
cureti. It proceeds from the remembrance of some ill-usage or hurt which the
animal has received in the act of proceeding from the stable, such as stnku.ff
his head against a low door-way, or entangling the harness. Coercion will
but associate greater fear and more determined resistance with the old recol-
lection. Mr Castley, to whom we are indebted for much that is valuable
on the subject of the vices of the horse, gives an interesting anecdote, which
tends to prove that while severity will be worse than useless, even kind
treatment will not break a confirmed habit. ' I remember a very fine grey
mare that had got into this habit, and never could be persuaded to g^
throuo-h a door-way withdut taking an immense jump. To avoid this, the
servants used to back her in and out of the stable ; but the mare happening
to meet with a severe injury of the spine, was no longer able to back , and
Ln T have seen the poor creature, when brought to the door, endeavouring
rbakuice herself with a staggering motion upon her hal^niraVyzed hmd
extremities, as if making preparation and summoning ^e-lution for
some great eSbrt; and then, when urged, she would plunge headlon
forward with such'violence of exertion, as often to lose her feet and tu,„We
down " altogether most pitiable to be seen." This I merely mention he
continues, 'as one proof how inveterate the habits of Worses are^ They
are evils, let it always be remembered, more easy to present than cure

SLIPPING THE COLLAR.

This is a trick at which many horses are so clever that scarcely a nigh
passes without their getting loose. It is a --y/^^
enables the horse sometimes to gorge himself w>th food to t e .mm ne^U
dann-er of sta'^gers; or it exposes him, as he wanders about, to be Uickea
an^i'im-edbfthe other hoLs, while his restlessness will o^en keep the
whole te^n awake. If the web of the halter, being first accurately fitted
To ! S is suifered to slip only one way, or a strap is attached to the
halter and buckled round th'e ne k but not -^^-^ ^ .^n awVy
serious inconvenience, the power ot slipping the collar will be taken away

THIPPINQ.

He must be a skilful practitioner or a

remedy this habit. If it arises from a heavy forehand, and the lore le s
be" g lo much under the horse, no one can alter the natural frame of Uie
beast- if it proceeds from tenderness of the f"«t, grogginess, or old lame
ness, these ailments are seldom cured ; and t it is be raced to habitua
cue lessness and idleness, no whipping will rouse the drone A known
stumb er should never be ridden, or driven alone, by any one who values his
Sv or his life A tight hand or a strong bearing-rein are precautions
l^t lhonld not be neglected, but they are generally of little avail ; for the
that snouiu nou ^ himself, and this tight rem may

'rlTlndlTth r pT ip tl' Ihl rider. If, after a trip, the horse suddenly
sooner and farthe preap ^^^^^^ .^^^^ ^ ^.^^^

ry brisid '.at oXrs before him have fruitlessly endeavoured to

" H^llf stumw" has the foot kept as short and the toe pared as close as
n. moment ho 1.. started, bein^.~us of

,u,ni». about in f^=i^l\'l ^^^''t'^''""' ^^''t, ^^^^ run.l.nng his hors. tranquil d^u-ing Iho
ru« away. So that by tins corre t^-n, a ^^^^^^^ subsequently i-lunging. and

passage of a coach, theruler adcU to ^^IJ^ ^^^^^^ and\'ouatt, vol. p. 96

(.erhuvs rmnnij; away.'— 1 he / eierinanu, ,

AlK.

345

iiafety will permit, and the shoe be rounded at the toe, or have that shape
o-iven to it which it naturally acquires in a fortnight from the action of such
a horse, the animal may not stumble quite so much ; or if the disease
which produced the habit can be alleviated, some (rifling good may be
done, but in almost every case a stumbler should be got rid of, or put to
slow and heavy work. If the latter alternative be adopted, he may trip as
much as he pleases, for the weight of the load and the motion of the
other horses will keep him upon his legs.

WEA.VIiJG.

This consists in a motion of the head, neck, and body, from side to side,
like the shuttle of a weaver passing through the web,' and hence the name
which is given to this peculiar and incessant action. It indicates an im-
patient, irritable temper, and a dislike to the confinement of the stable ; and
a horse that is thus incessantly on the fret will seldom carry flesh, or he
safe to ride or drive. There is no cure for it, but the close tying up of the
animal, except at feeding time.

Chapter XX.
THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE.

This is a most important part of our subject, even as it regards the farmer,
although there are comparatively few glaring errors in the treatment of the
agricultural horse : but it comes more especially home to the gentleman,
who is too oflen and too implicitly under the guidance of an idle, and
ignorant, and designing groom.

VV^ will arrange the most important points of general management under
the following heads :

AIR

A supply of pure air is necessary to the existence and health of man and
beast. In some agricultural stables, the supply, if not too great, is care-
lessly and injudiciously admitted ; for the wind blows in from every
quarter, and beats directly upon the animal. When he has been well
seasoned to this, it seems to do him little harm, except that he has an un-
thrifty coat, and is out of condition. The common error, however, is to
exclude as nmch as possible every breath of air, and to have the atmos-
phere of the stable, hot, contaminated, and unwholesome. The effect of
several horses being shut up in the same stable is to render the air un-
pleasantly hot. A person coming from without cannot breathe it many
minutes without profuse perspiration. The horse stands hour after hour in
it, and sometimes clothed ; and then his covering is suddenly stripped off,
and he is led into the open air, the temperature of which is thirty or forty
degrees below that of the stable. Putting the humanity of the thing for a mo-
ment out of the question, we ask, must not the animal, thus unnaturally and
absurdly treated, be subject to rheumatism, catarrh, and inflammation of the
lungs? It has been replied, that the horse keeps himself warm by exercise
while he is thus exposed, and that a man, using strong exertion, cares little
about the quantity of clothing upon him. Is the horse constantly in motion

34f.

THE HOKSK.

after liis great coat and all his body clothes have been stripped from him, and
lie has been turned out naked, when the mercury in th^ thermometer is below
the freezing point? Does he not often stand, hour after hour, in the road or
the street, while his owner is warming himself within, and this perhaps after
every pore has been opened by a brushing gallop; and his susceptibility to
the painful and the injurious influence of cold has been excited to the
utmost?

It is not so generally known as it ought to be, that the return to a hot
stable is quite as dangerous as the change from a heated atmosphere to a
cold and biting air. Many a horse, that has travelled without harm over
a bleak country, has been suddenly seized with inflammation and fever
when he has, immediately at tlie end of his journey, been surrounded with
heated and foul air. It is the sudden change of temperature, whether from
heat to cold, or from cold to heat, that does the mischief, and yearly
destroys a multitude of horses.

The stable should be as large, compared with the number of horses
which it is destined to contain, as circumstances will allow. A stable for
six horses should not be less than forty feet in length, and thirteen or
fourteen feet wide. If there be no loft above, the inside of the roof should
always be plastered, to prevent direct currents of air and occasional drop-
pings from broken tiles ; and the heated and foul air should escape, and cool
and pure air be admitted, by elevation of the central tiles ; or by large tubes
carried through the roof, with caps a little above them to prevent the
beating in of the rain ; or by gratings placed high up in the walls. These
latter apertures should be as far above the horses as they can conveniently
be placed, by which means all injurious draught will be prevented.

If there is a loft above the stable, the ceiling should be plastered in order
to prevent the foul air from penetrating to the hay above, and injuring
both its taste and its wholesomeness ; and no openings should be allowed
above the racks, through which the hay may be thrown into the rack, for
they also will permit the foul air to ascend to the provender, and, in the act
of filling the rack, and while the horse is eagerly gazing upward for his food,
many a grass-seed has fallen into his eye, and produced considerable m-
flammation ; while at other times, when the careless groom has left open
the trap door, a stream of cold air beats down on the head of the horse.

The stable with a loft over it should never be less than twelve feet high,
and proper ventilation should be secured either by tubes carried up
through the loft to the roof, or by gratings close to the ceiling. These
gratings or openings should be enlarged or contracted by means of a
covering or shutter, so that during spring, summer, and autumn, the stable
should possess nearly the same temperature with the open air, and, in
winter, a temperature not more than ten degrees above that of the external
atmosphere. A hot stable has, in the mind of the groom, been long connected
with a glossy coat. The latter, it is thought, cannot be attained without
the former. To this we should reply that, in winter, a thin, glossy coat is
not desirable. Nature gives to every animal a warmer clothing when the
cold weather approaches. The horse acquires a thicker and a lengthened
coat in order to defend him from the surrounding cold. Man jiuts on an
additional and a warmer covering, and his comfort is increased and his
health preserved by it. He who knows anything of the horse, or cares
anythino- for his enjoyment, will not object to a coat a little longer and a
little roughened, when the wintry wind blows bleak. The coat, however,
need not be so long as to be unsightly ; and warm clothing even in a coo
stable, will, with plenty of honest grooming, keep the hair sufficiently

LITTKR.

347

smooth and glossy to satisfy the most fastidious. The over-heated air
of a close stable saves much of this grooming, and therefore the idle
attendant unscrupulously sacrifices the health and safety of the horse.

If the stable is close, the air will not only be hot, but foul. The
breathing of every animal contaminates it T and when, in thl course o!
the night, with every aperture, even the key-hole, stopped, it passes again
and again through the lungs, the blood cannot undergo its proper and
healthy change ; digestion cannot be so perfectly performed, and all the
functions of life are injured. Let the owner of the valuable horse think
of his passing twenty or twenty-two out of the twenty-four hours m
this debilitating atmosphere. Nature does wonders in enabling every
animal to accommodate itself to the situation in which it is placed, and
the horse that lives in the stable-oven suffers less from it than would
scarcely be conceived possible ; but he does not, and cannot, possess the
power and the hardihood which he would acquire under other circumstances.

The air of the improperly close stable is still further contaminated by
the urine and dung, which rapidly ferment in the heat, and give out
stimulating and unwholesome vapours. When a person first enters an
ill-managed stable, and especially early in the morning, he is annoyed not
only by the heat of the confined air, but by a pungent smell, resembling
hartshorn ; and can he wonder at the inflammation of the eyes, and the
chronic cough, and the inflammation of the lungs, with which the animal,
who has been shut up in this vitiated atmosphere all night, is often attacked ;
or if glanders and farcy should occasionally break out in such stables ?
It has been ascertained by chemical experiment, that the urine of the horse
contains in it an exceedingly large quantity of hartshorn ; and not only so,
but that, influenced by the heat of a crowded stable, and possibly by other
decompositions that are going forward at the same time, this ammoniacal
vapoiu- begins to be rapidly given out almost immediately after the urine
is voided.

When disease begins to appear among the inhabitants of these ill
ventilated places, is it wonderful that it should rapidly spread among them,
and that the plague-spot should be, as it were, placed on the door of such
a stable ? When distemper appears in spring or in autumn, it is in very
many cases to be traced first of all to such a pest-house. It is peculiarly
fatal there. -The horses belonging to a small establishment, and rationally
treated, have it comparatively seldom, or have it lightly ; but, among the
inmates of a crowded stable, it is sure to display itself, and there it is most
of all fatal. Tiie experience of every veterinary surgeon, and of every large
proprietor of horses, will corroborate this statement. Agriculturists should
bring to their stables the common sense which directs them in the usual
concerns of life; and should begin, when their pleasures and their property
are so much at stake, to assume that authority, and to enforce that obedi-
ence, to the lack of which is to be attributed the greater part of bad stable-
management and horse-disease. Of nothing are we more certain, than
that tlie majority of the maladies of the horse, and those of the worst and
most fatal character, are directly or indirectly to be attributed to the
unnatural heat of the stable, and the sudden change of the animal from a
high to a low, or from a low to a high temperature.

LITTER

Having spoken of the vapour of hartshorn, wiiich is so rapidly and bo
plentifully given out from the urine of a horse in a heated stable, we take
next into consideration the subject of litter. The first caution is frequently
to remove it The early extrication of gas shews the rapid putrefaction 01

348

THE HORSK.

the urine ; and the consequence of which will oe cne rapid putrefactaon ol
the litter that has been moistened by it. Everything hastening to decom-
position should be carefully removed where life and health are to be pre-
served. Every portion of the litter that has been much wetted, or at all
softened by the urine, and is "beginning to decay, should #)e swept away
every morning : the greater part of the remainder may then be piled under
the manger, a little being left to prevent the painful and injurious pressure
of the feet on the hard pavement during the day. The soiled and macerated
portion of that which was left should be removed at night.

No heap of fermenting dung should be suffered to remain during the
day in the corner or in any part of the stable. With regard to this, the
directions of the master should be peremptory.

The stable should be so contrived that the urine shall quickly run off,
and the offensive and injurious vapour from the decomposing urine and the
litter will thus be materially lessened : if, however, the urine be carried away
by means of a gutter riuniing along the stable, the floor of the stalls must
slant toward that gutter, and the declivity will sometimes be so great as to
strain the back sinews, and become an occasional, although unsuspected
cause of lameness. Mr. 11. Lawrence well observes that ' if the reader
will stand for a few minutes with his toes higher than his heels, the pain
he will feel in the calves of his legs will soon convince him of the truth
of this remark. Hence, when a horse is not eating, he always endeavours
to find his level, either by standing across the stall, or else as far back as
his halter will permit, so that his hind legs may meet the ascent of the
other side of the channel.'

This direction of the stall is also a frequent cause of contraction of the
heels of the foot, by throwing too great a proportion of the weight upon the
toe, and removing that pressure on the heels which tends most to keep
them open. Care therefore must be taken that the slanting of the floor
of the stalls shall be no more than is sufficient to drain off the urine with
tolerable rapidity. Stalls of this kind certainly do best for mares ; but for
horses we much prefer those with a grating in the centre, and an inclination
of the floor on every side towards the middle. A short branch may com-
municate with a larger drain, by means of which the urine may be carried
ofiF to a reservoir outside the stable. Traps are now contrived, and may be
procured at little expense, by means of which neither any offensive smell
nor current of air can pass through the grating.

The farmer should not lose any of the urine. It is from the dung of the
horse that he derives a principal and the most valuable part of his ma-
nure. It is that which earliest takes on the process of putrefaction, and
forms one of the strongest and most durable dressings. That which is
most of all concerned with the rapidity and the perfection of the decompo-
sition, is the urine.

The reasons why the horse should always stand on litter have been
given at page 295. Humanity and interest, as well as the appearance of
the stable, will induce the general proprietor of the horse to place a mo-
derate quantity of litter under him during the day. The farmer who wants
to convert every otherwise useless substance into manure will have addi-
tional reason for adopting this practice ; especially as he does not confine
Inmself to that to which in towns and in gentlemen's stables custom seems
to have limited the bed of the horse. Pea and bean haum, and potatoe-
top, and heath, occupy in the stable of the farmer, during a part of the
year, the place of wheaten and oaten straw. It should, however, be
remembered, that these substances are disposed more easily to ferment and
putrefy than straw, and therefore should be more carefully examined, and
nftenei removed. U is the faulty custom of some farmei's to lot the bed

LIGHT.

349

accumulate until it reaches almost & the horse's belly, and the bottom ot
it is a mass of dung. If there were not often many a hole and cranny
through which the wind can enter, and disperse the foul air, the health
of the animal svould sutFer.

LIGHT.

This neglected branch of stable-management is of far more consequence
than is generally imagined ; and it is particularly neglected by those for
whom these treatises are principally designed. The farmer's stable is
frequently destitute of any glazed window ; and has only a shutter, which
is raised in warm, and shutdown in cold, weather. When the horse is
in the stable only during a few hours of the day, this is not of so much
consequence ; nor of so much, probably, to horses of slow work ; but to car-
riage horses and hackneys, so far at least as the eyes are concerned, a
dark stable is little less injurious than a foul and heated one. To illus-
trate this, reference may be made to the unpleasant feeling and the utter
impossibility of seeing distinctly, when a man suddenly emerges from a
dark place into the full blaze of day. The sensation of mingled pain and
giddiness is not soon forgotten ; and some minutes pass before the eye
can accommodate itself to the increased hght. If this were to happen
every day, or several times in the day, the sight would be irrepa-
rably injured ; or, possibly, blindness would ensue. Can we wonder,
(hen, that the horse taken from a dark stable into a glare of light, and
feeling, probably, as we should do under similar circumstances, and unable
or a considerable time to see anything around him distinctly, should
become a starter, or that the frequently repeated violent effect of sudden
light should induce inflammation of the eye, so intense as to terminate in
blindness ? There is, indeed, no doubt that horses kept in a dark stable
are frequently notorious starters, and that starting has been evidently
traced to this cause.

Farmers know, and should profit by the knowledge, that the darkness
of the stable is not unfrequently a cover for great uncleanliness. A glazed
window, with leaden divisions between the small panes, would not cost
much, and would admit a degree of liglit somewhat more approaching to that
of day ; and, at the same time, would render the concealment of gross inat-
tention and want of cleanliness impossible.

If plenty of light be admitted, the walls of the stable, and especially
that portion of them which is before the horse's head, must not be of too
glaring a colour. The constant reflection from a white wall, and especially
if the sun shines into the stable, will be as injurious to the eye as the
sudden changes from darkness to light. The perpetual slight excess of
stimulus will do as much mischief as the occasional, but more violent one,
when the animal is taken from a kind of twilight to the blaze of day. The
colour of the stable, therefore, should depend on the quantity of light
Where much can be admitted, the walls should be of a grey hue. Where
darkness would otherwise prevail, frequent whitewashing may in some
degree dissipate the gloom.

For another reason it will be evident that the stable should not possess
too glaring a light. It is the resting-place of the horse. The work of the
farmer's horse, indeed, is confined principally to the day, but the labours of
others are demanded at all periods. The hour of exertion having passed,
the animal returns to his stable to feed and to repose, and the latter is as
necessary as the former, in order to prepare iiim for renewed work. Some-
thing approaching to the dimness of twilight is requisite, to induce the

350 THE HORSE.

animal tocornporte himself to sleep. ^h\s lialf-light more particularly huits
horses of heavy work, and who draw almost as much by the weight of
carcass which they can throw into the collar, as by the degree of muscular
energy of which they are capable. In the quietness of a dimly-lighted stable
they obtain repose, and accumulate flesh and lat. Dealer^ are perfectly
aware of this. They have their darkened stables, in which the young
horse, with little or no exercise, and fed upon mashes and ground corn, is
made up for sale. The round and plump appearance, however, which
may delude the unwary, soon vanishes with altered treatnient, and the
animal is found to be unfit for hard work, and predisposed to every inflam-
matory disease. The circumstances, then, under which a stable some-
what darkened may be allowed, will be easily determined by the owner
of the horse ; but, as a general rule, dark stables are unfriendly to cleanli-
ness, and the frequen' cause of the vice of starting, and of the most serious
diseases of the eyes

QROOMING.

Of this much need nol be said, since custom, and, apparenlly without ill
effect, has allotted so little of the comb and the brush to the farmer's
horse. The animal that is worked all day, and turned out at night, re-
quires little more to be done to him than to have the dirt brushed off his
limbs. Regular grooming, by rendering his skin more sensible to the
alteration of temperature, and the inclemency of the weather, would be
prejudicial. The horse that is altogether turned out needs no grooming
The dandrifF or scurf which accumulates at the roots of the hair is a pro-
vision of nature to defend him from the wind and the cold.

It is to the stabled horse, highly fed, and little or irregularly worked, that
grooming is of so much consequence. Good rubbing with the brush or
the currycomb opens the pores of the skiti, and circulates the blood to the
extremities of the body and through the minute vessels of the skin, and
produces free and healthy perspiration, and stands in the room of exer-
cise. No horse will carry a fine coat without either heat or dressmg.
They both effect the same purpose ; they both increase the insensible
perspiration : but the first does it at the expense of health and strength,
while the second, at the same time that it produces a glow on the skui, and
a determination of blood to it, rouses all the energies of the frame. It
would be well for the proprietor of the horse if he were to msist upon it,
and to see that his orders are really obeyed, that the fine coat in which
he and his groom so much delight, is produced by honest rubbing, and
not by a heated stable and thick clothing, and most of all, not by stimu

lating or injurious spices. , . , . u i

When the weather will permit the horse to be taken out, he should
never be groomed in the stable. Without dwelling on the want of clean-
liness when the scurf and dust that are brushed from the horse lodge
in his'iimnger, and mingle with his food, experience teaches that it the
cold is not too great, the animal is braced and invigorated from toeing
dressed in the open air, to a degree that cannot be attained in the stable
There is no necessity, however, for half the punishment which many a
groom inflicts upon the horse in the act of dressing; «»\P";t>^" >
on one whose skin is thin and sensible. Ihe currycomb «houM f a
times be lightly applied. With many horses its use may be almost d.s
pensed with ; Ld even the brush need not be so hard, nor the points o.
"he bristles so irregular as they often are. A soft brush with a I't^e "^^ «
weight of the hand, will be equally eHectual and a great deal more pleasan.

EXKRCISE.

351

to the horse. A hair cloth, while it will seldom irritate and tease, will be
almost sufficient with horses that have thin hair, and that have not been
neglected.

Whoever would be convinced of the benefit of friction to the horse's
skin, and to the horse generally, need only observe the effect produced by
well hand-rubbing the legs of a tired horse. While every enlargement
subsides, and the painful stiffness disappears, and the legs attain their
natural warmth, and become fine, the animal is evidently and ra^jidly
reviving ; he attacks his food with appetite, and then quietly lies down
to rest.

EXERCISE.

Our observations on this important branch of stable-management must
have only slight reference to the agricultural horse. His work is usually
regular and not exhausting. He is neither predisposed to disease by idle-
ness, nor worn out by excessive exertion. He, like his master, has
enough to do to keep him in health, and not enough to distress or injure
him : on the contrary, the regularity of his work prolongs life to an extent
rarely witnessed in the stable of the gentleman. Our remarks on exercise,
then, must have a general bearing, or have principal reference to those
persons who are in the middle stations of lite, who contrive to keep a horse
for business or pleasure, but cannot afford to maintain a servant for the
express purpose of looking after it. The first rule we would lay down is,
that every horse should have daily exercise. The horse that, with the
usual stable feeding, stands idle for three or four days, as is the case in *
many establishments, must suffer. He is disposed to fever, or to grease,
or, most of all, to diseases of the foot ; and if, after these three or four days
of inactivity, he is ridden fast and far, is almost sure to have inflammation
of the lungs or of the feet,

A gentleman or tradesman's horse suffers a great deal more from idle-
ness than he does from work. A stable-fed horse should have two hours'
exercise every day, if he is to be kept free from disease. Nothing of
extraordinary or even ofordinary labour can be effected on the road or in
the field without sufficient and regular exercise. It is this alone which
can give energy to the system, or develop the powers of any animal.

How then is this exercise to be given ? As much as possible by, or
under the superintendence of, the owner. The exercise given by the
groom is rarely to be depended upon. It is inefficient, or it is extreme.
It is in many cases both irregular and injurious. It is dependent on the
caprice of him who is performing a task, and who will render that task
subservient to his own pleasure or purposes.

In training the hunter and the race-horse regular exercise is the mos*
important of all considerations, however it may be forgotten in the usup.l
management of the stable. The exercised horse will discharge his task,
and sometimes a severe one, with ease and pleasure, while the idle and
neglected one will be fatigued ere half his labour be accomplished, and
if he be pushed a little too far, dangerous inflammation will ensue. How
often, nevertheless, does it happen, that the horse that has stood in-ictiye
in the stable three or four days, is ridden or driven thirty or forty miles in
the course of a single day? This rest is often purposely given to prejjar^
for extra-exertion ;— to lay in a stock of strength for the performance of ihfK
task required of him : and then the owner is surprised and dissatisfied iT
\he animal is fairly knocked up, or possibly becomes seriously ill. Nothing
is so common and so preposterous, as for a person to buy a horse from a

352

THE HORSE.

dealer's stable, where he has been idly fattening' for sale for many a day
and inrimediately to give him a long run after the hounds, and complain bit-
terly, and think that he has been imposed upon, if the animal is exhausted
before the end of the chase, or is compelled to be led home suffering from
violent inflammation, Regular and gradually increasing exercise would
have made the same horse appear a treasure to his owner.

Exercise should be somewhat proportioned to the age of the horse. A
young horse requires more than an old one. Nature has given to young
animals of every kind a disposition to activity ; but the exercise must not
be violent. A great deal depends upon the manner jn which it is given.
To preserve the temper, and to promote health, it should be moderate, at
least at the beginning and the termination. The rapid trot, or even the
gallop, may be resorted to in the middle of the exercise, but the horse
must be brought in cool. If the owner would seldom intrust his horse
to boys, and would insist on the exercise being taken within sight, or in
the neighbourhood of his residence, many an accident and irreparable
injury would be avoided. It should be the owner's pleasure, and is his
interest, personally to attend to ail these things. He manages every other
part of his concerns, and he may depend on it, that he suffers when he
neglects, or is in a manner excluded from his stable?

POOD

The system of manger-feeding is becoming general among farmers.
There are few horses that do not habitually waste a portion of their hay ;
and by some the greater part is pulled down and trampled under foot, in
order first to cull the sweetest and best locks, and which could not be done
while the hay was inclosed in the rack. A good feeder will afterwards
pick up much of that which was thrown down ; but some of it must be
soiled and rendered disgusting, and, in many cases, one-third of this di-
vision of their food is wasted. Some of the oats and beans are imperfectly
chewed by all horses, and scarcely at all by hungry and greedy ones.
The appearance of the dung will sufficiently evince this.

The observation of this induced the adoption of manger-feeding, or of
mixing a portion of chaff with the corn and beans. By this means the
animal is compelled to chew his food; he cannot, to any great degree,
bolt th- straw or hay ; and while he is forced to grind that down, the oats
and beans are ground with it, and yields more nourishment; the stomach
is more slowly filled, and therefore acts better on its contents, and is not so
likely to be overloaded ; and the increased quantity of saliva thrown out in
the lengthened grinding of the food, softens it, and renders it more fit
for digestion.

If, when considerable provender was wasted, the horse maintained his
condition, and was able to do his work, it was evident that much might
be saved to the farmer, when he adopted a system by which the horse ate
all that was set before him ; and by degrees it was found out that even
food somewhat less nutritious, but a great deal cheaper, and which the
horse either would not eat, or would not properly grind down, in its natural
state, might be added, while the animal would be in quite as good plight,
and always ready for work.

Chaff may be composed of equal quantities of clover or meadow hay, and
wheaten, oaten, or barley straw, cut into pieces of a quarter or half an inch
in leno-th, and mingled well together; the allowance of oats or beans is
afterwards added, and mixed with the chaff. Many farmers very properly
bruise the oats or beans The whole oat is:ipt to slip out of the cliaH" and

FOOD.

J53

Ifie lost; but when it <s bruised, and especially if the chaflTis a /iitle welted,
it will not readily separate ; or, should a portion of it escape the grinders,
it will be partly prepared for digestion by the act of bruising. Tiie preju-
dice against bruising the oats is, so far as the farmer's horse, and the
waggon horse, and every horse of slow draught is concerned, altogether
unfounded. The quantity of straw in the chafF will always counteract
any supposed purgative quality in the bruised oats. Horses of quicker
draught, except they are naturally disposed to scour, will thrive better with
bruised than with whole oats ; for a greater quantity of nutriment will
be extracted from the food, and it will always be easy to apportion the
quantity of straw or beans to the effect of the mixture on the bowels of
the horse. The principal alteration that should be made in the horse of
harder and more rapid work, such as the post-horse, and the .stage-coach
horse, is to increase the quantity of hay, and diminish that of straw. Two
trusses of hay may be cut with one of straw.

Some gentlemen, in defiance of the prejudice and opposition of the coach-
man or the groom, have introduced this mode of feeding into the stables of
their carriage horses and hackneys, and with manifest advantage. There
has been no loss of condition or power, and considerable saving of proven-
der. This system is not, however, calculated for the hunter or the race horse.
Their food must be in smaller bulk, in order that the action of the Innirs
may not be impeded by the distention of the stomach ; yet many hunters
have gone well over the field, who have been manger-fed, the proportion of
corn, however, being materially increased.

For the agricultuial and cart horse, eight pounds of oats and two of
beans should be added to every twenty pounds of chaff; and thirty-four
or thirty- six pounds of the mixture will be sufficient for any moderate-
sized horse, with fair, or even hard work. The dray and waggon-hor.se
nay require forty pounds. Hay in the rack at iiight is, in this case, sup-
posed to be omitted altogether. The rack, however, may remain, as
occasionally useful for the sick horse, or to contain tares or other green
meat.

In order to prevent some hor.ses from turning much of the chaff out of
the manger in tlieir search for the oats, small iron bars may be placed
across it, and the provender plentifully sprinkled with water, but the water
should be applied only at the time of fiseding, for the wetted mixture
would soon become sour and mouldy.

Horses are very fond of this provender. The majority of them, after
having been accustomed to it, will leave the best oats given to them alone,
for the sake of the mingled chaff and corn. We would, however, caution
the farmer not to set apart too much damaged hay for the manufacture of
the chaff. The horse may be thus induced to eat that which he would
otherwise refuse ; but if the nourishing property of the hay has been im-
paired, or it has acquired an injurious principle, the horse will either lose
condition, or become diseased. More injury is done by the eating of da-
maged hay or musty oats than is generally imagined. There will be
sufficient saving in the diminished cost of the provender by the introduc-
tion of the straw, and in the improved condition of the horse, without
poisoning him with the refuse of the farm.

While the mixture of chaff with the corn prevents the corn from being
too rapidly devoured, and a portion of it swallowed whfile, and therefort
the stomach is not too loaded with that on which, as containing the most
nutriment, its chief digestive power should be exerted, yet, on the whole
a great deal of time is gained by this mode of feeding, and more is left for
rest. When a hor.se comes in wearied at tlio close of the day, it occupies

2 A '

S54 THE UORSK.

fttter he hes eaten his corn, two or three hours to clear h,s rack. On (ae
system of manger- feed in-, the chaff bein- already cut mto sr^ia 1 pieces,
a!>d the beans and oats bruised, he is able fully to satisfy h.s appetite in an -
hour and a half. Two additional hours are therefore devoted to rest
This is a circumstance deserving of much consideration even in the farmer s
stable and of immense consequence to the postmaster, the stagecoach
proprietor, and the owner of every hard-worked horse

Mano-er food will be the usual support of the farmers horse during t e
wilr and while at constant or occasional hard work ; but rom the middle
r end of April to the end of July, he may be led with this mixture n.
the day, and turned out at night, or he may remain out during every rest
day : a team in constant employ should not, however, be sutfered to be
out at ni"ht, after the end of July.

The firmer should take care that the pasture is thick and good ; and that
the dfstanTe from the yard is not too great, nor the fields too large, other-
w^se a very considerable portion of time will be occupied in catchuig ^
horses in ihe morning. He will likewise have to take into consideration
the sale he would have for his hay, and the necessity for sweet and
untrollu pasture for his cattle. On the whole, however, turning out in
SirwaJ when circumstances will admit of it, will be found to be more
beneficial for the horse, and cheaper than soilmg in the yaid.

The smal farmer's horse is sometimes fed on hay or grass alone, an
.he aniinal although he -ely gets a feed of corn, ma.ntams hn
tolerable condition, and does the work that is required of him , but nay

slo»ly effected in the J ''frerf om .,>pl^^^^ stnell

r-'^Th^ S ,'sTr«S"f'leTte7'o;t^^^^^^ corn. £ canseC b, a
or taste. Ihe musiy uiurious effect on

fangus grows J^^^^^^ p.oducin J profuse sUling

the urinarv organs, , inflammation of the bowels,

inflammation ofthe kidney or colic ai ^^^^^

This musty smell ^^/^'-^J^^^J^y^.^^ ,1, emplo -ed. It should be
requisite that too great a d^^^^^^^ injuring Ihe' life of the seed,

sufficient to destroy ^o grateful to the animal: it acquires a

The kiln-burnt oat, hojJ^^V^^,,^^^ of urine, and not unfrequently

heating QV^i'^y-'^^^^^f eyes- '''' ^ '

produces mflammation ot tl e ey , ^^^^ ^ ^^^^

Of the quantity brcuuing the unthres4a oat straw into

provement would be dkcted^^ b^^ ^^^^^
ohaff The expense o\ ttiresnm»

FOOO

than barley straw, but does iioi contain so much no jrisliment as that of
wheat

When the horse is fed on hay and oats, the quantity of the oats must
vary with his size and the work to be performed. In winter, four feeiis
or nine or ten pounds of oats a day, will be a fair allowance for a horse of
fifteen hands one or two inches high, and that has moderate work. In
summer, half the quantity, with green food, will be sufficienV.

Oatmeal will form a poultice, more stimulating than one composed
of linseed meal alone — or they may be mingled in different proportions as
circumstances may require. In the form of gruel it constitutes one of
the most important articles of diet for the sick horse — not indeed forced
upon him, but a pail coucaining it being slung in his box, and of which he
will soon begin to drink when water is denied. In cases of poisoning, or
of over purging, it is useful whether administered by the mouth, or as an
injection.

White-water, made by stirring a pint of oatmeal into a pail of water,
the chill being taken from it, is an excellent beverage for the thirsty and
tired horse.

Barley is a common food of the horse on various parts of the Conti-
nent, and, until the introd notion of the oat, seems to have constituted
almost his only food. It is more nutritious than oats, containing nine
hundred and twenty parts of nutritive matter in every thousand. "^There
seenis, however, to be sometliing necessary besides a great proportion of
nutritive matter, in order to render any substance wholesome, strengthen-
ing, or fattening. Except where horses are very hardly worked, barley does
not seem in our coimtry to agree with them so well as oats. They are
more subject to inflammatory complaints, and particularly to surfeit and
mange. When barley is given, the quantity should not exceed a peck daily.
It should be always bruised, and the chaff should consist of equal quan-
tities of hay and barley-straw, and not cut too short. If the farmer has
a quantity of spotted or unsaleable barley which he wishes thus to get rid
of, he must very gradually accustom his horses to it, or he will probably
produce serious illness among them. For horses that are recoverino- from
illness, barley, in the form of malt, is often serviceable, as temptino- the
appetite and recruiting the strength. It is best given in maslies ; water,
considerably below the boiling heat, being poured upon it, and the vessel
or pail kept covered for half an hour.

Grains fresh from the mash-tub, either alone, or mixed with oats or
chaff, or both, may be occasionally given to hor.ses of slow work ; they
would, however, afford very insufficient nourishment for horses of quicker
or harder work.

Wheat is in Great Britain more rarely given than barley. It contains
nme liundred and fifty-five parts of nutritive matter. When farmers have
a damaired or unmarketable sample of wheat, they .sometimes give it to
their horses, and, being at first used in small quantities, the horse be-
comes accustomed to it, and thrives and works well. It must, however,
always be bruised and given in chaff. Wheat contains a greater pro-
portion of glulai, or sticky adhe.sive matter, than any other kind of grain;
It IS difficult of digestion, and apt to cake and form obstructions in the
bowels. Thi« will oftener be the case if the horse is suffered to drink
much water soon after feeding upon wheat ; for the water passing rapidly
through the stomach and small intestines, in its way to the coecum, (see
page 204,) carries off with it all the starch, which is the most nourish-
ing, and leaves this stickv mass behind, which accumulates and hardens
and obstructs the intestines, and often destroys the horse. A horse th«t

« A 2

356 1'HE HORSK.

is fed on v.i.eat should have very little hay. The F;>P"[^'^^
be more than one truss of hay to two ^"'l^ .

in water to the thickness of starch, is given w,th good effect m o^er
purging, and especially if combined with chalk opmm

Beans— These form a striking illustration of the pruiciple that the
nourishing or streno-^hening effects of the different articles of food depend
more u 'on ^ome peculiar 'property which they have, or some combmat.n
which thev form, than on the actual quantity of nutnUve matter. Beans
rontitlt'five' hundred and seventy parts o nutri^^^^^^^^^^^^ they

and these not horses whose tendency to pu g it m^^^^^^
restrain by the astrmg^^^^^^^ horse if he

aware of the difference in the sp riL duu merely a

allows or ^emes him beans on his .jou J^^^^^tltshig tJeir

temporary stimulus, but they may ^^J^uy ^^.^^
power, or ^ducmg exhaust on^ Two VOJ^-

advantage, be mixed with the chatt or ine Upans alto"-ether

winter, 'in summer, the quantity may ^-J^f "^WsTs
discontinued. Beans are generally g'^^" J^"^";^ J^^e' 'hem while the old
VGuno- horse, whose teeth are strong, seldom requires ^^j" ' .j^^^^

•jiegrims or staggers. . y ^^^gree

Peas are occasionally given. They appear to ' " » ^

many are swallowed whole. Exposed to warmt ^

stomach, they swell very much, and may P^'^/^^'y^e, S peas and the
Many horses have died ^^ter gorgmg hemse v.. w^^^^^

stomach has been found to have been ^^r t by their 8^, emng.

phial is filled with peas, and warm water poured on ttiem,

Lottie tightly corked, it will ^-^V^ p,,t of the food of the

Herbage f^j^^^^'^^^h ^e.a d to which tlie farmer is so

'"T- i'^^L mixSre of 'grasses on both his upland and meadow
careless as the m.xUire o g ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^

pasture. tit to cut until the middle or l.tter part of

fection only in a loamy 90.1, not n meadow fox- tai', best cultivated

July, and y'^l^'ng 1 tt e a'tema^^^ ^^^^^
in a clayey so.l, ht to the scyt ^^^^^
a plentiful aftermath . ° ■ ^^j^g ^s its seeds ripen ; and the
of June, and '"^P'dly det"i«jaU^ end of July. These

fertile meadow grass ""^^^ce of which will, at no distant period, be
:::o;;rd"r:hl'Ul'ttsinclair's account of the different g«

FOOD.

337

or Uie condensation of the most important part of his work in Sir Hum
phry Davy's Agricultural Chemistry, are well deserving of the diligent
perusal of the farmer.

Were there not too many proofs that the very refuse of the farm is
often devoted to the keep of the agricultural horse, it would be needless
to repeat that the animal that works constantly and hard should have
the best food, and plenty of it. Old hay, as having longer undergone
that slow process of fermentation by which the sugar that it contams is
developed, is far more nutritive and wholesome than new hay. Mowhurnt
hay is more injurious to horses than to any other of the domestic animals,
and is a fruitful source of disease.

Where the manger system of feeding is not adopted, or where hay is
still given at night, and chaff and corn in the day, there is no error into
which the farmer is so apt to fall as to give an undue quantity of hay,
and that generally of the worst kind. If the manger system is good, there
can be no necessity for hay, or only for a small quantity of it; but if the rack
is overloaded, the greedy horse will be eating all night, instead of taking his
rest ; and when the time for the morning feed arrives, his stomach will be
already filled, and he will be less capable of work, from the want of sleep,
and from the long-continued distention of the stomach rendering it im-
possible for the food to be properly digested.

It is a good practice to sprinkle the hay with water in which salt has
been dissolved. It is evidently more palatable to the animal, who will
have the best unsaltcd hay for that of an inferior quality that has been
moistened with brine ; and there can be no doubt that the salt very ma-
terially assists the process of digestion. The preferable way of salting the
hay would be to sprinkle it over the different layers as the rick is formed.
From its attraction for water, it would combine with that excess of
moisture which, in wet seasons, is the cause of too rapid and violent
fermentation, and of the hay becoming mowburnt, or the rick sometimes
catching fire, and it would become more incorporated with the hay. The
only objection to its being thus used is, that the colour of the hay is not
so bright; but this would be of little consequence for home consumption.

Of the value of Tares, as forming a portion of the late spring and
summer food of the stabled and agricultural horse, there can be no doubt.
They are very nutritive, and they act as a kind of medicine. When
surfeit-lnmps appear on the skin, and the horse begins to rub himself
against the divisions of the stall, and the legs swell, and the heels threaten
to crack, a few tares, cut up with the chaff, or given instead of a portion
of the hay, will often afJbrd immediate and perfect relief. Ten or twelve
pounds may be given daily, and half that weight of hay subtracted. It
is an erroneous notion, that, given in moderate quantities, they either
rcughen the coat or lessen the capability for hard work.

Rye Grass affords a valuable article of food, but is inferior to the tare.
It is not so nutritive ; it is apt to scour ; and occasionally, and late in the
spring, it has appeared to becime injurious to the horse.

Clover, for soiling the horse, is inferior to the tare and the rye grass,
but, nevertheless, is useful when they cannot be obtained. Clover hay is,
perhaps, preferable to meadow hay for chaff; it will sometimes tempt the
sick horse, and may be given with advantage to those of slow and heavy
work ; but custom seems properly to have forbidden it to the hunter and
the hackney.

LuCERN, where it can be obtained, is preferable even to tares, and
8AiNr-F0iN is superior to lucern. Although they contain but a small
quantity of nutritive matter, that is easily digebtcd, and perfectly assiini-

358

THE HORSE.

'aled ; lliey speedily put both muscle and fat on the horse that is worn
down by labour, and they are almost a specific for hide-bound. Some
farmers have thoufcht so highly of lucern as to substitute it for oats. This
may do for the auricultural horse of slow and not hard work; but he
from whom speedier action is sometimes required, and the horse of all
work, must have a proportion of hard meat within him.

The Swedish Turnip is an article of food the value of which has not
been sufficiently appreciated, and particularly for afjricultural horses.
Although it is far from containing- the quantity of nutritive matter which
has been supposed, that, like the nutriment of the .saint-foin and the
lucern, seems to be capable of easy and complete digestion. It should
be sliced with chopped straw, and without hay. Thirty pounds of the
turnip, with two or three quarterns of oats, and six pounds of straw, will
be sufficient for a horse of moderately hard work. Hackneys have been
kept on them with a less quantity of oats.

Carrots. — The virtues of this root are not sufficiently known, whether
as contributing to the strength and endurance of the healthy horse, or the
ra])id recovery of the sick one. To the healthy horse they should be given
sliced in his chaff. Half a bushel will be a fair daily allowance, and the
two pounds of beans, and three pounds of the oats, may be withdravii.
There is little provender if which the horse is fonder. Some farmers
allow a bushel of carrots with chaff, and without any oats; and the horses
are said to be equal to all agiicultural or slow work

Potatoes have been given, and with advantage, in their raw .state,
sliced with the chaff; but, where it has been convenient to boil or steam
them, the benefit has been far more evident. Some have given boiled
potatoes alone, and horses, instead of rejecting them, have soon preferred
them even to the oat; but it is better to mix them with tlie usual
manger feed, in the proportion of one pound of potatoes to two and a halt
pounds of the other ingredients. The use of tlie potato must depend on
its cheajmess, and the facility for boiling it. Haifa dozen horses would
soon repay the expense of a steaming boiler in the saviivg of provender,
without taking into the accotmt their improved condition and capaoility
for work. A horse fed on potatoes should have his quantity of water
materially curtailed.

Furze has sometimes been given during the winter months. There is
considerable trouble attending the preparation of it, although its pleu-
ufulness and little value for other purposes would, on a large farm, well
repay that trouble. The fiuze is cut down at about three, or four years'
growth ; the green branches of that and the preceding year are cut off,
and bruised in a mill, and then given to the horses in the state in which
they come from the mill, or cut up with the chaff. Horses are very fond
of it. If tweitty pounds of the furze be given, five pounds of straw, the
beans, and three pounds of the oats, may be withdrawn.

It may not be uninteresting to conclude this catalogue of the different
articles of horse food with a list of the qtianliiies of nutritive matter
contained in each of them ; for although these quantities cannot be con
sidered as expressing the actual value of each, because other circum
stances besides the sTmple quantity of nutriment seem to influence their
effect in supporting the strength and condition of the horse, yet many
a useful hint may be derived when the farmer looks over the produce
of his soil, and "inquires what other grasses or vegetables might suit
his soil The list is partly taken from Sir Humphry Davy's Agricultural
Chemistry :— 1000 parts of wheat contain 9.'>5 parts of nutritive matter ;
bftrlcy, 920 ; oats, 743 ; peas, 57 4 ; beans, 570 . potatoes, 230 ; red beet.

Foon

359

148 • parsnips, 99 ; carrots, 98. Of the. grasses.lOOO parts of the meadow
cat's tail contain at the time of seeding 98 parts of nutritive matter ; nairow-
leaved meadow grass in seed, and sweet-scented soft grass ,n flower, 9b ;
narrow-leaved and flat-stalked meadow grass in flower, fertde meadow
trrass in seed, and tall fescue, in flower, 93; fertile meadow grass meadow
fescne, rocd-like fescue, and creeping soft grass in flower, / 8; sweet-
scented soft grass in flower, and the aftermath, 77 ; florin, cut in winter.
76; tall fescue, in the aftermath, and meadow soft grass in flower, 74 ;
cabbage, 73; crested dog's tail and brome flowering 71; yellow oat.
in flower, 66; Swedish turnips, 64; narrow-leaved meadow grass
creepino- beet, round-headed cocksfoot, and spiked fescue, 59 ; roughish
and ferUle meadow grass, flowering-, 56; florin, in summer, 54 ; common
turnips, 42 ; saint-foin, and broad-leaved and long-rooted clor«r, 39 ;
white clover, 32 ; and lucern, 23. ^. .

The times of feeding should be as equally divided as convemence wil
permit; an.d when it is likely that the horse will be kept longer than usua
- from home,the nose-bag should invariably be taken. The small stomach of
the horse is emptied in a few hours ; and if he is suffered to remam hungry
much beyond his accustomed time, he will afterwards devour his food so
voraciously as to distend the stomach and endanger an attack of staggers.
When this disease appears in the farmer's stable, he may attribute it to
various causes ; the true one, in the majority of instances, is irregularity in
feeding. If the reader will turn back to page 104, he will be convinced
that this deserves more serious attention than is generally given to it.

When extra work is required from the animal, the system of manage-
ment is often injudicious ; for a double feed is put before him, and as
Boon as he has swallowed it, he is staited. It would be far better to give
him a double feed on the previous evening, which will be digested before he is
wanted, and then he may set out in the morning after a very small portion
of corn has been given to him, or perhaps only a little hay. One of the
most successful methods of enabling a horse to get well through a long
journey is to give him only a little at a time while on the road, and at
night to give him a double feed of corn and a full allowance of beans.

Water. — This is a part of stable management little regarded by the
farmer. He lets his horses loose morning and night, and they go to the
nearest pond or brook and drink ttieir fill, and no harm results ; for they
obtain that kind of water which nature designed them to have, in a man-
ner prepared for them by some unknown influence of the atmosphere, as
well as by the deposition of many saline admixtures. The difference be-
tween hard and soft water is known to every one. In hard water soap
will curdle, vegetables will not boil soft, and the saccharine matter of the
malt cannot be fully obtained in the process of brewing. There is nothing
in which the different effect of hard and soft water is so evident as in the
stomach and digestive organs of the horse. Hard water, drawn fresh from
the well, will assuredly make the coat of a horse imaccustomed to it stare,
and it will not unfrequently gripe and otherwise injure him. Instinct or
experience has made even the horse himself conscious of this, fur he will
never drink hard water if he has access to soft : he will leave the mKist
transparent and pure water of the well for a river, although the water
may be turbid, and even for the muddiest pool.* He is injured, however,
not so much by the hardness of the well-water as by its coldness— particu-

• Some trainers have so much fear of hard or stranp water, that they carry with thenc
to the different courses the water that the animal has been accustomed to dnnk, and that
they know agreeti with it.

360

TEL HORSE.

lar]y by Its coldness in snmmer, and when it is man/ degrees belov the
tempei-iture of the atmosphere The water in the "brook and the pond
beinp: warmed by long- exposure to the air, as well as having become
soft, the horse drinks freely of it without danger. "

If the horse were watered three times a day, and especially in summer,
he would often be saved from the sad torture of thirst, and from many a
disease. Whoever has observed the eagerness with which the over-
worked horse, hot and tired, plunges his muzzle into the pail, and the
difficulty of stopping him until he has drained the last drop, may form
some idea of what he had previously suffered, and will not wonder
at the violent spasms, and inflammation, and sudden death, that often
result.

There is a prejudice in the minds of many people against the horse
being fairly supplied with water. They think that it injures his wind, and
disables him for quick and hard work. If he is galloped, as he too often
is, immediately after drinking, his wind may be irreparably injured ; but
if he were oftener suffered to satiate his thirst at the intervals of rest, he
would be happier and better. It is a fact unsuspected by those who have
not carefully observed the horse, that if he has frequent access to water
he will not drink so much in the course of the day, as another who, to cool
his parched mouth, swallows as fast as he can, and knows not when to stop.

On a journey a horse should be liberally supplied with wafer. When
he is a little cooled, two or three quarts of water may be given to him, and
after that his feed. Before he has finished his corn two or three quarts
more may be offered. He will take no harm if this be repealed three or
four times during a long and hot day.

It is a judicious rule with travellers, that when a horse begins to refuse
his food, he should be pushed no farther that day. It may, however, be
worth while to try whether this may not proceed from thirst, as much as
from exhaustion, for in many instances his appetite and his spirits will
return soon after he has partaken of the refreshing draught.

Management of the Feet. — This is the only division of stable
management that remains to be considered, and one sadly neglected by the
carter and groom. The feet should be carefully examined every morning
for the shoes may be loose, and the horse would have been stopped in the
middle of his work ; or the clenches may be raised, and endanger the
wounding of his legs ; or the shoe may begin to press upon the sole or
the heel, and bruise of the sole, or corn, may be the result ; and, the horse
having stood so long in the stable, every little increase of heat in the foot,
or lameness, will be more readily detected, and serious disease may pro-
bably be prevented.

When the horse comes in at night, and after the harness has been taken
off and stowed away, the heels should be well brushed out. Hand-rubbing
will be preferable to washing, especially in the agricultural horse, 'vhose
heels, covered with long hair, can scarcely be dried again. If the dirt be
suffered to accumulate in that long hair, the" heels will become sore, and
grease will follow ; and if the heels are washed, and piu ticularly during
the winter, grease will result from the coldness occasioned by the slow
evaporation of the moisture. The feet should be stopped — -even the
feet of the farmer's horse, if he remains in the stabl-^ No clay stopping
should be used, for it will get hard and press upon the sole cowdung
is the best stopping to preserve the feet cool and elastic ; but before the
stopping is applied, the picker must be run round the whole of the foot,
belv.een the shoe and the sole, to detect any stone which may have in-

UNSOTINDNKSa.

sinuated itself there, or a wound on any other part of the sole. For the
hackney and hunter, stopping is indispensable. After several days' hard
work it will afford very great relief to take the shoes off. having put plenty of
litier under the horse, or to turn him, if possible, into a loose box ; and tlie
shoes of every horse, whether hardly worked or not, sho>ild be removed or
changed once a month.

Chapter XIX.

ON SOUNDNESS AND THE PURCHASE AND SALE OF HORSES.

There are few sources of greater annoyance both to the buyer and the
seller of the horse, than disputes with regard to the soundness of the
"animal. Although, in describing the various parts of the horse, we have
glanced at the connexion of certain natural conformations, and some altera-
tions of structure, and accidents, and diseases, with the question of sound-
ness and unsoundness, it may not be uninteresting to those for whom our
work was designed, if we now bring into one point of view the substance
of that which has been scattered over many pages.

That horse is sound in whom there is no disease, nor any alteration ot
structure in any part which impairs, or is likely to impair his natural useful-
ness. That horse is unsound that labours under disease, or that has some
alteration of structure that does interfere, or is likely to interfere with his
natural usefulness. The term ' natural unefulness ' must be borne in
mind. One horse may possess great speed, but is soon knocked up ;
another will work all daj', but caiuiot be got beyond a snail's pace : one
with a heavy forehead is liable to stumble, and is continually putting to
hazard the neck of his rider ; another, with an irritable constitution and a
washy make, loses his appetite and begins to scour if a little extra work is
exacted from him. The term unsoundness cannot be applied to either ot
these ; it would be opening far too widely a door to disputation and endless
wrangling. The buyer can discern, or ought to know, whether the form of the
horse is that which will render him likely to suit his purpose, and he should
try him sufficiently to ascertain his natural strength, endurance, and man-
ner of going. Unsoundness, we repeat, has reference only to disease, or
to that alteration of structure which is connected with, or will produce dis-
ease, and lessen the usefulness of the animal.

These principles will be best illustrated by a brief consideration of the
usual supposed causes of unsoundness.

Broken-knees certainly do not constitute unsoundness after the wounds
are healed, unless they interfere with the action of the joint, for the horse
may have fallen from mere accident, or through the fault of the rider; but
no person would buy a horse with broken-knees until he had thoroughly
tried him, and satisfied himself as to his form and action.

Capped Hocks may be produced by lying on an unevenly paved stable
with a scanty supply of litter, or by kicking, in neither of which cases
would they constitute unsoundness, though in the latter they would be au
indication of rice; but in the majority of instances, they are either the
consequence of sprain of the hock, and accompanied by enlargement of
it, when they would be unsoundness. A special warranty should always
be taken against capped hocks. (85.)

Contraction is a considerable deviation from the natural futm ul the

m THE HORSE

ioot, but not necessarily eanstituting unsoundness; it requires, however, u
most careful examination on the part of the purchaser or veterinary sur-
geon, to ascertain tliat there is no heat about the quarter, or ossification,
of tlie cartilage; that the frog, although diminished in size, is not diseased ;
that the horse does not step short and go as if the foot were tender, and
that there is not the slightest trace of lameness. Unless these circum-
stances, or some of them, are detected, a horse must not be pronounced
to be unsound because his feet are contracted, for many horses with
strangely contracted feet, are never lame : a special warranty, however,
should be required where the feet are at all contracted.

Corns manifestly constitute unsoundness. The portion of the foot in
which they are situated will not bear the ordinary pressure of the shoe :
and any accidental additional pressure from the growing down of the horn,
or the introduction of dirt or gravel, will cause serious lameness. They
render it necessary to wear a thick and heavy shoe, or a bar shoe, to
protect the weakened and diseased part ; and corns are very seldom radi-
cally cured.

Cough. — This is a disease, and consequently unsoundness. However
slight may be its degree, and of whatever short standing it is, althougli it
may sometimes seem scarcely to interfere with the usefulness of the horse,
a change of stabling, or slight exposure to wet and cold, or the least over-
exertion, may at other times cause it to degenerate into many dangerous
complaints. A horse, therefore, should never be purchased with a cough
upon him without an especial warranty ; or if, the cough not being ob-
served, he is purchased under a general warranty, he may be returned as
soon as it is discovered.

Roaring, .Wheezing, Whistling, High-blowing, and Grunting,
being the result of alteration of structure or disease in some of the air
passages, and interfering with the perfect freedom of breathing, and espe-
cially when the horse is put on his speed, without doubt constitute unsound-
ness. There are decisions to the contrary, which are now universally
admitted to be erroneous. Broken wind is still more decidedly un-
soundness, (y*'.)

Crib-bitin». — Although there is some difference of opinion among %-ete-
rinary surgeon.-, on this point, crib-biting must be regarded as unsoundness.
This unnatural sticking in of the air must be to a certain degree injurious
to digestion, must dispose to colic, and so interfere with the strength, and
usefulness, and health of the horse. Some crib-biters are good goers, but
they probably would have possessed more endurance had they not acquired
this habit ; and il is a fact well established, that as soon as a horse begins to
become a crib-biter, he, in more than nine cases out of ten, begins to lose
condition. He is not, to the experienced eye, the horse he was before.
It may not lead on to absolute disease, or it may rarely do so to any con-
siderable de"-ree; but a horse that is deficient in ccmdition, must, to that
extent, have^his capability for extraordinary work diminished, although not
so as often to be apparent in ordinary work, and so far, the horse is un-
sound Were there no other consideration, the wear of the front teeth,
and even the frequent breaking of them, make a horse old before his time,
'and sometimes render it difficult or almost impossible for him to graze,
when the «tale of the animal or the convenience of the owner require tliat
lie sliouldhelHrnert out. '''S?.)

Curb ccmstitules unsoundness while it lasts and perhaps while the
swelling remains, although the inflammation may have subsided ; for ahorse
that has once thrown out a curb, is, for a while at least, very liable to do so
B-rai,, on the slightest extra exertion. A horse, however, is not returnable

UNSOUNDNESS.

363

if hf should spring a curb five minutes after the purchase, for it is done in
a moment, and does not necessarily indicate any previous unsoundness or
weakness of the part.

Cutting, as rendering a horse liable to serious injury of the legs, and
indicating that he is either weak, or has an awkwardness of gait inconsis-
tent with safety, should be considered as unsoundness. Many horses go
lame for a considei-able period after cutting themselves severely ; and
others have dropped from the sudden agony, and endangered themselves
and their riders. As some doubt, however, exists on this subject, and as it
is a very material objection to a horse, cutting, when evident, should have
its serious consequences provided againf^t by a special warranty. (89.)

Enlarged Glands. — The enlargement of the glands under the jaw has
not been so much considered as it ought, in our estimate of the soundness
of the horse. Simple catarrh will occasionally, and severe aflfection of the
chest will generally be accompanied by swelling of these glands, and which
does not subside for a considerable lime after the cold or fever has appa-
rently been cured. To a slight enlargement of the glands under the jaw
much attention need not be paid ; but if they are of considerable size, and
especially if they are tender, and the gland at the root of the ear partakes
of the enlargement, and the membrane of the nose is redder than it should
be, we should hesitate in pronouncing that horse to be sound. We should
fear the commencement, or the insidious lurking of disease.

Enlarged Hock. — A horse with enlarged hock is unsound. The struc-
inre of this complicated joint being so materially affected, tbat although
the horse may appear for a considerable time to do ordinary work well, he
will occasionally fail even as to that, and a few days' haid work will
always lame him. (90.)

The Eves. — That inflammation of the eye of the horse which usually
terminates in blindness of one or both eyes, has the peculiar character of re-
mittingor disappearing for a time, once or twice, or thrice, before it fully runs
.ts course. The eye, after an attack of inflanunation, regains so nearly its
former natural brilliancy, that a man well acquainted with horses will not
always recognise the traces of former disease. After p time, however, the
inflammation returns, and the result is unavoidable. A horse from four to
six years of age that has had one attack of this compla\nt, is long after-
wards unsound, however perfect the eye may seem to be, because he car-
ries about with him a disease that will again break out, and eventually
destroy the sight. Whether, therefore, he may be returned or not, depends
on the possibility of proving an attack of inflammation of the eye, prior
to the purchase. Next to direct evidences of this are appearances about
the eye, of which the veterinary surgeon at least ought not to be igno-
rant. They have been described at page 114. They consist chiefly of a
puckering of the lids towards the inner-corner of one or both eyes — a differ-
ence, although perhaps only a slight one, and not discovered except it be
looked for, in the size of the eyes ; a gloominess of the eye, a dulness
of the iris, a little dulness of the transparent part of the eye g-enerally, —
a minute, faint, dusky spot, deep in the eye, and generally with little radia-
tions of white lines proceeding from it: if tliese symptoms, or the majo-
rity of them, were observed at the time of purchase, the animal had
assuredly been diseased before, and is unsound. Starting is an equivocal
proot. It is usually an indication of defective sight, but it is occasionaJly
a trick Connected, however, with the appearances just described, it is p
very strong corroborative proof.

If a man buys a horse actually blind, he may repent of his bargain, but
he cannot get rid of it. He should be mdVe careful, and the law will nol
protect him if he does no* Mse common pri-caution. (01.!

364

TH'rf HORSE.

Lameness, from whatever cause arising, is unsoundness. However
lemporary it may be, or however obscure, it lessens the utility of the
horse, and renders him unsound for the time How far his soundnepe ,
may be afterwards affected, must depend on tne circumstances of the case.
A lame horse is for the time an unsound one.

Neurotomy. — A question has arisen how far a horse that has under-
gone the operation of the division of the nerve of the leg (see page 110),
and has recovered from the lameness with which he was before affected,
and stands his work well, may be considered to be soimd. In our opi-
nion there cannot be a doubt about the matter. Does the operation
of neurotomy render a horse as capable of work as he was before he be-
came affected with the disease on account of which, and to relieve him
from the torture of which, the nerve was divided ? Is the operation of neu-
rotomy so invariably followed by capability, and continued capability of
ordinary and even extraordinary work, that they may regularly be considered
as cause and effect? The most strenuous defenders of the nerve operation
cannot affirm this. They can only say that they partially succeed in almost
every fair case, — that they perfectly succeed in the majority of cases j but
they cannot deny that the horse will batter and bruise that foot, when he
has lost sensation in it, which should have been tenderly used ; that even
the hoof will sometimes be lost, after operations performed with the greatest
judgment ; that the lameness will sometimes return, after the animal
has gone soimd, one, two, or three years; and that, after all, there is a little
unpleasantness, and even unsafeness in the action of the horse, from the
peculiar manner in which the foot meets the ground when its feeling is
destroyed ; and that the horse is more liable to accidents, for he will trave'
on without warning his rider of the evil, after a piece of glass has pene
trated his foot, or a stone has insinuated itself between the sole and the
shoe ; and thus irreparable mischief will be done, before the cause of it
can possibly be detected. A horse on whom this operation has been per-
formed may be improved — may cease to be lame, may go well for many
years ; but there is no certainty of his continuing to do so, and he is
unsound.

Ossification of the lateral cartilages constitutes unsoundness,
as interfering with the natural expansion of the foot, and in horses of
quick work almost invariably producing lameness.

PuMicED-FOOT. — When the union between the horny and sensible
lamellfiB, or little plates of the foot (see p. 291), is weakened, and the
coffin-bone is let down, and presses upon the sole, which yields to this
unnatural weight, and becomes rounded, and comes in contact with the
ground, aqd gets bruised and injured, that horse must be unsound, and
unsound for ever, because there are no means by which we can lift up
the coffin-bone again into its place.

QuiDDiNG. — If the mastication of the food gives pain to the animal, in
consequence of soreness of the mouth or throat, he will drop it before
it is perfectly chewed. This, as an indication of disease, constitutes un-
soundness. Quidding sometimes arises from irregularity in the teeth,
which wound the cheek with their sharp edges ; or a ))rotr\iding tooth
renders it impossible for the horse to clo.se his jaws so as to chew his
'ood thoroughly. Quidding is unsoundness for the time ; but the un-
soundness will cease when the teeth are properly filed, or the catarrh
roHeved, or the cause of this imperfect chewing removed.

QuiTTOu is unsoundness.

Ring-bone. — Although nhen the bony tumour is small, and on one side
only, there is little or no lameness and there are a few instances w

UNSOUNDNESS

365

which a horse with ring-bone has worked for many years without lame-
ness; yet, from the action of t»ie foot, and the stress upon the part, the
inflammation and the formation of bone have such a tendency rapidly to
spread, that we must pronounce the slightest enlargement of the pasterns
or around the coronet, to be a cause of unsoundness.

Sandcrack is manifestly unsoundness; but it may occur with-
out the slightest warning, and no horse can be returned for one that is
sprung after purchase. Its usuai cause is too great brittleness of the
crust of the hoof ; but there is no infallible method of detecting this, or
the degree in which it must exist to constitute unsoundness. When the
horn round the bottom of the foot has chipped off so much that only
a skilful smith can fasten the shoe without pricking the horse, or even
when there is a tendency in the horn to chip and break off in a much
less degree than this, the horse may probably be returned as unsound,
for this brittleness of the crust is a disease of the part, or it is such an
altered structure of it as to interfere materially, with the usefulness of the
animal.

Spavin is unsoundness, whether the bony or the blood-spavin. In the
first, lameness is produced, at least at starting, in ninety-nine cases out of
a hundred, and there is enlargement of the hock, which rapidly spreads
with quick and hard work, although the horse may be capable of, and
may even get better at slow work. If there be no lameness, we would
yet reject a spavined horse, because the bony enlargement is too near a
very important and complicated joint, and oi the least injury or sprain of
that joint, would spread over it, and materially interfere with its motion.

Blood-spavin is unsoundness, because, although it may not be pro-
ductive of lameness at slow work, the rapid and powerful action of the
hock in quicker motion will produce permanent, although not considerable
lameness, and which can scarcely ever be with certainty removed. (92.)

Splent. — It depends entirely on the situation of the bony tumour on
the inside of the shank-bone, whether it is to be considered as unsound-
ness. If it is not in the neighbourhood of any joint, so as to interfere
with its action, and if it does not press upon any ligament or tendon,
it can be no cause of unsoundness, although it is often very unsightly.
It does not lessen the capability and value of the animal. Of this we
Iiave treated at length at pages 241 and 350. (93.)

Stringhalt. — This singular and very unpleasant action of the hind
leg cannot be termed unsoundness. It is an irregular communication of
nervous energy to some muscle of the thigh, observable when the horse
first comes from the stable, and gradually ceasing on exercise, and has
usually been found in those horses that have a more than common degree
of strength and endurance.

Thickening of the Back Sinews. — Sufficient attention is not always
paid to the fineness of the legs of the horse. If the flexor tendons
have been sprained so as to produce considerable thickening of the
cellular substance in which their sheaths are enveloped, they will long
afterwards, or perhaps ever after, be liable to sprain from causes by whieli
they would otherwise be scarcely affected. The continuance of any
"onsiderable thickness around the sheaths of the tendons indicates pre-
vious and violent sprain. This very thickening will fetter the action of
the tendons, and after much quick work will, from the very friction,
occasionally renew the inflammation and the lameness ; theiefore, such
a horse cannot be sound. It requires, however, a little discrimination to
distinguish this from the gummines/i or roundness of leg, peculiar to
some breeds?. There should be an evident difference between the injured
leg and the others. (94.)

366

THE HORSK.

Thoroughpin, except it be of great size, is rarely productive of lame-
ness, and therefore cannot, when unaccompanied by lameness, be
termed unsoundness: but as it is the consequence of hard work, and
now and then does produce lameness, the hock should be most carefully
examined, and there should be a special warranty ag-amst it.

Thrush. — There are various cases on record of actions on account of
thrushes in horses, and the decisions have been much at variance, or
perfectly contradictory. Thrush has not been considered by legal men
as unsoundness : it seemed to be necessary to prove lameness, or probable
injury to the foot. We confess, however, that we are inclined to consider
thrush as unsoundness. We are compelled to consider it so according- to
our definition, that every disease is unsoundness. It is inflammation of the
lower surface of the inner or sensible frog, and the secretion or throwing
out of pus, almost invariably accompanied by a slight degree of tender-
ness of the frog itself, or of the heel a little above it, and if neglected,
leading to diminution of the substance of the frog, and separation of the
horn from the parts beneath, and undermining, and the production of
fungus and canker, and ultimately a diseased state of the foot, destruc-
tive of the present, and dangerous to the future usefulness of the horse.
(95.)

WiNDGALLS. — There are few horses perfectly free from windgalls, but
they do not interfere with the action of the fetlock, or cause lameness,
except when they are numerous or large. They constitute unsoundness
only when they cause lameness, or are so large and numerous as to
render it likely that they will soon cause it.

In the purchase of a horse the buyer usually receives, embodied in the
receipt, what is termed a warranty. It should be thus expressed : —

' Received of A. B. forty pounds for a grey mare, warranted only five
years old, sound, free from vice, and quiet to ride and drive.

^40. C. D.'

A receipt, including merely the word ' warranted,' extends only to
soundness, — ' warranted sound' extends no further; the age, freedom
from vice, and quietness to ride and drive, should be especially named.
This warranty extends to every cause of unsoundness that can be de-
tected, or that lurks in the constitution at the time of sale, and to every
vicious habit which the animal has hitherto shown. To establish a
breach of the warranty, and to be enabled to return the horse or recover
the price, tlie purchaser must prove that it was unsound or viciously
disposed at the time of sale. In case of cough, the horse must have been
heard to cough previous to the purchase, or as he was led home, or as
soon as he had entered the stables of the purchaser. Coughing, even on
the following morning, will not be sufficient; for it is possible that he
might have caught cold by change of stabling. If he is lame, it mtist
be proved to arise from a cause that could not have occurred after
the animal was in the purchaser's possession. No price will imply a
warranty, or be equivalent to one ; there must be an express wairwdy.
A fraud must be proved, in the seller, in order that the buyer may be
enabled to return the horse or maintain an action for the price. Thc^ war-
ranty should be given at the time of sale. A warranty, or a promise to
warrant the horse, given at any period antecedent to the sale, is invalid ;
for the horse is a very perishable commodity, and his constitution and
his usefulness may undergo a considerable change in a few days. A
warranty after the sale is invalid, ibr it is given without any legal consi-
deration. In order to complete the purchase, there must be a transfer of
Uie animal, or a m»»inorandum of agreement, or the payment of earnest-

WARRANTY

367

money ; tne least sum will suffice for earnest. No verbal promise to buy
or to sell is bindino- without one of these ; and the moment either of these h
etFected, the legaT transfer of property or delivery is made, and whatever
may happen to the horse, the seller retains or is entitled to the money. If
the purchaser exercises any act of ownership, by using- the animal without
leave of the vendor, or by having any operation performed, or done to
him. or medicines given, he makes him his own. The warranty of a ser-
vant is considered to be binding on the master*.

