(Blasaow

presented

t/ So - /<^oy .

^ —

DESCRIPTIVE AND ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE

OF

THE PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES

ov

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY

CONTAINED IN

THE MUSEUM

OF

THE EOYAL COLLEGE OE SURGEONS OE ENGLAND.

VOL. I.

SECOND EDITION.

LONDON:
PRINTED FOR THE COLLEGE ;

AND SOLD BY

TAYLOE AND FKANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

MDCXX30.

PKINTED bY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS,

REn LrfiN couuT, fleet stkeet.

PREFACE

TO THB

FIRST EDITION,

The Council of the Royal College of Surgeons now present
to the public the fifth and last volume of the descriptive and
illustrated Catalogue of the Physiological series of Compa-
rative Anatomy contained in the Museum: thus completing an
important design, vrhich Mr. Hunter was prevented from accom-
plishing by his sudden death.

The primary objects of the Catalogue have been, to give a
clear and succinct description of each preparation, to determine
the species of animal or plant to which it belongs, to place it
rightly in the proper series, and thus to aflPord to the visitor of
the Museum every facility for studying and understanding this
important department of the collection.

Before the formation of the present catalogue, the printed
works, from which information could be derived respecting the
physiological collection, consisted of the published writings of
Mr, Hunter, the subjoined Synopsis of the Hunterian collection,
and the Lectures on Comparative Anatomy by Sir Everard
Home. The latter jjrofess to explain the Hunterian collection ;
but they contain descriptions of a small number only of the
preparations, and these descriptions are unaccompanied by any
reference to the particular specimens.

a2

iv

The 'Synopsis' is here reprinted *, because it exhibits the
arrangement of the physiological series which preceded that
adopted in the present catalogue ; and, while it indicates the
nature and extent of the changes which have been introduced,
enables the scientific reader to understand more readily the
reasons that are given t'or theiu. Th(( altei-ations consist, for
the most part, of a return to the ai-rangement originally em-
ployed by Mr, Hunter, and have been either suggested by the
Hunterian manuscri]it catalogues, or made with the view of
obtaining greater simplicity and consistency, and a more regular
subordination in the several groups of preparations. The
Hanterian documents, for example, seemed clearly to show that
it was not the intention of the foundei- to place the preparations
of ' Elastic substance as a substitute for muscle f ' in a subseries
distinct and remote from that which illustrated ' Elasticity in
aid of muscular action J.' No adequate advantage was gained
by retaining the subseries of ' Gizzards § ' distinct from that
of ' Stomachs with a superadded crop \\' The physiological
relation of these cavities to each other, and the modifications of
a single and definite plan of gastric structure, were obviously
better illustrated by retaining in the same series all the grada-
tions of complexity in the stomachs of birds, which form the
most natural and best defined class in the animal kingdom.

As the progress of science is chiefly characterized by the
reduction of supposed anomalies to recognized general prin-
ciples, the physiologist, who may compare the present with the
preceding arrangement of the physiological collection, will not
be surprised at the suppression of many of the groups of prepa-
rations which formerly swelled the series entitled ' Peculiarities
in vegetables and animals^.'

Osseous substance, for example, is a material of the frame-
work, not of animals in general, but of one only of the primary
groups of the class ; the substances, therefore, ' of which the

* [Omitted.]
\ Subseries 5.
II Subseries 23.

+ Subseries 17 of the Synopsis.
§ Subseries 28.
H Series XII,

V

skeleton is composed in animals not having bone as the shells
and their opercula f in MoUusks ; the calcareous crusts and
horn-like coverings of the Articulate animals ; the corals and
madi'eporic secretions o£ Zoophytes, for the defence and support
of their delicate gelatinous organs, cannot be regarded as
' Peculiarities,^ but as essential members of the normal system
of organs of support, equivalent to the bones of the vertebrate
animals. The subseries numbered 116, 139, and 140 in the
synopsis, have, therefore, been removed from the series of pecu-
liarities, and made to precede the parts of the skeletons of the
Vertebrata in the first subdivision of the present arrangement.

Changes in the second division of the physiological collection
have been made in conformity with the same principles that
have regulated the alterations from the arrangement of the
synopsis, already noticed ; and chiefly consist in the reduction of
the formerly extensive series of ' Foetal peculiarities.' For as
every condition that characterizes the progress of the germ to its
extrication from the foetal coverings^ or which disappears during
that progress, or is suppressed after birth, may be termed a
' foetal peculiarity,' numerous preparations had been transferred
from the older series illustrative of the phfenomena of foetal de-
velopment in different classes of animals, and had been brought
together in the twentieth series of the arrangement of 1818, in
contravention of the special purpose of such older series. Certain
stages, for example, in the formation of the vitelline sac, exhi-
biting as many modifications of its relation to the embryo, were
shown in one series of preparations J ; other stages were exhi-
bited in another series § ; and a later condition, under the title
o£ 'Yolk received into the stomach ||,' formed a third separate
group. All such specimens have been brought together in the
present arrangement and placed in a consecutively ascending
order, subdivided only according to the class of animals, the
evolution of which such preparations successively illustrate.

* Subseries 116.

t Series XVIII., Subseries 198.

II Series XX., Subseries 211.

t Subseiies 140.

§ Series XX., Subseries 208.

VI

Thus modified, the series corresponding with that entitled in the
synopsis, ' Incubation o£ the ovum in birds,' now exhibits all
the successive stages described by Mr. Hunter in his admirable
account of the ' Progress and peculiarities of the chick*,'

It seemed a sufficient reason for suppressing the twenty-Hrsi
series of the ' Synopsis,-' that tlie preparations included therein
exhibited stages of development nearly connected with those
which preceding series were expressly established to demonstrate.
The preparations illustrative of generation by artificial fission f
have thus been re-united to those exhibiting the same effects by
spontaneous fission J. The preparations exhibiting the 'changes
of the tadpole into the frog § ' are now combined with the
analogous and connected specimens constituting the group en-
titled '■ Ova of animals which have gills when hatched, but
afterwards lungs ||.' By thus combining the later with the
earlier stages of development in the oviparous classes, the con-
secutive phseuomena of such development in one series are
brought under the immediate observation of the physiological
student, and he is made familiar wdth the earlier stages of the
formation of the vitellicle and allantois before he arrives at that
series (the nineteenth in the synopsis) in which further changes
of the allantois are exhibited, and its subserviency to the fornia-
ation of the placenta is demonstrated.

The preceding observations explain the plan of arrangement
adopted in the present catalogue of the Hunterian physiological
collection. The following remarks refer to the descriptive part
of the same catalogue, and particidarize the sources of the
julditional information that may be found in the present, when
compared with the previously existing catalogues.

The printed synopsis, already quoted, is limited to an expla-
nation of the subjects of tlie several series and subseries of
specimens. The catalogues descriptive of the individual speci-
mens have hitlierto existed only in manuscript.

* Iiitrotl. to the Fifth VoluniH, p. viii.

+ Series XXL, Subseries 210. % Series XA'II., Subseries 17l>.
§ Serie.s XXI., Sub.«evies 222. || Series XVIII., Subseries 194.

The original documeuts explanatory of the physiological de-
partment of the collection are the following : —

First, A manuscript catalogue, in Mr. Hunter's handwriting,
without date, but probably written soon after his return from
Portugal in the year 1763. It briefly defines the nature of
about two hundred specimens. In this catalogue the natural
and morbid structures are grouped together in classes according
to the organs ; there is then a short series of ' Monsters,' fol-
lowed by specimens of natural history, under the heads of
' Beasts,' ' Lizards,' and ' Snakes.' The articles included in
the two latter series were collected for the most part in Portugal,
Spaiuj and Belleisle. This was the germ of the future Hunterian
collection, and the foundation of its several departments, the
pathological having been afterwards separated from the physio-
logical preparations. It may not be uninteresting to record
the first method of classification, in which the specimens are
arranged according to the organs. It is as follows : —

Class I. — ' Of the Brain, Medulla, and Nerves :' then follow,
' Heart and Vessels ; ' ' Larynx and (Esophagus ; ' ' Stomach,'
'Intestines,' 'Anus,' ' Liver," Gall-bladder," Spleen,' 'Kidneys,'
' Capsula renalis,' ' Parts of Generation,' ' Eyelids,' ' Eyes,'
' Ears,' ' Nose,' ' Tongues,' ' Skin,' ' Bones,' ' Epiploon,' ' Oils,'
' Ligaments.'

The series of the ' Kidney ' includes, even at this early period,
specimens of the injected tubuli uriniferi in the Monkey (' S. 6/
now No. 1235) ; in the Horse (' S. 9 and S. 10,' now Nos. 1209
and 1210) ; and in the Ass (' S. 12,' now No. 1208). The same
series likewise displays the superficial arborescent veins in the
kidney of the Lion and Leopard, and the reticulate arrangement
of the same veins of the Seal, and it terminates with the con-
glomerate kidney of the Porpoise. The series of the 'Nose'
contains the preparation of the fifth pair of nerves in the nose,
figured in the "Animal CEconomy, PI. XVIL and XVIIL,"
where it is described as having been made in the year 1754 *.
The original number of this specimen in the old catalogue is
' c. 4,' it is now No. 1550 : it has thus been preserved eighty-
* Animal CEconomy, 1792, p. 261.

vin

seven yt?tn's, and may be considered one of the oldest, ii' not the
oldest Hnntevian preparation in the collection. The latest date
which can be attached to any prejtaration in the present manu-
script catjilogiie is 1764 ; the prepai'ation is tiie duodenum of a
woman who died of a dysentery, and whose case is descrii)ed in
•• Dissection 78, of Morbid Bodies, winter of 1 7<J4."

The second descriptive document, called the small catalogue,
is a small octavo manuscript without date, in the huudwriting
of Mr. William Bell, and of others who assisted Mr. Hunter.
The number of the ])liysiological preparations noticed or de-
scribed in this catalogue is 561.

The most valuable of the original Hunterian documents rela-
ting to the present department of the (-oUection i.s tlie third, or
quarto catalogue. It consists of twenty thin fasciculi, in 4to, in
the handwriting of Mr. William Bell and others, with additions
and corrections written by Mr. Hunter himself.

The following are the Titles of the ' Fasciculi,' and their order
of succession. Some of the titles are in Mr. Huuter^s hand-
writing : —

" No. 1. Simple animal matter and moving parts.
" No. 2. Growth of bone, horn *, &c.

" No. 3. Composition of the skeleton, application of muscles,
&c.

"No. 4. Stomachs.

"No. 5. Intestines.

" No. 6. Absorbents.

"No. 7. Hearts, blood-vessels, &c.

"No. 8. Respiratory organs.

" No. 9. Kidneys. '

" No. 10. Brain and nerves.

"No. 11. The seases.

"No. 12. Cellular membrane, fat.

" No. 13. Coverings of Inrds.

"No. 14. Cuticle, hair, horn, hoofs, &c.

" No. 15 Horn, cuticle, &c.

"No. K). Growth of teeth, feathers, hair, horn, &c.
* Autler, or the bony Imrii ot' deer, is liere meant.

IX

" No. 17. Growth and structure of teeth.
"No. 18. Teeth (dry preparations).
"No. 19. Peculiarities and regeneration.
" No. 20. Rejn-oduction of animals."

Most of the fasciculi commence with general observations on
the series of organs to which they res})ectively relate ; and these
valuable expositions have been introduced, with a few verbal
corrections merely, in their appropriate places in the jjresent
catalogue. The arrangement of the Physiological collection, as
it is thus shown to have existed at the decease of its Founder,
has been strictly adhered to, except in one particular, viz. the
position of the series of the teeth. In the time of Mr. Hunter,
when the teeth were usually enumerated by anatomists among
the bones of the skeleton, probably no other physiologist would
have thought of classifying them with hairs and horns. Some
of their striking relations to the extra vascular productions, thus
early appreciated by him, have been subsequently insisted upon
by other philosophical anatomists *, to the exclusion of the facts
and arguments which are still valid for regarding them as appen-
dages to the osseous system. The series of the teeth was, how-
ever, removed from its old position by Sir Everard Home to
that which it occupies in the printed ' Synopsis ' of 1818, viz.
between the ' Stomachs ' and ' Intestines,' or the 4th and 5th of
the Hunterian series : it was subsequently transferred by the
Senior Conservator, Mr. Clift, to its present position at the
commencement of the digestive system.

The chief value and importance of the original Hunterian
quarto catalogue consist in the information which it supplies
respecting the scheme of arrangement and the general physio-
logical principles intended to be illustrated by the ditferent
series. The descriptions of the individual preparations are com-
paratively few, and these, for the most part, are confined to a
brief definition of the object. Many had merely the name of
the animal or part written on the top of the bottle, and the rest
were without either name or number. It was from these mate-
rials that Dr. Baillie, Sir Everard (then Mr.) Home, and Mr.

* See Heu.9iiiger, ' System der Histologie,' 4to, 1823, Heft ii. p. 160.

&

Oliffc commenced, in the year 1793, the formation o£ the folio
cabilogue, which constitutes the fourth of the manuscript ex-
planatory documents of the present department of the Hunterian
Collection, and which served for the use of visitors until the
publication of the present catalogue. In reference to the nota-
tion of the specimens in the folio catalogue, Mr. Clift has sub-
joined the following note, prefixed to the list of the different
numbers : — " No running number existed during Mr. Hunter's
" lifetime, on account of the additions continually making to the
" Collection. Innnediately after his death, a running number,
"from 1 to ;i74r5, was painted upon them by the Conservator, in
" order to construct a catalogue from nuiterials left by Mr.
"Hunter. This was done between the years 1793 and 1800 by
" William Clift, under the superintendence of Mr. Home, and
" afterwards written fair into the folio volume above mentioned,
" after the Collection had come into the hands of the College.
"A slight inspection of that volume will show that the pre-
" parations M'ere not in a sufficient state of arrangement for a
" permanent catalogue ; the whole contents of the Gallery were
" therefore re-arranged, and brought into their present relative
"situations in the year 1817, and the whole re-numbered, as in
" the first column of this book, under the direction of Sir PJverard
"Home. But a further more careful revision is still necessary
" before a satisfactory catalogue can be made. — 1823. William
" Clift."

Before placing on the specimens the new series of numbers of
1817, Mr. Clift copied off all the memoranda which had been
written in paint on the tops of the bottles; to these he has
added notes, elucidating the history of many of the preparations j
and the three manuscript Fasciculi, containing the original
memoranda attached to the specimens, and these additions, con-
stitute the jiftk explanatory document, and one that has proved
of material use in the determination of many of the unnamed
specimens. Of the descriptions to which the new system of
numbers was designed to refer, those relating to the first series
alone were completed, so that the rest of the Collection could
only be studied by the folio catalogue o£ 1793 — 1800, through

XI

the medium of the lists of double numbers, written fair in A
separate volume by Mr. Clift.

A sixth document, of much importance in the identification
of the individual specimens,, is a manuscript catalogue, by Mr.
Hunter, of a series of drawings, chiefly taken from preparations
in the Museum, and intended to illustrate their description.
About thirty specimens, in some instances of complicated and
minute structures, have been determined by this mode of com-
parison.

The original Hunterian descriptions have been retained, as
far as possible, in the present catalogue ; additions have been
made to them, when they were found not sufficiently clear ; and
new descriptions have been given of all the remaining prepa-
rations.

The information most commonly required in addition to the
previous descriptions and notices, has been the name of the
species of plant or animal from which the preparation had been
derived.

Where this information is attempted to be given in the manu-
script catalogues the reference is commonly to the genus or to
some still wider group of animals, as ' a monkey,^ ' a whale,' ' a
beetle,' ' a snail ; ' or the indication is still more vagne, as ' an
insect,' ' a sea-worm,' ' a shell-fish,' &c. In a great proportion
of the specimens the description relates only to the organ, or
ends with ' animal unknown.' In many cases, where the species
is more definitely indicated in the folio catalogue, rectification of
the name has been found necessary, as will be seen by whoever
may compare the present catalogue with that document. The
mistakes which have hitherto been detected, have arisen from
placing confidence in the statements as to the species of animal
contained in the manuscript documents, before experience of
their occasional fallacy had shown the necessity of testing them
by a dissection of the animal to which a preparation was so
referred, or by a comparison of the preparation with such
descriptions and figures of the anatomy of the same animal as
could be found in print.

It is impossible to reason correctly upon the structure of a

xii

detached organ, unless the condition ot the rest of the organiza-
tion, and the habits and mode of life of the species, be known ;
but to this end the name of the species from which the detached
organ was derived is indispensable : without this fact, the con-
templation of the most elaborately dissected specimen can yield
little satisfactory information, and to determine it became there-
fore the first and most essential step in the formation of a cata-
logue of the physiological specimens. This part of their history
has in most cases been effected by a comparison of the Hunterian
l)reparations with recent dissections. The series of ' Natural
History,' or entire animals preserved in the Museum, the nume-
rous specimens presented by different travellers, and the per-
mission liberally granted by the council of the Zoological Society,
of taking to the College of Surgeons for comparison the viscera
of the animals dying in their extensive menagerie, have afforded
such means of instituting the requisite examinations, that the
expectation expressed in the Preface to the First Volume of the
present work, " that few of the preparations will ultimately be
" found deficient in that part of their history which is most essen-
" tial to their utility/' has been fully realized.