If the horse should be afterwards discovered to have been unsound
at the time of warranty, the buyer may return <L Altliough not
legally compelled to give notice to the seller of the discovered unsound-
ne^ss, it will be better for it to be done. The animal should then be ten-
dered at the house or stables of the vendor. If he refuses to receive him,
it is cruel to tie up the poor beast in the street, and leave him to the tender
mercies of the other party : it will be more advisable to send the animal
to a livery-stable, for an action (the horse having been tendered) may be
brought for expenses as well as for price. The keep, however, can be
recovered only for the time that necessarily intervened between the tender
and the determination of the action. It is not legally necessary to return
the horse as soon as the unsoundness is discovered. The animal may be
kept for a reasonable time afterwards, and even proper medical means used
to remove the unsoundness ; but courtesy, and indeed justice, will require
that the notice should be given as soon as possible. Although it is stated,
on the authority of Lord Loughborough, that ' no length of time elapsed
after the .sale will alter the nature of a contract originally false yet there
are cases on record in which the plaintiff was nonsuited because he did
not give notice of the unsoundness in a reasonable time. The extent of
this reasonable time must depend on many circumstances. It used to be
supposed that the buyer had no right to have the horse medically treated,
and that he would vitiate the warranty by doing so. The question, how-
ever, would be, has he injured, or diminished the value of the horse by this
treatment? It will generally, however, be prudent for him to refrain
from all medical treatment, because the means adopied, however skilfully
employed, may have an unfortunate effect, or what he does may be misre-
presented by ignorant or interested observers.

When a horse is returned, and an action brought for the price, it will be
indispensable that in every other respect, except the alleged unsoundness,
the animal shall be as perfect and valuable as when bought.

The purchaser, possibly, may like the horse notwithstanding his dis-
covered defect, and he muy retain and brin,^ his action for the depreciation
in value on account of the unsoundness. Few, however, will do this, be-
cause the detention of the horse will cause a suspicion that the defect was
of no great consequence, and will give rise to much cavil about tlie
ciuantum of damages, and, after all, very slight damages will probably be
obtained f.

• The veight of authority decidt'.s that the master is bound by the act of the servant.
Lord Kenyon, however, had gome doubt on the subject. . » i i •«

t ' I take it to be clear law, that if a person purchases a horse that is warrauteil, ana it
afterwards turns out th^t the horse was unsound at the time of the warranty, »;o buyer
may, if he pleases, keep the horse, and bring an action on the warranty; mwhicU he will
have a right to renvoi the difference between the value of a sound horse, aud one with
such defects as existed at the time of warranty; or he may return the horse, and bring
an action to recover the full money paid ; but in the latter case, the seller has a right to
expect that the horse shall be reUirned to him in the same state he was when sold, and not
by any means dimiuishe.l in value ; for if a person keeps a warranted article for any length
of time after discoverin« its defects, m-d when ho returns it, it is in a worse state than il

30b

THE HORSK

Where there is no warranty, an action may be broug^ht on the ground
of fraud, but this is very difficult to be maintaineci, and few possibly
will liazard it. It will be necessary to prove that the dealer knew tht»-
defect, and that the purchaser was imposed upon by his false repre-
sentation ; and that, too, in a case in which a person of ordinary cir
cumspection might have been imposed upon. If the defect was evident
•o every eye, the purchaser has no remedy — he should have taken
more care ; but if a warranty was given, it extends to all unsoundness,
palpable or concealed. Although a person should ignorantly or carelessly
buy a blind horse, warranted sound, he may return it — the warranty is
his guard, and prevents him from so closely examining the horse as he
otherwise would have done; but if he buys a blind horse, thinking him
to be sound, and without a warranty, he has no remedy. The law sup-
poses every one to exercise common circumspection and common sense.

A man should have a more perfect knowledge of horses than falls to the
lot of most, and a perfect knowledge of the vendor too, who ventures to
buy a horse without a warranty.

If a person buys a horse warranted sound, and discovering no defect
in him, and relying on the warranty, resells him, and the unsound-
ness is discovered by the second purchaser, and the horse returned to
the first piirchaser, or an action commenced against him, he has his
claim on the first seller, and may demand of him not only the price of the
horse, or the difference in value, but every expense that may have been
incurred

Exchanges, whether of one horse absolutely for another, or a sum of
money being paid in addition by one of the parties, stand on the same
ground as simple sales. Il' there is a warranty on either side, and
that is broken, the exchange is vitiated: if there be no warranty, deceit
must be proved.

The subject of trial is a very intricate one, and we are inclined to think
that the dealer is often very ill-used. It is well known that a horse from
a dealer's stable is seldom or never fit for hard work until he has under-
gone some preparation and training. It is right that the purchaser should
have a trial of liim, but he should try him in a fair way — in a way consistent
with the state in which the animal is. If a horse from a dealer's stable i s
galloped far and fast, it is probable that he will soon show distress; and
if he is pushed farther, inflammation and dcatli may ensue. The dealer
rarely gets recompensed for this ; and if it should occur soon after the
sale, the horse is returned, or an action is brought for its price. When
accidents have arisen in the fair trial of a horse, the decisions of the courts
of law have been strangely contradictory; and, indeed, it is often difficult
to determine whether the faiilt rests with the horse or the rider. If the
horse be detained after the specified time of trial, he is supposed to be
sold, and with all his faults.

In London, and in most great towns, there are repositories for the
periodical sale of horse.s by auction. They are of great convenience to the
seller, who can at once get rid of a horse with which he wishes to part,
without waiting month after month before he obtains a purchaser, and
who is relieved from the nuisance or fear of having the horse returned on
account of breach of the warranty, because in these places only two days
are allowed for the trial, and if the horse is not returned within that

would have been if returned immediately after such discovery, I think the party can have
no (lefunce to an action for the price of the article on the groimd of non-complianci; witli
ilw warranty, but must he left to his action on the warranty to recover the diflierence in
the value of the article wairauted, and its value when sold.'— Curtis v. Hannay. 3 Ksp. 83.

THE SKIN AND ITS DISEASES.

369

period, he cannot be returned afterwards. They are also convenient to
the purchaser, who can thus in a large town soon find a horse that will
suit him, and which, from this restriction as to the returning the animal,
he will obtain twenty or thirty per cent, below the dealer's prices.
Although an auction may seem to offer a fair open competition, there is
no place at which it is more necessary for a person not much accustomed
to horses to take with him an experienced friend, and when there to
depend on his own judgment or that of his friend, heedless of the observa-
tions or manoeuvres of the by-standers, the exaggerated commendations
of some horses, and the thousand faults found with others. There are
always numerous groups of low dealers, copers, and chaunters, whose
business it is to delude and deceive.

The principal repositories in London, are Tattersall's, at Hyde Park
Corner, on Monday and Thursday, at one o'clock, for racers, hunters,
and superior horses of every kind, although many that are good for
nothing find their way there. — Young's, at the Bazaar in King Street,
Portman Square, on Tuesday and Saturday, at twelve o'clock, for horses
of every description ; and where, likewise, horses are always standing
for private sale. — Dixon's, in Barbican, for machiners of every kind,
and generally the best of them, with occasionally good hackneys ;
and Morris's, in St. Martin's Lane, for draught horses and hackneys
of every grade and value. Horses should be sent two days before
the sale; and it should be so contrived, if possible, that they should
be placed about or beyond the middle of the catalogue ; so that
they may be brought out when those persons who lie abed until
after noon, begin to appear. If the horses are bought in, the owner
will have to pay 3s. 6d. per night for their keep, and 6s. for the offering
them for sale : if they are sold, he will be charged with five per cent,
for the auction-duty, five per cent, for commission, and the keep ; and the
balance may be received the day after the period of trial expires.

One of the regulations at the Bazaar is exceedingly fair, both with
regard to the previous owner and the purchaser; viz.

' When a horse, having been warranted sound, shall be returned
within the prescribed period, on account of unsoundness, a certificate
from a veterinary surgeon, particularly describing the unsoundness, must
accompany the horse so returned ; when, if it be agreed to by the veteri-
nary surgeon of the establishment, the amount received for the horse
shall be immediately paid back ; but if the veterinary surgeon of the
establishment should not confirm the certificate, then, in order to avoid
fiirther dispute, one of the veterinary surgeons of the college shall be
called in, and his decision shall be final, and the expense of such umpire
shall be boine by the party in eiror. (96.)

Chapter XXI.

THE SKI]N AND ITS DISEASES.

The skin of the horse differs little in construction from that of other ani-
mals. It consists of three parts, the cuticle or scarf skin externally — very
thin, and .somewhat transparent, as is proved by the action of a blister
when the cuticle is raised from the true skin beneath, in the form of
almost pellucid bladders. The dandriff or scurf, which is brushed out in
grooming, consists of scales or portions of the cuticle detached in the gra-
dual change or renewal of this membrane. The parts within the frame

2 B

K70 THE HORSE.

as they are separated are carried off by the absorbents — the outer skin is
more readily got rid of, in the form of scales. The cuticle is produced by
the true skin, and is perforated by all its pores, whether exhalent of
absorbent; and it adheres to the true skin through the medium of these
pores, and likewise of little eminences or projections, which seem to be
prolongations of the nerves of the skin.

It is doubtful whether the horse possesses to any considerable degree
the sense of touch, or whether he is able to ascertain the form and nature
of bodies by impressions made through the medium of the nerves of the
skin. The skin is thinner about the muzzle than at other parts, because
it is devoid of hair, but we never see this animal examining bodies by
movino- or rolling them about with his muzzle. He seems to exa'Mine
them simply by the smell.

Beneath the cuticle is a thin soft substance, through which the pores
and eminences of the true skin pass ; and on which the horse depends for
his colour. The dandriff or scurf of a black horse is as white as that oi
the lightest grey; and the skin beneath is of the same hue in all. The
soft substance is called the rete jnucosum, from its web-like structure, and
its soft mucous consistence.

Tinder this is the true skin, very different in different breeds : thin and
highly sensible in the blood horse ; thick, and, fortunately for the animal,
endowed with far less sensibility, in the common cart horse. Over a great
part of the frame it lies upon a very singular muscle, peculiar to quadrupeds,
and more extensive and powerful in thin-skinned and thin-haired animals
than in those of thicker hides. It reaches from the poll over the whole
of the carcass, and down to the arm before, and stiHe behind. By its
contraction the skin is puckered in every direction ; and if it acts strongly
and rapidly, the horse is not only enabled to shake off-any insect or fly that
may annoy him, but sometimes to displace a great part of his harness ; and
we have seen determinedly vicious horses shake themselves so violently
that the most expert rider could scarcely keep his seat. This muscle
also assists the skin in bracing that part of the frame which it covers, and
perhaps it gives additional strength to the muscles beneath. It is called
the panniculvs carnoms of fleshy pinnacle or covering.

The skin answers the double purpose of protection and strength.
Where it is necessary that the parts should be bound and knit together it
adheres so tightly that we can scarcely raise it. Thus the bones of the
knees and the pasterns and the tendons of the legs, on which so much
stress is frequently thrown, are securely tied down and kept in their places
It is in order to take additional advantage of this binding and strength-
ening power that we fire the legs of overworked horses, in whom the
sinews have begun to start, and the ligaments of the joints to swell, or be
displaced. We find the skin tight along the muscles of the back and
loins, and down the yet more powerful muscles of the quarters; but in
other places it seems to be destined only to protect the parts beneath, and
there it is loosely attached, that it may not interfere with the motions of.
the animal About the brisket, and within the arms and a( the flanks, it
hangs even in folds, to allow for the extraordinary distension of those parts

in rapid action. r , , . , i. . j j i

Of its strength we have abundant proof, both m the living and dead
animal. Its fibres are interlaced in a most curious and intricate man-
ner, so as, when living, to be scarcely lacerahle. It off^ers considerable re-
Bistance even to the knife, and is converted into leather alter < eath.

It is, while the animal is alive, one ot the most ekstic bodies with
which we are acquainted. It not onl.y perfectly adapts itself to the

HIDE-BOUND.

371

slow {growth or decrease of the body, and appears equally to fit,
whether the horse is in the plumpest condition or reduced to a ske-
leton, but when a portion of it is distended to an extraordinary degree in
the most powerful action of the muscles, it in a njoment again contracts
to its usual dimensions. It is principally indebted for this elasticity to
almost innumerable little glands which pour out an oily fluid that softens
and supples it. When the horse is in health, and every organ discharges
its proper functions, a certain quantity of this unctuous maUer is spread
over the surface of the skin, and is contained in all the pores that pene-
trate its substance, and the skin is pliable, easily raised from the texture
beneath, easily doubled between the finger and thumb, and presenting
that peculiar yielding softness and elasticity which experience has proved
are the best proofs of the condition, that is, the general health of the
animal. Then, too, from the oiliness and softness of the skin, the hair
lies in its natural and proper direction, and is smooth and glossy, —
another proof of the condition of the horse. When the system is deranged,
and especially the digestive system, and the vessels concerned in the nou-
rishment of the animal cease to act, or act feebly, the vessels of the skin
immediately, and to a very marked degree, sympathize ; and this oily
secretion is no more thrown out, and the skin loses its pliancy, and it is
difficult or almost impossible to take it up between the finger and thumb,
and, losing its pliancy, it seems to cling to the animal, and we have that
peculiar feeling which we call

HIDE-BOUND.

Hide-bound is not so much a diminution of the eellulaTOr fatty substance
between the skin and the muscles and bones beneath, as it is a alteration
in the skin itself It is a hardness and unyieldingness of the skin from
the want of the oily matter on its surface, and in its substance, which has
just been mentioned. It is precisely the difference which is presented to
the feeling by well-curried and supple leather, and that which has become
dry and unyielding.

The surface of the skin becoming dry and hard, the scales of the cuticle
no longer yield to the hair, but, separating themselves in every direction,
turn the hair various ways, and give that staring coat or irregular direc-
tion of the hair which accompanies want of condition. This state of the
skin, by proving the impaired functions of the vessels of the skin,
shows the impaired function of the vessels everywhere, and particularly
those of the stomach and bowels. The horseman should remember that
hide-bound is not so much a disease, as a symptom of disease, and parti-
cularly of the digestive organs; and our remedies must be applied not so
much to the skin, (although we have, in friction and in warmth, most vain-
able agents in producing a healthy condition of the integuments,) as to the
'tause of the binding of the coat and the state oPthe constitution generally,
iivery disease that can affect the general system is likely to produce this
derangement of the functions of the skin. Glanders, when become con-
stitutional, is strongly characterised by the unthrifty appearance of the
coat. Chronic cougii, grease, farcy, and founder, are accompanied by
hide-bound ; and diet too sparing, and not adequate to the work exacted,
is an unfailing source of it. If the cause be removed, the effect will
'■ease.

Should the cause be obscure, as it frequently is — should the horse wear an
unthrifty coat, and his hideclin^i- to his ribs, without any apparent disease,
we shall be warranted in tracing it to sympathy with the actual, although
not demonstraV.le suspension of some important secretion, and, we repeat.

372

MOULTING.

generally in the alimentary canal : therefore a few mushes, and a mild
dose of physic, are first indicated, and, simple as they appear to be, they
often have a very beneficial effect. The regular action of the bowels being,
re-established, that of all the organs of the frame will speedily follow. If
the horse cannot be spared for physic, alteratives may be administered.
Tliere is no better alterative for being hide-bound and having an unthrifty
coat than that which is in common use, and which we have so often recom-
mended, levigated antimony, nitre, and sulphur; and given, in these
cases, in doses of two drachms of the first, three of the second, and fo\ir
of the last, and repeated every night in a mash, or in the form of ball.
The peculiar efFec* of the antimony and sulphur on the skin, of the sulphur
on the bowels, and of the nitre on the urinary organs, will be here advanta-
geously combined.

Should the horse not feed well, and there be no indication ot tever, a
slight tonic may be added, as one drachm of gentian, and half a drachm
of ginger ; but in the majority of cases attended by loss of condition, and
an unthrifty coat, and hide-bound, tonics and aromatics should be care-
fully avoided. The cause of the impaired action of the vessels being
removed, the powers of nature will generally be sufficient, and had better
be let alone. There are not any more dangerous medicines in common
use in the stable, and especially in cases like these, than tonics and cor-
dials. They often arouse to fatal action a tendency to fever that won d
otherwise have slept, or they produce a state of excitement near akin to
fever, and apt to degenerate into it. By the stimulus of a cordial the
secretions may be suddenly roused, and among them, this unctuous
secretion from the pores of the skin, so necessary to apparent condi
tion ; but the effect soon passes over, a repetition of the stimulus is neces-
sary—the habit is soon formed— the dose must be gradually increased,
and in the mean time the animal is kept in a state of dangerous excite-
ment, and the powers of nature must be eventually impaired.

Friction may he employed with advantage in the removal of hide-bound.
It has repeatedly been shown that it is one of the most efficacious instru-
ments we can use to call into exercise ihe suspended energies either ot the
absorbent or secreting vessels'. Warmth may likewise be employed, not
warmth of stable, which has been shown to be so injurious, and that in a
much more important way than the mere want of condition but warmtti
of clothing. But before this can be fully considered, the hair by which the
skin is covered must be described.

THE HAIR.

The hair is the natural clothing of all our domestic quadrupeds. It is
some protection from violence, and more so from cold ; and it varies with
the climate in which they live. It springs from below the skin. There
are found on the cellular and fatty substance, immediately in contact with
the internal surface of the skin, numerous little bulbs, which penetrate into
and pass throuoh the true skin, and which arriving at the cuticle, the hair
protrudes from°tlie summit of them. The hair itself, when examined
throu"-h a microscope, is «een to be a little tube, containing a pulpy matter,
whicirruns through the whole length of it, by which probably the hair is
fed and rendered pliant; and the loss of which under disease may add to
the' hard and unthrifty feeling of the coat of a horse out of condition
There is no essential difference in the structure of the hair in different
parts, as the mane, the tail, and the body, except that the former is larger,
longer, and stronger.

MOULTING.

373

The base of the bulb whence the hair proceeds being beneath the (rue
skin, it is easy to perceive that the hair will grow again, although the
cuticle may have beeu destroyed. A good blister, although it may
remove the cuticle, and seemingly for a while the hair with it, leaves no
lasting blemish. Even firing, lightly and skilfully performed, and not
penetrating through the skin, leaves not niuch blemish ; but when, in
broken knees, the true skin is cut through, or destroyed, there will ever
remain a spot devoid of hair. The method of hastening and perfecting
the re- production of the hair has been described in p. 243.

PORES OF THE SKIN.

Beside the openings already mentioned through which proceeds this
unctuous fluid to supple and soften the skin, there are others more
numerous, through which a vast quantity of aqueous fluid escapes, and per-
spiration is carried on; and, as in the human being, this actually exists
in a state of health and quietness, although imperceptible, yet, when the
animal is excited by exercise, or labours under some stages of disease, it
becomes visible, and appears in the form of drops.

This process of perspiration is not, however, so far under the control of
medicine as in the human being. We can, indeed, abate those profuse
perspirations which accompany want of condition, or moulting, or disease,
but we cannot easily produce or increase the visible perspiration.

We are not aware of any medicine that will certainly produce it. Warm
clothing seems occasionally to efl'ect it, but this is more in appearance than
reality. The insensible perspiration cannot escape through the mass of
clothing, and assumes a visible form. This, perhaps, is the case, even
when sheep-skins are applied over the back and loins in " locked jaw ;" and
they produce a good eftect, acting as a warm poultice over the part, and
so contributing to relax the muscular spasms. There are, however, some
naedicines, as antimony and sulphur, which have an evident and very con-
siderable effect on the skin, in opening its pores and exciting its vessels to
action.

Of the existence of absorbent vessels on the skin, or those which take
up some fluid or substance, and convey it into the circulation, we have
satisfactory proof A horse is even more easily salivated than the human
being. Salivation has been produced by rubbing a splint with mercurial
ointment, previous to blistering ; and a very few drachms rubbed on the
inside of the thighs will probably produce a greater effect than the
practitioner desires.

From some piirts of the skin there are peculiar .secretions, as that of
grease in the heel, and mallendeis in the knee. (97.)

MOULTING.

Twice in the year the hair of the body of the horse is changed. The hair
of the mane and tail remains. The bulbous root of the hair does not die,
but the pulpy matter seems to be removed from the root of the hair, which,
thus deprived of its nourishment, perishes and drops off, and a new hair
springs at its side from the sume bulb. As this is a process extending
over the whole of the skin, and requiring a very considerable expenditure
ol vital power, the health of the animal is generally affected at these
times. That energy and nervous and vital influence, which should sup-
port the whole of the frame, is to a great degree determined to the skin,
und the unimal is languid, and unequal to much hard work. He perspires

374

THE KORSE.

g^reatly with the least unusual exertion, and if he i'b pressed beyond his
strength becomes seriously ill.

The treatment which the groom in this case adopts is most absurd and
dangerous. The horse, from the deranged distributiou of vital power, is
disposed to fever, or he labours under a slight degree of fever, sufliciently
indicated by the increased quickness of pulse, redness of nose, and heat
of mouth. The lassitude and waut of appetite which are the accompani-
ments of this febrile state, are mistaken for debility ; and cordials of
various kinds, some of them exceedingly stimulating, are unsparingly ad-
ministered. Common sense would require, that in this deranged distri-
bution of power, excitauts should be scrupulously avoided ; not only no
cordials should be given, but the usual quantity of food should be dimi-
nished— bran mashes should be given — a little fever or alterative medi-
cine should be aduiinistered, such as that which we have just described,
and the horse should be a little more warmly clothed, and sudden or too
great exposure to cold should be guarded against. There is no doubt
that spices hasten the process of moulting. The old hair is evidently
more speedily thrown off, and the new produced, but this at the expense
of greater derangement of the constitution— greater fever — and no little
danger, if, during this process of moulting, and while nature is thus unna-
turally forced on, disease of a febrile character should attack the animal.
Friction may be allowed, to assist the ftillingoff of the old hair, and to loosen
the cuticl'^ for the appearance of the new hair, but it should be gentle.
The currycomb should by no means be used — even the brush should not
be applied too hard or too long. The old hair must not be forced off
before the young iiair is ready to take its place. The exercise should be
moderate— the clothing rather warmer than usual, and the water chilled.
Nature adapts the coat to the climate and to the season. The Sheltie has
one as long and as thick as that of a bear ; and as the summer is short and
cold too in those northern islands, the coat is rough and shaggy during
the whole of the year. In the deserts of Arabia, where the winter is
rarely cold, the coat remains short and glossy throughout the year. In
our climate, the short covering of summer is succeeded in autumn by one
of considerably greater length and thickness ; and that in its turn yields
in the spring to the lighter clothing which summer requires. As a thin
and glossy coat adds to the beauty of the horse, and is identified, to a
great degree improperly, with his condition, an artificial system has been
adopled.^by which the coat shall remain of nearly the same length, and
that a short one, during the year. Nature changes it with the change of
season ; man contrives that there shall be no change of season m the
stable. It is always summer there— always sufficiently hot to make a
Ion"- coat useless, and therefore nature, who accommodates herself to cir-
cumstances, does not give it. The exposure to cold during the few
nours of exercise may roughen the coat for a little while, but the hot
clothino-and the hot air of more than twenty hours out of the twenty-four,
o-ive the character to the covering which nature bestows on such an
animal. This system is not now carried to the injurious extent that it
used to be, but it yet partakes too much of absurdity and danger. The
inflammatory complaints to which these hot-house animals are subject,
and the average shortness of their lives, are sufficient proofs of the error

of the practice. , , . , , . • ,

The former has, or should have, little to do with this artificial manage-
ment of the coat, and he may be assured that his hackney, or his hunter,
if he does occasionally venture to follow the hounds, will, with his winter
hair upon him, be to all intents and purposes m as lull condition, and as

COLUUit.

375

atroug and as stout, as the glossiest- coated horse in the field, if he has
been sufficiently and properly fed and trained for the purpose.

Hunters that are summered out, as reason and humanity demand,
should, however, if they are to wear the short fashionable coat, be taken
up before the end of June, not only because the grass may then begin to
fail, and the ground to grow hard, and the flies to annoy, but that they
may be accustomed to the warmth of the stable by day and by night, for
a sufficient time before the moulting season commences, and that the coat
may be accommodated to that warmth ; for if they are suffered to remain
out until the autumnal coat begins to grow, no grooming will remove
it until the following spring. (98.)

CLIPPING.

As to the newly invented practices of clipping, and its supposed improve-
ment, shaving the horse, and especially the hunter, such deviations from
.nature rarely come to any good. There may not be so much perspiration
hanging about the hair when the hunter, warmed by a long burst, comes to
a check on a piercing day, and therefore the cooling process of evaporation
in such a situation may not be so long continued ; but let it be remembered
that this cold must be abundantly more intense, when the frosty air comes
in immediate contact with the heated skin. It is during these pauses ol
action that the animal wants clothing to protect him from the chilling inju-
rious effect of the piercing blast upon the opened steaming pores of the
skin. While the animal is in action, a sufficient supply of heat is
obtained by the effect of that action on the capillaries, and the increased
development of temperature ; but when the action is suspended, some
clothing, natural or artificial, something through which the animal heat
shall not escape, is absolutely necessary to prevent the chilling of the
frame, the exhaustion of vital power, and the dangerous re-action of fever,

COLOUR.

The colour of the hair admits of every variety, and each colour becomes tn
turn fashionable. The colour of the hair, like that of the skin, is influenced
by, or depends on, that of the mucous mesh-work under the cuticle.
There are comparatively few perfectly white horses now remaining. The
snow-white palfrey, with its round carcass, and barb head, originally from
Spain, or perhaps from Barbary, and rarely exceeeding the size of a Gal-
loway, is now nearly extinct. Some yet remain in the possession of the
Duke of Montrose. They are of good constitution and pleasant in their
paces. The majority of white horses are those that have become so.
Light-grey colts begin to grow white before they are five years old, espe-
cially if they have not much dark mixture about the joints.

Grey horses are of different shades, from the lightest silver to a dark
iron grey. The silver grey reminds the observer of the palfrey, improved
by an admixture of Arab blood. He does not often exceed fourteen hands
and a half high, and is round carcassed — light legged — with oblique pas-
terns, calculated for a light carriage, or for a lady's riding — seldom sub-
ject to disease — but not very fleet, or capable of hard work.

The iron grey is usually a larger horse ; higher in the withers, deeper
and thinner in the carcass, more angular in all his proportions, and in
many cases a little too long in the legs. Some of these greys make good
hackneys and hunters, and especially the Irish horses ; but they are princi-
pally used for the carriage. They have more endurance than the flat-

s/6

THTfi HORSE.

ness of the chest would promise ; but their principal defect is their teet;
which are liable to contraction, and yet that contraction not so often accom
panied by lameness as in many other horses.

The dappled grey is generally a handsomer and a better horse ; all the
angular points of the iron grey are filled up, and with that which not only
adds to symmetry, but to use. Whether as a hackney, or, the larger
variety, a carriage-horse, there are few better, especially since his
form has been so materially improved, and so much of his heaviness got
rid of, by the free use of foreign blood. There are not, however, so many
dappled greys as there used to be, since the bays have been bred with so
much care. The dappled grey, if dark at first, generally retains his colour
to old age.

Some of the greys approach to a nutmeg, or even bay colour. Many
of these are handsome, and most of then are hardy.

The roans, of every variety of colour and form, are composed of white
mixed with bay or red, or black. In some it seems to be a natural mix-
ture of the colours; in others it appears as if one colour was powdered
or sprinkled over another. They are pretty horses for ladies or light
carriages, and many of them easy in their paces, but they do not usually
display much blood, nor are they celebrated for endurance. If they should
have white fore legs, with white hoofs, they are too often tender- footed,
or become so with even a little hard work.

The strawberry horse is a mixture of sorrel with white; usually hand-
some and pleasant, but more celebrated for these qualities than for
strength and endurance.

The pied horse is one that has distinct spots or patches of different co-
lours, but almost invariably of white with some other colour. They are
not liked as hackneys, on account of their peculiarity of colour, nor in
teams o^ horses ; but they look well when tolerably matched in a phaeton
or light carriage. Their value must depend on their breed; but of them-
selves they have no peculiar character, except that a white leg and foot is
as suspicious in them as it is in the roan.

The dun, of the Galloway size, and with considerable blood, is often
attached to the curricle or the phaeton ; but the larger is a true far-
mer's or miller's horse, with no great speed, and not always extraordi-
nary strength, and sometimes a little of a drone, yet a good-tempered,
good-feeding, good-constitutioned, useful horse enough. Varieties of the
dun, shaded with a darker colour, or dappled, and with some breeding,
and not standing too high, are very beautiful, and are sought after for
light carriages, and particularly for ladies to drive.

The cream-colour, of Hanoverian extraction, with his white iris and red
pupil, is appropriated to royal use. Attached to the state-carriage of the
monarch, he is a superb animal. His bulky, yet perfectly-formed body,
his sweUing crest, and his proud and lofty action, as if conscious of his
office, qualify him for the service which is exacted from him, but we have
no experience how far he would suit other purposes.

Of the chesnuts there are three varieties — the lightest red or the
sorrel, usually with white about them, either on the face or the legs, —
generally lightly made, yet some of them bulky enough for the heaviest
loads. Their colour is generally considered objectionable. Many of them
have no breeding at all, and the best bred are supposed to be somewhat
deficient in endurance.

The light chesnut, with less red and a little more bay or brown, is con-
sidered -Ifi a preferable horse, especially if he has no white about him, or
only a small portion of it ; yet even he, although pleasant to ride, is some-

COLOUK-

377

times initable, and generally weak. We must except one variety, the
Suffolk punch ; a heavy horse, and adapted for slow work, but perfect in
his kind, which no labour can daunt, no fatigue overcome. This is a breed
now, unfortunately, nearly extinct. The present variety, however crossed,
ia not equal to the old Suffolk.

The dark chesnut is as different a horse from the hackney-light-chesnut
as can be easily imagined; round in the carcass, powerful in the quarters,
but rather fine in the legs : possessed of great endurance, and with a con
stitution that rarely knows an ailment, except that the feet are small and
disposed to contraction, and that accompanied by lameness, and that the
horse is too often of a hot and unmanageable temper.

Of the bays, there are many varieties, and they include the very best of
our horses of every description. The bright yellow bay, although very
beautiful, and especially if his mane and tail are black, is the least valuable,
because the lighness of his colour seems to give him some tenderness of
constitution. The proper bay, with no white about him, and black from
the knees and the hocks to the feet, is the most desirable of all colours ;
he has generally a good constitution, naturally good feet, and, if his con-
formation is not faulty, will turn out a valuable horse for almost every
purpose.

As we approach to the brown, we find in the bay-brown not always so
much show and action, but more strength and endurance, and more use-
fulness. He usually has more substance than the lighter bay, and
more depth of leg ; and, could we find the same degree of breeding, he
would be as handsome, and more valuable. A good bay-brown or a
brown horse, with a sufficient quantity of blood, is indeed a good horse.

When, however, we arrive at the browns, it is necessary to examine the
degree of breeding. This colour is not so fashionable, and therefore these
horses have been considerably neglected There are many good ones, and
those that are good are valuable; but many of them are only a half
or a quarter bred, and therefore comparatively coarse, yet useful for the
saddle and for harness, for slow work, and occasionally for that which is
more rapid.

The black-brown is generally more neglected so far as its breed is con-
cerned, and deserves to be examined more carefully. It frequently, how-
ever, retains much of the goodness of constitution of the brown and bay-
brown.

Of the black greater care has been taken. The heavy black of Lincoln-
shire and the midland counties is a noble animal, and would be almost
beyond price if he could be rendered more active. The next in size form
the majority of our waggon-horses, and perhaps our best ; and on a
smaller breed still, and to the improvement of which much attention has
been devoted, many of our cavalry are mounted. A few black thorough-
bred horses and black hunters have been seen, but the improvement of
horses of this colour has not been studied, except for the purposes that
have been mentioned. Their peculiar high action, while not unob-
jectionable for draught, and desirable for the parade, would be unbear-
able in the roadster ; and some have said, that black horses are more
subject to vice, disease, and blindness, than any other colour. This charge
is not, perhaps, true to its full extent, but there certainly are a great many
worthless black horses in every part of the country.

After all, there is an old saying, that a good horse cannot be of a bad
colour ; and it Is far more necessary to attend to the conformation and
points of the horse than to his colour. These observations, however
although they admit of many exceptions, may be useful in guiding to the
iudicious purchase of the horse. (99.)

378

TILK IlUKaK.

SUKFEIT.

Large pimples or lumps often suddenly appear on the skin of th£
horse, and especially in the spring- ; and occasionally they disappear as
quickly as they came. Sometimes they seem to be attended with great
itching, but at others they appear not in the least to annoy the animal.
When they have remained a few days, the cuticle frequently peels off, and a
small scaly spot, though rarely a sore, is left. This is called a surfeit, from
its resemblance to some eruptions on the skin of the human being, when
indigestible or unw-holesome food has been taken. These lumps are, in
some cases, confined to the neck ; but they oftener spread over the sides,
back, loins, and quarters. The cause is enveloped in some obscurity.
The disease most frequently appears when the skin is irritable during or
after the process of moulting, and when it sympathises most with any dis-
order of the stomach ; therefore, some veterinary surgeons have attributed
it to indigestion. It has been known to follow the eating of poisonous
herbs or mow-burnt hay, but much oftener it is to be traced to exposure
to cold wlien the skin was previously irritable and the horse heated by ex-
ercise ; it has also been attributed to the immoderate drinking of cold water
when the animal was hot. It is obstruction of some of the pores of the
skin and swelling of the surrounding substance, either from primary affec-
tion of the skin, or from its sympathy with the digestive organs.

Bleeding will always be beneficial — from three to five quarts may be
taken, according to the strength of the horse, the extent of the eruption,
and the degree of fever. Physic never does good. If surfeit be con-
nected with some unhealthy atf'ection of the stomach or intestines, it is
that which the nausea or subsequent action of the purgative increases.
Alteratives will be found useful — and particularly the alterative which was
recommended for hide-bound (p. 371), and in the same doses. These
should be given on several successive nights. The night is better than
the morning, because the warmth of the stable will cause the antimony
and sulphur to act more powerfully on the skin. The horse should be
warmly clothed — l^lf an hour's walking exercise should be given, an
additional rug having been thrown over him — such green meat as can be
procured should be used in moderate quantities, and the chill should be
taken from the water.

Although the eruption may disappear after the bleeding, and that very
quickly, it will, if the horse be exposed to cold, come out again as sud-
denly, and as extensively as before. It will rarely, however, be advisable
to repeat the bleeding.

Should the lumps, after several of these alternate appearances and dis-
appearances, remain, and the cuticle and the hair begin extensively to peel
off, a worse affection is to be feared, for it is far from unusual for surfeit
to precede or degenerate into mange. This disorder, therefore, shall next
be considered.

MANGE

Is a pimpled or lumpy eruption. Afler a while the vesicle breaks, the
cuticle and the hair fall off, and there is, as in obstinate surfeit, a bare
spot left covered with scurf; but some fluid oozes from the skin beneath,
and this scurfiness changes to a scab, which likewise soon peels off, and
leaves a wider spot : sometimes another scab succeeds to the first, but
oftener a mere scaly, greasy-feeling, bare spot remains. This is attended
•with considerable itching and tenderness, and thickening of the skin, which

379

soon becomes more or less folded or puckered. The mange generally first
appears on the neck, at the root of the mane, and its existence may be
prettv truly ascertained, even before the blotches appear, and when there
i= only considerable itchiness of the part, by the ease with which the short
hair at the root of the mane is plucked out. From the neck it spreads
upward to the head, or downwards to the withers and back, and occa-
sionally extends over the whole carcass of the horse

One cause of it, although an unfrequent one, has been stated to
be neglected or inveterate surfeit. The more common cause is contagion.
Amid^'the whole list of diseases to which the horse is exposed, there is not
one more highly contagious than mange. If it once gets into a stable, it
spreads ihrongh it, for the slightest contact seems to be sufficient for the
communication of this noisome complaint.

If the same brush or currycomb be used on all the horses, the propagation
of mange is assured ; and horses feeding in the same pasture with a mangy
one rarely escape, from the propensity they have to nibble one another.
Mange in cattle has been propagated to the horse, and from the horse to
cattle', but there is no authenticated instance of the same disease in the
dog being communicated to the horse. There is as much difference in the
character'and appearance of mange in the horse and dog, as between either
of them and the itch in the human subject ; and the itch has never been
communicated to the quadruped, nor the mange of the quadruped to the
human being.

Mange has been said to originate in want of cleanliness in the manage-
ment of the stable. The comfort and the health of the horse demand the
strictest cleanliness. The eyes and the lungs frequently suffer from
the noxious fumes of the putrefying dung and urine; but, in defiance of
common prejudice, there is no authentic instance of mange being the
result. It may, however, proceed from poverty. When the animal is
half-starved, and the functions of digestion and the powers of the con-
stitution are weakened, we have seen, in the cases of hide-bound and
surfeit, that the skin soon sympathises, and we can imagine that mange
may occasionally be produced instead of surfeit and hide-bound. Every
farmer has proof enough of this being the case. If a horse is turned on a
common, where there is scarcely sufficient herbage to satisfy his appetite,
or if he is placed in one of those straw-yards which, under the manageroent
of mercenary and unfeeling men, are the very abodes of misery, the animal
comes up a skeleton, and he comes up mangy too. Poverty and starva-
tion are fruitful sources of mange, but it does not appear that filth has
much to do with it, although poverty and filth generally go hand in hand.

The propriety of bleeding in cases of mange must depend on the con-
dition of the patient. If mange be the result of poverty, and the aninial
is much debilitated, bleeding will be adding power to the cause of the dis-
ease. Physic, however, is indispensable. It is the first step in the progress
towards cure. A mercurial ball will be preferable to a common aloetic
one as more certain and effectual in its operation, and the mercury having
probably some influence in mitigating the disease. In this, however,
mange in the horse resembles the itch in the human being— that medicine
alone will never effect a cure. There must be some local application.
There is this further similarity, that that which is most effectual in curing
this disgraceful complaint in man, must form the basis of every local ap-
plication as it regards the horse. Sulphur is indispensable in every
unguent for mange ; it is the sheet-anchor of the veterinary surgeon.

In an early, and not very acute state ot mange, one ounce of the flowers
of sulphur should be well rubbed down with an equal quantity of train

380

THE llOKHK.

oil, and half an ounce of common turpentine. Farriers are fond of tlje
black sulphur, but that which consists of earthy matter, with the mere
dregs of the sulphur, cannot be so effectual as the flowers, which are
pure sublimed sulphur. A tolerably stout brush, or even a currycomb,
lightly applied, should be used wherever tiiere is any appearance of mange,
to remove the dandriff or scurf. After that, the horse should be washed
with strong soap and water as far as the disease has extended ; and when
he has been thoroughly dried, the ointment should be well rubbed in with
the naked hand, or with a piece of flannel. More good will be done by a
little of the ointment being well rubbed in, than by a great deal being merely
Bmeared over the part. The rubbing should be daily repeated. The sul-
phur seems to have a direct influence on the disease — the turpentine has
an indirect one, by exciting some irritation on the skin of a different na-
ture to that produced by the mange, aud under the influence of which
the irritation of mange will be diminished, and the disease more easily
combated. During the application of the ointment, and as soon as the
physic has set, an alterative ball or powder similar to those recommended
for the other affections of the skin, should be daily given. If, after some
days have passed, no progress should appear to have been made, half a
pound of sulphur may be well mixed with a pint of oil of tar, or, if that is
not to be obtained, a pint of Barbadoes tar, and the affected parts rubbed
as before. On every fifth or sixth day the ointment should be washed off
with warm soap and water. Tlie progress towards cure will be ascer-
tained ; the skin will be cleansed, and its pores opened, for the more
effectual application of the ointmejit.

The horse should be well supplied with nourishing, but not stimulating
food. As much green meat as lie will eat should be given him, or, what
is far better, he should be turned out if the weather is not too cold. It
may be useful to add, that, after the horse has been once well dressed
with either of these liniments, the danger of contagion ceases. It is
necessary, however, to be assuied that every mangy place has been
anointed.

It will be prudent to give two or three dressings after the horse has been
cured apparently, and to continue the alteratives for ten days or a fort-
night. The cure being completed, the clothing of the horse should be
well soaked in water, to which a fortieth part of the saturated solution of
the chloride of lime has been added ; after which, it should be washed
with soap and water, and again washed and soaked in a solution of the
chloride of lime, as before. Every part of the harness should undergo a
similar purification. The currycomb may be scoured, but the brush should
be burnt. The rack and manger, and partitions, and every part of the
stable which the horse could possibly have touched, should be well washed
with a hair broom, a pint of the chloride of lime being added to three
gallons of water. All the wood-work should then be scoured with soap and
water, after which a second washing with the chloride of lime and water
will render all secure. Some farmers have pulled down their stables when
they have been thoroughly infected with mange. This is being unneces-
sarily cautious. The efficacy of tiie chloride of lime was not then known :
and if it is carefully and sufficiently applied to every part of the stable
and its furniture, there cannot afterwards be danger.

Every case of itchiness of the skin should be regarded with suspicion.
When a horse is seen to rub the root of his tail, or his head or neck,
against the manger, the parts should be carefully examined. Some of the
hair may have been rubbed or torn off, but if the roots remain firmly ad
herent, and there be only redness and not scurfiness of the skin, it pro-

MEDICINKS.

bably is not mange, but only inflammation of the skin, from too great
fulnesf of blood. A little blood should be taken away — a purgative
administered, and the alteratives given. The mange ointment cannot do
harm, and may possibly prevent this heat of the skin from degenerating
into mange, or stop the progress of mange, if it has commenced. If a
Rcurfiness of skin should appear on any of the points that are pressed
upon by the collar or harness, the veterinary surgeon will do right to
"•uard aeainst danger, by alterative medicine and the use of the ointment.

^ " (100.)

WARTS.

These are tumours of variable size, arising first from the cuticle, and after-
wards connected with the true skin by means of the vessels which supply
the growth of the tumours. They are found sometimes on the eyelids,
on various parts of the skin, and on the prepuce. They must be removed
by an operation. If the root be very small, it may be snipped asunder
with a pair of scissars, close to the skin, and the root touched with the
lunar caustic. If the pedicle or stem be somewhat larger, a ligature of
waxed silk may be passed firmly round it, and tightened every day. The
source of nutriment being thus cut otf, the tumour will, in a few days, die
and drop otf. If they are large, or in considerable clusters, it will be
necessary to cast the horse, to cut them off close to the skin, and sear
the root with a red-hot iron. Unless these precautions are used, the
warts will speedily sprout again.

Chapter XXII.

A LIST OF THE MEDICINES USED IN THE TREATMENT OF THE
DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

He will rarely consult his own interest, who, not having had the advan-
tage of a veterinary education, undertakes the treatment of any of the
serious diseases of his horses. Many of the maladies of the horse so
nearly resemble each other — and are so continually varying their character,
and require, in their different stages, so different a treatment ; and in
the plainest case not only the characteristic symptoms of disease are
obscure, but even the indications of returning health, or increasing danger,
often scarcely ascertainable — so that the sick horse, as well as the human
being, needs the care of one whom study and experience have qualified
for the task. A list, however, of the drugs generally used, with a
slight account of their history, adulterations, and medicinal effects, will be
interesting to the horse-proprietor as well as to the veterinary surgeon ;
and may occasionally be useful when professional aid cannot be obtained.

Aloes. There are two kinds used in horse practice, the Barbacoes
and the Cape. The Socotorine, preferred by the human surgeon, are
very uncertain in their effect on the horse. Of the Barbadoes and
the Cape, the first are much to be preferred. The Barbadoes aloes
are obtained principally from the island of Barbadoes, and are the juice
of the large leaves of the aloe boiled to a considerable thickness, and then
poured into gourds in which they gradually harden. The true Cape is the
extract of a species of aloes chiefly cultivated at the Cape of Good Hope
The Socotorine aloes are of a brown colour, inclining to red, and brittle.
The Barbadoes aloes are black, with » iliade of brown, of an unctuous

>

382 THE HORSE.

fefelin^, with a strong'er smell, broken with difficulty, and the fracture dull.
The Cape are darker coloured, stronner snnelling, very brittle, and the
fracture perfectly glossy. Every person who uses much aloes should buy
them in the mass, and powder them himself, and then, by attending to
this account of the difference of the three, he can scarcely be imposed upon.
Aloes purchased in powder are too often sadly adulterated. The Cape
may be powdered at all times, and the Barbadoes in frosty weather,
when enou<rh may be prepared, to be kept in closed bottles, for the year s
consumption. They may also be powdered when they have been taken
from the gourd, and exposed to a gentle heat for two or three hours
before they are put into the mortar. Fifteen ounces of the powder, mixed
with one ounce of powdered ginger, and beaten up with eight ounces of
palm oil and afterwards divided into the proper doses, will form a purging
mass more effectual, and much less likely to gripe, than any thai can be
procured by melting the drug. If the physic is given in the shape of ball,
it more readily dissolves in the stomach, and more certainly and safely
acts on the bowels when made up with some oily matter, like that just
recommended, than when combined with syrup or honey, which are
apt to ferment, and be themselves the causes of gripes. It is also worse
than useless to add any diuretic to the mass, as soap or carbonate ot
soda The action of these on one set of organs will weaken the action
of the aloes on another. A physic mass should never be kept more than
two or three months, for after that time it rapidly lo.ses its purgative

^XSions for physicking will be found at p. 210. We will only add
that, as a promoter of condition, the dose should always be mild. A fe«r
fluid stools will be sufficient for every good purpose. Violent disease will
alone iustify violent purging.

Three drachms of Barbadoes aloes will have as much purgative power
as four of the Cape, exclusive of griping less and being safer. If the
horse is well mashed, and carefully exercised, and will drink plenty of
warm water, the Cape may be ventured on, or at least nnxed with equal
quantities of the Barbadoes; but if there be any neglect of preparation
for physic, or during the usual operation of the physic, the Cape are
not to be depended upon, and may be dangerous

Some persons are fond of what are called half-doses of physic Three
or four drachms are given in one day, and three or four on the following,
and perhaps, if the medicine has not operated, as in this divided state it
will not always, two or three additional drachms are given on the third
day. The consequence is. that the bowels having been rendered irn tab e
by the former doses, the horse is over-purged, and luflammation and death
not unfrequently ensue, when the effect of the three becomes combined,
tn physidung a horse, whatever is to be done should be done at once.
Whatever quantity is intended to be given, should be given in one dose

The svstem of giving small doses of aloes as alteratives is not good.
Thise r Jp a'd sm^U doses lodging in some of the folds of the intestines
and at length uniting, often produce more effect than is desirable ; and
U is never s^afe to ride a horse far or fast, with even a small dose of aloes

""Most^'oTall obiectionable is the custom of giving small doses of aloes as
Most or all "•'J"^""'' . f ^y^g lungs. There is so much sympathy
a nauseant, in °" ^ . ^^^^^ the belly of the horse, and inflam-

between he "'^.f ^ if transferred to another, that it is

mation of one part « '^'^^'y ^ui, „u,ch inflammation of the

t:S:gi:rir;?rErvSr:Siie U m^v mAame the intestines.

MEDICINES

«83

Aloes are most commonly, because most easily, administered in the
form of ball, but in a state of solution their eflfect is more speedy, effec-
tual and safe. Two ounces of aloes, and one ounce of gum (to suspend
the imperfectly dissolved portion of the aloes), are put into a pint of
boilino- vvater, and the mixture frequently stirred. When it is cold, two
ounces of tincture are added, as an aromatic, to prevent the griping of
the aloes, and also to keep the mixture from fermenting. The aloes must
not be boiled in the water ; even five minutes' boiling would take away
much of the purgative effect of the drug. The dose of thp solution should
vary from six to eight ounces.

Aloes are useful in the form ot tincture. Eight ounces of powdered
aloes, and one ounce of powdered myrrh, should be put into two quarts of
rectified spirit, diluted with an equal quantity of water. The mixture
should be daily well shaken for a fortnight, and then suffered to stand,
that the undissolved portion may fall to the bottom. This will constitute
a very excellent application for wounds, whether recent or of long standing,
and indisposed to heal. It is not only a gentle stimulant, but it forms a
thin crust over the wound, and shields it from the action of the air.

The principal adulteration of aloes is by means of resin, and the altera-
tion of colour is concealed by the addition of charcoal, or lamp black.
This adulteration is easily enough detected, by dissolving the aloes in hot
water. All aloes contain some resinous matter, which the water will not
dissolve, and which has very slight purgative effect. The excess of this
resin at the bottom of the solution will mark the degree of adulteration.

Alteratives are a class of medicines the nature and effect of which are
much misunderstood, and which are liable to much abuse. It is a very con-
venient name to excuse that propensity to dose the horse with medicines,
which is the disgrace of the groom, and the bane of the stable. By alteratives
we understand those drugs which effect some slow change in the diseased
action of certain parts without interfering with the food or work ; but by
common consent the term seems to be confined to medicines for the
diseases of the circulation, or of the digestive organs, or of the skin.
If a horse is heavy and incapable of work from too good keep, or if
he is off his food from some temporary indigestion — or if he has mange
or grease, or cracked heels, or swelled legs, a few alteratives are pre-
scribed, and the complaint is gradually and imperceptibly removed.
For all skin affections there is no better alterative than that so often
recommended in this treatise, consisting of black antimony, nitre, and
sulphur. If there is any tendency to grease, two drachms of resin may be
added to each ball. If the complaint be accompanied by weakness, a
little gentian and ginger may be further added, but we enter our protest
against the ignorant use, and almost against the use in the most skilful
hands, of mercury in any form, or any of the mineral acids or mineral
tonics, or heating spices, as alteratives. We indeed should be pleased if
we could banish the term alterative altogether. The mode of proceeding
which reason and science would dictate is to ascertain the nature and
degree of the disease, and then the medicine which is calculated to restore
the healthy action of the part, or, of the frame generally.

Alum is occasionally used internally in cases of super-purgation in
the form of alum-whey, two drachms of the powder being added to a pint
of hot milk ; but there are much better astringents, alttiough this may
succeed when others fail. If alum is added to a vegetable astringent, a?
oak-bark, the power of both is diminished. Its principal use is external.
A solution of two drachms to a pint of water forms alone, or with a
scruple of white vitriol,' a very useful wash for cracked heels, and for

384

THE HORSE

grease g'enerally ; and also for those forms of swelled legs attended with
exudation of moisture through the skin. Some add the Goulard lotion,
forgetting the chemical decomposition that takes place; the result of"
which is, that the alumine, possessing little astriugency, is detached, and
two salts with no astringency at all, the sulphate of lead and the sul-
phate of potash, are formed.

The Burnt Alum is inferior to the common alum for the purposes men-
tioned, and we have better stimulants, or caustics, to apply to wounds.

Ammonia, is, to the annoyance of the horse, and the injury of his
eyes and his lungs, plentifully extricated from the putrefying dung and
urine of the stable ; but, when combined with water in the common
form of hartshorn, it is seldom used in veterinary practice. It has been
given, and with decided benefit, and when other things have failed, in
flatulent colic ; and is best administered in the form of the aromatic
spirit of ammonia, and in doses of one or two ounces, in warm water.

Chloride of Ammonia, or sal ammoniac is scarcely deserving of a
place in our list. It is not now used internally ; and as an astringent em-
brocation, it must yield to several that are more effectual, and less likely
to blemish.

Anodynes. Of these there is but one in horse practice. Opium is the
only drug that will lull pain. It may be given as an anodyne, but it will
also be an astringent in doses of one, two, or three drachms.

Antimony. There are several valuable preparations of this metal.

The Black Sulphuret of Antimony, a compound of sulphur and
antimony, is a good alterative. It is given with more sulphur and with
Hitre, in varying doses, according to the disease and the slow or rapid
effect intended to be produced. The maximum dose, and especially if it
is to be continued, should not exceed four drachms. It should never be
bought in powder, whatever trouble there may be in levigating it, for
it is often grossly adulterated with lead, manganese, forge-dust, and
arsenic. The adulteration may be detected by placing a little of the
powder on a red-hot iron plate. The pure sulphuret will evaporate
without the slightest residue — so will the arsenic, but there will be an
evident smell of garlic ; a portion of the lead and the manganese will be
left behind.

Emetic Tartar — the tartrate of potash and antimony, or a combination
of super-tartrate of potash and oxide of antimony, is a very useful nauseant,
and has considerable effect on the skin. It is particularly valuable in in-
flammation of the lungs, and in every catarrhal affection. It is given in
doses of one drachm, or one drachm and a half, and combined with nitre
and digitalis. It is also beneficial in the expulsion of worms. Here it
must be given in doses of two drachms, and with some mechanical vermi-
fu"-e, as tin-filings, or ground-glass, and administered on an empty
stomach, and for several successive days. Although it may sometimes
fail to expel the worm, it materially improves the condition of the horse,
and produces sleekness of the coat. To a slight degree the emetic
tartar ifs decomposed by the action of light, and should be kept in a jar,
or o-reen bottle. It is sometimes adulterated with arsenic, which is de-
tect"ed by the garlic smell when it is placed on hot iron, and also by
its not giving a beautiful gold-coloured precipitate when sulphuret of
ammonia is added to a solution of it. , u ,„ i

Antimonial Powder— Powder of oxide ot antimony, with phosphate of
lime. This is the factitious James's powder and is used as a substitute
for that medicine, in many liseases of a ebnle character The dose is
Trom o»e tx, two drachms. The late Mr. Bloxam used to trust to it alone

MEDICINES. 388

in the treatment of epidemic catarrh in the horse, and lie was very sue
ressful. It is, however, decidedly inferior to the emetic tartar. This,
too, is adulterated with chalk, and plaster of Paris, and burnt bones, and
other white powders, and that to so shameful a degree, that little dependence
can be placed on the antimonial powder usually sold by druggists. Mu
riatic or sulphuric acid will detect most of these adulterations.

Chloride of antimony is formed by distilling corrosive sublimate with
antimony. The butter-like matter which is produced (whence the
common name, Butyr of Antimony) has a strong affinity for water, which
it attracts from the atmosphere, and thus becomes converted into a fluid.
The less water it is suffered to attract to itself, the more powerful it re-
mains, and therefore it should be kept in stopped bottles ; and the proof of
its goodness is its weight. It is decidedly the best liquid caustic we have ;
it is most manageable, and its effect can most readily be ascertained. As
soon as it touches any muscular or living part, a change of colour is per-
ceived on the part ; and the effect of the caustic can be fairly judged of by
the degree of change. For corns, canker, indisposition in the sole to
secrete'good horn, wounds in the foot not attended by healthy action, and
for every case where the superficial application of a caustic is needed, the
chloride of antimonv is unrivalled

Anti spasmodics". Of these our list is scanty, for the horse is subject
only to few spasmodic diseases, and there are fewer medicines which have
an anti- spasmodic effect. Opium stands first for its general power, and
that exerted particularly in locked jaw ; and oil of turpentine as almost a
specific for spasm of the bowels : camphor, assafoetida, and various others,
used on the human subject, have very doubtful effect in the horse, or may
be considered as almost inert.

Arsenic. Were it not that some practitioners continue to use it as a
tonic, in doses of from ten to twenty grains daily, and others use it to core
out old ulcers, we would not include it in our list, for we have little faith
in it. There are better and safer tonics, and far better and safer caustics.
The method of detecting the presence of arsenic, in cases of poisoning,
has been described at page 200.

Astringents are medicines that contract the living fibres, and thus close
the mouths of small vessels, and restrain inordinate and dangerous dis-
charges. Opium, alum, and catechu are powerful astringents in arrest-
ing intestinal and urinary evacuations ; and alum and the superacetate of
lead are astringents applied externally.

Balls. The usual and the most convenient mode of administering
many medicines is in the form of balls, compounded with oil, and not with
honey or syrup, on account of their longer keeping soft and more easily
dissolving in the stomach. Balls should never weigh more than an
ounce and a half, or two ounces, otherwise they will be so large as to pass
with difficulty down the gullet. They should not be more than an inch
in diameter and three inches in length. The mode of delivering balls is
not difficult to acquire; and the balling iron, wiiile it often wounds and
permanently injures the bars, occasions the horse to struggle more than
he otherwise would against the administration of the ball. The horse should
be backed in the stall ;— the tongue should be drawn gently out with
the left hand on the off-side of the mouth, and there fixed, not by con-
tinuing to pull at it, but by pressing the fingers against the side of the
lower jaw. The ball, being now taken between the tips of the hngers of
the right hand, is passed rapidly up the mouth, as near to the palate as
possible, until it reaches the root of the tongue ; it is then delivered with
a slight jerk, and the hand being immediately withdrawn and the tongue

THE HORSK

liberated, the ball is forced tliroug;h the pharynx into the CESophagns. Its
passage should be watched down the left side of the throat; and if it is
not seen going down, a slight tap or blow under the chin will generally
cause the horse to swallow, or a few gulps of water will carry it down. If
the gullet should be small, or strictured, and the ball should remain in
some part of it, the method of removing it has been described in page 162.

Blisters are applications to the skin which separate the cuticle in the
form of vesicles containing a serous fluid. They excite increased action
m the vessels of the skin, by means of which this fluid is thrown out. The
part or neighbouring parts are somewhat relieved by this discharge, but
more by the inflammation and pain which are produced, and which lessen
the inflammation and pain previously existing in some contiguous part.
On this principle we account for the decided relief often obtained by
blisters in inflammation of the lungs ; their efiicacy in abating deeply-
seated inflammation, as that of spirain of the tendons, ligaments, or joints ;
and the necessity of removing first, in these latter cases, the superficial in-
flammation caused by the sprain, that inflammation of a different kind may
be excited instead of it, to which the deeply-seated inflammation of the
part will be more likely to yield. The blisters used in horse-practice
are composed only of cantharides or the oil of turpentine, to which some
have added a tincture of the Crolon-nut. The method of forming the
best blister is mentioned at page 186.

Bole Armenian is an argillaceous earth combined with iron, and is
supposed to possess some astringent property. The propriety of its
being best administered inwardly is doubtful ; for it may remain in the
int estinal canal, and become the rfut of a stone. On account of its supposed
astringency, it is employed externally to give consistence to ointments
for grease. Even the bole Armenian has not escaped the process of
adulteration, and is largely mixed with inferior earths. The fraud may
be suspected, but not satisfactorily detected, by the colour of the powder,
which should be a bright red.

Burgundy Pitch. — See Resin.

Calamine. — See Zinc.

Calomel. — See Mercury . r t

Camphor is the produce of one of the laurus species, a native ot Japan,
and is imitated by passing a stream of chlorine through oil of turpentine.
The efficacy of this drug when used internally is very doubtful. Ihe
camphor ball Is a favourite with the groom, and occasionally admini.stered
by the veterinary surgeon, but, seemingly, with no definite object for it
has not been yet determined whether it is to be considered as a sedative,
antispasmodic, or stimulant. It i.s however, a stimulant, when applied ex-
ternally. In the form of camphorated oil, it promotes the absorption of
fluids thrown out beneath the skin, the removal of old callus, and the sup-
plein"- of joints stiff" from labour. Combined with oil of turpentine it i.';
more^effective, but in that combination it occasionally blemishes.

Cantharides are the basis of the most approved and useful veterinary
blisters. The cautharis is a fly, the native of Italy and the south of

the true skin, and therefore never blemishes. Ihe app
acrid substances is occasionally followed by deep-seated ulcerations; but a
blister, composed of (he Spanish fly alone, while 't does its ^l^^ij' '«^y«».
after a few weeks have passed, scarcely a trace behind. The arf of
blistering consists in cutting, or rather shaving the hair perfectly close-

MEDICINES.

then well rubbing in ihe ointment, for ai least ten minntes — and afterwards,
and what is of the greatest consequence of all, plastering a little more of tho
ointment lightly over the part, and leaving it. As soon as the vesicles have
perfectly risen, which will be in twenty or twenty-four hours, the torture
of the animal may be somewhat relieved by the application of olive or
neat's-foot oil, or any emo'.Iient ointment.

When too extensive a blister has been employed, or, from the intensity
of the original inflammation, the blister has not risen, (for no two intense
inflammations can exist in neighbouring parts at the same time,) strangury,
or great difficulty in passing urine, or even suppression of it, has occurred.
The careful washing off of the blister, and the administration of plenty of
warm water, with opium, and bleeding if the symptoms run high, will
generally remove this unpleasant effect.

An infusion of two ounces of the flies in a pint of oil of turpentine, for
.several days, is occasionally used as a liquid blister ; and when sufficiently
lowered witli common oil, it is called a sweating oil, for it maintains a
certain degree of irritation and inflammation on the skin, but not sufficient
to blister, and thus gradually abates or remove?, some old or deep inflam-
mation, or cause of lameness.

Cantharides have lately been recommended to be given internally, in
doses, daily, or twice in the day, of five grains, and increasing the dose
to fifteen grains, for the cure of glanders. The experiments are yet too
few and indecisive to admit of any satisfactory conclusion. In these
doses the fly has not been injurious, and the experiments are well worth
prosecuting.

Carraways. — These and ginger are retained as the only cordials requi-
site for the horse

Castor Oil is here introduced, again to warn the horse-owner and the
practitioner against the too frequent use of it. If it is a purgative in the
horse, it must be given in the enormous and expensive doses of a pound
or a pound and a half ; even then it is uncertain in its eflect — often gripes,
and is unsafe and dangerous

Catechu, Japan earth, yet no earth, but extracted from the wood of
one of the acacia trees, is a very useful astringent. It is given in super-
purgation, in doses of one or two drachms, with one or one and a half
drachm of opium, as a yet more powerful astringent; four drachms of
chalk, to neutralize any acid in the stomach or bowels, and two drachms
of powdered gum being also added, to sheath the over-irritated mucous coat
of the intestines Tt is not often adulterated in our country, but grossly
so abroad — fine sand and aluminous earth being mixed with the extract.
It should not be given with any alkali, yet the prescription just recom-
mended contains chalk. But although the chalk, being an alkali,
weakens the astringency of the catechu, it probably neutralizes some
acid in the stomach or bowels, which would have diminished the power
of the catechu to a greater degree. It must not be given in conjunction
with any metallic salt, for the tannin or gallic acid, on which its power
chiefly or entirely depends, has an affinity for all metals, and will unite
with them, and form a gallate of them, possessing little astringent energy.
Common ink is the union of this tannin principle with iron.

A tincture of catechu is sometimes made by macerating three ouncee
of the powder in a quart of spirit for a fortnight. It is very excellent
for wounds; and, with the aloes, constitutes all that we want of a
balsamic nature for the purpose of hastening the healing process o«
wouhds.

Caustics. — ^These are sometimes necessary to destroy fungous excres

2 C 2

SS8 THK Ht.;RSK.

cences, or stimulate indolent ulcers, or remove portions of cellular sub-
stance or muscle infected by any poison. They are the butyr of anti-
mony blue vitriol — verdigris — corrosive sublimate — lunar caustic, and

sulphuric acid. See these different substances.

Chalk is used only in combination with catechu for superpur^ation.
and in the proportions directed under the article Catechu. The prepared
or levigated chalk is generally preferred.

Chamomile.— The powder of the flower is a useful vegetable tonic, and
the mildest in our list. It is given in doses of one or two drachms, and
is exhibited in the early stage of convalescence to ascertain whether the
febrile stage of the disease is passed, and to prepare the way for a more
powerful tonic, the gentian. If no acceleration of pulse, or heat ot
mouth or indication of return of fever, accompanies the cautious use ol
the chamomile, the gentian, with carbonate of iron, may be safely ventured
on • but if the gentian had been used first, and a little too soon, there
miffht have been a considerable, and perhaps dangerous return of fever

Charcoal is a useful antiseptic, and, mixed with a poultice, readily
removes the foetid smell of unhealthy ulcers, or cracked heels.

Charges are thick adhesive plasters spread over parts that have been
strained or weakened, and, being applied to the skin warm, adhere for a
considerable time. The following mixture makes a good charge— Bur-
gundy or common pitch, five ounces; tar, six ounces; yellow wax, one
ounce, melted together, and when they are becoming cool, half a drachm
of powdered cantharides well stirred in. This must be partially melted
afresh when applied, and put on the part with a large spatula as hot as it
can be without giving tbe animal too much pain. Flocks of tow shoul.l
be scattered over it while it is warm, and thus a thick and adhesive
coverino- will be formed, which cannot be separated from the skiii tor
many months. This is applied for old sprains of the loins, and a so strau.s
of the back sinews. The charge acts in three ways— by the sl.gh
stimulant power which it possesses it gradually removes all deep-sea.ed
iuflammatiou-by its stimulus and by its pressure it promotes the absorp-
tion of any callus or thickening beneath ; and, acting as a constant bandage,
it o-ives tone and strength to the part. r. ^ •

Ci YSTERS —These are useful and too often neglected means ofhastening
the evacuation of the bowels, when the disease requires their speedy
action. The old ox-bladder and wooden pipe may still be employed, and
a considerable qu..ntity of fluid may be thrown into the intestine; but the
patent stomach and clyster-pump of Mr. Reid is ff Pl^f ^'-^^j^'. «^ .^"l
abling the practitioner to inject a greater quantity of fluid, and in a less

*'"two ounces of soft or yellow soap, dissolved in a gallon of warm water,

will form a useful aperient clyster; it will detach or dissolve many

irritatincr substances that may have adhered to the mucous coat of the

bowels ° For a more active aperient, eight ounces of Epsom salts, or

even of common salt, may be dissolved in the same quantity of water

Tmore active iniection, but not to be used if much purgative medicine has

I nrPvW^Iislv ffiven may be composed of an ounce of Barbadoes aloes,
been previously gjn in y i^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^

^'""t J L 1 rwater may\e employed ; it will act as a fomentation to the
Eed^nd ;r;ulb;e suVe. oF tL bowels, and will have no incon-

^'t"cr,:^;< the bowels, ^e injection
u c (V,;,T,r ii->ture- I may consist of gruel alone; or it me

;Tg\„^bf^re\°;:td^«:,u;,, »u;,«,e ,n,e>l,„s, be thicker, fo..

MEDICINES.

389

ounces ot prepared or powdered chalk being well m'xed with or suspended
in it, with two scruples or a drachm of powdered opium.

No oil should enter into the composition of a clyster, except that linseed
oil may be iised for the expulsion of the ascarides, or needle-worms

In epidemic catarrh, when the horse sometimes obstinately refuses to
eat or to drink, his strength may be supported by nourishing clysters ; but
they should consist of thick gruel only, and not more than a quart should
be administered at once, for a greater quantity would be returned soon
after the pipe is withdrawn. Strong broths, and more particularly ale and
wine, are dangerous ingredients ; (hey may rapidly aggravate the fever,
and should never be administered, but under the superintendence, or by
the direction of a vetermary surgeon.

The principal art of administering a clyster consists in not frightening
the horse. The pipe, well oiled, should be very gently introduced, and the
fluid not too hastily thrown up ; and its heat should be as nearly as
possible that of the intestine, or about 96 degrees of Fahrenheit's
thermometer

Copper. — There are two combinations of this metal used in ve-
terinary practice: the verdigris or subacetate, and the blue vitriol
or sulphate.

Verdigris is tlie common rust ot copper, produced by vinegar, or any
thing sour, or even common salt. It is given interivally by some practi-
tioners, in doses of two or three drachms daily, as a tonic, and particularly
for the cure of farcy. It is, however, an uncertain and dangerous medicine.
The corrosive sublimate, with vegetable tonics, as recommended at page
130, is preferable. Verdigris is, however, usefully applied externally as
a mild caustic. Either alone, in the form of fine powder, or mixed with an
equal quantity of the sugar (superacetate) of lead, it eats down proud flesh,
or stimulates old ulcers to healthy action ; when boiled with honey and
vinegar, it constitutes the farriers' Egyptiacum, certainly of benefit in
cankered or ulcerated mouth, and no bad application for thrushes ; but
yielding, as it regards both, to better remedies, which have been mentioned
under the proper heads. Some practitioners use alum and oil of vitriol
in making their Egyptiacum, forgetting the strange decomposition which is
produced.

Blue Vitriol — Is the union of sulphuric acid and copper ; it is a very
favourite tonic with many, and has been vaunted as a specific for glanders ;
while others, and we think properly, have no very good opinion of it in
either respect. As a cure for glanders, its reputation is now nearly passed
by; as a tonic, when the horse is slowly recovering from severe illness, it is
dangerous, and its internal use should be confined to cases of long con-
tinued discharge from the nose, when catarrh or fever have ceased. It
may then be given with benefit in doses of from one to two drachms twice
in the day, but it should be combined with gentian and ginger. It is
principally valuable as an external application, dissolved in water in the
proportion of two drachms to a pint, and acts as a gentle stimulant; but
when an ounce is dissolved in the same quantity of water it becomes a
mild caustic. In the former proportion, it rouses old ulcers to a healthy
action, and disposes even recent wounds to heal more quickly than they
otherwise would do ; and in the latter it removes fungous granulations or
proud flesh. The blue vitriol is sometimes reduced to powder and
sprinkled upon the wound for this purpose, and is a good application for
canker in the foot.

Cordials are useful or injurious according to the judgment with wUich
they are given. When a horse comes home thoroughly exhausted aod

390

THE HORSE.

refiises his food, a cordial may be beneficial ; it may rouse tne stomach
and the system, and may prevent cold and fever ; but it is poison to Iht
animal when administered after the cold is actually caujrht and fever
begins to appear. More to be reprobated is the practice of giving- /rf^t/e?}/
cordials, that, by their stimulus on the stomach, (the skin sympathising-
80 much with the stomach,) a fine coat may he produced. The artificial
excitement of the cordial soon becomes as necessary to enable the horse
to do even common work, as is the excitement of the dram to sustain the
animal spirits of the drunkard.

To recall the appetite of the horse slowly recovering from illness a
cordial may sometimes be allowed; or to old horses that have been worked
hard and used to these excitements when young ; or to draught horses,
that have exhibited slight symptoms of staggers, when their labour
has been unusually protracted, and their stomachs left too long empty ;
or mixed with diuretic medicine, to fine the legs of the overworked and
debilitated animal ; otherwise they should never find a place in the stable,
or be used at the discretion of the carter or the groom. The most harm-
less cordial if abused, and the best if given with discretion, is composed
of four parts each of carraway powder and bruised raisins, and two each
of ginger and palm oil, well beaten into a mass.

CoRRosivK Sublimate. — See Mercury.

CiiEAM OF Tartar. — See Superacetate of Potash.

Croton Tigmi. — The croton-nut has not been long introduced into
veterinary practice, although it has been used from time immemorial by
the inhabitants of India as a powerful purgative. An oil has been ex-
tracted from it, and used by the surgeon ; the meal is adopted by the
veterinarian. It is given in doses from a scruple to a half a drachm, and,
from its acrid nature, in ball with an ounce of linseed meal. When it does
operate, the effect is generally observed in six or eight hours, and the
stools are profuse and watery, and the patient frequently griped. On
account of its quick operation, it may be given in locked jaw and staggers ;
and also in dropsy of the chest or belly, from the watery and profuse
stools it produces ; but it is often uncertain in its operation, and its
griping and the debility it occasions arc serious objections to it as common
physic. A turpentine tincture of the powdered nut makes an active
blister ; but not so effectual or so safe as the cantharides.

Diaphoretics, are medicines that increase the sensible and insensible
perspiration of the animal. (See page 373.) These, as it regards the
horse, are neither many nor powerful. Antimony in its various forms
(see page 384), and sulphur, have some effect in opening the pores of the
skin, and exciting its vessels to action, and especially when assisted by
warmth of stable or clothing, and therefore useful in those diseases where
it is desirable that some portion of the blood should be diverted froni the
overloaded, and inflamed, and vital organs of the chest, to the skin or the
extremities ; but the only diaphoretics on which much confidence can be
placed, and especially to produce condition, are warm clothing and good
grooming.

Digestives are applications to recent or old wounds, as mild stimulants
to produce a healthy appearance and action in them, and to cause them
more speedily to heal. A weak solution of blue vitriol is an excellent
digestive ; so is the tincture of aloes, and the tincture of myrrh. Tlie best
digestive ointment is one composed of three parts of the common calamine
ointment (Turner's cerate) and one of common turpentine.

Digitalis. — The leaves of the common fox-glove, gathered about ine
flowering time, dried carefully in the dark, and powdered, and kept in »

MEJ-JICINES.

391

cluse black bottle, form one of the most valuable medicines in veterinary
nractice It is a direct and powerful sedative, diminishing the frequency
of the pulse, and the general irritability of the system, and acting also as
a mild diuretic ; it is therefore useful in every inflanimatory and febrile
complaint, and particularly in inilammation of the chest. It ,s usually
given in combination with emetic tartar and nitre. The average dose
would be one drachm of digitalis, one and a half of emetic tartar, and
three of nitre, and repeated twice or thrice in the day. Digitalis seems to
have an immediate effect on the heart, lessening the number of its pulsa
tions : but lessening them in a singular manner, not by causing it to beat
more slowly, but by producing certain intermissions or pauses in its
action. When these become marked ; when at every sixth or seventh bea ,
the pulsations are suspended, while two or three could be slowly counted,
this is precisely the effect which i.« intended to be produced; and however
ill the horse may appear to be, or however alarming this intermittent pulse
may seem to the stauders-by, from that moment the animal will begin to
amend. The dose must then be diminished one-half, and m a few days it
may be omitted altogether; but the emetic tartar and the nitre should be
continued, even for some days after the practitioner deems it prudent to try
the effect of mild vegetable tonics. There is no danger in the intermit-
tent pulse thus produced ; but there is much danger when the digitalis
fails to produce any effect on the circulation. The disease is then too
powerful to be arrested by medicine. Digitalis requires watching; but
the only consequence to be apprehended from an over-dose, is, that the
patient may be reduced a little too low, and his convalescence retarded for

a day or two. .

In the form of infusion or tincture, digitalis is very useful m mtlamma-
tion of the eyes. It is almost equal in power to opium, and it may with
great advantage be alternated with it, when opium begins to lose its
power. The infusion is made by pouring a quart of boihng water on an
ounce of the powder. A portion of the liquid should be introduced into
the eye. Of the tincture one or two drops should be introduced. To
form the tincture, three ounces of the digitalis should be added to a quart
of spirit.

The infusion has been serviceable in mange; but there are better
applications.

Diuretics constitute a useful, but much abused class of medicines.
They stimulate the kidneys to secrete more than the usual quantity ot
urine, or to separate a greater than ordinary proportion of the watery parts
of the blood ; but the deficiency of water in the blood thus occasioned
must be speedily supplied, or the healthy circulation could not be carried
on, and it is generally supplied by the absorbents taking up the watery
fluid in some part of the frame, and carrying it into circulation. Hence
the evident use of diuretics in every dropsical affection, in swelled legs,
and also in inflammation and fever, by lessening the quantity of the cir-
culating fluid, and therefore the quantity which is sent to inflamed parts.

All this, however, is produced by the kidneys being stimulated to
creased action, and if this stimulus is too often or too violently applied,
the energy of the kidney may be impaired, or inflammation may be pro-
duced. That inflammation may be of an acute character, and destroy the
patient ; or, although not intense in its nature, it may by frequent repeti-
tion assume a chronic character, and more slowly, but as surely, do irrepa-
rable mischief. Hence the necessity of attention to that portion of the
food which may have a diuretic power. Mow-burnt hay and foxy oats
are the unsuspected causes of many a disease in the horse, at hrsi

THE HORSE.

obscure, but ultimately referable to injury or inflammation of the urinary
organs. Hence, too, the impropriety of sufFering medicines of a diuretic
nature to be at the command of the ignorant carter or groom. In swelled
legs, cracks, grease or accumulation of fluid in any part, and in those
superficial eruptions and inflammations which are said to be produced by
humours floating in the blood, diuretics are evidently beneficial ; but they
should be as mild as possible, and should not be oftener given or continued
longer than the case requires. For some cautions as to the administration
of diuretics, and a list of the safest and best, the reader is referred to paire
215. The expensive Castile soap, and camphor, and so often resorted
to, are not needed ; the common liquid turpentine is quite sufficient in all
ordinary cases, and nitre and digitalis may be added if fever is su.spected.

Drinks. — Many practitioners and horse proprietors have a great objec-
tion to the administration of medicines in the form of drinks. A drink is
not so portable as a ball, it is more troublesome to give, and a portion of
it is usually wasted. If the drink contains any acid substance, it is apt to
excoriate the mouth, or to irritate the throat already sore from disea.se, or
the unpleasant taste of the drug may unnecessarily nauseate the horse.
There are some medicines, however, which must be given in the form of
drink, as in cholic, and the time, perhaps, is not distant when purgatives
will be thus administered, as more speedy and safer in their operation. In
cases of much debility and entire loss of appetiit, all medicine should
be given in solution, for the stomach may not have sufficient power to dis-
solve the paper in which the ball is wrapped, or the substance of the ball.

An ox's horn, the larger end being cut slantingly, is the usual and best
instrument for administering drinks. The noose of a halter is introduced
into the mouth, and then, by means of a stable fork, the head is elevated
by an assistant considerably higher than for the delive-y of a ball. The
surgeon stands on a pail or stable basket on the off-side of the horse,
and draws out the tongue with the left hand ; he then with the right hand
introduces the horn gently into the mouth, and over the tongue, and
by a dexterous turn of the horn empties the whole of the drink into the
back part of the mouth ; the horn is now quickly withdrawn, and the
tongue loosened, and the greater portion of the fluid must be swallowed.
A portion of it however will often be obstinately held in the mouth for a
long time, and the head must be kept up until the whole is swallowed,
which a quick, but not violent slap in the muzzle will generally compel
the horse to do. The art of giving a drink consists in not putting too
much into the horn at once ; introducing the horn far enough into the
mouth, and quickly turning and withdrawing it, without bruising or
wounding the mouth, the tongue being loosened at the same moment.
A bottle is a disgraceful and dangerous instrument to use.

Elder. — The elder leaf, boiled in lard, forms an emollient ointment,
usefully applied to inflamed and irritated parts.

Epsom Salts. — See Magnesia.

Fomentations open the pores of the skin and promote perspiration
in the part, and so abate the local swelling, and relieve pain and lessen
inflammation. They are often used, and with more effect when the in-
flammation is somewhat deeply seated, than when it is superficial. The
effect depends on the warmth of the water, and not on any herb which
may have been boiled in it. They are best applied by means of flannel,
frequently dipped in the hot water, or on which the water is poured, and
the heat should be as great as the hand will bear. The benefit that might
be derived from them is much impaired by the absurd method in which the
fomentations are conducted. They are rarely continued long enough,

MEDICINES.

393

nnd when they are removed, the part is left wet and uncovered, and the
coldness of evaporation succeeds to the heat of fomeniaiion. The perspi-
ration is thus suddenly checked, the animal suffers considerable pain, and
more harm is done by the extreme change of temperature than if the
fomentation had not been attempted.

Gentian stands at the head of the vegetable tonics, and it is a sto
machic as well as a tonic. It is equally useful in chronic debility, and in
that which is consequent on severe and protracted illness. It is generally
united with chamomile, ginger, and, when the patient will bear it, car-
bonate of iron. Four drachms of gentian, two of chamomile, one of car-
bonate of iron, and one of ginger, will make an excellent tonic ball. An
infusion of gentian is one of the best applications to putrid ulcers.

Ginger is as valuable as a cordial, as gentian is as a tonic. It is the
basis of the cordial ball, and it is indispensable in the tonic ball. Although
it is difficult to powder, the veterinary practitioner should always purchase
it in its solid form. If the root be large heavy, and not worm-eaten, the
black ginger is as good as the white, and considerably cheaper. The pow-
der is adulterated with bean-meal and the sawdust of boxwood, and ren-
dered warm and pungent by means of capsicum.

Goulard's Extract. — See Lead.

Hellebore, White, is a powerful nauseant, and lowers both the force
and the frequency of the pulse, and is therefore given with good effect in
various inflammations, and particularly that of the lungs ; but it requires
watching. In the hospital of the veterinary surgeon, or in the stable Oi
the gentleman who will superintend the giving and the operation of every
medicine, it may be used with safely ; but with him who has to trust to
others, and who does not see the horse more than once in twelve or twenty-
four hours, it is a dangerous drug. If it is pushed a little too far,
trembling and giddiness, and purging follow, and the horse is sometimes
lost. The hanging of the head, and the frothing of the mouth, and, more
particularly, the sinking of the pulse, would give warning of danger ; but
the medical attendant may not have the opportunity of observing this, and
when he does observe it, it may be too late. Its dose varies from a scruple
to half a drachm. In doses of a drachm it could not be given with
safety; and yet, such is the different effect of medicines given in different
doses, that in the quantity of an , ounce it is said to be a diuretic and a
tonic, and exhibited with advantage in chronic and obstinate grease.

Hemlock is used by some practitioners, instead of digitalis or hellebore,
in affections of the chest, whether acute or chronic ; but it is inferior to
both. The dose of the powder of the dried leaves is about a drachm.

Infusions. — The active matter of some vegetable substances is partly or
entirely extracted by water. Dried vegetables yield their properties more
readily and perfectly than when in their green state. Boiling water is
poured on the substance to be infused, and which is previously grossly
pounded or powdered ; the vessel is then covered and placed by a fire.
In five or six hours the transparent part may be poured off, and is ready
for use. In a few days, however, all infusions become thick, and lose
their virtue, from the decomposition of the vegetable matter.

The infusion of chamomile is advantageously used instead of water in
compounding a mild tonic drench : the infusion of catechu is useful in
astringent mixtures; the infusion of linseed is used instead of common
water in catarrh and cold ; and the infusion of tobacco in some injections.

Iodine. — ^This substance is but lately introduced into veterinary prac-
tice, and has been given with effect in doses of five grains daily, to reduce
the enlarged glands which sometimes remain after catarrh. It has like

3y4

THE HORSE.

^\se power in rcclucing; almost every species of tumour, and may be tried
where it would be dangerous to use the knife.

• ''^"^VT^^^ ^''^'■^ ^'■^ preparations adopted by veterina-

rians. 1 he rust, or Carbonate, is a mild and useful tonic in doses from
two to four drachms. The Sulphate {green vitriol or copperas) is morP
powerful, but should never be given in early stages of recovery and
Jilways with caution. The dose should be the same as that of the carbonate
I he sulphate has lately been recommended for the cure of that deceitful
stage or form of glanders, in which there is nothing to characterise the
disease but a very slight discharge from the nostrils. It is to be dis-
solved in the common drink of the horse. It is worth a trial, but too san-
gume expectations must not be encouraged of the power of any drug over
this intractable malady. Iron should be given in combination with gen-
tian and ginger, but never with any alkali or nitre, or soap or catechu,
or astringent vegetable.

Forge water used to be a favourite tonic with farriers, and also a lotion
for canker and ulcers in the mouth. It owes its power, if it has any, to
the iron with which it is impregnated.

Juniper, Oil of. — This essential oil is retained because it has some
diuretic property, and is a pleasant aromatic. It may, therefore, enter
into the composition of the diuretic ball.

Lard. — This or palm oil is far preferable to honey, or treacle, or syrups,
for making up balls, because the ball more readily dissolves in the sto-
mach. It likewise renders a purgative less liable to gripe. It is the prin-
cipal basis of all ointments.
Laudanum. — See Opium.

Lead. — Combinations of this metal are admitted into veterinary prac-
tice. The subacetate is common under the name of Extract of Lead, or
Goulard's Extract. It -is used in the proportion of a drachm to a pint
of water in the early stages of inflammation of the eye; but is inferior
both to the opium and digitalis, and cannot be used in combination
with either. In double the proportion it is serviceable in superficial
inflammations of various kinds, or in poultices for the feet where there is
much inflammation or pain ; but in cases of sprain, or deep injury, or
inflammations, it is perfectly useless. If white vitriol or alum are added
to the lead, the efficacy of all the ingredients is destroyed.

The Sugar of Lead is the acetate or superacetate of that metal. This,
dissolved in water in the proportion of two drachms to a pint, makes an
extemporaneous Goulard's Lotion, but not more valuable than the former.

White Lead (carbonate of lead) is sometimes sprinkled, in the form or
fine powder, and with advantage, on swelled legs, where the skin is very
red and irritable, and moisture is exuding through it. It is used alone or
mixed with paste, or a bread-and-water poultice : but lead, although in the
first-mentioned form a great favourite with many persons, might, without
great loss, be expunged from the Veterinary Pharmacopceia.

Lime was formerly sprinkled over cankered feet and greasy heels, but
there are less painful caustics, and more effectual absorbents of moisture.
Lime water is rarely used, but the Chloride of Lime is exceedingly
valuable. Diluted with twenty times its quantity of water, it shoul i
help to form the poultice applied to every part from which there is
the slightest offensive discharge. The foetid smell of fistulous withers,
poll-evil, canker, and ill-conditioned wounds, is immediately removed,
and the ulcers are more disposed to heal. When mangy horses arc
dismissed as cured, a washing with the diluted chloride will remove
any infection that might lurk about them, or which they might carry from

MEDICINES.

39b

the place in which Ihey have heen confined One pint ot the chloride
mixed with three gallons of water, and brushed over the walls and manger
and rack of tlie foulest stable, will completely remove all infection. All
horse furniture worn by a glandered or mangy animal will be effectually
purified in the same way. Internally administered, it seeins to have no
power.

Liniments are oily applications of the consistence of a thick fluid, and
desio-ned either to sooth an inflamed surface, or, by gently stimulating the
skin? to remove deeper-seated pain or inflammation. As an emollient
liniment, one composed of half an ounce of extract of lead and four ounces
of olive oil will be useful. For sprains, old swellings, or rheumatism, two
ounces of hartshorn, the same quantity of camphorated spirit, an ounce of
oil of turpentine, half an ounce of laudanum, and a drachm of oil of ori-
ganum, may be mixed together ; or an ounce of camphor may be dis-
solved in four ounces of sweet oil, to which an ounce of oil of turpen-
tine and a drachm of oil of origanum should be afterwards added. A
little powdered cantharides, or tincture of cantharides, or mustard powder,
Mill render either of these more powerful, or convert it into a liquid blister,

Linseed. — An infusion of linseed is often used instead of water, for the
drink of the horse with sore-throat or catarrh. A pail containing it should
be slang in the stable or loose box. Thin gruel, however, is preferable ;
it is as bland and soothing, and it is more nutritious. Linseed meal
forms the best poultice for almost every purpose.

The oil of linseed is not a certain, but always a safe purgative. It must
be given, however, in doses of a pint or a pint and a half.

Lotions. — Many of the best lotions have been already described, in the
chapters which treat of the various diseases of the horse.

Magnesia. — The sulphate of magnesia, or Epsom Salts, should be
used only in promoting the purgative effect of clysters, or, in repeated
doses of six or eight ounces, gently to open the bowels at the commence-
ment of fever. Some doubt, however, attends the latter practice ; for the
dose must often be thrice repeated before it will act, and then, although
safer than aloes, it may produce too much irritation in the intestinal canal,
especially if the fever be the precursor of inflammation of the lungs.

Mashes constitute a very important part of horse provender, whether in
sickness or health. A mash given occasionally to a horse that is other-
wise fed on diy meat prevents him from becoming dangerously costive.
To the overworked and tired horse nothing is so refreshing as a warm
mash with his usual allowance of corn in it. The art of getting a horse
into apparent condition for sale, or giving him a round and plump appear-
ance, consists principally in the frequent repetition of mashes, and from
their easiness of digestion and the mild nutriment which they afford, as
well as their laxative effect, they form the principal diet of the sick horse.

Mashes are made by pouring boiling water on bran, and stirring it
well, and then covering it over until it is sufficiently cool for the horse to
eat. If in the heat of summer a cold mash is preferred, it should, never-
theless, be made with hot water, and then suffered to remain until it is
cold. This is not always sufficiently attended to by the groom, who is
not aware that the efficacy of the mash depends principally on the change
which is effected in the bran and the other ingredients by the boiling
water rendering them more easy of digestion, as well as aperient. If the
horse refuses the mash, a few oats may be sprinkled over it, in order to
tempt him to eat it ; but if it is previously designed that corn should be
given in the mash, it should be scalded with the bran, to soften it and
render it more digestible. Bran mashes are very useful preparatives for

396

THE HORSE.

physic, and they are necessary during the operation of the physic. They
very soon become sour, and the manger of the horse of whose diet they
lorm a principal part, should be daily and carefully cleaned out.

When horses are weakly and much reduced, mult mashes will ofter
be palatable to them and very nutritive : but the water that is poured or
a malt mash should be considerably below the boiling heat, or the malt will
be set, or clogged together. If owners were aware of the value of a malt
mash, it would be oftener given when the horse is rapidly getting weaker
from protracted disease, or when he is beginning to recover from a disease
by which he has been much reduced. The only exception to their use is in
cases of chest affection, in which they must not be given too early. In
grease, and in mange accompanied by much emaciation, malt mashes will
be peculiarly useful, and especially if they constitute a principal portion of
the food.

Mercury. — The Mercurial Ointment is prepared by rubbing
quicksilver with lard, in the proportion of one part of mercury to tliree of
grease, until no globules appear ; the practitioner should, if possible, prepare
it himself, for he can neither get it pure nor of the proper strength from the
druggist. It is employed with considerable advantage in preparing:
splents, spavins, or other bony or callous tumours, for blistering or firing.
One or two drachms, according to the nature and size of the swelling,
may be daily well rubbed in ; but it should be watched, for it sometimes
salivates the horse very speedily. The tumours more readily disperse, at
the application of the stronger stimulant, when they have been thus pre-
pared. Mercurial ointment in a more diluted form is sometimes ne'fcessary
for the cure of mallenders and sallenders ; and in very obstinate cases of
mange, one-eighth part of mercurial ointment may be added to the oint-
ment recommended at page 379.

Calomel, the submuriate or protochloride of mercury, may be given,
combined with aloes, in mange, surfeit, or worms ; yet better alteratives
and more efficient vermifuges have been described. It is admissible
in some cases of chronic cough, in farcy, and in jaundice, but it is not a
medicine that seems to agree with the horse. Alone it has little purga-
tive effect, but it assists the action of other aperients. It is given in doses
from a scruple to a drachm, but must not be too often or too long repeated.
As soon as the gums become red, or the animal begins to quid or drop his
hay, it must be discontinued.

Corrosive Sublimate, the oxymuriate or bichloride of mercury,
combined with chlorine in a double proportion, is a useful tonic in farcy, and
perhaps the most to be depended upon. It should be given in doses of
ten grains daily, and gradually increased to a scruple, until the horse is
purged, or the mouth becomes sore, when it may be omitted for a few
days, and resumed. Some have recommended it as a diuretic, but it is
too dangerous a medicine for this purpose. It is used externally in solu-
tion ; and in substance in quiltor, as a stimulant to foul ulcers; and in th«
proportion of five grains to an ounce of rectified spirit in obstinate mange
or to destroy vermin on the skin. It is, however, too uncertain and too
dan"-erous a medicine for the horse-proprietor to venture on its use
with'out the sanction of a veterinary surgeon.

Mthiop's Mineral, the black sulphuret of mercury, is not oaen
used in horse practice, but it is a good alterative for obstinate surfeit or
foulness of the skin, in doses of three drachms daily. Four drachms of
cream of tartar may be advantageously added to each dose.

Mint. — If the use of an infusion or decoction of this plant, or of the oil
•hat is extracted from it, can be at any time admitted, it is as a vehicle in

MEDICINHS.

which the oil of luipeiitine and kiidanum may bP. administered m cases of

^^'myrrh may be used in the form of tincture, or it may be united to the
tincture of aloes as a stimulating; and digestive application to wounds.
Diluted with an equal quantity of water, it is a good application for
canker in the mouth, but as an internal medicine it seems to be mert.

Nitre. — See Potash, ,. . . xu j ,

Nitrous JEther, Spirit of, is a very useful medicine m the advanced
8ta"-es of fever, for while it to a certain degree rouses the exhausted
powers of the animal, and maybe denominated a stimulant, it never
brings back the dangerous febrile action which was subsidmg. It is
given in doses of three or four drachms.

Oils. The farrier's list contains many of them, but the scientific prac-
titioner has discarded the greater part ; those that are worth retaining will
be found under the names of the vegetaV^les from which they are extracted.

Ointments. — These have been fully described under the accidents and
diseases in which their use is required.

Olives, Oil of. — This is sometimes given as a purgative when aloes
or other aperients cannot be obtained. It is useless to give it in a less
quantity than a pint, and then it is uncertain in its operation, although
harmless. In all liniments and ointments, spermaceti, or even linseed
oil, may be substituted without detriment, and the peculiar smell of the
latter may be subdued by oil of aniseseed or origanum.

Opium. — However underrated by some, there is not a more valuable
dru"- on our list. It does not often act as a narcotic except in enormous
doses ; but it is a powerful antispasmodic, sedative, and astringent.
As an antispasmodic, it enters into the cholic drink, and it is the sheet
anchor of the veterinarian in the treatment of tetanus or locked jaw. As
a sedative, it relaxes that universal spasm of the muscular system, which
is the characteristic of tetanus ; and perhaps it is only as a sedative that it
has such admirable effect as an astringent ; for when the irritation about
the mouths of the vessels of the intestines and kidneys is allayed hy the
opium, undue purging and profuse staling are necessarily acrested. It
should, however, be given with caution. It is its secondary effect which
is sedative, and, if given in cases of fever, its primary effect in increasing
tlie excitation of the frame is marked and injurious. In the early and
acute stage of fever, it would be bad practice to give it in the smallest
quantity ; but when the fever has passed, or is passing, there is no-
thing which so rapidly subdues the irritability that accompanies extreme
weakness; and it becomes an excellent tonic, because it is a sedative.

If the blue or green vitriol, or cantharides, have been pushed too far,
opium soonest quiets the disorder they have occasioned. It is given in
doses of one or two drachms ; either the pow dered opium being made into
a ball, or the crude opium dissolved in hot water, and given with its sedi-
ment. Other medicines are usually combined with it, according to the
circumstances of the case.

Externally, it is useful in ophthalmia. In the form of decoction of the
poppy head it may constitute the basis of an anodyne poultice ; but it must
not be given in union with any alkaJi, with the exception of chalk, in over-
purging; nor with the superacetate of lead, by which its powers are mate-
rially impaired, nor with sulphate of zinc, or copper, or iron.

From its high price it is much adulterated, and it is rare to meet with it
in a state of purity. The best tests are its smell, its taste, its toughness
and pliancy, its fawn or brown colour, and its weight, for it is the henviest
of all the vegetable extracts, except gum arabic ; yet its weight h often

THE HORSE.

franclulenlly increased by stones and bits of lead being concealed in it
1 he English opuim ,s almost as good as the Turkish, and frequently sold
for It ; but is distinguishable by its blackness and softness.

Palm Oil, when genuine, is the very best substance that can be used
tor making masses and balls. It has a pleasant smell, and it never
becomes rancid

Pitch is used to give adhesiveness and firmness to charges a d plasters
Ihe common pitch is quite as good as the more expensive Bur-rundy
pitch. The best plaster for sandcrack consists of one pound of pitch and
an ounce of yellow bees-wax melted together

Physic— The cases which require physic, the composition of the most
efiectual and safest physic ball, and the mode of treatment under physic
have been already described at page 211. '

Potash.— Two compounds of potash are used in veterinary practice
The Nitrate of Potash, Nitre, is a valuable cooling medicine, and a mild
diuretic, and, therefore, it should enter into the composition of every fever
ball. Its dose is from two to four drachms. Grooms often dis.solve it in
the water. There are two objections to this : either the horse is nauseated
and wdl not drink so much water as he ought ; or the salt taste of the
water causes considerable thirst, and disinclination to solid food. Nitre
while dissolving materially lowers the temperature of water, and fur-
nishes a very cold and useful lotion for sprain of the back sinews, and
other local inflammations. The lotion, however, should be used as soon
as the salt is dissolved, for it quickly becomes as warm as the surroundin<r
air. The Supertartrate of Potash, Cream of Tartar, is a mild diuretic"
and, combined with ^thiop's mineral, is a useful alterative in obstinate
mange or grease.

PouLTiciss. — Few horsemen are aware of the value of these simple
applications in abating inflammation, relieving pain, cleansing wounds,
and disposing them to heal. They arc fomentations of the besfkind con-
tinued much longer than a simple fomentation can be. In all inflammations
of the foot they are very beneficial, softening the horn, hardened by the
heat of the foot, and contracted and pressing on the internal and highly
sensible parts. The moisture and warmth are the useful parts of the
poultice; and that poultice is the best for general purposes in which mois-
ture and warmth are longest retained. Perspiration is most abundantly
promoted in the part, the pores are opened, swellings are relieved, and
discharges of a healthy nature procured from wounds.

Linseed meal forms the best general poultice, because it longest retains
the moisture. Bran, although frequently used for poultices, is objec-
tionable, because it so soon becomes dry. To abate considerable inflam-
mation, and especially in a wounded part, Goulard may be added, or the
linseed meal may be made into a paste with a decoction of poppy heads.
To promote a healthy discharge from an old or foul ulcer ; or separation of
the dead from the Hying parts, in the process of what is called coring out ,
or to hasten the ripening of a tumour that must he opened; or to cleanse
it when it is opened, two ounces of common turpentine may be added to
a pound of linseed meal; but nothing can be so absurd, or is so injurious,
as the addition of turpentine to a poultice that is designed to be an
emollient. The drawing poultices and stoppings of farriers are often
highly injurious, instead of abating inflammation.

If the ulcer smells otFensively, two ounces of powdered charcoal may
be added to the linseed meal, or the poultice may be made of water, to
which a solution of the chloride of lime has been added in the proportion of
half an ounce to a pound. As an emollient poultice for grease and cracked

MEDICINES.

399

heels and especially if accompanied by much unpleasant smell, there is no^
thin- preferable to a poultice of mashed carrots w.lh charcoal. For old
gre^e some slight stimulant must be added, as a little yeast or the

grrounds of table beer. . j i i

^ There are two errors in the application of a poultice, and particu arly as
it regards the legs. It is often put on too tight, by which the return of
the blood from the foot is prevented, and the disease is incf eased instead of
lessened ; or it is too hot, and unnecessary pain is given, and the infiamma-

^'^pS'^rs^— Some horses are very difficult to ball or drench, and the
violent struggle that would accompany the attempt to conquer them may
heighten the fever or inflammation. To such horses powders must be
given in mashes. Emetic tartar and digitalis may be generally used
^ of inflammation or fever ; or emetic tartar for worms ; or calomel

in cases n.i.u.i..... - , ^ n

and even the farina of the Croton nut for physic : but powders are too often
an excuse for the laziness or awkwardness of the carter or groom The
horse frequently refuses them, especially if his appetite has otherwise
begun to fail ; the powder and the mash are wasted, and the animal is
unnecessarily nauseated. All medicine should be given in the form of

ball or drink. ,

Raking. — This consists in introducing the hand into the horse s rectum,
and drawing out any hardened dung that may be there. It may be
necessary in'costiveness or fever, if a clyster pipe cannot be obtained ; but
an injection will better effect the purpose, and with less inconvenience to
the animal. The introduction of the hand into the rectum is, however,
useful to ascertain the existeii'ce of stone in the bladder, or the degree of
distention of the bladder in .suppression of urine, for the bladder will
be easily felt below the gut ; and at the same time by the heat of the intes-
tine, the degree of inflammation in it or in the bladder may be detected.

Resin. — The yellow resin is that which remains after the distillation of
oil of turpentine. It is used externally to give consistence to ointments,
and to render them shghtly stimulant. Internally it is a useful diuretic,
and is given hi doses of five or six drachms made into a ball with soft
soap. The common liquid turpentine is, however, preferable.

Rowels. — The manner of rowelling has been described at page 186.
As exciting inflammation on the surface, and so lessening that which had
previously existed in a neighbouring, but deeper-seated part, they are de-
cidedly inferior to blisters, for they do not act so quickly nor so extensively ;
therefore they should not be used in acute inflammation of the lungs or
bowels, or any vital part. When the inflammation, however, although not
intense, has long continued, rowels will be serviceable by producing
an irritation and discharge which can be better kept up than by a blister.
As promoting a permanent, although not very considerable discharge
and some inflammation, rowels in the thighs are useful in swelled legs, and
obstinate grease. If fluid is thrown out under the skin in any other ])art,
the rowel acts as a permanent drain. When sprain of the joint or the
muscles of the shoulders is suspected, a rowel in the chest will be ser-
viceable. The wound caused by a rowel will readily heal, and with little
blemish, unless the useless leather of the farrier has been inserted.

Salt, common. — See Soda.

Sedatives are medicines which subdue irritation, repress spasmodic
action, or deaden pain. We will not inquire whether they act first as
stimulants ; if they do, their effect is exceedingly transient, and is quickly
followed by depression and diminished action. Digitalis, hellebore, opium,
turpentine, are medicines of this kind. T.heir eflect in difl'erenl diseases, or

400

THE HORSE.

Rti-^es of disease, and the circumstances which indicate liie use ofaiiv one
of thein in preference to the rest, are considered under their respective
titles.

Silver. — One combination only of this metal is used, and that as a
manageable and excellent caustic, viz. the Lunar Caustic. It is far
preferable to the hot iron, or to any acid, for the destruction of the part, if
a horse should have been bitten by a rabid dog ; and it stands next to
the butyr of antimony for the removal of fungus generally.

Soda. — The Chloride of Soda is not so efficacious for the removal of
unpleasant smells and all infection, as the chloride of lime, but it is ex
ceedingly useful in changing malignant and corroding and destructive
sores into the state of simple ulcers, and in ulcers that are not malignant
it much hastens the cure. Poll evil and fistulous withers are much
benefited by it, and all farcy ulcers. It is used in the proportion of one
part of the solution to twenty-four of water.

Common Salt (Chloride of Sodium) is very extensively employed in
veterinary practice. It forms an efficacious aperient clyster; a solution of
it has even been given as an aperient drink. Sprinkled over the hay, or in
a mash, it is very palatable to sick horses ; and in that languor and dis-
inclination to food which remain after severe illness, few thinu,s will so
soon recall the appetite as a drink composed of eight ounces of salt in
solution. To horses in health it is more useful than is generally imagined,
as promoting the digestion of the food, and, consequently, condition. Ex-
ternally applied, there are few better lotions for inflamed eyes than a
solution of half a drachm of salt in four ounces of water. In the propor-
tion of an ounce of salt to the same quantity of water, it is a good embroca-
tion for sore shoulders and backs ; and if it docs not always disperse warbles
and tumours, it takes away much of the tenderness of the skin.

Soap is supposed to possess a diuretic quality, and therefore enters
into the composition of some diuretic masses. See Resin. By many
practitioners it is made an ingredient in the physic ball, but uselessly
or even injuriously so; for if the aloes are finely powdered and mixed
with palm oil, they will dissolve readily enough in the bowels without
the aid of the soap, while the action of the soap on the kidneys will
impair the purgative effect of the aloes.

Starch may be substituted with advantage for gruel in obstinate cases
of purging, both as a clyster, and to support the strength of the animal.

Stoppings constitute an important, but too often neglected part of
stable management. If a horse is irregularly or seldom worked, his
feet are deprived of moisture ; they become hard, and unyielding, and
brittle, and disposed to corn, and contraction, and founder. The very
muck of a neglected and filthy stable would be preferable to habitual
standing on the cleanest litter without stopping-. In wounds, and bruises,
and corns, moisture is even more necessary, to supple the horn, and
relieve its pressure on the tender parts beneath. As a common stopping,
nothing is better than cow-dung with a fourth part of clay beaten well into
it, and confined with splents from the binding of the broom, or the larger
twigs of the broom. In cases of wounds a little tar may be added; but
tar, as a common stopping, is too stinuilating and drying. Pads made of
thick felt have lately been contrived, which are fitted to the sole, and,
swelling on being wetted, are sufficiently confined by the shoe. Having
been well filled with water, they will continue moist during the night.
They are very useful in gentlemen's stables ; but the cow-dung and clay
are sufficient for the farmer.

SL'LPHt;R is the basis of the most effectual applications for mange

MEDICINES. 401

lit IS aa excellent alterative, combined usually with antimony and nitre
and particularly for mange, surfeit grease, hidebound, or want of
condition; and it is a useful ingredient in the cough and fever bad.
When given alone, it seems to have little effect, except as a laxative in
doses of six or eight ounces ; but there are much better aperients.

■IThe black sulphur consists principally of the dross after the pure sulphur

hhas been separated. r ^i. i * •

Tar melted with an equal quantity of grease forms the usual stopping
of the farrier. It is a warm or slightly stimulant, and therefore useful,
dressino- for bruised or wounded feet; but its principal virtue seems to
. consist in preventing the penetration of dirt and water to the wounded
part. As a common stepping it has been stated to be objectionable.
tFrom its warm and drying properties it is the usual and proper basis for
ilthrush ointments; and from its adhesiveness, and slightly stimulating
• power, it often forms an ingredient in applications for mange ; some practi-
i Doners o-ive it, and advantageously, mixed with the usual cough medicine,
land in doses of two or three drachms for chronic cough. The common
t:tar is as effectual as the Barbadoes for every veterinary purjiose. The
aoil, or spirit (rectified oil) of tar is sometimes used alone for the cure of
nraange, but it is not to be depended upon. The spirit of tar, mixed with
,!double the quantity of fish oil, is, from its peculiar penetrating property,
cone of the best applications for hard and brittle feet. It should be well
rrubbed with a brush, both on the crust and sole, every night.

Tinctures. — ^The medicinal properties of many substances are extracted
I: by spirit of wine, but in such small quantities as to be scarcely available in
V veterinary practice for internal use. So much aloes or opium must be
c given to produce effect on the horse, that the quantity of spirit necessary
; to dissolve it would be injurious or might be fatal. As applications to
J wounds or inflamed surfaces, the tinctures of aloes, digitalis, myrrh, and
.1 opium, are highly useful.

Tobacco, in the hands of the skilful veterinarian, may be advantageously
e employed in cases of extreme costiveness, or dangerous chohc; but should
1 never be permitted to be used as an external application for the cure of
: mange, or an internal medicine to promote a fine coat.

Tonics are valuable medicines when judiciously employed ; but, like
cordials, they have been fatally abused. Many a horse recovering from
- severe disease has been destroyed by their too early, or too free use.
" The veterinary surgeon occasionally administers them injuriously, in his
; anxiety to gratify the impatience of his employer. The mild vegetable
! tonics, chamomile, gentian and ginger, and, perhaps, the carbonate of
i iron, may sometimes be given with benefit, and may hasten the perfect
I recovery of the patient ; but there are few principles more truly founded
i on reason and experience, than that disease once removed, the powers of
I nature are sufficient to re-establish health. Against the more powerful
1 mineral tonics, except for the particular purposes that have been pointed

< out under the proper heads, the horse proprietor and the veterinarian
I should be on his guard.

Turpentine.— The common hquid turpentine has been described as

< one of the best diuretics, in doses of half an ounce, and made into a ball
' with linseed meul and half a drachm of ginger. It is added to the
.calamine or any other mild ointment to render it stimulating and
. digestive, and from its adhesiveness and slight stimulating power, it is an

< ingredient in mange ointments. The oil of turpentine is an excellent
»ntispasmodic. For the removal of cholic it stands unrivalled. (See

I page 206.) Formiii"- a tincture with canlharides, it is the basis of the
^ . " 2D

>

THE HORSE.

^ sweating blister/ used for old strains and swellings. As a blister it is far
inferior to the common ointment; as a stimulant frequently applied it must
be sufficiently lowered, or it may blemish.

Vinegar is a very useful apulication for sprains and bruises. Equal
parts of boiling water and cold vinegar will form a good fomentation.
Extract of lead, or bay salt, may be added with some slight advantage.
As an internal remedy, vinegar is rarely given, nor has it, except in very
large doses, any medicinal power. The veterinarian and the htfrse-owner
should manufacture their own vinegar. That which they buy may contain
sulphuric acid, and pungent spices, and irritate the inflamed part to
which it is applied.

Wax. — The yellow wax is used in charges and some plasters to render
them less brittle.

Zinc. — The impure carbonate of zinc, under the name of Calamine
Powder, is used in the preparation of a valuable healing oiutment. Five
parts of lard and one of resin are melted together, and when these begin
to get cool, two parts of the calamine, reduced to an impalpable powder,
are stirred in. The calamine is sometimes sprinkled with advantage on
cracked heels, and superficial sores.

The sulphate of zinc, WTiite Vitriol, in the proportion of three grains
to an ounce of water, is an excellent application in ophthalmia, when
the inflammatory stage is passing over ; and quittor is most successfully
treated by a saturated solution of white vitriol being injected into the
sinuses. A solution of white vitriol of less strength forms a wash for
grease that is occasionally useful, when the alum or blue vitriol does not
appear to succeed.

ON DRAUGHT.

'The investigation of the subject of draught by aninnal power, to which this
; treatise is devoted, and which will form an appropriate supplement to an
I account of the Horse,— has long and frequently occupied the attention of
I theoretical and practical men ; so much so, that our object will be to
. collect what has been said and done, and, by arranging it methodically, to
5 slow in what manner the information may be applied and rendered useful,
• rather than to attempt to produce anything absolutely new upon the sub-
ject. Notwithstanding, however, all that has been written, if we open any
. of the authors who have treated the subject, in the hopes of obtaining
I direct practical information, we shall be much disappointed.

It might have been expected that the particular result of every method
I known and in use for the conveyance of a load from one spot to another,
I by animal power, whether by sledges, by wheel-carriages, or by water, as
iin canals, being so constantly and necessarily a matter of practical expe-
: riment, would have been accurately known and recorded ; — but the con-
I trary is too much the case.

' The theoretical investigations have been made with too little reference
tto what really takes place in practice ; and the practical portion of the sub-
j ject has not generally been treated in that useful and comprehensive man-
I ner which it deserves and demands.

In fact, there is hardly a question in practical mechanics on which,
I though.much has been written, opinions are apparently less fixed ; or on
' which the information we do possess is in a less defined and available
I state.

One great object of research has been the average force of traction or
j power of a horse.

If we consult the most approved authors and experimentalists, Desa-
■ guilliers, Smeaton, &c., we find this power variously stated as equal to
801bs., lOOlbs, ISOlbs., and even 2001bs : we are therefore left almost as
ignorant as before ; but the knowledge of this average power is fortunately
of little or no use in practice. It is the application and effect of that power
which alone is useful ; and that is governed by circumstances always vary-
ing and dissimilar, such as the form and state of the road, the structure of
the carriage, the size and friction of the wheels, &c. &c. ; and scarcely any
two cases of draught would, as regards the effect of the power of the horse,
present precisely the same result.

The difference of opinion here manifest is still more remarkable when
existing on a purely practical question.

In the inquiries instituted by a committee of the House of Commons in
1806 and 1808, on the subject of roads and carriages, two well-informed
practical men, Mr. Russel, of Exeter, and Mr. Deacon, of Islington, the
most extensive carriers in England, were examined upon an important
question, viz., the advantage or disadvantage of a particular form of wheel.
It was stated by one that, having given the wheels in question a twelve-
month's trial, he found that thev tended to injure the road and increase

^ 2 D 2

404

ON DRAUGHT.

the draught in the proportion of four to five; while it was stated by the
other, who had also made the experiment on a large scale, that he found
they materially assisted in keeping the roads in repair, and diminished the
draught m the proportion of five to four.

Amidst such conflicting and contradictory opinions, it would appear
difficult to come to any useful conclusion, and we might naturally be dis-
posed to adopt a very common practice, that of taking an average result.

A little consideration, however, will show that these apparent°discrepan-
cies and contradictions arise, in great measure, from attempting to gene-
ralise and apply to practice the results of experiments made in,°and
therefore applicable only to, particular oases.

The results of experiments thus made at various times and places,
and without that identity of condition and circumstance so necessary
when standard rules are to be deduced from them, have, nevertheless
been used for that purpose ; and this circumstance, combined with the
various and distinct points to be considered before we can estimate
accurately what even constitutes draught, will perhaps account for the
disagreement amongst the practical and scientific authorities alluded to on
the subject.

We must therefore examine severally all these points ; and then, by
considering their relative bearing upon each other, we may hope to recon-
cile the different opinions advanced, without which we cannot collect from
them any information which will lead us to a practical and beneficial
result.

We shall proceed to divide the subject under separate and distinct
heads, and under each head to examine the methods or means now
in use, or which have been proposed, and endeavour to estimate their com-
parative advantages by availing ourselves of what is already written and
known upon each.

It will be necessary first, however, to explain and define clearly some
terms which will occur frequently in the course of this paper, and especially
the word ' draught,' which is the title itself of the treatise.

This word is used in such a very general and vague sense, that it would
be difficult, if not impossible, to give an explanation which should apply
equally to all its different meanings.

In the expression draught by animal power, it would seem to mean the
action itself of drawing, while, on the other hand, it is frequently used to
signify the amount of power employed, also the degree of resistance, as
when we say the draught of a horse, or the draught of a carriage. Draught
power is also an expression used. We shall, however, in the course of
this treatise, confine our use of the word to the two meanings — draught,
the action of dragging — and draught, the resistance to the power employed
to drag any given weight.

Force of traction is another expression requiring explanation ; but here
we must enter into more detail, and shall give at once a practical illustra-
tion of our meaning.

A force is most conveniently measured by the weight which it would be
capable of raising ; but it is not therefore necessarily applied vertically,
in which direction weight or gravity acts.

If a weight of lOOlbs. be suspended to a rope, it is clearly exerting upon
this rope a force of lOOlbs. ; but if the rope be passed over a pully void o'
friction, and continued horizontally, or in any other direction, and then
attached to some fixed point, the weight still acts upon all parts of this
rope, and consequently upon the point to which it is fixed, with a force
equal to lOOlbs • and so inversely, if a horse he pulliner at a rope with a

ON DRAUGHT.

409^

saiee which, if the rope were passed over a pully, woald raise lOOlbs., the
□rce of traotion of the horse is in this case lOOlbs. Spring steel-
.<ards bein? now commonly in use, we may be permitted to refer to
hhem as affbrding another clear exemplification of our meaning. In pull-
nng at a steelyard of this description, whether the force be exerted hori-
contally or vertically, the index will, of course, show the same amount,
i.ud, consequently, if the strength of the horse be measured by attaching
hhe traces to one of these steelyards, the number of pounds indicated on
hhe dial will be the exact measure of the strain the horse exerts, and the
umount of strain is called his ' force of traction.'

Having fixed as nearly as possible the meaning of these terms, which
I vill frequently occur in the course of our progress, we shall proceed to the
lilivision of the subject.

It is evident that there are three distinct agents and points of considera-
'aon in the operation of draught, which are quite independent of each
' )ther. They are — First, the moving power and the mode of applying it ;
secondly, the vehicle for conveying the weight to be moved ; Thirdly, the
aianal, road, or railway, or what may be generally termed the channel of
(tonveyance.

All these individually influence the amount of draught, and require
leeparate consideration ; but the mode of combining these different agents
i.aas also a material effect upon the result: consequently, they must be
ic'onsidered in relation to each other; and to obtain the maximum useful
ibffect, with the greatest economy, in the employment of any given power,
tt is evidently necessary that these different agents should not only each
>oe the best adapted to its purpose, and perfect to the greatest possible
idegree, but also that they should all be combined to the greatest ad-
.;eantage.

We shall proceed at once, then, to examine the different agents now
jEmployed, the modes of applying them, and the proportionate effects
: produced

And, first, with regard to the species of movmg power ; —

This may be of two kinds, animal and mechanical.

By animal power we mean the direct aj)|)lication of the strength of any
mnimal to dragging or pulling, as in the simple case of a horse dragging
na cart. By mechanical, the application of any power through the inter-
vention of machinery ; the source of power*in this latter case may, how-
fever, be animal strength, or a purely mechanical agent, as a steam-
eengine.

The latter is the only species of mechanical power which it has been
Attempted to apply practically to locomotioji ; and therefore that alone we
propose to compare with the animal power.

Now, although these two powers, viz., simple animal power and the
<steam-engine, may in most instances be applied so as to produce the same
t effect, and may, therefore, to a superficial observer appear similar, yet there
Ido exist such essentia differences in the mode of action, or the means
i'by which the effect is produced, that there are many cases in which the
>one maj be used, wherein the other mav be totally inapplicable.

In this treatise, draught by animal power is indeed the principal object
"of consideration ; but as, at the present moment, there appears to be a
^ great effort making to supersede animal power entirely by mechanical, — to
dismiss our old servant, the horse, and supply his place by the steam-
engine, it may be as well, in justice to the former, to say a few words in
his defence, and to take a rapid and general view of the distinguishing
features of the two agents

406

ON DRAUGHT.

To enter into all their respective merits, and to wei^li their comparative
advantages under all circumstances, would involve us in many questions
toreig-n to our immediate point of consideration, and would embrace sub-
jects which may supply matter for future consideration well worthy of our
attention. It is sufficient for our present purpose to show that there still
exist great objections to the universal application of machinery to draught,
objections which do not equally apply to the use of animal power ; and
on the other hand, that there are many advantages in the latter, which are
not yet ol)tained by the former ; and that animal power continues, for ail
the ordinary purposes of traffic upon common roads, to be the most simple
in its application, and certain in its effect.

We shall confine ourselves particularly to the consideration of that part
of the question which relates to the slow transport of heavy goods, as being
the most important branch of the subject, especially for agricultural pur-
poses. Economy is, of course, the grand desideratum in the consideration
of this question ; consequently, the comparative expense of the two powers,
supposing them for the moment equally convenient and applicable, will
first demand our attention.

A difficulty arises here, however, from the want of a certain measure of
comparison. The power of a one-horse engine is by no means exactly
the same thing as that of a horse. As we have before stated, the mode of
applying them being different, the variations in the results are different,
and consequently the effects do not bear a constant proportion to each
other, under different circumstances ; we must therefore be careful not to
fall into the mistake which we have ourselves pointed out as a very com-
mon source of error, viz., the drawing general conclusions from data
obtained in a particular case. We shall take the power of the horse, and
that of the steam-engine as ascertained practically on railways, where the
effect of each is less influenced by accidental circumstances, and conse-
quently can be better ascertained than on a road. We shall confine our
calculations of expense to this particular case, .and then endeavour to
discover how far the same results are to be expected, or what modifications
are likely to take place, and what alterations are to be made in tne results
under different circumstances. As regards the first, viz., the comparative
cost of animal and mechanical power on a railway, we cannot do better
than quote tlie words of the late Mr. Tredgold upon this subject, and we
accordingly extract the follovwing from his work upon Railways: —

' The relative expense of different moving powers for railways is an
' interesting inquiry, and the same materials being necessary to estimate
■' the absolute expense for any time or place, it is desirable to give some
' particulars, to aid the researches of those who wish to make such com-
parative estimates. The annual expense of a horse depends on

' 1. The interest of purchase-money

' 2. Decrease of value.

* 3. Hazard of loss.

* 4, Value of food.

' 5. Harness, shoeing, and farrierv

* 6. Rent of stabling.

' 7. Expense of attendance.

■ According to the average duration of a horse in a state fit for labour,
' of the description required on a railway, the first three items may be
•estimated at one-fourth of the purchase-money; the food, harness, shoe-
* ing, &c., included in the 4th, 5th, and 6th, will most likely not exceed
' 401. per annum, nor yet be much sliort of that amount ; and supposing
' one man to attend to two horses, this would add 15^. 12*. if the man's wages

ON OaAUGHT

407

were 2s per day ; and, at this rate, the labour of a horse of the value of
20/. would cost 601. 125. per year ; or, since there are 312 working days
in the year, the daily expense would be 3s. 10^^., or 186 farthings.
But the power of a horse is about 1251bs. when travelling at the rate of
three miles per hour, and the day's work eighteen miles.

' The annual expense of a high-pressure locomotive engine, or steam
carriage, consists of —

' 1. The interest of the first cost.

' 2. Decrease of value. ,

* 3. Hazard of accidents.

• 4. Value of coals and water.
' 5. Renewals and repairs.

' 6. Expense of attendance.

' It is difficult to procure these particulars from the experience of those

* who employ engines ; we will therefore annex, by way of example, such
' sums as we think likely to cover the expense. The first cost of the
' «ngine and its carriage may be stated at 50/. per horse power, and its
' decrease of value and hazard will render its annual expense about one-
' fifth of its first cost, or 10/. per annum per horse power. The expense
' of fuel and water per day will be not less than one bushel and a half of
' coals per horse power, and fourteen cubic feet of water ; and, taking the
' coals at 6d. per bushel, and the water and loading with fuel at 3d., the
' annual expense will be 15/. 12s. ; the renewals and repairs, at 20 per
' cent, on the first cost, will be 10/., which is as little as can be expected
' to cover them. Attendance, suppose one man and one boy for each six-

• horse engine, at 6s. per day, or Is. per day for each horse power, or
' 15/. 12s. per annum ; therefore the total annual expense of one-horse
' power would be 51/. 4s., or 158 farthings per day.' This power is equal
to a force of traction of 166|lbs. for the same number of miles per day as
the horse ; but from this gross amount of power we must deduct that neces-
sary to move the engine with its supply of coals: this will reduce it at
least to 1551b3. ; consequently, in the one case we have a force of traction
of 1251bs., at an expense of 186 farthings, and in the other, a force of
1551bs. at an expense of 158 farthings ; and reducing them both to one
standard quantity of work done, we find the expense of the horse is
1-11=: 1.488, aud of the locomotive engine 1.019, or about as 147 is to
100. In this case, therefore, there appears to be a decided economy in
the use of the steam-engine, and accordingly its application has become
very general, and is becoming more so every day.

Let us now examine what alterations are requisite, before we can apply
these calculations to the case of draught upon common roads. Supposing
both species of power equally convenient and applicable, and confining
cur observations merely to the amount of power and proportionate ex-
pense.

The force of traction of the horse, and the yearly cost, will remain so
nearly the same, that for our present purpose we may consider them
quite unaltered. Not exactly so with the locomotive engine.

All the parts of the machine must be made much stronger and heavier
and consequently more expensive for road work than for a railway, and,
therefore, the first cost will be greater— the wear and tear will also be
greater, and as the work will be more variable, the consumption of tuel
will be increased as well as the price-, which, generally speaking, will be
much less on a line of railway, than it can possibly be elsewhere.

Still all these circumstance, will not influence the result so much as
the increased effect of the weight of the engine. On a railway with the car-

'408

ON DRAUGHT.

ringe, as now constructed, the force of traction is not much more than
or 2 Jff ol the weight moveil ; consequently, the power necessary to move the
engine itself is not very considerable. On a road, however, this proportion
IS materially altered ; here the average force required to move a well-con-
structed carriage cannot be estimated in practice, at less, even when the
rouds are in good repair, than ; the engine, according to the construc-
tion of the best locomotive engines now m use, will weigh, with its car-
riage and fuel, at least one-half ton, or 11201bs. per horse power, and -K
of L120 is nearly 451bs., which we have to deduct from the gross power
of the engine, and which leaves only 121|lbs. as the available power
The proportional expense of the horse and the steam-engine is now there-
fore about as 115 to 100, and this without taking into account the causes
of increased expenditure already alluded to as regards the prime cost, the
repairs, and the consumption of fuel. From these calculations it would
appear, that even if mechanical power was found as convenient and
applicable in practice as horse power, still no great economy can be expected
from the employment, upon common roads, of small locomotive engines,
such as the best of those now in use, and known to the public, unless it
be in cases where other means may fail to produce some particular effect
which may be required ; if, for instance, a considerable velocity is neces-
sary, the power of a horse is very nearly exhausted in moving his own
body, and then there can be no doubt that a mechanical agent, in which
power may always be exchanged for a proportional velocity, will have
some advantages on a very good road which in fact approaches very
nearly to a railway. But in every case in which velocity is not a prin-
cipal object, as in the one now under consideration, and where, conse-
quently, little momentum is acquired, and frequent though slight obstruc-
tions occur, as on an ordinary road, an animal appears to possess
decided advantages. He adapts himself admirably to the work, increas-
ing or diminishing his efforts according to the variations of the draught,
resting himself, as it were, and acquiring vigour where his utmost strength
is not called for, and thus becomes enabled to make exertions far beyond
his average strength where any impediment or obstruction is to be over-
come. Indeed, he appears rather to- increase the average effect of his
powers by these alternations of exertion and comparative relaxation ; and
when it is considered that the draught will, in an ordinary road, frequently
vary in the proportion of six or eight to one, and that these changes may
succeed each other suddenly, the importance of such «n accommodating
faculty will be immediately appreciated.

By mechanical power, such as a steam-engine affords, these advantages
are not easily obtained. Without great weight or rapid motion no mo-
mentum can be acquired ; and the carriage itself, not being in rapid
motion, and the necessary economy in weight precluding the use of a fly-
wheel, any small obstruction will check, and perhaps totally stop the
machine. For instance, supposing the carriage to be advancing steadily
under the effect of a force of traction of 500lhs., and that a stone or rut
suddenly causes a resistance, which it would require 600 or SOOlbs. to
overcome, a case by no means rare even on tolerable roads ; if the impetus
or momentum of the mass be not sufficient to carry it over this obstruc-
tif)n, the machine must sto]> until some increased power be given to it.

Jt is also to be remembered, that what we are accustomed, in practice,
to consider as the average power of a horse, is the average excess remain-
ing over and above that necessary to carry his own body ; and that in all
ordinary cases he is able to maintain and continue nearly the same exer-
tions although the comjjarative draught of the carriage be coiisiderablj

ON DRAUGHT.

409

increased. Thus, if the road be slightly muddy or sandy, or newly
travelled, tlie draught, as we shall see more accurately laid down when
we come to the subject of wheeled carriages, will be d»juble and even treble
what it is on the same road when freed from dust or dirt ; but the average
power of the horse remains nearly the same, and, practically speaking,
equa under both circumstances ; that is to say, that the power necessary to
move the weight of the horse's body, which forms no mconsiderable por-
tion of his whole power, is not materially increased by a state ot road
which will even treble the draught of the carriage ; consequently, the
excess, or available portion of his power, remains unimpaired, and the full
benefit of it, as well as of any increased exertions of the animal, is telt and
is applied solely to dragging the load.

Not so with a locomotive steam-engine, because beyond the power
necessary to perform the work of dragging the load, an additional povyer
must be provided to move the engine itself. In other words, if an engine
of ten horse oower be capable of dragging a certain load, the weight of
this engine forming a portion of the load to be moved, a corresponding
portion of the power is unprofitably absorbed in moving it, and the excess,
or remaining power, is alone available for useful purposes, and can alone
be compared to the animal or horse power. Now, if the draught is aug-
mented, as we have just supposed, by any sand, dirt, or roughness of the
road, or any other impediment, the force required to move the useless
weight (of the engine) is proportionally increased ; it may even, as we have
stated, be doubled or trebled ; and the whole power of the engine remain-
ing the same, the surplus or remaining portion is considerably diminished,
and that at the very moment when, as before stated, it produces only one
half or one-third the effect.

Moreover, if at any part of the road a power equal to twenty horses is
required, the engine, as regards its construction, must be a 20-horse
engine. It is erroneous to suppose that a steam-engine, because it is a
high-pressure engine, can therefore, as occasion requires, be worked for any
length of time beyond its nominal power, by merely raising the steam.
Every part of a rnachine is calculated and arranged for a certain pressure
and corresponding power, and that is the real power of it. It is optional
to work at or below that power, but, if below, it will be to a disadvantage,
and the bulk and weight of the machine will be as great as if it were
always worked to its full extent, and both have to be carried over all those
parts of the road where a far less power would be sufficient. The velocity
of the carriage might indeed be increased, while travelling on the good and
level portion of the road, but these alternations in the speed and power
cannot be effected without a considerable degree of complexity, weight,
and expense in the machinery, and as we are confining ourselves to the
consideration of the case where velocity is not required, and might even
be an inconvenience, the excess of power will be wasted.

These objections to the use of mechanical power, in certain cases, are
pointed out, not as being insurmountable obstacles to the use of machinery,
but as serious difficulties which, in practice, have not yet been overcome^
In fact, there is not at present any jjractical substitute for horse power on
common roads, and as far as the public is concerned nothing has yet been
done. We, therefore, must consider them as objections remaining to be
overcome; and we are compelled to draw the conclusion, that, al the pre-
sent moment, animal power (always confining ourselves to the question of
the economical transport of heavy goods upon common roads) is superior
to any mechanical an-ent, and that beasts of draught, and particularly the

410

ON DRAUGHT.

horse, are not only the most ancient but still remain the most advan-
tajreous source of power.

Long experience has pointed out various modes of applying animal
power; but it is frequently ill directed, owing to the want of an ade-
quate knowledge of the mechanical structure of the animal, and the manner
in which he exerts his strength.

In the most powerful steam-engine, if too great a resistance be applied,
or, practically speaking, if we attempt to make it do more work than it is
calculated for, there is an immediate loss of power, in consetjuence of the
diminution of velocity caused thereby ; and if we continue to oppose a still
greater resistance, we reach the point at which it is unable to overcome it,
and it ceases to produce any effect. Again, a very small obstacle may be
so applied as greatly to impede an engine of considerable power, or even
to stop it altogether. The power of an engine is limited, and resistance
must always be proportioned to it; and there is a proportion beyond which
it is useless to go, and less than which would not absorb the vvhole force.

An animal is but a beautiful piece of machinery, and although perfect in
its construction, and wonderfully accommodating in its movements, it still,
like the engine, has a limited power, and has its peculiar modes of action,
its strong and its feeble parts ; and we must well consider its structure, to
be able to apply the resistance in that degree, and in that manner which
shall enable it to produce the greatest effect. The consideration of the
comparative effects of the exertions of a man and a horse will at once
exemplify this, and lead us more clearly to the knowledge of the peculiar
qualities or faculties of the horse.

If a horse be made to carry a heavy weight rapidly up a steep ascent,
or if a man be employed to drag slowly a heavy carriage along a rough
road, the strength of both will be soon exhausted, and little effect produced ;
but if a man be made to carry a weiglit up a ladder, and if a horse draw
a heavy carriage along a road, they will each produce a considerable effect :
yet, in the former case, the horse and the man are as strong as in the
latter, but their power is not properly applied, and is consequently wasted.

These different results are easily explained, by considering the mechanical
structure of the two bodies, and the mode in which their muscular strength
is exerted.

The action of pulling is effected in either case by throwing the body
forward beyond the feet, which form the fulcrum, and allowing the weight
of the body, in its tendency to descend, to act against the resistance
applied horizontally, and drag it forward ; as the resistance yields, the
feet are carried forward, and the action renewed, or rather continued.

Let A {fig. 1.) be the centre of gravity, or the point in which the whole of

ON DRAUGHT

411

the weiffht of the body may be supposed to be accumulated and B the M
crum, point of resistance ; AC the direction of the power o be overcome

If he legs are inflexible, the body actmg by .Is gravity, tends m its •
descent to describe a circle around the pouU B, but is opposed by the
(lesceni lo ^j^^ resolution of forces, that

[f^D ^dtw; parll t^ic, thl lengths of the lines AD AB, and D B
reprLnt respectively the proportions between the weight of the body the
straTn upon the point of support, and the effect produced ; that .s, if AD
beTken as the measure of Ihe weight of the body, then AB is the measure
of the strain upon the legs, and BD or AE the power pulhng m the direc-

'"Constq^uently, the effect increases with the weight of the body and the
distance Ihich' it is thrown beyond the feet, and is Imrj. ted onjy by the
capability of resistance at B, or the muscular strength of the legs This
isCd ntly the case in practice; for even if the body were brought
nearly horizontal, when its weight would act to the greatest advantage,
still if the legs are incapable of resisting the strain they would yield,
and no effect be produced. In a man, this muscular strength of the
limbs is very great, and he can lift or carry immense ^^^f^'^J';^^
ascend easily, even loaded, a ladder; but he is not well adapted to the
purpose of dragging: as his own weight is small proportionably to his
strength ; and the centre of gravity is low, and by the construction of
his body, cannot be thrown far beyond the fulcrum at his feet; con-
sequently, however capable his legs may be of resisting a great strain
AE remains small, and his muscular force is not advantageously brought

into action. „ , , , i- u-

A horse, on the contrary, by the formation of the body, can relieve his
wei-ht partly from his fore-legs; and, extending his hind legs as in
throw the centre of gravity a considerable distance in front ol
his feet B. AE is here proportionably much greater than in the former
case, and the whole of his force is, therefore, advantageously employed.
He is in fact, by his mechanical construction, a beast of draught.

The same train of reasoning which has here pointed out the species of
work peculiarly adapted to the different structure of the man and horse,
if continued further, will now serve to show the circumstances under which
the power of the latter is best applied, and the greatest effect produced.
We shall here consider both the quality of the draught and the degree.^
And first, it is to be observed, that although the weight of the animal s
body is the immediate cause in the action of pulling, yet, as before stated,
it is by the action of the muscles in advancing the legs and raising the
body, that this cause is constantly renewed, and the effort continued.
The manner, and the order of succession in which a horse thus lifts and
advances his legs may, of course, influence the movement of his body,
and ought therefore to be examined into: accordingly we find that many
writers upon draught have touched upon this part of the subject,
but they appear to" have contented themselves with inventing in their
closet the manner in which they conceived a horse must have moved his
legs, rather than to have taken the trouble to go out of doors to see
what really did take place, and, consequently, many have arrived at
erroneous conclusions. The ancient sculptors, who generally studied
nature so faithfully, either neglected this point, or otherwise our motlern
horses, by constant artificial training, have altered their step : for we find
in the celebrated frieze, from the Parthenon at Athens, a portion of which,
now in England, is more commonly known under the name of the Elgin
marbles, the only horses which are represented trotting, have both their

412

ON DRAUGHT.

UDon t^^^ '"""f "'^^ '^''^^ other two beine firm

Xle trotfi^r'-'P"^'"" "'^'^ P"^^"' day neveTaiure

In the case of these relievos, it is true that there are only four horses
out of more than two hundred, which are in the action of trot^n^ all
others bemg represented in a canter or gallop; and onlyto^of 'he
Jt wou dn" r ^ V" the foreground, and distinct from the^ther figures

examni T K ^' ^""u^"'"' ^J^^ ^ conclusion from this

example alone ; but we have another decided proof of the remark we
W made, m the case of the four horses of the church of St Marc at

Whether this was then the mode of trotting or not it is certain fhnt it
IS never seen to occur in nature in the present day ; fnd indeed Tt appeL
quite mconsistent with the necessary balancing of the body and was
therefore, more probably an error of the artist ^' '

It perhaps may have been found difficult or troublesome to watch the
movement of a horse's legs ; but a very little practice will enable Inv bod v
thanflt''^r''M,^K""'*'^''"^^-- by keeping near the sideorZhorse
dthe oTSh^'H ^ '"f y immediately after the raising of

either of the hind legs from the ground, the fore leg of the correspondino
side IS also raised, so that the latter leaves the ground just before J?
former touches it. If the fore legs be then watchfd. it wi 1 be seen that
immediate y after the movement of either of these, the hind leg upon the
opposite side is put in action, so that the order of succession %7ears to
be in walking, as numbered in^g. 3, *»ppfcirb lo

If the horse be now examined from a short distance, H will be seen
that, when he is walking freely, the successive movements of the lee-s are
at equal intervals of time, and that the muscular force of one limb only
IS brought into action at the same moment But if a horse, which is
dragging a load with some considerable exertion, be watched ' it will be
seen that he then acts longer upon his legs, and allows a less' interval of
(ime for raising and advancing them ; and at the same time, the reo-ularity
of the movement is generally destroyed; the limbs on the same side
g:enerally being moved more simultaneously, or at nearer intervals of
time than those at the opposite corners: thus, the muscular forces of two
ambs are always acting together, the movement of the whole body is less
continued and uniform than in the former case ; but each impulse is more
powerful, and a resistant e, which would be too great for tlie muscles of

ON DRAUGHT.