In some instances the unknown specimens have been deter-
mined by sufficiently characteristic descriptions and figures in
the published works on comparative anatomy. In many cases
sufficient of the animal has been preserved to determine the
species from external zoological characters, and of these the
smaller Invertebrate animals are the chief examples. In most
instances this information has been gained by comparison with
recent dissections.

The species of organized beings dissected by Mr. Hunter are
systematically arranged in the ' Zoological Index ' to the five
volumes comprising the present catalogue. This index will show
at a glance the range of Mr. Hunter's researches in comparative
anatomy ; and the zoological writer will readily find what pro-
portion of the anatomy of the species under his consideration
may be studied in the Museum of the College.

The wishes and the convenience of physiological visitors have
been considered in the formation of another index n which the

Xlll

preparations are classed according to the organs ; under each
head reference is made to the number of the preparation in the
collection, and to the page ofc' the catalogue in which it is de-
scribed.

There is, lastly, an alphabetical index of donors, and of other
sources, from which the physiological department of the collec-
tion has received additions. These additional preparations are
marked by the same numbers as the Hiinterian specimens which
they respectively follow, and are distinguished by an added
letter.

The (Jouncil have great gratification in acknowledging the
unremitting labour which has been for many years bestowed on
this great work by Mr. Owen, one of the Conservators, and now
Hunteriau Professor of comparative anatomy and physiology
to the College, to whom its publication has been exclusively
confided.

Koyal College of Surgeons, London,
8 July, 1841.

PKEFACE

TO THJS

SECOND EDITION,

The last edition of the Catalogue of the Physiological Series
■was completed in 1840. A second edition of the first volume
was published in 1852, which however only incorporated the
descriptions of new specimens, the old arrangement being
retained without revision. Seeing that this edition was carried
no further, it seems to me best to consider the present as the
Second Edition, as the arrangement is different and a complete
revision has been effected.

Since 1840 numerous additions to the Museum have been
made, especially by illustrations of Mammalian anatomy. Of
these, and all others, there are no descriptions, only the name
of the animal from which they are derived being affixed.
Many of the preparations of Human Anatomy have been removed
to constitute, with additional preparations, a new Series now
exhibited in Eooms I. & II.

In the original Hunterian scheme the intention evidently was
to bring together examples of such structures in plants and
animals as performed the same function. Such structures in
plants and lower animals were very imperfectly represented,
and many had become useless from the lapse of time. From
these and other reasons a revision of the Catalogue has for a
long time been a most urgent need. The difficulty of this is
great, as a large number of preparations are required to supply
the places of those that have become worthless, and to serve as
illustrations of new discoveries, and phases of thought. The
additions made of late years have mainly been selected with
this view, and I have drawn up a provisional scheme as a guide

xvi

to a re-arrangement, which, however, will be certain to require
modifications when the groups are considered in detail.

The final arrangement of each sub-group is taxonomic,
connnencing with the lowest plant showing the structure, and
ending with man. When ch(Mnical coin])Osition and dc^vdopmcnt
are illush-ated, they ])r(H'ede fho mature structure. An oval
label l)earing the Catalogue number chai-acterizes this Series.
A capital letter indicates the group. Additions are distinguished
by a small letter. AVhen this is placed in front of the numljer
it means that the specimen should be placed in front of the one
that bears the numl)er alone, the reverse being the case if the
letter follows the number. As in other departments, black
figures indicate that tiie specimen is Hunterian. After many of
the descriptions of the specimens references are given, which
are selected as being most useful, and in them will often be
found the titles of previous papers on the subject.

In carrying out this work I am greatly indebted to the kind
assistance of many friends who have most liberally placed at my
disposal valuable material that has enabled me to supply many
deficiencies ; their names are duly mentioned in the Catalogue.
More especially do 1 wish to thank Profs. G. B. Howes, J. B.
Farmer, and F. G. Parsons for much valuable aid and advice.
The admirable preparations made by Mr. R. H. Burne have
enabled me to exhibit preparations of structures of great
delicacy and interest, that, as they are prepared by the best
modern methods, are likely to be permanent. Mr. W. Pearson's
dissections of Vertebrata leave nothing to be desired in the
clearness and beauty with which they are displayed. I have
also to thank Mr. J. Green, of Mintern Bros., for the excellent
manner in which he has reproduced my drawings. It is hoped
that they may help to render the Catalogue useful to many,
independently of the Museum.

a STEWART,

Conservator.

25 June, 1900.

SCHEME OF GROUPS,

AND DETAILS OF SUCH AS HAVE YET TO BE

COMPLETED.

STRUCTURES CONCERNED IN THE PRE-
SERVATION OF THE INDIVIDUAL, OR
TO ITS ADVANTAGE.

A. ENDOSKELETON.

B. FLEXIBLE BONDS OF UNION AND SUPPORT.

C. MUSCULAR AND ALLIED SYSTEMS,

D. NERVOUS SYSTEM.

E. ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE.

F. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM AND EXOSKELE=

TON.

G. LUMINOUS AND ELECTRIC ORGANS.

H. ORGANS FOR LOCOMOTION AND FLOATING

BORING. FIXATION. (Including those of Spores,
Seeds, and Fruits.)

Organs concerned in Nutrition.

I. RESERVE STORES OF FOOD, AND CALORIFIC
MATTER (not for Embryo).

J. ORGANS FOR DIRECT ABSORPTION AND PRE-
PARATION OF FOOD.

K. NUTRIENT FLUIDS, AND ORGANS THAT PRE-
PARE THEM. (Including " Ductless Glands.")

L. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM AND BODY-CAVITY
(=C(ELOM).

b

XVI 11

Blood-purifying and Sound-producing Organs.

IVI. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.

N. SOUND-PRODUCING ORGANS. (Including Larynx
and Syrinx.)

O. URINARY ORGANS. (Including Kidneys, Bladder,
and Waste-Products.)

P. SPECIALIZATION AND DIVISION OF LABOUR
AMONGST "PERSONS" OR "INDIVIDUALS."

STRUCTURES CONCERNED IN THE PRE-
SERVATION OF THE RACE,

Q. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM.

R. STRUCTURES FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE
YOUNG. (Including Eggs, Egg-Capsules, Nests.)

S. STRUCTURES CONCERNED IN THE NOURISH-
MENT OF THE YOUNG. (Including Mammary
Glands and Placentae.)

T. DEVELOPMENT.

U. ALTERNATION OF GENERATION. DIMORPH-
ISM. POLYMORPHISM.

V. SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS.

W. NORMAL VARIATIONS OF SPECIES.

X. ASSOCIATION OF DIFFERENT SPECIES, WITH
OR WITHOUT MODIFICATIONS OF STRUC-
TURE.

xix

STRUCTURES CONCERNED IN THE PRE-
SERVATION OF THE INDIVIDUAL, OR
TO ITS ADVANTAGE.

A.

ENDOSKELETON.

(Including all structures that function as an Endoskeleton,
whether derived from Ectoderm, Mesoderm, or Endoderm,
or the equivalent embryonic layers.)

A structure specialized to give to the organism support,
strength, rigidity, and protection to more deeply seated parts ;
in some cases it furnishes the levers and fulcra for the move-
ments of parts of the body or advantageous attachment for
muscle. Its physical properties are independent of life.

Plants.

The bundles of thick-walled elongated cells commonly asso-
ciated with the vascular bundles act as an endoskeleton.

Animals.

As spicules, fibres, &c. As cartilage. White fibrous tissue,
the bundles closely interwoven to resist strain in any direction,
with or without an admixture of yellow elastic tissue. Bone or
allied tissue hardened by lime-salts.

After taxonomically arranged endoskeletons is a group of
air-containing bones.

B.

FLEXIBLE BONDS OF UNION AND SUPPORT.
VERTEBRAL COLUMN. JOINTS.

Areolar tissue and yellow elastic tissue, connecting and sup-
porting soft parts. Bonus of union between rigid structures,
ligaments, &c. Physical properties are independent of life.

XX

c.

MUSCULAR AND ALLIED SYSTEMS.

Protoplasm of plants and animals is contractile, the contrac-
tion possibly being chiefly or alone seated in its spongioplasm.
In animals alone is a definite muscular system developed.
Contraction dependent on life.

D.

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

Consists essentially of cells and fibres. The cells emit and
receive nervous impulses ; the fibres conduct them. The cells
may be permanently modified by impulses received (memory,
instinct).

F'unctions. The stimulation and regulation of the contractions
of the muscular system. By its sensory or afferent nerves
making the movements of the body appropriate to its surround-
ings. Possibly directly influencing nutrition (trophic nerves).

Plants.

The continuity of the protoplasm in Plants allows the stimu-
lation at one part to spread and influence neighbouring cells ;
the extent of such spreading being in proportion to the inten-
sity of the stimulation. They have no nervous system.

Animals.

(In all forms below the Vertebrata the entire nervous sj-stera
may be shown ; but in the Vertebrata their usually large size
makes a separation into certain groups convenient, as Brain,
Spinal cord. Nerves, Sympathetic or Visceral System.)

xxi

E.

ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE.

Tactile organs. Gustatory organs. Olfactory organs. Auditory
organs. Visual organs. Organs of unknown function.

The fundamental structure o£ all the organs o£ special sense,
except the visual, is so closely alike or identical, that it is some-
times diflficult to determine to which special sense a given
structure shall be assigned ; for in their simplest condition they
consist of an epithelial cell or cells, each having at its free
extremity a stiff process projecting more or less into the sur-
rounding medium (water or air), and at its deep extremity a
process continuous with the nervous system. The external
process may, when touched, cause an excitation of the cell, when
it would be tactile in function ; or by being bathed by some
special material in solution it might give rise to the sense of
smell or taste : or moved by sound-waves give rise to the sense
of hearing. Auditory organs are often combined, or may be
confused with organs concerned with equilibration. There is
usually little doubt about a visual organ, but some luminous
organs have been mistaken for eyes (Euphausia).

Tactile organs.
Gustatory organs.
Olfactory organs.
Auditory organs.
Visual organs.
Special sense organs of
doubtful function.

F.

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM AND EXOSKELETON.

The external surface of organisms coming in closest relation
with external surroundings is commonly modified in the following
directions, viz. : — For the protection of deeper parts. For

Examples of each arranged ia
taxonomic order.

xxu

sensation. For getting rid of waste products. For adornment.
For regulation of temperature, with prevention of undue loss or
gain of heat.

Passive resistance to injury (like an armour, like soft

padding).

Plants.

By own tissues or secretion from them.

Examples in taxonomic order (epidermis, cuticle, bark, &c.).

Animals.

By own tissues or secretion from them.
Examples in taxonomic order (shells, epidermis, &c.).

By adventitious bodies which may also serve for concealment.
Examples in taxonomic order (case of Caddis larva, &c.).

Offensive resistance to injury, also sometimes used for
attack (by spines, horns, &c.).

Plants.

Examples in taxonomic order.

Animals.

Examples in taxonomic order.

Protection against undue loss or gain of heat, and
sometimes against injury.

Animals.

By hair, feathers.

By fat (also is a storehouse of food and calorific matter, and
its low specific gravity makes the body buoyant in water).
Examples of both taxonomically arranged.

XXlll

Colour and Form.

Animals.

Rvamples of colours due to different causes.

Examples of distribution on different regions of individual.

Examples of different colours in the Kame group.

Non-significant Colours.

Adornment.

Sexual Recognition.

Protective resemblance.

By structure o£ individual.
By adventitious matter.

Alluring prey.

Warning Colours and Attitudes.
Mimicry.

Of specially protected by less specially protected species.
Between two species both specially protected.
{Examples of all the above to be in taxonomic order under t

respective headings.)

Changes of Form, Colour, in the same individual or species.

Associated with Season.
Sexual maturity (recurrent).
Sexual atrophy.
Toed.

Light and Heat.
Unknown cause.

Examples under each head arranged taxonomically.

Special Glands and Secretions, not mammary or lachry-
mal, but including anal glands and poison-glands, both buccal
and cutaneous. . ,

In all cases the secretion may be a means of gettmg nd ot

waste or injurious matter.

xxiv

The gland may consist of one cell (unicellular gland), or
many lining an inpusbing of the surface.

Wax- and Oil-glands. Functions : to protect from enemies ;
to prevent wetting or evaporation ; and to keep the surface
supple and lubricated.

Mucous Glands. Function to lubricate.

Scent-Glands. Functions: offensive; for recognition ; erotic.
Sweat-Glands. Function: excreting a watery fluid, whose
evaporation cools the body.

Pigment- Glands. Function: secretion to conceal from
enemies.

Poison- Glands. Functions : defence, offence, and killing
prey.

G.

LUMINOUS AND ELECTRIC ORGANS.

Luminous Organs.

Plants.

Many plants show a diffused luminosity varying somewhat in
intensity in different regions, but no special organs for the
production of light are known.

Animals.

In animals the production of light is usually limited to special
parts or organs.

Examples taxonomically arranged.

Electric Organs.

Alone present in animals, and are formed by a modification
of portion of the muscular and nervous systems.

Animals.

Examples taxonomically arranged.

XXV

H.

ORGANS FOR LOCOMOTION AND FLOATING.
BORING. FIXATION.

(Including those of Spores, Seeds, and Fruits.)

At some period in the life of all organisms they are fitted to
change their locality, either by their own spontaneous motion ;
by becoming attached to other motile bodies ; or by being
carried by currents in air or water. This change of place is
necessary in all to prevent overcrowding, and in most for
obtaining food, seeking members of the opposite sex, avoiding
inimical conditions, or obtaining fresh shelter.

1. Locomotion on Solids.

The mechanism of locomotion on solids is the same in water
and air, on semz'-solids in water the locomotion is the same as on
solids in air ; the animal receiving more support from water, so
that it will not sink when moving on submerged mud or sand.

Creeping.

Movement usually slow, with generally a large surface in
contact with the ground. Not effected by paired jointed appen-
dages, although they may be used for grasping (this character
is artificial but convenient).

By contraction at one part forcing fluid protoplasm to the
opposite relaxed side ; this results in a flowing movement from
the contracting to the relaxed regions, which ai-e driven forwards
as root-hke processes (pseudopodia).

Plants.

Example. Myxomycetes.

Animals.

Example. Rhizopoda.

xxvi

Due to miuute waves of contraction of ventral surface or other
part of the body-wall, passing in the direction of motion, usually
from behind forwards.

Animals*

Examples. Anthozoa : Dianthus.

Bryozoa : CristatoUa,
Gastropoda : Helix.

Motion effected by extensions and contractions of the whole
body, a special process of it, or of successive segments.

Examples. Annelida.

Echinodermata : Asteroidea, &c.

Pelecypoda.

Ophidia.

By loop action. The body being extended, the anterior end
is fixed ; the opposite extremity is then drawn up to it and fixed,
the body being looped ; the extension of the body and fixation
of the anterior end is then repeated.

Examples. Hydrozoa : Hydra.

Annelida : Hirudo.

Insecta : Larvae of Lepidoptera, Geometriua.
Gastropoda : Xenophora.

By undulatory movements, or by appendages.

Examples. Annelida.

Keptilia : Ophidia.

Walking and Running.

Body more or less raised on processes of the body, or jointed
limbs, which effect the locomotion by pulling, pushing, or
usually both.

Examples. Infusoria: Hypotricha.

Hydrozoa : Planoblast of Clavatella.

Crustacea.

Myriapoda.

XXVll

Insecta : Coleoptera, &c.

Pisces : Trigla.

Amphibia.

Eeptilia.

Aves.

Mammalia.

Leaping!.

Organism projected more or less from surface on whicli it
rests, by sudden extension of special structure or its -whole
body.

Plants.

Examples. Spores of certain Fungi.

Spores and Elaters of Hepaticae.
Spores of Equisetacese.
Suddenly bursting fruits.

Animals.

Examples. Crustacea : Gammarus, &c.

Aracbnida : Hunting-Spider,

Insecta : Petrobius, Podura, Locusta, Larva of Cheese-fly.
Pelecypoda: Cardium.
Gastropoda : Strombus.
Pisces ?

Amphibia : Pan a.

Eeptilia : Snake.

Aves : Sparrow, &c.

Mammalia : Kangaroo, J erboa, &c.

2. Climbing and Prehension.

Excluding such as are concerned in Direct absorption, or
used chiefly for Creeping. Nearly all creeping animals can
climb, as they firmly cling to the support from which their
bodies are not much raised.