413

one le"- is overcome by the united exertion of two. We shall point out,
hereafter, the nec*sity of attending to this in the application of his power

InTrottinff, the action is of couree quicker, and a less re-^istance will,
as miffht be expected, cause the horse to move his legs at two intervals
instead of at four equal intervals of time : indeed, a horse accustomed
to go in harness generally acquires the habit of that action. There is
this striking difference between trotting and walking: in walking, we have
seen that the interval between the movement of the legs on the same side
was less than the other interval of time : in trotting, on the contrary, the
leo-s situated diagonally, or at opposite corners, move almost simultaneously.
O Winer to the velocity and the momentum which the body acquires m
consequence of that velocity, in trotting fast, the successive impulses are
less distinctly perceptible, and the movement more continued and uniform
than in a slow trot, or in walking. , ^ ,

In galloping, the movement is totally diflFerent : the fore legs are thrown
forward nearly simultaneously, and the hind legs brought up quickly,
and nearly together ; it is, in fact, a succession of leaps, by far the
greatest interval of time elapsing while the legs are extended after the
leap is taken : this is the position, therefore, which catches the eye, and
which must be represented in a drawing to produce the effect of a horse
in a gallop, although it is the moment when the animal is making no
exertion.

The canter is to the gallop very much what the walk is to the trot
thouo-h probably a more artificial pace. The exertion is much less, the
spring less distant, and the feet come to the ground in more regular suc-
cession: it is a pace of ease, quite inconsistent with any exertion of

draught. . , ^^ u t

The consequence of these peculiar movements in the limbs ot tne
animal is, that a succession of impulses is conveyed to the body; and
when the movement is slow, and the body of the horse does not acquire
any considerable impetus or momentum, the resistance should be such as
to receive each of these impulses, and leave the horse unrestrained in the
intervals.

It must, therefore, be a rigid resistance, void of elasticity.

It must not, however, be a constant, unremitted resistance.

For it is a well-known fact, that, however powerful may be the muscles
of a limb, they must not be kept constantly on the stretch. Thus we feel
even more fatigue by standing than by walking, because one particular set
of muscles is then kept constantly exerted. It is evident, therefore, that
the resistance or draught must not be perfectly constant but should afford
frequent opportunities of relaxing the efforts. Neither must it be a yield-
ing resistance, as in that case the animal could not make any great
exertion ; for if he applied too much power, he would be liable to fall
forward, and should he at any time fall short of the necessary exertion, he
would be drawn back by the strain, and it would require a considerable
effort to restore the motion.

If a horse be made to drag a rope passing over a pulley and descending
into a well with a certain weight, say of 200 lbs. attached to it, it is obvious
that he could not make an effort greater than 200 lbs. without instantly
considerably increasing his velocity, which would be a waste of power ;
nor must he for an instant relax his efforts, or fall below that mark, for he
would then be unable even to resist the pull, and would be overcome by
the weight. Such an extreme case as this, of course, is not likely to occui
often in practice, but the disadvantage of the principle is obvious.

414

ON D 11 AUGHT

An arrangement of this sort is, indeed, sometimes made use of, for raising
the earth from excavations, or the materials of a building ; but the exertion
is continued only for a few seconds, or for a distance of not more than te!i
or twenty yards : if prolonged, the inconvenience would be seriously felt
as it is, to a certain degree, in towing canal boats ; the length and curve of
the rope give an elasticity to the strain, and the necessity of keeping the
rope out of the water, or from dragging along the towing-path, compels the
animal to keep up a constant, unremitted pull, and that, too, in an oblique
direction, so as to throw him into an unfavourable position. We accord-
ingly find that, under these circumstances, the average work of a horse is
equivalent only to about four-fifths of that given by Smeaton, Desaguil
Hers, and others, who estimated the power of the horse from the work done
in a horse-mill, where the resistance is inelastic, and all circumstances
favourable, with the exception of the circular path.

The disadvantage of this kind of resistance is well known to carmen,
though of course without consideration of the reason. A horse is said to
pull better when he is close to his work, that is to say, when he is attached
at once to the body to be moved, because every exertion he makes is
then communicated at once to the mass ; but the leader of a team, unless
he keeps the traces constantly on the stretch, may frequently waste a
powerful effort without producing much effect upon the carriage"

Another inconvenience resulting from harnessing horses in a team, or
one before the other, is, that the leader, by tightening the traces, is con-
tinually relieving the strain from the body horse, and reciprocally the body
horse from the leader ; so that these horses labour under all the disadvantages
of a long, elastic, and constantly yielding connexion with the load, which
is not only fatiguing to them, but, in cases where the resistance is variable,
prevents the full and united effect of their exertions being properly com-
municated to the carriage. For, if a slight obstacle, as a rut or stone in
a road, checks the progress of the vehicle, the shaft-horse can immediately
throw his whole weight into the collar, and the united effect of his strength
and impetus is conveyed unimpaired to the vehicle, and forces it over the
obstacle; but if any elasticity is interposed between the power and the
resistance, as in the case of the traces of the leader of a team, the whole,
or the greater part of the effect of impetus is lost, and that force, which, if
concentrated in one effort, would effect the object, being lengthened into
a continued and comparatively feeble pull, is insufficient.

If we wish to destroy the impetus of a body moving with violence, we
receive it with a yielding resistance ; the action of catching a cricket-ball
exemplifies this perfectly ; and therefore, if the full effect of momentum is
wanted, all elasticity in the direction of the movement should be avoided.

We have entered rather fully into the consideration of this particular
point, because the principle is not only applicable to the mode of commu-
nicating the immediate action of the moving power, but will be found also
of considerable importance when we arrive at the subject of wheel-carriages.

A consideration of these various points brings us to this conclusion, that
the draught ought neither to be constantly uniform or without remission,
nor yet yielding or elastic : sudden shocks or violent changes in the velocity
must also evidently be disadvantageous, as tending to distress and injure
the animal.

Having determined upon the necessary quality of the resistance, we will
proceed to examine into the quantity or the degree of resistance or draught,
and the speed best adapted to the exertion of the animal. The useful effect
of a horse, or the work done, must evidently depend upon three things, viz.
the rate at which he is made to travel the power of traction he can exert.

ON DRAUGHT.

415

and the number of hours he can continve io work dauy at that speed; and
where there is no fixed condition which determines any one of these, such
as a particular load to be moved, or a certain velocity which it is desirable
to attain, or a limited time to perform the work in, then the object must be
to search for those proportions of the three by which, at the end of the day,
the greatest quantity of work shall have been produced.

With respect to the first two, viz., the speed and power exerted, it will be
obvious, that where a horse travels unloaded, the greatest distance he can
eo in any given time for several days in succession without injurious fatigue,
is the limit of his velocity : on the other hand, the load may be so great,
that he can scarcely put it in motion— this is the limit of his power: in
both cases, the useful effect is nothing. But between these limits of
velocity and power, there is a proportion which affords the maximum
quantity of effect, and which, therefore, must be the most advantageous for
the application of horse-power.

It has been asserted by theorists, and the theory appears to be supported
by experience, that the velocity corresponding to this maximum, or that at
which a horse working continually a certain number of hours per day will
do the most work, is equal to half the extreme or limit of velocity of the
same horse working the same number of hours unloaded; and that the
force of traction corresponding to this speed, is equal to half the limit of
his power. For instance, if six hours be the length of a day's work de-
cided upon, and if a horse working that time can go six miles per hour
unloaded, and therefore producing no useful effect, and supposing the limit
of power of the same horse be equal to 250lbs., it is found that he will do
the most work in the same number of hours when drawing a load at the
rate of half six, or three miles per hour ; and half of 250 or 125 lbs. will be
the strain corresponding to this speed. Our next step, then, must be to
And these limits : now, the limit of velocity depends upon the length of
time during which the speed is kept up ; we subjoin therefore a table de-
duced from experiments, and which represents the proportion of the duration
of labour and maximum velocity of the average of horses accustomed tc
tlieir respective velocities.

Howl. ,

Duration of labour .... I 23 45 67 8 10
Maximum velocity unloaded in 1 ^^ gj gj g 5j 5j 42

miles per hour J
This within the range here given may be considered as very nearly the law
of decrease of speed by increased duration of labour ; and at the first
glance we see the great advantage of reducing the speed and prolonging
the exertion. There are, however, many causes to limit the duration of a
day's work of a horse. Tredgold, in his work on Railways, before quoted,
says : ' The time assigned for the day's work of a horse is usually eight
hours ; but it is certain, from experience, that some advantage is gained by
shortening the hours of labour ; and we have observed, that a horse is least
injured by his labour, where his day's work is performed in about six
hours ; where the same quantity of labour is performed in less than six
hours, the over-exertion in time shows itself in stiffened joints, while the
wearying effects of long-oontinued action become apparent, if the duration
of the day's work be prolonged much beyond eight hours. Indeed, under
the management of a good driver, a full day's work may be completed m
the time before mentioned— six hours— with benefit to the health and
vigour of the animal.

We may be permitted, however to abandon the idea of improving the

416

ON DRAUGHT

health of the animal, or of rendering his business a pleasure to him— an
attempt, the success of which is, we should think, very questionable, and
con ent ourselves with endeavouring to check the barbarous practice T)I
working horses to death other by overdriving or overloading them ; and
we sliall, as is generally the case, consult our own interests and follow the
dictates of humanity at the same time, by not injuring so useful an animal •
and we think experience proves there will be no danger of doino- this by
working eight or nine hours a day. By referring to the Table above we
see that the maximum velocity of the average of horses corresponding lo
eight hours' work is five miles and a half per hour, consequently, the rate
at which he would travel when loaded is a little more than two miles and
a half per hour. There is no doubt that some horses could conveniently
travel faster ; but as the speed must generally be governed by that of other
horses, the average is, in this case, the rate to be adopted. The force
exerted under these circumstances depending upon the quality of the horse,
It is very difficult to obtain even an approximate value of it, unless the
experiment be made upon each individual horse : it is fortunately, however
of no great consequence in practice, because if we feel sure that we are
employing all the power we can command to the greatest advantage it is
not of any very great importance that we should know the exact amount ot
that power.

In comparing animal horse- power with that of the steam-en^-ine we
estimated it at about 125 lbs., but we believe that, with tolerably good
horses, it may generally be taken at more than that.

We have thus far confined our attention to the cases where velocity, &s
well as duration of labour, was left to choice ; this is far from being always
the case. In stage-coaches, or other conveyance for passengers, speed is
absolutely necessary, and it only remains to learn how that speed can be
obtained with the greatest economy. The following Table, extracted from
Tredgold, will show the great reduction in the effect produced by increas-
ing the velocity.

The first column being the velocity or rate per hour, continued for six
hours per day ; the second represents the force of traction of which the
animal is capable ; and the third, the comparative effects produced. A
force of traction of 125 lbs. continued for six hours at the rate of three
miles per hour being taken as the standard, and considered equal to the
arbitrary number 1000.

Miles per hour. Force of traction in lbs. Effect produced

2 .... 166 .... 888

3 .... 125 .... 1000
3i . • . . 104 ... . 972

4 . . . . 83 .... 888
4J . . . . 62^ .... 750

5 .... 4l| .... 555
5^ . . . . 36^ .... 500

If, however, the hours of labour be lessened, taking the velocity corre-
sponding to the greatest useful effect, the results will be much greater, and
the velocity may be raised much higher, as will be seen in the followinff
Table. ^
Here the first column is the length of days' work, the second the best
velocity corresponding to that time, or half the limit of velocity shown in
Table (1), and the third column the conoparative effect produced, the force
of traction being in each case 125 lbs

ON DRAUGHT

417

Dura«oaoflabo«riDhoor». Velocity, miles per hour. Effect produced.

578
709
813
909
1000
1063
UIO

2 . . . H

3 . . . H

4 . . . 3f

5 . . . . 3i

6 , . . . 3

7 . . .

To attain higher velocity, it is necessary still further to reduce the load, and
'he next Table is calculated upon the supposition of the strain being only
one half the last, viz., 621 lbs ; this is about the average exertion of eacli
horse in a four-horee heavy stage-coach.

Duration of labour, „^ , , ^

hours per day. Velocity. Effect produced.

4 . . . . 5J . . . 613

3 . . . . 6f . . . . 534

2 . . . 7f . . . . 434

1 .... 11 .... 307

In mails or light coaches, where ten, eleven, and even eleven and a hall
or twelve miles an hour is attained, the average strain of each horse ia
barely 40 lbs., and the effect produced, or value of work done, not much
more than one-half the above.

It must be remembered, that these tables are all calculated upon the
supposition of the road being good, and the work such as not to cause any
immediate injury to the animal, and is adapted only to the average quality
of horses. They are not therefore at once applicable as data for calcu-
lations in all ordinary cases, but only serve to shew the comparative forces
which may be exerted under different degrees of speed. The results or
effects of this force will always be influenced by the quality of the resis-
tance as we have already observed in the cases of slow travelling, but in
rapid travelling the power is much more expensive, owing to the great
loss which we see by the tables is sustained by increased velocity ; and
it is, therefore, the more important to study well the means of applying the
power in question.

In this rapid travelling, the bad consequences of a uniform and constant
strain is still more felt by the horses, and the necessity of occasional relief
is still more urgent than at low velocities. It is universally admitted by
horse proprietors and postmasters, whose interests make them peculiarly
sensible on this point, that a flat piece of road is more destructive of horses
than the same length of road where gentle rises and alternate flat and
swelling ground occur ; and that a long hill is easier surmounted where
there are occasional sliort levels, and even descents, than when the whole
is one uniform ascent.

It only remains for us, before we dismiss the subject of the moving
power, to consider the particular mode of applying it, or the manner of
harnessing the horses.

Under this head comes the question of the best direction of the traces,
or, as it has generally, but less clearly been called, the angle of inclination
of the line of traction. This question appears to have been always
considered one of great importance : the point has been frequently dis-
cussed, and various opinions have been advanced ; some having recom-
mended it to be horizontal, others inclined ; and, as they have each in
their turn, in demonstrating the correctness of their own theory, proved
the error of others, there can be no presumption in laying them all aside,

2 E

418

ON DRAUGHT,

and in talcing a different, but at the sanne time, a more simple and practical
view of the case. By referring to a figure similar to that by which we
showed the mode of action of the horse in pulling, we see that if AD
represent that portion of his whole weight which is relieved from his fore-
'egs, and AE the direction of the traces, then AF is the measure of the
horizontal pull upon the carriage. Now. AF bears a constant propor-
tion to AB, which represents the strain upon the legs ; and AD being
constant, AB, and, consequently, AF, increase or diminish according as
Ihe angle ADB is increased or diminished : that is to say, the horizontiJ
pull applied to the carriage is proportionate to the strain upon the legs ,
but they are both dependent upon the angle formed by the traces, increas-
ing or diminishing as the latter are inclined downwards or upwards from

Ftg. 4.

Ftg. 6.

the collar ; so that
whether the traces be
inclined upwards, as
Jig. 4, or downwards,
as fig. 6, or whether
they be horizontal, as
fig. 5, makes no dif-
ference in the manner
of pulling. In the first
case, a portion of tlie
animal's weight is
borne by the traces,
and is transferred by
them to the carriage
AF is here small, but
the strain upon the legs
AB,is also proportion-
ably less than in the
second case, where the
traces are horizontal.
In fig. 6, where the
traces incline down-
wards, we see that the
horizontal force AE
is much more con-
siderable ; but, at the
8ame time, AB is in-
creased, and conse-
quently the muscular
exertion required in
the legs is proportion-
ablv great : in fact, here
a portion of the weight
of the load is trans-
ferred to his shoulders.

The comparative ad-
vantages, therefore, of
the three, do not fol-
low any general rule,
but depend simply
upon the peculiar
qualities of the parti-

culal animal employed, and his relative capabilities of liaing and pulling,

ON DRAUGHT.

419

or the proportion existing between the weight of his body and his muscu-
lar strength. To render this more clear to our own feelings, we will put
the case of a man. We have already seen that an able bodied man is
more adapted for lifting than pulling; consequently, in his case it would
be advantageous to throw a certain portion of the weight upon him, by
making him pull upwards, as in fig. 7, or what we are more accustomed

to see, and which amounts to the same thing, applying his strength to a
wheelbarrow. Jig. 8, and we have frequently seen an ordinary man wheel
800 lbs. in this manner.

If, however, we take a person accustomed to hard work, and conse-
quently not so strong in the legs, although he may be unable even to lift
the wheelbarrow which the other moved with ease, still he may, by push-
ing horizontally, put in motion a conpiderable load ; and lastly, in the
case of an invalid who can barely carry his own weight, if he lean on the
back of a garden chair, he will not only walk himself, but push on the
chair ; or a child w^ o is yet too weak to stand, can, if part of his weight
be supported in a go-cart, not only move himself, but also the frame which
supports him. These are very familiar and homely comparisons, but they
are cases exactly similar to the three positions of the traces ; and the
argument will equally apply to horses as to moi. It is true, we rarely
use for draught a horse that cannot stand ; but the case is very possible
that a large heavy horse, otherwise not strong, or one which it was not
desirable to fatigue, might pull better and longer, if part of the weight was
borne upon the carriage, or if, in other words, the traces pulled upwards.
And we know by experience, that in the case of stage-coaches, where,
owing to the speed, the weight of the horse's body is already generally a
burden to him, it is disadvantageous to increase that weight by inclining
the traces much downwards ; on the contrary, where we wish to obtain the
utmost effect of a powerful horse, or of a horse that is muscular, but
without much weight forward, it is highly advantageous to augment the
effect of his gravity by inclining the traces even as much as 15°, or about
1 upon 3 ; the strain upon the traces will be then considerably increased,
and the effect augmented, provided always that he is able to exert the
necessary strength in his legs. As far, therefore, as the mere force of
Iractiop is concerned, there is no oarticular angle which will always pro-
duce the greatest effect — out it must depend upon the particular cafjability
of the horse ; and this in its turn varies, and is affected by circumstances ;
for the same horse that upon a level road requires no addition to his weight,
might be materially assisted by a slight additici wtien ascending a hill,
if not continued too long ; and most horses would be benefited consider-
ably by the opposite arrangement in a descent, that is, by a portion of their
weight being borne up ; they should at least have no additional load thrown
on them while descending a hill

2 E 3

420

ON DRAUGHT.

There is also a time, when inclininp: the traces downwards is almost in-
dispensable : it is when dragging a four-wheeled waggon over a rough
broken load. If the front wheel, which is generally small, meets with an'
obstacle by falling into a hole, or stopping against a stone, it requires no
profound reasoning to show, that a force pulling upwards in the direction

AB,J?g". 9, will raise the whole wheel over the
Fig. obstacle with much greater facility than if applied

horizontally, as AC : this is the only circumstance,
unconnected with tlie horse, that ought to govern
the direction of the traces, and the degree of
the inclination here must, of course, still be
proportioned to the power of the horse. We see
therefore that, in proportion as the horse is
stronger, or that we are disposed to make him exert a greater effort, the
traces should be inclined downwards from the collar: with a good average
horse, perhaps one-sixth or one-seventh of the distance from the collar to the
extremity ; with a horse of inferior capabilities, arising from weakness in
the limbs, and not want of weight, or with an ordinary horse when
travelling above six miles an hour, the traces should be nearer the hori-
zontal line, except when the circumstance of a rough road, before alluded
to, requires some modification of this. To be able to apply these rules
generally in practice, it would be necessary to have some means of altering
the traces while on the road ; as we have stated that they should be dif-
ferently arranged according as the road is level or rough, or ascending
or descending, this would not be difficult to contrive, and has, indeed,
been suggested by some writers upon this subject ; but it is probable that,
exct pt in stage-waggons, where the same carriage goes along a great ex-
tent, and consequent variety of road, it will be sufficient to adjust the
tract s according to the average state of the roads in the neighbourhood ;
and we cannot greatly err, if we bear in mind that, inclining the traces
downwards from the collar to the carriages, amounts to the same thing as
throwing part of the weight of the load on to the shafts, a thing frequently
done in two-wheeled carts, and a manoeuvre which all good carmen
know how to put in practice. The impossibility of inclining the traces oj
the leaders, owing to their distance from the carriage, is an additional
• reason to those given before, why they (the leaders) cannot, when re-
quired, exert such an effort as the shaft-horse or wheeler; and on rough
cross-roads, is a great argument in favour of harnessing horses abreast.
Yet what can be more contrary to the rules here laid down than the

ON DRAUGHT.

421

injudicious mode frequently adopted in harnessing horses ? How con-
stantly do we see the efforts of horses paralysed by misapplication of their
respective qualities ! In the annexed sketch, (Jig. 10,) for instance, which
represents a very common specimen of this, the light, muscular, little horse,
which is capable of considerable exertion, is nearly lifted from ihe ground,
and prevented from making any exertion, by the traces leading upwards ;
while the feeble old horse, scarcely capable of carrying his own body, is
nearly dragged to the ground, and compelled to employ his whole strength
in carrying himself, and even part of the weight of the leader ; so that the
strength of the one willing to work is not employed, and the other is so
overloaded as to be uselet.^

The mode of attaching the traces does not admit of much variety. Ihe
shoulders have always been made use of for this purpose.

Fig.n. Homer, who is supposed to have lived

about 900 years B.C., describes veiy mi-
nutely, in the twenty-fourth book of the
Iliad, the mode of harnessing horses at the
time of the siege of Troy, nearly 3000 years
ago ; but if we suppose that his description
was taken from the harness in use in his
own time, it is still referring to a period
about twenty-seven centuries back.

A simple strap, formed of several thick-
nesses of leather, so as to be very stiff, and
fitted well to the neck and shoulders, served
as a collar, as seen at A A, {Jigs. 11, 12.)
A second strap, B B, passed round the
body, and was attached to the shoulder-
strap at the withers. At this point was fixed the yoke, C C, which was
fixed to the pole.

Fig. 12.

A pair of horses were thus yoked togetner, without traces or breechings
as oxen are seen at the present time in many parts of the country.

This was a simple arrangement, but by no means a bad one ; and it
would appear that they performed all the manoeuvres of cavalry with cha-
riots and horses thus harnessed. The pair yoked to the pole were called
yoked horses ; abreast of these was frequently placed what was called an
outer horse, with a simple shoulder-strap or collar FF, and a single trare,
GG, passing inside, as in Jig. 13. Sometimes there were two of these
horses, one or each side, each furnished with his strap or collar and trace

122

ON DRAUGHT.
F>ffA3.

These straps, if well fitted, were not bad ; but as they must have pressed
in some degree upon the throat, they could not be equal to the collar of
the yoked horses, still less to the collar at present used.

In more modern times these shoulder-straps gave place to the breast-
sirap. A horse can no doubt exert a considerable strain against such a strap,
but in action it must impede the movement of the shoulder.

In some parts of South America the trace is fixed to the pummel ot the
saddle which in its turn is weU secured to Uie horse by saddle-girths,
breast-straps, and breechings ; and we are informed that horses m this
manner dra-r very considerable loads. It resembles completely the harness
of the ancients, 'with the addition of the breechings. It is, of course, a
mere temporary arrangement, convenient only as requirmg no preparation.
The trace is, in fact, the lasso of the rider, which is always fastened to the
sadd'e • and when he has entangled it round the horns of a bull, or
attached it to anything he may have occasion to transport, he takes one or
two turns of the thong round the pummel of the saddle, and the horse will
at full gallop drag the load after him. Here the load being generally upon
the ground the trace must incline considerably downwards ; and this,
added to the weight of the rider, will perhaps account in some degree for
the extraordinary effects of a young powerful horse goaded to the utmost,
and continuing the exertion only for a short time.

A o-entleman who travelled some time in this part of America, and tre-
nuentlv witnessed the practical effects of this arrangement, has suggested
the propriety of introducing it into the artillery, by means of which a
number of horses might in an instant be attached to a gun, to extricate it
from any heavy or broken ground in which it might be entangled. Cer-
tainlv the lenffth of these traces would enable these additional horses to
secure a <rood footing ; and any number of horses might thus be made to
eai theVassistance !n time of need. We do not pretend, however to
judge of the practical utility of this measure, but merely record the sug-

gestion of another. . ,

The collar now generally used is an improve nent upon the ancie nt
«hoiJder-stmp described by Homer ; and it is probably the best possible

ON DRAUGHT.

413

mode of attaching the traces to the horses. If the connexion is made at
the proper place on the collar, the latter bears flat and evenly upon the
muscles which cover the collar-bone, and the shoulders of the horse are
left almost as free in their action as if the collar were not there. About
A. {figs. 14, l.'i,) is the point of the shoulder where the trace should
come r and a little inclination downwards, which cah easily be effected
in the case of the shaft-horse by the shafts, and in the others by the belly-
band, will, if necessary, prevent the collar rising up, and inconveniencuig
the throat of the horse.

Fig,\4,. ' FigAb

Reflecting upon the various circumstances which we have shown to
occur in the application of animal power, and the various conclusions we
have drawn while considering the best and most advantageous application
of this power — and we must be excused the frequent repetition of the
terms, for the sake of the clearness gained by it — it would appear that the
resistance should be as much as possible rigid and inelastic, so as- to
receive immediately and unimpaired the direct effects of the slightly irre-
gular exertions of the animal ; that this resistance should not be such as
to yield directly to a sudden impulse ; that it should be so far uniform as
to be free from violent changes or sudden shocks, but not so constant as to
allow of nor remission, nor of those alternations of exertion and comparative
.relaxation which we have stated to be advantageous to the perfect deve-
lopment of animal power.

That, as regards the degree of resistance, where velocity is not required,
a force of traction of from lOOlbs. to 1251bs., or even lf.01bs.*, accordmg
to the strength of the horse, continued for eight hours a day, at about two

• The load which will prwluce this amount of draught wiU be deterrained when we
consider the subject of the T,)ad», on the quality of which it will be seen that this mainly
•ieyeads.

424 ON DRAUGHT.

aiid a half to three miles per hour, is the best proportion of quantity and
duration of labour ; that where six or eight miles per hour is required, the
duration of the day's work should be shortened to five or six hours, and .
the draught reduced to 801bs. or lOOlbs. At still higher velocities the
draught must not exceed 501bs. or 601bs., and the time of working two or
three hours. But this speed can only be attained by the sacrifice of the
horse ; and consequently the question will rather be what the horse is
capable of doing than what can be done with economy ; and it becomes a
matter of calculation depending altogether upon the first cost of the horse,
and the profits arising from his employment.

With respect to the mode of harnessing the horse, it is hardly necessary
to say that a-reat care should be taken in fitting the collar and in attaching
the traces to the proper point. As to the direction of the traces, it most,
as we have shewn, entirely depend upon the circumstances of the case
Where the draught is heavy and slow, if the road be good, the traces should
be nearly horizontal, unless the journey be short, or the traffic be only in
one direction, and the cart return empty, or unless any other reason render
it desirable to compel the horse to exert himself more than he would natur-
ally do ; the traces should then be inclined downward towards the carriage,
with an inclination perhaps of one upon four or five, provided always that the
horse is capable of continuing the exertion which, by the additional load
thrown upon his shoulders, he is thus called upon to make. If, in the same
case of low speed, the road be very heavy, or broken and rough, the pro-
portion of draught upon each horse must be lessened, but the traces
should be attached still lower to the carriage, at a slope of one upon three
or four, by which much greater power is given to the animal to drag the
load over any obstruction. „ , • .1 tu^

At all high velocities, the traces should generally be horizontal. Itie
cases of rough roads or powerful horses may slightly afi"ect this arrange-
ment, as at low velocities, but not in so great a degree.

We will now proceed to examine the mode in which these conditions
are practically to be fulfilled, and the result of the application of the prin-
ciples which we have laid down, by considering the subject of the vehicles
for conveyine the weight to be moved. ■ j u 1 j

Those in present use are boats, as canal boats, sledges, and wheeled
carriages, which last of course include every species of carriage, whether
waggon or cart, heavy or light. ...

cinal boats and canals we suspect are going fast out of use, and will
very shortly give place entirely to railways ; but still it must be many
years before this can be effected ; and in the mean time, the produce ot
the most extensive manufactures in the world, and the supply of immense
masses of people, will be transported over these beautifully smooth, leve
noiseless roads^ and, even if their beds were dry, and become the course
of railways (an event which may perhaps befall some of them) we must,
out of respect for the extraordinary benefits we have derived from their
assistance, and the almost incredible effect they have produced upon the
rmmerce'and riches of the country, have devoted a few l«-s to hat par
of their consideration which bears upon our subject, viz., the draught ot

'The^gJeat advantage in the transport of goods by water conveyance, is
the smflhiess of the power required. A body floating in -^-^^^^^H
very free in its movements, that motion may be gradually communicated
io l by any power however small, at least the limit is very far removed
bu aUhough a very slow movement may thus easily be obtained. Ih.
sUghtest increase of speed causes a very great increase of resistance.

ON DRAUGHT.

425

The resistance to a body moving in a fluid arises principally froni the
Btrikin- of the particles of the fluid against the front of the moving body,
so that" f tlie speed of the vessel be increased not only does it encounter a
proportionably greater number of particles, but also it is struck by each
K a force proportionate to the velocity, and ^^"^f f ^V'Jhe
is found to increase as the square of the velocity; thus if the «Pe«d of the
ve sel be trebled, the number of particles, or the quantity of water which it
m ts in its progress for a certain space of time, is trebled, and the resis-
Lce of each particle being also three times as great, owing to the boa s
trTkin" it with^reble the velocity, the united effect is nine tunes as great ;
t iSore, if in the first instance it required one pound to draw the vessel
i would now require nine, but nine times the weight or resistance, moved
at three times the velocity, will require twenty- seven times the quantity oi
power in action ; consequently, we see that the resistance '^creases as the
square of the velocity, and the power required to be exerted for a given
time increases as the cube of that velocity.

There are some other causes of resistance, which do not vary in this
proportion, but at moderate velocities; and in all ordinary cases this may
be considered as a tolerable approximation to the real law of the increase,
and shows at once the impossibility of using water conveyance where speed
is required The draught of an ordinary canal boat, at the velocity ot
miles per hour, is about of its weight, that is to say, a canal boat, with
its load weighing 33 tons, or 73,920 lbs., is moved at the rate mentioned
by a force equivalent to 80lbs., being ^ part of the load. This is fmind
bv Mr Bevan to be the result upon the Grand Junction Canal, and a force
of traction of 801bs., is here found to be equivalent to a horse power. The
averao-e power of an ordinary horse is certainly rather more ; and in the
comnTencement of this paper, we mentioned this as an instance of a small
effect being produced, most probably owing to the peculiar application ot
the power We believe it to be the case, and think it likely, that if the
disadvantages before alluded to, .rising from the mode of applying the
power could be removed, the effect might be raised to 100 lbs. or 120 lbs.
of traction, and consequently the load moved would then be 40 or 50 tons ;
this is an increase well worthy of consideration.

We now come to the consideration of the means of transport employed
on land. These are sledges, rollers, and wheel carriages. The. order m
which they are here mentioned, is probably that in which they were in-
vented or first employed. A sledge is certainly the rudest and most pri-
mitive form of vehicle ; the wheeled carriage, and even the placing the load
itself upon rollers, is the effect of a much more advanced state of the me-
chanical arts, and is probably of much later date than the sledge.

When man first felt the necessity or the desire of transporting any arti-
cle from one spot to another, he doubtless endeavoured to lift or carry it :
if it proved too heavy for him to carry, he would naturally endeavour to
drag it. Here, frequent experiments would soon show him how much less
labour was required to drag a body with a smooth surface in contact with
the ground, than when the contrarv was the case ; and if the body to be
moved did not itself present a smooth surface on any of its sides, but was,
on the contrary, rough and angular in all directions, he would naturally be
led to interpose between it and the ground some plane surface which
should prevent the angles and projections of the body from entering the
ground and impeding the progiess: and we may presume that sledges were
thus very early brought into use. When attempting to transport still heavier
masses, the accidental pressure of round stones, or a piece of timber, maj

426

ON DRAUGHT.

have shown the advantage of interposing rolling bodies, and thus may
rollers have been invented and first brought into use.

These steps appear natural and likely to have led to these results; they
are at any rate sufficient to account for the first introduction of these two
means of facilitating transport, but no steps of this kind appear capable of
leading to the beautiful yet simple contrivance of a wheel.

A roller is by no means an imperfect wheel, as it may at first appear to
be ; they have nothing in common but their rotatory or revolving action, but
the effect of this motion is totally different in the two. In a roller, friction
is avoided altogether by it, in a wheel it exists as completely as in a sledge,
but the sliding surfaces being at the centre of the wheel, instead of on the
ground, are always the same, and being under control, may be kept in
that state which shall cause as little friction as possible : moreover, the
friction is at a point where we have the means of overcoming it, by acting
with the power of a considerable lever, as we shall hereafler show.

There is, indeed, a kind of roller, which partakes somewhat of the cha-
racter of the wheel, but without possessing the advantages of it.

This species of roller may have been an intermediate step between the
two, and we shall therefore describe it, when we have dismissed the subject
of sledges and rollers.

In England sledges are at the present time very little in use. In some
commercial towns the facility with which bulky and heavy articles can be
placed upon them, without being raised to the height of a cart, has caused
them still to be employed, but even in these cases, they are in general used
only upon the pavement where the friction is not considerable, and for
short distances, in which case the saving of labour, in loading and unload-
ing, more than compensates for the increase of power absorbed by the
draught. Low-wheeled trucks would, however, in these cases possess the
same advantage, and might be substituted for them, if this advantage is so
indispensable : for agricultural purposes they are almost become obsolete,
and for all purposes of tralfic between distant points, they are quite aban-
doned.

It is only in the North of England and in some parts of Cornwall, that
they are sometimes used in farms, but wherever good roads exist, and me-
chanical arts keep pace with the improvements of the age, they have given
piace to wheel carriages. . An examination into their nature and action
will immediately account for this. i j •

A sledge is merely a frame, generally of wood, upon which the load is
placed, and resting at once upon the ground, the friction between the under
surface of the sledge and the ground bears a considerable proportion to
the load ; but if the ground be very uneven and full of holes, the sledge, by
extending over a great surface, avoids the holes, and slides only upon the
eminences, which being naturally the stones or the hard portions of the
ground, cause less friction ; on such a road, a wheel would be continually
sinkin'r into those holes, and thus oppose considerable resistance, and
would also expose the load to frequent danger of upsetting.

It would appear, therefore, that over broken ground, or even upon a
very bad uneven road, a sledge may be more advantageous than wheels,
aud its extreme simplicity of construction renders it very economical as
recrards first cost ; but the ground must indeed be very bad, or the country
be very poor and little cultivated, where the formation of roads would not
amply repay themselves by allowing the use o wheels ; for the power in-
quired to d?aw a loaded sledge will be at least four or five time^ greater
tliau (hat required for an equally loaded carl upon a tx)lerably good road.

ON DRAUGHT.

427

The draught of a sledge, even upon the pavement, is about one-fifth of
the load, so that to draw a ton weight, requires a force of traction of about
four hundred weight ; upon roads the friction wili be much greater : it is
difficult to state its amount, as it must depend so much upon the nature of
the o-round, but with the load before mentioned, vtz. one ton, the force of
traction will probably vary from five to seven hundred weight : over a
strona- rocky surface the resistance of a sledge will be much the same as
on pavement. Its use, therefore, must be confined to very particular
cases, where the absence of roads, or the want of means, prevents the
adoption of more improved vehicles ; and these cases are fortunately too
rare in Eno-land to render it worth our while to bestow much time upon
its description. r • i. r

Sledo-es are generally formed of two longitudinal pieces of timber, tour
or five "feet apart, with their lower edges shod with kon ; and transverse
planks, bolted to these, form the floor, and they are thus easily constructed.
The traces should be more inclined than with wheeled carriages, because
■ the fi-iction bearing a greater proportion to the load it is more advantageous
to throw a portion of that load upon the horse, and being used upon uneven
ground it is more important to be able to lift the front of the sledge
over obstacles.

Although in this country the use of sledges is very limited, ni many
parts of the world they constitute the best, and, indeed, the only means of
conveyance. Upon ice the friction is so trifling that they oppose less
resistance even than wheels, for the reasons before stated of their covering
a larger surface, and thereby sliding over those asperities which would
impede the progress of a wheel ; upon snow the advantage is still more
decided: where a wheel would sink a considerable depth and become
almost immoveable, a sledge will glide upon the thin frozen crust without
leaving a trace, and with an ease truly wonderful. In all cold climates
they are consequently in general use ; and the depth of winter is there the
season tor the transport of merchandise.

The Esquimaux with their dogs, the Laplanders with their rein-deer, and
the Russians with horses, use the sledge to a great extent in the winter,
over the frozen rivers or the hard snow.

In the warm climates, on the contrary, not only are they now almost
unknown, but the records which refer to periods so far removed as 3000
years make no mention of such conveyance.

Rollers come next under consideration ; they certainly afford the means
of transporting a heavy weight upon land with less power than any other
means with which we are acquainted ; their motion is not necessarily
attended with any friction. A cylinder, or a sphere, can roll upon a plane
without any rubbing of the surfaces whatever, and consequently without
friction ; and, in the same manner, a plane will roll upon this roller with-
out friction : in practice, this is more or less the case, according to the
perfection of workmanship in the formation of the rollers, and, if the
cylindrical, the care with which they are placed at right angles to
direction at which they are to move. There is only one sourpe of resistance
which is inseparable from the use of rollers, viz., the unevenness of the
surfaces, or the yieldings of the material, which amounts to nearly the
same thina. %

A circle resting upon a straight Tine can only touch it in a single point,
and the contact of a cylinder with a plane is merely a line: consequently,
if the material of the roller, and the surface on which it rolled, were per-
fectly hard and inelastic, such would be their contact, whatever weight
might be placed upon the roller.

428

ON DRAUGHT.

But in practice no swch material can be
obtained, and rollers, on the contrary, are ge-
nerally made of wood, and when loaded they
must yield until the surface A B,J?g. 16, is pro-
portionate to the pressure. Still, if the sub-
stance were perfectly elastic, that is to say, if
it would return to its original form with the
same force and velocity which were required
to distort it, this alteration would not cause
any resistance ; the elasticity at E would tend
to raise the back of the roller with a force
P E, Hg. 1 7, equal to, and exactly similar, but
opposite to C B, and would consequently
balance it.

Although perfect elasticity is unattainable,
yet most hard substances possess this quality
to some extent ; consequently, when the load
is not sufficient to crush the materials, the
resistance is not much increased by even a
considerable yielding, — provided this yield-
ing, as we before said, arises from elasticity. Thus, if a bladder be filled
with air and used as a roller, the resistance will not be greater than if a
perfect and hard cylinder were employed, although the bladder may be
nearly flattened under the weight; — but the permanent compression
of the roller and the crushing of dust or other extraneous substances
lying in the way are the great impediments to its movement ; these
constitute a resistance in the direction B C, which is not counterbalanced
by any force arising from elasticity on the opposite side. The effect of
this resistance is dependent upon the diameter of the roller, diminishing
when the latter is increased, though not in so rapid a proportion.

If A B C be a circle, let a horizontal force P be applied a'. G,^g. 18 ; if

an obstacle be placed at E, the force P will
tend to push the roller over the obstacle,
and will act with a lever equal to G F,
and for all small obstacles G F may be
considered equal to GD the diameter. The
weight upon the roller pressing it down,
acts with a lever equal to E F; but E F

is equal to G F, y. aJFD; therefore
E r, which is equal to F D, remaining con-
stant, and the diameter being increased,
E F increases only as the square root of
diameter, and consequently the force ne-
cessary to advance the roller is inversely as the square root of the diameter ;
that is to say, if a roller be increased four times in diameter, the resistance

1

Fig. 18

arising from the causes now under consideration will be reduced to

V4

or }(, and if increased nine times in diameter, the resistance will be only
equal tc ~- or

This being the only source of resistance to the action of a roller, it will
easily be conceived that, in practice, by laying a plank, or any other plane
surface, upon the ground, and preparing in like manner the lower surface
of the body to be moved, and interposing rollers between the two, a very

ON DRAUGHT.

42S

preat wei-ht may oe moved with comparatively small power ; but, on the
Sher hand therJ is a serious practical ---^^^^^^^^^ "^'^
a roller which prevents its adoption except in very particular cases.

A weight moved upon rollers proceeds at twice the rate of the roller., for i
^^'^■B^ _ C /Jff 19 be the centre of the roller, D the point

of contact with the ground, and E that w.th the
wei-ht to be moved, and W the weight, if this
weight be put in motion, the point D is for an
instant stationary, since it is m close contact
with the ground. The diameter E C D moves,
therefore, round the point D as a centre, and,
consequently, E being twice as far from D as
C is, describes E e twice as great a distance as
C c ; fresh points are now brought to the sumniit
and in contact with the ground, and again the
latter is stationary, while the former moves
D twice the distance which the point C does. 1 he

summit, therefore, or that point which is in immediate contact with the
weio-ht, always moves with twice the velocity of the centre of the roller ;
butihe velocity of the centre is, of course, that of the roller, and the
velocity of the point E, which is in contact with, and is moved by, the
weight, is the same as that of the weight moved; therefore, as the weight
is forced forward, it moves at twice the rate of the roller, it will gain upon
the rollers, and others must be continually supplied in front— an incon-
venience much felt in practice.

This confines the use of the roller to cases where the distance is very
short, or where the weight c.mveyed is exceedingly great, and reduction
in the resistance of n.ore importance than the inconvenience alluded to.

The most remarkable instance of the application of rollers is the trans-
port of the rock which now serves as the pedestal of the equestrian statue
of Peter the Great at St. Petei sburgh.

Fiff. 20. Piff- 21-

This rock, a single block of granite, was discovered in the centre of a
bog, four miles from the waterside ; it weighed, after being cut into a
convenient shape, 1217 tons. Notwithstanding its enormous weight it
was raised and turned upon its side, and placed upon a frame. A road
was made across the bog,- and a timber railway laid down ; the whole waa
then left till the depth of winter, when the boggy ground was trozeo

430

ON DRAUGHT.

and the operutions then commenced. The railway consisted of two lines
of timber aaaa, (figs. 20, 21, 22,) furnished with hard metal grooves,

similar and corresponding metal grooves were fixed to the under side of the
sledge, and between these grooves were placed the rollers, which were
spheres of hard brass, about six inches diameter. The impossibility of con-
fining cylindrical rollers to a perfectly parallel direction, and without which
the friction would have been considerable, rendered the adoption of sphe-
rical rollers or balls running in a groove a matter of necessity, as otherwise
the small surface upon which they can bear, and the consequent danger of
crushing, or at least flattening that surface, is a serious objection to spheres:
once placed upon the rollers, it was drawn by means of capstans. The
resistance does not appear to have been great, considering the enormous
weight, since sixty men at the capstans with treble purchase blocks moved
it with ease.

The transport of this enormous rock under such disadvantageous cir-
cumstances of country, over a distance of four miles, and its subsequent
passage of thirteen miles by water in a vast cassoon or vessel constructed for
the purpose, was a work surpassing anything of the sort attempted by the
ancients, and, indeed, in modern times the only thing which can be com-
pared to it is the dragging a ship of the line up a slip ; the weight is in
this case nearly the same as that of the rock, but the distance traversed
is short, and the difficulties to be overcome much less. A plane of inclined
timber is prepared and well greased; a frame of wood, technically called
a cradle, is fixed under the vessel, it is floated on to the inclined plane
and drawn up by the united efforts of a number of well-manned capstans,
with powerful tackle : in this case no rollers are used ; it is a sledge, the
surface being well covered with grease to lessen the friction.

We have stated that there was a particular construction of roller which
might be considered, as regards its form merely, an intermediate step

between the roller and the wheel.
It consists of a roller with the
diameter of the extremities in-
creased as in Jig 23 ; the only
advantage of this roller is that
the body rests upon the small
part of the roller see fig. 24, and

ON DRAUGHT.

43:5

he describes Juno's chariot. He there says, while Juno was putting tlie
golden bits to the horses, Hebe fastened on the wheels to the iron axles
* These wheels had eight brazen spokes, and the felloes were of gold,
and the tires of brass.' — ' The seat was fastened with gold and silver
cords.'

This, of course, gives us Homer's ideas of perfection in a chariot.

All the epithets which could convey ideas of swiftness, were applied to
these chariots and to the horses, but we have no positive information as
regards the real velocity with which they would travel : as roads were
scarce, and probably at best merely tracks, much could not be expected
from vehicles constructed under such circumstances ; the wheels were
small, from 20 to 30 inches diameter, and all the parts of the chariots
excessively heavy, so as to resist the repeated shocks to which they were
subject.

The chariots represented upon the Frieze of the Parthenon, before
alluded to, and which is probably upwards of 2200 years old, are very
Ught in their construction, and only want springs to be called gigs.

The advancement of all the branches of the mechanical arts has ne-
cessarily introduced many improvements in the details of the construction
of the wheel itself, as well as in that of the axle and the rest of the carriage,
and by this means no doubt increased very greatly the use and advantage
of it ; but it is a remarkable fact, that these improvements have been con-
fined exclusively to the workmanship and mechanical detail, and that the
•principle has remained exactly the same, and has not even received any
addition during this immense lapse of time.

Upwards of 3000 years ago, the wheels appear to have been independen
of each other and running upon fixed axles ; we can say no more of the
most improved wheel of the most finished carriage of the present day.

We are far from intending to cast any slight upon modern invention, or
to compare the groaning axletrees and creaking wheels of the ancients with
the noiseless Collinge's axles of the nineteenth century; but truth compels
us to acknowledge that a period of thirty centuries, more than half the
time which is supposed to have elapsed since the creation of the world,
has produced no radical change nor brought into action any new principle
in the use of the wheel as applied to carriages.

The particular form and construction of the wheel, as well as of all the
other parts of the carriage, however, admit of great variety, and the
draught is materially affected by their variation. We shall, therefore,
after examining the action of wheels in general, describe the mode ol
construction now adopted, and then endeavour to point out the advantages
and disadvantages of the various forms which have been given to the
different parts of it.

First let us examine the theory of it, and suppose it acting on a level
plain.

The wheel being a circle, the centre will remain always at the same height,
and consequently will move parallel to the plane in a perfectly level line : if
any weight be attached to or suspended from its centre, this will also move
in a continued straight line without rising or falling, and consequently
when once put in movement, there is nothing to check its progress (neg-
lecting for the moment the slight resistance of the air), and it will require
no force to keep it in motion so long as the wheels continue to turn.

We have therefore in this case only to examine into the force necessary
to turn the wheels. The wheels, if left to themselves, would roll on with
perfect freedom, whatever might be their weiglit, or whatever weight might
be attached to them, provided nothing in the mode of attaching that weight

2 F

434 ON DRAUGHT.

impeded their revolution ; but in practice we cannot admit of the loan
rTvolvino- with the wheel, and we have no means of suspend.ns ,t to U.e
whe 1 except by means of an axle fixed to the load and passmg thro.,gl,
The centre of the wheel. This axle presses upon the lower surface of the
ine cenire ui me w revolves causes a friction pro-

hole, and consequently when the wl eel ^^^^

portionate to the load "P«"jJ«/^7^ ^heel, under the circumstances
source of '^-^ ^ ^^^^^^^^ friction, the degree in which it

iMrdr;urht anVl;;^!..at means >his effect is increased and
diminished, that we are now about to -j;;;- ^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^

of which C D is the radius, and C A that

27. ^\ of the axle passing through the wheel,

and which being fixed to the load does
not revolve with the wheel.

Tf a force C B be applied to the cen
tre of the wheel, tending to advance it
in the direction B, the point D being in
contact with the ground, the wheel is
compelled to turn or roll, and the force
C B in turning the wheel acts with a
leverage equal to C D, but the friction between the axle and the wheel is at
he XT and in p;eventing the turning of the wheel it acts on y at the
Ixtren ty ot'lhe lever C A ; consequently if C D be ten times as grea as C A
tbrforce CB need only be equal to one-tenth of the amount of the
friction and as a general rule, the radius of the axle, and the fnctx.n
emSnrthe same,^he force necessary to overcome the resistance, arising
f^m this^friction, will be i7Wersely as the radius or the diameter of the
or, in othe; words, the d,.u|ht will, in this case, dim.msh exactly in
proportion as the diameter of the wheel is »n"f ^J^; .,, , „

^ The exact amoM«< of resistance occasioned by .^^^e^^^^^^^^
the nature of the substances in contact at the axle, as well as upon the pro
portionate dimensions of the wheel and axle. nrnnnrtion to the

The friction between polished surfaces bears a certain proportion to ne

upon soft wood the friction amounts to one-fourth or one-third o, tne
;Lsure, while between hard brass and J J, he sur ac smoo h J^d

:?vl^a1eS^ -

will bear w, hout .jry a^ .^^^^ P^^^ 1^^ ^^^^ ^

face; f Jwood • and we have proved that a reduction m the
sions than It made of wo^^^^^^ Tprrportionale reduction in the resistance
diameter of the axle ^^u^es a p P ^^^^^ advantages, iron or steel
caused by J"ction In conseque ^^^^^^ ,,„i,ersally adopted. The
axles, working ui iron boxes arc order, greased, and the

friation in this case, -^en he parts are^m

pressure upon them not ex^^^^^^^^^^ a ,f

rdiaret'oflthe& that of the axle as 18 or 20 to 1, which .

ON I)R(VUGHT

43»

about the proportion in a large two-wheeled cart, the whole resistance
arising from friction at the axle will he equal to ^ of ^, or of which is
equal to ^ and ysTi respectively. So that to move one ton would not,
in the latter case, require a force of traction greater than IS^lbs. ; and
having overcome this resistance, the force of traction required remains
nearly the same at all velocities ; that is to say, friction is not materially
affected by velocity: therefore the resistance arising from it is not sensibly
augmented by a considerable increase in the speed. In practice, how-
ever, the friction at the axle is far from being the greatest impedinient to
the motion of a carriage. We have hitherto, for the purpose of considering
friction alone, supposed the surface upon which the wheel moved as
perfectly hard, smooth, level, and plane: we need hardly say that such can
never be the case in a road. The friction, however, remains, practically
speaking, the same, and the laws which govern the amount and the effects
of it remain unaltered ; and we have only to ascertain what is the addi
tional resistance, arising from other sources, to obtain the whole draught
of the carriage. We have already stated, when pointing out the difference
between the roller and the wheel, that the movement of the latter was
attended with two sources of resistance, viz., friction at the centre, which
we have considered, and another, which is common both to the wheel and
the roller, arising from impediments in the road, or the yielding of the
materials*

The laws which affect the amount of this latter are, of course, the same
in a wheel as in a roller.

We have found that the power required to overcome it is inversely as
the square root of the diameter ; therefore, by increasing the diameter of
the wheel, the efiFect of friction, which is inversely as the diameter, dimi-
nishes much more rapidly than that caused by impediments in the roads ;
and on ordinary roads, with common carts, the amount of the latter is about
three times as great as that of the former, and when the roads are at all
injured by weather or by neglect, or if they are naturally heavy or sandy,
it bears a much greater proportion. A light four-wheeled cart, weigh-
ing, with its load, lOOOlbs*, was repeatedly drawn upon different sorts of
roads, the average of a number of experiments gave the following results :

Turnpike road, — hard, dry . . . 30 Jibs.

Ditto dirty . ... .39

Hard, compact loam . . . . 53

Ordinary by-road . • . • 106

Turnpike road — new gravelled . . 143

Loose, sandy road .... 204

The friction at the axles, which were «>f wood, was, of course, nearly
constant, and probably absorbed at least of the weight, or 12 Jibs, of
the force of traction, leaving, therefore, for the resistance caused by the
road in the dliir.rent cases, as under —

r.„„i^ A Force of Traction required to move the

Dewrirtiou at Road. Ceirioge, Independent of the Friction at the Azisa,

Turnpike road — hard, dry, about . . 18 lbs.
Ditto dirty . . •

Ditto new gravelled . . l'*04

Loose, sandy road .... \9l^

flo that in the last case, one by no means of rare occurrence in many parts of

* The experiment was not made with a load of exactly lOOOlbs., but the proportionj
of the results are calculated to this standard. The public are iuiiebted to Mr. Bevan for
these as wei. as a great number of other highly useful and practical experiments upon
the effects of power in various cases-

2P'2

43G ON DRAUGHT

the cuintry, the portion of draught immediately caused by the state of the
roads was ten times as ^reat as on a good turnp.ke road and about fifteen
times as great as that which arose from friction at the axles It would be .
hopeless to attempt to remedy this by increasmg the s.ze of the wheel he
experiment was made with wheels of the ordmary size To double the r
ZmeTer would evidently be attended, in practice, with insurmountable
diSt es : and yet, even if this were effected, it would barely reduce the
tiimcuiiies, du y ' , one-fourth; but the form of the wheel

may TeSly in"the'stl of the road, we shall, therefore, proceed

"rom"::::"^^^

at rnv parts. \t particular seasons of the year in little better condition
Sa^that on which the last experiment was tried, various attempts were
mLl to redure the resistance, by using narrow wheels. These attempts,
S tie aws which it was found necessary to enact to prevent the enure
destructi^^^^^ roads, led, at last, to curious results, having gradual y
caused he introduction of the worst formed wheel which could probably
be Tntnted; either as regards increasing the draught or the destruction of

Vo'understand these alterations clearly, we must describe the principal

^^;:i:2:S:Sr:S^^c^t presents a striking instance of st^ngth
arising from the judicious union of substances of very different qual.t.es-

Afrronci drcular frame of wood, composed of different segments called
. u U hnnnd together bv a hoop, or several hoops of iron, called tires,
whichVbus at J^^^^^^^^^ that if gives great strength, protects the outer

'"^hTntTrcircular block of wood, is sustained in the centre of thi.

' ':'^Z ti more clearly explL ov,r meaning. F.g. 28, ,s »

t"heeTtl th^oKs dl in on. pi J= ; %■ 29. a »heel with a con.der-
able degree of dishing.

FiV. 29.

. . ♦ o «mnll nressure on the nave in fig. 29, would have

Here it is ^vide.it that a small pr ssu ^^^^ ^.^^ resistauce.
a tendency to p ish it through, ano wu

DRAUGHT 437

In fiw. 30, on the contrary, this force would be opposed at once by the
direction of the spokes, which form an arch, or dome, that cannot be flat-
tened without bursting the felloes, or tires. The dishing, therefore, gives
the wheel a very great degree of stiffness and strength, which it would not
otherwise possess.

In consequence of this conical form, the necessity of keeping the lower

spokes which support the weight as vertical
as possible, has required that the whole
wheel should be placed oblique, and the
axle bent downwards, as in Jig. 30 : this, as
we shall hereafter show, is attended with
very serious evils. As a wheel is intended
to roll upon the ground, without friction, it
is natural to suppose that the outer surface
of the tires should be cylindrical, as it is the
only form which admits of the wheel rolling
freely in a straight line ; but it is neverthe-
less the form of this surface, its breadth,
and the degree of dishing which have varied
so much from the causes before mentioned,
viz., the state of the roads, and to the consideration of which we will now
return.

A road, however much neglected and out of repair, will generally have,
at a certain depth, a hard bottom ; above this will be a coat of mud of
loose stuff, more or less deep, according to the material used, and the fre-
quency of repair or the quantity of wet to which it may be exposed. It is
sinking through this, until it reaches the hard bottom, that causes the
resistance *,o the progress of the wheel : whether the wheel be wide or
narrow, it must squeeze or grind its way to the bottom of this mud ; a
narrow wheel evidently displaces less, and therefore offers less resistance
The great object of carriers, then, was very naturally to place as great a
load as they could upon wheels, which were as narrow as possible,
consistent with the necessary strength.

It wass soon perceived that the entire destruction of the roads would be
the consequence of this very system, which had its origin in the bad state
of the roads. A certain width of tire proportionate to the load was there-
fore required by law. The endeavour to evade this law was the cause of
the absurd form of wheel we are about to describe and to condemn.
In apparent obedience to the law, the felloes of the wheels were made of an

excessive breadth ; but to retain the advantages
of the narrow wheel, the middle tire was made
to project so far beyond the others, (see fig. 31,)
that it in fact constituted the wheel, the others
being merely to give a nominal, and not a real
width. The enormous loads which it was found
advantageous to place on these wheels rendered
it necessary to give them a considerable degree
of dishing, to resist lateral shocks, and, besides,
the carriers were by this means enabled to give
a great width of floor to the carriage, still keep-
ing the vehicle in the common tracks or ruts, so that the wheels ultimately
assumed the form represented, 32.

If such a machine had been constructed, for the express purpose of
grinding the materials of the road to powder, or of serving as a check,
or drag, to tlie waggon, it might, indeed, have been judicious, but as a

438

ON DRAUGHT.

wheel it was monstrous. Yet this is tJi«
form of wheel upon which the contradic-
tory opinions referred to in the first page
of this treatise, were given before a Com-
mittee of the House of Commons. A
carrier of Exeter advocated these wheels,
and, in support of his opinion, adopts
them to this day. But a few days ago
we saw one of his waggons with wheels
which, although only about twelve inches
wide, were six inches smaller at the
outside than at the inside. Such a cone,
if set a rolling and left to itself, would
run round in a circle of little more
than twenty feet diameter. What must be the grinding and the friction,
then, when it is constantly compelled to go on in a straight line ? yet enough
has been written and said upon this subject to convince, we should imagine,
the most prejudiced of the absurdity of the system.

We shall repeat the principal arguments which were made use of at the
lime of the inquiry mentioned.

Mr. Cummins took great pains, by constructing models, to show that

conical wheels were not adapted for
rolling in a straight line, by making
a small conical wheel run over longi-
tudinal bars, as in Jig. 33. It was
seen that if the middle part of the tire
rolled upon the centre bar without
moving it, the bar A was pushed
backwards, while the bar C was push-
ed forwards ; clearly shewing if, in-
stead of sliding bars, the wheel had
moved upon a road, how much it
must have ground the road, and what
a small portion of the tire was truly
rolling.

That such must have boen the case
is, indeed, easily proved without a
model. We will take only three dif-
ferent parts of the wheel and consider them as independent hoops of differ-
ent diameter ; if these hoops are compelled to go the same number of
revolutions, the large one will evidently gain upon the second, while the
third will be left far behind. Now, if, instead of being independent of each
other they be fixed to the same axle, and compelled to revolve together
the la'rffe one not being able to advance faster than the others, must tear up
the ffround The smaller one, on the contrary, Being dragged forward
faster than it would naturally roll, must drag up the ground ; and this is
what must take place, and does, with any but a cylindrical wheel, and that
io a very considerable extent. . . , , , , r

Suppose, for instance, a conical wheel, of an average diame er of five
feet • that is to say, that the centre advances al)out fifteen feet to every
revolution of the wheel. If the inner tire be six inches larger in diameter
hinthe outer tire, the circumference of it will be about eighte-n mc
greater; therefore, at each revolution of the wheel the inner tire would
Rurally advance eighteen inches more than the outer tire: bat they a^
compelled to go over the same diste.nce of ground. 1 he one or the .ther

ON DRAUGHT

therefore, must have disturbed the ground, or, what is nearer the truth,
upon every fifteen feet run of road, the former has passed over nine inches
less ground than the development of its circumference, the latter nine
inches more— the one pushing back the ground, the other dragging it
forward.

Every child knows that the front wheel of a carnage goes oftener round
than the hind wheel. If, then, the front wheel were obliged to make only
one revolution to every revolution of the other, but still impelled at the
same rate, it must be partly dragged over the road. If these wheels be
placed side by side, instead of one beiug in front of the other, the effect
must be the same. Now, suppose them to be the outer and inner tire of
the same wheel, the circumstances are not thereby altered : the smaller
circle and the larger circle cannot both roll upon the ground. A conical
wheel is then constantly twisting the surface upon which it rests, and hence
arises a very considerabfe resistance, as well as destruction to the roads.

If these arguments are not sufficient to decide the point completely, let
the reader bear in mind simply, that a cone, when left to itself, will always
roll in a circle. The frustrum of a cone, kB,fig. 34, is only a portion of the

entire cone, ABC, which will
A Fig. 34. roll round the point C ; if t his

entire cone be completely
severed at the point B, the
two parts will still continue
to roll round the same point,
and if the portion BC be now
abstracted, the motion of the
remainder will not be altered. If a wine-glass or decanter, anything which
is not of the same size at the two parts which are in contact with the sur-
face on which it rests, be rolled upon a table, those who are not already too
familiar with the fact to require an illustration of it, will immediately see
the truth of this statement. If, then, a wheel thus formed would naturally

quit the straight line ; when com-
pelled to follow it, it is clear that
exactly the same effect must be pro-
duced as when a cylindrical mill-
stone, as in Jig. 35, which would
proceed in a straight line, is com-
pelled to follow a curved line, and
is constantly twisted round the
cen*re C, it would grind everything
beneath it to powder. Yet these
travelUng grindstones have been in
use upwards of twenty years, to the destruction of the roads, and at a great
expense of power to those who have persisted in employing them.

The increased strain upon the axles, from this constant tendency of the
wheel to be twisted outwards, with the consequent friction, is a source of
resistance absorbed and rendered comparatively inconsiderable, by the far
greater friction on the ground ; but it is not the less a cause of great in-
crease of draught, and the union of all these serious disadvantages justifies,
we think, our assertion, that such a wheel is as injudicious a contrivance
as coula possibly be invented. We trust they will not long continue to
disgrjice our wheelwrights, and injure our roads.

We hope that none of our readers will consider that we have wasted our
dtguments upon a point too self-evident to require proof In reply to this,
however, we will state that, at the last meeting of the parties interested in

■uo ON DRAUGHT.

the maiiagementof a considerable portion of a principal road ni the middle
of England, the question-was considered, and it was agreed to encourage
«he use of conical wheels, as at least equal to, if not superior to cylindrical
one§, by allowing them to run at a less toll than that required by act of
Parliament.

The cylindrical form is the only one which ought to be
admitted. As a wheel must, however, always be liable to
sink a little into the road, and cannot be expected always to
bear perfectly flat upon the ground, the surface of the tires
should be slightly curved, and the edges rounded off, as in
Jig. 36. As the rounding is rendered necessary by the yield-
ing oi the road, its degree must depend upon the state of
the road, and the form of the wheel may approach more
nearly to the true cylinder, in proportion as the roads ap-
proach nearer to perfection in point of hardness and flatness.
When the roads are good, a very little dishing will be suffi-
cient, and a slight inclination of the wheel from the ver-
tical will make it correspond with the barrel or curve of the
road, which is now generally very trifling.

Next to the form, the breadth of the wheel is the point
requiring most consideration: it is one, however, which
depends entirely upon the state of the road.

We have seen, that the displacement or crushing of the materials
forming the upper surface of the road is one of the principal causes of
resistance If the whole mass of the road were formed of a yielding sub-
stance, into which the wheel would sink to a depth exactly proportionate
to the weight bearing upon it, it is probable that great breadth would be
advantageous, so that the wheel might form a roller, tending to consoli-
date the materials rather than cause any permanent displacement ; but,
in the improved state of modern roads, it may safely be considered thai

such is never the case. , r i j v »*

A road, as we have before stated, always consists of a hard bottom,
covered with a stratum, more or less thick, of soft, yielding material. A
wheel, even moderately loaded, will force its way through, and form a rut
in this upper coating. The resistance will be nearly proportionate to he
breadth of this rut; the depth of it will not increase in the ratio of the
pressure. In considering, then, simply, the case of a single wheel or a
pair of wheels forming two distinct ruts, it is evident that it should torm
as narrow a rut as possible, but that it should not in any degree crush or
derange the core or hard basis of the road. When a rut is thus formed,
a small track or portion of the road is for a time rendered clean and hard,
and consequently capable of bearing a greater load than before, .nd with
less injury. It is, then, highly important in a four-wheel carnage that
the hind wheels should follow exactly in the track of the front wheels.
If rollers were necessary for the road, as if, for instance, it was merely a
bed of clay, then indeed, but only in such a case, would it be judicious to
cause the wheels to run in different tracks, as has been proposed, and was
carried into effect under the encouragement ot an act of parliament, buch
wheels were called straddlers- they might have been necessary tools for
the preservation of such roads as then existed, but the increased draught
soon taught the public to evade the law which encouraged them.

Mr Deacon, one of the principal carriers m England, m an excellent
pra^t cal work on wheel-caiiages. published iu 1810. describing these
wheels, says, ' If the axle of a six-inch wheel is of that length to cause
Zh'nd wheels to make tracks five inches outside the tracks of the fore-

ON DRAUGHT. 141

wheels, and n,ne-inca wheels seven inches outside they are then called
rtraddlers and are allowed to carry a greater weight than ,f not so. The
or STntent of these was most excellent ; but the effect has been defeated
b^lLe carrier or other Pe-n -t .aU,ng e be - axle^co.

£ Srrjul'o td K S ^leasnre; so that they have no
™t difficulty in the wheels straddlers a httle before they come

£ a wei^Sng machine, Tnd making them not so when they have passed

''on modern roads such an arrangement would hardly be ben J^^^ even
to the road itself, and would nearly double the ^T^;;" /j^fj^^^^^^^^^^^

Too oreat care and precaution cannot be taken to msure ttie wneeis
nJnin/^a the same track. Let it be remembered that, on a good road
the formina- the rut is the cause of three-fourths, and oflener five-s.xths of
the Z e^resistance. Narrow wheels, therefore, runmng m the same
rack without doubt offer the least resistance, provided there is surface
sufficieni to bear the weight, without destruction to the foundation of the

'''^t^x inches in breadth of the flat or cylindrical part, a b, fig. 36 inde-
pendent of the rounded edges, will be quite sufficient, in a wheel of ordi-
nary size, to bear a ton without injury to the roads, if in good condition ;
and according as the weight upon each wheel is more or less than this, the
breadth should be proportionably increased or diminished.

While upon the subject of wheels, it may be as well to state the several
new modes of constructing wheels lately introduced, which severally possess
their merits and disadvantages. The last improvement is that known
under the name of 'Jones' patent wheels.

It consists in making the felloe of a single ring of cast iron. 1 he nave,
which is also of cast iron, is suspended in the centre by eight wrougnt iron
rods • these rods are crossed or alternately dishefl inwards and outwards,
to give stiffness, which is thus obtained without affecting the cylindrical

*brm of the whole. , , t:, u • vv,„

Fig. 37 and 38, represent different views of this wheel, b b being me

cast iron felloe, S S the spokes, and N the nave.

These wheels have been adopted to a great extent in London, and

therefore we may conclude that they are found to answer ; but they are

Fiff. 37. Fig. 38.

442

ON im AViillT.

expensive, and not easily repaired, except at the original nnanufactory, and
therefore we should think are not so well adapted for agricultural as for
commercial purposes, and in a large town where ihe means of repair may
be at hand.

The most simple innovation upon the original wooden wheel is the cast
iron nave. This we should think must be much less liable to wear than
the wooden nave, which is literally honeycombed with the mortices for the
spokes ; and a wheel of this sort can be repaired by the most ordinary
wheelwright, provided he has one of the castings at hand.

We should strongly recommend that these naves should be made with
a double row of sockets for the spokes, so as to cross the dishing of them
in the same manner as those of the wrought iron wheels described above ;
and we think they would then form a strong, durable, and economical
wheel. There might be some danger from the effects of wet or damp
remaining in the cast iron sockets, and attacking the wood ; but we should
think a small hole bored into the socket to allow the moisture to escape,
and common precaution in painting these parts, would prevent any evil
consequences

With respect to the size of wheels, we have shown that wheels of large
diameter certainly offer less resistance than small ones ; but expense and
weight cause a limit to this. From 4 ft. 9 in. to 5 ft. 6 in. is a good size
for cart-wheels, and is about the limit where any great increase of diameter
would cause more inconvenience and expense than would be compensated
for by any advantage gained , and if much less in diameter than this, the
draught is unnecessarily augmented.

Yet the front wheels of a waggon are always below this standard, rarely
exceeding four feet, and frequently much less. This is a serious evil
attending the use of four wheels , it is an arrangement originally made
for the purpose of enabling the front wheels to lock under the body of
the waggon, which may thus turn in a small space.

Now it rarely happens that a waggon is required to turn short round,
and it cannot cause any serious inconvenience if it be rendered aUogethcr
incapable of doing so.

In this respect a great improvement has taken place within a few years.
In the place of those moving mountains which were formerly dragged
slowly along upon immensely heavy and broad, but low, wheels, we now
see, particularly on the roads leading northward from London, a great
number of light, well-built waggons, with much larger wheels, especially
the front wheels, which, instead of being snriall enough to turn under the
floor of the waggon, are about four feet six inches in diameter. As those
waggons are used only on the road, and are never required to turn in a
small compass, but a very small action is allowed to the fore axle, and the
floor and body of the waggon is continued from end to end of nearly the
same width

ON DRAUGlir.

4'13

\ waffo-on with part of tlie floor and body cut away, so as to form a sort
of recess for the front wheels to turn into, allows of all the movements that
can be required, except in the crowded streets of a town and by this
arrangement there is nothing to prevent the front wheel being made of
large diameter, as in the case just described. Our present ol^ect how-
ever, is not to e,-ter into a detailed description of how we snould build a
waggon, but simply to recommend the use of large front wheels, as tend-
ing much to diminish the draught. An intelligent wheelwright will always
know how to construct a waggon so as to admit of this. ,u , e

The consideration of the subject of the wheels naturally includes that of
the comparative advantages of two-wheeled and four-wheeled carnages.
Upon this point opinions differ as much as upon any of those we have
already considired; and we fear that we are not likely to do more than
to arrange the different opinions given by others, without advancing any ot
our own! If we succeed, however, in doing this clearly we shall have done
much, because we may thus enable each individual to separate those
arrrumeuts which apply particularly to his own case ; and combining these
opinions with his own judgment, he will be more likely to arrive at a
jiist conclusion, than if he were altogether unaided by the experience

of others. , .

The advocates of Hght two-wheeled carts assert that a horse working
alone is capable of performing more work than when forming one of a
team ; and that in consequence of this increased effect, there is a saving of
expense nearly in the proportion of three to two, or one-third.

The advocates for waggons assert, on the contrary, that it requires that
each horse in a single-horse cart should be of a superior quality, and,
therefore more expensive than those of a team, where the average power
only is considered; that the wear and tear, first cost, and expense of at-
tendance of several small carts, is greater than that of a waggon carrying
the same load, and that in consequence there is an economy obtained by
the latter in a proportion of about four to three.

Numbers of facts and the results of long experience are adduced on
either side, all of which convey much useful information, and the substance
of the whole appears to be, that with light single-horse two-wheeled carts,
o-ood horses are able to draw greater loads, and do more work m propor-
Tion than a waggon team ; that these carts are easier loaded and un-
loaded, do less injury to the roads, and that they do not require more
horses in action than are sufficient for the work to be performed.

On the other hand, it is found that the horses must be stronger and
better fed ; that being entiiely dependant on their own exertions, although
doing more work, they are more fatigued, and sooner knocked up ; that
on rough roads they are liable to be shaken and injured by the sudden
movements and shocks of the cart, all of which are conveyed by the shafts
directly to the horse; that in ascending or descending hills the whole
weight being above the axle-tree, it destroys the balance, and is thrown toe
much upon the horse in the former case, or tends to raise him from the
ground in the latter, which even if any alteration of the balance be found
advantageous, is exactly the contrary of what would be necessary.

That with a waggon— the average power of several horses is obtained--
horses of inferior quality may therefore be used ;— they are not so much
fatigued, because by relieving each other they can alternately p-xert them-
selves or relax. Greater loads can be arried with less attendance of
drivers, and they are less liable to accidents ; they are easier withdrawn

from any hole, or forced over any obstrnction, becaust only ha'.f the load

444

ON DttAUOUr.

being upon each pair of wheels, the whole force of the team is applied suc-
cessively to each half of the load, consequently in any bad road the power
occasionally required is less, although the draught of the carriage, pro- •
perly speaking, is greater than that of a two-wheeled cart. These various
arguments would appear to lead to the conclusion, that upon good roads,
and for short distances, with good horses, two-wheeled single-horse carts
are the best ; but that, with inferior roads and ordinary horses, light four-
wheeled waggons, with a team of three or four horses, are the most
advantageous.

Two-wheeled carts with two horses are decidedly inferior to either of
these: the shaft horse suffers all the inconveniences complained of in the
single-horse cart, and the leader does not produce more effect than when
in a waggOn team.

It is impossible to decide generally upon the comparative merits of the
different arrangements, because the result depends entirely upon the
circumstances of the case.

We may, however, endeavour to unite in some degree the advantages
' claimed by both. The draught of a cart is less than that of a waggon for
several reasons : amongst otiiers, because the wheels are larger and the
horse produces more effect, because his force is applied immediately to the
resistance, A light waggon with large front wheels would not be much
inferior in point of draught to the cart, and two horses abreast in double
shafts would work with equal advantage to the single horse ; while an
additional horse may always be applied when an excessive load or the state
of the roads should require it.

All that we have said with respect to the size and contrivance of wheels
is equally applicable to light carriages as to heavy, and we shall now pro-
ceed to consider the different modes of placing the loads upon the wheels.

It might appear at first sight that this would not affect the amount of
the draught ; that provided a weight to be moved were placed upon the
wheels, and the wheels put in motion, that nothing more could be required.
Upon a perfectly level smooth plane, and with a constant force of traction,
this would, indeed, be the case ; but, in practice, the conditions are entirely
altered. Impediments are continually met wilh which obstruct the progress
of the wheels, and the draught is constantly varying by the difft rent in-
clinations of the road : it is, therefore, necessary to study the means by
which impediments can be easiest overcome, and by which the resistance
thus caused will aflFect the animal, which is the source of power, in the
least disadvantageous manner.

We have, in the commencement of this treatise, proved, that impetus is
necessary to overcome an obstruction, and that elasticity in the direction of
the movement is destructive of the full effect of impetus.

When therefore, the wheel of a carriage comes in contact with any im-
pediment it is most essential that the whole of the impetus or momentum
which the carriage has already obtained, should be brought into full action,
to force the wheel forward. To effect this, no elasticity should intervene
between the wheel and the load, at least, in the direction of the motion
that is longitudinally ; otherwise, as we instanced in the case oi" catching a
cricket-balT a force which would be quite irresistible if opposed by a rigid
rcMstance, is checked with ease by a very little degree of f^^'^^^^
a wheel meeting a small stone if the load were so placed, or hm^^^^^^^
tlie wheels, as to allow free or elastic action longitudinally, that is, in f^e
d ection of the movement, the wheel being stopped against the stone t e
wnole load would be gradually checked, and brought to »^ Ml stop.

ON DRAUGHT

449

whereas, if this same load had been fixed firmly to the wheel, its impetiia
would have carried the wheel over the stone, with very little loss of ve-
locity.

In the first case, it would be necessary for the horses to drag the load
over the stone by main force ; in the latter, they would only have to make
up by degrees for the loss of velocity which the mass had sustamed m
passing over the stone. The quantity of power- required will indeed be
the same in either case ; but in the one, the horses must exert it m a single
effort, while in the other, this momentary exertion is borrowed, as it were,
from the impetus of the mass in motion, and being spread over a greater
space of time, as far as the horses are concerned, only augments in a small
degree the average resistance. It is thus that the fly-wheel of a steam-
engine in a rolling-mill, accumulates power, sometimes for several mmutes,
tilfit is able to roll, with apparent ease, a large mass of metal, which, with-
out the effect of the fly wheel, would stop the engine immediately ; or, to
mention a case more to the point, in the opera tion of scotching a wheel, a
larc-e stone, and even a brick, will render almost immoveable a
which, when in motion, would pass over the same stone, without any sen-
sible alteration of speed. It is most essential, therefore, that the effect of
the momentum of the load should in no way be reduced by any longi-
tudinal elasticity, arising either from the injudicious application of springs,,
or weakness in the construction of the carriage.

The action nf impetus, and the effect of an injudicious mode of hanging
the load, is of course more sensible at high than at low velocities, and in a
carriage hung upon springs, than in a waggon without springs, but
although not so sensible to the eye, it nevertheless affects the draught ma-
terially even in the latter case. Carriages hung upon springs, as mjig. 39,

which are called C springs, and which admit of very considerable longi-
tudinal movement in the body of the carriage, are notoriously the most
heavy to pull ; and cabriolets which are hung in this manner, are expres-
sively called in the stable, horse murderers, and require heavy powertul
horses to drag them, while lighter animals are able to drag much greater
weights in Stanhopes and spring-carts, which do not admit of this elasticity.

This is one of the reasons why the draught of a two-wheeled cart is less
than that of a waggon. In a cart, the horse pulls at once on the shafts,
which are fixed immediately both to the load and to the axletree, so that
not only the impetus of the load, but also of the horse, acts directly and
without elasticity upon the wheel. In a waggon, owing to the smallncss
of the front wheels, there is a considerable space between the fore-axle and
Ihe floor o\ the waggon, which is fiiUed up with pieces )f timber, call e 1

ON UKAl^GIIT.

b*ur,, th,» admits of considerable pl.y i" ^ Fl ^: ^lZ^« ZTen
built or very strong wageons, there is never that Arm co,«. bel»e»
the load and the wheels, »hich we have '°°»""fj^''^^^
wheels would bring . he a^U^ee^^^^^^^^^

;;1ch w^uMi-elotdlo^r^^^^^^^^^^^ considerable effeet in dinrinishing
""weTafe'been very particular in confining our observation, to longitudi-

f hThtlo'w it';'',n"f Syin every diUn ej.ept »
""y. ^ '';rJ^rt%T"eV\rrne";Kh„r:;J^^^ raismg L load

and thus instantaneously impart means be returned b,

would absorb much power, and ^hich would by no mea^^^ be ^^^^
U,e load falhug d^wn from ^^^^^^^^ ^ , nalities

jprmgs IS to enable "3^„„,i„„es one constant equable moUon. The
of the ground "Me load c™""™' \ ^ ,dd„ssed

advantages of this action are very I Kr. . ^ j). Giddy, and
to the Committee on the Highways "^'^^f'^^27k^Zy^"' 1808 ; and
given in the Appendix to Jhe.r firs R^^^^^ „f

" fx^kfn* wheels completely in the abstract, the, must be considered as

'■■r.rtf'^^^t^XTS^n^w^

-«d ^^'^}PEB ° "' "

by introducing time proportioned to the ^^^^ j^^^j^ they

when the obsfacles are smal as ^^'"P'jr^^ .?^f ^^'^^ ^o^^^^^^ with

one proportionate ^"J^^J^lXu/considered, cannot be too large ; m prac
' Consequently, ^^/^^^ ^^^^ ^t, by expense, and by experience

tice, however, they are hmited^^^^^^ y^J ^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^

.With reference to he preserv ^ay bear at once ; and

VrcXJ'wTth^he ground. Should roll on wi.hout any

^'^^^fis evident ^1;;™-^ rlf^^^^^

,bove conditions cannot "^^^^^^^

.mooth, andflat; and he fete «f ^e ^^^^.^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^
portions of a cylinder, ^^f^*;^'.^ '".^g '^hich they should always approx.
-;^brtThSh"i "?rtl::nC^"ever H^ely^o reach.

ON DRAI CJIIT

447

* Roads must have sonie degree of curvature to throw off water, and the
peripheries of wheels should, in their transverse section, be as nearly as
possible tangents to this curve ; but since no exact form can be assigned to
roads, and they are found to differ almost from mile to mile, it is pre-
sumed, that a small transverse convexity given to the peripheries of
wheels, otherwise cylindrical, will sufficiently adapt them to all roads ; and
that the pressure of such wheels, greatest in the middle, and gradually
diminishing towards the sides, will be less likely to disarrange ordinary
materials, than a pressure suddenly discontinued at the edges of wheels
perfectly flat.

' The spokes of a wheel should be so arranged, as to present themselves
in a straight line against the greatest force they are in common cases likely
to sustain. These must evidently be exerted in a direction pointed towards
the carriage, from lateral percussions, and from the descent of either wheel
below the level of the other : consequently, a certain degree of what is
termed dishing, must be advantageous, by adding strength ; whilst this
form is esteemed useful for protecting the nave, and for obviating the ill
effects of expansions and contractions.

' The line of traction is theoretically best disposed, when it lies exactly
parallel to the direction of motion ; and its power is diminished at any in-
clination of that line, in the proportion of the radius of the wheel to the
cosine at the angle. When obstacles frequently occur, it had belter, per-
haps, receive a small inchnation upward, for the purpose of acting with
most advantage when these are to be overcome. But it is probable, that
different animals exert their strength most advantageously in different di-
rections ; and, therefore, practice alone can determine what precise incli-
nation of the line is best adapted to horses, and what to oxen. These con-
siderations, are however, only applicable to cattle-drawing immediately at
the carriage ; and the convenience of theii draft, as connected with the
insertion of the line of traction, which continued, ought to pass through
the axis, introduces another limit to the size of the wheels.

' Springs were in all likelihood first applied to carriages, with no other
view than for the accommodation of travellers : they have since been found
to answer several important ends. They convert all percussions into mere
increase of pressure ; thus preserving both the carriage and the materials
of the roads from the effect of blows ; and small obstacles are surmounted
when springs allow the frame and wheels freely to ascend, without sensibly
moving the body of the carriage from its place.

' If the whole weight is supposed to be concentrated on springs very
long, extremely flexible, and with the frame and wheels wholly devoid of
inertia, this paradoxical conclusion will most certainly follow : that such a
carriage may be drawn over the roughest road without any agitation, and
by the smallest increase of force.

' It seems probable that springs, under some modification of form and
material, may be applicable with advantage to the heaviest waggon.'

And there can be no doubt, that, in the words of the writer, the appli-
cation of springs would be highly advantageous. At high velocities, as
we have before said, the effect of springs is still greater. What we have
instanced as regards springs, is generally well known and understood.
All stage-coaches, and many travelling carnages, hang upon grass-
hopper springs, which allow of perpendicular without any longitudinal
action. It would be much to the interests of horse masters if the mode of
suspending post-chaises were a little more attended to. The more elas-
ticity, or in other words, the more action, there is in grasshopper springs,

448 ON DRAUGHT.

the more effect will it produce in diminishing the draught: with a C spring
a very contrary effect is produced.

A carriage hung upon C springs may certainly be made the most con» _
fortable to the rider, but all the ease that can be required, and much more
than is found in the generality of post-chaises, may be obtamed by weH-
constructed grasshopper springs, and with considerable advantage to the
horses

The practice of lo ding coaches as high as possible to make them run
light, as the coachmen have found by experience, is only a mode of assist-
ing the springs. The mass being placed at a greater height above the
wheels acting at the extremity of a longer lever, is no so easily d^placed
laterally by any motion of the wheels, which, therefore, may rise and fall on
either side as they run over the stones, -Hhout producing any sudden con-
cussions upon the load, which swings to and fro with long, easy move-
ments ; \ll probable also, that the weight, being thus swung from side o
Sde may. upon good roads, diminish the draught, as it is in fact genera y
runi upon two of the wheels; while, in the other direction, it equally
admits^of fhe front and hind wheels successively passing over any impedi-
ments; and yet, by the manner in which it is fixed upon the sprmgs, it
does not admit of any longitudinal elasticity. , , i i

The fact of coaches thus loaded running light has been clearly proved
bv the Sre of what were called Safety Coaches, in which the only differ-
eLe consisted in placing the load very low. These coaches, although
^ompletdy fnsweri their purpose of safety were discontinued solely, we
believe from their being found destructive of the horses.

ElperimTnts, nevertheless, have been mad- to prove that this was only
anidTprTiudi^ coachmen; but universally received opinions even if
Teadin/to erroneous conclusions, which is hardly possible, must always
hav fome good foundation ; and coachmen, although they may -t have
bLn so much so at the time these experiments Pf ^^^^^ ^ '

are certainly now rather an intelligent class of men. We should "leretore,

i7.lTZ «HH in a J:>ad; .h„e .Hps of »oo

came in contact witlt eacl, !'^'°'j^^^ll\tj:":!Xu"imr,r,i

wheels in passing over »" ^''^^^if/^J '^^^^ ; „hHe in practice,

'^iX :^roi Se daily^xperience ongM to enable the,„ to judge
"Theeirccts, also, of velocity and momentnm must be difficult to imitate

in models. „,„.in^ the load hish will not, however, equally apply

HW%l:Sst.rtrShe,:!pri„,,\re not use.: it may rresnen.ly,
fndeed, h. the latter ca,e. produce ouuo a contrary elect.

ON DRAUGHT.

44?

In a rough road, the increased force with which the load would be
thrown from side to side might prove very inconvenient, and even danger-
ous, and would certainly be liable to increase the resistance when the front
wheels meet with any obstruction : but this it must be particularly remem-
bered is only true in the case of slow velocities and carriages without
springs.

We have now considered in succession the various parts of the vehicle
for conveying the weight, and shown in what manner they affect the
draught, and how they should be constructed so as to diminish as much
as possible the amount of this draught. We have endeavoured to
point out the advantages and necessity of attending to the construction and
size of the wheel. Thus it should be as nearly cylindrical and vertical as
possible, and of as large a diameter as can conveniently be admitted.
2dly, That there should be a firm, unyielding connexion in \he direction of
the movement between the power employed, the weight moved, and the
wheels : in other words, that the force should always act directly and
without elasticity both upon the load and upon the wheels ; and that the
impetus or momentum of the load, when in movement, should always act
in the same manner, without elasticity in propelling the wheels ; — and
lastly, that it is highly advantageous to interpose as much elasticity as
po.ssible by means of springs in a vertical direction between the wheels and
the body, so that the former may rise and fall over stones or irregularities
in the road without communicating any sudden shocks to the load ; and
we believe that the proper application of springs in all cases, even with the
heaviest loads, would be found productive of great good effect.

Attention to those points will tend to diminish considerably the amount
of draught. As far as regards friction at the axles, and the resistance in
passing over obstacles in the road, it will assist the favourable application
of the force of traction when obtained from animal power ; but that which
we have shown to be the most considerable source of resistance is unfor-
tunately least affected by any of those arrangements. We allude to those
arising from the yielding or crushing of the material of the road : we have
seen that on a good turnpike-road the draught was increased in the propor-
tion of thirty to forty, or about one-third, by the road being slightly dirty ;
and that, on a heavy, sandy road, the draught was increased to 205, or
nearly seven times. Springs will not affect this ; and increasing the
diameter of the wheel even will be of very slight assistance ; nothing but
removing at once the prime source of this evil, improving the roads, can
remedy this. We are thus naturally led to the third division of our sub-
ject, viz., the road or channel of conveyance. In considering this as a
branch of the subject of draught by animal power, we shall merely point
out what are the principal desiderata in the formation of a good road, and
what are the evils principailly to be avoided. To enter into all the details
of their construction, dependant as it is on the different materials to be
found in the neighbourhood, their comparative cost, the quality of the
ground over which the road is made, and many other points, would be
to enter upon a much more extensive field than is at all required for the
proper consideration of the subject of draught by animal power.' The
requisites for a good road is all that we shall indicate.

Channel of conveyance, in a general point of view must include canals,
roads, and railways. Of the first, however, we shall say little; their
construction does not materially affect the amount of draught, and we have
already examined the mode of applying the power, and the quantity
of effect produced : we shall proceed, therefore, at once to the questicu
of roads

4iH0

ON DRAUGHT.

Tl.e inquiry into the best form and confitrucUon of wheel carnages has
tauo-hl us what we mi^ht indeed have foreseen, that perfection m a road
wo,dd be a plane, level, hard surface: to have learned Ih.s only would
Tot have advanced us much, as such perfection .s unattamable ; bu we
have learned also the comparative advantages of these d.fTeren qual t.e
o lm dness, smoothness, and level. We have come to the conclusion tha
s io-ht alterations of level which shall vary the exertion required of the
anfmal Sl^^^ any time causing excessive fatigue, are rather ad van -
' ^u; for the full developement of his power than otherwise; that tire
„?onvenience of roughness is obviated by the use of springs, and that
even I^en the ordinary carts and waggons without spnngs are used
Jti 1 the resistance arising from mere unevenness of surface, when no
exce sive ?s not nearly so great as that which s caused by the gelding of
u!e subst;,ice of the road Hardness, therefore, and consequently the
%senc^ of M and dirt, which is easily crushed or displaced, is the grand

however, smoothness is to a certain degree
reqT,isitt as' the prominent parts would be always subject to Jrasion and
destruction: for the same reason, even if for no other, ruts ana every
thin-r which can tend to form them must be avovded.

A r^ad hould, in its transverse section, be nearly flat. A great curva-
,urt or barrel, a it is termed, is useless ; for the only object can be to
drain the wat;r from it: but if there are ruts, or hollow places, no cur-
^Ze Jill ef^ct^^s ; a^^^^f-^::;- ^^^^^^

when running on a barrelled or curveu rod , ^^^^.^^^

wheels still in use, although
much inclined at the axle,
are never sufficiently so to
bring the lower surface of
the wheel even horizontal,
and therefore are constantly
running upon the edge, as
in Jig. 39, until they have
formed a rut, coinciding
with their own shape. In a
barrelled or curved road, the
mischief done will, of course,
oe n-reat in proportion to this curvature. This form is, therefore, mis-
cliievous as Selfas useless. Six or eight inches' rise in the centre of a
Joad of twenty feet wide is amply sufficient to ensure dramage, ,f drainage
L not effectuLly prevented by ruts or hollow places and is a curve to
which the position of the wheel may be easily adapted.

T^^ e hardness of the surface, the most important feature, will of comse,
nrindpalW depend upon the materials used, and the .ormat.on oMl e
principal y I r . ^vhich it is kept. It is

:::^rt,fm a goorroa^^ the foundation is already laid by the

easy to form a gooa j surface,-applying a covering of

existence of an old one . e^^^^^ of broken stones,-having no round or
eight or ten '"^hes m th ek e „ obtained,-and securing good

smooth sur aces. I K de tf^at c ^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^

drainage at the ^es .s all U,at J ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ,d

unremitting at'ention is netessarv lu ivc ,
bundition.

Fig. 39.

ON DRAUGHT.

451

Tliefie repairs and <btteiition do not consist in laying on, at certain
•ntervals of time, large qiiantities of materials, but in constantly removing
the sand which is formed, and which, in wet weather, holds the water,
and prevents drainage ; in filling up as quickly as possible, with fresh
materials, any ruts or hollows ; and in keeping clear all the drains, and
even in scraping little drains from ruts, or such parts of the road as may
contain the water, and which it may not be possible immediately to fill up.

By attention to these points, those who are interested in the preservation
of the roads, and the expenses attending it, will find that economy will
ultimately be the result ; and those who are interested in diminishing the
labour and expense of draught, we shall only refer again to the table
(page 30) of the resistances of a waggon upon different roads, from which
they will see, that a horse upon a clean road will do one-third more than
upon one slightly muddy ; more than four times as much as upon new-
laid gravel ; and nearly seven times as much as upon a heavy, sandy road.

No arguments that we can put forward can at all strengthen the effect
that suth facts must produce ; and we shall, therefore, quit the subject of
roads, and conclude our observations on draught by a few words explana-
tory of the object of rail-roads and their effects as regards diminishing
draught.

The great desideratum in the formation of a good road is the facilitating
the rolling of the wheels. We have shown that, for this purpose, a hard,
smooth surface is necessary; and, as this is only required for the wheels,
two longitudinal tracks, of such surface, of proper width, are sufficient for the
mere passage o*" the carriage. If, therefore, there is a considerable traffic
between two points along a line of road, without much interruption from
crossing, all the qualities of a good road may be obtained in a very superior
degree, by having two parallel rails, or tracts of wood or iron, raised a little
above the general level of the ground, with a gravelled road between the
rails. This is a rail-road. It evidently combines the advantages of a good
foot-hold for horses, with those of smooth and hard surfaces for the wlieels
to roll upon. It requires, however, that the carriages should be all nearly
alike, as regards the width and form of the wheels ; and experience has
proved that such a road is not generally worth constructing, unless the traffic
is sufficient to allow of carriages being built expressly for that or similar
roads. This being the case, the form and dimensions of the rails, and the
general construction of the carriages, are uncontrolled by any other con-
sideration than that of diminishing draught.

A considerable improvement upon this point may, therefore, be expected
in the railway over the common road. The railway, as constructed upon
the plan at present conceived to be the best, consists of two parallel bars
of wrought iron, about two inches and a half broad on the upper surface,
and about six inches deep, placed at a distance of about five feet : these
bars are supported upon, and firmly fixed to blocks of stone, from one
foot to two feel square, and at intervals of three feet.

a a a. Jig. 40, represents a side view of one of these bars, of which 6 is a
section, c c c are the blocks of stone on which it rests. Fig. 42 is a per-
spective view of a pair of these parallel bars, constituting together the

Fig. 40.

a a a

^ S —

2 O 2

452

ON DRAUGHT.

railway ; and fi%- 41 represents an end
view of tlie rail with a pair of wheels. The
rrround is afterwards filled up nearly to^
the level of the bars, leaving only about
one inch of their upper edge exposed •
upon this the wheels run. The wheels are
trenerally of cast iron, about three feet in
diameter, and slightly conical, with an
edo-e or flange inside, to guide them ni
the centre of the rails. This brief de-
scription is sufficient to give a general
idea of the construction of railways, which is all that "y^^^^t^ro^
our present purpose. It will be easily conceived that hard, cast-iron

Fiif. 41.

.,r>r.n «mooth ed"-es of iron in this manner, can meet with
wheels, running upon smooth ea ^^.^^.^^ ^^^^

Y 'i'V; wXd uTon 1 well constructed railway, in good order, that
Accordn.gly, we ^ , ^ny sensible degree, that which must
the re-tance does not exce^ed, in^ ^^^^^ ^ g^^^

arise from ^^"^ .^^""f „ • . , „f igO, 200, and even, in some cases, 2501b. :
""In^f TJsrexerthyanlS^ 1251b., would dragon a level

fn 'Fh si; abou ten times the average effect of his work upon a good

10 tons. This IS aooui _^ entirely from the hardness and smoothness

r,r;;r«;: cann. oon.,„de „u^
of the roads.

INDEX.

Action of Ihe hackney described, 30.
' h>gh, not indispensable in the hack-
ney, 31.

i^lthiop's mineral, an alterative, 396.
Age, natural, of the horse, 146.

of the horse as indicated by the teeth,

137.

■ '■ — other indications of, 146.

how ascertained before eight years,

137.

after eight years, 145.

Air^ a supply of pure, necessary for the

health of the horse, 345.
All abroad, what, in the action of the horse,

235.

Aloes, Barbadoes, far preferable to Cape, 38 1 .

the best physic, 21 1.

description of the different kinds

of, 381.

■ principal adulterations of, 383.

• solution of, its composition and use,

383.

tincture of, its composition and use,

383.

Alteratives, the best, 372, 383.

nature and effect of, 383.

Alum, the useof in restraining purging, 383.

solution of, a good wash for grease,

383.

burnt, a stimulant and mild caustic

for wounds, 384.
American horso, description of the, 21.
Ammonia given in flatulent colic, 384.

■ chloride of, medical use of, 384.

carbonate of, its medical use, 384.

vapour of, plentifully extricated

from dung and urine, 384.
most injurious

to the

eyes and lungs, 1 15, 384,
Anchylosis of bSnes, what, 165.
Anderson, Dr., his account of the Galloway,
58,

Vnimal power compared with that of the
steam-engine, 405.

its advantage over mechani-

cal, except where velocity is required, 408.

Animals, zoological divisions of, 61.

Anodyne, opium the only one to be de-
pended on, 384.

Antea-spinatus muscle, description of the,

Anticor, nature and treatment of, 171.
Antimonial powder, a good febrifuge, 384.
Antimony, black sulphuret of, method of

detecting its adulterations, 384.
,, 7! used as an

alteratrve and diaphoretic, 384.

Antimony, chloride of, one of the best liquid

caustics, 385.
tartarized, used as a nauseant, dia«

phoretic and worm medicine, 384.
Antispasmodics, nature of, 385.
Apoplexy, nature and treatment of, 1 02.
Aqueous fluid, an, why placed in the laby

rinth of the ear, 82.
humour of the eye, description ol

the, 93.

Arab breed, the, introduced by James I., 28.
Arabia not the original country of the
horse, 4.

few good horses there even in the

seventh century, 4, 11.
Arabian horse, history of the, 1 1 .
■ Bishop Heber's description

of, 12.

Barb, 9.

land, 24.

■ conr.parison between, and the

■ first introduced into Scot-

general form of, 12.

■ qualities of, 1 2.

scanty nourishment of, 15.

— treatment of, 12, 13.

— varieties of, 11.

Arabs, attachment of, to their horses, 13.

value their mares more than their

horses, 34.

Arched form of the skull, advantage of, 75.
Arm, description of the, 236.

action of, explained on the principle

of the lever, 236, 238.

extensor muscles of the, 237.

flexor muscles of the, 239.

full and sweUing, advantage of, 240

should be muscular and long, 239.

Arsenic, medical use of, 385.

treatment under poison by, 200.

Arteries, description of the, 172.

terminations of, 178.

generally improper to bleed from,

157.

of the arm, description of the, 265.
-of the face, 119.

neck, 1 57.

shoulder, 265,

— — inside of the thi^h, 264.
■ outside of the thigh, 264.

Astringent medicines, the principal, 385.

Athelstan, his attention to the improvement
of the horse, 23.

Atlas, anatomy of the, 1 52.

Attechi, the, an Arabian breed, 1 1 .

Axle, friction of the, dependent on the mate-
rial employed, 434.

454

INUKX.

Axle, the diameter being diminished les-
sens the friction, 434.

Azoph, Tartary horses traced to the siege
of 5.

Back, general descriiitlon of the, 1(55.
proper form of the, 31,164.
■ long and short, comparative advan-

tages of, 165.

anatomy of the, 164.

. muscles of the, 167.

Backing the colt, 226.

- a bad habit of the horse,

usual ori-

Bleedini?, importance of. in inflammation,
175.

at the toe described, 181.

, comparison between fleam and lan-
cet, 180. „^
Blindness, usual method of discovering, »4.

. discovered by the pupil not dilating

or contracting, 93.

hereditary, 115.

of one eye, 94.

Blistering all round at once, barbarity and
danger of, 323.

after firing, absurdity and cruelty ot,

gin of it, 334.

Back- sinews, sprain of the, i46.

thickening of the, constituting un-
soundness, 365.

Balls, the manner of giving, 385

. the manner of making, 385.

Barb, description of the, 9. , , , .

comparison between, and the Arabian,

Barley considered as food for the horse, 355.

Barnacles, use of the, as a mode of re-
straint, 321. p oiQ

Bar-shoe, the description and use ot,

Barren of the horse, proper shape of the, 5Z.

Bars, description and office of the, -283.

proper paring of, for shoeing, ill-

not paring out the horn between

them and the crust, a cause of coins,
306

L folly of cutting them away, 284,

295, 305. ^ ^ ..

• removal of, a cause of contraction,

corns, 305

325.

Blisters, best composition of, ^86, 322.

best mode of applying, 186, m.
caution with regard to their appUca-

tion, 177, 387.

the principle of their action, Joo.

use of, in inflammation, 186,386.
comparison between them and rowels

and setons, 326.
Blood, change in after bleeding, 180, SI^

, changes in during respiration, 181 •

. coagulation of, 322.

of the horse, drunk for food, 8.
horses, very subject to contrac-

tion, 296.

spavin.

295.

, of the mouth, description of, 133.

Bavarian cavalry horses, anecdote of, 43.
Bay horses, description of, 377.
Beans good for hardly worked horses, and
that have a tendency to purge, 35b.

. should always be crushed, 3&b.

Bearing rein, the use and abuse of, 132.
Sernerf, Juliana, authoress of the first book

on hunting, 54. -no
Bible, earliest history of the horse lu the, -
Bile, account of the, 212.
Bishopping the teeth, description ot, 144.
Biting, a bad habit, and how usually ac-
quired, 335.
Bitting of the colt, 225. •
Black horses, description and character

of 377

Bladder, description of the, 217.

. ^inflammation of, sympt-ms

treatment, 218.

neck of, 218.

_ stone in the, 218.

Bladders along the under part of
tongue, 147.

and

the

Blain in the cow, 147. ,gj
Bleeding, best place for gene al, 180,

. directions for, 179, ■J^'i- . _

from veins rather than artenes, 57^

finger should be on the pulse

during, 174, 321.

nature and treatment of,

179, 321. ,
Blue vitriol, a tonic for the horse, 389.
Boats, the difficulty of drawing increasing
rapidly with the velocity, 425.

L_ calculation of the power requisite to

draw them, 425. , . ^ if

Bog spavin, nature and treatment ol,

Bole-Aiuienian, medical use ot,

Bolting the food, how restrained, 339.

Bone-spavin, nature and treatment of, 269

Boots, singular ones, 7.

Bots in the stomach, natural history of, 201,

. not usually m)urious, Mi.

Bournou horse, description of the, 9.
Bowels, inflammation of the, symptoms

and treatment of, 207 .
Brain, description of the, 75.

inflammation of the, l»o.

Breadth of wheels, depending on Uie
road, 440. . ,

Breaking in should commence in the second

winter, 223. .

, description of its various stages, iZ4.

necessity of gentleness and patience

i«.224.

. of the farmer's horse, 2i4.

of the hunter or hackney, 225.

. the South American, 6.

. cruel Arabian method of, 13.

Breast-strap, advantage and disadvantage

of, 422.
Breeding, on, 34, 219.

as applied to the farmer's horse, 34.

other horses. 36.

qualities of the mare of as much

importance as those of the horse, 34
220.

INDEX

45j

Bri-eding, peculiarity of form and constitu-
tion inherited, 220.

iniiuence of good keep on the

colt, 60.

in and in, observations on, 221 .

• districts, the same formeriy as

now, 26.

Brittleness of the hoof, remedy for, 282.

Broad and narrow wheels, comparison be-
tween, 437.

Broken back, what, 65.

Broken knees, treatment of, 241.

method of judging of the

danger of, 242.

when healed, not unsound-
ness, but the form and action of the
horse should be carefully examined, 361.

Broken wind, nature and treatment of, 194.

influenced much, and often

caused by the manner of feeding, 195.

- - - distinguished from thick wind,

194.

Bronchitis, nature and treatment of, 189.
Bronchotomy, the operation of, ■62.
Brood mare, description of the, 221.

should not be too old, 221.

treatment of, after covering,

2-22.

after foaling, 223.

Brown horses, description of, 377.
Buccinator muscle, description of the, 119.
Burleigh, Lord, his opiuion of hunting, 54.
Busbequius, his interesting account of the

Turkish horse, 19.
fiutyr of antimony, the best liquid caustic,

385.

Calculi in the intestines, 207.
Calkins, advantages and disadvantages
of, 316.

should be placed on both heels, 316.

Calmuck horse, description of the, 18.
Calomel, the use of in veterinary practice,
396.

Camphor, the medical use of, 386.
Canadian horse, description of the, 21.
Canals, advantages and disadvantages
of, 424.

smallness of power requisite for the

transmission of goods by them, 424.
Canal boat, calcidation ot the draught of,

ease of draught of, might be in-
creased by a difitrent mode of applying
the power, 425.

Canker of Uie foot, nature and treatment
of, 309.

Cannon, or shank-bone, description of
the, 243.

Cantor, action of the horse during, 413.
Canthiirides form the best blister, 386.
- — ; — given for the cure of glanders, 387.
Capillary vessels, the, 174.
Cappaducian horses sent to Arabia, 4.
Capped hock, nature and treatment of, 255.

• description of, 268.

' although not always unsound-

ness, there should be a special warranty

against it, 261.
Carbon of the blood got rid of in respira*

tion, 181.
Carbonate of iron, a mild tonic, 394.
Carraways, a good aromatic, 387.
Carriage horses produced by crossing the

Suffolk with a hunter, 39.
Carriages, wlifel, first introduction of, 35.
Carriages, two and four wheeled, compari-
son between, 443.
light, should have no longitudinal

elasticity in the hanging or springs, 4-1 'i.

disadvantage of C springs in, 445.

hung on straps or springs in the

time of Homer, 432.
Carrots, excellent effects of in disease, 19i,

195, 213, 358.
Cart, two-wheeled, computation of tlie

friction of, 435.
Carts, two-wheeled, can perform propnt

tionably more work than waggons, 443.
easier loaded, and do

not so much injure the roads, 443.
require better horses

and more attendants, 443.
the horse sooner

knocked up, and injured by the shocks of

the shafts, 443.
on good roads and

for short distances superior to waggons,

444.

with two horses, disadvantage of,

444.

have less draught than waggons,

reason why, 445.
Cartilages of the foot, description and

action of the, 288.
——————— ossification of

the, 310.

Castley, Mr., on the restifness of the horse,
331.

Castor-oil, not a purgative for the horse,

212, 387.
Castration, method of, 227.

proper period for, 226.

Cataract in the eye, nature of, 95, 111.
cannot be operated on,

in the horse, 95, 116.
mtthod of examinatioK

for, 95,

Catarrh, description and treatment of, 188.

clistinguished from glanders, 123

distinguished from inflammation of

the lungs, 183.
CatarrhaH'evur, nature and treatment of, 189.

■ ' infectious, 191.

— distinction between it and

inflammation of the lungs, 183.
Catechu, a good astringent, method

giving, and adulterations of, 387.
Caustic, an account of the best, 387.
Cavalry horse, description of tlie, 42.

. anecdotes of the, 43.

Cawl, description of the, 214.
Cerebrum, description of the, 75.
Chalk, its medical use in the horso, 389

456

Chaff, attention should he paid to the good-
ness of the ingredients, 353.

best composition of, 352.

when given to the hard-worked

horse, much time is saved for repose,
354

' quantity of, necessary for different

fNDEX

kinds of horses, 353
Chamomile, a mild tonic, 388.
Channel of the jaws, what, 137.
Charcoal, useful in a poultice, and as an an-
tiseptic, 388 p ooQ
Charges, composition and use ot, 6m.
Chariot, price of, in Solomon s tame, 4

. description of that of Pnam, 432.

of Juno described, 433.

on the frieze of the Parthenon,

description of, 433.
Chariots, war, the ancient British, IZ.

. used by the Egyptians loOO

years before the Christian era, 432.

_! at the siege of Troy, 432.

description of the ancient, 432.
of the ancients, could not move

in drawing according to theif ti>»n\
417.

Coaches loaded high, run hghter, espfr
cially in rapid travelling, 448.

_ safety, heavy draught of, 448

Coach horse, description of the, 35.

— best breed of, 36.

Coat, fine, connected by the groom with a
heated stable, 346.

persons much too solicitous to pro-
cure it, 374.

Cochlea of the ear, description and use of

the, 83. , .

Cocktail horse, mode of docking, Sl^.
Coecum, description of the, 203, 204.
Coffin-bone, description of the, 286.

lamellae, or leaves of, 28b.

Cold, common, description and treatment

of, 188. . . , . . L

Colic, spasmodic, description and treatment

Collar^'the best method of attaching the
traces to the horse, 423.

proper adaptation of to the shouldei

rfith much velocity, 433
C;iiarles 1. patronized racing, 28.
Chest, the anatomy of the, 163.

L proper form of the, 52, 163, 193.

cut of the, lfi3.

the importance of depth ot, lb4.

narrow and rounded, comparison be-
tween, 163, 193. ,
. round, often connected With thick

wind, 193.

dropsy of the, 1 ^4. „

. founder, description ot, 171, «»^-

Chestnut horses, varieties of, 376.
Chester, races tirst established at, 2/ .
ChiUaby, friendship between him and a
cat 48.

Chinese horse, description of the, 16.
Chinked in the chine, what, 163.
Chloride of lime, an excellent disinfectant,
394

L of soda, useful in unhealthy ulcers,

Chtfroid coat of the eye, description and use

of the, 91. , X i„ t „<•

Chronic cough, nature and treatment ot,

192.

Chyle, the, formation of, 203.

Ciliary processes of the eye, description of

tVip 92. 1
Ciner'itious matter of the brain, nature and

function of the, 75. r.Uo 17

Circassian horse, description of t^he, 17.
Clicking, cause and remedy of, 341.
Clipping, objections to, J/f-
Clips, when necessary, 31/. .
Clover, considered as an article of food,

Clys^tL, the composition and great useful-
j:!rLeSons as to the administration

of, 389. . . ,, AQ

Clydesdale horse, descnption ol t'^^, t--
Coach^., calculation of the power of horses

223

Colon," description of the, 203, 204.
Colour of the skin, remarks on the, rf/D.
Colt, early treatment of the, 35.
Complexus major, descnption ol the, 1 1 .>,

154, 165. , in 1-r

. minor, description of the, 1 19, I •'(>■

Concave seated shoe, the, described and re-
commended, 3 1 1 . ,
Coiiestoga hoises, description ol the, 2-.
Conical and flat wheels, comparison between,

wheels, extreme absurdity of, 438.

.strange degree of friction and drag-

irlng with them, 438.

afford great resistance and destroy

the road, 439. • j * „

are in fact travelling gniidstoiies

439.

Conjunctiva, description of the, 89.

_ ^ appearance of, how far a test

of inflammation, 89.
Contraction of the foot, nature of, 292.
the pecuharity of the

lameness produced by, 296.

how far coiinecteil

with the navicular disease, 298.

. is not the necessary

consequence of shoeing, 293.

produced by neglect

of paring, 294.
♦he shoes too long, 294.

natural moisture, 294.

moval of the bars, 295.

niation of the foot, 295.

wearing
want of

• the re-

• inflam-
unequal

exercise without preparation, 296.

. not so much produced by littei

as imagined, 295.

iNDKX.

457

Contraction of the foot, tlie cause rather
than the consequence of thrush, 295.

best mode of treating,

297.

rarely permanently

cured, 297.

does not necessarily

imply unsoundness, 293.

althoUfjh not neces-
sarily unsoimdness, should have a spe-
cial warranty against it, 362.

blood horjxjs very sub-
ject to, .296.

Convexity of the eye, the proper, not suf-
ficiently attended to, 98.

Copper, the combinations of, used in vete-
■ rinary practice, 389.

Corded veins, what, 129.

Cordials, the use and abuse of in the horse,
389.

Cornea, description of the, 90.

— mode of examining the, 9 1 .

its prominence or flatness, 90.

should be perfectly transparent, 90.

Corns, the nature and treatment of, 305.

produced by cutting away the bars,

305.

not paring out the foot

between the crust and bars, 306.

pressure, 305.

very difficult to cure, 306.

constitute unsoundness, 363.

Coronary ligament, description of the, 281.

the crust principally pro-
duced from, 281.

ring, description of the, 281, 282.

Coronet, description of the, 281.

Corrosive sublimate, treatment under poison
by, 200.

the best tonic for farcy, 130, 139.

Cossack horse, description of the, 18.

beaten in a race by Eng-
lish blood horses, 1 8.

Cough, nature and treatment of, 188.

constitutes unsoundness, 362.

chronic, nature and treatment of,

192.

Cow hocks, description of, 274.
Cozakee horse, description of the, 1 5.
Cracks in the heels, treatment of, 277.
Cradle, a safe restraint upon the horse when

blistered, 323.
Cream-coloured horses, account of, 376.
peculiarity in their

eyes, 92.

of tartar, a mild diuretic, 390.

Crib-biting, the sucking in of air, 339.

causes and cure, 340.

injurious to the horse, 340.

_ constitutes unsoundness, 362.

Cricoid cartilage of the windpipe, the, 160.
Cromwell, Oliver, his stud of race horses,

28.

Crojiping, absurdity of, 77.
Croton, the farina of, used as physic, 211.
Crasaders, the improvement of the horse
neglected by them, 24.

Crust of the foot, description of the, 280.

composition of the, 282.

■ consisting within of nu-

merous horny plates, 283.

proper degree of its slant-
ing, 280.

— — proper thickness of the,

280.

brittleness of, remedy for,

282.

the cause of

sandcrack, 299.
Crystalline lens, description of the, 94.
Cuboid bones, description of the, 266.
Cuneiform bones, description of the, 266,

272.

Curbs, nature and treatment of, 267.

hereditary, 35.

the slightest vestige of, constituting

unsoundness, 268.
Cuticle, the, description of, 369.
Cutis, or true skin, the, account of, 370
Cutting, cause and cure of, 252, 341.

constitutes unsoimdness, 363.

away the foot, unfounded prejudice

against, 294.
Cylindrical wheels, description and advan

tage of, 440.

DandrifF, the, nature of, 369, 370.
Darley Arabian, account of the, 29, 45.
Dartmoor ponies, description and anecdote
of, 59.

Denliam, Major, interesting account of tlie
loss of his horse, 14.

Depressor labii inferioris muscle, descrip-
tion of the, 120.

Devonshire pack-horse, description of the,
59.

Diabetes, nature and treatment of, 2 1 7.

Diameter of wheels, the effect of, increas-
ing the, 431.

Diaphoretics, their nature and effects, 390.

Diaphragm, description of the, 171, 197.

Digestion, process of it described, 198, 203.

Digestives, their nature and use, 390.

Digitalis, highly recommended in colds
and all inflammatory complaints, 391.

Dilator magnus lateralis muscle, description
of the, 119.

■ naris lateralis muscle, description

of the, 119.

Dishing of wheels described, and effect of|
437.

both inward and outward eflect of,

441.

Distemper, nature and treatment of, 189.
Distressed horse, treatment of the, 55.
Diuretic medicines, use and abuse of, 215,

276, 391.
Docking, method of performing, 327.
Dogs, danger of encouraging them about

the stable, 109.
Dongola horse, description of the, 10.
Draught, theory of, 37, 403.
has not been sufficiently

explained, 403.

458

INDEX.

Draught implies the moving power, the v»5-

hicle, and the road, 405.
the moving power particularly con-
sidered, 405.

■ considered in respect of the resist-

ance, 404.

calculation of, according to velocity

and time, 417, 424.

much influenced by the direction

of the traces, 417.

the line of, should be parallel to the

direction of motion, 447c

in cattle should pass through the

axle of the wheels, 447.

in bad roads may have a slight in

cliuation upward, 447.

resistance of, should be as much

as possible firm and inelastic, 423, 449.
how increased by the state of the

road, 435, 449.

■ does not injure the ridmg of the

farmer's horse, 33.

■ of carriages, calculation of, on dif-

ferent rends, 435.

-of boats, difficulty of, increasing

rapidly with the velocity, 425

— calculation of the power of,

425

of the sledge, 425.

of the roller, 426.

horse, the heavy, 38.

horses, the inferior ones about the

metropolis, wretched state of, 42.
Dray horse, proper form of the, 40.
the largest, bred in Lincoln-
shire, 41.

usually too large and heavy, 40.

Drinks, how to administer, 392.

comparison between them and balls,

392.

Dropsy of the chest, 171.

—heart, 171.

skin, 171.

Drum of the ear, description and use of the,
81.

Dun horse, the, account of, 376.
Duodenum, description of the, 203.
Dutch horse, description of the, 21

Ear, description of the external parts, 77, 78.

internal parts, 79.

bones ofthe, description and use, 80,

labyrinth ofthe, 82.

cut of the mechanism of, 79.

. muscles of the internal

Effect ol the horse's labour, limited by hif

velocity and his power, 415.
Egypt, earUest domestication of the hurse

in, 3, 4.

horse propagated from it to other

countries, 4, 9.

not known in, at the time of Abra-

ham, 3.

Elasticity in the construction of carriages,

difference between longitudinal and in

any other direction, 446, 449.
Elbow, advantage of depth of, 236, 237.

capped, 237.

fracture of, 237.

• punctured, 237.

Elder, in the composition of an emolUent

ointment, 392.
Elgin marbles, proportions of the horses

unfaithfully represented on, 412.
Elizabeth, Queen, number and value of

horses much diminished when she reigned,

27.

■ a staunch huntress, 54.

Emetic tartar, used as a nauseant, diapho-
retic, and worm medicine, 384.
Enamel of the teeth, account of the, 138.
Enigmatical account of the horse, 27.
English horse, history of the, 22.

first croB§ed by tbe Ro

part of the, 81.

indicative of the temper, 77.

. clipping and singeing of the, cruelty

Ea-st Indian horse, description ol the, lo.
Eclipse, pedigree and history of, 46.
Edward II. introduced Lombardy horses

into England, 25.
in., the breed of horses nmch im-
proved by, 25.

intT0<luced Spanish horses, i5.
. had running horses, 26

22.

improved by Athektan, 22.
Wilham the

Conqueror, 24.

by John, 25.

not used for the plough in

early times, 23.
Entanglement of the intestines, description
of, 207.

Epidemic catarrh, nature and treatmci.t ol,
189.

malignant, nature and treatment

of, 191.

Epilepsy, nature and treatment of, 1 08.
Epsom salts, used as a purgative, 212, 395.
Ethmoid bone, description of the, 74
Eustachian tube, description and use of tlie,
82.

Ewe-neck, unsightliness and inconvenience

of, 51,156.
Exchanges of horses stand on the same

ground as sales, 368.
Exercise, directions for, 352.

the necessitj' of regular, 351.

. want of, producing grease, 279

more injury done by the want of it,

than by the hardest work, 351.
Exmoorponey, description of the, 58.
Expansion shoe, the, description and use

of, 319.

Expense of horse, calculation of the an-
nual, 406.

Extensor pedis ■uuscle, descriptiou of the,
237, 263.

Extract of lead, the use of it much over

valued, 394.
Eye, description of the, 84, 8.
cut of the. 88.

IJSIDJiX.

114.

363.

ness, 363.

iippaar, 114.

Eye, healthy appearance of the, 84.
_— inflammation of, common, 113.

' specific, 113.

causes, 115.

. medical treatment

of, 114, 116.

untractablc natiue of,

- consequences of, 116.

- marks of recent, 115,

- constitutes unsound-

- when most hkely to

■ hereditary, 115.

method and importance of examining

it, 90.

indicative of the temper. 84.

the pit above, indicative of the age, 67.

■ muscles of the, 98.

wounds of the, 112.

Eye-brows, substitute for, 85.
Eye-lashes, description of, 85.

folly of singeing them, 86

Eye-hd, description of, 85, 86.

Face, description of the, 117.

cut of the muscles, nerves, and

bloodvessels of, 119.
Falling in of the foot, what, 292.
False quarter, nature and treatment of, 301.
Farcy, a disease of the absorbents of the

skin, 128.

connected with glanders, 128.

both generated and infectious, 129.

symptoms of, 129.

treatment of, 130.

buds, what, 129.

Farmer's horse, description of the, 33.

< not injured by draught, 33.

Series, a sketch of the object of

the, 1.

Feeding high, connected with grease, 279.
regular periods of, necessity of at-
tending to, 104, 359.

• manner of, has much influence on

broken wind, 194.

Feeling of the mouth, constant, indispen-
sable in the good rider, 31.

Feet, good, importance of, in the hunter, 52.

the general management of, 360.

attention to, and stopping at

night, recommended, 360.

Felt soles, description and use of. 319

Fetlock, description of the, 252.

Fever, idiopathic or pure, 1 77.

symptoms of, 177.

— symptomatic, 178.

Fibula, the, description of the, 263.

Finland horse, description of the, 20.

Firing, mode of applying, 329.

should be in longitudinal or parallel

lines, 325.

should not penetrate the skin, 324.

absurdity and cruelty of blistering

Firing, horse should not be used for some

months after, 324.

— advantage of over blistering, 325.

Fistula lacrymalis, 87.

in the poll, 152.

Fistidous withers, treatment of, 168.
Fits, symptoms, causes, and treatment of,

108.

Fitzherbert, Sir A., his description of the
horse, 27.

his the earliest tieatise

on agriculture, 27.
Flanders horse, description of the, 21, 42.
our heavy draught horses

advantageously crossed with it, 21.
Flat roads more injurious to horses than

those with slight inequalities, 417.
Fleam and lancet, comparison between, 180.
Flexor of the arm, description of .the, 238.
metatarsi muscle, description of

the, 264.

pedis perforatus, tlie perforated

muscle, description of the, 239, 264.

pedis perforans, the perforating

muscle, description of the, 239, 264.
Flying Childers, an account of him, 45.
Foal, early treatment of, 223.

early handling of, important, 223.

importance of liberal feeding of.

223.

• time for weaning, 223.

Fomentations, theory and use of, 176, 392,
Food of the horse, observations on, 352.

a list of the articles of.

354.

should be apportioned

to the work, 359.
Foot, description of the, 280.

diseases of the, 289.

canker in the, nature and treat-

ment of, 308.

corns in the „

contracted „

■ — false quarter of the „

founder of the, acute „

chronic „

• inflammation of the „
navicular joint of the, disease in, na-

305.
292.
301.
289.
292.
289.

ture and treatment of, 298.

overreach of the,

prick in the

pumiced

quittor in the

saodcrack in the

thrush in the

tread on the

weakness of the

wounds in the

after, 325.

301.
„ 303.
291.
302.
, 299.
307.
301.
„ 309.
„ 303
Forehand, proper form of, 51.
Forehead, different form of, in the ox and

horse, 72.
Fore-legs, description of, 227.

diseases of the, 244.

proper position of thi', 25b.

Forge-water sometimes used. .394.
Forrester, an example of the emulation wf
the horse. 49.

460

IN13KX.

Founder, ucii!"-. symptoms, causes, and

treatment of. 289.
chronic, nature and treatment of,

292.

Foxglove, strongly recommended in colds

and all fevers, 391.
Fracture of the skull, treatment of, 100.
French horse, description of the, 21.
Friction, comparison of, in the wheel and

roller, 426.
. on the axle, dependent on the ma-
terial employed, 434.

■ is not materially increased by the

velocity, 435.

reduced, as the diameter of the

axle is diminished, 434.

inversely as the diameter of the

wheel, 435.

■ at the axles of light carriages, con-

sidered, 449
Frog, horny, description of the, 284.

sensible, description of the,284, 287.

action and use of the, 289.

pressure, question of the, 285.

proper paring of, for shoeing, 314.

diseases of the, 307.

■ stay, the, 282.

Frontal bones, description of the, 67.

sinuses, description of the, 68.

perforated to detect glan-
ders, 69.

FiiTze, considered as an article of food, 368.

Gall, account of the, 262.

bladder, the horse has none, 212.

Galloping, the action of the horse during,
413.

Galloway, description of the, 57.

anecdotes and performances of the

58

Gaucho, the South American, description of,

'. — his method of taking and breaking

the wild horse, 6.

-'s boots, curious manufacture of, 7.

General management of the horse, 345.
Gentian, the best tonic for the horse, 393.
German horse, description of the, 19.
Getting the cheek-bit into the mouth, me-

ihod of preventing, 336.
Gibbing a bad habit, cause of it and means

of lessening it, 335.
Ginger, an excellent aromatic and tome,
393.

Glanders, nature of, 124.

. symptoms of, 121, 123.

. slow progress of, 122. _

appearances of the nose in,

detected by injecting the frontal

sinuses, 69. , lo-j

distinguished from catarrh,

. from strangles, 123.

connected with farcy, 128.

. treatment of, 126.

—— causes of, 124.

both generated and contagious, 124,

Glanders, oftenest produced by im[irop«tT
stable management, 124.

mode of commiuiication of, 126.

prevention of, 127.

anecdote of its speedy api)earance.

124.

Glands, enlarged, it depends on many cir-
cumstances whether they constitute un-
soundness, 363.

Glass-eye, nature and treatment of, 116.

Gleet, nasal, nature and treatment of, 121.

Glenoid cavity of the temporal bone, de-
scription of the, 135.

Glutaei muscles, description of the, 260.

Godolphin Arabian, an account of the, 9
48.

Goulard's extract, the use of it much over-
valued, 394.

Gracilis muscle, description of the, 259.

Grains, occasionally used for horses of
blow work, 355.

Grapes on the heels, treatment of, 279.

Grasses, neglect of the farmer as to the pro-
per mixture of, 356.

Grasshopper springs, description of, 447.

would be advantageously adopted

in post-chaises, 447.

Grease, nature and treatment of, 276.

cause of, 278.

farmer's horse not so subject to it

as others, 277.

generally a mere local complaint.

277.

Greece, early domestication of the horse
in, 3.

the horse introduced there from

EgJT)t, 4.

Grey horses, account of the different thades
of, 375.

Grinders, construction of the, 139.
Grinding of the food accomplished by the

mechanism of the joint of the lower jaw.

136.

Grogginess, account of, 252.
Grooming, as important as exercise to the
horse, 350.

opens the pores of the skm, and

gives a fine coat, 350.
• directions for, 350.

Grunter, the, description of, 96.

- is unsound, 362.

Guinea coast, description of the horse ol
the, 10.

Gullet, description of the, 162.
•, foreign bodies in, 162.

126.

Gutta serena, nature and treatment of, 116

Habits, vicious or dangerous, 330.
Hackney, description of the, 30, 33.

proper action of the, 30.

Hair, account of the, 372.

question of cutting it from the heels

Hall. Bishop, extract from, on breednig
34.

Hamilton, Duke of, the Clydesdale horses
owe their origin to him, 40

INDEX.

461

Uhrutssin^, the best mode ati it regards

draught, 417.
. method of, in the time of

Homer.

Haunch, description of the, 256.

wide, advantage of, 257.

injuries of the, 257.

joint, singular strength of the, 257.

and thigh hones, advantage of the

oblique direction of, 257.
Haw, curious mechanism of the, 87..

diseases of, J 13.

• absurdity and cruelty of de-

stroying it, 88.
Hay considered as food, 357.

mowburnt, injurious, 357

— : old preferable to new, 357.

Head, anatomy of the, 66.

the numerous bones composing it,

reason of, 67.

-: cut of the bones of the, 67.

— section of the, 68.

importance of proper setting on of

the, 51, 155.

its shape, indicating the breed, 67.

beautiful provision for its support.

72

• Captain, his account of the South
American horse, 5.
Hearing of the horse very acute, 77.
Heavy black horses, account of, 42.

■ ■ — their preparation for

their work, 40.
Heart, description of the, 171.

its action described, 172.

inflammation of the, 172.

dropsy of the, 171.

Heber, Bishop's, accoimt of the Arabian,
12. '
Ili-eis, question of cutting the hair from
them, 279.

low, disadvantage of, 280.

projjer paring ot, for shoeing, 314.

• washing of the, producing grease,

Hellebore, white, used in inflammation of

the lungs and fevers, 393.
Helmsley Arabian, account of the, 28.
Hemlock, sometimes poisonous when eaten,

200.

393.

given in inflammation of the chest,

Henry VIII., tyrannical regidations con-
cernmg the horse by him, 26.

the breed of the horse not mate-
rially improved by him, 27.

Hereditary diseases on, 35, 115, 220.

Hernia, the nature and treatment of, 212.

Hide-bound, the nature and treatment of,

o7 1

High-blower, the, description of, 196.

— ; is unsound, 362.

Highland poney, description of the, 59.
Mmd legs, description of the, 256.
~ arteries, veins, and nerves of the,265.
— - -wheels should follow the precise
track of the fore ones, 440.

Hip joint, the great strength of ihe, -267. '

Hips, ragged, what, 25fi.

Hissar, the East India Company's sale of
horses at, 15.

Hobbles, description of the best, 320.

Hock, the advantage of its numerous sepa
rate bones and ligaments, 270.

capped, 255, 273.

cow, 274.

description of the, 256.

enlargement of the, nature of and

how affecting soundness, 257, 363.

inflammation of the small bones of,

a frequent cause of lameness, 272.

the principal seat of lameness be-
hind, 267.

lameness of the, without apparent

causej 272.
point of the, advantage of length in,

Homer, method of harnessing horses in his

time, 421.
Hoof, cut of the, 283.

1 — description of the, 281.

Horizontal direction of the traces when iiro-

per, 424. '
Horn of the crust secreted principally by

the coronary ligament, 281.
once separated from the sensible

part within, will never again imite with

it, 304.

Horse, the American, description of , 21.

Arabian, description of, 11.

not the native of Arabia, 4.

English, improved under Athel

Stan, 22.

■ ■ Barb, description of, 9.

Bournou, description of, 9.

— cavalry, 42.

and chariot races formed part jf

the Olympic games, 3.

calculation of the annual expense

of, 406.

• Chinese, description of, 16.

• Circassian, description of, 17.

— was trained to draught before

he was mounted, 3.
— — Coach, proper form, qualiUes,

breed of, 35.

Cossack, description of, 18.

neglected by the Crusaders, 24.

Dongola, description of, 10.

Dutch, description of, 21.

early history of, 2.

when first domesticated in Ecrypt

and Canaan, 3.
not domesticated

_ until after
many other animals, 3.

propagated from Egypt to othe«

countries, 4.

East Indian, description of, lo.

the flesh of eaten, 8.

English, history of. 22.

fanners', description of, 33

Finland, description of, 20.

Flemish, descrijition of, 21.

French, description ot" 21.

•16V:

Horse, the, general managemeut of, 345.

German, description of, 19.

of the Guinea coast, description

heavy black, description ot, a/ 1-

■ for heavy draught, description of,

- tyrannical regulations respecting,
Henry Vlll., 26.

hiring, early legulations ot, /.J.

Hunsrarian, description ot,

Iceland, description of, "20.

. Italian, description of, 21.

■ much improved by J ohn, 25.

38.

_ Lombaidy, when first introduced

into England, 25. . c o\

market, first account ot, ^4.

native country of, uncertain, ^4.

Norwegian, description of, iO.

Persian, description of, 16.

. English, not used for the plough

Hunter, fne, general account of, 50.

proper degree of blood »d, bl

■ form of, 51 .

___ ■ spirit of, 54.

anecdotes of, 54.

management of, 53.

in early times, 23.

power, calculation of, 37, 40 5,

416.

depending on circumstances

^^^^ll^'Tai^hifwith his speed,
compared with that of the

^*-™-"S"'^To4^eTwiifthatofthe

^ J„ A(\7

steam-engine on common roads, 407.
steam e b mechanically considered,

superior t_o_artifidal, 410.^^ no practical

substitute for, 409. 4
. price of, in Solomon's time, 4
. prices of, at different periods, 23,

25, 26.

— sagacity of, 32.
_ can see almost in darkness, 9f
_ South American, description

. instinct and sagacity of, 5.

management of, in South Ame-

of, 5.

rica, 6,

tain, 25.

nor to the Arabian, 44.

Toorkoman, description ot, 1/.

Turkish, description of, I J.

. wild, description of, 5.

1 • in

tress in, 55

- symptoms of dangerous .dw '

'b. .,.
management of the, when di».

tressed, 55.

■ summering ot, do.

Hunting, the eariiest book on, written by a

_! ^ shoe, description of the, 318.

Hyde Park, races established in, by Charles
I 28

Hydrothorax. symptoms and treatment of,

184.

Iceland horse, the, description of, 20.
Ileum, description of the, 204.
Inflammation, nature of, 174.

, ^ treatment of, 175. .

hot or cold applications to, giude in

the choice of, 176. .

importance of bleedmg in, 175.

when proper to physic in, 175.

of the bladder, 217.

___ bowels, 207.

. distinction between it

and colic, 208.
— brain, 105.

eye, 113

— foot, 289.

— kidneys, 216.

liver, 213.

lungs, 182.

stomach, 200.

veins, 158.

Spanish, description of, 21.
Spanish first introduced into Bn-

_ Swedish, description of, 20.
_ Tartarian, description of, S, !»•
Enclish thorough-bred, supe-

!^~\rssr:tSi-

„:::!rth^e"3,'Ss laws respect
HinSia'n horse, the, description of. 19

Influenza, natme and treatment of, 189.
Infusions, manner of making them, 393.
inoculation, the best test of the existence of

IntioSmuscies, description of the, 170.
Intestines, description of the. Mi-

. diseases of the,

Intus-susception of the intestines, treatment

of' 207. . , .....
Invertebrated animals, what, b^.
Iodine, usefulness, of, in reducing enlarge

glands, 393. ,
Iranee horse, description of the, 15.
Iris, description of the, 94.
Irish horse, description of the, tj 1 .
Iron, the carbonate of, a mild and useful
tonic, 394. . .

Sulphate of, a stronger tonic, 394.

_ recommended tor tiie

cure of glanders, 394.
Italian horse, description of the,
Itchiness of the skin, should always be re-

garded with suspicion, 380.

James I., established the first rcgulationt

j!L:ttr'odSion of the Arabian blood by
him, 28.

INDEX

403

Jaundice, symptoms and treatment of, 213.
Jaw, the lower, admirable mechanism

of, 135.

. upper, description of, 133.
Jejunum, description of the, 204.
John, the breed of horse.s improved by, 25.
Jointed shoe, the description and use of, 319.
Jones's patent wheels, a description of, 44 1 .
Jngulai vein, anatomy of the, 120, 157.
Jumper, the horse-breaker, anecdotes of

his power over animals, 331.
Juniper oil, use of, 394.
Juno, harnessing her own horses, 433.

Kadischi, an Arabian breed of horses, 1 1.
Kicking, a bad and inveterate habit, 336.
Kidneys, description of the, 214.
' inflammation of, symptoms and

treatment of, 216.

- stone in the, 218.

King Pippin, anecdotes of him as illustrat-
ing the inveterateness of vicious habits,
331.

Knee, an anatomical description of the, 240.

knees broken, treatment of, 241.

Kochlani, the Arabian breed of horses, 11.
Knowledge of the horse, how acquired, 64.

Labyrinth of the ear, description and use

of the, 82.
Lachrymal duct, description of the, 87.
gland, description and use of

the, 86.

Lamellae or laminse, homy, account of the,
283.

fleshy the, account of, 283.

weight of the horse

supported by the, 283.
Lameness, shoulder, method of ascertain-
ing, 229.

&om whatever cause, unsoundness,

364.

LampaJi, nature and treatment of, 134.

cruelty of burning the bars for, 135.

Laminae of the foot. See Lamellae.
Lancet and fleam, comparison between, 180.
Lard, use of in ointments and balls, 394.
Larynx, description of the, 160.
Lasso, description of the, 6.

explanation of the power of the, 422.

Laudanum, use of in veterinary practice, 394.
Lead, the compounds of, used in veterinary

practice, 394.
■ extract of, its use much over-valued,

394.

sugar of, use of, 394.

white, use of, 394.

Leather-soles, description and use of, 319.
Leg, cut of the. 111.

description of the, 243.

Legs, fore, should be straight and perpen-
cUcular, 256.

hind, anatomical description of, 275.

• ■ of the hackney, should not be

lifted too high, 30.

— of the horse, movement of when

walking, 412.

Legs of the horse, dhferent when drawing,
412.

also different when trot«

ting, 413.

swelled, 276.

Levator humeri muscle,

the, 119, 156, 233.

description of

Lever, muscular action explained on the

principle of the, 231, 238.
Ligament of the neck, description and

elasticity of the, 73, 153.
Light, theory of, 96.

refraction of, 96.