Many plants which, owing to their slender and weak stems,
could not otherwise raise themselves high into the air, or ascend
vertical rocks, &c., are enabled to do so by their stems, or special
structures borne by their stems, either twining around the

XXVlll

stronger branches of other plants, grappling their support
with hooks, or by sucker-like structures. The plant is Jixed,
growth alone causing the growing end to ascend ; but it is
thought convenient to consider such structures here, as they
closely resemble the prehensile and climbing organs of
animals.

The seeds and fruits of many plants are dispersed by hooks or
spines which they bear getting entangled amongst the hairs of
animals.

Effected hy Hooks : Grasping and Twining : or by Suckers

[often combined).

By Hooks.

Plants.

Examples. Vegetative portion, Rose.
Climbing-palm.
Seeds and Fruits.

Animals.

Examples. Arthropoda : many ?

Reptilia : Iguana, ifee.
Mammalia : Sloth, Cat, Bat, &c.

By Twining.

Plants.

Examples. Hop, Ipomcea, Vine, &o.

Animals.

Example. Ophiuroidea.

By Grasping

Animals.

Examples. Antedon.

Eotifera (by "toes").
Crustacea: Birgus.
Reptilia : Chameleon.
Aves : Parrot.

Mammalia : Monkeys, &c. &c.

By Suckers or Allied Structures.

Plants.

E.vamples. Ivy, Virginian-creeper.

Animals.

Examples. Arachnida : Hunting-Spider. '
Insecta : many by pulvilli.
Entozoa ; Taenia.
Crustacea : Argulus.
Cephalopoda.
Pisces : Echeneis, &c.
Amphibia : Hyla.
Reptilia : Gecko.

Mammalia : Cheiroptera (Thyroptera).

3. In Semi-solids {Earth, Mud, Sand).

All burrowing animals derive shelter by this habit ; by it also
many obtain their food.

Burrowing.

Plants.

Examples. Seeds of some Grasses.
Animals.

By extensions and contractions of the whole or a part of the
body.

Examples. Annelida : Lumbricus.
Pelecj'poda : Solen.
Enteropneusta : Balanoglossus.

By undulations or rotations of axis of body.

Examples. Pisces: Eel.

Amphibia ; Gymnophiona.
Reptilia : some Ophidia.

By Spines.

Example. Echinodermata ; Spatangus.

XXX

By Limbs.

Examples. Crustacea.

Insecta : Gryllotalpa,
Mammalia : Edentata, Talpa.

By Teeth.

Example. Some Rodentia.

4. Locomotion and resting on Semi-solids {Mud, Sand,
Snow) and on Floating Bodies.

The supporting surface of the animal is relatively great. The
expansion also often serves for other purposes.

Animals.

Examples. Porifera : some.

Aves : Jacari.

Mammalia: Camel, Lagopus, &c.

5. Free in and on Water.

Body made buoyant by gas or water, vrith increased resistance
to sinking by extension of surface. Associated in some with
greasy or waxy condition of surface, which prevents wetting.

Floating.

Plants.

Most plants and parts of plants will float owing to the low
specific gravity of cellulose and the large amount of gas and
water commonly contained in their tissues. Only such plants
as are specialized for floating are included here.

Examples. Algae : Sargassum ; some Diafcomaceae, many Phanero-
gams.

Animals.

Examples. Ehizopoda : Globigerina, many Radiolaria.
Hydrozoa : Physalia, Porpita, Velella.
Anthozoa: Minyas.
Bryozoa : Statoblasts.
Crustacea : Lepas.
Gastropoda : laathiua.

xxxi

Swimming.

By Cilia and Flagella.
Plants.

Examples. Spores of certain Algae.

Spores of certaia Fungi.

Animals.

Examples. Infusoria.

Radiolaria : some.

Ctenophora.

Turbellaria.

By Expulsion o£ Water from a chamber whose walls are
suddenly approximated, or by appendages suddenly approximated.

Animals.

Examples. Hydrozoa : Medusse, Siphonophora.
Echinodermata : Antedon.
Insecfca : Larva of Libellula.
Peleeypoda : Pecten.
Cephalopoda.

Urochorda: Salpa, Doliolum.

By wave-like undulations or bondings of the whole or part of
the body, and not by paired appendages.

Animals.

Examples. Leech.

Sagitta.

Gastropoda : Carinaria, Pterotrachea.
Urochorda : Appendicalaria.
Pisces : some ?
Amphibia.

Eeptilia: Hydrophis,

By Paired Appendages alone, or combined with flexions o£
body.

Animals.

Examples. Crustacea : Portunus, &o.

Arachnida: Hydrachna, &c.
Insecta : Hydrous, Water-skaters.

xxxu

rteropoda.
Pisces.

Amphibia: Rana.
Hoptilia : Chelone.
Aves : by legs, by wings.
Mammalia.

6. Free in Air.
Passive. Carried by currents.

Adapted by minute size and lightness, with investment
resisting drying.

Plants.

Examples. Spores of Lycoperdon, &c.
Animals.

Examples. Rotifera : Infusoria, &c. (encj'sted).

Adapted b}'^ expansion of surface, increasing resistance to
falling (parachute action).

Plants.

Examples. Many Seeds and Pruits.

Animals.

Examples. Arachuida : Lycosa.

Pisces : Flying-fish.

Eeptilia : Flying-Gecko, Flying-Dragon.
Mammalia : Flying-Fox, &c. &c.

Active. Some portion of the expanded surface being actively
moved (=true flight).

Animals.

Examples. Insecta.

lieptilia : Pterosauria.

Aves : Archaeopteryx ; birds generally.

Mammalia : Cheiroptera.

XXXlll

7, Boring in and Memoval of Solids.

For shelter, or to increase capacity of shell &c. Not for
obtaining food, for which see Section J.

Plants.

Examjples. Some Algae and Fungi.

Animals.

Ea'amples. Porifera : Cliona.

Echinodermata ; Strongylocentrotus lividua.
Annelida.

Crustacea : Eupagurus.

Pelecypoda : Pholas, Saxicava, Teredo.

Gastropoda : Patella, Nerita, Conns.

8. Fixation.

Exclusive of such as are used for Climbiug or Direct Absorp-
tion by Plants.

On Solids.

Plants.

Example. Algte : Laminaria.
Animals.

Examples. Rhizopoda, by moulding of shell to support.
Infusoria : Vorticella.
Porifera.

Hydrozoa, by hydrorhiza.
Anthoicoa, by expanded base.
Crustacea ; Cirripedia.
Bryozoa.
Brachiopoda.

Pelecypoda : Oyster, Mytilus, Anomia.
Gastropoda: Vermetus.
Urocborda : Ascidia.

On Semi-solids.

Animals.

Examples. Porifera : Hyalonema.
Hydrozoa ?

Anthozoa: Cerianthus?, Pennatula.
Brachiopod: Lingula.

0

xxxiv

Organs concerned in Nutrition.

I.

RESERVE STORES OF FOOD, AND CALORIFIC
MATTER (not for Embryo).

Plants.

Examples. As Starcli in Stem : Potato, 8ago-palm, &c.
Inuliu : Dahlia.
Sugar : Beetroot, &c.

Animals.

Examples. As Oil : Fatty bodies of Amphibia, Reptilia.

Glycogen : in mantle-lobes of MoUusca, and Liver,

J.

ORGANS FOR DIRECT ABSORPTION AND
PREPARATION OF FOOD.

Plants.

Most plants absorb their food in a fluid or gaseous form. By
tbeir roots (also nsed for fixation) they chiefly al)sorb water
holding in solution mineral salts and compounds of nitrogen.
By their leaves, or, in some cases, by their stems, the gases.

Bacteria in the soil greatly increase the vigour of plants, by
changes they produce in the organic constituents of the humus.

Examples of Roots arranged taxonomically.
Animals.

Many parasites that live with the whole or a part of their
bodies bathed by the nutrient juices of their hosts are nouri.shed
by the direct absorption of such juices, and possess no digestive
or circulatory apparatus.

Examples. Infusoria : Opalina.

Gregarinidae : Gregariua, &c.
Cestoidea Taenia.
Crustacea Sacculina. •

XXXV

When the food in part consists of solid or non-diflFnsible
matter, the solids have to be dissolved and the proteids have to
be made difFnsil)le by being turned into peptones ; the fats have
to be emulsified or saponified ; and the starch turned into sugui-s
before absorption can take ]ilace. This change is effocted in
special chambers or parts, and constitutes the act of digestion.

Plants.

Examples. By folded leaf : Drosera, Piriguicula.

By pitchers : Nepenthes, Cephalotus, Utricnlaria.

Animals.

The entire alimentary canal, with its glands and mouth-
appendages.

Invertebrata.
Taxonomically arranged.
Verteh'ata.

Mouth -organs : used for prehension, mastication, insalivation,
and deglutination.

(Esophagus and Stomach.
Liver and Pancreas.
Small Intestine.

Large Litestine, 0£ecum, and Rectum.

In each case the nature of the food to be stated. In many
specimens, parts other than those specified in the sub-group may
be shown.

K.

NUTRIENT FLUIDS, AND ORGANS THAT PREPARE.

THEM.

(Including " Ductless Glands.")

Sap ; Blood ; Lymph ; Bood and Lymph elaborating organs.
Plants.

The sap of plants is a structureless fluid, found in the cell-
walls and intercellular spaces (ordinary sap), or in ths interior
of the cells (cell-sap). It consists of water chiefly absorbed by

c 2

xxxvi

the roots, holdino- in solution inorganic salts derived from the
soil, and organic matter (sngar, &c.) formed l)y the plant.

Chlorophyll-containing organisms (mostly plants) are almost
alone amongst living things capahle of com])ining inorganic
matter to form organic. Some bacteria are .also said to do this.

The sap is to the plant much the same as l)lood to the animal.

Animals.

Blood. A coagnlable fluid containing formed elements = blood-
corpuscles. May be colourless or nearly so, as in most Arthro-
poda, Mollnsca, Urcchorda, and Cephalochorda. Bed from
presence of Haemoglobin in liquor sanguinis, as in Annelida,
and Planorbis amongst Gastropods. Red from presence of
Haemoglobin in corpuscles in Solen legumen and Area amongst
the Pelecyi)oda, and Vertebrata generallj'. Rose-violet in
Lingula. Blue when the copper-containing body, Ha?mocyonin,
is present, as in Cephalopoda, Arachnida, and Crustacea.

Fxmctions. The diffusion of nutriment and oxygen, with the
removal of waste products from the tissues in all. In some it
also diffuses heat, and may effect the erection of certain organs
or serve for adornment.

Examples. Buflfy coat, &c.

Lymph. Mostly a colourless tluid exuded from the blood-
vessels into the tissues ; it becomes corpusculate after passing
through the lymphatic glands, and is returned to the venous
blood. The lymphatics in the walls of the alimentary canal
have commonly milk-like contents due to absorbed emulsified
fats, &c. ; they are hence called Lacteals.

" Ductless Glands " — Blood and Lym;ph elaborating

Organs.

Not consisting of Oytogeuous-Adenoid Tissue.
Chief cells derived in many cases, at least in part, from diverti-
ticula of alimentary canal. They lie outside the blood-current.

Examples. Pineal gland, j. ^rain.
Pituitary body. J
Thyroid gland.

Adrenal8= Supra-renal capsules.

XXXVll

Consisting chiefly of Cytogeuous Tissue.

Cytogenous tissue consists of a sponge-like network of cells,
whose meshes are occupied by small rounded cells. Masses of
this tissue are found in many parts of the body, especially in the
walls of the alimentary canal. lied blood-corpuscles are also
thouo-ht to be in part formed in certain connective-tissue
cor[)UScles of the embryo, and in the red marrow of bones.

Placed in the path of the Lymph, elaborating and adding cells
to it.

Examples. Tonsils.

Thymus. (Hassel's corpuscles derived from alimentary

canal.)
Lymphatic glands.

Placed in the path of the Blood, elaborating it, adding new
corpuscles, and destroying old ones. The lymphatics are here
continuous with the blood vascular system.

Example. Spleen.

L.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM AND BODY-CAVlTY

(=C(ELOM).

Plants.

The sap of vascular plants is mainly conducted by their fibro-
vascular bundles (wood, &c.). The causes of its movements arc :
the osmotic absorption of fresh material by the roots forcing
upwards that already in the plant ( = root-force); the evaporation
from leaves and other parts drawing upwards the sap below ; th
demand for fresh material hj growing parts, these abstract from
the sap the materials required for their growth, a constant dif-
fusion current must take place between the sap deprived of such
materials and the sap still containing them.

Examples showing arrangement of vascular bundles in taxouomic
order.

xxxvni

Animals.

In the yonno- vertebrate embryo the first direction of the
blood-flow is from the food-containing structures (umbilical
vesicle, food-yelk) towards the body. It is due to the demand

Vein. —To return blood
to heart.

Lympliatic vessel. — To
return lymph to
blood.

Lymphatic capill

Heart. Co)itruc/i/i.—'£o p)-oi)L'l
the blood.

Large Artery. I'2asiw.
— To equalize blood -
flow, and diminii<b
shock {i. e. sudden
increase of pressure)
to smaller vessels.

Small Arteries. Elastic
and C'lntrfwlile. — To
regulate the amount
of blood flowing
through a given
vessel.

ies. Thill -walled. — To allow of
passage of nutriment and gases.

open into tissue-spaces, to take up fluid
exuded by blood -capillaries, and
waste products of the tissues.

DlASRlM OF ClRCTTL.VriOX.

for formative material by the embryo, and its absorption from
the food-yelk. The heart as a blood-propelling structure is a
secondary cause of the circulation.

In the adult the causes of the circulation are : the contraction
of the Heart, and the demand for fresh material by the tissues ;
these forces bring the blood to the tissues. The retm-n of the
l)lood to the Heart is the result of the passage of the blood from
the capillaries (through whose walls the nutrient fluid and gases
pass) into the veins ; intermittent pressure by the tissues on the
veins squeezing the blood towards the Heart, as valves whose
edges, are directed towards that organ prevent a backward flow ;
and the suction action of the dilating heart and chest.

XXXIX

The circulation of the Lyi>iph iei mainly due to the same causes
as those of the blood in the veins, with, in addition, the suction
action of the venous Idood where that fluid rushes by the orifices
by which the lymphatics o[)en into the veins.

In some animals {e. </. Frogs) the lymphatics have muscular
contractile chambers (lymph-hearts) which assist in propelling
the lymph.

Eivamples of the circulatory system arranged iu taxonomic order,
with division into anatomical groups.

Serous cavities might be placed here.

Blood-purifying and Sound-producing Organs

lYl.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.

Carbon dioxide, the common waste-product of tissue change,
and of the decomposition and oxidation of carbo-hydrates (starch,
sugars) and hydro-carbons (fats), is removed from the organism
either at the non-specialized general surface, or by more or less
special respiratory organs. At the same time that GO2 is given
out Oxygen is absorbed.

Plants.

The respiration of Chlorophyll-containing plants when exposed
to light is masked by the CO2 being used as a food-material—
the CO2 being decomposed, the carbon used in the formation of
starch (CJeHioOs), and the oxygen given out. In the dark COo
is given off. There are no special organs for respiration.

Animals.

In Water. The necessary special surface for respiration in
water is generally iu the form of fringe-like projections {e. y.
Branchiae, Grills).

Examjjles taxonomically arranged.

xl

^ In Air. The special surface is generally in the form of
inpushnigs (e. g. Trachea, Lungs, &c.).
Examples taxonomically arranged.

In Water and Ai>: A combination of the two special struc-
tures usually present, or a special arrangement to prevent the
gills drymg.

Examples. Crustacea : Eirgus latro.

Gastroijoda : Ampullaria.
Pisces : Ceratodus, Amia, &c.

^ Many fish habitually swallow air, which yields up its oxygen
m exchange for the CO^ in the blood in the vessels of the ali-
mentary canal, thus supplementing the respiration by gill.

N.

SOUND-PRODUCING ORGANS.
(Including Larynx and Syrinx.)

Used by animals for signalling their presence, to give warning
of danger, and exciting sexual passion.

Not Larynx or Syrinx.

Examples. The simplest aud least-specialized in each class to
commence the series.
Crustacea.
Arachnida.
Myriapoda,
Insecta.
Reptilia.
Mammalia.

Larynx and Syrinx.

Examples taxonomically arranged.

xli

o.

URINARY ORGANS.

(Including- Kidneys, Bladder, and Waste Products.)

Chiei: duty the removal from the body oi: waste nitrogenous
matter (as Urea and Urates) and surplus water.

The cells that excrete this product are usually derived from
those which line the body-cavity.

Examples taxonomically arranged. They will sometimes include
the reproductive organs.

P.

SPECIALIZATION AND DIVISION OF LABOUR
AMONGST "PERSONS" OR "INDIVIDUALS."

A mass of non-specialized protoplasm can perform all the
essential functions of life ; it can move, take in food and digest
it, grow by forming its own substance out of absorbed food which
was originally unlike itself (a function peculiar to living matter),
and can by division increase in number {e. g. Rhizopoda). In
the Infusoria different layers of the protoplasm are specialized
to perform particular functions.

The higher forms of animals (Metazoa) are composed of
numerous associated units (cells), each like the entire body of a
Rhizopod, and of tissues specialized to perform one function,
derived from such cells. We have here in the Metazoa a division
of labour amongst the cells and tissues.

In the following examples we find a further division of labour,
certain semi-independent or independent " persons " produced
by budding from the organism resulting from the development
of one egg; or the dift'erent membei-s of a colony of "indi-
viduals " take on the chief or exclusive performance of one
function.

This division of labour is of the same advantage to the
members of a colony, as results from the special trades of
civilized life.

xlil

Plants.

Examples. Many commonly coiisiflered as organs.

Animals.

Examples, Hydiozoa.

Anthozoa.
Gestoidea.

Individuals.

Examples, lusecta ; Termes, &c.

STRUCTURES CONCERNED IN THE PRE-
SERVATION OF THE RACE.

Q.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM.

All animals are directly or indirectly dependent npon plants
for their food ; and all plants and animals die from accident,
disease, or natural decay. If they did not reproduce themselves
all living organisms vpould become extinct. This is effected by
the Reproductive System.

Axexual.
By budding, fission, spores.

Plants.

Examples fcaxonomically arranged.

Animals.

Eivamples taxonomically arranged.

Sexual — Heriiuiphrod'ite.

Plants.

Examples. MonoBcious : Diclinous.

xliii

Animals.

Examples taxonomically arranged.

Sexual — Mule.
Eivctinjiles taxonomically arranged.

Sexual — Female.
Examples taxonomically arranged.

R.

STRUCTURES FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE

YOUNG.

(Including Eggs, Egg-Capsules, Nests, &c.)

Plants.

Examples. Fruits.

Animals.

Examples taxonomically arranged.

s.

STRUCTURES CONCERNED IN THE NOURISH-
MENT OF THE YOUNG.

(Including Mammary Glands and Placentae.)

Plants.

Examples. Endosperm : Perisperm.
Animals.

Examples. Yelk.

Mammary glands. Placenta;.
Taxonomically arranged.

xliv
T.

DEVELOPMENT.

Plants.

Examples. Germinating Seeds, &c.

Animals.

Examples taxonomically arranged.

u.

ALTERNATION OF GENERATION. DIMORPHISM.

POLYMORPHISM.

Plants.
Animals.

V.

SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS.

Characters whicb distinguisli tbe sex, iiiid that are not directly
concerncd in reprodnction.

Plants. I

Animals J ^'^'^'"'P^^^ taxouoniically arranged.
Sexual dimorphism.

w.

NORMAL VARIATIONS OF SPECIES.

Livino- in tlio same locality.
Examples taxonomically arranged.

Living in different localities.
Examples taxonomically arranged.

X.

ASSOCIATION OF DIFFERENT SPECIES, WITH
OR WITHOUT MODIFICATIONS OF STRUCTURE.

Commensalism.

Association of two species, from whicli one (the guest) con-
stantly found so associated derives advantage without injuring
its host.

Examples arranged according to taxonomic position of guest.

Symbiosis.

Association of two or more species for the advantage of all.

Examples arranged according to taxonomic position of dominant
form.

Parasitism.

Association of two species, of which one, the guest, derives
advantage at the expense of the other, its host.

Examples arranged according to taxonomic position of guest.

CONTENTS.
VOL. I.

A.

ENDOSKELETON.

Nos.

PLANTS 1—5

ANIMALS.

PORIFEEA 6—12

HYDROZOA 13—14

ANTHOZOA.

Chemical Composition 15 — 19

Stbuotube and Mode op Fobmatiost.

Continuous, non-spicular "20 — 26

Consisting in part or entirely of separate sclerites

(s23ictdes) 27 — 28

Modifications of the central supporting axis in
the Qorgonacea.

Containing coelenteric canals 29 — 31

Solid, and secreted by a layer of special

ectodermic cells (caly ooblasts) . . . 32 — 41

ECITIXODERMATA 42—47

vni

CONTISNTS OF VOL. T.

ANNELIDA "

BRACinoPODA 4,,

CRUSTACEA oO— 53

ARACHNIDA 54_gQ

[NSECTA 57

PELECYPODA a58-b58

Q-ASTROPODA 58

CEPHALOPODA 59— 59 c

CEPHALOCHORDA 60

PISCES.

Chemical Composition 61 63b

STRucTimE 64 75

REPTILIA 76_76c

AVES 77—87

MAMMALIA.

Chemical Composition 88 96

Development and Gbowth.

As shoivn hy Madder-staining 97 — 108

Groivth of the Antlers of Deer 109 — 133

In other hones 134 187

Bones containing G-as ob Am 188 — 203

CONTENTS OF VOL; I. xlix

B.

FLEXIBLE BONDS OF UNION AND SUPPORT.—
VERTEBRAL COLUMN.— JOINTS.

FLEXIBLE BONDS OF UNION AND

SUPPORT. j^^^

AREOLAE TISSUE 1

SPECIAL ELASTIC STRUCTURES.

Not bssbnttallt conneoteb with Skeleton . 2 — 5

CONTTECTED WITH VebTBBBAL CoLTJMN.

Supraspinous 6 — 10

Interspinous 11 — 15

Subapiuous 16 — 20

Interarcual 21

CONNECTBr) WITH THE ElBS 22

CONNECTEB WITH THE LiMBS 23 — 24

JOINTS.

"Without known function 25 — 29

Nodes — points of development of organs separated
by internodes that eflfect the necessary

elongation 30 — 33

That allow of continuous growth 34 — 37

That diminish the risk of fracture 38 — 45

That allow of voluntary motion.

INVERTEBRATA 46—50

VERTEBRATA.

Jaw 51 — 67

Vertebral Column.

Acentrous 68 77

Ohordacentrous

ArchceiitrouB gg jog

Ribs 107—117

Shoulder-girdle 118—120

d

CONTENTS OF VOL. 1.

Noa,

Shoulder 121 igg

l^lbow 139—145

Wi'isb 146-149

Digits 150

Pelvic Girdle 151

Hip 152—170

Knee 171—182

Ankle 183—190

c.

MUSCULAR AND ALLIED SYSTEMS.

Nos.

PLANTS 1—7

ANIMALS.

INVERTEBRATA 8—63

VERTEBRATA.

JFOKM AND TbXTUBB.

Texture of Muscle 54 — 60

Texture of Teudon 61 — 66

Torms of Muscle 66—79

Eegional.

Cutaneous 80—82

Head and Neck 83—94

Depressor maxillas inlerioris (Digastric) . . . 96 112

Trunk 113—121

Fore-limb 122—172

Hiud-lirab _ 173—246

DESCEIPTIVE CATALOGUE

OF THE

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

STRUCTURES CONCERNED IN THE PRE-
SERVATION OF THE INDIVIDUAL OR
TO ITS ADVANTAGE

A.

ENDOSKELETON.

(Including- all stractures that function as an Endoskeleton,
whether derived from Ectoderm, Mesoderm, or Endoderm,
or the ec[uivalent embryonic layers.)

A structure specialized to give to the organism support,
strength, rigidity, and protection to more deeply seated parts ;
in some cases it furnishes the levers and fulcra for the move-
ments of parts of the body or advantageous attachment for
muscle. Its physical properties are independent of life.

PLANTS.

The bundles of thick-walled elongated cells commonly asso-
ciated with the vascular bundles act as an endoskeleton.

The cell-walls of the whole or greater part of a plant may bo
hardened by lime (especially when exposed to violent waves,
e. y. certain Algse = Corallines) or silex (as in grasses and
horse-tails), so as to give the necessary strength and rigidity,
These cannot be regarded as specialized endoskeletons,

B

2

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

A. 1. A Red Sea- weed {Delesseria sangainea). The perennial
stem-like portion of the tballus has its cells crowded with
reserve food-material in the form of aleurone grains. It
gives origin in the spring to leaf-hke structures that die off
in the autumn. Each has an axial bundle of somewhat
elongated cells from which other bundles diverge and
branch. They are thought to give some extra strength to
this portion of the thallus, and serve as special paths for
conduction of nutriment. The resemblance to the " veins "
(vascular bundles) in true leaves is very great.

Potter, J. Marine Biol. Assoc., vol. i. 1889, p. 171.

A. 2. Transverse section of the stem of a Tree-fern {Ctjathea
dregei). On the inner and outer side of each vascular
bundle is a flattened bundle of almost black, greatly elongated
(prosenchymatous), thick-walled cells derived from the
fundamental tissue ( = tissue between epidermis on the
outside and vascular bundles in the interior). The in-
creased thickness of the walls of these cells is due to a

Fig. 1.

X 110,

secondary deposit of lignone, which renders them hard and
stiff. This form of tissue is known as " Sclerenchyma " ; it
gives strength and stiffness to the stem. The drawing
shows the structure of the sclerenchyma. (Fig. 1.)

ENDOSKBLETON. — PLANTS.

3

A. 3. Sections of the stem of a Wax-palm {Copernicia cerifera),
with a drawing illustrating its structure. On the phloem
(usually outer) side of each vascular bundle is a bundle of
thick-walled prosenchymatous cells of dark colour forming
a sclerenchyma that gives strength and stiffness to the
stem. In the flower-stem each vascular bundle is com-
pletely surrounded by a sclerenchymatous sheath.

Micheels, Mem. Cour. Acad. Belgique, t. liii. 1893, p. 1.

Bot. Centralbl., vol. lix. p. 186.

A. 4. Transverse section of the stem of Black Ebony {Diospyros
melanoxylon). The outer portion of the wood (alburnum)
is of a pale colour and is concerned in the conduction
of sap. The central older " heart-wood " (duramen) is of
a dark colour, and has ceased to conduct sap. It serves to
give extra stiffness and strength to the stem.

A. 5. Section of stem, portion of leaf, and drawings illustrating
the structure of the sclerenchymatous spicular cells, and
their arrangement in the leaf o£ Wehoitschia mirahilis. In

Fig. 2.

c. s.

Arrangement of Spicular Cells in Leaf of Wehoitschia.
Vert. long. sect. X 20.

this plant, as in many others, certain cells of the funda-
mental tissue ( = tissue between epidermis and vascular
bundles) depart from the usual character of the funda-

b2

4

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES,

mental tissue, becoming greatly elongated and often
branched. Their walls are thickened by a secondary
deposit of lignone (CiaHigOj) on the inner side of the
primitive cell-wall formed of cellulose (CigHzoOjo). Nume-
rous crystals of calcium oxalate are imbedded in the outer
surface of these cells. The spicular cells appear to confer
some extra strength and stiffness to the parts in which they
are present. They may also render the plant distasteful to
animals ; and perhaps serve as a mode of disposal of
redimdant carbohydrates. (Fig. 2.)

Royal Gardens^ Kew.
Hooker, Trans. Linn. Soc, vol. xxiv. 1864, p. 1.

ANIMALS.

POEIFERA.

A, 6. A Calcareous Sponge {Grantia compressa) . Its soft
parts are supported by definitely arranged calcareous
spicules whose forms are shown in the drawing. Each
spicule is formed in one of the cells of the mesoderm.
In this sponge they consist of calcium carbonate, having
the crystalline structure and other properties of calcite;
the form, however, is organic.

Presented hy Prof. C. Stewart.

A. 7. A Siliceous Sponge {CranielJa [Tethyal cranium'), belong-
ing to the Sub- Class Tetractinellida. The spicules do not
fuse ; they are composed of colloid silica in layers around
a delicate central cavity occupied by organic matter. The
large spicules (megascleres) are mostly arranged in bundles
radiating from the centre of the sponge and projecting
slightly on its surface. Minute flesh-spicules (microscleres)
are also present. Presented hy Prof. C. Stewart.

A. 8. Half of a Siliceous Sponge {Corallistes noli-tangere. Sub-
Class Tetractinellida). The soft tissues and loose spicules
have been removed, leaving only the main skeleton. It
consists of branched solid spicules (desma) that are

ENDOSKELETON. — ANIMALS.

5

inseparably interlocked by short clubbed or mushroom-
shaped processes at the ends of the branches. They are
also held together by processes that firmly wrap around
and grasp neighbouring spicules. The loose spicules
(dichotrioenes) that support the dermal membrane, and
those forming the main skeleton, are of large size (mega-
scleres). The minute flesh-spicules (microscleres) are of
two sorts, stellate or bistellate with blunt rays (chiasters
or amphiasters), and style-shaped (styli), that is blunt at
one end and pointed at the other. A drawing illustrates
the forms of the spicules.

Presented ly B. W. Priest, Esq.
Sollas, Chall. Rep., vol. xxv. p. 339.

A. 9. A Siliceous Sponge (Euplectella aspergillum. Sub-Class
Hexactinellida). The siliceous spicules are six-rayed
(hexactinellid). Those that form the main supporting
framework are united by bars of silex (synapticulse)
secreted by neighbouring cells. The magnified forms of
some of the spicules that always remain free are shown in
a drawing. Presented hy Prof, C. Stewart.

A. 10. A Horny Sponge (Detidrilla rosea) with drawings
illustrating the structure and mode of development of its
fibres, they being secreted by investing cells known as
sponginblasts ; the material they secrete as spongin.

von Lendenfeld, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., Bd. xxxviii. 1883,
p. 285.

A. 11. A Horny Sponge (Euspongia officinalis), with drawing,

A. 12. A Horny Sponge {Dysidea fragilis), with drawing. Sand-
grains coming in contact with the growing ends of the horny
fibres adhere to them, and become invested by a thin layer
of the same material. The amount of sand varies greatly
with the locality ; this specimen was obtained off Hastings.

Presented hy B. W. Priest, Esq.
Schulze, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., Bd. xxxii. 1879, p. 130.

6

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

Htdrozoa.

The supporting framework (corallum) of the following forms
is secreted by the outer layer of the body (ectoderm) upon its
external surface. It is accordingly outside the body, but since
the latter remains closely investing and surrounding the corallum
the coral functions as an internal support to the animal. The
endoderm in many forms a cartilage-like support to the arms.
The " supporting lamella " and mesogloea likewise serve for
support.

A. 13. Calcareous corallum of MUlepora alcicornis (Order Hydro-
corallinse), and drawings illustrating its structure. The
corallum is secreted by the outer layer of cells (ectoderm)
of a network of tubes (hydrorhiza), and a continuous layer
of such cells on the outer surface of the coral. The hydro-
rhiza gives origin by budding to two sorts of zooids, which
can be retracted into tubular chambers (calicles). The
lower portion of the calicles are not occupied by the zooid,
and are cut off by successively formed plates (tabulse).
Only that portion of the Millepora superficial to the last-
formed tabula is living. The interior of the hydrorhiza-
tubes are filled with a symbiotic alga (^Zooxanthella
infestans) in the form of small round yellow cells, having a
well marked cell-wall : they are quite free.
Moseley, Phil. Trans., vol. clxvi. 1877, p. 91.

In the following diagrams the colours represent — Black or
White = Corallum ; Brown = Ectoderm ; Blue = Mesoderm ;
Green = Endoderm.

A. 14. Calcareous corallum of Stylaster roseus (Order Hydro-
coralliuse), and diagram showing its structure. The co-
rallum is secreted as in the former specimen. The arrange-
ment and shape of the calicles of the dactylozooids as a
circle of flattened wedge-shaped chambers surrounding
a central deeper and larger calicle in which the gastrozooid
is lodged, gives this coral a close superficial resemblance to
an Oculina (Class Anthozoa). A style-like process of the

ENDOSKELETON. — ANIMALS.

7

coral at the base of the zooids simulates the cohimella of
the Anthozoan. PI. I. fig. 1.

Moseley, Phil. Trans., vol. clxix. 1879, p. 449.

Anthozoa.

Chemical Composition.

The coral is in most cases composed of calcium carbonate
associated with a varying amount of organic matter; minute
traces of other salts are present. In some Gorgonacea (e.g.
Gorgonia Jlahellum, G. setosd) calcium phosphate is the chief
inorganic constituent of the axis, although none is found in the
crust.

A. 15. Horny axis of Antipathes politum. It has been ma-
cerated in acid : this has caused a partial separation of its
constituent lamellae. 0. C. 85 G.

A. 16. Small portion of Organ-pipe Coral [Tubipora musica).
It has been treated with dilute nitric acid which has removed
all colour, and the calcium carbonate that alone renders the
coral stiff" and hard. The polyps may be seen at the mouths
of the tubes. 0. C. 84. Hunterian.