Lightness in hand, of essential consequence

in a hunter, 51.
Lime, the chloride of, exceedingly useful

for bad smelling wounds, &c., 394.
Lime, the chloride of, exceedingly useful

to cleanse stables from infection, 395.
Lincolnshire, the largest heavy black horse

bred in, 41.
Liniments, the composition and use of, 395,
Linseed, an infusion of, used in catarrh,

395.

meal forms the best poultice, 395.

oil, as a purgative, 212, 395.

Lips, anatomy and uses of the, 131.

the, the hands of the horse, 131.

Litter, the, cannot be too frequently removed,
348.

proper substances for, 348.

contraction not so much produced

by it as some imagine, 295.

Liver, anatomy and use of the, 212.

inflammation of the, 213.

rupture of the, 213.

Load, the lying high increases the light-
ness of draught, 448.

may be dangerous in

rough road, 449.

Locked jaw, symptoms, cause, and treat-
ment of, 10.5, 107.

Loins, description of the, 166.

Lombardy horse, the, when introduced into
England, 25.

Longissimus dorsi muscle, description of
the, 167.

Lucerne, considered as an article of food,
357.

Lunar caustic, a very excellent one, 400.
Lungs, description of the, 181.

iuflammatiou of the, symptoms of,

183.

— — causes of, 182.

how distinguished

from catarrh and distemper, 184, 191.

, treatment of, 185,

186.

bleeding in, 185.

importance of early

• . blisters preferable

to rowels or setons in, 186.

consequences of,

185.

Madness, symptoms and treatment of, 1 09
Majinniss horse, descriptiou of the, !,">.

4(i4

INDEX.

Mahomet, two horses only in his whole
army, 4.

Malcolm, Sir John, his anecdotes ot the
Arabian horse, 14.

Malignant epidemic, the nature and treat-
ment of, 191. i r OTQ

Mallenders, nature and treatment ol, i.1 i-
Mammalia, the, an important class of ani-
mals, 62.
Mane, description and use of ♦he,
Mange, description and treatment ot, 61V,.
■ causes of, 379.

ointment, recipes for, 379.

hiirhly infectious, 379.

method of purifying the stable

after, 380. c r>M

Manger-feeding, the advan age of,
Marble, the immense block of, at bt. re-

tersburgh, how moved on rollers, 4.2y.
Mare, time of being at hea.t, 222

, . going with toal. III.

. best time for covering, 222.

. management of, when with toal, ll~

after foaling, 22-2.

Moulting, no stimulant or spices should be
given, 374.

- mode of treatment under, 374.

Mounting the colt, 226.
Mouth of the horse, descnption of the boues
of, 133.

— Ulcers in, treatment of,

161.

_ • should be always feH

lightly in riding, 31.

■ importance of its sensibility

more concerned than the horse in

breeding, 34.
Mares preferable to geldings for the

farmer, 34. . ^ . ft

prejudice against ruling oJ, a.

never ridden by the Africans, 10.

alone ridden by the Arabs, 10.

used for food, 8.

selection of, for breeding, 34.

Mark of the teeth, what, 138.
Markham's Arabian, an account ol, Z».
Mashes, importance of their use, 395.

. best method of making, 394.

Masseter muscle, description of the, 119,
136

Maxillary bones, anatomy of the, 133.
Mediastinum, description of the, 17 1.
Medicines, a history of the most useful, 381.
Medullary substance of the brain, nature

and function of the, 75.
Megrims caused by an undue quantity ot

blood pressing on the brain, 101.

symptoms of, 102.

. treatment of, 102.

. apt to return, 1 02.

Melt, description of the, 214.

Memory of the horse, iustances ol, 61. _

Mercurial ointment, the use of, in veteri-

Me"r^[il,CSofmanyoftheWeshpo-

nies, 68. „„„
Mesentery, description of the 2U3
Metacarpals, description ot the

ally used, 396. contraction,
Moisture, want of, a cause ot couit

294.

Moon-l:bu;lness, nature of. l].^.
Moiocco barb, the, account d, LV,.

!^^o;i:.=r>-^SatthetimeoC

374.

132.

when the horse may be said to have

a perfect one, 143.
Moving power, animal, theory of, 405.

. mechanical, theory of, 405.

Mowburnt hay injurious, 357.

Muscles of the back, description of the, 167.

breast, „ 170.

' 98.

face, „ J>^-

neck, „

ribs, „ 170.

shoulder-blade, „ 233.

lower bone of the

shoulder, •• 232.

advantageous direction of, more

important than their bulk, 275.
Muscular action, the principle of, 238.
Muzzle, the organ by which the horse com-
monly examines bodies, 370.
Myrrh, the use of, for canker and wounds,
396.

Narrow and broad wheels, comparison be-
tween, 437. .
Nasalis labii superioris muscle, descripbon

of the, 119. ^ . r

Naves, cast iron, to wheels, advantage ol,

442. . . r » »

^ . descnption ot the best

construction of, 442.
Navicular bone, description of the, iJ4S, .ieo,

298

action and use of the, 288, 298.

— ■ aciHui oiivA no*., J - /

joint disease, nature and treatment

of, 298. , , ,

how far connected

with contraction, 298.

the cure very uncertain,

299. . . r»u 01

Neapolitan horse, description ot i.
Neck, anatomy and diseases of '^f^

description of the arteries of the, 1 .>7.

description of the veins of the, lo7.

bones of the, 152.

proper conformation of the, l.o4.
comparison between long and short,

155.

loose, what, 155.

. loose, wiiiii, wi". .

Neptune, the horse first appeared at the

stroke of his tridents, 4.
Nerves, the, construction and theory ot, 7t)

spinal, compound nature of, 76.

of respiration, origin and futictioi.

of, 76.

of the face. 119.

INDEX.

•165

Neurotomy, or nerve operation, object and

effect of it, 110.

manner of performmg it, 111-

cases in wliich it shoulder should

not be performftd, 112.
a vestige of the perfomiance of it,

constitutes unsoundness, 364.
Newcastle, the Uuke of, his opposition to

the introduction of the Arabian blood,

28.

New-forester, desciiption of the, 58.
Newmarket, races established at, by Charles
1., 28.

description of the different courses

at, 50.

Nicking, method of performing, 328.

useless cruelty often resorted to in

it, 329.

Nitre, a valuable cooling medicine, and

mild diuretic, 397.
Nitrous aether, spirit of, a mild stimulant

and diuretic, 397.
Norman horse, description of the, 21.
Nonvegian horse, description of the, 20.
Nose, description of the bones of the, 117.
of the horse slit to increase his

wind, 20, 118.
Nostrils, description of the, 117.

chronic discharge from the, 121.

how distinguished

from glanders, 121.
the membrane of, important in

ascertaining disease, 120.

importance of an expanded one, 118.

slit by some nations to increase the

wind of the horse. 1 18.
Not lying down, the consequence of and

cure for, 341.
Nutriment, the quantity of. contained in

the different articles of food, 359.

Oats, the usual food of the horse, 353.

should be old, heavy, dry, and

sweet, 354.

— kila-di-ied, injurious to the horse,
354.

proper quantity of, for a horse, 355.

bruised preferable to whole, 353.

Oatmeal, excellent for gruel, and sometimes

used as a poultice, 355.
Obelisk at Rome, the curious method of

moving it, 431
Occipital bone, description of the, 72.
(Esophagus, description of the, 1 62.
O' Kelly, Colonel, anecdotes of him, and

Eclipse, 47.
Old Marsk, the sire of many of the new

foresters, 58.
Olive oil, as a purgative, 212, 397.
Omentum, description of the, 214.
Opacity of the eye, rature and treatment
of, 116.

Operations, description of the wiost import-
ant, 320.

Opium, its great value in veterinary prac-
tice, 397.
aaulterations of, 397.

Orbicularis muscle of the eye, description

of the, 85, 119.
. oris muscle, description of the,

120,131.
Orbit of the eye, fracture of, 101.
Ossification of the cartilages, cause and

treatment of, 310.
Ouseley, Sir Gore, his account of the ruins

of Persepolis, 3.
Over-physicking, treatment of, 209.
Over-reach, nature and treatment of, 301.

341. , ,
often producmg saudcrack oi

quittor, 301.
Oxygen of the air unites with the carbon oi
the blood in respiration, 181.

Pace, the effect of, in straining the horse, 37
Pachydermata, an order of animals, 62.
Pack-horse, description of the, 59.
Pack-wax, description of the, 73, 153.
Palate, description of the, 133.

bleeding place in the, 133.

Palatine artery, description of the, 134.
Palm-oil, the best substance for making up
balls, 398.

Palsy, the causes and treatment of, 109.
Pancreas, description of the, 214.
Panniculus carnosus muscle, description of
the, 370.

Parietal bones, description of the, 70.
Paring out of the foot for shoeing, direc-
tions for, 314.
negleci

of, a cause of contraction, 294.
Parkinson on Live Stock, extracts from, 60.
Parotid gland, description of the, and its

diseases, 120, 148.
Parthenon, description of the chariots on

the frieze of, 433.
Pasterns, description of the, 248, 253.

bones of the, 253.

cut of the, 249, 254.

properobliquity of the, 31, 52, 251.

Patella or stifle bone, description of the, 252.

Pawing, remedy for, 342.

Payment of the smallest sum completes the

purchase, 366,
Peas, sometimes used as food, but should

be crushed, 356.
Pectorales muscles, description of the, 1 54,

168, 170, 224.
Pericardium, description of the, 171.
Peronajus muscle, description of the, 264.
Persian horse, description of the, 16.
: celebrated before the Arabian

was known, 16.

management of, 16.

. race, description of a, 17.

Perspiration, insensible, no medicines will

certainly increase it, 373.
Peter the Great, the immense block of
marble, constituting the pedestal of his
statue, how moved, 430.
Pharynx, anatomy of the, 151.
Physic ball, method of compounding the
best 382.

2 H

4'iti

INDEX.

Phys) c hall, should never be given in in- '
flammation of the lungs, 382.

— half doses of, objectionable, 382.
Pied horses, account of the, 376.
Pif^nientium nigrum, account of the, 91.
Piper, description of the, 196.
Pit of the eye, indicative of the age, 67.
Pitch, its use for charges and plasters, 398.
Pit ing, a hamane method ot destroying

animals, 153.
Pleura, description of the, 171.
Pleurisy, nature and treatment of, 188.
Pneumonia, nature and treatment of, 182.
Poisons, account of the most frequent, 200.
Poll evil, cause and treatment of, 1 52.
importance or the free escape of the

matter, 153.
Poney, varieties of the, 58.
Popletaeus muscle, description of the, 264.
Porter's, Sir R. Ker, account of the Persian

horse, 16.
Post, the first establishment of it, 36.
Post-chaises, grasshopper springs would

be advantageou-sly adopted in, 447, 448.
Postea spinatus muscle, description of the,

234.

Potatoes, considered as an article of food
358.

Poultices, their various compositions, man-
ner of acting and great use, 398, 176.

Powders, comparison between them and
balls, 399.

Power of draught in the horse, illustrations
of, 37.

• calculation

of, 403.

compared

with that of the human being, 411.

compared

Pulse, the natural standard of the, \7'2.

varieties of the, 173.

importance of attention to the, 173

the most convenient place to feel it

173.

. the, should be watched during bleed

ing, 174.

Pumiced feet, description and treatment of
291.

do not admit of cure, 292.

constitute unsoundness, 364.

Pupil of the eye, descrijjtion of the, 93.
mode of discovering blind

ness by, 93.
Purchase, to complete the, there must lie a

memorandum, or payment of some sum,

however small, 36 G.
Purging, violent, treatment of, 209.

Quarters of the horse, description of the,
261.

importance of their

with that of a steam-engine on railways,
405.

■ on common roads, 407.
on bad roads, 409.
dependent on his weight and

muscular force, 411.

■ how diminished when towing

a boat on a canal, 414.

■ greater when

close to his

work, 414.

depends on his strength, and

the time he can exert it, 415.
, diminution of, according to

his speed, table of, 416, 417.
Preparation of the foot for shoeing, 313.
Pressure on the brain, effect of, 101.
Priam s chariot, a description of, 432.

. harnesses his own horses, 43-.

Prices of horses at different periods,

26.

Prick in the foot, treatment of, 303.
in searching for, injurious

method of removing the horn, 305.
Profuse staling, cause and treatment ol,

217

PufBng the. glims, a trick of fraudulent

horse-dealers, 67. . ,

Pulling, the action of explained, 4IU.

muscidarity and depth, 26 1 .

foot, description of, 280.

- the inner, crust thin-

ner and weaker at, 281.

• folly of lowering the, 281.

Quidding the food, cause of, 342.

unsoundness while it lasts,

354.

Quittor, nature and treatment of, 302.
the treatment of, long and difficult,

exercising the patience bofti of the p»ac-

titioner and owner, 302.
is unsoundness, 342.

Rabies, symptoms of, 109.

Races, early, mere running on train scent, 28.

frequent cruelty of, 49.

different kinds of described, 50.

regular, first established at Chester

and Stamford, 27.

■ regulations for, established by

James I., 28.

patronised by Charles I., 28.

Persian, description of, 17.

■ short, consequences of tlieir intro-

duction, 49.

. at Smithfield, 24.

Race horse, the, history of, 43.

__ form of, 44.

. action of, 49.

. emulation of, 49.

whether exclusively of foreign

breed, 44. ■
Racks, no openings should be allowed above

them, 346.
Radius, description of the, 236.
Ragged hipped, what, 256.

. no impediment to acticn, 257.

Railways, mechanical advautage of, 38
451.

comparison of horse and mechani-
cal power on, 405.

■ description of, 451.

Railways increase the power of tlie horse
tenfold, 452.

INDEX.

467

Raking, the operation of, 399.
Rat-tails, nature and treatment of, 275.
Rearing, a dangerous and inveterate habit,
337.

Recti muscles of the neck, description of
the, 156.

thigh, description of,

258.

Rectus muscle, description of the, 258.
Rectum, description of the, 203, 205.
Reducing speed, and prolonging exertion,

advantage of in horse labour, 415.
Refraction of light, the theory of, 96.
Refractive power of the eye, account of the,

97.

Reins, description of the proper, 132.
Repositories, account of the principal in

Loudon, and their regulations, 369.
Resin, its use in veterinary practice, 399.
Resistance in draught, principally caused
• by the ruts, 441.

Respiration, description of the mechanism

and efiFect of, 181.
Respiratory nerves, the, 76.
Restifuess, a bad habit, and never cured,

330.

anecdotes in proof of its inveterate-

ness, 33 1 .
Retina, description of the, 93, 95.
Retractor muscle of the eye, description of

the, 99.

Ribbed-home, advantage of being. 164.

Ribs, anatomy of the, 169.

Richard Coeur de Lion, account of liis

Arabian horses, 24.
Richmond, Duke of, his method of breeding

good carriage horses, 39.

anecdote concerning, 54.

Riding, directions for, 31.

Ringbone, nature and treatment of, 254,

255.

constitutes unsoundness, 365.

Roach-backed, what, 166.
Roads, how affected by different wheels.
441.

how influencing the proper breadth

of the wheels, 440.

the great extent to which they affect

the draught, 449.
, soft and yielding, far more disad-
vantageous than rough ones, 450.

slight alterations in their level ad-
vantageous, 450.

hardness, the grand desideratum in,

450.

should be nearly flat, 450.

■ absurdity of much curvature in,

450. '

necessity of constant repairs and

attention to them, 45 1 .

calculation of the degree by which

the resistance is increased by bad ones
451.

Roan horses, accoimt of, 376.
Roaring, the nature of, 160.

constitutes unsoundness, 362.

proceeding from inflammation, 160.

Roaring proceeding from tight reining, .160.

~ '■ buckling in crib-
biting, 161.

treatment of, 161.

Rollers, calculation of the drausht of,
426, 427.

how probably first invented or

brought into use, 426.
— comparison of tlieir power with that

of wheels, 426.

mechanism and principle of, 427.

particular circumstances in which

their use is advantageous, 429.
the weight moves with double the

velocity of them, and therefore fresh

rollers must be supplied in front, 429.
the immense block of marble at St.

Petersburgh, description of its being

moved on them, 429.
a particular construction of, very

useful, 450.
Rolling, danger of, and remedy for, 342.
Roman nose in the horse, what, 117.
Round-bone, the, can scarcely be dislocated,

258.

sprain of, description and treatment

of, 262.

Rowels, use of, and method of applpng, 186.

manner of inserting, and their ope-
ration, 399.

comparison between them, blisters,

and setons, 326.

Running away, method of restraining, 337.

horses, first account of, 25.

Rupture, treatment of, 212.

of the suspensory ' J arnept, 252.

Ruts, the cause of three-fourths of the re-
sistance in draiight, 441 .

Rye-grass considered as an article of food
357.

Sacrum, description of the, 328.

Saddle-backed, what, 166.

galls, treatment of, 169.

Saddling of the colt, 226.

Safety coaches, the heavy draught of, 448.

Sagacity of the horse, 32.

Sainfoin used as an article of food, 357.

Saint Domingo, wild horses in, 8.

Sal ammoniac, the medical use of. 384.

Saliva, nature and use of the, 148.

Salivary glands, description of the, 148.

Sallenders, nature and treatment of, 273.

Salt, use of in veterinary practice, 400.

value of, mingled in the food of ani-
mals, 357.

Sandcrack, natme and treatment of, 299.

most dangerous when proceeding

from tread, 300.

liable to return, unless the brittlenesi

of the hoof is remedied, 300.

constitutes unsoundness, 365.

Sartorius muscle, description of the, 259.

Sclerotica, description of the, 9 1 .

Scouring, general treatment of, 209.

Semicircular canals of the ear, description
and use of the, 83.

2 H 2

468

INDKX.

Sedatives, a list of, and their mode of
action, 399.

Semiramis, number of horsemen and cha-
riots possessed by, 2.

Seriatus magnus muscle, description of
the, 228. ,

Sesostris, number of chariots possessed

by, 2. f • u
Sessamoid bones, admirable use of m ob-
viating concussion, 250.
Setons, mode of introducing, 326.
cases in which they are mdicated,

326. .
comparison between them and

rowels and blisters, 326.
Setting on of the head, the proper, 15&.
Shalokh-horse, description ot the, 17.

Shank-bone, the, 243. - , -q

Shetland poney, description of the, &9.
Ship, the method of dvaggmg it up a slip,
430.

Shoe, the concave seated, cut of, 312.
__J described and re-
commended, 311.

. the manner in which the old one

Sitfasts, treatment of, 169,

Skeleton of the horse, description of thf

63.

Skin, anatomical description of the, 369.

function and uses of it, 370.

1 , pores of the, 373.

; . when the animal is in health, in

' soft and elastic, 371.

' Skull, anatomical description of the, 66.

: arched form of the roof, 74.

! fracture of the, 100.

1 Smithfield-market, eariy account of, 24.
, Sledges, calculation of the draught of, 425.

I description of the mechanism and

use of, 426.

where more advantageous than

wheels, 426.

where very disadvantageous, 4Zb.

calculation of the power of, 427.

their advantage in travelling ovei

ice and snow, 427.

Esquimaux, an account of the, 4i7.

should be taken off, 313.

the putting on of the, 31 5.

. the should be fitted to the foot, and

not tlie foot to the shoe, 315.

description of the hinder, 317

- the bar, 318

- the tip, 318.

- the hunting, 318.

- the jointed, or expansion,

319

Shoeing, not necessarily productive of con-
traction, 293. o,0 Ol^

preparation of the foot for, 31 3, 314.

the principles of, 311.

singular, 21.

Shoes, wearing too long, a cause of contrac

Short-bodied horses, when valuable, W.
Shoulder, anatomical description ot the,
228

L slanting direction of the, advan-

tageous, 229, 231, 237.

when it should be oblique, and

when upright, 232, 233,

• sprain of the, 228. _ .

. lameness, method of ascertaining.

229.

Shoulder-blade, muscles of the, 233.
why united to the chest by

muscle alone, 228.

lower bone of the, description of.

232, 235.

- muscles of the, 235.

Shying, probable cause of, 98, 342.

treatment of, 343.

. on coming out ot the stable, de-
scription of, 344.
Side-hne, description of the, Jiiu-
Silver, the nitrate of, an excellent caustic.

Sinuses in the foot, necessity of foUowuig
ihem as far as tbey reach, 304.

Slipping the collar, remedy for, 344.
Smell, the sense and seat of, 118.

very acute in the horse, 118.

Soap, its use in veterinary practice, 400
Soda, the chloride of, its use m ulcers, 400.
Sole, the horny, description of, 285.

— descent of, 285.

— proper form of, 285.
management of, in shoeing.

286.

■ the sensible, 287.

Soles, felt or leather, their use, 319.
Solomon imported horses from Egypt, 4.
Sound, theory of, 78, 81.
Soundness, consists in there being no dis-
ease nor alteration of structure that does
or is likely to imi)air the usefulness of
the horse, 361. . i..

considered with reference to the

principal causes of unsoundness.
South American horse, description of the,
5, 8.

management ot tlie, 6.

method of harnessing it, 422.

Spanish horse, description of the, 20.

when introduced into England, Z^.

Spasmodic coUc, nature and treatment o^

Spavin, blood, nature and treatment of,
179, 268.

is unsoundness, 365.

bog, cause, nature and treatment

of, 179, 268.

bone, „ )) 269.
why not always accompanied

by lameness, 270.

is unsoundness, 365.

Spavined horses, the kind of work they are

capable of, 271.
Speed of the hsore producing rapid diminu-
tion of power, 417.
Speed, and time of labour the most advaOr
tageous proportion of, 424.

sacrifice of the horse in endeavounnK

to obtain, 425.

liMDlfiX.

4G9

Speedy-cut, account of, 245.
Sphenoid-bone, description of the, 74.
Spinahs dorsi muscle, description of the, 1 68
Spine, description of the, 16 i.
Spleen, description of the, 214.
Splenius muscle, description of the, 119,
154, 234.

Spleut-bones, description of the, 243.

Splint, nature and treatment of, 243, 244.

is unsoundness, 365.

Sprain of the back sinews, treatment of, 246.

sometimes requires

firing, 247.

any thickening re-
maining after, constitutes unsoundness
of, 365.

Spring steel-yard, the force of traction illus-
trated by, 405.

Springs to carriages, th»ory of their effect,
446,447,449.

— ^ with some modifications might be

adapted to the heaviest waggons, 447.

great advantages of, in rapid travel-
ling. 447.

grasshopper, description of, 447.

C, disadvantages of, 445, 447.

Stables, hot au<l foul, highly injurious, 346.

dark, occasional cause of inflam-
mation of the eye, 115.

hot and foul, frequent cause of in

flammation of the eye, 115.

■ hmgs, 345.

■ glanders, 125.

should be large compared with the

number of horses, 346.

the management of, too much neg-
lected by the owner of the horse, 3-17.

ceiling of, should be plastered, if

there is a loft above, 347.

should be so contrived that the

urine will run off, 348.

the stalls should not hare too much

(ifeclivity, 348.

should be sufficiently light, yet

without any glaring, colour, 349.

importance of coolness and cleanli-
ness in, 115, 125, 183.

infection of, removed by the chloride

of lime, 395.

Staggers, stomach, symptoms, cause, and
treatment of, 103.

generally fatal, 103.

producing bhndness, 104.

■ ' sometimes epidemic, 104.

mad, symptoms and treatment, 105.

Staling, profuse, cause and treatment of, 2 1 7

Stallion, description of the proper, for
breeding, 221.

Stamford, races first established at, 27.

Stanhopes, advantage of the construction of,
445.

Starch, useful in superpurgation, 400.
Stargazer, the, 156.

Steam-engine, comparison of the, with the
exertion of animal power on railways, 405.

— ^ ■ common roads, 407.

• calculation of the expense of, 407.

I Steam, small, little advantage in expense

over horse power, 408.
Steeple-hunt, description and censure of

the, 57.
Stifle, description of the, 262.

accidents and diseases of the, 265.

Sterno-maxillaris muscle, description of the,

119, 156, 234.
Sternum, or breast-bone, description of the,

169.

Stirrups, not used in South America, 7.

Stomach, description of the, 198.

very small in the horse, 190.

inflammation of the, 200.

pump, recommended, 103.

Stone in the bladder, symptoms and treat-
ment of, 218.

— kidney, „ 218

Stoppings, the best composition of, and
their great use, 400.

Straddlers, wheels so called, description of
440, 441.

objection to, 440.

ciu-ious method ot evading the law

concerning, 441.
Strain, imiform and constant in draught

bad consequences of, 4 1 7.
Strangles, symptoms and treatment of, 149

distinguished from glanders, 1 23.

the importance of blistering early

in, 123.

Strangury produced by blistering, 323.

treatment of, 323.

Strawberry horse, account of the, 376.
Stringhalt, nature of, 274.

is not unsoundness, 365.

Structure of the horse, importance of »

knowledge of, 65.
Stylo-maxillaris muscle, description of the,

119, 234.

Sublingual gland, description of the, 149.
Submaxillary glands, description of the, 148.

artery, description of the, 120.

Sub-scapiilo hyoideus muscle, description of
the, 119.

Suffolk punch, description of the, 39.

honesty and continuance of

the old breed, 39.

Sugar of lead, use of, 394.

Sullivan, the Irish whisperer, anecdotes of
his power over the horse, 333.

the younger did not inherit the

power of his father's, anecdote of this, 333.

Sulphate of copper, use of in veterinary
practice, 384.

iron, „ 394.

magnesia, „ 395.

zinc, „ 403.

Sulphur, an excellent alterative and ingre-
dient in all appHcutions for mange, 401.

Summering of the hunter, consideration of,
56.

Surfeit, description and treatment of, 378.

importance of bleeding in, 378.

Suspensory ligament, beautiful mechanism

of the, 250.
rupture of the, 252,

/

470

1J\DKX.

Suspensory musde of the eye, (Uiscription

of, the, 99.
Sweating blister, composition of, 387.
Swedish horse, description of the, '20.
Swelled legs, cause and treatment of, 276.
most frequently connected with

debility, 276.
Sweet-bread, description of the, 214.
Sweet spirit of nitre, a mild stimulant and

diuretic, 397.
Sybarite horses, anecdote of, 43.
Sympathetic nerve, description of the, 76.

Tail, anatomy of the, 328.

the setting on of the, a character of

breeding, 328.

Tapetum lucidum, beautiful colour and de-
sign of the, 9 1 .

Tar, its use in veterinary practice, 401.

Tares, a nutritive and healthy food, 3r)7.

Cartary horses, description of the, 8,18.

descent of, traced to the siege

of Azoph, 5.

Tarsee horse, description of the, 15.

Team, disadvantages of draught in, ex-
plained, 414.

their united power, not equal to the

calculation of so many horses, 414.

Tears, the secretion and nature of the, 86.

how conveyed to the nose, 87.

sometimes shed by the horse from

pain and grief, 86.

Teeth, description of the, as connected with
age, 137

^ - at birth, 137.

— 2 months, 137.

12 months, 138.

18 months, 139.

2 years, 140.

the front sometimes pushed out, that

the next pair may sooner appea-r, and the
horse seem to be older than he is, 141.

. 3 years, 141.

3^' years, 141.

. 4 years, 142.

4J years, 142

5 years, 143.

. 6 years, 143.

7 years, 144.

. . 8 years, 144.

. change of the, 140.

— enamel of the, 138

irregular, inconvenience and dan-
ger of, 146.

. mark of the, 138.
• frauds practised with regard to the.

140.

diseases of the, 147.

Thick -wind, nature and treatment cf. lyd.

often found in round chested

Temper denoted by the eye, 84.

by the ear, 77.

Temperature, Budden change of, injunous

(fleet of, 345. ,,, 70

Temporal bones, description ot the, /w.
Tendons of the leg, the, should be distinct

*nd far from the shank bone, 245.
Tetanus, sympt-ms, ca ises and treatment
of, 107.

horses, 193.
Thigh and haunch bones, advantage of the ,

oblique direction of the, 257.
lower bone of the, description oi

the, 263.

and muscular, 265.
263.

- should be long

- muscles of the,

- upper bone of

- muscles of the

outside, 260.
mechanical cal-
culation of their power, 261.

• the horse should be wider at it than

the, description of, 257.
inside of the,259.

at the haunch, 262.
Thirst, strange effect of, on horses, 8.
Thorough-bred horses, the quality of hasi

not degenerated, 49.
Thorough-pin, nature and treatment of,

265.

constitutes unsoundness, 366.

Thrush, nature and treatment of, 309.

the consequence, rather than the

cause of contraction, 295.

its serious nature and consequences

not sufficiently considered, 308.
• constitutes unsoundness, 366.

Thyroid cartilage of the wind-pipe, descrip-
tion of the, 1 60.
Tied in below the knee, nature and disad-
vantage of, 52, 245.
Tips, description and use of, 318.
Toe, bleeding at the, described. 181.
Tongue, anatomy of the, 147.

diseases of it, 147.

bladders along the underpart of it,

147.

Tonics, an account of the best, 401.
their use and danger in veterinary

practice, 401.
Toorkoman horse, description of, 17.
Toorky horse, description of the, 15.
Towing, power of the horse, how diminished

in, 414.

Traces, the direction of them, very impor-
tant in draught, 417.

proper angle of the, 419, 424.

the proper inclination of them, de-
pending on the kind of horse and the
road, 419, 424.

the, shovild be inclined downward

on rough roads, 420.

• inclined downward, the same as

throwing a part of the weight on Uie
shafts, 420.

■ direction of them, rarely attended

to, 221.

• the manner of affixing them in

South America, 422.
Track, importance of both wheels runninj;

in the same, 441.
Traction, the force of, explained, 404.

INDEX.

Traction, the force of, illustrated by ri\-

ference to the spring steel-yards, 405.
the, proper line of, very important

in draught, 417.
Training, principles of, 53.
Transversalis costarum muscle, description

of the, 232.
Trapezius muscle, description of the, 232.

bone, description of the, 241, 245.

Travelling, different rate of, at different

times, 35.
Tread, nature and treatment of, 301.
often producing sandcrack or

quittor, 301.
Tredgold, Mr., his comparison of moving

power in draught, 406.
Trevi.s, description of the, 320.
Triceps femoris muscle, description of the,

261.

Tripping, an annoying and inveterate habit,
344.

Trochanter of the thigh, description of the,
258.

importance of the,

261.

Trotting, action of the horse, during, 413.

position of the limbs in unfaith-
fully represented in the Elgin marbles,
and the church of St. Mark, 412.

Turbinated bones, description of the, 117.

Turkish horse, description of the, 19.

Turnips considered as an articleof food, 358.

Turpentine, the best diuretic, 216.

oil of, an excellent medicine in

sp-israodic colic, 206.

a useful ingredient in many oint-
ments, 401.

Tushes, description of the, 142, 145.

Twitch, description of the, 321.

Ukraine, horses of the, description of, 5.
Ulcers in the mouth, treatment of, 151
Ulna, description of the, 2.36.
Unguicnlata, a tribe of animals, 62.
Ungiilata, a tribe of animals, 62.
Unsoundness, contraction does not always
cause it, 293.

being discovered, the animal should

be tendered, 367.

the

tender or return not
legally necessary, 367.

— ; the horse may be returned

and action brought for depreciation in
value, but this not advisable, 367.

~ horse returned for. must

be a.s valuable as before in every other
respect, 367.

' medical means may be

adopted to cure the horse, 367.

~~ they are, however,

better declmed, lest in an unfortunate
issue of the case they should be misrepre-
sented, 367.

Unsteadiness whilft mounting, remedy for
337.

Utero-);egtation, the period of 222.

Vastus muscle, description of the, 258.
Vatican, the obeUsk in the, curious method

of moving it, 431.
Vehicles of draught, comparison of the best

424.

Veins, description of the, 178.

— of the arm, description, &c. 260

of the neck „ 157.

of the face „ 1 1 9.

of the shoulder „ 260.

inside of the thigh „ 257.

of the outside of ttie thigh 260.

inflammation of the, treatment of,

158.

Verdigris, an uncertain mediciae, when

given internally, 389.

a mild caustic, 389.

Verfebrated animals, what, 61.
Vices of horses, account of the, 330.
Vicious to clean, a bad habit that may be

conquered, 338.
to shoe, ii bad habit that may also

be conquered, 338.
Vinegar, its use in veterinary practice, 402.
Vision, theory of, 96.

Vitreous humour of the eve, account of the,
95.

Vitriol, blue, use of, in veterinary practice,

389.

green
• white

3'i4
4C2

Waggon horse, the, 41.

Waggons, inferior horses may be used in

them, compared with carts, 443.
horses drawing, not so fatigued as

in carts, 443.
■ require fewer drivers, and are not

so liable to accidents, 443.
witli inferior roads and ordinary

horses preferable to carts, 444.
with large front wheels, advantage

of, 443. ^

■ particularly with two horses

abre6.st, 444.
reason why they have more draught

than two-wheeled carls, 445.
Walking, movement of the legs m, 412.

different when drawing a load, 412.

Wall-eyed horses, what, 93.

whether they become blind, 93.

War horse, description of the ancient, 24.

Warbles, treatment of, 109.

Warranted, the word extends only to soimd-

ness, 366.
Warranty, the form of a, 366.

breach of, how established, 366.

no price will imply it, 366.

when there is none, the action must

be brought on ground of fraud, 368.
Warts, method of getting rid of, 381.
Washing of the heels, productive of grease

279.

Washy horses, description and treatment
of, 2iO.

Water generally given too sparingly, 360.
management of on a journey, 361

472

INDKX.

Water, the difference in effect, between hard

and soft, 359.
, spring, principally injurious on ac-
count of its coldness, 360.

iu the internal part of the ear, use

of, 82.

stomach of the horse, the, 204

favcv, nature and treatment of, I J I.

conveyance, singular smalhiess of

P!!!^!!r^t&ic'-to, increases wUh

_the_s,u_a.ofth^^^^^^^^

" creases as the cube of the velocity, 425.
Water dropwort, poisonous, -iUU

hemlock, poisonous, IW).

. parsley, poisonous, 200

Wax used in charges and plas ers, 40A
Weakness of the foot, what, 31 0_
Weaving indicating an irritable temper,

and no cure for it, 345.
Weight, calculation of the power ot the
horse to overcome, 38.

Wellesley Arabian, account of the, 11, 4».

Welsh ponev description of the. as.

Wheat consfdered as food for the horse 35.5.

inconvenience and danger of it,3j&.

Wheels, the principle on which they act
explained, 431, 433, 446.

L effect of increasing the diameter of

Jl!!L*n J record of the time of their inven-

. tion, 432. .„„
. spoked, known to Homer, 432.
- little improvement of the prmciple

Wheels, straddlers, description of, and theil
effect, 441. ^. ^
proper breadth of, in proportion to

the load, 441. , . r ...

James's patent, description ol,441

. with cast iron naves, 442.

size of, 442. 446.

advantage of large front ones, 44iJ.

should have a very slight convexity

of. ftom the earliest times, 433

principle of, on a level surface, 433
theory of the degree of friction at-

tendine them, 433, 446.

."fiction of on the axle, dependent

■ 1 A^A

of,

-l^dishing of, described 436_

advantages of, 4J7, 44/.

in the centre, 447.

should have the spokes so arranged

as to present themselves against the
greatest force, 447.
Wheezer, description of the, 196.
Whipping sound, cruelty of, 37.
Whisperer, the, anecdotes of his power over

the horse, 832.
Whistler, description of the, 196.
is unsound, 362.

White Turk, the, account nf, 28.
White lead, use of, 394.

vitriol, its use in veterinary prao^

^ iricnuii .

on the material employed, 4.i4.

. consideration of the various forms

'. conical and flat, calculation between

the effects of, 403, 437.
JZ. obliquely placed, ill consequences

_!i^^narrow and broad, comparison be-

j!!!!';onTcal, strange degree of friction
and^raggmg^^^^^^^^^^

" cvlindrical, the best form, 440, 446.

I— description of, and proper

*^!it?nd!luld follow the precise back
l^^lSi'?o their effect on the
load, 440, 416.

tice,402.

Wild horse, description of the, 5, 1 I .
William the Conqueror, improvement et-

fected in the English horse by him, <J4.
Wind broken, nature and treatment ot,

194

L galls, description and treatment of,

248, 255. , ^.
L unsoundnesswhen they cause

lameness, or are likely to do so 366.
Windpipe, description of the, isa, 40.
1 the, should be prominent and loose,

159.

opening the, 1 62.

Wind-sucking, nature of, and remedy for,

thick nature and treatment of, 193.

Wiring-in of the heels, nature and treat-
ment of, 293.

Withers, description of the, 54, ibo.

high, advantage ot, lb7.

. fistulous, treatment ot, IbS.

Wolves teeth, what, 140. .

Work of the horse, should not exceed six
hours per diem, 41 J. .

Worms, different kinds, and treatment of,

210

Wounds in the feet, treatment of, 303.
. ,n the mouth, treatment of, 151.

Yellows, symptoms and treatment of the,
213.

Yew, the leaves of poisonous, 200.
t ielding resistance, the effect of m neutra
lizing impetus, 414.

Zoological classification of the horse, 61.
Zygomatic arch, reason of the strong con

stniction of the, 71. r
Zygomaticus muscle, description of the

119.

A VPE.VDIX

APPENDIX

THE HORSE,

AS PUBLISHED BY THE

! SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.
DESIGNED TO ADVANCE THE WORK

TO

ITHE PEESENT STATE OF VETERINARY SCIENCE.

BY

W. C. SPOONER, M.R.V.C.

LONDON:— ROBERT BALDWIN,
PATERNOSTER ROW.

1849,

LONDON :

GEOBGE WOODFALL AND SON,

ANGBL COUKT, SKINNBR 8TRBBT.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Prefatory Remarks .

A ^79
. il6

Diseases of the Brain, Megritiis

475

Apoplexy ...

. abiQ.

Staggers, &c. . .

. 476

Tetanus . . ...

. 477

Epilepsy ....

. ibid.

xaisy .....

•1.* J

. ibid.

Babies, or Madness . . ,

. 478

Neurotomy ....

. ibid.

Common Inflammation of the Eye

. 479

Speciiic Ophthalmia . ,

. 480

Cataract ....

. 481

witter berena ....

. ibid.

Nasal Gleet ....

. ibid.

Polypus ....

CS.'\ rt-TY A

Wanaers ....

. 483

tarcy .....

. 485

T

iiampas .....

. ibid.

The Teeth ....

486,487

Wolves' Teeth

. 487

Diseases of the Teeth

. ibid.

Tongue .

. 488

Strangles ....

. ibid.

PoUEvil ....

. 489

Star (Jazers and Ewe-necked .

. 490

Inflammation of the Vein

. ibid.

Roaring

. 491

Form of the Chest .

. ibid.

Chest Founder, Anticor .

. 492

The Pulse ....

. ibid.

Fever .....

. ibid.

Bog and Blood Spavin .

. 493

Bleeding ....

. ibid.

Inflammation of the Lungs

. 494

Catarrh

. 495

PAGE

X)IUii(.>IJlllS • • * •

vydlaiiUcli fUVcX^ XllU-UcllZci •

. iUlU.

too.

KrnVpn W in/I T?rtnT*inff

XJL'iJPk.dX TV lliUj XbUctXlUlf • •

. luiu.

.1 uc x/icLUiiitty lii * • •

kjUttolllUUlU V^Ull^Il ( ■ •

Colic

500 501

Inflammation of the Bowels

. 601

Physicking . . . .

. 602

. iUlU.

Inflammation of the Liver

. 503

•TminnlPA

vuUliUlLfC . . . .

• lUiU.

jLiiiictiuiiiatioii oi luc ixianeys .

UlalJClCa . . . .

. loia.

xiinauiinaLion oi me JDxaauer .

• loia.

cutting tor tne btone .

Castration . . . .

• iDia.

Sprain of the Shoulder . .

. ibm.

Broken Knees

. ibid.

Splints . . . . .

. 606

The Leg

. ibid.

Strains of the Flexor Sinews ,

. 507

Windgalls . . . .

. 508

Grogginess . . . .

. ibid.

Cutting . , . . .

. ibid.

Strain of the Coffin Joint .

. ibid.

Ringbone . . . .

. ibid.

Strain of the Round Bone

. 609

Stifle Lameness

. ibid.

Dislocation of the Patella

. 510

Thorough-Pins

. ibid.

Curbs . . . . .

. ibid.

Bog Spavin ....

. 611

Bone Spavin . . . .

. ibid.

Capped Hock ....

. 612

iv

CONTENTS.

PAOK

PAO£

Greese ....

. 612

Roaring, Wheezing, &c. .

. 623

Acute Founder .

. . ibid.

Crib-biting

. 524

Pumiced Feet .

. 513

Curb ....

. ibid.

Contraction

. ibid.

Cutting ....

. ibid.

NavicularyToint Disease .

. ibid.

Enlarged Hock .

. 525

bandcrack ,

K1 Q

The Eyes

. . ibid.

Quitter ....

. ibid.

Blood Spavin . . .

. 526

Shoeing ....

. 519

Splent ....

. ibid.

Operations

. 520

Thickening of the Sinews

, ibid.

Blistering . . •

. 521

Thrush ....

. ibid.

Firing ....

Soundness

. ibid.

Setons ....

, . iDia.

Pores of the Skin

. 627

Vicious to Clean

. ibid.

Moulting .

. ibid.

Shoe

. ibid.

Colour ....

. 528

Not Lying Down

. ibid.

Mange ....

. 529

Shying ....

. 523

Medicines

. ibid.

Soundness

. ibid.

APPENDIX;

DESIGNED TO ADVANCE THE WORK TO THE PRESENT

STATE OF VETERINARY SCIENCE.

PREFATORY REMARKS.

The extensive sale which this work has received during the eighteen
; years it has been before the public, affords the best possible evidence of
1 the liigh estimation in which it has been held. The interest that is
; always attached to the subject of the work, the easy and familiar style
i in which it is written, the agreeable manner in which important truths
I have been impressed, dry subjects relieved, and good principles incul-
; cated, are nnerits which sufficiently account for its popularity. While,
! however, the history of the horse remains the same, and there is but
I little to be added to our previous knowledge of his anatomical structure,
: the science which relates to the diseases of the animal has not stood still.
'. Many minds have been devoted to the subject, old experiments have
I been repeated and new ones tried, principles have been tested, and truths,
( or what were considered as such, have been re-examined, so that it is
1 hard if, with all this, some improvement has not been made. It is with

• this view of the matter that we have limited our Supplement to the
r more practical part of the work, that relating to Pathology : by so doing

• we have brought it up to the present state of Veterinary science, and,
we trust, enhanced its value in no trifling degree, so far as utility is

c concerned. We could readily have enlarged the Appendix by extending
( our observations to the other portions of the work, but at the risk of
I distracting the attention of the reader without adding to the real value
c of our labours.

We have spoken of the merits and attractions of the work — we may
also notice its errors. In the wish to render the subject clear and
s simple, the author has occasionally overstepped the mark, and repre-
ssented things as far easier than actual experience will justify; and he has
s also spoken of many diseases as if the reader, with the superficial
' knowledge books alone are capable of imparting, were competent to treat
them. It is a trite saying, that a man who defends his own case has a

2 I

474 THE HORSE.— APPENDIX.

fool for his counsel. We doubt very much whether he has a much
better claim for wisdom when he attempts to treat the diseases of his
own horses. Bad, however, as this practice is, it is infinitely preferable,
to that of employing an ignoramus, as is too frequently the case ; a
man, perhaps, totally ignorant of the principles of medicine, the anatomy
of the animal, or the very rudiments of science. The information
afforded by this work will enable the owner of horses to discriminate
between the man of science and the mere empiric.

The writer, in the course of many years' experience in his profession,
has found almost invariably that the man who has had the greatest
experience of horses is most diffident of his own knowledge as to the
diseases of the animal. He has now in his eye three individuals, one a
trainer of race-horses, another a large coach proprietor, and the third
an extensive dealer in horses, each highly respectable and well-informed
in his respective department, and each possessing an experience of
some twenty-five to thirty years, and yet neither of them would pre-
sume to treat a horse labouring under disease, or trust to his own
judgment in the matter. Yet, during the period of his acquaintanceship
with them, the writer has met with many a young gentleman or pseudo-
sportsman in his first scarlet coat— many a shopkeeper fresh from the
counter— and many a groom whose experience has never extended
beyond some twenty horses, who have not hesitated to give their opinions
on the diseases of horses with the utmost confidence, or to pit their
judgment against that of the regularly educated veterinary surgeon. It
' is a point of honour with many shallow-brained individuals never to
acknowledge their ignorance of any matters relating to the horse,
regarding with the utmost asperity any impugning of their knowledge of
horse-fle°sh. Such gentlemen (when they are gentlemen) afford very
excellent prey for horse-chaunters and low dealers, to whose company,
indeed, they are extremely partial. They would seem to illustrate the
adage, that "a little knowledge was a dangerous thing;" but m our
opinion it is not the little knowledge which is so dangerous, but the
small modicum of judgment with which such knowledge is too frequently
applied.

To return, however, to our subject, it is hoped that the many thousand
purchasers of "The Horse" may find in the present Supplement the
means of rendering the work complete; so that, to speak medicinally,
by the transfusion of a little fresh blood, new vigour may be miparted
into the frame of the old Horse ; and that, instead of being laid entirely
on the shelf, or confined permanently to his box, we may find that he has
still a new race to run.

APPENDIX.

(1.) PAGE 101. — Diseases of the Brain. — Megrims, &c.

Horses are not particularly liable to diseases of the brain ; far less
so than the human subject, in whom a formidable batch of maladies, de-
nominated mental diseases, are met with. Disease of the brain is oftener
found in sheep, and carries off annually a considerable per centa^e of
tliese animals. One of the most common affections of the brain in the
horse is the Megrims, which has been treated of in the text. It is sup-
posed to arise from sudden determination of blood to the head. It is
certainly the case that this disease is most prevalent in the spring, and
amongst fat plethoric subjects; and therefore we may justly conclude
that a determination of blood to the brain is the cause in many instances.
There are- others, however, in which the symptoms border on epilepsy,
and appear to arise from disordered functions of the brain. Young
horses are rarely affected with these cephalic diseases, which are gene-
rally confined to old subjects. Small animals are more subject to these
complamts than large ones, and we have found that neither heavy cart
nor thorough-bred horses are so liable as others. Such is the susceptil
bihty sometimes, that any sudden alarm will cause the animal to reel and
fall backwards.

We have known some horses more liable to this disease in very cold
-frosty weather ; in such instances the symptoms have been those of gid-
diness, without the severity of ordinary megrims ; the animal has reeled,
however, like a drunken man, and been extremely dangerous both to
ride and drive. We have known an old horse thus continue almost
useless throughout the winter, and gradually shake off the disease as
warm weather came on. Now, it must be evident that the excitintr causes
in such instances must be altogether different from that of m-dinary
megrims; and, whilst the bleeding and purging are very proper, as re-
commended m the text for ordinary megrims, arising from plethora, it is
not to be advised for that variety of disease to which we have called
attention, and which is rather to be benefited by warmth, good grooming
and tonic medicine. ' & 6 '"s>.

(2.) PAGE 102. — Apoplexy.

Horses can scarcely be said to be liable to Apoplexy, as it exists in
tlie liuman subject, although we have known death produced almost sud-
denly, m which it has been found that there has been a rupture of some
small vessels on the brain. A case in point occurs to our recollection
A young mare, in plethoric condition, was working in a field with some
cart horses, when suddenly she started off, galloped furiously round the
held several times, then fell, and died almost immediately. On examining
the body, no disease could be detected, but a small blood-vessel had run
tured, and about half a tea-spoonful of coagulated blood was found on the

2 I 2

THE HORSE.— APPENDIX.

medulla ohlongata, thus pressing on the origin of some of the most

'TirtLTerception. and that of megrims before spoken of. we know,
of no disease resembling the apoplexy of the human subject.

(3.) PAGE 105.

1 f« tTin<,P diseases which come under the denomination of
J,X'^:LlVc^^^^^^^ varieties, though neither of them are
so prevalent *f J^^^^^tflammation of the brain, and is cha-
'I'fv those symptoms of extreme violence spoken of in the text,
ractensed hy those sympioms sleenv stage, or may occur

These sLIg^t a' itLe? .o ITcallel one of L n,ost

Without It. Jn Sleepy hidgg . ^ forwards, and it is

,„iking symptoms ,s ^j-/-^^;, *™:Ln .his ,viU be done. Thus
surprising with what lorce au certainly
resting his head the horse will -^^^^^f^^J^^Sne wUch has been denom-
two diseases presenting these «y«^P*°^^_„\^^^' viscus with food,
inated stomach staggers ^^^^^/f^'f and the brain, that distention
Such is the sympathy between the ' „ ^^at when the brain

of the former will Vr^^-^^^^'g^^^^^ the dark as to

:b=d!i^=^thr^om:;i:^^^
rSuf:;::rrl«=nre:^^ w is at

.once the cause of an the other sym^^ particularly
Stomach staggers used former y to be | « Y P i^^^^ ^j^^

amongst farm horses, and could ^re t^Jn at present of continuing the
practice which then Prevailed far ore at pre ^^^^^

horses at plough from ^^''^ "f

then allowing them to gorge t^^^l^J^^^r^";'^^^^ this disease there is

with dry and comparatively '"f S^f ^^J^^/^^^^ the pulse is slow and
a very great disposition to the bowels costive,

oppressed, and the abdomen gen^^^^^^^^^^

Ik the dung usually ^l^-^y- ./^^^.^.roTrhe stomach and the sleepy
cipal distinction between th^ ^ pHmarily a disease of the brain. In
staggers, as it is called, which pnrn y uncommon, there is

this latter complamt however, ^j^^^^VLad and the abdomen is by no
less disposition to thrust forward tj^f/^^^^^^^^^^^^^ prevailing very much
„,eans distended. This ^-ease is often endj ca^ p^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^
,n particular localities ^r. W' ^tc pe^ own neighbour-

years ago; and I have i^""^'"'; " neglected, and where the land was
Lod, where the cattle .^^^ p^'^y and the wild chamomile

xnuch infested wuh weeds such as th^^^^^^^ ^To these deleterious plants I
or ,norga« as ^t/^ PJ^^^^^^^^^ several young horses,

am disposed ^""7^^, ^.f^^ ' i^^ated fatally, the animals becoming by
and gradually and slowb^ cases whiS. came under my care I suc-

Srire"rcu^: P-cipally by means of tonic medicine, altei-

nated with mecurial alteratives. , succeeded by mad staggers or

Sleepy staggers t^ sometimes ^u^aen ^ ^^^^.^^^ sufficiently de-
inflammation of ^l^^brain ; the ymp^ ^.^^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^

S^^:^ tt^;— IT^:^^^^ considei^ble modiflcation.

TETANUS— EPILEPSY— PALSY.

477

Mad staggers, the symptoms of which are so extremely violent, must
be met by the active bleedings and purgatives recommended in the text.

I would not, however, recommend the same active blood-letting for
the stomach or the sleepy staggers, as in these diseases there appears a
want of that nervous energy and excitation which abounds so much in
the mad staggers, and which blood-letting is calculated to depress. In
the stomach disease, oily purgatives and clysters, assisted by plenty of
diluents, are called for ; and, in those cases where lethargy and debility are
present, tonics and mild stimulants are to be recommended.

I have never observed any connection to exist between staggers and
amaurosis ; the latter, it is true, may be caused by indigestion, but I
have never met with an instance of its being produced by staggers.

(4.) PAGE 105. — Tetanus.

We have little or nothing to add to the lucid description of this dread-
ful disease, as it appears in the text ; and we are sorry to add that the
progress of science will afford us little additional assistance in our cu-
rative measures. Successful treatment is principally confined to those
cases in which the spasm is not universal, but confined to one part, as
the neck or jaw, when it is denominated trismus. Purgatives, opiates, and
antimonials, form, with blood-letting, the principal curative measures; but
it should be borne in mind that, beyond all these, perfect quietude, and
the absence of all excitement, is most essential. The animal should
therefore be left alone as much as possible, without being harassed by
frequent visits, and the exhibition of medicines.

(5.) PAGE 108. — Epilepsy.

These cases, which border on megrims, may be referred to our notes
on this disease.

(6.) PAGE 108.— Palsy.

Hemiplegia, or palsy of one side of the body, is extremely rare in the
horse. Palsy of the hind extremities, or paraphlegia, is that most
usually found. We have never experienced a case of its following in-
flammation of the bowels or the sudden cessation of purging ; but it
usually proceeds from an external injury, such as a fall or slip on the
pavement, or from casting. In these cases, the spine is usually fractured,
and presses on the spinal cord, or a blood-vessel is ruptured, and the
blood effused on this important part. In such instances as these it is
useless to attempt a cure, but the animal should be relieved from his
sufferings as soon as possible. In other instances there may not be an
actual fracture, but the spine may still be considerably injured, and then
the animal becomes, as it is termed, chinked in the back, losing the capa-
bility of backing and much of the strength of the loins. There are
various degrees in these cases, some horses being perfectly useless, and
others capable of a tolerable amount of work. I have known singular
results, such as a horse being capable of carrying a rider, but going as
it were disunited, trotting with his fore legs, and cantering with his hind
ones. When the spine has been thus injured, the horse always flinches
when pressed on the loins, and also when mounted. Old horses are
much more subject to these spinal injuries than younger ones, in con-
sequence of the back being frequently anchylosed ; that is, the bones of

THE HORSE.— APPENDIX.

the spine being united by ossific matter, flexibility is destroyed leaving
no means of wl'ding off concussion. When the back has been fractured
L casting, it has usually been found that the spme had been previously

"wrrSriV'the 'treatment of these cases moderate bleeding and
pu™g "¥ desJable, with the apph cation of fresh sheep-sku.s to the
loins, and followed by blisters and charges.

(7.) PAGE 109.— Rabies, or Madness.

Tt is onlv necessary to observe on this subject that in the horse,
It IS only necessary . manifested a considerable dread

trying vain and fruitless experiments.

(8.) PAGE 110. — Neurotomy.

viceable. Ine opeiation nds sui. hav ng afterwards

been pei;fornied on -P-P" ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ L a weak, flat, or

teen unduly -[^^'^^f -^/^t J^^l^^^^eus ion, pricks from shoeing, and
convex foot, as the clanger , increased by the operation in

other injuries, is great, and is st.ll ^ "^^^^J^^^^-g^.^es of the fetlock
question. It also should not be ^^{^^l^'^J^^^^^,^ in the former
joint, nor when the feet f '^'^S ^ f^^^^^'exte^d a^^^ the seat

tase, the inflammation of the fetlock wil ^ ^he dispo-

of operation on the renewal of work; ^"'l' ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ boldly on

sitioS to expansion will be -.g^l^^, 7;^,;^, ^ ^I'ssu^^ soft parts

his heels, that inflammation will result f on ^^^ Y^^'^^^^.^^^j.^tion will be
■ against the horny crust, and •g^"^'^"^^!"'^-!^^'°;° "hose where the
likely to follow. The best cases for the ^P^^^ J°ia be worked

foot is strong and but little contracted J/^'^^'J^^r a steady trot,

moderately and steadily afterwards eithex -^^^^^^^^^^^ , leap, the
He should not be used hunting " ^ ^,bich it often

diseased sinew, m passing ove the navicuiai uo ^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^

becomes morbidly ^^ited sometimes ^-P/ ^^^^^.^^ ...^u „ot be
is rendered useless. Fo '"^^^'^IT^^^^ happen from playfulness,
turned out to grass, as the same lesu > 1 1 ^^^^^^ i^^rsc

A result which s7^,^!""^^^^;"'^^ove rTach o^^^^^^ I'is hind shoes against
has been Previously d.spo ed to oveirea^^^ .^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^

his fore ones, this f P° fj^" of the way of the hind leg so

NEUROTOMY— COMMON INFLAMMATION OF THE EYE. 479

destroy him, under the idea that he would never be of any service. A
case somewhat similar came under my own notice some three years since ;
a fine chesnut horse belonging to the writer's brother, a surgeon, was ope-
rated on for navicular disease of two years' standing, attended with
severe lameness. The horse had been rather disposed to clack previously,
when trotted on the turf, and on driving him a few miles a month
after the operation, his heel was covered with blood, and large wounds
were made by the shoe of the hind foot. Some leather was riveted to
the heels of the shoe, so as to afford protection to the heel ; but on send-
ing the horse home a distance of forty miles, being ridden too fast by
the groom, the leather was cut through, and the heel again dreadfully
lacerated, and the leg so battered and injured, that a considerable enlarge-
ment took place, and the horse promised to become completely useless.
However, conceiving that much of this mischief was produced by the
weakness of the animal, from being thrown out of work and condition at
the moulting season, I recommended fomentation and other cooling mea-
sures, which were continued until the inflammation was abated, and the
wounds healed. After this, the horse was gradually got into condition
by means of walking exercise, good grooming, and proper feeding; and
the sequel is that he has been in constant work in harness, and with the
saddle, for upwards of three years. I mention the case as there is none
similar on record except that previously alluded to j and also to show that
a horse need not be abandoned, even though overreaching may occur after
the operation. Neurotomy is usually performed a few inches above the
fetlock joint. Some novices have performed it midway between the
fetlock joint and the knee, and been much surprised to find that the
lameness still continued, which wds owing to the fact that the outer
metacarpal nerve sends off a branch which passes obliquely over the
back sinews, and joins the other several inches lower down ; so that the
section is made on one side below the place where the branch nerve
leaves, and on the other above the spot where it joins the nerve; thus
-feeling is readily kept up by means of this branch nerve. Sometimes
the operation is performed below, or immediately upon, the fetlock joint;
the effect of which is, that feeling is preserved to the front of the
foot by means of two small branch nerves which are given off above the
fetlock joint, whilst the navicular joint is deprived of all feeling. This
would be a very desirable mode of performing the operation, were it
always successful; but it often happens that, after some time, lameness
again follows from the mischief extending itself within the sphere of the
nerves that remain. In some instances, however, where the disease is
entirely confined within the navicular joint, the horse has continued
sound, and still preserved a certain degree of feeling. Another mode of
operating is, to excise the nerve on the inside above the fetlock, and,
on the outside, upon it; by which means a slight degree of feeling is
preserved on the outside and front of the foot, and there is no danger of
injury from cutting, which is the case when the operation is performed
immediately on the fetlock joint on both sides of the leg.

(9.) PAGE 112. — Common Inflammation of the Eye.

Unless this disease is connected with influenza, or some other malady
affecting the whole system, it is usually produced by external violence,
and, in nine cases out often, it is possible to distinguish between it and
specific ophthalmia. When inflammation of the eye is caused by a blow.

m THE HORSE.— APPENDIX.

there is, in addition to swelling of the lids, and a large effusion of tears,
a considerable dimness or opacity on the surface of the eye, whilst at the
same time the. interior is comparatively free from disease. In specific-
ophthalmia, there is a greater amount of disease in the interior of the
eye, and little, if any, opacity of the cornea.

When inflammation of the eye is connected with influenza, there is
much swelling of the lids, and a great flow of tears, whilst the eye itself
is tolerably free from injury; and, when it proceeds from a cold, there is
usually a thick matter, or mucus, discharged from the corners of the
eye after the first day or two. A cut from a whip generally leaves a
streak on the surface of the eye (unless the injury is sufficient to involve
the whole surface), and this streak sometimes becomes permanent.

(10.) PAGE 113. — Specific Ophthalmia.

Althouo-h the more serious disorders of the eye are usually included
under the above designation, and although the result is more frequently
unfavourable than otherwise, yet there are several varieties of disease
affecting different parts of the eye, varying also both m the rapidity and
virulence of the attack, and equally so with regard to the ulterior and
permanent injury inflicted. .

I have known total blindness succeed a single attack of ophthalmia in
one case, and in another, eight years and upwards has elapsed between
the first attack of inflammation and the ultimate loss of vision. Ihese dif-
ferent results depend principally on the particular part attacked. Thus,
if the iris is affected, we have a considerable amount of irritability, the
greatest susceptibility to light, and yet, at the same time, the general
inflammation is but moderate. In such instances it is usually a long time
before the siMit is entirely lost ; and we have known the result to be,
that the iris has appeared as if torn, and thus it has remained, the eye
still possessing a certain amount of vision, and contmumg free from sub-
sequent attacks. Such cases, hovvever, are rare. It is very desirable
to be able to prognosticate, in a case where one eye loses its vision,
whether there is a probability of the other retaining it or not. In the
majority of cases both eyes become affected, though not in the same
degree, nor at the same time; and when each eye has had several attacks,
the probability is, that the animal will become totally blind. Where,
however, one eye only has been affected, and in that, after the first or
second attack, a complete cataract has occurred, there is then every
probability that the other eye will continue unimpaired. Sometimes the
liumours of the eye, or rather the membranes which secrete them, are
the seats of disease, and then the disorganization of the eye is very great,
as well as rapid, although the irritability of the eye during the attack
mav not appear to be considerable. In such cases, a thick bloody fluid
takes the place of the transparent liquid previously existing, and the
whole appears after a while as one mass of disease, of a muddy brown
colour. In some instances the envelopments give way, and the eye
shrinks and becomes a very unsightly object.

With reeard to the causes of these diseases, we agree with the author
in ascribing much to the ammoniacal fumes vvhich escape from the urine,
lo which we would add high stimulating food and great exertion in har-
ness We believe, also, that improved stabling and better ventilation
Ta lessened the frequency of these ocular cases. Horses with small ing
ey s are much more^iablJ to ophthalmia than those with large prom.-

CATARACT— GUTTA SERENA— NASAL GLEET. 481

nent eyes ; and thus, as the former are more frequently found with horses
deficient in breeding, it may account for the opinion which is popularly
entertained, that black horses are more liable to blindness than others
these horses being generally deficient in breeding. '

With regard to the treatment of these diseases, we have little to add to
that detailed in the text. Inflammation is the leading feature in all and
therefore should be met by active antiphlogistic treatment. An active
dose of physic should be given, as soon as the horse is prepared, by
mashes ; and, in the meantime, three or four quarts of blood should be
taken from the neck, on the same side as tlie affected eye. The eyelids
should also be scarified, then well fomented with warm water ; after which
we have derived great assistance from putting linseed poultices, in linen
bags, onAhe eyes, by means of leather blinds. These should be con-
tinued during the day, and may serve as the vehicle for the application
of opiate or goulard lotions, which, applied in the usual way, are but
of httle service. By this prompt and active treatment a great deal
of good can be accomplished, and the loss of sight may be greatly post-
poned. It is useless to attempt half measures; we should either treat
actively or not at all. After the violence of the inflammation has sub-
sided, much benefit may be obtained by putting a few drops of the wine
ol opium into the eye twice a day.

Cataract.

Cataract may be either partial or complete ; and again, it may either
succeed the violent disease before spoken of, or it may gradually come
on with very httle previous inflammation. It admits also of another im-
portant division. It may be either a cataract of the lens itself, or merely
of the membrane which covers it. The latter may come on without any
noticeable inflammation; appearing as one or two small specks in the
centre of the eye, about the size of a pin's head. It is very important to
distinguish between these diflTerent kinds of cataracts, inasmuch as. whilst
InvlT"' \%'"-^™able, the latter is very frequently absorbed without
any external treatment Whilst the former is often pearly white, and
completely opaque so far as it exists, the latter is gray and less opaque.
It requires a considerable amount of tact, as well as experience, to dis-
cover these small incipient cataracts, and to discriminate between the
one Kind and the other.

(11.) PAGE 116.— GuTTA Serena.
This disease is sometimes connected with diseased liver, particularly

otl e?'" A,?H IT' f ^^'■"'^"^^^ "^^y ^'"^^ f-'" onreye to thi
of treatnfl. " disease is generally but little under the influence

treatment 1,' ^- ^ ^et With successful cases in young animals. The

(12.) page 121.— Nasal Gleet.

de8iril!,t'^'''!i"^^y ^^'^^ "'"^^^l discharge is ever so profuse as that
or aU^T. ^^^^ ""^^'^ produced by strangles or severe catarrh

di^f^«P fl""" ^'""'^y- ""^^"^ connected with other active

free from smell ' T ' ^''^ '"^ "'"^'J^ °^ ^ ^'-^^

iree irom smell, and seems to arise from a relaxation of the secreting

482

THE HORSE.— APPENDIX.

membrane of the nostrils. It should be treated by tonics internally,
assisted by good feeding and grooming.

When a nasal gleet is attended with much offensive smell, we may
rest assured that it is not glanders, but that it either arises from external
injury, or may be justly included under the designation Ozena.

This is a rare disease in a horse, and is generally produced by catarrh,
particularly that of the epidemic kind. The discharge is usually thick,
considerable, and very offensive ; and the ulcers may readily be detected
on the surface of the membrane, and are sometimes numerous and deep,
involving the cartilage under the membrane. The treatment should
consist of tonics, internally and externally, fumigations of chlorine gas by
means of Read's inhaler, or with the cWTomon nose-bag ; or, if this does
not succeed, a solution of the chloride of lime may be syringed up the
nostrils every day, or may be alternated with a weak solution of the
sulphates of zinc and copper, and applied in the same manner.

Nasal gleet, attended with fetid smell, and proceeding from one nostril
only, is usually produced by some blow, or external injury. This
disease, as it may be called, very much resembles glanders, and has
often been confounded with it ; indeed, it requires some tact to discri-
minate between the two.

A case in point some time since occurred in the writer's practice.
He was sent for to examine two horses belonging to a high personage,
both of which exhibited symptoms of nasal discharge from one nostril,
and of a suspicious character ; one in particular was regarded as far
worse than the other, in consequence of the greater profuseness of the
discharge, and its offensive character. The result of the examination,
however, was to condemn the animal that was thought the best, and he
was accordingly shot, whilst the other horse was merely kept and worked
separate from the rest. Suitable treatment was applied to the latter,
both with regard to medicine and diet, and, in the course of some eight
or ten months, the discharge disappeared.

In the latter instance the disease was no doubt produced by a blow,
which, injuring the bones of the nostrils, caused the offensive discharge.
The treatment consisted in the administration of tonics internally, and
the application, externally, of the astringent lotions before recom-
mended.

We have little doubt that very many such cases have been mistaken
for glanders, and the animal has been destroyed in consequence. Indeed,
within the last few imonths, the writer went a considerable distance to
examine a horse that was considered to be glandered by the veterinary
surgeon in attendance, but he pronounced a contrary opinion, which the
subsequent history of the case has fully justified.

Nasal Polypus.

Sometimes, though very rarely; a fleshy tumour forms in one of the
nostrils, and adheres to the turbinated bones, being fixed at one
extremity by a narrow attachment, and otherwise floating loosely in the
nasal cavity. It becomes, of course, a considerable obstruction to respi-
ration, and should be removed, if possible, by an operation.

Still more rarely we find a bony tumour forming in the nostrils, nearly
obstructing all passage, and causing a discharge somewhat resembling

that of glanders. , ,

This, like the former, should be removed, if possible, by an operation.

GLANDERS.

483

(13.) PAGE 121. — Glanders.