A. 17. A similar specimen in which the tubes are somewhat
larger and the polyps absent. 0. C. 85. Hunterian.

A. 18. The axis of a main stem of a Coral [Melitodes ochraced).
The lower portion has had its surface acted upon by dilute
hydrochloric acid. This has partly removed the calcium
carbonate, leaving the organic matter. In the "nodes"
the organic matter is more abundant : they accordingly
project above the level of the more eroded internodes,
which are of a brioht red colour. Besides the calcium
carbonate there is a small trace of calcium phosphate.
0. C. 85 A.

A. 19. Smaller branches of the same Coral {Melitodes ochraced)
similarly treated. 0.0. 85 b.

8

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

Structure and Mode of Formation.
Continuous, non-spicular.

A, 20. Caryophyllia pi-ofunda, one in section and the other entire,
as an example of a simple aporous Coral, with diagram.
The sea-anenome-like polyp first secretes upon the rock to
which it is attached a disc-like basal plate ; radiating ridges
on the upper surface of this enlarge to constitute the septa, an
extension of the outer ends of these grow together to form
the theca, and an elevation in the centre is known as the
columella. The corallum, although external to the polyp,
functions as a deep-seated support, PI. I. fig. 2.

G. V. Koch, Mitth. Zool. Stat. Naples, Bd. xii. 1897,
p. 767.

A. 21. A simple, free, aporous Coral {Fungia actiniformis), with
diagram. It results from the detachment of the enlarged
free end of a fixed coral resembling the preceding specimen.
The septa are united by calcareous bars (sj'napticulse), which
contribute to the strength of the coral. PI. II. fig. 1.
Bourne, Q. J. Micr. Sci., vol. xxvii. 1887, p. 293.

A. 22. A compound aporous Coral (^Pocillopora cespitosa), with
diagram. The corallum is composed of tubes whose sides
are in contact. The cup-like end of each tube lodges a
polyp, the bottom of the cup is formed by a plate (tabula).
The tabulse are formed whenever the cup becomes too deep
from additions to its lip. The digestive cavities (coelentera)
of the polyps communicate with one another by canals
(cceleuteric canals). PI. II. fig. 2.

A. 23. A fossil Coral (Favosites gothlandica). The tabulae are
very distinct. Brit. Mus,

A. 24, Blue Coral (ffeliopora cairulea, Order Alcyonaria), and
diagram illustrating its structure. The corallum consists of
tubules of two sizes. In the larger are lodged the polyps,
each having eight pinnate tentacles ; the smaller lodge
tubular extensions of the digestive cavity of the polyp

PI. I.

H Y D RO R H 1 Z A - ->^-A,!-,'

CORALLUM

DACTYL0200ID

SASTROZOOID

C.Stewart del.

I.STYUASTER R03EUS.

Bia^ranv of CoralLmiv ■with group of ZooicLs, Long, sect X 50.

2.CARY0 PH YLLI A PROFUNDA.

Dcax^T-curo of CovcdJUiuny and/ Polyp, enlof'ffedy.

\

C.Stewa,rfc del .

l.FUNGIA ACTINIFORMIS.

Dicu^T-ocmy of vert. sect.

2.POCI l-LOPORA CESPIT08A.

DicLffrajYv of verb. sect, enlarged.-

T

t

K
r
X

4

r

Si

7.

.tr

PI. III.

CORALLUIV; TABUL/E POLYP CALICLE TUBE

1

PI. IV.

I.TUBIPORA MUSICA.

Diciffi-cun. of vert .st>c{: . ctilctrgedy.
2.PARAGORGIA ARBOREA.

Trufvs . sect. / 20,Spiciil^ X 15C .

i
I

(

!

END OSK E LETON. — ANIMALS .

9

(ccfilenteric canals). The surface of tlie organism is alone
living, the lower deserted portion of the tubes being cut off
by tabulte. ?1. III. fig. 1.

Presented by Dr. H. Woodward.
Moseley, Phil. Trans., vol. clxvi. 1877, p. 91.

A. 25. Perforate corallum of a Madrepore (Madrepora muricata).
The corallum is permeated by a network of coelenteric
canals, so that all except the oldest portions may be regarded
as living. The ectodermic cells (calycoblasts) in contact
with the external surface of the corallum effect its increase,
but they more or less disappear from the deeper parts.
PI. III. fig. 2.

Fowler, Q. J. Micr. Sci., vol. xxvii. 1887, p. 1.

Ogilvie, Phil. Trans., vol. clxxxvii. 1896, p. 83.

A. 26. Horny corallum of Black Coral (Antipathes tdex). This
material is tougher and less rigid than that of the preceding
specimens.

Skeleton consistmg in part or entirely of separate sclerites {spicules).
Each spicule is formed in an ectodermic cell that has migrated
into the mesogloea [firm jelly-like sithstance betioeen ectoderm
and endoderm, formed by the ectoderm).

A. 27. Spongodes florida, a colonial Alcyonarian. Some of the
supporting spicules are shown, detached, by the side of a
drawing of their microscopic appearance.

A. 28. Two specimens, and diagram of the structure of an Organ-
pipe Coral (^Tid)ipora musica, Order Alcyonaria). The tubes
and platforms that unite them are formed by fused spicules,
the spicules in the polyp-walls remaining separate. Coelen-
teric'canals running in the platforms unite the polyps. A
small inner tube is often formed as the result of the detach-
ment and shrinkage of the soft tissues that line the outer
large tube. PI. IV. fig. 1. Presented by Prof. C. Stewart.
Hickson, Q. J. Micros. Sci., vol. xxiii. 1883, p. 558.

10

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

The following specimens illustrate the modifications of the
central supporting axis in the Gorgonacea (Axifera of Gray).
The crust outside the axis always contains numerous spicules.

KoUiker, Icones Histologicae, Zweite Abtheilung, 18G5.

G. V. Koch, Morph. Jahrb., Bd. iv. 1878, p. 447.

Axis containing coslenteric canals.
A. 29. Small piece of Faragorgia arhorea, and two transverse
sections. The axis is not well defined ; it consists mainly
of firm mesogloea with some spicules, and is traversed by
coelenteric canals. The spicules are most abundant near
the surface of the axis, and in the mid spaces between the
canals. The extended polyps may be seen on the surface of
the specimen. The entire colony is branched mostly on one
plane, and is often 1*5 or 1-8 metres in height, with diameter
at base of 15 to 20 cm. Presented by Prof. C. Steicart.

A. 30. Portions of Faragorgia arhorea, with diagram and draw-
ings of its structure. PI. IV. fig. 2.

Presented by Prof. C. Stewart.

Axis formed by fused spicules and containing
coelenteric canals.

A. 31. Portions of Melitodes ochracea, and drawings of its struc-
ture. The axis is jointed, consisting of short thickened
nodes composed of loosely arranged spicules united to one
another by their extremities ; the internodes are of a darker
colour, containing more inorganic matter and with densely
crowded and fused spicules. The spicules of the axis differ
in form from those of the crust, but amongst them are
occasionally found some of the crust-spicules that have
been extruded from that structure. The axis is traversed
by ccelenteric canals. PI. V. fig. 1.

Presented by Prof. C. Stewart.

Axis solid, and secreted by a layer of special ectodermic
cells (calycohlasts^.

A. 33. Suberogorgia suherosa, with drawings of its structure.
The axis is composed of colourless spicules and horny

A

I

I

1

Pl.V.

C .Stew:a-rfc del .

I . M ELITODES OCHRACEA.

TrcLH^. lorty. se'±s X80 Spicules X 150.

2.SUBEROQORGIA SUBER03A.

3ect:XSU Spicule.^ / 130 .

PI .VI.

C.Stewaxt del .

I CORALLIUM RUBRUM.

Trccns . sect X 100 . Spicid.es / 150 .
2.CALIGOR61A VERTl C I ATA .
Trctrts.sect./WC.GrcupofPch'jjs crt stern. r25 . Spa^u/^ nM

i

PI. VII .

C.StewsLrt del.

I.VERRUCEULA G U A DALU PE N S I S

Tnarts.nect'.^IOO. SpCcxxIes 15C .
2. 1 S I S H I PPURIS .
Tr cui^ . sect, cf caZo. inter-node' X 5C ■ Sp icules X /.W.

Ml

ENDOSKELETON. — ANIMALS.

11

matter disposed in ill-defined layers. The spicules differ
from those of the crust, and are mostly fused in groups of
two. PI. V. fig. 2.

A. 33. Red Coral (Corallium riihrum). One piece is still in-
vested by the crust, from the other the crust has been
removed to show the axis, grooved on its surface for the
ccelenteric canals of the crust, A drawing shows the
structure of the axis, which is composed of layers of mixed
calcium carbonate and organic matter ; in it are imbedded
numerous spicules derived from the crust. PI. VI. fig. 1.
Lacaze- Duthiers, Hist. Nat. du Corail, 1864, p. 102.

A. 34. Caligorgia verticillata, with drawings of its structure.
The axis consists of an intimate mixture of calcium carbo-
nate and horny matter, disposed in well-defined wavy
layers. PL VI."" fig. 2.

A. 35. Verrucella guaclalupensis, with drawing of its structure.
The axis closely resembles that of A. 34, but its layers
are mostly parallel; occasionally spicules extruded from
the crust have modified the arrangement of the layers.
PI. VII. fig. 1.

A. 36. Various portions of Isis Jiippuris, some in section, with
drawing of its structure. The axis is jointed, consisting at
first of short horny nodes alternating with long calcareous
internodes. As the axis increases in thickness the horny
matter is formed in excess of the calcareous, and may in
places overlap and conceal it. In the oldest parts of the
axis this sometimes is followed by an increased formation
of the calcareous material forming a continuous layer on
the surface. The ridges on the surface of the internodes
are continued inwards on the surface by which they are
attached to the nodes. The ectoderm-cells that secrete the
calcareous internodes are large and granular, with indistinct
nucleus. Those that secrete the horny nodes are about half
the size of the former, clear, and with a distinct nucleus.
PL VII. fig. 2.

G. V. Koch, Morph. Jahrb., Bd. iv. 1878, p. 116.

A. 37. Plexaurella crassa, with drawing of the structure of the
axis and crust-spicules. The solid axis consists of horny

12

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

material and wedge-shaped bars of calcareous matter in
nearly equal proportion. The calcareous bars show on
section a finely laminate structure with radial striation
PI. VIII. fig. 1.

A. 38. Eunicella verrucosa, and diagram of its structure. The
axis is composed of horny matter disposed in layers. At
the growing tips of the branches the central first-formed
portion is spongy and contains much water. This foi-m of
axis being elastic and strong is probably best fitted to resist
ijiju'T) and is the type most prevalent amongst Gorgonacea.
PI. VIII. fig. 2. Presented by Prof. C. Stewart.

G. V. Koch, Morph. Jahrb., Bd. iv. 1878, p. 269.

Alcyonarja that live with the lower end of the stem
imbedded in mud or fine sand.

Kolliker, Anat. Syst. Beschr. d. Alcyonarien, i. Pen-
natuliden, 1872.

A. 39. A Sea-pen (^Pennatula pliospliorea), laid open to expose
the slender C3dindrical axis, which consists of an intimate
mixture of calcium carbonate and organic matter. 0, C. 88.

IIu7iterian.

A. 40. A Sea-pen (^Pennatula grisea), laid open along the
anterior aspect to expose the central axis. Large needle-
shaped spicules are abundant in the pinnules. 0. C. 227.

Uu7iterian.

A. 41. A longitudinal section of Pennatula grisea, exhibiting the
sti ucture of the central stem. 0. C. 228. Hunterian.

ECHINODERMATA.

A. 42. A Feather-star {Antedon 7'osacea). The endoskeleton is
composed of a great number of small pieces formed in the
connective tissue. They consist of a minute network of
combined calcium carbonate and oi-ganic matter. The
network usually first appears in the substance of inter-
communicating cell-processes. The connective tissue of

1

PI .VIII

AX IS

C.SteT*aLrt dal.

I.PUEXAURELUA CRASSA.

T^wsdntLlc'tLg- Sects. X 100.

2.EUNICEI-UA VERRUCOSA.

DLcLgrcatv of Pclyp cutcL ccoais X 4-0
Sect, of CLccLs and' criisb X 4X]0 . Spicules / 700 .

ENDOSKELETON. — ANIMALS.

13

the visceral disc is stiffened by minute disc-shaped spicules
often perforated in the centre.

Presented hy Prof. C. Stewart.

A. 43. Two half-grown specimens of a Sun-star (Solaster pap-
posus). The viscera and upper (abactinal) body-walls have
been removed from the lower specimen. The ambulacral
plates including those of the oral system, the plates in the
interradial septa (interbrachial pillars), and the stone-canal
constitute the endoskeleton. From the upper specimen
have been removed the whole of the body-walls excepting
the adambulacral plates. Presented hy Prof. C. Stewart.

A. 44. A Snake-armed Starfish (Ophiocoma erinaceus). The
viscera and upper (abactinal) wall of the disc have been
removed to show the ossicles about the mouth, and the
vertebral ossicles ( = fused ambulacral plates) that are con-
tinued from the arms into the disc. One arm has been
detached with the six vertebral ossicles that were included
in the disc. Some of the vertebral ossicles of the arm have
been exposed by removing four of the dorsal (abactinal)
shields. Three vertebral ossicles are shown in different
positions, and below are enlarged models of these having
on one side the surfaces giving attachment to the inter-
vertebral muscles, painted red. A blue rod has been passed
on one side into the opening by which the lateral branch
of the radial water-vessel enters the ossicle, in the substance
of which it forms a loop, and emerges in a cup-like de-
pression to which the tube-foot is attached. The vertebral
ossicles and oral skeleton form the endoskeleton.

Presented hy Prof. C. Stewart.
Ludwig, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., Bd. xxxi. 1878, p. 347.

A. 45. Echinometra lucunter. The shell (corona) has been cut
in half, and the spines removed. The lower half shows five
arch-like processes (auricula) that project into the interior
and give attachment to certain of the jaw-muscles. The
upper half shows the five genital organs (gonads) ; these,
together with the intestine, mesentery, and other organs,
are stifiened by numerous characteristic spicules that, like

14

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

those of calcareous sponges, are optically as if carved from
a crystal of calcite, but their forms are organic and often
closely resemble siliceous spicules.

Stewart, Trans. Linn. Soc, vol. xxv. 1866, p. 365.

A. 46. Two halves of a Cake-urchin (Clypeaster humilis). Pro-
cesses of the test arise from the under (actinal) and upper
(abactinal) body-walls, the former being twice the length
of the latter ; they meet and firmly articulate without
fusion. They must greatly increase the strength of the
test. There are also fine needle-like processes where the
intestine is lodged, and five pairs of processes around
the mouth (peristomal interambulacral apophyses).

Presented by Prof. C. Stewart.

A. 46 a. Test of a Cake-urchin {Clypeaster rotundus), the upper
(abactinal) portion being removed, and the jaws (pyramids)
left in situ. The strengthening wall-like columns are con-
fined to the margin of the test. They are grouped into five
interradial sets. In each set the walls bound a centi-al
area that opens towards the vertical axis of the body, and
has processes extending towards its interior. From the
outer sides of the wall bounding the central area extend
more strongly developed walls mostly parallel to the margin
of the test ; these are separated from similar walls of
neighbouring sets by about 3 mm. In this form the con-
necting pillars and processes, the five processes (peristomal
interambulacral apophyses) around the mouth, and the five
jaws (pyramids) constitute the endoskeleton.

A. 47. A Sea-cucumber (Jlolothuria nigra), laid open. The
mouth is surrounded by a ring of ten calcareous plates, five
radial to Avhich the longitudinal muscles of the body are
attached, and five interradial.

Presented by Prof. C. Steicart.

Annelida.

A. 48. A tube-dwelling worm {Spirographs spallanzanii), show-
ing the branchial skeleton of the right side. The main
portion of the skeleton consists of two tapering ribbons of

ENDOSKELBTON. — ANIMALS.

15

cartilage, each forming an elongated spiral j they are joined
to one another on the dorsal region of the worm by a narrow
bridge. Long slender rods arising from the anterior edge
of each scroll pass up the centre of the branchial filaments,
and from these rods smaller skeletal cores enter the indi-
vidual pinnules. The skeleton is composed of a variety of
cartilage, consisting of large vacuolated cells whose walls
are formed by a small amount of firm substance.
Viallanes, Ann. Sci. Nat., ser. 6, t. xx. 1885, p. 1.

Brachiopoda.

A. 49. The dorsal and ventral valves of a Brachiopod {Magel-
lania septigera). The shell consists of organic matter
hardened by calcium carbonate and a considerable propor-
tion of calcium phosphate. A complicated process (loop)
springs from the dorsal valve close to the hinge ; it gives
support to the " arms,'' and functions as an endoskeleton.

Crustacea.

A. 50. Endophragmal system of a Lobster {Homarus vulgaris).
Infoldings (endopleurites) of the calcified cuticle project
inwards from the sides of the body in the intervals between
the segments. Each has a backward-directed process that
divides the area corresponding with the limb into an in-
ternal region lodging the protractor muscle, and an external
for the retractor. One of the endopleurites has been
painted light blue on its posterior face, the succeeding
endopleurite dark blue on its anterior. Between the
ventral plates (sterna) arise similar vertically directed bifid
processes (endosternites), painted red ; they articulate with
the endopleurites, and with one another in the mid line.
The two articular surfaces for the limb are painted black.
The sterna and their processes form a canal for the pro-
tection of the ventral nerve-cord and artery^ and, with the
endopleurites, give attachment to muscles.

A. 51. Ventral portion of the antepenultimate segment of the
cephalothorax of a Lobster {H. vulgaris). The endo-
pleurites and endosternites have each been divided —

16

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

their posterior halves heing loft in front of the segment,
their anterior behind. On the left side the anterior half of
the endopleurite is painted light blue, the posterior dark.
The endosternites are similarly treated with red.

A. 52. Entostevnite of Apus produdus. It is attached by
muscles to the cuticle of the body-walls, and lies between
the nervous system below and alimentary canal above. It
has the structure of fibro-cartilage. The entosternite is
thought to be represented in the Lobster by a small thin
plate of connective tissue that lies immediately above the
expanded inner ends of the first pair of endosternites.

Presented hy H. M. Bernard, Esq.
Ray Lankester, Q. J. Micr. Sci., vol. xxiv. 1884, p. 131.

A. 53. Entosteruite of King Crab {Limulus polyphemus) . It
has the same general structure and position as the former
specimen. In chemical composition it consists of a
chondrin-like body, and chitin (I'Ol

Presented by M. F. Woodivard, Esq.
Halliburton, Q. J. Micr. Sci., vol. xxv. 1885, p. 179.

Arachnid A.

A. 54. Entosternite of a Scorpion (Palamnceus spinifer). It
has the usual minute structure and composition of that
of other Arthropods. It consists of a stoutish body
situated in the thorax between the alimentary canal and the
nervous system, and of two " posterior flaps or wings that
extend upv^■ards and backwards, having the position of a
diaphragm situated at the junction of the cephalothorax and
abdomen.

Schimkewitsch, Zool. Jahrb., Bd. viii. 1895, p. 101.

A. 55. Entosternite, together with the ventral plate (sternum)
and proximal portions of the limbs of a Spider {7Jiei'a-
phosa hlondii). The entosternite was loosely attached to
the sternum by three pairs of slender processes. It gave
attachment to numerous muscles.

BNUOSKBLBTON.— ANIMALS. 17

A. 56. Portion of a Spider {Theraphosa hlondii), the carapace
and soft parts have been removed to show the entosternite
in situ.

Inseota.

A. 57. A section of the Hercules Beetle {JJynastes heroules),
showing three dorsal and three ventral in-processes of the
cuticle that give attachments to nmscles. Of the dorsal
processes the most anterior = prophragma, springs from
the anterior border of the mesothorax ; from the posterior
border arises the larger mesophragma, the still larger
metaphragma from the posterior border of the metathorax.
These give attachment to the wing-muscles. Ventrally are
the antifurca, medifurca, and postfurca that serve for the
attachment of the muscles that move the legs. 0. C. 224.

Hunterian.

Kirby and Spence, Introd. to Entomology, iii. p. 581.
Pblecypoda.

A. a 58. Valves of Cucullcea concamerata. A process of the shell
projects inwards, forwards, and downwards in the posterior
region of either valve to give attachment to the posterior
adductor. In the right valve the area of muscle attach-
ment is painted red.

A. l3 58. The valves of Pholas [Dadylina] dactylus. From the
inner surface of the shell near the umbo there is a long
slender process (falciform process) to the apex of which
the anterior retractor pedis is attached.

Gastkopoda.

A. 58. The two pairs of buccal fibro-cartilages of an Ormer
= Ear-shell {Baliotis tuherculata). In the upper specimen
they are shown detached ; in the lower in situ from the
left side. These cartilages lie beneath the floor of the
mouth, giving support to the tooth-bearing lingual ribbon
(radula), and attachments to the muscles that move it.
Wegmann, Arch, de Zool. Exp., t. ii. 1884, p. 297.

C

PHYSIOLOfiTCAL SERIES.

('ephalopoda.

A. 59. Tlio separate eurtila(i;es oi' a. Cuttlefisli {Scjna fdliouxi).
The equatorial cartilage is peculiar in consisting of large
cylindrical c(01s, mostly arranged in a single layer, and
without ])rocesses ; its matrix is small in quantity and
forms a definite layer around each cell. In the other
cartilaoes the cells are small and more or less connected
1)V branched processes ; the matrix is very ahmidant and
structin-cless. It contains 1*22 "/o of chitin.

Boll, Arch. f.Mikr. Anat., Bd. v. supplement, 1869, \). U.

Halliburton, Q. J. Micr. Sci., vol. xxv. 1885, p. 174.

A. 59 a. A Cuttlefish {Sepia filliouxi) in which the natural
position of the cartilages is shown by the entire removal of
the soft parts on the left side.

A. 59 b. A transverse section of the gill of a Cuttlefish (Sepia
officinalis), comprising four gill-Iamell?e. The lamelho
have been removed on the right to show a delicate rod of
cartilage that stiffens the free border of the supporting
membrane of each.

A. 59 c. The cartilaginous skeleton of Nautilus pompilius.
When in its natural position the cartilage lies close behind
the buccal mass, sloping from above downwards and
forwards. The upper horns with their processes support
the central nervous system, the ventral flattened processes
are embedded in the sides, and the median in the roof,
of the funnel. In structure the cartilage corres])onds to
that of Sepia.

Oephalochokda.

A. 60. The endoskeleton of AmpJdoxics lanceolatus. The skeleton
comprises a notochord, buccal cartilages, and a dorsal and
ventral row of fin-supports.

The notochord extends from in front of the central
nervous system to the tip of the tail, and consists of a soft
core surrounded by a double sheath. The core is composed
of a series of transversely striated plates (possibly the walls
of extremely flattened chordal cells) arranged at right

RNDOSKHLETON. — ANIMALS.

19

angles to its longitudinal axis : tliey are attached laterally
to the internal notochordal sheath, but are separated from
it, above and below, by a mass of branching cells (MuUer's
tissue). The sheath consists of a thin elastica interna and
a thicker outer fibrous layer.

The buccal cartilages, situated along the ventral nnd
lateral margins of the oral hood, are formed by the xm'um
of a series of short segments. A process from the dorsiil
end of each segment forms the cartilaginous support of a
cirrus. These cartilages have essentially the same structure
as the notochord.

The supports of the dorsal and ventral fins are composed
of a soft structureless material traversed by a few fine fibres.
Each support is contained within an oblong lymph-space.

Chorda, v. Ebner, SB. Ak. Wien, 13d. civ. 1895, p. 199.

Buccal cartilages. Rolf, Morph. Jahrb., Bd. ii. 187(j,
p. 101.

Fin-supports. Pouchet, Q. J. Micr. Sci., vol. xx. 1880,
p. 426.

Fishes = Pisces.

Chemical compositio7i.

" Bone is a compound of animal substance aud calcareous earth,
and serves to support the other parts of the machine, so as to
allow of the different parts being kept at a certain distance from
each other, and to be acted upon by the muscles or moving powers
of the body.

"These (the Bones) are of different shapes in almost every
class of animals, varying as it is necessary for defence from
external accidents, strength, velocity, or convenient attachment
of muscles.

" In some they are similar to shell, serving as a house for the
animal, as in the turtle ; and in the more perfect animals they
serve the same purpose for particular parts.

" In quadrupeds, in some they are very ceUular, thin, and
spongy ; in others, very hard, solid, and compact, according as
atrength is required." — Hunterian MS. Catalogue.

A. 61. The vomer of a Cod-fish {Gadm morrhua), which has
been steeped in an acid, in order to remove the calcareoii

02

20

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

onrth, and show the proportion of animal substance, which
in this species is very considenible. 0. 0. 112. HunteHan,

A. 62. Bone of the pectoral fin of a Cod-fish ( Gadus inorrhua),
similarly treated. 0. C. 115. Hnnterian.

A. 63. Some hones of a fish (JJelonel) from flxi South Seas,
showing a oroen colour. 0. C. 219 C. JIunteriav.

A. 63 a. Various Ijones of a Gar-fish {Belonc vuhjaris). The
matrix of the bone is of a green colour due to Vivianite
(ferrous phosphate).

A. 631). Diagrams showing the proportion of the constituents
of a Haddock's bone [Gadus ceglefinus). It will be seen
that nearly 50 % of fresh bone is water, that calc. phosphate
is nearly the sole inorganic constituent, and that about
18'5 7o is organic. The analysis was made by A. Gordon
Salamon, Esq.

Structure.

A. 64. Cartilaginous skeleton of a freshwater Lamprey {Petro-
myzon Jluviatilis). The axial rod (notochord), that extends
nearly the whole length of the animal, consists of large
vacuolated cells polygonal by mutual pressure, the matrix
forming an extremely thin separating layer between the
cells. In the other cartilages the cells are also polygonal
from pressure, but the matrix is more abundant, forming a
definite layer around each cell ; the combined thickness of
the matrix between two cells being about a fourth of the
diameter of a cell.

A. 65. Transverse and longitudinal sections of the body of a
Sea-Lamprey {Pelromyzon marinus), showing the relations
of the notochord. It is surrounded by a double sheath
composed of an inner fibrous layer that can be spHt info
three sheets according to the course of the fibres, and a
thin homogeneous outer layer (elastica externa). ^ The
sheath is itself enveloped by a considerable quantity of
dense skeletogenous tissue.

V. Ebner, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., Bd. Ixii. 1896, p. 469.

liNDOSKBLETON. — ANIMALS.

21

A. 66. Anterior portion of the body of Bdellostoina cirrhatum.
The soft parts have been removed from the left side to show
the cartdaginous skeleton.

A. 67. Piece of the jaw of a Shark. Near the surface of the
cartilage is a layer of plates of calcified cartilage.

Hunterian.

A. 68. Two portions of the layer of plates of calcified cartilage,
one showing the deep, the other their superficial surface,
from a Shagreen Ray {Raja fuUonica). The plates are
mostly hexagonal, and about 0'8 mm. in diameter. The
outer surface of the plates is flat, the deep surface has
strong ridees that radiate from the centre, and are in
number equal to the sides of the plate and at right angles
to them. A thin layer of uncalcified cartilage commonly
invests the surftice.

Leydig, Beitr. Anat. u. Entwickl. der Rochen u. Haie,
1852, p. 4.

A. 69. Cartilaginous skeleton of a young Ray {Eaja macalata).

A. 70. Skeleton of a Sterlet {Acvpenser rutlienus). It is largely
composed of cartilage. The bone contains lacuna) with
numerous canalicuh. The cranial bones forming pari of
the exoskeleton have been removed from the left side.
Klaatsch, Morph. Jahrb., Bd. xvi. 1890, p. 233.

A. 70 a. Skeleton of Bony-Pike {Lepidosteus osseus), chiefly
composed of bone.

A. 71. Skeleton of a Haddock {Gadus cmylejinus), and drawing
of the bone structure. The bones of Gadidas consist of
matrix in which are spaces occupied by fluid, and various
sized droplets of organic matter that stain readily by
reagents. There are no blood-vessels or included cells.

A. 72. Skeleton of a young Sword-fish {Xiphias gladias), with
drawings of the microscopic structure of the bone. It
consists of matrix disposed in concentric layers around the
numerous blood-vessel-containing channels (Haversian
canals.) There are no included cells, but from a few of

2^

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

the caiuils minute tubes, like those of dentine, nidiate for a
short distance into the matrix. Those tubes are most
marked in Jlistiophorns.

A. 73. Skeleton of a young Fistularia serraia, and skull of an
adult. The bones in this fish, as also in all Pleuronectidaj
(Flat-fishes), are traversed by numerous Haversian canals
from which and from the surface of the bone numerous
dentine-like tubules pass into the matrix. A drawing
shows the structure.

A. 74. Skeleton of Trout {Sahno fario) and Grayling {Tliyiiiallus
vulgaris). As in all Salmonida.', cells lodged in lacunfc
are present but are not provided with intercommunicating
caualiculi. The structure is shown in a drawing.

A. 75, Skeleton B-QWing {Clupea harengm) and Carp {Cy-
■prinus carp'io) . A dra wing shows the well-developed lacunic
and caualiculi present in all (Jlupeidse and Cyprinidje.

Reptiles = Reptilia.

A. 76. The carapace of a very young Turtle {Chelone mydas),
showing the state of ossification, which is continued from
the margins of the ribs, at this period quite distinct from
each other, into a pre-existing ossifiable basis of the costal
plates, until these plates become joined by indented sutures
similar to those of the cranium. 0. C. 131. Hunterian.
Goette, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., Bd. Ixvi. 1899, p. 407.

A. 76 a. Longitudinal section of the left humerus of a Turtle
{Chelone mydas). There are no epiphyses. The articular
cartilage is 4 mm. thick, and has the normal milk-whit(;
opacity : the cells are small and arranged in rows irregular
in direction. At its deepest part the cells are mostly in
rows parallel to the surface. Below this cartilage is a
translucent layer 1 mm. thick ; the cells in it are rounded,
larger than in the former, and arranged in vertical rows.
Beneath this is a layer of similar thickness in which calci-
fication of the matrix is taking place. There is much black
pigment in the medulla, mostly following the course of the
laJger blood-vessels. Preserved in 50 % glycerine.

Presented by G. Rimj, Esq.

I

C.Stewart del BONE

I . FisTULARi A vert.sect . X 100 .

2 SALMO .r,?^(7 4..CLUPEA . /J(5^.

3 THYMALUUS./J^^. 5 . CYPRI NUS . J! 300

9

ENDOSKELETON. — ANIMALS.

A. 76 b. Loiigitudintil section ul' the lelt luuuerus ul' a Turtle
(Clieloiw myda.s). There is no medullary cavity, its place
being occupied by uniformly dense cancellous tissue.

A. 76 c. Longitudinal section of the left humerus of a Crocodile
(Crocodiltis anitus). A medullary cavity is present. Tlie
cancellous tissue at the ends of the bone is dense and
shows some tendency to a vertical disposition.

Birds = Ayes.

A. 77. The muscles and bones of the hind limb of a. ^ilk-fowl
[Gallus ferrmjineus, var. morio), showing the peculiar dark
brown colour of the periosteum. 0. C. 2057. Hunterian.

A. 78. The right tarso-metatarsus of the domestic Fowl,
longitudinally bisected, to show the results of the following
experiment : —

When the animal was young, the boue was perforated near each
extremity, and a small leaden shot was introduced into each hole.
After a certain period the animal was killed, and the length of the
boue was found to have been increased to three inches and ten
lines ; but the distance between the shots, which has now reached
the medullary cavity, was exactly the same as when first intro-
duced. [The original note of the experiment is preserved in the
bottle.]

» And here I must observe, that a bone does not grow m

all its parts, that is, it does not grow by addition of neAV particles
among those already arranged, or in their interstices, but by the
addition of parts lengthways or sideways of the bone. This I
proved by exposing the bones of young animals, and boring holes
in them, which were prevented from being obhterated by fixhig
pieces of leaden shot in them ; these hones were examined a con-
siderable time after, when, although the bones had considerably
grown, the holes were exactly at the same distance from each
other."— Jb/m Hunter, MS. Lectures.

0 C 189 llunterian,

A. 79. The left tarso-metatarsus of the domestic Fowl, upon
which the following experiment was performed : —

Two small holes were made by cauterization near the ex-
tremities of the bone ; the length of the bone at that time being

24

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

two inches and ton linos, and the distance between the holes one
inch and eight lines. After a certain period the animal was killed,
and the length of the bone was found to be three inches seven lines,
while the space between the apertures was one inch and eleven
lines ; the increase of the bone beyond the points of cauterization
being more than double that of the space included between them.
[The original note of the experiment is preserved in the bottle.]
^- ^- 188. Hvnlenan.

A. 80. The sternuin, sternal ribs, and scapular arch of a young
Condor {Sai'corhamjjhus gryphus) ; the sternum with its
well-developed keel is formed by one continuous cartilage.
Ossification has commenced in the coracoids and scapulae
0. C. 133 E.

A. 81. The sternum of a Black Swan {Cygnm atratus) 83 days
old. 0. 0. 133 B h.

A. 82. The sternum of a Black Swan {Cijgnus atratus) 153 days
old. 0. 0. 133 EC.

A. 83. A longitudinal section of the ulna of an Owl. The air-
cells are not continued into it, its cavity having been filled
with medulla. 0. C. 211. Hunterian.