This very fatal disease is not so common as it once was, which is no
doubt, to be attributed to the better stable management of the present
day, and, perhaps, in some measure to the improvement of the roads •
for nothing has so much increased the virulence, and extended the
ravages of this dire disease, as the circumstance of horses being over-
worked. The poison of glanders, which, in able and robust horses
may be effectually resisted for a considerable time, finds in the over-
worked horse a congenial soil, on which it grows, and spreads with the
rankest luxuriance. Thus, in a stock of coach horses, whose usual hard
work has been greatly increased by the badness of the roads, glanders
sometimes makes its appearance, and a good portion of the stock die
off like so many rotten sheep. The disease then becomes connected
with farcy and inflammation of the lungs. In the majority of instances
in which the disease has proved so destructive, it can usually be traced
to one particular animal, whose symptoms have appeared so trivial as
for a long time to escape notice. The writer can recal to his mind very
many practical illustrations of this fact. It is, therefore, this slight
but msidious form of the disease that requires our closest attention.
I he very last mstance that came before our notice afforded a strikino-
proof of the deceptive appearance of the disease. A gelding from the
stables of a gentleman was sent to the infirmary of the writer, affected
with farcy, which, though it at first appeared to give way under treat-
ment, at length extended itself over the system, and became connected
with glanders of the acute kind, for which the animal was destroyed
A second case also became glandered, after which a mare was sent to be
examined or attended for a slight cold, though of some standing, as it
was thought. There was a slight discharge from the o# nostril, which
increased with exercise ; the mare looked unthrifty in her coat, and
there was on the off-side of the jaw an indurated swelling of the gland
about the size of a small bean-so small, that it would have escaped
the attention of most people. The mare fed well, and was even hunted,
but did not seem quite up to the mark. On inquiry into the history of
the case, it was found that these symptoms had existed for some months
but were regarded as too trivial to require attention. No hesitation was
ielt in deciding, after a careful examination, that this mare was the
origifi of the evil, and the cause of the disease in the other horses ; but
wishing to gain some corroborating testimony, we inoculated a donkey
wi h the usual discharge from the mare, and in the course of a week
both glanders and farcy were developed in the little animal, although

contTn^rT f ''^'^ ^hich she would have

continued, perhaps for months or years, had she been permitted to live.
U IS almost impossible to make the groom or attendants believe the fact,
tJiat an animal so slightly affected can be glandered ; and, consequently
many deceptions have been practised on the unwary. I once knew a
mare attected with chronic glanders, that proved a source of considerable
income to a roguish horse-dealer. She was brought to me to examine
auer being purchased for twenty pounds, and I pronounced her to be
glandered. Ihe mare was an extremely active, useful kind of animal
travollin P"""^^"'^'' .^l^o^gl^t he had a bargain. By my advice he. after
travelling many miles, discovered the seller, who, after some words
Ottered to take the mare for ten pounds, which was agreed to, on the

484

THE HORSE.— APPENDIX.

principle that the first loss was the least. Some time afterwards the
mare was again brought to me under similar circumstances, and I then
discovered that it was the regular practice of the roguish dealer to seH
the mare as high as he could, and then to take her back at about half
price, so that she really afforded him a very considerable profit.

It is these chronic, and apparently slight cases, that enable dishonest
parties to practice such deceptions. The nostrils being pretty well
cleaned out previous to the animal being offered for sale, and the animal
being able to bear a trial, the unwary purchaser is thus easily deceived,
and if he has a stud of horses, often cruelly injured. Some few years
since a chesnut horse was brought to the writer, and was pronounced
decidedly glandered. Instead of being destroyed, as he ought to have
been, he was sold to a roguish horse-dealer for five pounds. An igno-
rant farrier declared that the horse was not glandered, and engaged to
cure him. Some weeks afterwards the owner and his son, personating
the characters of a sporting gentleman and his groom, and dressed
accordingly, took the horse to a garrison town, and sold him to an officer
for a good round sum. The next account we heard of the horse was
many months afterwards, when we were again consulted by his then
owner, who had purchased him some time previously, and used him
with his other horses, several of which became glandered in consequence.

These cases are mentioned to show that the principal danger from
glanders arises from these apparently slight cases. In acute glanders,
when the discharge is profuse, and the glands under the jaw as large as
hens' eggs, there is no mistaking the case, and, consequently, proper
precautions can be taken. This shows how important it is when pur-
chasing horses to have them properly examined by a competent profes-
sional man. There is no money better laid out than the usual ten
shillings fee for the examination of a horse with regard to soundness.

The contagious character of glanders is very well known, and not
only is it so with regard to the horse, but it is capable of being commu-
nicated to the human being ; and, indeed, there have been very many
deaths from this cause, and most horrible deaths they are. It is generally
by means of some cut or abrasion which comes in contact with the
glandered matter, that the infection is communicated. The utmost
caution should, therefore, be exercised by the attendants ; and it is most
unpardonable to keep glandered horses any length of time for the sake
of their work; and we are scarcely justified in tampering long with them
under the idea of effecting a cure, when the cases are decidedly glan-
dered.

It cannot be too generally known that it is illegal to expose a glandered
horse for sale, and though it is a law but seldom enforced, yet we are
glad to find that it has lately been tested in London, and with success.
At the London Sessions, William Duckwell was indicted for having
exposed in Smithfield market, on the 15th October, 1847, a mare, he
knowino- her to be suffering under the visitation of the disease called
glanders. Mr. Laurie in stating the case said, that the present prosecu-
tion had'been instituted by the corporation of the City of London, under
the full conviction that if the practice of the commission of which the
defendant was accused were to be permitted to be carried on, it was
impossible to calculate how lamentable, how extensive, or how fatal
might be the results.

The case was proved by various witnesses.

Mr Payne, for the defendant, contended that he was ignorant of the tact

FARCY- LAMPAS. 485

of the mare being glandered, and was merely employed by his master to
sell the mare for three pounds ten shillings. He called several witnesses
to prove that the symptoms prior to the mare being destroyed were not
ot a decided character; but, notwithstanding this, the jury brought in a
verdict of guilty; and the Recorder sentenced the defendant to pay a
line oi ten pounds, which sum was paid by his master.

During the succeeding month, too, a man was also committed for trial
lor exposing a glandered horse for sale in Smithfield.

With regard to the cure of glanders, it is a matter of considerable doubt
whether those cases that have been reported to have been cured were really
cases of true glanders or not. When we know that there are instances of
nasal gleet that simulate glanders so much, we are rather inclined to
the Idea that the cured cases were those of the latter description.

(14.) PAGE 128.— Farcy.

stkuZnZlw! f'lT ^"Pr^"^' °" '^'^ '° ^hJc^^ the con-

stitution IS afFected by the disease. If it be confined to a single extremity

alonraff; f d '''' aiorbeTaS
alone affected, there is then a very reasonable prospect of establishing a

TrnLr h ^PP^''^^''"" f ^^"^tic, as advised in the text, is very
proper; but we may also materially assist the case by rubbing into

^Sa^ir' rodt"^ of the absorbent^ an oin^ent

Lard '. .' fl

Mercurial ointment . . . ! 51
to be incorporated together.

Advantage will also be felt by the internal exhibition of five to ten

TuTJfK^yr^'''^^^'''''^' combination with a mineral Lite

Itmeiraf well 1 7X)r S^"^'^"' '1^^=^™- "he

wlT , ^^^^ be continued for some time.

mn.fh. v""?^'^ i"''"^ '^'^^ by this mode of treatment, though it
must be acknowledged that there is no disease, to which th; ho^se is

lavourable, the ulcers healed, and the swe ling reduced, the disease will
sometimes break out again, and prove rapidlyfotal. ' "^'^^

(15.) PAGE 134.— Lampas.

It is almost impossible that the swellino- fl,« i c ,
denominated lampas, can interfere with t I f r °^ "'^"th,

the horse is in the stabl nn 1 2! r mastication, when

food is .rol^atT'l^ith^^^^^^^^ %ZrV'''^ ''^l

ever, that, connected v^hh th;l i '^'"^"V^^th. It often happens, how-

properly;' the hoJse m S« r '^'-^ ^" inability Vo masticate

of his m;uth in rolls^cov. 1 " ^^at is, throws it out

" Tenter(len steenlp ' !!''^ the same principle as

beerre^a^ras^tt r° Goodwin sands," the lampL has

farther^howeve we Tll °f """^''^'A' mastication. If ^% look

swelled JpnUn ' , . mvariably find that the gums are

lower t^XTJ ];' f "'^ Pn''"^^'''^ membranous tissues cov^Z tl e
Xn Sr i, ' molar and incisor teeth; so much so that

mokr e th'^nd c^sTsCa-n TT'T '^^"^ ^^'^ ! «

This state of the parts InLT 'TvT "i' F'T'' "mastication.

tne parts is often overlooked, and the horse becomes weak

486

THE HORSE.— APPENDIX.

and thin, from not having sufficient nutriment. The disease, if it can be
called so, is commonly termed the Bags, or Washes, and is relieved by
cutting off a portion of the membrane by means of a pair of scissors' ;
the bleeding relieves the inflammation, and the cicatrization of the
wound causes the membrane to contract, so as to be put out of the way
of further injury from the teeth. The horse should have mashes for
some days after the operation, and care must be taken that the bit does
not injure the denuded part.

(16.) PAGE 137.— The Teeth.

We have little to add to the long chapter on the changes of the teeth,
as denoting the age of the horse, as it appears in the text. It should,
however, be borne in mind, that although the rules given, particularly as
regards the marks, are pretty correct as general rules, yet there are
various exceptions, showing that the change cannot always be depended
on. Sometimes the marks continue for very many years ; and we have
known a horse at twelve years old exhibit the same appearance as
another at six. In such instances the age must be judged of by the length
and shape of the teeth, and more particularly by the shape of the faces
of the teeth. In other cases the mark disappears much sooner than usual,
and in some few instances is altogether absent. I have at present a horse
six years old whose lower incisor teeth display no marks, and are so ex-
tremely narrow, from the front to the back part, that there is no room for
the cavity which forms the mark. A hasty observer would be disposed
to regard the animal as at any rate an aged horse, which, however, is not
the case.

It is observed in the text, and it is also a subject of general supposi-
tion, that the teeth are developed much earlier in young animals that are
corn-fed, and taken early into the stable, and that in thorough-bred
horses, consequently, the changes of the teeth are earlier than in animals
that remain more in a state of nature. A careful examination, however,
leads me to believe that these notions are all founded in error, and that,
so far from thorough horses being forward in their mouths, they are, if
anything, somewhat backward, for I have examined many two, three,
and fou°r year old colts, and, although they were foaled some months
earlier than other horses, their teeth were not more advanced than others
of the same year that had been continued at grass. If we bear in mind
that the incisor teeth are more particularly used in nipping the grass, and
are thus much more employed in a state of nature than in the stable,
there is some reason to suppose that domestication rather tends to retard
than assist the development of the permanent incisor teeth; and at any
rate it explains the fact that the teeth are not earlier developed in tho-
xoueh-bred than in other horses. Many attempts have been made, and many
no doubt with success, to run four-year old horses for the Derby, for which
race three-year olds only are allowed to enter. The last instance of the
kind is the celebrated Running Rein affair, which obtained such notoriety,
and which induced considerably more attention to be paid to the mouths
of race horses than was previously the case. An incisor tooth, wlicn it is
first shed, and for some time afterwards, is higher on the outer or front edge
than the inner or back edge. After some time, this outer edge is worn
down to the same level as the inner, and, subsequently, both edges wear
equally, till the bottom of the hole which forms the mark is reached, wlien,
of course, the mark disappears. It takes about three years to effect this

WOLVES' TEETH—DISEASES OP THE TEETH. 487

process that is, from the time the tooth is cut to the disappearance of
the mark. In a four-year old mouth, there are four permanent lower
incisors, and two corner temporary teeth. The outer and inner edee of
the central teeth are tolerably level, and the mark smaller than the
middle teeth next them, which present the appearance of youno-er teeth
Mow, in a three-year old mouth the central teeth have a younger ar)'
pearance the mark being larger, and the outer edge higher, than the
inner, whilst the middle teeth are either in the act of being cut, or the
temporary teeth have not yet disappeared. By careful examination,
therefore, the difference between a three and four year old horse can be
readily detected. The permanent teeth differ from the temporary, being
larger, less white, and having more depth above the gums.

PAGE 145.

- After the marks have disappeared, the age of the horse may be judged
partly by the shape of the faces of the teeth, and partly by the horizomal
position in which the teeth proceed from the jaw. If we take a voune
incisor tooth and saw it off below the bottom of the hole which forms the
mark, and again at a similar distance lower down, we shall find that the
several surfaces made by the sections resemble the shape of the face of
the tooth in a horse in which a similar quantity of the tooth has been
naturally worn down. The comparison also holds good with regard to

he direction in which the teeth proceed from the lower jaw bdng n
the young animal upright or curved, and in the old one nearly horizoSa]
Although the teeth grow to supply the loss of that which wears away
yet the ongmal shape rema ns, so that the face of an incisor tooth Jt

a';?Sr2Tetrf:r^ " '''' ^ --'-^

(17.) PAGE 140.— Wolves' Teeth.

the'^llxT^iU'T^ sometimes occur, as mentioned in

the text, yet the wolves' teeth are generally two very small sunnle
mentary teeth appearing in front of the Siolar teeth ; and, tL "gh uplsed
to have an injurious effect on the eyes, we have rarely, if^everTund
that they produce any injurious effect, either on the eyes or the mouth
and consequently, it is useless to interfere with them. Vlien howeve^^^
the teeth grow irregularly, the permanent ones apnearin J bv tC ^
the temporary, the latter should be removed ^^^^^""2 by the side of

(18.) PAGE 146.— Diseases of the Teeth.

rard?s°ubtct'toTP'''^ """^ the human teeth, those of the horse are
suffers coiider.h,r'''' ^^e case, and the animal

cause ortre mT>, A''^ ^"^ ^"''^ ^''^ ""'^ condition, without the true
condemned ar itll "u^ discovered. Indeed, many horses have been
tCn^r P • tH'' attentive examination might have detected

luenZ ""'"n'f ^^'^'^'^ ^" the teeth. Some time since, my
son.T '^f ^d to a Clydesdale cart-horse belonging to a high per-

weu':d"and'wrr°'"'T'l ''''' g-duall/lo^t flesh, to^gh

quic ded- nn/l 1 T ""J"''"'^ '° ^ skeleton. I'he food was

trth we;e at faiit '^"P*""' '"A"^^^^ «"«P^^t that the

were at fault ; and, on examination, I found that one of the upper

488

THE HORSE APPENDIX.

molar teeth projected considerably beyond the rest. The horse was
cast; and it was then discovered that the cause of the projecting tooth
was the dlsease of the opposite one in the lower jaw, one-half of whiclr
was gone, and the remainder diseased, and remarkably tender when
touched ; so that, when any food was on this side of the mouth, it caused
considerable pain at every attempt at mastication. An instrument was
contrived resembling a dentist's forceps, by the aid of which the diseased
tooth was. removed, when-it was found to be in a carious state. 1 he pro-
jecting tooth on the upper jaw was filed down to the leve of the rest;
the horse kept for some little time on soft food ; after which he regamed
his flesh and condition, and is now doing well. The cause of disease in
this instance was unknown ; but probably it arose, as in some others, trom
a stone being taken with the food, and thus breaking the teeth, the
remainin^^ portion of which would then soon become diseased.

The teeth in the upper jaw are also occasionally diseased, and give rise
to symptoms which in some respects resemble, glanders, there being a
discharge from one nostril. It may, however, be distinguished from this
disease by the absence of any swelling of .the glands, and by the discharge
beino- very offensive. These symptoms sometimes proceed trom an
abscess at the root of the molar teeth, which requires the bone to be
removed opposite the seat of disease, so as to afford an exit to the matter,
and a means by which suitable dressings can be applied.

(19.) PAGE 147. — Diseases of the Tongue.

It sometimes happens that the halter is put in the mouth on the
tongue, and is tied under the jaw, in order to lead the horse, or to le up
his head whilst being dressed. In this position the J"'"^^ P^^^JP^j'^"/^
back, and the tongue is nearly, or quite, cut through and attached by a
few vessels only. If the horse can be looked to directly, the wound
^ry be sewed up ; but if many hours have elapsed, it is vain to
Tt empt union by the first intention, and it is better to cut hrough the
remain ng attachment, and to dress the tongue as advised in the ext
tTc hors^'e should be kept on soft food till the wound is healed. I l ave
known many inches of Ihe tongue thus removed; and it is astonishing
how soon the mutilated member is again able to .f ^'^^T
From being used, it widens and flattens at the extremity, and the hor^e
enabled to gather his food in the stable as we I as befoie, though, no
doubt, if turned to grass, the inconvenience would be lelt.

(20.) PAGE 150.

We are disposed to consider that very many horses escape the
strangles altogether ; for, in many instances where horses are bred and
worked on the same farm for many years, they have not been known to
be affected with this disease. Race horses, too, whose history can often
be readily ascertained from birth, more frequently escape than otherwise ;
indeed vve are inclined to the opinion, that thorough-bred horses are
r^ore exempt than coarser breeds, not only from strangles but also from
other dte-ises aff^ecting the glands, such as glanders and farcy, as well
f f"oif g'ascrr^l sw^elled leg, and all morbid aff-ections of the subcu-

'Te'havTTittle to remark respecting the treatment A blister ks
unquestionably, the best topical application; but it should be washed oft

poll-evil;

as soon as it nses, by which means it can be repeated - in a day or two
and so the action can be kept up, which will greatly promote the sun
purative process.. After the abscess is lancedfa linseed po^ihiee will b^
a very desirable application ; and, with regard to injections, they may be
omitted without injury. Although the agesfrom two to five are the usual
period for strangles to appear, yet it occasionally attacks old animals
we have, indeed, known it affect a horse sixteen years old.-and Within bl
last month an' animal eight years old. but such instances are- rare

It IS a very desirable tliing in strangles to get the submaxillary-abscess
to form and suppurate without much delay; for when it is suppressed,
or does not form in this place, there is sometimes danger to be apprel
bended; occasionally, abscesses will form internally, and carry off the
patient. The syraptoms.of these untoward cases are an unthi^fty coat
occasionarshivering fits, and a pulse rather accelerated. ^ '

When the glands remain hard, and do not suppurate, the disease is
frequently termed bastard strangles, and may lead to glandei-s The use
of iodine, apphed externally as an ointment, and internally as hydr oda e

(21.) PAGE 152.— POLL-EVIL.

puration is, the easier it is to effect a cure tLT/ '^°™P.^f ^ ^^e sup-
arises from striking the poll ag:L'sraTow dl^^irL';^^^^
the surface of the bone is often diseased from the beeinnL
that are ewe-necked, and disposed to throw up their Sds udd.nY
most liable to the disease ; ami we have found that thr^, ff.lt I ^'Z'^.

fnTxit^X^eTerst^taUTt^^^^^ T ^--"•^s::td" tHeS'
quently forms passage" otlnut S^nfrtherLferS' w^ ^^h"^-

directions, ren^lerinj i- aTi impos b^^^ 'T'^

The abscess should not bronS 11 tl.! ^ l dependmg opening.
: and then a dependin<r onPn;n?T i u ™f thoroughly formed,
■niaybepassed^ eLr T^ n^ade, through which a seton'

1 poll-evil is thkt thesp^o • f^^equently made in the treatment of

i much of the p IS flowsTn"'"^'..''"' T ^''^^ «° ^'^^t

:Now, the chief art inThV. T'^'" direction, and there forms sinuses.
' freeW to lav a iThV t^-^^tment of this disease is to use the bistoury

' togeSerV tin to mTe"rhr/" " ""'^^ ^^"'''f' ^'^^^

< down as po sible 7" extremely large, and as low

ilftheboL isl^niu y/Tf' '"'^^^'J' two fingers to be inserted.

tion, in order to cause lllm ""T'T^ p'^P'^ ^'-^"^^'^ '-^PPlJea-
to cause a healthy slough. Pressure is found very useful

490

THE HORSE.— APPENDIX.

in keeping the sides of the wound together, and preventing the formation
of sinuses. With this view it has been recommended to apply a tight
compress, by means of bandages, round the part, but it is extremely,
inconvenient to apply them in consequence of the windpipe interfering.

(22.) PAGE 156.— Star-gazers and Ewe-Necked Horses.

The distinction between these faults, or vices, as such defects are com-
monly termed, is not given quite correctly in the text. Although a
star-gazer is always ewe-necked, yet a ewe-necked is not always a star-
eazei They may be considered as different degrees of the same fault
the latter being the worst. A ewe-necked horse is exceedingly unpleasant
dther to ride or drive, for the neck, low set on instead of be-g nicely
arched, and thus affording a proper '-estrng-place for he b,t on t^^^^
bars of the mouth, is carried straight out, and head h gh and such
horses are in the habit of throwing up their heads sudden y. and thus
destroving for the time all connection between the hand of the rider and
the mouth of the horse. A star-gazer, on the other hand, a ways appears
o cTrTv his head a storey higher than his body ; but, although he may
be Sard-mouthed, and is. indeld, always deficient in the proper sensation
of the bars, yet he does not bore on the bit, as stated in the text, and is
not heavy in hand.

(23.) PAGE 158.— Inflammation op the Vein.

Although the various causes enumerated in the text do certainly
occasionally produce inflammation of the vein, so that the cases of this
TseZ are most frequent where the operation is carelessly or slovenly
perforrned ; yet it must be confesssd that the disease does sometimes
^ccur when the act of phlebotomy has been performed with the utmost
care and skill ; indeedfit appears to be subject to atmospheric influences,
for it is certainly more prevalent at some periods than at others

When the vein is hard and enlarged its passage is obhterated and the
Tjarotid aland above will often swell in consequence ; and, it the liorse
E thf least exertion, the veins of the head on the affected side will

become greatly distended. ., • „r fT,o ri;«Pi<iP

The course of treatment which a considerable experience of the d.sea e
has induced us to adopt is to avoid all setons and dissecting out of the
vein, and, above all, caustic in ections, which we have known produce
I fa'tal result; but 'first to al/ay the superficial -fl-^^^s oVtl e
applications, and then to blister the part, washing off '^e effects o the
blister the following day, and repeating it several times. Ihe ointment
of iodine may be alternated with the blister to advantage. Dunng
thi Ce the horse's head should be tied up to the rack and he should
be fed on such food as will not require any considerable action of the
iaws such as bran mashes," scalded oats, carrots, and but very little
jaws, sucn ^ ^ ^ treatment for several weeks, the

^^ilin. lill Wne greatly reduced, the blood will find new channels,
5 wl wi7be^ useful as ever. We cannot remember a

ilfcase X t^^^^^ of treatment has been pursued without a

single case wnerc ui instances it may be necessary

stop hemorrhage.

ROARING— FORM OF THE CHEST. 49I

(24i.) PAGE 160. — Roaring,

This disease is not always so easily discovered as is implied by the
statement in the text. In some cases, the symptoms of roaring are only
developed after a sharp gallop ; and, in many, roarers will not grunt when
suddenly alarmed. It is generally very old and confirmed cases that
exhibit this symptom. There are not only a variety of degrees in which
roaring may exist, but there are many different causes which produce
the noise which gives a name to the disease. Several of these have been
stated in the text; but one, and by no means an unfrequent one, has been
omitted, which IS the absorption and paralyzation of the muscles, on one
side, which assist in opening and enlarging the entrance to the larynx,
by pulling back the arytenoid cartilages, as they are termed. The
consequence of this is, that an obstruction takes place; and. although the
air can enter with sufficient rapidity when the animal is at rest, yet when
respiration is hurried by exertion, a great noise is occasioned by the air
passing through the narrow aperture with great rapidity.

ihe greater number of the cases of roaring certainly occur with
carnage horses, and are connected with the practice of tight reining It
IS not, however, the sudden reining in which causes the mischief, but the
iong-contmued position of the windpipe when thus distorted. When the
^ntlnn ^ distressed, either from over-exertion or from inflam-

admi l iw ^ ""'^"^ P'^"^' P^^sages in a straight line, and

IvTa 1 expansion. When, however, the ne'ck is i^iuch

arched, there is a great angle formed at the throat, and the upper ring of
the wmdpipe is forced up so as to form an obstruction to the passagf of
pemanent ^^nH ^'^^^e, at first temporary, at length becomes

permanent, and thus proves a frequent cause of roaring.

(25.) PAGE 163.— Form of the Chest.

slower onet^ntri''^; '^^P^"^- ^1-"

to afford a S ^ ? 'J '^"f ^'^^ of atmospheric air is inspired, so as
Opacity is i^P.l'?P ^ '^\P^^Pose of respiration. This large
capacity IS gamed, however, not by the greater rotundity of the che?t

.s ver'y eviST ^ ^^^-^^^ K^^'^' " Particularly L former It
LrrJ V I a cn-cular chest must present a very unfavourable

TroH ng let on °' l""^'^^'' -deJdrmuItTndu

witHefy circuIaT . 'V^''^' that animals

Tpart arl by no ml ' '"'^7'? ^"^^"^^S^' consequence, wide

accumuTatioJ of faT / '^'1''^' l'^""' ^ predisposition to the

genrallv Cn?l , 'u''' ^ considerable quantity of fat is

fn pofnt o??r.t '"^""^ ""^ ^" ""'^^^ P^^^« of the chest, so that,

tho^se with dt ' chests have smaller lu^gs than

to havrl cir^n? '"t "^t. extremely desirable for a cart-horse

Ihus to ■ '^''S'' ^ disposition to make flesh, and

Jathe. cir.1 I'? f""- ^ame"^ reason, in other horses, a

too flltrtt'mt^Zirabi:'^""' '''''' "^^''^^

(26.) PAGE 169.

The same observations we have made under the bead of Poll-evil
apply here with equal force. '

2 K 2

492 THE HORSE,— APPENDIX.

(27.) PAGE 171. — Chest-Founder and Anticor.

The absorption or diminution of the muscles of the chest alluded to in -
the text, and which used to be denominated Chest-founder, is neither
more nor less than disease of the feet (the navicular disease, in fact), and
which existing in both feet, prevents the fore-legs being exercised to the
same extent as before ; and, consequently, the muscles from being par-
tially thrown out of use, become, to a certain extent, absorbed

By the term anticor, we rather understand an abscess in the breast, or
brisket, to which some horses are liable. It is a rare disease, and more
frequently attacks heavy-chested horses. Foreign horses are more sub-
ject to this disease than English animals.

(28.) PAGE 172.— The Pulse.

The frequency of the pulse is certainly overrated in the text There
is not that^difference in the pulsation of the cart-horse and the thorough-
bred as there stated, and 36 or 37 a minute may be considered the
SnCd pulse in the' latter when in health, and free from excitement
It is most important to distinguish between the pulse of fever and that
of inflammatio'n. We may ha've a pulse of the g-atest rapidity as in
influenza, and yet no one part of the body much inflamed. We ha^ e
known tl e pulJe of the horse more than trebled, and the animal still
recover - and, on the other hand, in cases of inflammation, a pulse of
60 has betokened great danger, and, in some cases, has been succeeded
by death.

(29.) PAGE 177.— Fever.

Pure fever does not of necessity require blood-letting, and, indeed,
will often be removed better without the aid of depletion. This fact is
Tell shown in cases of influenza, where great quickness of the pulse
w th a hot mouth, and other tokens of fever, -e presen . and wh^j
rvmntoms may be often removed without the aid of bleeding. We
deddedTy bSt to bleeding in those cases of fever attended with a
aeciaeaiy uujc , & j £ ^ ^ ^^t, unless the pulse is iuU

fnd roL' Vt iT gidly better' t: avoid bleeding. Fever is far more
dependenfon sorfe irritadon of the nervous system tlian - /."^/^^^in
S text, and bleeding is often calculated to increase thus irrita^^on T^
administration of a diffusible stimulant that will act on t'^^jkm, sucl^^^^^
the spirit of nitrous ether, is a far better mode «f ^''^''^^f f
often cut short a case of fever, which the abstraction of blood wou d
nnlv nrolone In cases of fever the mucous membrane is very frequen ly
aXriSe state, so that a purgative will greatly mcrease such irrita-
m an I'^^iau e '.Uprefore be avoided. If the bowels are costive,

iSativ s houM bridmUstered, and aloes carefully avoided,
o,ly laxatives shouiQ ^ ^^^^^ ^

unless g^^«»/"^JXe smaU doses of aloeslntil the bowels are relaxed,
gerous P^-^;;t>^^,*°/'^"iod required to relax the bowels in the horse,
for from the long per od r^^^^^^ . ^^.^^ ^^^^^ sufficiently to

before this effect >f PJ^^f^'^^if ^ jn many instances, occurred from
endanger life, and >ndeed death y ^^^^^.^ ^^^^

^^\n VI 'c^i' ol- otherwise confine it to one moderate dose
of two drachms.

BOG AND BLOOD SPAVIN-BLEEDING. 493

The administration of purgative medicine is at all times attended with
greater risk in the horse than with man ; and in febrile affections generally
and more particularly when the mucous membrane is in an inflamed or
morbid state, the internal coat of the intestines is peculiarly sensible to
the action of purgatives, and a very slight dose will often produce
excessive purgation.

(30.) PAGE 178.— Bog AND Blood Spavin.

Much error appears to have prevailed with regard to bog spavins. We
speak with confidence, and after numerous dissections, when we say' that
this disease does not occur from the distension of any mucous ba<rs'and
therefore, there is no possibility of cutting them out. A hocr spavin is
neither more nor less than a distension of the capsular ligament of the
joint itself; so that, if we cut into it, we open the joint, and endanger the
lite of the animal. There are difl^erent degrees of severity in which this
disease inay exist; it may be merely an increased secretion of synovia
so as to distend the ligament, and in such case it is readily curable • or
it may be, as it more frequently is, a rupture of the connections of' the
ligament with the bones, so as not only to distend, but actually to enlaree
the cavity of the joint. In the latter instance, though the disease may be
temporarily removed, it generally recurs, with work. When lameness
attends bog spavin, there is usually no little degree of inflammation on
the synovial membrane of the joint; and, in cases of long standino-, the
synovial fluid becomes solid, and causes permanent stiffness. Thwou^h
pins, are the same morbid affection as the bog spavin, but affectine the
upper and back part of the joint, and on each side.

With regard to the blood spavin, the vein, as it passes up the leg, may
Ik^lp p1 Tr^'^' obstructed by a bog spavin ; and, consequently, a
little enlarged ; but so slightly, that we believe that the bog and blood
spavin of the old farriers were one and the same thing, the vein, from its
proximity, being supposed to feed the enlargement.

The best treatment for these enlargements is, next to the actual
cautery, the repeated application of the iodide of mercury, which both
operates as a blister, as well as specifically, on the absorbents.

(31.) PAGE 1 8 L.— Bleeding.
In performing this operation with the fleam, the blood-stick should

wpI'L 1 ^''^ ^'^'^^ '^^'^ "° P°^^'^'« ^^'^^^i"" such extra

ZS e J '^^T^' S'^^^^' 5 ^"d, whilst the jugular

nn .wl \T^l % " ?^ convenient situation for the fleam, the

hnZ X ''1 u ^" "^'"g ^he latter, the head of the

ftorse should be elevated, so as to put the vein somewhat on the stretch,
and prevent Its rolling; the vein is then pressed with the fingers of the
eit Hand, which, obstructing the current, causes the vein to swell : the
lancet should then be dexterously thrust forwards and upwards, so as to
°k ^"ij V "^^^^ incision. The lancet should not be too large—
Should be shaped like a human lancet, and about double its size, with a
very sharp point. In bleeding from the arm or the thigh, the fleam is
more convenient than the lancet.

In closing the orifice the pin should not be very large; and fine tow
Should be used to wind round it, and not hair, as the latter is so apt to

494

THE HORSE.-^APPENDIX.

(32.) PAGE 182. — Inflammation of the Lungs.

The diseases of the lungs have been carefully investigated since this '
work was first published, and the result has been that we are enabled to
detect three important varieties in the mflamraatory affections of the
lungs and chest, viz., congestive inflannmation of the lungs or pulmonary
apoplexy, pneumonia or true inflammation of the lungs and pleurisy or
pleuritis The first consists of distension of the small vessels of the
lungs with dark venous blood, and is generally produced by over-
exertion, particularly if the animal, when attacked is not in proper con-
dition for work. The symptoms are, rapid breathing, cold extremities,
and short duration of the disease, ending either in death or recovery.
When death supervenes, the lungs are black, as stated in the text With
regard to treatment, bleeding should be adopted if the pulse is distinc
as well as rapid; if not, a diffusible stimulant should first be given, and

bleeding should follow. , , . «.

True pneumonia is longer in its duration, but the symptoms are often
obscure at first. There is considerable distress, but there does not appear
to be any active pain; and in this respect it may generally be distin-
guished from p/e«m2/, or inflammation of the membrane which '"es both
The lungs themselves as well as the internal surface of the chest. Bemg
a fibrous or serous membrane, secreting a serous fluid, the same charac-
teristics are met with as in inflammation of the same membrane in other
narts of the body. These peculiarities are a full, strong, as well as rapid
pulse, pain, sometimes acute, but varying from ti^e to time, and the
IVod pres;nting a considerable quantity of buff, or fibrine. The
tendencies of the disease are either the deposition of water ,n the chest, or
else fibrous flakes, and sometimes both conjoined.

Sometimes pneumonia and pleurisy are combined together, causing
Pleuro-Pneumonia, and then the danger is increased at the same time, as
the symptoms are rendered more obscure. .i

Blood-letting is one of the first of our remedial measures for these
diseases, but is called for in a more marked degree in pleurisy han m
pneumonia. The pulse, however, in both cases, must be our guide as to
?he quantity of blo^od to be taken; and, as stated in the text a decided
effect should be obtained. Repetition of bleeding, too, may be had
reco'lse to, and with greater freedom, in pleurisy than - P"--on.a
In the latter disease we must take care that we do not shipwreck the vital
powers by repeated and too copious venesection, or mistake the ettects
produced by bleeding for the symptoms of the disease 't^^^^^^
by the conjoint aids of science and experience that these nice discrimina-
tions can be made ; it is, therefore, the height of folly for the mexperienced
owner to attempt to treat such cases himself, or to rely on ignorant men,
who are utterly unacquainted with the structure of those parts whose

diseases they venture to treat. • • i j

In some cases we have both pleurisy and pneumonia conjoined, and
then the symptoms, though extremely severe, are yet very o^ure and
the chances of successful treatment are much diminished Ihe water in
Z best, spoken of at page 184, is -P^^^^^^^^
comes fatal in the majority of instances (particularly if. in addition to this
serous fluid flakes oflymph are also thrown out). In some cases where
ZZZZx has supervened early, and the inflammation has otherwise
S ic el relief has been obtained by the o^er.Uo. on^arace-t.^ o^
apping the chest, which consists of plunging an instrument, called a

CATARRH-BRONCIIITIS-CATARRHAL FEVER. 495

trochar, befvveeri the ribs into the cavity of the chest, and then with-
tlrawnig it, but leaving the canula, or tube, covering it, so as to permit
the escape of the fluid. It is generally necessary to repeat the operation
more than once, and on both sides, if they contain fluid.

We have little to add with regard to the treatment of these inflamma-
tory diseases, except that we do not approve of the many repeated
bleedings advised in the text. It is rarely the case that more than one
bleeding IS desirable, but this in general should be very copious The
best guide as to the propriety of the repetition of bleeding is the strength
ot the pulse, and not its frequency. If some hours after the first depletion
It is still strong and full, as well as quick, then bleeding is most probably
cal^d for again, and more particularly if the blood has exhibited a thick
Dutty coat. If, on the contrary, the first bleeding has exhibited no bufF
on the surface of the abstracted blood, then it is rarely the case that a
repetition IS hkely to be of any service. With regard to sedative and
other medicines, we have little to add. Aloes should be always eschewed,
and diuretics should not be continued after 12 drs., or 2 ounces of nitre,

tUlT'-r ^^""^ ^"""'l ^^ry good effects from

the administration of small doses of calomel and opium, twice a day, two

Td we hi 1 T"'/" °' being sufficient for a dose ;

and we have also found an ounce or two of the spirit of nitrous ether

(33.) PAGE 188.— Catarrh.
.in" *Tf LTate*'

(34.) PAGE 189.— Bronchitis.

r>eldll^''.2'l'^'^^ f^^^ o'^'^"^ as an inde-

S which fb '"^^^^ " ' ^'^"-^^^y ^'Sree or severity

Txcessive from tbrfi''^ "'^ 'PP'f ' ■ ^^'"^t™^^ '^e infllmmation is si
n\ZfT^ Vu ^.''V 0'^« of '^'^ ^ost dangerous com-

plaints by which the horse is affected, the lining niembfane of the
bronchia tubes, as well as the windpipe, appearing in\ state of gangrene!
m nat Sr;n ?r '^^P'"™' '^'^ inflammation te':

Ztr Is^ Tf / ^1'°"' ^bich is discharged from the

nostrils. The pulse ,n this disease is often characterized by weakness
d.ff-ering in this respect from pleurisy in a marked degree buT in soml'
cases we have found a strong pulse with buffy blood ^ ' '"^
in hVbrisS '""^T''' "^^"t'o"^d in the text, the use of setons

of mater al -^^^ / 1'™'"""°" ^^"dpipe as possible, are

w nSe lrj ' 1"^'/ the inflammation appears \o extend up the
Se mav b. Z T ^^^'^.^^^o «^tend, or the course of the wind-
b eed.V^a^^K ^'■^'^''^'l; Physic should be avoided. With regard to
bleeding, this must entirely depend on the state of the pulse. We have
known cases where the weakness of the pulse has entirely forbidS
h«Ji kT" ' ''"'^'.o",the other hand, other instances where several bleedines
Iirbe vTr;'cT;T^^^^^^^ ' " ^'"'^^ '"^^^ blood-letting should

(35.) PAGE 189.— Catarrhal Fever— Influenza.
Though this disease often occurs in the form described in the text.

49G THE HORSE.— APPENDIX.

yet influenza may, and often does occur, as a severe epidemic both with
and without the peculiarities of catarrh. The diseases, therefore, though
bordering, and often running into each other, are yet distmct and require
separate notice.

With reference to the treatment of catarrhal fever, we should recom-
mend great caution with regard to blood-letting ; and, if much weakness
is manifested, it should not be practised at all. Equal caution should be
observed with regard to purgative medicines ; but, if the bowels are con-
stipated, a pint of linseed oil, or two or three drachms of aloes in solution,
may be given, but not repeated. This may be assisted by injections.

The influenza very extensively prevailed as an epidemic in this
country in the years 1836 and 1840. A very full account of this disease
as it prevailed during these periods may be found in a small treatise on
the subiect published by the present writer. The symptoms m 1840
were very similar to those of the epizootic of 1836, sufficiently so to
iustify us in denominating it the same disease. The first symptom in
that of 1840 which awakened attention was the sudden failure of the
appetite (either total or partial) ; the horse, perhaps, might have ap-
peared perfectly well in the morning, and at noon refused his teed. At
this stage we usually found the mouth hot and the pulse quickened,
varyin<r, however, from 42 to 80, being sometimes full and strong, but
more frequently soft and weak. There was generally a somewhat dull
appearance of the animal at first, although nothing compared to what
afterwards supervened ; the coat was often staring, and when so the
attack usually became more severe. This symptom, however, was tar
from being universal, and the extremities were rarely cold, in tlie
course of six or twelve hours, the symptoms became more aggravated,
the pulse increased in frequency, the appetite was more diminished, and
probably the legs and eyelids were considerably swollen. In some cases
the respiration became quickened, and in others there was cough and
sore throat, but, in the majority of patients, there was no bronchial

affection whatever. , , . , n

In a few instances, the disease quickly reached its acme, but, generally,
the symptoms increased in severity for two or three days ; when, sup-
posing judicious treatment had been employed, they gradually declined,
and at length totally disappeared, the animal slowly regaining his former

health and spirits. j„.„„„o/l
The bowels, generally speaking, were not apparently much deranged,
but their mucous coat was particularly susceptible to the action ot ape-
rient medicines, and the foeces were frequently enveloped in thin slimy
mucus, and often softer than in a state of health.

In some cases the affection of the eyes was so violent as to occasion
temporary blindness, and in others pneumonia was present, but more tre-
nuently severe bronchitis. In many patients the edematous swelling ot
the lees was enormous, and continued obstinate when the other symp-
toms had abated. But commonly, in proportion as the legs and eyes
were much affected, the internal viscera were free from disease, and
^ vice versa This rule, however, was by no means universal, lor, in se-
veral instances, severe cephalic and thoracic symptoms were present in
the same subject and at the same time. „ . „ .i„.nniP

When an animal had been previously suffering from some clnon.c
disease, such as broken wind, or hepatized ungs, tlic influenza was
nearly sure to light up afresh the embers of he former fiie , and this
Tocal disease genl^rally proved troublesome and obstinate. So, l.kew se,
when, from the idiosyncrasy of the animal, an organ was in a weak and

m

CATARRHAL FEVER-INFLUENZA. 497

susceptible state, inflammation in that part was quickly excited bv the
general fever present in the system. ^

TrcalmenL-Wheneyer the pulse was full and strong, blood was ab-
s racted w,th the best effect. In such instances I obSrved thl blood
slow m coagulatmg and invariably presenting a buffy coat ; ereat care
however, was taken not to abstract too large a quantity ; and I found f
could produce the required influence by half the quantity which, in ordi-
nary m Ham matory affections, it would be necessary to take. The amount
ot blood withdrawn was always determined by its eflfect on the pulse
taking care, as soon as its character was materially altered, becoming
softer and ess perceptible to pin up the orifice. This alteration was some-
times produced by the loss of four pounds of blood, oftener by six
occasionally by eight, and in a few instances ten pounds were required
to be taken In two or three cases, where there appeared to be severe
mternal inflammation, the blood-letting was repeated on the followW
day, and in one case on the same ; but, as a general rule, even in cases
^here the pulse had on the following day regained its strength and
fulness, I abstained from a second bleeding, trusdng to medicinSd the
progress of the disease to soften the pulse, a fesuh w ^ch usua^^v
followed on the second or third day. usually

Recourse was had to local venesection still more frequently than to
general bleeding ; indeed, whenever the eyes were much lnflamefl or f£
hds swollen I scarified the latter with a lLcet,"nd opened the ;n:u ar
veins, which course of procedure was attended with the best result! foj
the local inflammation usually subsided in the course of twelve or twe^tv
four hours, whether I bled generally before or not ^"

nlnvp.r ""f Ki° ^^'y ^PP^^^-« that in twenty-three I em-

ployed general bleeding ; in the remainder I did not • but in f wpnn. fi

thT ' ^ '"^tf"' "^'^^ ^y^l'ds and e;r;ebs or the bL of

the mouth. The majority of these were cases which had not been bled
previously, and the minority belonged to those in whipW h t

ThL 1 r"oha,ed, and afterwards Vorkervery hard

They had also been allowed a considerable quantity of beans a di«
which they had not preyiously been accustomed. Long these ho s"'?

presented a thick buffy coat, andX" 'pXe was t"rot r,;d'?:il "'""^
J'g\rm:~ '° ™y°f-dic,„es coLis"e/tadminis.

(Recipe.) Oil of croton . . si

&fr"%--- • • • 'toTdrachms.
Potassio-tartrate of antimony . . l drachm,
bp rit of nitric ether .... 4 drachms to 1 ounce
Solution of acetate of ammonia . 2 to 4 ounces
Warm water suflicient to make a draught.

abnvT^^'"?^' .^'•a^^hms of bi-tartrate of potassa was added to th.
above and when the head appeared much afFeited, a drachm of camnhnr
This draught was generally administered once, but somedmes t^o^

fXtr'luT ^""^ ""^'"^'^ ^'^^ fi^^t dose : afTer the fiist day
'n by far the greater number of cases, two drachms of powde ed genS

498

THE HORSE.— APPENDIX.

were added, and, after the second or third day, a ball was substituted for
the draught, consisting of : —

(Recipe.) Nitrate of potassa 3 drachms.

Potassio-tartrate of antimony . . 1 drachm.

Powdered gentian root .... 2 drachms.

Powdered pimento berries ... 1 drachm.
Treacle sufficient to form a ball.

In one case the above draught produced profuse perspiration imme-
diately after, and each time, it was administered. Although this effect
■may be principally ascribed to the idiosyncrasy of the animal, yet it proves
the diaphoretic properties of the medicine, although this effect may not
generally be distinctly perceptible.

Counter Irritation. — In by far the greater number of cases there was
no inflammation of the air passages ; but whenever it was denoted I blis-
tered the throat, the course of the windpipe, and the breast, or inserted
setons or rowels, as the particular case appeared to demand.

Such is a brief, but I trust a succinct account of the treatment which
I have found successful, not only in conquering the disease, but in re-
storing health and strength in a short space of time. Although the ma-
jority of cases were not dangerous, yet many of them were so, and it is
notoriously the fact that a great number of horses have died from the
disease in various places. Indeed, in the establishment to which I have
referred, three horses had died from it under the care of another person ;
and, in several instances, where horses have been treated by the owners,
although the case was not dangerous, they recovered but slowly, and
with great loss of condition.

I have found in the epidemic in question a greater disposition to (ede-
matous swelling of the extremities and sheath than in that of 1836, and
so obstinate occasionally were these enlargements, that they were re-
duced with much difficulty, and only after the frequent and continued em-
ployment of diuretics, and the insertion of setons in the thighs. There
likewise appeared to be tlu-oughout the attack a capability of taking large
and repeated doses of diuretic agents, without exciting the kidneys in
any great degree. At least double the quantity could be given, and with
no greater action than half the dose in a state of health.

(36.) PAGE 192.— Chronic Cough.

Chronic cough is generally caused by long continued or neglected
catarrh, or sore throat, which leaves behind an irritated and sometmies
a thickened state of the lining membrane of the larynx. There is gene-
rally a great dryness of this membrane, so that a horse generally coughs
when first excited by exercise, which disappears when the parts become
lubricated by its proper secretion. One of the best remedies for an
obstinate coxwh that bids fair to become chronic is a seton under the
throat, which should be kept in for seven or eight weeks.

(37.) PAGE IQ*. — Broken Wind — Roaring, &c.

The lungs of a broken-winded horse being blown up as it were with
extravasated air, occupy, after the act of expiration, a much larger space
than do healthy lungs, and are thus unable to expel their contents ; the
same reason renders them incapable of inspiring so much air as in

THE DIAPHRAGM. 499

a state of health. The consequence of this I's that the breathing is ren-
dered quicker, and the expiration being more difficult than the inspira
tion, It IS performed with a double action, for it is only bv this mean<,
that the air can be expelled. This difficulty in expelling the air will
account for the peculiar short husky cough so characteristic of broken
wind ; the lungs, indeed, are not strong enough to produce a strons
cough. o

^ The only secret in the treatment of broken wind is to afford nutriment
in a small compass, and to keep the animal in the highest state of con-
dition possible. Medicine is of no further use than so far as it may pro-
mote the health of the horse.

With regard to the various names given by dealers to the different
diseases of the air passages in the horse, we may observe that the term
piper IS applied solely to a broken-winded horse, and not to any variety
of roarer It appears to refer to the horse's air pipes as being out of
order rather than to any noise exhibited. S

The terms wheezing and whistling are simply varieties of roaring and
express the noise made in the act of respiration. Whistling is when the
calibre of the Wynx ,s very considerably diminished, more so than in
ordinary roaring. Wheezing probably arises from impediments in thp
air passages of the lungs, whilst high blowing is simplyTe actbn of lie
false nostri s Eclipse is stated to have been a r'oarer ; we belie ve that he was
merely a high b ower. We know at present an excellent hunter hat 'a
proved his goodness in many a hard run, and has yet more than once
been condemned as a roarer. An opinion which the writer gave sor^e
years since that he was no roarer, and would not. in all 0^^^
become so, has proved to be correct P'ODaointy,

(38.) PAGE 197— The Diaphragm.

The diaphragm is liable to two specific diseases, besides partaking of
those of the neighbouring parts, sudi as pleurisy or Slitis

TZTZi:.lTtCi ^'"P^""^ "'"^^ i^their occurJete

ine symptoms ot the former are very peculiar a hpnfJr.^ ^ "''r.-

both heard and felt on placing the hVnd on a^y parttf tlie bodT'^T^ "
beating at first appears to come from the heart hut il i. VrT e ^'^ .
does not correspond with the action of the h l'rti.^ po „t of tte t^'^ I'
It does with the act of breathino- Th^ I F though

R "DtureTf lit • ? ««''l''»<' by mashes and a mild aperienl
Ob cSfi°fi.''a„dt,'l T,T " '""'"1''^' • 'y-P'oms a o

500

THE HORSE— APPENDIX.

(39.) PAGE 205. — Spasmodic Colic.

It is very important to discriminate accurately between colic and inflam-
mation of the bowels. The principal distinctive symptoms are these : in
colic although the pain is excessive there are yet occasional remissions ot
tl°e paroxysms ; whilst in inflammation of the bow^els the agony continues
Sut remission, but varying in severity according to the violence of
disease. The pulse, too, in the latter disease is rapid, and often small
and thread; ; whilst in the former, though it becomes more rapid during
the paroxylms, it subsides during the intervals of ease. A careful ex-
fmina ion^of these distinctions will generally be sufficient to prevent any
mTsTake with regard to the character of the disease. Indeed, we must

"""ThtLTuSs ^lo^be three varieties of colic, spasmodic, flatulent, and
stercoral or that which proceeds from constipation or obstruction in the
bowels! The symptoms%ary with the situation of the disease-whether
?n The tomach, the small, or the large intestines. Flatulent colic gene-
rally affecTseiU^er the stomach or the large intestines. When the former
f s extremely dangerous, and yet is relieved with greater rapidity than
when e ewliere existing. In a case that proved fatal before any remedy
was resorted to. the stomach was found by the present writer dis ended
To hree t mes ts ordinary size. Flatulent may be distinguished from
to three iimeh jjj^ j ^ distention of the abdomen which

more obstinate, continuance of the symptoms ot pain.

For flatulen colic one of the best remedies is sulphuric ether com-
bined with the tincture of opium, and even in other cases it is preferable
to theTiirlts of turpentine, which is apt to irritate and inflame the throat
wh IstEg ^^^^^ the bowels likewise, if there is any acces-

Tion of inflfmmTtion. If relief is not obtained in the course of an hour,,

ifsSr its de;ent:cf ittetttf on relieving the obstruction

iim^s a d". an ounce'of tincture of opium, should be given
until ti rdesixed^ object is attained. It is better, however, after the ex-
bfb ion of a few doses, to substitute the watery infusion of opium for
hibition ot a lew aose , ,oduce inflammation. By steadily

itsu&Ts syst m of reatmLr wS have, in many of the most obstinate

SrSiS/ cases, succeeded in establishing a cure Other means,

and *0'^'^3'\„%_„^ated and copious injections, should be had recourse
however such as repeatea a p ^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^

1° ".fd rcountiact the excessive purgation which follows, which if
Jed bv ordinary medicines, would be exceedmg y dangerous, but
effected by o;'^'"^'^ of linseed oil, is comparatively without danger,
when produced ° , ' "^^ be given f with two ounces of pre-

^aTef lalk! t^^^^^ ^ '^'''''^

(40.) PAGE 207.
r „ „f«„oQ nr rnncrctions in the intestines, the pain

INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. 601

the position in which it was fixed, and then, becoming free, the pain
ceases. We may presume such to be the nature of the case if the horse
iies much on his back, and rolls over from side to side, with an evident
desire to relieve himself from some painful pressure. After repeated
attacks of this kind the case at length becomes fatal, the calculus
accumulates, becomes firmly fixed, obstructing all passage, inflammation
supervenes, and the animal dies.

Millers' horses are more particularly subject to earthy concretions
trom feeding so much on bran, which abounds with the phosphate of
lime, or bone earth, of which these substances principally consist.

(41.) PAGE 207.

_ In cases presenting the symptoms of colic, and terminating fatally, it
IS not unusual to find either entanglement or intervagination of the intes-
tmes. When such a result takes place the case is uniformly fatal; but it is
somewhat doubtful whether the strangulation is the cause or the con
sequence of the other symptoms. We incline to the opinion that it is
more frequently the cause of pain than the consequence of the intestine
motions of the bowels and more particularly in those cases where the
symptoms are never relieved from the first, but continue to become more
and more urgent, until, in the course of twenty-four hours, or less, it ter-
mmates fatally. In other instances, where the symptom occur in pa-
roxysms, and are followed by intervals of ease, and yet terminate in faUl
strangulation. ,t is very possible that the stranguladon is owing To the
violent intestine motion of the guts. vviug lo me

(42.) PAGE 207. — Inflammation of the Bowels,
. When this disease occurs it is usually in the most violent form and
IS more frequently fatal than otherwise. Its symptoms in many respects
resemble colic, but the pain, though equally s'evere, is yet cons^tant^^ the

lo d 'V^ "^^'^ ^"^ ' ^he extremiti :

com. liJeeding is called for most assuredly; but we should end^vnnr
previously to bring warmth to the skin and extremities, and Lo to raise

Snteloul^XS^^^^

Sst'thr;""^^^ be^tr.;ei"TmSt^t-tfourr:mi:rn'

™or: efficacTous Lf"^ ''"^ ''''' water Jm^be

in dosefoTo^ p nruntil^hrh'" l''™"'""''- , '^^^ "^^^ ^e repeated
contain a scrunle of ^^of l i -^'^ are opened, and the last dose should
should alo be iivpn ""!- '^'^"^^'^ of linseed gruel

InflammatiL^Tn '"J^^"°"« ^^^^ same frequently thrown up.

disease When it does P"'""^"? n^''^"'" ' indepencfent

ternal to flL t T 'mJ "^""""y castration, or some injury ex-

descr bS '^'uZ':- '■'■^"^'"^"^ ^^^"l'^ ••^^^•"ble that previousKr

the intLat on oTth'r 'T^ 7 ""T" "'1^^ P'^"^''^^' ^'"^ -'h
Tnflo • } bowels {enteritis) just described.

JKerous Salp" f/''' '^""^ °^ '^'^ intestines is also a very dan-

?gerous disease. It may be produced by cold, or by over-exertion, pa?-

502

THE HORSE.— APPENDIX.

ticularly in hot weather; or, more frequently than either, by an overdose
of physic, or an ordinary or weak dose while the membrane is either in
a state of irritation, or liable to become so from sympathy with some
other important part, such as the lungs, more particularly its lining or

mucous membrane. , i j i

Bleeding in this disease is seldom of service, the weak and almost
imperceptible state of the pulse forbidding it. Our endeavours must be
devoted to bringing warmth to the skin and extremities, and gradually
stopping the irritation of the bowels and sheatliing its internal mucous^
membrane. We may venture on powdered chalk with small doses of
opium administered in thick wheat flour gruel.

(43.) PACK 210.— Physicking.

We have little to add under this head. We condemn, with the author, -
the reckless administration of violent doses, by which very many horses
have been killed. The mucous coat of the intestines of the horse ap-
pears to be more irritable than that of man ; besides which it relatively
occupies a larger extent of surface.

Barbadoes aloes is certainly the best purgative with which we are
acquainted. A drachm of ginger may be advantageously combined with
it to prevent griping. A ball is certainly the best and safest mode of
giving ordinary physic to a horse. It is necessary to give a much
strono-er dose in the form of a draught than that of a ball, which is
probably owing to the fact, that with a ball a considerable amount of
action is produced at one spot where the ball is dissolved, and the irri-
tation there produced spreads by sympathy to the adjacent parts, whilst
the liquid being spread at once over a large surface, a less amount of
irritation is produced at any one particular spot. The exercise on the
day following the administration of the physic should depend on the ettect
produced. If the purging is copious, no exercise should be given; but,
if otherwise, it will much assist our operations by giving a greater or
lesser amount of exercise, as may be required.

(44.) PAGE 212.— Hernia, ok. Rupture.

There are many varieties of hernia, some of which are curable. Scrotal
hernia is not so common in England as in India and other countries, where
it is customary to have many horses entire. It is however occasionally
cono-enital, appearing at birth, and often rendering the little animal help-
less, so that he cannot rise without assistance. The remedy consists in cas-
tration by the covered operation, that is, without cutting into the hernial
sac but placing wooden clams on the cord and the peritoneal membrane,
and at the same time, forcing the gut gently upwards towards the abdo-
men. In the course of a few days the testicles will slough off, or may be
removed. The writer purchased a colt a few years since for a trifle,
beino- abandoned by its owner as worthless, on which the operation was
successfully performed, and the colt sold afterwards for a good price.

When the hernia is strangulated, violent pain and great danger is the
result; the opening through which the gut has escaped is generally very
small, being, in fact, the inguinal ring. In such cases, if the hernia can-
not be reduced by manual operation, or the taxis, as it is called, it is
necessary to open the hernial sac, and, by means of a bistoury, enlarsre

INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER. 503

the orifice sufficiently to put back the gut— an operation of great diffi-
culty and danger, and requiring much skill.

Abdominal hernia may occur in different situations, and are usually
caused by external violence, such as the horn of a cow, or jumpinff over
and across a post. The muscular and other covering of the abdomen is
broken through, whilst the skin, from its greater looseness, remains entire •
and, indeed, is the only object between the bowels and the air If the
case IS recent, the hernia may be reduced, and the hernial sac opened
and the sides of the opening brought together by sutures of metallic
wire. Where, however, the injury is of long standing or natural, as for
mstance, in mares, when the abdominal ring is unusually large, we can-
not succeed by this means; but yet the case is not always hopeless. The
gut being forced back, an incision is made in the skin, and one or more
wooden skewers passed through it, so that a good portion of the skin can
be embraced by some strong waxed twine, the skewers preventing it
slipping off the skin thus embraced, which sloughs off, and a cicatrix
lorming the surrounding skin becomes tighter and thicker than before—
sufficiently so to keep the gut, for the most part, within the abdomen.

(45.) PAGE 213.— Inflammation of the Liver.

The symptoms which we have noticed as attending this disease are a
heavy dull appearance, loss of appetite, and respiration somewhat
quickened, but not distressed as in inflammation of the luna" • thTpu se
IS distinct and somewhat quickened, perhaps from 50 to 60 in the minute
The membranes of theByelids are yellow, or at any rate pale It i^a very
obstinate disease, often becoming fatal, even when the symptorn at firsi
do not appear to denote danger. In such instances tl7e7graXal v in!
crease in severity, and symptoms of severe pain become Lnnectedlkh

Bleeding is required in the first instance, but not to the same extent
as m inflammation of die lungs. Recourse should then be haTto me^
curial alteratives. Calomel two scruples, with opt m one scruple
hould be given twice a day for several days, until the System appears
to be affected by the mercury. The relaxation of the bowe sThould be
promoted by a pint of linseed oil, repeated twice or thice T^e hair
should be cut off the side opposite the liver, and mercurilfAr
ointment rubbed in. If thf horse refuses t^ eat hashes plenty of I'in^
seed or oatmeal gruel should be given with the horn ' ^ ^

inSrttSVmVS,^^
:p^:^err^&-^^^

(46.) page 213.

livfr""wWnT^''''^-"'. unconnected with inflammation of the

andVhp 7 °f' " ^""'^'^'^ by t'^^ yellowness of the membranes
treated h ^r" -"^ '^'^ symptoms' of inflammation. It is bes;

a oe Ltatrh?'""'"^^^ T^'^'"^^ '"^''^ previously advised 5 0

Al if ^ f S'^^" moderate quantities.
;n H,! I ^ diseases of the liver are not so frequent nor so well marlcod
m the horse as m the human subject, yet it is by no means uncommon^

THE HORSE.-APPENDIX.

504

, . ij c fnr- vprv considerable diseased action

and particularly in old horses ^^r^ J^'y.J^^^, i„,tances, the loss of
to creep on unobserved, merely causmg^^^^^ ^^^^^ instances, the horse-
Hesh, which is ascribed to old age ' , ' ^i,,„„^sh. If, however, any
preserves his flesh, but becom s unusually sli gg ^^^.jaerably
Ltive inflammation attack ^"^ ^J^^^^fj render a Le fatal that

frWlL-stt:^i:^S?^^asional^,. is Changed to a
pulpy mass.

(47.) PAOB 216.-INFLAMMATIOK OF THE KlDNEYS.

This disease is readily ^isti-gu^^^f ^ %^ ^l^;
derness of the loins when pressed, and the h.,n

which is sometimes almost black. copious, and re-

The bleeding, as stated m e t^J^^;;"";^^^^ fhe loins is a fresh

peated, if necessary. One of the appl ,,„,e, and keep

Sheepskin, the skm side .^"^^^^^Vi^i^'^^y be continued by means of a
up, a considerable perspirat on, wh ch^^^^ internal me-

fr^esh skin in the course of twelve bo J ^^^^^ ,

dicines, one of the best sedatives is th^^^ ,
Sjht,t^rab\SLce^:^rr^ tea should be given, so as to sheath
the irritated parts.

(48.) PAGE 217.

• vi,. produced bv unwholesome food, such
Diabetes is almost invariably produced by^^^^ ^^^^^^.^^ ^^^.^.^^

as mowburnt hay, or kiln-clriea oais. ; recommended in

foss of flesh. We do -^^jn-ove of blood let^^ g,^ ^^^^
the text; but astringents such as opium ^ ^^^^^^

:iif "Th^crio?th: dtel:, 'rater it may be, should of course be
removed.

(49 ) PAGE 218.-INE.AMMATION OF THE BlAB.KH.

This is a very rare but -c^^ng^ou. ^-se, ^^^r
being so great that it is almost >«>poss bie to ^ ^^tinu^Hy ejected.
^:n in th'e bladder, tlie -"te" ^ of wb ch a^^^^^
Recourse must ^be^^efore be had to very p^.^^^ ^^.^^^^
deavour to check both he '^A^^^J"^ measures. We may ass.st

assuage the i^ritatio^ which fo^^^^^^^^^ P ^^.^^^^ ^.^^^ tarta-
tbe effect by the exhibition f caloi administered three times a

rized antimony, '"^^ '"Zay he ^M^ted when inflammation attacks he
day. The same means may ^ its evacuation. As stated

Seek of the bladder and ^be spastn P evacuated by means

?n the text, the bladder of '^'^,'^^'\^l\^^,t\c and flexible catheter, the
of a catheier; and by the aid of the e^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^^^

bladder of the gelding can ^ ^^^.j^er has thus succeeded in evacuating
^nrrS^ a'^ie where it was distended almost to the
point of bursting.

CUTTING FOR STONE-CASTEATION, ETC. 605

(50.) PAGE 219. — Cutting for the Stone.

In performing this operation, the horse is cast and turned on his back
and supported m that position. A whalebone or wooden stafF S
passed up the urethra, and when it is felt at the perin^l j, Punier ^h"

=jth:;^=:^; t;L^bii»^ii^L/d£t^

out with tpid^s

(51.) PAGE 227.— Castration.
• We agree with the author, that the old method of operating, by open-

t off w>kT"; ^^'-^ '^""'"g ''^^ on the^ord, £d seaE

It off w,th the hot iron, is as safe and unobjectionable as an^. We have

Wfi7al'K/t™"°" '''""^ ^''^ of chlo'roform very

benehcml, both m removing all pam, and also preventing that severe

Wf wifh P^^'^' ^"'^"'"■^•^ ^^'^ been fo !

Jowed with very dangerous consequences. With this assistance we have

^'^r!:'s::iZr''''^ minuS.

(52.) PAGE 228.— Sprain of the Shoulder.

These cases are not so unfrequent as people generally imagine Fo.
tnerly all lamenesses, the seat of which could not hP S ? !i

pa,„ m extendmg Ae limb, b„, only when the weight cornea upon i • Z

(53.) PAGE 241.— Broken Knees.

tho?gh th": wounf rLl'an'r'^'^ 'T'J'' Sometimes,
ordinary woS and wn?h..T ^f.f^'^^'ly formidable, it is yet but an
times DarMv i ^'^} I'f^^ '"^ad-ly with common treatment. At other

opens me t^^ h wule and deep fissure takes pLe,^Jl "ch

STomnl :llhl *''^^o'•se bends his knee, and the sides of the chao

SSly^c^'ffi^SrtVS %ri"\'^^^<^-^^%^^-P^r and wider, "Jt
♦v,„ • 1 "'mcuit to heal. The best mode of treatmpnt i<; tr, r.,,^

simple wound, which may be healed with little difficulty. Wheh

5Qg THE HORSE—APPENDIX.

theioint is opened the treatment must be conducted on very different
ScTnles from that of an ordinary wound ; whereas, m the latter case
Cenut ons and poultices are very" proper, in order to cleanse the wound .
and to keep down inflammation. When the omt >s opened these mea^
sures are to be avoided, as they increase .rntat.on by keepmg open t i e
joint, and encouraging the flow of synovia, and the entrance of the

^''in a case of open joint our principal endeavour must be to close the
ioint with all possible despatch, but even with jud.cous treatment our
Eels of sucLss will materially depend on one ^ctTrX e;
viz., the size of the wound, the cavity, opened, and the fact as to whether

pSuron and keeping i. in .notion by pawing f'~--, J^^'l
rSluSn oT spirits o/wine, and applied to -""^J^'^Xr

Another method of treatment is to apply compresses of bandage and
paste lettTng them continue on for a length of time, so as to close di^

&s'it2;i^.e,-v^"^^ir;2^^

(54.) PAGE 244.— Splints.
The best remedy for splints is unquestionably suhcutaceous permte^^^^^^

E «r ^^^^^^^^^^^

open and produces some counter-irritation.

The Leg. — page 245.

• .nnnot isree with the Author when he says (page 245) that there
We cannot agree wun x. ^^j^^ j^^^^, .

are few good race-horses but what are deep m g
now, our own experience assur s -[y^,;"/';„^,,,ring below the

horses have -^//^"'^y often stand" their work

wJf,r tS;:r Sl^th ra^er in the extensors than

STRAINS OF THE FLEXOR SINEWS. 507
the flexors of the limb. Their action should be long and low, not high

?ot';:;i:,t' TU ^'tr'^^^l-'^^^ ^exor mutles are calculated

to produce. Thus what would be a gnevous fault in almost every other
Krncl ot horse, is not with a horse kept purely for the turf.

(55.) PAGE 246.— Strains of the Flexor Sinews.

In the description of the anatomy of these parts in the text (pa^e 239)

there are one or two omissions which it is necessary to supply The

oHice of these tendons is twofold, viz., to flex the limb and also to sus-

tam a great portion of the animal's weight. They therefore act both as

sinews and as ligaments. In the latter oflice they are greatly assisted bv

a strong ligamentous substance which is attached to the common bone

above, and to the perforans tendon below, for which, indeed, it forms

a slieath A late veterinary writer has claimed this ligament as a dis- .

ZZl tl'^^-^-der, however, who is curious about the

iTstd r.'i ^ Foot and Leg of the Horse, pub-

^^.'^'f"' ""W' ^^11 this ligamentary

s Tves Tn U ' T'^'"^' f «^ '^'^ '^"dons them-

selves. In those strains of the tendons where the enlargement takes

ett ii" if nof e 'l' '"S ^'^^"^^"^ '"^^ '''' misclief lnd Ih
ettect IS, If not early subdued, to cause a contraction of the sinews and

consequently produce first a straight or knuckling, and afterwards an
overshot fetlock, so that the animal is rendered usefe'ss, and requires in
order to restore h.m to any degree of usefulness, the performance' of
an operation denominated pcnurmance or

Jengthen the smews and thus restore the fetlock to its original
po ition. The operation is performed midway between the knef 3
fetlock there being there no sheath of any consequence, and no synovial
cavity to be opened. The tendons being divided recede to the^exten

e^rliLroV\heTiner.'"°"^ ^"'^""^^ '^^^^
In the ordinary strains of the flexor tendons the seat of injury is

as to the amount of injury, varying from a slight lameness and a tS

3=f :r rrp'erorbef^reXi^d :^Tf

Whe^ IZuZ"' f^tually become both inflamed and enlarged

nominaLd in ' and enlargement are excessive, the miscliief is de-

serTous'^,l;Eie?is"^n ''f 1 ' l^reak-dorvn ; but in such instances this
allowed Tn^ , ^^'^y ^^"^^y" preceded by a slight strain, which is
^en a?e To'/ T"' T^'V^ or neglected, for we often find that no
^^usted with ft "" ""'^i neglectful in this respect as those who are in-
trusted with the most valuable of all horses.

adomi!r r*"^ ^^''^'■^ '''"^^ "'"'t energetic measures should be

o^ce' o 'twi^co " '"P""^ '''' '•^P-^'^'' if -cessa'y

physic anTl .ft fomentations for some hours at a time^

physic, and after some days, cold applications to the leg, continued wTth '

2 L 2

508

THE HORSE.— APPENDIX.

out intermission. By such treatment the writer has succeeded in re-
storing the animal to hunting work, when strained to such a degree as to
be inc'apable of standing on the leg for a week.

(56.) PAGE 248.— WiNDGALLS.