A. 84. A longitudinal section of the femur of an Owl, which has
also had no connection with the air-colls, but contains
medullary matter, and exhibits the difference between such
bones and those which contain air. 0. 0. 212. Hunterian,

A. 85. A longitudinal section of the lower part and articular end
of the tibio-tursus of a young Ostrich, with the vessels of
the periosteum injected. O.C. 119 A.

A. 86. A section of the upper extremity of the tibio-tarsus of a
young Ostrich, showing the more compact cellular struc-
ture, containing medullary matter ; and the epiphysis.
0. C. 218. Hunterian.

A. 87. A section of the lower extremity of the tibio-tarsus of a
young Ostrich, showing th(( compact cancellous structure,
and the medullary cavity. 0. C. 219. Huntcriun.

ENDOSKELETON. — ANIMALS.

25

Mammals = Mammalia.

Chemical com^wsiiion.

A. 88. A small portion of fossil bone deprived of its earth.
0. C. 120. Tlunterian.

A. 89. A larger portion of fossil bone, prepared in a similar
manner. 0. C. 121. JJunterian.

A. 90. A portion of fossil bone from an animal belonging lo the
genus Bos, pre];)ared in a similar way. 0. (J. 122.

Hunterimi.

A. 91. The animal part of a portion of a Deer's horn {CervuH
giganteus), from Ireland, in a fossil state. 0. C. 123.

Messrs. Apjohu and Stokes foimd the animal basis to constitute
■lS-87 per cent, of the weight of the bones of the Megaceros : and
the following proportions of the earthy constituents : — •

Phosphate of lime and magnesia. . 43'45

Carbonate of lime })'14

Ferric-oxide 1-02

Silex 1-14

Hunterian,

A. 92. The animal part of some small portions of the cranium of
the Ursus spelctus or Boar of the Caverns, from Bayreuth
in Germany. 0. (J. 124. Hunterian.
Hunter, Phil. Trans., vol. Ixxxiv. 1794, p. 415.

A. 93. A section of the tympanic bone of a Whalebone 'Whale
{Baluiiia mysticetus), which has been subjected to the
action of an acid, and deprived of its earthy constituent.
It exhibits a concentric laminated structure and uniform
solidity ; the firat-formed central part not having undergone
any change from the action of the acid, and no part ex-
hibiting a trace of fibres, cancelli, or vessels. 0. C. 202.

Hunterian,

A. 94. Another section of the same bone, similarly treated, and
exhibiting more distinctly the laminated texture. 0. 203.
" The bony part of the organ (of hearing) is very hard and

26

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

bliltlu, leiidcriiig it even ditticull tu Ijc cut with a saw, without
its chipping into pieces. That part which contains the immediate
organ is by much the liardest, and has a verj' small portion of
animal substance in it ; for when steeped in an acid, what remains
is very soft, almost like a jelly, and laminated. The bone is not
only harder in its substance, but there is on the whole more solid
bone than in the corresponding parts of quadrupeds, it being thick
and massy." — John IJunte>\ On the Structure aud (Economy of
Whales, Phil. Trans. 1787, Ixxvii. p. 432.

Hunteinan.

A. 95. A section of the tympanic bone of a Whalebone Whale
[Balcena mi/ sticet us) , Bumlarly treated. 0. C. 116.

Ilunteiian.

A. 96. A portion of the soHd part of a Human femur, which has
been steeped in an acid, dried, and preserved in oil of
turpentine, to show the animal part. 0. C. 117. JIunlerian.

Development and Growth.

The following preparations are from the common Hog {Sus
scrofa), and are the results of experiments made by feeding
that animal on the root of madder [Ruhia tindorum), but they
have now lost their colour.

A. 97. The skull of a young Pig, slightly tinged. 0. (/. 190.

Hunterian.

A. 98. A larger skull, more strongly coloured. 0. Vj. 1111.

Hanterian.

A. 99. The right side of the lower jaw, in which the dentine of
the teeth has retained more j)erfectly the red colour, whilst
the enamel is of its ordinary whiteness ; [a circumst;mco
which was remarked by Mr. Belchier, the discoverer of
this property of madder. — Fhilo.t. Trans. 1736, xxxix.
p. 287.] O.C. iy2. Himterian.

A. 100. A longitiulinal section of the humerus. The madder
appears to have been remitted a short tinie before death, as
there is a thin layer of uncoloured bone deposited on the
external surface. 0. C. 193. Hunterian.

ENDOSKELETON. — ANIMALS.

27

A. 101. A lonoitudiniil section of the ulna, i)robably from the
same animal as the precedino;. 0. C 194. Ilimterian.

A. 102. A longitudinal section of ii metacarpal bone, in which
an external layer of uiicoloured bone may be observed,
as in A. 100, being probably part of the same animal.
0. 0. 195. Hunterian.

A. 103. The os innominatum, in which a very slight tinge
remains. 0. C. 196. llunterian.

A. 104. A longitudinal section of the femur of the same Hog as
A. 100.

In this preparation may be observed a very thin layer of
uucoloured bone deposited on the exterior of the shaft after
the madder was remitted, and also some of the original
uncoloured bone which had not been absorbed from the
interior of the shaft when the animal was killed. 0. C. 197.

Hunterian.

A. 105. A longitudinal section of the femur of an older Hog, in
which the layers of bone deposited before, during, and after
the administration of madder are more distinctly observable.
0. C. 198.

[This preparation is figured iu au original drawing by Wm.
Bell, Mr. Hunter's Assistant.]

Hunterian.

A. 106. A longitudinal section of the femur of an older Hog, in
which the coloured bone, deposited while the animal was
imder the influence of the madder, may be observed in some
places to have reached the medullary cavity ; the whole
of the originally exterior uncoloured bone having been
entirely absorbed at those parts. 0. G. 199. Hunterian.

A. 107. A longitudinal section of the tibia of the same Hog as
A. 100. It exhibits the same circumstances as are described
in A. 100 and A. 104. 0. C. 200. Unntei-ian.

28

rHYSlOLOGlCAL SERIES.

A. 108. A longitudinal section of the tibia of a younger Hog,
with a thin exterior layer of coloured bone. 0. 0. 201.

By comparing this specimen with, and observing the size of the
medullary cavity in, the preceding, the extent of the absorbing
process will appear manifest; since the cavity is rendered suffi-
ciently large to contain the entire bone of the earlier period of
growth.

" In the formation of a bone, ossification begins in a spot, and
gradually increases. By feeding an animal on madder, it is shown,
that while bony matter is deposited on the outside of the bone,
the absorbents are removing it from the inner side, otherwise
the bone would become heavy and clumsy, and unfit for motion ;
therefore as the bony mutter which was deposited becomes useless,
nature removes it by the absorbents." — John Hunter, MS. Lectures.
See also " Experiments and Observations on the Growth of Bone,
from the Papers of the late Mr. Hunter, by Everard Home, lilsq.,
r.ll.S.," in the Transactions of a Society for the Imjn'ovement of
Medical and Ghirurgical Knoivled(/e, vol. ii. p. 277. Read Oct. 4,
1798.

The colouring-matter of madder has a great affinity to phosphate
of lime, which, if artificially precipitated from a solution coloured
with madder, carries down with it the colouring-matter in a state
of combination which water does not disturb. The colouring prin-
ciple of madder is very slightlj' soluble in water, but is abundantly
so in albuminous fluid ; and consequently is readily carried along
with the circulating blood dissolved in the serum, and is deposited,
combined with the phosphate of lime, wherever this salt is sepa-
rated from the blood to contribute to the increase of reparation of
bone. We may accordingly draw an inference as to the part of a
growing bone which receives the accessions of osseous substance
by observing the deposition of the madder-stained phosphate of
lime.

Ilimterian.

For Illation of Bone, exemplifed in the Groioth of the
Antlers of Deer.

All the exani})le.s are from the Fallow Deer {Cervus dama).

A. 109. A transverse section of part of the palm of the antler,
while in a growing state, injected. 0. (J. 163.

The parts which invest the antler at this period are, a vascular
membrane similar to periosteum and continued from the peri-

ENDOSKBLBTON . — ANIMALS .

29

cranium, cutis and cuticle continued from the integuments of the
head, and a particular kind of short downy hair, which S'ives it a
velvety appearance.

Himterian,

A. 110. The extremity of the palm of the antler, while in a
growing state, injected. 0. C. 164. Hunterian.

A. 111. A transverse section of part of the palm of the antler,
while in a growing- state, injected, from which the outer
velvet-like integument has been removed, to show the
vascular periosteal membrane, part of which is turned
back. 0. 0. 16.5. Hunterian.

A. 112. A transverse section of })art of the palm of the antler,
wliile in a growing state, injected, to show its delicate can-
cellated structure, its vascularity at this period, and its
periosteum, part of which is reflected from the bony
substance. 0. C. 166. Hunterian.

A. 113. A horizontal section of part of the palm of the antler,
while in a gi'owing state, injected, and showing the same
circumstances as the preceding preparation. 0. C. 167.

Hunterian,

A. 114. The outer layer of bone and the periosteal covering of
part of the palm, and of one of the branches of the growing
antler, highly injected, and deprived of the earthy material
by being steeped in acid, so that the ramifications of the
vessels in the substance of the bone are more clearly shown.
One of the external vessels of the periosteum derived from
branches of the external carotid is also exposed. 0. C. 168.

" We find it a common principle in the animal machine, that
every part increases in some degree according to the action
required. Thus we find muscles increase in size when much
exercised ; vessels become larger in proportion to the necessity of
supply, as for instance in the gravid uterus ; the external carotids
in the stag, also, when his horns are growing, are much larger
than at any other time : and I have observed that in inflammation
the vessels become larger, more blood passes, and there appear to
be more actions taking place; but the nerves do not seem to

30

PHYSIOLOGICAL .SERIES.

undergo any change. The nerves of the gravid uterus are the
same as when it is in the natural state ; neither do the branches
of the fifth and seventh pair of nerves in the stag become larger."
—Himiei; On the Blood, 4to, 1704, p. 288.

Hunteriav.

A. 115. A section of part of the palm of the antler, injected,
stripped of its periosteum, and steeped in an acid, to show
the liioli degree of vascularity in the substance of the bone
at this period of its growth. 0. (). 161). JIunteinan.

A. 116. The other section, or counterpart, of the preceding
specimen. 0. 0. 170. Ifunterian,

A. 117. A small portion of the palm taken from the same antler
as the preceding specimen, and prepared in the same
manner. It is extremely vascular. 0. C. 171. Huntenan.

The following seven preparations have been minutely injected,
steeped in an acid, dried, and preserved in oil of turpentine, to
show the vascularity of the substance of the growing antler.

A. 118. A longitudinal section of an antler, in which the
longitudinal disposition of the fibres may be observed.
0. C. 172. Huntenan.

A. 119. A similar specimen. 0. 0. 173. Hunterian.

A. 120. A similar specimen. 0. C. 174. Hunterian.

A. 121. A transverse section of the palm of the antler, which
gives to the internal structure a reticular appearance, in
which part it may also be observed, that the blood-vessels
are exceedingly minute, there being no large branches as
on the external surface. See No. A. 114. 0. C. 175.

Hunterian.

A. 122. A similar specimen. 0. 176. Hunterian.

A. 123. A small portion of the cancellated structure of the palm,
cut in the direction of the fibres. 0. C. 177. Hunterian,

ElsDOSKELETOK. — ANIMALS.

31

A 124. A section of the outer compact substance of the palm.
0 C 178 Hvnterimi.

A. 125. A section of part of the os frontis and of the base; of a
Deer's antler, of which the growth was nearly completed.
O.C. 179.

It shows the antler to be a continuation of bone from the outer
table of the skull, and the velvet-like covering of the antler to bo
equally continuous with the integuments of the head. It shows
also the burr or pearl which has been formed round the base of
the antler preparatory to the separation of the vascular integument
of the antler from that of the skull.

In the formation of the burr, wbich is the last part of the
process, and takes place rapidly, the osseous tubercles of which it
is composed are projected outwards, and, by their pressure, induce
absorption of the vascular external covering at that part. The
cessation of the vascular action, or arrest of the unusual deter-
mination of blood to the antlers, is due to the same kind of
constitutional and seasonal cause or influence as that w^hich excited
it : and, as the vessels diminish, the ossification of the burr en-
croaches upon their diminishing area ; hut it is not the mechanical
cause of that diminution. The chief final purpose of the burr
appears to be to defend the margin of the cranial integuments
around the base of the antler. When the circulation through the
carotids has returned to its normal stale, the whole of that once
very vascular and sensible tegument loses its vitality, dries, shrinks,
and peels oflP, leaving the antler a naked insensible wea.pon.

In one of the branches (the brow antler) in this preparation,
the whole of the vessels appear to have been thus obliterated : in
the other a slight degree of vascularity remains, and one of the
large external arterial branches is still uncompressed.

° Himterian.

A. 126. A section of part of the os frontis and base of the antler,
which has been completely formed and divested of its
external tegument, or 'burnished,' as it is technically
termed. This specimen has been injected, and steeped in
an acid. 0. C. 180. Hnnienan.

A. 127. A section of part of the os frontis and base of the antlei-,
injected and steeped in an acid, to show tlu^ connection of

32

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

the horn with the skull, the loose spongy texture in the
centre of the bono, and tho" outer, compact, last-formed
layer. 0. C. 181. Iluntenan.

A. 128. A slice of the same parts as the preceding preparation,
showing the same circumstances. 0. C. 182. ffunterian.

A. 129. A transverse section of the beam of the same antler as
A. 127, injected and steeped in acid, " showing the two
stages of growth, and its becoming cellular in the centre."
[This is the original description in the manuscript Cata-
logue; but Mr. Hunter, unfortunately, has not left any
commentary or further explanation of his ideas respecting
this specimen.] O.C.I 83. Ilvnterian,

A. 130. A similar preparation. 0. C. 184. Hunterlan.
A. 131. A similar preparation. 0. 0. 185. Hunterian,

A. 132. A section of part of the skull and base of the antler, a
short time previous to its being shed ; injected and steeped
in an acid. It shows the commencement of the interstitial
absorption at the root of the antler, which renders that part
soft and yielding ; and also the separation of the outer,
last-formed, compact layer of bone from the internal spongy
part. 0. C. 186. Hunterian.

A. 133. A slice of the same parts as the preceding preparation,
which exhibits more clearly the progress of the interstitial
absorption at the base of the antler. 0. C. 187. Hunterian.

Development of other- Bones.

A. 134. The cranium of a Human Foetus (at about six months),
showing the several places of commencement or centres of
ossification, and the ossific matter deposited in fine bony
fibres radiating therefrom. 0. C. 132. Hunterian.

A. 136. The parietal bone of a Human Foetus, showing its
vascularity and the radiation of the osseous fibres from the
centre. 0. C. 162 a, Mus. Sir Astley Cooper, Bart,

ENDOSKBLETON. — ANIMALS.

A. 136. One halt' of the frontal bone of a Human Foetus, finely
injectecl, and preserved in alcohol, showing its vascularity.
0." C. 162 B. Mns. Sh Astley Cooper, Bart.

A. 137. The vertebral column of a Human Foetus of the sixth
month, injected, showing the commencement of ossification
in the bodies and arches of the vertebrso. 0. 0. 132 A.

The parts of the arches which are ossified are the two vertebral
laminte or " iieurapophyses." Ossification usually commences in
the Iieurapophyses before it does in the centrum, viz. about the
sixth or eighth week, by a single centre in each. The neura-
pophyses unite together first at the base of the spinous process,
completing the arch in the first year after birth : in the course of
the third year, the bases of the ueurapophyses, which have ex-
tended into the centrum so as to form its neural angles, imite with
the independently ossified part of the centrum. Prior to puberty,
the following epiphyses exist, one flat plate forming each articular
end of the centrum— a terminal epiphysis for the spine, another for
the diapophysis, and a third for the metapophysis, where that
process exists.

With regard to the atlas, the ueurapophyses begin to be ossified
as early as in the other vertebrae, but the so-called body does not
begin to ossify until after birth. The ueurapophyses unite
together between the second and third years, and with the hypa-
pophysis between the fifth and sixth years ; the true body of the
atlas, called " odontoid process," begins to be ossified about the
same time as the body of the dentata, viz. about the sixth month
of foetal life, but by two centres placed side by side, which unite
together before birth. The proper centrum of the axis coalesces
with that of the atlas about the fourth year. The pleurapophysis
of the seventh cervical is formed from a separate osseous nucleus,
at about the sixth month, which usually unites at one end mth
the centrum, at the other end with the diapophysis, about the
fifth or sixth year.