Numerous dissections of these windgalls have enabled us to give
a different explanation from that stated in the text. They appear to be
of two kinds, those situated between the suspensory ligaments and the
flexor tendons, and which are the most common, and those formed
between the suspensory ligaments and the bone in front, in each case
immediately above the fetlock joint. Now, the fonner windgalls consist
in an extension of the investment of the sheath of the flexor perforans
formed for it by the perforatus, and the latter a distension of the cap-
sular ligaments of the joint itself. In each a synovial cavity is affected,
and consequently the windgall cannot be opened without considerah e
danger They rarely occasion lameness unless attended with considerable
inflammation or ossification of the neighbouring parts, or a solidification
of the synovia. When this is the case the treatment advised in the text
should be adopted.

(57.) PAGE 252.— Grogginess.

This term is applied by horsemen to slight lameness which goes off
with exercise, and which is shown in the stable by the animal pointing
the affected foot. The seat of the disease is the navicular joint, and it is
altogether unconnected with that knuckling of the fetlock which is often
seen in horses much forked, and which appears to be owing to weakness
of the sinews, principally of the extensors.

(58.) PAGE 252. — Cutting.

This evil is sometimes removed by shoeing the horse very thin on the
inside or even giving him a three-quarter shoe, the tendency of which
plan is to make the horse carry its feet wider apart; but, in some cases,
the very opposite plan is found the best.

(59.) page 254.— Sprain of the Coffin Joint.

This disease is extremely rare, the joint being so well secured from
external injury by the horny box in which it is encased Its ligaments
are however, occasionally strained, which may be detected by heat a the
coronet and tenderness, when the joint is wrenched laterally. \\ hen these
symptoms are absent, we may safely conclude the disease exists else-
Xre It is not this, but the navicular disease, which is often mis-
Taken for shoulder lameness. This disease, when it does occur, often
occasions ossifications of, and near, the side cartilages of the foot.

(60.) PAGE 255. — Ringbone.
This disease, so termed because it constitutes bony growth round the
paS^n ^es, is of t^ ^i^; ^^^^ ^ Tl^S
r:eX WsTot ISl'in o 'Saments , but the^latter c^onsists in
Ssificatfon of the cartilages of the sides of the loot, which become en-

STRAIN OF THE ROUND BONE-STIFLE LAMENESS. 509

Jarged, as well as converted into bone. This is less frequently the con-
sequence of strains than the other disease, and it is oftLrfLnd with
heavy cart-horses than with lighter horses. Indeed, witirmany hor e
there seems a predisposition to change their cartilaginous structure into
bone The exct.ng cause of these false ringbones is concussion p^o
duced by the we.ght of the animal and the hardness of the road orVavel
ment. I hus, on the London stones the disease is very common • for th^
same reason, it is the fore limbs where the disease occurs, in nine cases

r h" ^"t'^' ^'^""^ ^" ^'"ghones are more commoa

m the fore feet than the hind ones. "nnon

The best treatment for ringbones of either kind is, after the inflamma-
"'"ff"'^ '■'"^"^"'^ '^"^''"g applications, to fire
n^ off ff"""''' Tl'li^ of mercury ointment,

E • I,- f^'""^ succeeded in removing fhe lameness

• a=tfrf:i:et:°"^'"^"' '-^^"^^--^ ^

(61.) PAGE 255.— Strain of the RotJND Bone.

inslnce'^''?he '^''^^^^V r*-e that we have seldom met with an

tertPd ^i. . . ^ '''^"S' ^^'^"■•ed, and so well pro-

occmi;^'' Wnl ^^^""^ ''"j- -^ "'i''-"' d- ocaCn

are hv n^" • ' ""'l T- '^'^^ tenderness about the part we

inTu?v FT2r''t^ '."PP?^"^ '•^""d bone is the^seat of

n''fi!\- 7' ^'*b°"^^b to be the case tliat all obscure lamenesses
;n the hmd extremity were referred to some supposed disease In thi J
jomt, we are now well assured by po.t .«or^e JLaminat.ons that in
Whl :r '^7^-- of disease is the hock joint! "

tenTp/n "^'ghj^O"rhood of the hip joint is injured, there is external
tenderness, evmced on pressure, and the^'mischief fs produced b; e^te'nal

(62.) PAGE 263.— Stifle Lameness.

dislase ZuZ"^- "^"'^^^ '""^^ frequently the seat of

to hint! f ^b°^^' situation, it is rather exposed

strit7hit:^;fl \%Yn;Tt^ ^ narrow gateway^ard^rus

will pJint n. • • . Swellmg, and heat, and tenderness

the case ' '''^"Sh very unfrequent, is yet occasionally

cooT!nVaTpSor;s"t?tT''''r T'T ^" ^^P'^''"^ fomentations and
dued- wlK !r ? P^!"' ^^^^'^'^^ """1 ^'^e inflammation is sub-

vein i^sSeule^tS'"'' ^^^'^^^^ b'^'^J'"^' f'-o- the
of the jornt WhS 'th ''^"'"^ "-gl^bourhood

will ]d Z - II ^ inflammation is subdued, a blister on the ioint

bill: zti^T.;' ^= «

510

THE HORSE.— APPENDIX.

(63.) PAGE 265. — Dislocation of the Patella.

This is almost the only joint in the horse which is liable to disloca-
tion. In some horses there is a predisposition to this disease, from a too
great flatness of the articulating surface of the patella. It usually occurs
in young animals, and very rarely in old ones. We have known colts
so liable to this dislocation as to be perfectly useless ; and, on the other
hand, cases in which the joint has been dislocated several times, and the
animal, after a time, so far recover from the predisposition as to have no
subsequent repetition.

The symptoms are strongly marked and ought not to be mistaken.
The animal is found in a helpless state, being unable to stir or extend
the affected limb ; but, if forced to move, will drag the toe on the ground.
The patella will usually, if not always, be found dislocated outwards,
and the treatment consists in the assistant pulling the limb forwards,
while the operator forces the patella in by lateral pressure. A blister
over the part, or rather a blistering charge or plaster, will tend to prevent
a recurrence of the evil.

(64.) PAGE 265. HOROUGH-PINS.

The usual seat of thorough-pins is below, and in advance of the point
of the hock, and it consists of distension of the capsular ligament at this
part, and often a giving way or rupture of its connections. It precisely
resembles bog spavin, which occurs at the lower and front part of the
same joint. These affections may occur independently, but more fre-
quently are found together. Though seldom productive of lameness, a
weakness and stiffness of the part is often the consequence. The best
treatment is either the application of the firing iron, or the repeated
rubbing in of the ointment of iodine and mercury. A seton over the
part has also been found useful.

(65.) PAGE 267. — Curbs.

The seat of this injury is usually the flexor tendon of the leg, as it
passes through a sheath at the back of the hock. It therefore resembles
a strain of the back sinews, as they are commonly called, although the
injury is seldom so severe or so difficult to be cured. There are many
degrees as to the amount and extent of the injury and the corresponding
lameness. It is by far the best plan to take a horse out of work imme-
diately on his showing lameness, as by tliat means the cure can be more
expeditiously and perfectly effected; and there is much less enlargement
left afterwards, than when a horse is patched up by the application of
stimulants, and worked on, thereby renewing the strain again and again.
After the inflammation has been quite subdued by the means pointed out
in the text, we have found that the firing iron effects the most perfect
cure, and secures the animal, in nine cases out of ten, from a return of
the lameness. The marks of the iron, in cases of curbs, need not be
great, and never operates to the animal's disadvantage. We have always
found that a horse which has been fired for a curb will realize as much,
or more, than another that has thrown out a curb, but has not been
fired for it. We have also frequently found that a horse fired for a
curb has remained sound, wliilst in the course of a twelvemonth he

BOG SPAVIN— BONE SPAVIN.

511

lias thrown out a curb on the other hock, even though he had been fired
with a view of preventing it, showing that, though firing may act as a
cure, it does not act as a preventative.

In the examination of horses for soundness we have not hesitated to
pass a horse with a curb, requiring, however, a special warranty that
should the curb cause lameness within a reasonable time, the seller shall
be responsible.

(66.) PAGE 268.— Bog Spavin.

Our observations under the head of thoroxigh-pins equally apply here;
only that bog spavins are generally more -serious, the capsular ligament
having a larger amount of surface at the lower part of the hock than at
the upper. It must not be forgotten that it is the joint itself that is
affected, and not the parts exterior to it.

(67.) PAGE 269. — Bone Spavin.

This disease, as stated in the text, is one of the most serious by which
the horse is affected. In the majority of cases it must be confessed
that treatment does not succeed in removing lameness. When the dis-
ease is a simple ossification, on or below the small bones of the hock,
the lameness may generally be removed ; but it is more frequently the
case that the disease extends itself between the small bones of the hock,
causing ulceration of the synovial membrane and cartilage forming the
articulating surfaces, and even extending to the substance of the bones
themselves. When such is the nature of the case, treatment will, to a
great extent, prove unavailing. The amount of enlargement that may
exist, therefore, offers no criterion as to the greater or lesser seriousness
of the case, for a large exostosis may occur without this ulceration,
which latter may exist in some instances with very little enlargement, and,
in others, none whatever. Indeed, as stated in the text, in the greater
number of cases of lameness of the hind extremities, where no cause is
externally perceptible, the seat of injury is the hock. In the majority of
cases, the synovial surfaces of the small bones of the hock are affected,
in others the larger articulation between the tibia and astragalus is the seat
of mischief, the synovial membrane and cartilage being similarly affected.

With regard to the treatment of these hock cases, as we before ob-
served, the result is extremely uncertain and unsatisfactory. If any
external inflammation is present, we cannot do better than commence
by abstracting blood from the vein above, and use cooling applications
to the hock ; after which we may resort either to the blisrer, the seton,
or the iron. The first is the milder remedy, and if resorted to, should
be repeated several times. With regard to the seton, and the iron, we
have both succeeded and failed with each. It may be urged in favour
of the seton that the marks and blemishes of the iron are avoided.

In otherwise incurable lameness of the hock, the operation of neuro-
tomy has been adopted with success, excising the nerve on the inside
only a few inches above the hock. The merit of this operation is prin-
cipally due to Profe,ssor Spooner, of the Royal Veterinary College of
London, who was the first to perform and introduce it.

512

THE HORSE—APPENDIX.

(68.) PAGE 273. — Capped Hock.

The actual seat of this lesion is between the skin and the tendons
inserted in, and passing over, the point of the hock. The skin is very
loose at this part, and to facilitate the motions of the hock there is much
cellular membrane. A capped hock is therefore a serous tumour or
abscess ; that is, the parts are inflamed and irritated from blows, and
serum is thrown out between the skin and the cellular membrane, and
the tumour is circumscribed. The vice of kicking against the stall-post
is, in nearly every case, the cause of this disease. We should endeavour
to remove the swelling by cooling measures, followed by a blister, or the
application of iodine ointment; but, if these means fail, and the tumour
is large, we may pass a seton through it with impunity, for there is no
joint or tendinous sheath opened. The seton should be kept in till the
discharge becomes slightly purulent, or otherwise the tumour will soon
fill again with serum.

(69.) PAGE 276.— Grease.

In the treatment of this disease, and those analogous cases of humours
or swellings of the legs by which it is preceded, blood-letting will be
generally desirable, with a dose of physic; for it is while the system is
under the cooling effects of these depletive agents that local measures are
attended with the greatest benefit. Poultices, either of linseed meal or
carrots, may be applied, and astringent lotions added to them, so as to
remove the irritation, and check the discharge at the same time.

(70.) PAGE 289. — Acute Founder.

Laminitis, or inflammation of the laminae of the feet, though often
occasioned by long-continued exertion on the hard road, is not produced
by galloping on the turf, and indeed scarcely ever affects race-horses.
Heavier breeds are more liable, and particularly when the feet are weak
in proportion to the weight of the animal. When horses work on soft
ground, the sole and the frog bear some proportion of the superincumbent
weight, but on the hard road the shoe alone comes in contact with the
ground, and consequently the crust and the laminae bear the whole of the
weight, and thus are exposed to inflammatory action from this cause.
Some relief, however, is obtained by the feet being alternately in the air
and on the ground ; but when horses are confined for many days in a
standing posture, as on board ship» the laminae are almost constantly on
the stretch ; this disease, therefore, very frequently follows a voyage, and
has often attacked troop horses, particularly when the voyage has been
rough and of undue continuance. When, however, laminitis supervenes
as a secondary disease, the prior disorder affects a similar tissue as the
other ; thus it is when pleurisy is succeeded by laminitis, both the pleura
and the laminae being fibrous tissues and of the same character. Such
likewise is the case when acute rheuvnatism is the prior disease.

With regard to treatment, the most energetic measures must be
adopted, as advised in the text. It is not, however, judicious to bleed
a second time in the feet, but better to repeat the bleedmg from the arms
or the coronets. When a blister is applied its effects should be washed
off the following day, by doing which it can be repeated several times.

PUMICED FEET—CONTKACTION, KTC. 513

Bleeding, however, is the sheet anchor, and there is generally a capability
of bearing a large depletion.

(71.) PAGE 290. — Pdmiced Feet.

When this disease follows that previously treated of in the preceding
article, the horse is rendered completely unserviceable, the laminae
become disorganized, the coffin bone separates from the crust and
descends on the sensible sole, which, unable to bear the pressure, becomes
bruised and diseased, and in fact the horse is incurably lame.

When, however, a convex foot is gradual in its approach, the sole
becoming pumiced by degrees, there is some palliation to be offered ;
m such instances there is usually a very weak foot previously, giving a
predisposition to the disease. In this case likewise the toe of the bone
"recedes from the crust, a horny substance is thrown out between them,
which is, however, of no use as a support ; the front of the foot, usually the
strongest, now becomes the weakest, and the horse goes mostly upon his
heels*

A cure being out of the question we must endeavour to palliate as best
we can, and this we shall do by means of shoeing. A bar shoe should be
nailed on, well hollowed out, so as not to press on the sole in the slightest
degree, and a rim of leather should be put under the shoe to diminish
concussion, but should not extend over the sole. The bar should be put
on so as to be within the eighth of an inch from the frog, by which means
pressure only will be given it when the foot is on the ground, and it will
thus be enabled to support a moderate share of the superincumbent weicrht
and so relieve the crust of it. The hoof should be frequently anointed
with a mixture of tar and grease, and if the horse is rested for some time
the coronets may be blistered.

(72.) PA6E 292.— Contraction.

A vast amount of error has been written in various works with regard
to the subject of contraction. For our own parts, we believe that it is in
the greater number of instances the consequence rather than the cause of
lameness ; and the dissection of a great number of diseased feet has
assured us that when lameness is present ihere is disease of the navicular
joint, ol the presence of which tiiere cannot be a better proof than the
symptom of pointing alluded to in the text. It is quite true that some
ho ses wil point from gait or habit without any disease being present
but when lameness exists, and the horse also Joints, we maf fake "he
latter symptom as presumptive evidence that the case is one of

(73.) page 298.— Navicular Joint Disease.

aflSid'\nronl'^r frequent lamenesses by which the horse is

attected, and one of the most insidious and incurable. It sometimes

often vTrv'",. "^^ ^'Tu' lamen sTI

Jftl ^^y;^^^"-^' ^"d there is no contraction previous to the lameness

freaZtlv i we>ght upon it, contraction is sure to follow; more

trequently, however, this disease is gradual in its approach the hnZl
points previous to the lameness, and if the foot is atLZl examined
contraction in some degree will be discovered. Thus the symptomT are^

514

THE HORSE— APPENDIX.

Lameness, Pointing, and Contraction, each of which demands separate
consideration, in order that we may understand the true nature of this
very deceptive disease, and the more so as it has not been treated -at
much length in the text.

The Lameness. — The degree of lameness in navicular disease admits
of a variety of shades. In some cases we find it manifested the first
hundred yards only ; in some it may continue for a mile or two
and then go off; in others, again, it may continue throughout a jour-
ney, but not so severely as at first. This circumstance is common to
some other lamenesses, but not so uniformly the case as in navicular
disease. So important a symptom is it, that on ascertaining its existence
it of itself leads us strongly to suspect the nature of the lameness. It is
customary to say of a groggy horse, " Oh ! he will go sound enough
when he gets a little warm." This peculiarity, which is common to
many lamenesses, but more particularly to the navicular disease, is ascribed
to the attention of the horse being called away from the injured part : this
in a great measure is the case, but we must add that in the disease in
question the secretion of synovia becomes increased by exercise, and the
horse is enabled so to dispose his weight as to rest but very lightly on
the injured joint. In some cases the lameness is so slight that the utmost
tact of the practitioner is required to detect it ; or the horse may sho^v it
on the stones and go sound on gravel. Should the horse be slightly lame
in both feet the difficulty is still greater, and he may go a long time in
this state before the owner thinks him actually lame. When both feet
are thus equally affected, however, the action of the horse becomes
altered in proportion to the extent of mischief ; he no longer bends the
knee with the same freedom as before, his action becomes shorter, the
heels of the foot scarcely touch the ground, and the shoe will exhibit
the toe almost worn away, whilst the heels continue undiminished in
thickness. These circumstances, whether one leg or both be affected,
will at all times materially assist our diagnosis. After the disease has
existed in both feet for a considerable period, the horse brings his hind
legs under his body, and makes them sustain the greater part of his
tveight, and in the stable he almost constantly lies down.

Pointing. — We should be cautious of giving an opinion of the cause of
lameness until we have seen the horse in the stable, where, if there be any
doubt of the matter, we should leave him for a while undisturbed. In
many cases, on asking the question, "Does the horse point?" the groom
will reply, " Oh yes, he ha's done so for a long time !" The ascertain-
ment of the length of this time will inform us how long the disease has
been coming on. In other cases, on asking the same question, we are
told he never points. The former reply we may generally depend on,
but the latter we must never trust to ; for, unless the lame foot is thrust
out nearly a yard in front of the other, the groom does not consider that
the horse points. In a case of this sort, (supposing all the time that it is
one of navicular disease,) we shall probably find, on noticing the horse,
that the affected foot is advanced in some degree beyond the other, that
there is very little weight resting on it, and none whatever on the heels.
In navicular disease the horse always, or at least in ninety-nine cases in a
hundred, points, either little or much, although it may be unnoticed by the
attendants ; it is, indeed, one of the most striking characteristics of the
disease. Wc must not, however, always conclude that because a horse
points he must necessarily have the disease, although in the majority of
instances we may expect its approach, either early or late ; but some horscg

NAVICULAR JOINT DISEASE.

515

have been known to point for years without going lame : either the horse
has pointed from habit, or the alteration of structure in the foot may be
sufficient to occasion pointing, and yet by careful treatment prevented
from being so bad as to produce lameness. Some persons having wit-
nessed a case in which a horse may have pointed for a lengthened period
without being lame, immediately conclude that it is of no consequence,
thus confidently drawing an inference from the narrow limits of their own
experience, and allowing it to influence their conduct. We may, however,
safely aver that pointing, if a habit, is at best a wretched bad one, having
so much the semblance of disease ; and from its so frequently being the
precursor of lameness, it materially lessens the value of an animal.

If a horse is lame and points, must we necessarily conclude that he has
navicular disease? No; he may point from corns or from other injury at
the posterior part of the foot, but then this pointing is different from that
of navicular disease. In the latter the foot is generally set out straight,
in the former it is not extended so far, but the heels are more elevated.
In the former, the animal having put his foot in the easiest position, turns
his attention to other objects, whilst in the latter the solicitude of the
horse is evidently directed more continually to the part, and if a horse
points from corns the lameness and pain are unusually severe.

Contraction. — This is a symptom that, either generally or partially, we
usually find attending navicular disease. It is, however, by no means
universally the case, indeed we occasionally find navicular lameness with-
out any contraction, and, on the other hand, quite as frequently extensive
contraction without any lameness Avhatever. Contraction is more fre-
quently the consequence than the cause of lameness, arising as it does most
commonly from resting or favouring the foot, which the lameness induces.
There are different sorts as well as different degrees of contraction.
Puttmg aside the natural oblong narrow mule's-shape foot which often
exists through life unattended with lameness, we may have the heels
drawn in, the crust and bars approaching with scarcely any space in the
commissures, and the frog much diminished, hard, dry, and preternaturally
elevated. In other cases the contraction may be only on one side, or the
foot may appear altogether free from contraction, which may be only
found to exist by comparing it with the other foot. There are other cases
in which there may be no apparent contraction, and yet the parts are by
no means in a natural and proper position ; the horny sole is preterna-
turally arched and thick, and the consequence is, the navicular joint is
driven up higher ,n the horny box, and instead of having a comparatively
flat and elastic surface to repose on, it has a hard unyielding ridge formed
by the commissures. j s> ^

w.n ^"""if "'"u" "'^ ^y'"Pfo'"s attending the disease, it would be

Tnlr '° 7^"/'°" "'"'•'"'^ appearances of the joint which

; rr^lT"'? post mortem examinations of the malady in

: Its different stages exhibit. Among some morbid specimens in my pos-
: session, one mere y shows a slight indentation on the ridge of the navi-
', InZxZTV ^^hen recent the corresponding portion of the sinew was
w«?E! r ^^^..^"'•^^ J^ad pointed a long time prior to his death, and
was lame for a mile or so on first going off.

Another specimen exhibits holes in the navicular bone somewhat like a
' together with very diminutive bony deposits on different
parts of the surface of the bone. The mare to which it had belonged hTc
been lame for several years in both feet, which were much contract^ed and
got gradually worse until she was only fit to go to plough. '

616

THE HORSE.— APPENDIX.

Another case developes still greater disease on both navicular bones
which are ulcerated in a great degree, and present also numerous lone
spicuh on their articular surface, besides which there is an ossification of
the inferior cartilage, so that although the bones have been boiled the navi-
cular bone rests securely on the ossified parts, which must therefore have
materially saved the diseased tendon. The bones had belonged to a very
old horse and favourite hunter, that had been lame for many years, and
had consequently been used for agricultural labour.

Another morbid specimen is that of the feet of an old horse that had
been groggy for some years. The navicular bones in both feet were
closely united to the flexor tendons, and on tearing them apart the fibres
of the sinew were lacerated ; the greater part of the posterior surface of
these bones was denuded of cartilage, and presented a rough appearance,
and the bones themselves were situated higher up in the hoof than natural,'
assuming a more vertical or less horizontal position. Although this was
the position of the bones, yet the foot by a common observer would have
been pronounced well-shaped; the sole, however, I found enormously
thick.

From a review of the various circumstances which attend the domestica-
tion of the horse, we may, I think, justly conclude that most of them operate
in inducing the disease in question. The foot in its natural state has a
disposition to contract when at rest, and expand when pressed upon. In
a weak foot there is a greater tendency to spread than contract, but in a
strong one we may consider these two antagonist principles as equivalent
to each other. When, however, the horse becomes domesticated, every
means is used to aid the contraction and to neutralise the disposition to
expansion. The shoe is nailed to the foot when the latter is in its most
contracted state, and the horse is confined in a stall the greater part of the
day. On a sudden he is taken out of the stable, and, without having pre-
pared his joints and limbs by preliminary exercise, he is driven as fast as
he can trot for the space of an hour or upwards, on the hard road, and
then during the remainder of the twenty-four hours consigned to the
stable. What is the result of this unnatural system ? By the joint eflfects
of the shoe, hot litter, and standing in the stable so long, the foot so con-
tracts that the sole is driven upwards, and with it the navicular bone,
which thus, as we have before noticed, has a hard unyielding surface to rest
upon ; and the joint having been in a quiescent state for many hours, there
is probably a diminished secretion of synovia. In this unprepared state
the feet are battered on the hard road, and the result is in many cases a
bruise of the synovial membrane, which may be eitlier sufficient to produce
sudden and severe lameness, or so moderate as to occasion the slightest
lameness only.

So far as my experience goes, horses used for racing are not so often
affected as others, and this circumstance must I think be attributed to the
fact of their taking a great deal of exercise on the soft ground, where the
various parts of the feet meet the soil. They are not taken out of the
stable and compelled to proceed at once with speed, but even during se-
vere training are first walked for a considerable period before they take
their gallops, which thus gradually prepares the joints for the severer
exertions they are about to perform. Hunters, too, as we have before
remarked, although exposed to sudden concussions and severe exertions,
more, perhaps, than any other horses, are yet much more exempt from the
disease than horses used on the road. How is this? but because they
take much walking exercise every day, and particularly on the day of

NAVICULAR JOINT DISEASE. 6I7

hunting, before their severe exertions commence, and these exertions are
taken, in great measure, on the soft soil, where the frog, bars, and sole
all meet the ground, and greatly assist in diminishing concussion and pre-
serving the feet in a healthy state. It is a fact, too, that few will gainsay
who have made extensive observations, that when hunters are affected
with navicular disease, it is much more frequently than with other horses

: attended by sudden and acute lameness : the horse goes out perfectly

: sound and comes home dead lame.

From these circumstances we are disposed to draw the following con-
i elusions : — °

First— That navicular lameness may be produced suddenly by a bruise
. on the synovial membrane, without any predisposing cause existing, but
1 that this is by no means frequent.

Secondly— That well-bred horses with strong feet are most subiect to
t the disease.

Thirdly— That the lameness is usually preceded by an alteration in the
: structure of the foot, whereby the navicular bone is somewhat displaced,
: and has a hard unyielding surface to rest on instead of an elastic cushion.

£Ti 1 ^TTJ . l^'^ contraction may be either apparent or obscure.

*^"'i^y— V^^t feet thus contracted the lameness itself is yet produced
(by a sudden bruise.

Sixthly-That contraction is not a direct cause of lameness itself,
i^lrif ^y authors, inasmuch as the dissection of

morbid feet clearly developes the disease elsewhere; but that although not
i an exciting cause, it is yet a predisposing agent.

Seventhly— That contraction is more frequently a consequence than a

hor e to JhT°'?' ^"u^ circumstance that induces the

Ihoise to abstain from bearing his weight upon the foot.

^ Ireatment.—ln endeavouring to cure the navicular disease, much

ibeeriame""i;r/;''"^' '^p^"'^ °" '''' t

tbeen Jame. If the lameness came on suddenly, and but a short time ha<;

eelapsed, we may then set about our treatment with a reasonable prospec

1 TnTlL T h-d, the mischief has been slowlyVomTn.

mailiation^biu . ^ ^"'"'^"^ ^hen afford some

palliation, but a permanent cure we are seldom able to accomplish In

of ^i"^- V"'^^ ^?deavours should be directed, first, to Se remova"

mieal The pouE Vh.nl / k '"'^ P""^'''^"' °'' '"^^^ °f bran and
dday and tL hli i be wetted several times and changed once a

required Thl "l^- ""^y '^^^^''^ ^he course of a few days if
STth^ utl'srbenefiV hi: b ^'^^^^ - ten days. anTtL;

mfFording, we may havp l^ derived from it that it is capable of

we may have recourse to counter-irritation.

>be appaSt°;o\\";/orrrl°" " ^^^^ ''■■--^ --t

^ha! must be attended ^kh .0^^,!" "° ^^^V^'l^-'ng treatment but
:<ca8es the injury mav be cT.fin w T'" °^ '"fl«™ma'ion, and in some
jury may be confined to inflammation alone. Where we have

518

THE HORSE.— APPENDIX.

reason to infer that such is the case we may indeed confine our treatment
to bleeding and poulticing. The benefit of the poultice is inferior only to
venesection. It softens the horn, changing it from a hard, dry, and almpst
inelastic substance, to a soft, yielding, and elastic material. The degree of
paring that may be necessary must depend on the alteration of structure
that has taken place in the foot.

Having pushed our antiphlogistic treatment as far as we well can, we
may next seek the aid of counter-irritation. Shall we blister the coronet
or insert a frog seton ? The latter is I think in every respect preferable ;
we create artificial inflammation and suppuration very near the seat of the
disease, and we may keep this up almost as long as we please ; a month,
however, of active suppuration is generally long enough. The only objec-
tion to the seton is that the horse must be kept in the stable ; he cannot
be turned out or into a soft moist place during the time it remains in the
foot.

Before the seton is inserted a shoe should be placed on the foot, nailed
on the outside quarter only, which will much assist the expansion of the

foot. , ,

By the judicious employment of the treatment we have recommended,
varied or modified according to the nature of the case, we may in many
instances effect a cure ; but a love of truth obliges us to confess, that in the
majority of cases, taking them as they come, no treatment will succeed.

In chronic cases of navicular disease, in which there is no probability of
effecting a cure, and but little of relieving the animal to any considerable
extent, we have to determine whether we shall work the animal lame (if
he is able to work at all), or remove sensation from the feet by the opera-
tion of neurotomy. . , • , j ^

It is a matter of much consequence that when a horse is submitted to the
preceding course of treatment, every chance should be given it by allowing
a long rest, viz., from two to four months.

(74.) PAGE 299. — Sandcrack.

When lameness attends sandcrack it is owing to the crack extending
from the horn to the quick above it. If the horse is worked on, this
iniurvis repeated again and again until the coronary substance becomes so
iniured as to produce a false quarter. When a horse throws out a sand-
crack he must be rested a month or more in order to effect a cure, to do
which effectually the foot should be poulticed for a week m order to en-
coura<re the growth of horn, and the coronet for the same reason may be
stimulated. In the course of a month the sound horn will be grown
down for the space of a quarter of an inch, and then, and not till then, the
firins iron shoidd be drawn transversely above the crack, so as to cut off
the Communication between the fissure and the sound horn above, which
will gradually grow down. A plaster of pitch or shoemaker s wax may
then be placed on the crack, and a strap fastened round the foot, so as to
prevent too much motion taking place. A bar shoe ,s indispensable, in
order that the weak quarter may be secured from the pressure.

(75.) PACK 302. — QUITTOR.

Tl,is disease is ^Z^:: ^S^i^^''^^

*nrc!:~Vtr:!;rrc«l b,.ise, ... i„J,„.y inflicted being deep

SPIOEING.

519

seated. It is also often produced by a festered corn, the matter from
which having no depending opening, spreads upwards between the horn
and the bone, and forms sinuses about the coronet in different directions,
and under and within the cartilages of the foot. With regard to the cure,
the first thing is to poultice well, after which an injection of the solution
of sulphate of zinc will often effect a cure. In other cases it is necessary
to lay open the sinuses or insert setons, bringing them out in some de-
pending position. We have successfully inserted setons at the coronet,
bringing them out severally at the heels and the bars of the foot. When
fhe cartilage is in a state of caries it is desirable to produce a slough by
means of corrosive sublimate. By the adoption of these remedial mea-
sures a cure can generally be effected ; for our own part, we have scarcely
ever yet met with a case of quittor which we have been unable to cure,
though sometimes the treatment has been very protracted and troublesome.

(76.) PAGE 311. — Shoeing.

There is no subject relating to the horse which amateurs profess to
know so much about as that connected with shoeing. One gentleman
requires the sole and other parts of the foot to be pared extremely thin,
and the toe very much shortened, no matter what sort of foot the animal
may have; another forbids the use of the drawing knife, wishes the sole to
remain unpared, and views with holy horror the slightest attempt to re-
move any ragged portion of the frog ; the one is a blind worshipper of art,
the other a zealous votary of nature; each prides himself on his superior
knowledge of the foot, and regards the slightest opposition to his opinions
as the vapouring of ignorance and prejudice. Similar contrarieties prevail
with regard to the sort and shape of the shoe. One insists on having a
shoe with a very broad web, no matter what sort of foot the animal may
have, or work he may have to perform ; another, with an equal indif-
ference to circumstances, demands an extremely narrow shoe ; one requires
very thick heels, another the heels of the shoe to be as thin as a shilling,
or he would work his horse with tips, whether on a sandy or a flinty road.
Then one will require the shoe to be kept considerably wider than the
foot, to the great danger of the animal casting or throwing the shoe, under
the absurd idea that it will prevent or relieve contraction •, and will not
hesitate, as the writer has frequently known, to condemn the smith who
presumes to pay some little attention to nature in the matter. As well
might the wearer purchase a hat much larger than his head, with the ex-
pectation that his brains will enlarge so as to fill it. Some amateurs will
allow the heels to remain untouched, but order the toe to be shortened
considerably at every shoeing, and then anathemize the unfortunate smith
when he finds that his horse goes tender in consequence.

Then, with regard to the nailing on, some require the nails to be driven
as low down, and others as high up, as possible ; some will have the shoe
fastened on with abundance of nails ; others, inspired with some novel
ideas or new-fashioned doctrines, propagated perhaps by " Miles's boy,"
as the saying is in some countries, will eschew one half the nails, and
scarcely believe the other half essential for the security of the shoe.

Amidst such a chaos of opinions who can wonder at the perplexity of
the unfortunate operator, who yet with all its difficulties regards the fitting
of the shoe to the foot a far easier task than that of fitting it to the ideas
of the master. Far be it, however, from our wish to discourage the inter-
ference of the owner in the matter of shoeing, if he will but spek his

520 ' THE HaRSE.—APPENDIX.

information from proper sources, and when he puts it in practice pay some
little attention to the rules of nature and the endless diversity of horses'
feet. By so doing he will be able to put a wholesome restraint on the
conceit of the groom or the coachman, who often regard themselves as
unerring judges on all matters connected with the subject. The great
error amongst amateurs is in not making due allowance for the great
variety in horses' feet, which differ so greatly that it would be a gross
absurdity to shoe all alike. Some horses have so strong a develop-
ment of the horny structure of the foot, that a considerable portion re-
quires to be removed at each shoeing, whilst others require, if it were pos^
sible, horn to be added, for in them the wear is greater than the growth.
Some horses have a tendency to high heels, others to low ones ; some re-
quire the toe of the foot to be reduced every month, in others there is not
a particle to spare. In some horses the frog is so large and gross that
it requires considerable paring, in others it requires to be carefully re-
moved. We find the sole in some horses so thin and flat, that the shoe
must be seated considerably to prevent its pressing on the sole, whilst
in others the sole is so strong and concave, that it is a matter of indiHer-
ence whether the shoe is seated at all, except for the purpose of render-
in<T it lighter. With this endless diversity in horses' feet, how is it pos-
sible to lay down any fixed plan for shoeing all horses alike? All that
can be done is to take an average foot, and consider what sort of shoe is
best suited for it, and so to alter or modify such shoe as to adapt it
to other feet according to their peculiarities.

There is no better shoe for a saddle or light harness horse on the road
than one of moderate weight, rather less than an inch in breadth, seated on
the foot surface, with five nails on the outside quarter and toe, and two
or three on the inside and near the toe. A clip at the toe and another at
the outer quarter will be a useful addition; and if the shoe is required to
be light, then one or even two nails may be dispensed with. By means
of such a shoe the foot will be secured from contraction, and the inside
heel in great measure from corns. The shoe should be of equal thick-
ness at the heel as at the toe, and the web should be narrower at the
former than the latter situation. If the heels of the foot are very low it
will be prudent to make the heels of the shoe somewhat thicker than the
toe, and vice versa. If the sole is inclined to be flat, it will be desirable
to make the shoe somewhat broader in the Cveb, unless a leather sole is
used, which for such feet is extremely useful,-indeed a leather sole is at
all times desirable during the summer season. It secures the sole from
iniury from stones, and saves many a fall and broken knee ; it materially
lessens concussion, diminishes both the wear of the horn and of the shoe,
and keeps applied to the sole a stopping of grease and tar spread on
tow which preserves the horn in a moist and healthy state. It is objec-
tionable for hunters by rendering the shoes more liable to cast; and it
reauired on account of lameness, for horses going on the soft ground,
U should be merely a narrow rim of leather between the bearmg part
of the shoe and the foot.

(77.) PAGE 320.— OPERATIO^fS.

=eVi„ oVr'':wn;:w'"f wS^ by .-e o*er restraints . heope-
m3 is in great measure at tl,e mercy of tl,e an.mal, who can effectually

BLISTERING.

521

resist if he pleases. Besides which, in a case of lameness, there is great
danger of injury arising from the plunging of the animal. If a "soft bed
is made, with dung at the bottom and straw at the top, there is but little
risk in casting. During the last nineteen years, in many hundreds of
operations, we have only met with two cases of injury from casting, and
these were in very old horses, whose spines proved to be anchylosed or
set, and were thus much more liable to fracture. Where the object is to
perform an otherwise painful operation without the infliction of pain, the
use of sulphuric ether or of chloroform may be had recourse to. It is un-
necessary to trace the history of these substances, so much having been
of late written on the subject. The writer has used both with success,
but the chloroform is preferable from its greater strength. The horse, how-
ever, requires a large quantity before the powers of sensation are tem-
porarily destroyed, viz., from two to four ounces. It may be applied
by a simple sponge, but better by means of apparatus, by which expira-
tion is permitted, and at the same time sufficient air admitted to prevent
dangerous effects following. The chloroform may be administered while
the horse is in a standing position, and in some cases he will quietly fall
or lie down ; but as, in other instances, he will resist with determination,
and stand even after sensation is gone, it is the better plan, in order to
save the chloroform, and shorten the time during which the horse is
under its influence, to cast the animal first, when the chloroform can be
immediately applied, and the operation commenced as soon as sensation
is removed. Or the chloroform can be applied when the horse is in a
standing position, and the hobbles affixed at the same time, when, by
means of the latter, the animal can be quietly thrown as soon as the for-
mer begins to act. This method will effect a saving of time. The
use of chloroform is more suitable for short operations, such as nerving
or castration, and the removal of tumours, than for those occupying con-
siderable time.

(78.) PAGE 322. — Blistering.

There has been a vast deal of puffing and humbug mixed up with the
subject of blistering: — ointments and liniments have been sold under
various captivating titles, and professing to be so amiable in their
effects, as to require no tying up of the horse's head when the animal is
submitted to the operation. Now, it should be borne in mind, that the
effect of a blister being to stimulate violently the sensitive cutis and cause
it to throw up the scarf skin in the form of bladders, this cannot be ac-
complished without pain and irritation. Of course, if from the weakness of
the application a lesser effect is produced, the irritation is so much the less.
Cantharides is the base of nearly all blisters, and its action is pretty much
the same, whether applied in the usual blistering ointment or in some
unguent of peculiar and astonishing efficacy, distinguished alike for the
most opposite virtues, — combining the strength of the lion with the mild-
ness of the dove. It is a fact that nine horses out often will not attempt
to blemish themselves ; and it is the knowledge of this fact that induces
the puffers of these blisters to state that the animal does not require his
head to be tied up. The careful veterinary surgeon will, however, use
proper precautions in all cases, though only one in ten may actually
require it. Tlie writer has known a horse tear up the stones under his
feet from the irritation produced by James's blister.

2 M

522

THE HORSE.— APPENDIX.

(79.) PAGE 324.— Firing.

Notwithstanding its seeming cruelty, it cannot be denied that this ope-,
ration often succeeds when all other methods of cure have failed. We
have little or nothing to add as to the mode of performing the operation,
only that we prefer the lines to be made in the oblique or feather form,
simply because it is as effectual as the perpendicular firing as regards the
bandage, and leaves a lesser blemish as the lines become covered by the
hair growing from above.

(80.) PAGE 326. — Setons.

We are more favourable than our author to the use of setons ; they are
equally effectual, and far more cleanly, than rowels, and a deep-seated and
continued action may be kept up with little or no pain to the animal.
They are often preferable to other methods of treatment for diseases of
the hocks, and we have found the use of the frog seton in many instances
extremely beneficial.

(81.) PAGE 338. — Vicious to Clean.

In some instances the skin is so irritable that the horse really endures
a great deal of misery every time he is cleaned, besides expending a great
deal of muscular exertion needlessly. The remedy for this is very simple ;
instead of being curry-combed and wisped, he should be simply washed
over with warm water on his coming in warm from a journey, then gently
scraped and covered with a rug. The warmth of the body will very
soon dry the skin.

(82.) page 338.— Vicious to Shoe.

This is certainly a very bad vice, and one, indeed, that very materially
diminishes the value of the horse, for it is a habit which generally gets
worse at each time of shoeing. It is not so much the kicking of the horse
that is to be feared, but the animal will bear his whole weight on the foot
required to be shod, so that the smith is unable to lift it up, or afterwards
to support it ; besides which, the animal will keep continually kicking or
endeavouring to get the foot away, to the imminent danger of the limbs
of the unfortunate operative. This deplorable and vicious habit is
greatly increased, if not altogether produced, by rough usage at the early
shoeings, and it generally gets worse at each time of shoeing, so that the
horse is often rendered at last completely worthless.

(83.) PAGE 341. — Not Lying Down.

It should not be forgotten that the basis of support afforded by the
four extremities is so considerable in the horse that he is able to sleep
in a standing position, and we have known some horses preserve their
health, strength, and condition, although they have never been known to
lie down. At the same time it must be confessed that an animal that
will quietly lie down and take his rest generally preserves his condition,
and is better fitted for exertion.

SHYING— SOUNDNESS.

523

(84.) PAGE 342. — Shying.

This vice or habit, for it ranges between the one and the other, exists
in every variety of degree. There are more horses tliat shy than do not :
when the practice exists in a slight degree it is a matter of no conse-
quence, but, when the animal, instead of merely looking at the object of
alarm and dwelling a little in his pace as he approaches it, stops suddenly,
or turns round, or swerves considerably, the habit becomes a dangerous
vice, and is exceedingly objectionable. There is more affectation than
real fear about this habit, the horse making use of every unusual object
as an excuse for the indulgence of his skittishness, or his obstinacy.
There are also some strange eccentricities connected with it. Horses
will often pass a frightful object without the least fear ; but if, perchance,
there is a puddle in the road, or a stick of timber lying beside it, imagi-
nation appears to paint the object in the most hideous colours or por-
tentous forms. Horses shy most in the country, where there are but
few objects to meet ; and they rarely exhibit this propensity in the
crowded streets of the metropolis. The objects are there far too
numerous to allow an excuse for shying, or would soon weary them of
the habit; indeed, the very best method of curing the vice is to use the
animal in crowded streets. Though shying is often connected with im-
perfect vision, it is rarely produced by actual disease, and, therefore, its
existence does not augur unsound eyes. Too great convexity of the eye
is certainly often connected with shying, so that objects are refracted too
quickly, and thus are imperfectly painted on the retina.

Shying horses are frequently made much worse by rough usage ;
instead of which they should be always treated with gentleness and
firmness, which system, in many instances, will succeed in effecting a
cure.

(85.) PAGE 361. — Soundness.

Capped hocks, — In nine cases out of ten these enlargements are occa-
sioned by kicking in the stall, a vice altogether different from that of
spitefulness, which appears to arise more from restlessness than any-
thing else. The swelling consists of an effusion of serum or water in
the cellular bag which is found beneath the skin at the point of the
hock, placed there for the purpose of giving facility of motion.

It is never occasioned by strains, therefore, although a sad blemish,
it should not be regarded as an unsoundness, unless accompanied with
other indications of disease.

(86.) PAGE 362.

Roaring, wheezing, and whistling may be considered as modifications
of the same disease, viz., an obstruction to the passage of air to and from
the lungs ; and, as the nature and amount of this obstruction necessarily
varies, so must the noise thereby produced, and which is consequently
expressed by the terms in question ; all, however, being decidedly u?i-
soundness.

Grunting is the noise which many roarers will evince when suddenly
alarmed by a real or pretended blow. It is the common horse-dealer's
method of discovering a roarer, but by no means one that can be
depended on, as many moderate roarers, particularly if they have lately
become so, will not grunt. With regard to high-blowing, we by no

2 M 2

524 THE HORSE.— APPENDIX.

means consider it an unsoundness, understanding by this term, however,
the noise, often very considerable, which some horses make on bemg
first excited, or put into motion. This noise is produced by the false
nostrils, which either possess greater laxity than common, or else it is
owing to the nervousness of the horse. It begins at once if the horse
is excited, and, instead of increasing with exertion, like roaring, it dimi-
nishes or goes off. This is, or ought to be, the proper test of soundness.
Within a few hundred yards of the place where we are now writing,
there is an animal which, eight years ago, came under the writer's notice
for examination as to soundness. He came with the character ot a
roarer, but was reported as sound, though an unpleasant high-blower.
We have watched his career through no inconsiderable part of a horse s
life, and he has proved, in many a brilliant run, the truth of our decision,
that he was no roarer. This horse would make a fearful noise, resem-
bling the puffing of a steam engine, if suddenly excited or hastily kicked
into a gallop ; but the farther he went, the less the noise became ; and
sometimes, if quietly ridden and his speed gradually increased, he vvould
settle down to his work in a business-like style, and, in either case, leave
the true roarer far behind. . ,

Broken wind is of course decided unsoundness, and equally so is thtcH
wind, or quickened respiration, which often arises from consohdation ot
a portion of the lungs, and sometimes merely from thickening ot the
membrane of the air passages.

(87.) PAGE 362.

Crib-biting has often been the subject of dispute, as to whether it con-
stitutes unsoundness or not, which is not to be wondered at, seeing that
many crib-biters will perform their work for many years without hin-
drance or inconvenience. Crib-biting is now, however, regarded as an
unsoundness, on the principle that, though at the present time the horse
maybe equal to his work, yet, at a future period, it may render him un-
equal to its performance, by causing indigestion, loss of flesh, and weak-
ness. It is better that the question should be thus set at rest as the
value of the animal is very materially diminished by being a cnb-biter
which is owing not so much to real injury, as to the disagreeable habit,
and to the fact that if the animal is in a stable with other horses they are
very likely to learn the habit. ...

Wind-sucking must come under the same rules as crib-biters, wmcn
resembles it so far as the swallowing of air is concerned, the animal,
however, being enabled to do it without the necessity of laying hold ot tne
manger.

(88.) PAGE 362.

Curb constitutes unsoundness, unless it is well known that the horse
has stood the ordeal of work for some months since the curb was thrown
out, or any treatment adopted for it. As this information, however, can
seldom be satisfactorily obtained, the possible effects of a curb should
be guarded against by a special warranty.

(89.) PAGE 363.— Cutting.
We cannot agree with the text in consideri^ng this ""«°""^ness
It is a visible defect, and therefore can readily be observed, and pointed

UNSOUNDNESS.

525

out, and objected to, in proportion to the amount of the evil, which may
be very severe and unlikely to be remedied, or slight, and owing either
to improper shoeing, or youth, awkwardness, or weakness. To consider
it, therefore, as an unsoundness, there being neither alteration of struc-
ture nor function, would be to open the door to perpetual disputes, and
render the already vexed question of soundness stiil more vexatious.
At the same time, if the cutting is considerable, and evidently arises from
naturally defective action, and is of such a nature as not to admit of a
remedy, we should not hesitate, in such a case, to pronounce the animal
unsound.

(90.) PAGE 363. — Enlarged Hock.

The greater number of these cases, arising as they most frequently do
from strains, we should consider as unsoundness, even although the pro-
bability may be that the horse will stand work without lameness. There
is weakness of the part, and a possibility of lameness. There are, how-
ever, other cases in which the enlargement may be in the skin, or imme-
diately under it, or on the outside of the bone, such cases being often
produced by kicks or blows, or other external injuries. There are
many such cases that we should regard as blemishes, but not as unsound-
ness.

(91.) PAGE 363.— The Eyes.

All internal diseases of the eye, or the remains of such diseases, con-
stitute unsoundness ; and even although no mischief can be discovered
at the time of sale, yet, if inflammation can be proved to have existed
previously, and such inflammation subsequently recurs, the horse is re-
turnable. As, however, it is extremely diflficult to obtain such proof,
the most particular care should be taken with regard to an examination
of the eyes. Distinction, however, must be made between those streaks
or opaque spots often seen on the cornea alone, and without the axis of
vision, and which invariably arises from blows or other external injuries,
and which, although amounting to a blemish, does not constitutes un-
soundness. There are also occasional specks deeper in the eye, about
the size of a pin's head, evidently on the surface of the crystalline lens,
and not in its body. These false cataracts, as they may be called in con-
tradistinction to true cataracts, are very frequently absorbed, and do not
increase or injure vision. When, therefore, the examiner can satisfy
himself that such is the nature of the specks in question, he will be jus-
tified, whilst pointing out their existence, in deciding in favour of
soundness of the animal.

We cannot by any means agree with the doctrine implied in the text,
that a blind horse is not returnable. If the horse is warranted sound,
and proves to be blind, the warranty is broken, and the horse is return-
able. Many purchasers of horses know no more about a horse than a
horse does about them, and cannot be supposed to be capable of dis-
covering the animal's defects, and they have a right to consider the war-
ranty as their protection. The writer himself remembers, many years
since, riding a horse twenty miles on a turnpike road, without knowing
that the aiiimal was blind. It was a case of amaurosis; the eye was
clear and apparently free from disease, the animal went safe straight,

526

THE HORSE.— APPENDIX.

and well, and he could scarcely believe it, the next morning, when he
found that the animal was stone blind.

If, however, the horse is bought without a warranty, the defect being -
patent, the horse is then not returnable on the ground of fraud.

(92.) PAGE 365.

Blood Spavin is certainly unsoundness, unless extremely slight,
although in the majority of cases it does not cause lameness.

(93.) PAGE 365. — Splent.

We do not think the situation of this tumour has so much to do with
the existence of lameness as is generally imagined. The lameness is oc-
casioned by the tension of the periosteum, or covering of the bone,
which has not had time to accommodate itself to the bony swelling
beneath it. All splents, therefore, which evince tenderness on being
pressed should be considered as unsoundness, and, indeed, all splents
on horses under six years of age should be guarded against by a
specific warranty, though no lameness or tenderness may exist. In
older horses this precaution is unnecessary.

(94.) PAGE 365. — Thickening of the Sinews.

All enlargements of the sinews or ligaments, unless evidently pro-
duced by blows, constitute unsoundness. It is an old but mistaken
idea, that the enlargement of sprung sinews, as it is termed, exists in the
cellular membrane. It is the substance of the sinews themselves that
becomes thickened.

Thorough-pins, unless they are very slight, ought to be considered m
the same light as Bog Spavin, which they'resemble in their nature though
not in situation. They indicate weakness of one of the most important
oints in the body, though lameness rarely attends it.

(95.) PAGE 366.-- Thrush.

We cannot consider thrush as invariably unsoundness, as it may often
be cured. In bad cases, of long standing, we are justified in considering
it as unsoundness.

(96.) PAGE 366.

We cannot conclude our notes on the subject of soundness without
recommending to every purchaser requiring a sound horse to expend lO*.
in having the horse examined by a skilful veterinary surgeon before he
completes the purchase. From the wish to save this little expense, end-
less disputes, annoyances, and lawsuits have been tlie consequence. It
too frequently happens that the purchaser does not seek professional
assistance until either he suspects unsoundness, or is displeased with the

PORES OF THE SKIN— MOULTING.

527

animal in some other respect, and hopes the certificate of the veterinary
surgeon will enable him to return the horse. This is obviously unfair to
all parties, and the too cunning purchaser is often punished for his self-
ishness, for, although the veterinary surgeon may pronounce the horse
unsound, he is unable, from the delay that has elapsed, to say that the
animal must necessarily have been unsound at the time of purchase. It
is worthy of remark, that the New County Courts open facilities for the
recovery of damages for selling unsound horses, for although the amount
must not exceed twenty pounds, a sum that rarely equals the cost of a
horse, yet it should be borne in mind, that it is not essential to return
the horse, but, notice being given, the animal may be sold by auction,
and the action brought for the difference between the amount the horse
first cost and that he afterwards sold for.

Thus actions may be brought for amounts, the lowness of which would
altogether preclude a suit in the higher courts. There is, however, one
disadvantage attending these County Courts, which is, that neither the
judge nor the jury are at all times so well versed in horse matters as it
is desirable for the ends of justice that they should be. Thus, in a case
which recently came under the notice of the writer, a mare was sold war-
ranted sound, but was clearly proved to be otherwise, on the evidence of
two veterinary surgeons, in consequence of an enlargement of the flexor
tendons. The animal was tendered to the seller and refused, after which
she was sold by auction, repurchased by the buyer, and an action brought
for the difference, the amount of which was thus brought under twenty
pounds. The purchaser foolishly used the mare after he had tendered
her back, and before she was put up for auction, and on this ground,
(although no injury arose from thus using the mare,) and also that of his
havmg repurchased her, the jury, at the instigation of the judge, re-
turned a verdict for the defendant, thus aiding or abetting that fraud
which these courts were instituted to prevent or to punish. It should,
however, be observed, that it was not the usual judge, who was, in fact,
prevented by illness, but a barrister who sat for him.

(97.) PAGE 373. — Pores of the Skin.

It is stated in the text, « we are not aware of any medicine that will
cause perspiration, as in the human subject." Although the same me-
dicmes will not produce this effect, yet those that come under the desig-
nation of diffusible stimulants will. Thus, a large dose of spirit of nitrous
ether will often produce perspiration ; and so, likewise, will the spirits
of hartshorn, and even vinegar.

(98.) page 373.— Moulting.

We must protest against the idea that a horse with a long coat, how-
ever fed and trained, is in as good condition, or capable of as great ex-
ertion, as a horse with a sleek glossy coat. As well may a man with a
great coat on attempt to run a race with another stripped almost to the
skin. This fact it is which has led to the now general practice of clip-
ping or singing, by which the coats of coarse-skinned horses are removed,
and the horses put on a par with sleek-skinned animals, without the

528 THE HORSE.— APPENDIX.

necessity of very hot stables, and a long course of preparatory treatment.
The advantages of clipping are great; perspiration is considerably les-
sened, the horse is soon brought into condition, and grooming is greatly -
facilitated, without unnecessary irritation ; indeed, the quickest method
is to wash the skin while the animal is somewhat warm, with warm water
(and soap if necessary), and then scrape the skin, and throw a horse-cloth
on the body, which, in the course of ten minutes, will be found dry and
comfortable.

(99.) PAGE 375. — Colour.
We do not consider that the size, conformation, and qualifications of
horses depend so much on the colour as the text would imply. We have
found both good and bad horses of every colour, and the only rule we
can admit as correct is, that certain colours denote deficient breeding
and therefore such animal is not likely to be so good as he looks but
is probably deficient in bottom or the powers of endurance. Ihese
colours are black, which prevails so much with cart-horses, and sorrel,
dun, piebald, &c.; the possessors of which come from the north and
possess no eastern blood. Black horses, unless evidently high bred, are
very often soft and sluggish, with breeding insufficient for their work ;
the pedigree of the majority of them may be dated from the plough-tail
whateve? admixtures there may have been since White ha.r denotes a
thin skin, which is objectionable, when it prevails on the legs of horses,
as such ;nimals are more disposed to swelled legs and cracked heels
than others. Bay horses with black legs are greatly esteemed, and yet
we have known Lny determined slugs of this hue Their constitution
^however, almost invariably good. Chestnut is the prevailing colour
with our race-horses, and consequently chestnut horses are genera y
pretty well bred, and possess the good and bad qualities which obtain
Siost amongst thorough-breds. The Suffolk cart-horse is also d.st.n
Tished by his light chestnut colour ; and it is no sma 1 recommendation
fo find that this breed has, for several years past, carried away the prin-
dpal prizes at the annual shows of the Royal Agricultural Society of

^ "Grev^is a very good colour, and one which has become very fashbn-
able for carS and phaeton horses during the present reign. Her
Maie tv's ponS! as they are still called, although they have increased
height from thirteen to fifteen hands, are beautiful specimens of this
dolour and have rendered the colour fashionable for harness purposes
mre'horses have a considerable admixture of eastern blood and mo t
nf them are immediately derived from an Arab or a Turkish horse. 1 his,
• i TJthTmincinal or only use of the eastern horse m this country.
mdeed, isthepimc paior on y race-horses

It IS vain to expect any ^^P^^;™;"^^'^^^ „f ^he kind for some years

prirren' u— sf^I/ S^ carcase, arched neck, good

past has Deen u'"-" v,:„], and excellent trott ng action, are, however,
shoulders, and fore leg >^ha^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ g

qualifications which o"'" t^iioioug carriage-horses. The white

valuable in J/^Xr th vefy nimal requfred for getting phaeton

Arabian horse is, retoie, tne y perpetuating

horses, and, if put to large ^^^J/ ' ^''f '\here are also some excellent
handsome and valuable carriage- orses^ l he ^^^^

cart-horses of a gijy ^/^^^^J^ i^oT^reys and roan^ are generally

^':^'t^:^::^^o;e I':^.. than^l. mott^d greys.

MANGE— MEDICINES.

529

(100.) PAGE 378.— Mange.

We have only to remark, that the administration of mercurial physic
requires extreme caution in this disease. We have known horses very
low in condition killed by this means, and we doubt the necessity of the
purge. Topical treatment is the principal remedy, and it is also well to
administer sulphur internally at the same time.

There is a disease very much resembling the mange, which we occa-
sionally meet with. The horse is affected with the most violent itching,
and the hair is often rubbed off, but the skin does not become wrinkled,
as in mange. Though this disease often appears to yield to the same
topical treatment as the mange, yet, in some instances, it is incurable, and
continues through life.

(101.)— Medicines.

We have little to add under this division of the work. The
Pharmacopoeia in the text was cautiously written, and is for the most part
correct.

PAGE 386.

Camphor is a sedative and slight narcotic, and, as such, may be
exhibited in fever balls with advantage. It has also been found useful,
combined with opium, in relieving the spasms of locked jaw.

Chloroform, or the perchloride of formyle, has been found to be a
better anaesthetic agent than sulphuric ether, and has also been used
internally for spasms of the bowels. The objection to its use as a
destroyer of sensation is the quantity required to be taken, amountino-,
indeed, to several ounces. The writer has employed it successfully m
many operations.

PAGE 394.

Iodine is employed in various forms. In that of iodide of potassium
it is best administered internally, as a promoter of absorption. Combined
with the sulphate of copper it forms a powerful and useful tonic ; whilst
in the form of iodide of mercury, and combined with lard or palm oil, it
becomes a powerful blister, and an useful promoter of absorption.

PAGE 399.

Sedatives. — To the list enumerated in the text may be added the

extractofbelladonna, or the deadly nightshade, which is given in doses
of two drachms.

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XVII. PRINCIPLES, PRACTICE, AND HISTORY OF

COMMERCE.

In 3 Numbers.
In 2 Numbers.
In 1 Number.
In 1 Number.
In 1 Number.
In 1 Number.
In 1 Number.
In 1 Number.
In 1 Number.
In 1 Number.
In 1 Number.
In 1 Number.
In 3 Numbers.

In 18 Numbers, 6s., or hound, 7s.

By J. R. Macculloch, Esq.
In 4 Numbers, Is. Ad., or bound together. Is. 8d.

XVIII. THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON.
By — Needham, Esq. In 1 Number, id.

REPUBLICATION OF THE

XIX. VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

In ] Number, 4d.

*„* This work wa» not continued, that on Botany by Dr. Lindley, forming a part of
the Fourth Volume of Natural Philosophy, having been substituted for it; but it is
retained to preserve the continuity of the Numbers.

XX. THE ART OF BREWING.
By Me. D. Booth.
In 2 Numbers, 8d., or sti'ongly bound together, Is.

Except in tlie Committee's Address, issued in 1843, but of which
the circulation was veiy limited, the public have had no knowledge of
the array of eminent persons who, under the influence of the Society,
contributed to the Ltbhary of Useful Knowledge. It Avas this So-
ciety which set the example of gi's'ing to the world a series of works
most condensed in information, and obtainable at the cheapest rate —
sound treatises on the principles of yery many branches of human in-
quiry. There is scarcely a country in Europe, from Kussia to Spain,
which has not seen the Society's publications in its own language, and
felt their influence on its own system of production. It may therefore
be confidently expected that no Establishment for Education, no Pub-
lic or Mechanics' Library in the United Kingdom, will be without these
works, especially as they are now offered at two-tliirds of their original
price. Lord Brougham, in whom originated the Society of Useful
Knowledge, and who, by his efforts and his writings, contributed so
powerfully to its efficacy, has authorized the Publisher to say that the
plan of this republication has his entire apprpval.

THE FARMER'S SERIES.

This very important portion of the original plan of the Society con-
sists of Six "Volumes, which constitute together a complete " Farmek's
Library." It consists of—

I. THE HORSE ; its History, Breeds, and Management.

By WiLIJAM YOUATT.

With a TREATISE on DRAUGHT, by 1. K. Brunel, Esq. The
whole illustrated with numerous Cuts. To which has recently been
added a Supplement by Mr. W. C. Spooner, designed to advance the
work to the present State of Veterinary Knowledge, The whole ni a
large Volume, 8vo, price, in cloth, 8s.

To complete the many thousand copies which have been sold of
this Work, the Supplement is sold separately, price Is. Qd.

LIBRARY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

7

II. CATTLE;

Their Breeds, Management, and Diseases.
By William Youatt.
With heautiful Cuts of the various Breeds, Anatomical Illustrations, &c.
In 8vo, price, in cloth, 8s.

III. SHEEP;

Their Breeds, Management, and Diseases.
By William Youatt.
Illustrated like the^Volume on Cattle, together with Microscopical
Examinations of the various Wools; to which is appended, the
•'Mountain Shepherd's Manual."

In 8vo, piice, in cloth, 8s.

IV. BRITISH HUSBANDRY,

Exhibiting the Farming Practice in various parts of the United Kingdom.

By John Fhench Bubke, Esq.

Illustrated with' nunierous Cuts.
In Two Volumes, 8vo, price, complete with Mr. Cuthbeet Johnson's

Supplement, bound in cloth, 16s.

*,* Since these vohimes were published, a very consideraijie advance has been made
in Agriculture ; various manures have been more extensively employed ; the Guano of
the New World, with several other Fertilizers, have beeh largely ifflported ; imbroved
Machines have been introduced ; the Royal Agricultural Society of England has been
Mtablished; and Science has been still more intimately and successfully blended with
Practice than heretofore. These advances having engaged the attention oif the Publisher
he determined to furnish the readers of " British Husbandry" with a condensed account
of them, m the form of Supplementary Notes to each volume. This Supplement was
readily underLiken by Mr. CtlTHBERT JOHNSON, and has appeared under the
title of "MODERN AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEMENTS." For the convenience
of the possessors of the early editions of "British Husbandry," it is sold ifi a separate
torm at Ss. The following are Testimonies of the merits and utility of Mr. Johnsok's
bupplemeiit : the filst is from the Mark Lane Express ; the second from the Gardenirs'
ana 1' aimers Journal: —

" do not know any one who has done the ' atate of acriculture ' more service bv his writinas
han the author of this volume. To the young farmer it will be invaluXI, as IlescribiVi? tVe vefv
«neriLn^'p°h-?rfn?*'rf'" the science of agriculture ; to the old tiller of the soi tlfe a ?s "hi^^^^
a«5 ^ f f ^ P"'"'^"* best means of saving animal labour are e"ven

-"^ - faithfuny^dS:

hrough th^dj/naVei'o^'f^M^^^^ tfjat is'Aluable, witho^ut tL uSof wl^^^^^^^

publiStion!- ^ " octavos. No farmer should be without Mr. Johnson's valuable

V. A MISCELLANEOUS VOLUME,
Entitled " Husbandry, Volume III.," but quite distinct from the
others, and comprising the following subjects :—

ratdy'^b™ ireZ''"''^ Hhsbak.kv, by the Rev. W. L. Rham, «epa.

8

WORKS PUBLISHED BY ROBERT BALDWIN.

3. Useful and Ornamental Planting, by Mr. George Sinclair, sepa-
rately bound, 2*. 6(i.

4. The Cottager's Manual of Husbandry, Architecture, Domestic Eco-
nomy, and Gardening, by J. C. Loudon, P.L.S., <fec., separate, 1*.

5. A Practical Treatise on the Best Mode op Making and Repairing
Roads, by Charles Pen fold. Surveyor, a New Edition, enlarged, 1*.

The Volume, in clotli boai'ds, 8s.

These six volumes bring within the reach of a very large proportion
of all persons employed in Agriculture more and better information
than can otherwise be procured, except at a prodigiously greater ex-
pense. The " Horse " in particular is now the principal manual on
the subject; the volumes on Cattle and on Sheep are quite unequalled
for the information as well as the amusement they afford; and the
" Husbandry" comprises a mass of knowledge which could not be ex-
pected in so condensed a form. It may be interesting to the Public
to know that no portion of the " Farmer's Series " was put to press
without the careful revision and approbation of the late Earl Spen-
cer, then Lord Althorpe.

WORKS RECENTLY PUBLISHED BY ROBERT BALDWIN.

1. GUIDE to the CONSERVATOR Y;
being a Concifee Treatise on the Management of
the Hothouse ami Greenhouse; the Forcing of
Bulbs, Shrubs, &c. ; and the best mode of keep-
ing a succession of Bloom through every Month
of the Vcar : exemplified in a Select List of the
most admirable Plants of the presentday, under
the arrangements both of Jussieu and l.innjEus
—including their native country, propagation,
and the Soil adapted to each. By Richard
BAiNDKiDot, Flower Gardener to Lord Wcu-
lock. In I2mo, price 5s., cloth lettered.

2. A GRANDMOTHER'S ADVICE
to YOUNG MOTHERS on the Physical Edu-
cation of Children. By M. J., late Countess
of MouN rcASHiij,L. In 12mo, price 6s., cloth,
a New Edition.

3. THE DISPENSING CHEMIST'S
and MEDICAL PUPIL'S ASSISTANT; eon-
t.iining Latin directions, with their translations,
for every species of Medical Prescription ; with
several forms of ordinary prescriptions, and a
succinct account of the properties and doses of
the various medicines in common use, accord-
in" to the new nomenclature of the Pharmaco-
pccias of London, Edinburgh, and Dublin. By
John E. Bubkb, Member of the Royal College
of Surceons. Inscribed to the Board of Ex-
aminers of Apothecaries' Hall. The Second
Edition, price 2s. 6d., cloth.

4. A GUIDE to tlie FRENCH LAN-
GUAGE, especially devised for persons who
wish to study that Language without the as-
sistance of a Teacher. By J. J.. P. Ln Buk-
THON. The Tenth Edition, revised and cor-
rected by L. Sandikr, Professor of Languages,
&c., in tivo, price, bound in cloth, 10«. (!</.

5. A KEY to the EXERCISES in
the above Work, by means of which any person
of a mature understanding may acquire the ele-
menla of the French language practically, ns
surely as if a professed teacher were silting by
his side; and, with a very superficial knowledge
of It, may Uacli it to others. Price 7s., cloth.

6. LA BAGATELLE ; intended to in-
troduce Children four or five years old to some
knowledge of the French Language. A New
Edition, embellished with Cuts, and revised by
Madame N. L. Price 3s., bound.

7. A TREATISE on NAVIGATION

and NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY, adapted to
the Purposes of Elementary Instruction ; with
an Extensive Series of Examples for Exercises,
and all the Tables requisite tor Nautical Com-
putations ; with Rules and Examples adapted to
the ," Nautical Almanac" in its New and Im-
proved Form. By Edward Riddlk, F.R.A.S.,
Master of the Nautical School, Greenwich Hns-
l)ital. The Fifth Edition, in a large vol. «vo,
price iOs. Gd., boards; or 13s,, bound m calf.

8. TABLES of the LOGARITHMS
of NUMBERS, and of Sines, Tangents, and Se-
cants, to Six Places of Decimals. Extracted
from Mr. Riddle's " Treatise on Navigation.
Price 2t. lid.

9. A PRACTICAL SYSTEM of AL-

GEBRA, designed for the Use of Schools and
Private Tuition. By Pkteh Nicholson and
.1. RowBOTHAM. The Fifth Edition, price
bound.

10. A KEY to the above Work, con-
taining the Solutions of more than 9(i0 Problems,
by the Use of which, and the Aljjcbra, a ncrson
may acquire a knowledge of this valuable -Sci-
ence without the assistance of a Master. Price
lis., bound.

11. THE ENEMIES to AGRICUL-
TURE, BOTANICAL and ZOOLOGIC.\L ;
bein" a brief Account of the Weeds, Quadru-
i)eds, Birds, Insects, and Worms, which are
injurious to the Farmer, with the best means
of their extirpation or diminution. By John
Donaldson, Professor of Agriculture .ind Bo-
tany at Hoddesdon, Herts. In 8vo, price St.

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