The transverse processes of the first lumbar vertebra are some-
times developed from a separate centre, when they are " pleura-
pophyses " as long as they remain distinct : those of the other
vertebra) are exogenously developed, and are " diapophyscs." As
the iileurapophysial element homologically enters into the formation
of the hole in the transverse process of the cervical vertebrae, but
is autogenously developed only in the seventh, the pleurapophysis

D

34

PHYKIOLOOTCAL SEBIES.

becomes thus occasionally exopjcTious in the nccli, as the neiirn-

pophysis does in the tail.

In the sacrum, besides the osseous nucleus for the centrum, and

for each neurapophysis, one for each pleurapophysis commences

about the sixth month close to the fore part of each nervous inter-
space, in the three anterior vertcbrjc ; the lowest appearing last,
about the ninth month : the junction of the neurapophyses to
form the arch begins in the lowest vertebra first, viz. about the
second year, but the first sacral vertebra is not a single piece before
the fifth or sixth year. About the sixteenth year the sacral
vertebra) begin to coalesce, and the fourth and fifth are usually
united by the eighteenth year, the process of union gradually
proceeding upwards : the terminal epiphyses of the sacral centrum
are formed as in the true vertebrsB ; and lateral epiphyses, also,
begin to form, one for the ends of the pleurapophyses of the first
two vertebrae, and one for those of the last three. The whole
sacrum is not consolidated till about the thirtieth year.
Each coccygeal vertebra is ossified from a single centre.

Presented hy William Lawrence, Ksq.

A. 138. The vertebral column of a mature Human Foetus. The
ligamentum commune anterius has been removed, to show
the intervertebral substances, which are composed largely of
concentric ligamentous fibres, passing between and con-
necting the whole of the articular surfaces of the bodies of
the vertebrae, as is exhibited in the preceding specimen. The
articular processes are connected by another mode of arti-
culation, where opposed cartilaginous articular surfaces are
simply in contact, being connected to each other by a
capsular hgament and synovial membrane.

The pleurapophysis has been preserved on the left side of
the seventh cervical vertebra. The summits of the neura-
pophyses are joined by cartilaginous rudiments of the
neural spine. Short cartilaginous pleurapophyses extend
from the diapophyses of the lumbar vertebrae. They have
begun to be ossified in the first three sacral vertebrfe.
0. C. 247. Hunterian.

A. 139. The sternum of a Human Foetus of the sixth month,
exhibiting the commencement of ossification by four separate
points or centres ; that of the manubrium, or first bone,

ENDOSKELETON. — ANIMALS.

85

has been removed from the cavity in which it was imbedded.
0. C. 132 B. Miis. Ileaviside, No. 90.

A. 140. Tlio sternum and sternal ribs of a Human Foetus of the
sixth month, injected, dried, and preserved in oil of tur-
])entine. Fonr centres of ossification are established in the
sternmn, representing the ventral spines of the first four
thoracic segments of the skeleton. 0. 0. 182 c.

Mus. Sir Astley Cooper, Bari.

A. 141. The sternum and sternal extremities of the true ribs of a
mature Human Foetus. Four separate points of ossification
may be observed in the sternum. 0. C. 133. Hvnterian.

A. 142. The sternum of a Child at an early period of life, showing
vessels from the internal mammary arteries, ramifying on
the several separate ossifications. O.C. 134. Hunterian.

A. 143. The left humerus, of .a new-born Leopard {Felis
pardus), showing the cartilaginous epiphyses: the lower
one is extended over the division of the inner condyle, and
closes there the fissure through which the brachial artery
and median nerve pass ; which fissure, by subsequent
ossification and confluence of the distal epiphyses, is con.
verted into a foramen. 0. G. 133 F.

A. 144. A section of the proximal extremity of the humerus of a
young person, showing the reticular cancellous structure of
the epiphysis, and of the extremity of the diaphysis of the
bone. 0. C. 204. Hunterian.

A. 145. The counterpart of the preceding preparation. 0. C.
205. Hunterian.

A. 146. Longitudinal sections of the extremities of a Human
humerus, radius, and ulna, from a subject aged 15 years.
0. C. 205 A. Presented by A. H. Tubby, Esq.

A. 147. A. section of the epiphysis of a metacarpal bone of a ( 'alf,
showing ossification beginning in several parts of the
cartilage. 0, C. 139. Hunterian.

d2

36

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

A. 148. A similar preparation. 0. 140. Ihtntman.

A. 149. Another section, to show further progress of the ossifi-
cation. 0. C. 141. Ihmterian.

^- 150. A section of the epiphysis of the shank-bone of a Calf,
in which ossification is chiefly advancing from the centre.
0. C. 142. Hunterian .

A. 151. A section of the epiphysis of a metacarpal bone of the
same animal, injected : with a more distinct centre ol*
ossification. 0. 0. 143. Ihmterian.

A. 152. Another section, with the ossification more advanced.
0. C. 144. Ifunterian,

A. 153. The cartilage of an epiphysis, with the central ossification
well-injected, showing that it is jniich more vascular than
the surrounding cartilage. O. C. 145. Ilimterian.

A. 154. A similar preparation. 0. 0. 146. Hunterian.

A. 166. A similar preparation, with the ossification in its centre
more advanced. 0. 0. 147. Hunterian.

A. 156. A section of temporary cartilage. The large vessel
which traverses the preparation probably lies in the inter-
space of two adjoining epiphyses, 0. 0. 148. Hunterian.

The following preparations have been injected, steeped in an
acid, dried, and preserved in oil of turpentine, to show the
A'ascularity of growing bone.

" Parts whose use in tlie machine may be said to be passive, as
tendon, cellular membrane, ligaments, investing membrane, bone,
and cartilage, which last is probably the most passive, have all
small vessels, and of course but few that are visible. As bone,
how3ver, is composed of two parts, viz, animal substance and
earth, it is probable that there may be more action required to
form the latter than either tendon or cartilage, and therefore there
will be more vessels.

" As a further proof that this is a general principle, we find that

ENDOSKKLKTON. — ANIMALS.

37

all growiug parts are much more vascular than those that are come
to their full growth ; because growth is an operation beyond the
simple support of the part : and this is the reason why young
animals arc more vascular than those that are full-grown."—
" This is known by injections, when parts are in the growing
state, or are just grown, and for some time utter:'— Himter, On
the Blood, 4to, 1794, p. 156.

A. 167. A traiisvei-se section of the epiphysis of a cylindrical
bone, which exhibits the progress of the vessels from the
circumference towards the centre. 0. C. 149. Hunterian.

A. 158. A section of the metacarpal bone of a Calf. 0. C. 152.

Hunterian,

A. 159. A similar section of the metacarpal bone of a Calf.
0 Vi 153. Hunterian.

A. 160. A vertical and longitudinal section of one of the toes,
finely injected, of a foetal Calf {Bos taicrus). It shows the
large cartilaginous epiphysis of the metacarpal bone, and
the highly vascular ossific centres of the three phalanges.
The sesamoid is cartilaginous. 0. G. 133 H.

AIus. Sir Astley Cooper, Bart,

A. 161. The pelvis of a (female) mature Human Foetus, showing
the radiating disposition of the ossific fibres in the ilium,
and the separate points of ossification in the ischium
and pubes, and in the bodies and neurapophyses of the
sacral vertebra. The coccyx is still wholly cartilaginous.
0. C. 133 A. Presented by W. H. Clift, Esq.

A. 162. The right femur of a foetal Leopard, showing the carti-
laginous epiphysis of the head, the great trochanter, and
the condyles. O.C. 133g.

A. 163. The femur of a mature Human Foetus, showing the
cartilaginous epiphyses ; the superior of which compre-
hends the great and little trochanter. 0. C. 133 B.

Presented by W. H. Clift, Esq,

38^

PHYSIOLOGICAL SETllKS.

A. 164. A .small section of bone, while in a growing state ;
apparently the outer crust of a tibia of a Sue scroj'a. 0. C.
158. Huntenan.

A. 166. A similar preparation. 0. C. 159. lluidenan.

A. 166. A transverse section of an ej)ipliysis [i)roljably from the
leg of a foetal Calf {Bos taurt(s)^, the ossification of which
is nearly completed. 0. (J. 150. Huntenan.

A. 167. A similar pre[)aration. 0. (_!. 151. Ilunteria/i.

A. 168. A longitudinal section of the tibia of a Oalf. 0. C. 160.

Ilinitenait.

A. 169. The tibia of a mature Human Foetus, showing the carti-
laginous epiphyses. 0. C. 133 c.

Presented by W. U. Cli/t, Esq.

A. 170. A transverse section of the tibia of a young Man,
exhibiting its degree of vascularity. 0. 0. 1(31.

Hunterian.

A. 171. A section of the lower part of a Human tibia, in which
the degrees of vascularity of the epiphysis, the cancellous
extremity, and denser part of the shaft of the bone may
be compared with each other. 0. C 162. Huntenan.

A. 172. A section of the diaphysis of a Human tibia, injected;
ex[)osing the medullary cavity, and the vessel of the marrow
(Arteria medullaris), ramifying on the lining membrane
of the cavity. 0. C. 209 A.

Presented hy William Lawrence, Esij.

A. 173. Sections of the extremities of right femur, tibia, and
fibula, from a subject aged 15 years.

Presented hy A. H. Tubby, Esq.

A. 174. The upper extremity of the tibia of a Child, having
the patella attached. The arteries of the cartilaginous

ENDO&KBLETON. — 2VNIMALS. " 39

patella are injected, but ossilication had -not yet begun.
0 G 135. Huriterian.

A. 176. Tlie patella of a Child more advanced in age, in which
ossitication has begun in the centre, and has extended
along the coats ol: the arteries, making them appear like
boiiy ramifications. 0. C. 130. Huntevian.

A. 176. A series of three Human patellte of different periods of
growth, to show the progress of ossification. 0. 0. 137.

Huntenan.

A. 177. A section of the astragalus of a young person, exhibiting
the reticular cancellous structure of the whole bone, the
cancelh being largest in the centre. 0. C. 206.

Huntenan.

A. 178. The counterpart o the preceding preparation. 0. C

Huntenan.

207.

A. 179. The os naviculare of a young person, longitudinally
bisected, to show the cancellous structure nearly uniform
throughout the bone. 0. C. 208. Huntevian.

A. 180. The os cuueiforme internum of a young person, lon-
gitudinally bisected, and showing a similar structure.
0 C 209 Hunterian,

A. 181. The two middle metatarsal bones of a Fig {Sus serofa),
in section. The vascularity is greatest at the spongy
extremities. 0. C. 157. Huntenan.

A. 182. A longitudinal section of the metatarsal bones of a Calf.
Along the middle of this preparation may be observed the
progress of the ossiHcation, which afterwards produces a
complete ankylosis, and reduces the two to a single cannon-
bone. 0. C. 154. Huntenan.

A. 183. A similar preparation ; apparently a section of the
preceding specimen. 0. C. 155. Huntenan.

40

PHYSIOLOGICAL SKRIEB.

A. 184. The exterior section of the same bones. The vessels
in the cartilaginous extremity are particularly distinct.
0. C. 156. fhnfenan.

A. 185. A metatarsal cartilage of a Calf, injected. The arteries
in several parts are of a whitish colour, from a deposit of
calcareous earth. 0. 0. 138. Hnnterian.

A. 186. A section of the foot of a mature Human Foetus, injected,
showing the cartilaginous condition of the bones of the
tarsus, with the commencement of ossification in the os
calcis and astragalus. 0. 0. 133 d.

A. 187. Section of the foot of a Boy 12 years of age, showing
the epiphyses of the lower part of the tibia, os calcis,
metatarsal and phalangeal bones, injected. The section
is through the middle of the first metatarsal bone.
0. C. 133 D a. Presented hy J. Hilton, Es<j.

Bones containing G-as or Air.

A. 188. Greater part of the crania of two Herrings {Clupea
harengui), showing their ventral surfaces. In A the sur-
face has been left entire ; in B some bone has been removed
to show the three bony chambers on either side that lodge
an extension of the s\^dm-bladder. Into the anterior of
these chambers extends a process of the membranous laby-
rinth. On the right side of B the chambers have been
opened, and have bristles passed into them. A portion of
the anterior extremity of the swim-bladder has been
retained and painted black. These gas-filled cavities
probably serve as resonating chambers subservient to
hearing.

Ridewood, J. of Anat. & Physiol., vol. xxvi. 1892, p. 26.

A. 189. Posterior portion of the skull of a Crocodile {CrococUlus
acutus), with part of left ramus of the lower jaw attached.
A piece of the skull has been removed to show the interior
of the tympanic cavities which freely communicate with
one another above the brain-case. This may perhaps serve

RNDOSKELBTON. — ANIMALS.

41

us a resonating cluunber cunueuted with bearing, and as a
protection to the brain-case The Eustachian tubes b}-
wliich the tympana open into the ])harynx (vide Sect. E)
are very complicated, they have three openings on the
ventral surface of the skull. Through the unpaired opening
blue bristles have been passed into the tympana, and black
through the paired. A special passage extends through
the inner border of the quadrate bone, and is continued as
a membranous tube (siphonium) to an opening in the
articular bone of the lower jaw, by this the bone becomes
pneumatic. A red bristle has been passed through each of
these passages, but the siphonium is not preserved. On
the left side the columella auris and part of the membrana
tympani is shown.

van Beneden, Arch, de Biol., t. iii. 1882, p. 497.

A. 190. Skull of a Hook [Tryimnocorax frugilegus). The outer
wall of the skull has been removed on the left side, exposing
a cavity that was occupied by medulla. A portion of the
inner w\all of this cavity has been removed to show the
air-containing chamber. The articular bone of the lower
jaw has had its air-chambers exposed, the air being received
by means of a bony tube (siphonium) that opens into the
tympanic cavity ; a bristle has been passed through the
siphonium.

A. 191. A longitudinal section of two anterior dorsal vertebrsB
of an Ostrich {Struthio camelus), showing the delicate
reticular structure of the entire substance of these bones for
receiving air, which enters by apertures near the roots of
the transverse processes. 0. C. 214. Ilunterian.

A. 192. The os humeri of an Owl, which shows the cavity free
from marrow, and cancellated only at the extremities, and
therefore a good receptacle for air. l^ear to the joint of
the shoulder may be observed the aperture by which the
air passes into the cavity. 0. C. 210.

" In most birds, I believe in all that fly, these axillary cells
communicate with the cavity of the os humeri by means of small
openings in the hollow surface near the head of that bone : in

42

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

some thoy are coutinued down the wiug, communicating with the
ulna and radius ; in others they reach even as far as the pinions.
The ostrich, however, is an exception : " [i. e. has no air even in
the humerm.']— Hunter, On the Animal (Economy, 4to, p. 92.

Iluulerian.

i^-t^'^ rc'^-' ~

Iliimenis of an Eagle, showing the common lamellte well developed
on its medullary surface, but only slightly on its periosteal. A
condition usually present in air-containing bones. Trans, sect.
X 20.

A. 193. The OS humeri of u Silk-fowl {Gallus fermgineus,
var. mor'io) longitudinally bisected, to .show the cavity
for containing air, and the passage by which it eaters,
indicated by a bristle. 0. C. 213.

" The bones which receive air are of two kinds : some, as the
. sternum, ribs, and vertebra;, have theii- internal substance divided
into innumerable cells ; whilst others, as the os humeri and the os

ENDOHKliLKTON. — ANIMALS.

43

femoris, are hollowed out iuto one large caual, sometimes with a
few bony columns running across at the extremities. Bones of
this kiud may he distinguished from those that do not receive air
by several marks : 1st, by their less specific gravity ; 2ndly, by
being less vascular than the others, and therefore whiter ; 3rdly,
by their containing little or no oil, and consequently being more
easily cleaned, and appearing much whiter when cleaned than com-
mon bones ; 4thly, by having no marrow, nor a bloody pulpy sub-
stance, even in their cells ; 5thly, by their not being, in general,
so hard and firm as other bones ; those of some birds are so soft,
that they can be squeezed together with the finger and thumb ;
however, the bones of the extremities have very solid sides : 6thly,
the passage by which the air gets into the bones can be easily per-
ceived, even in cleaned bones. Generally there are several holes
j)laced together near the end of the bone which is next the trunk
of the bird ; and distinguishable by having their external edges
rounded off, which is not the case with those holes through which
either nerves or blood-vessels pass into the substance of the bone."
— An Account of certain Recex^tades of Air in Birds, hij John
Eunter, Phil. Trans. 1774, Ixiv. p. 205.

" In the common fowl no air appears to enter any bone except
the OS humeri." — Eunter, On certain Receptacles of Air in Birds,
ui supra, p. 210.

Hunterian.

A. 194. A section of the upper extremity of the femur of an
Ostrich, showing its cellular structure for containing air.
A bristle is passed through the aperture by which the
air enters. 0. C. 215. Hunterian.

A. 195. A section of the upper extremity of tlie femur of a young
Ostrich, showing its cellular structure, and the aperture by
which the air enters the cavity of the bone. 0. C. 216.

Hunterian.

A. 196. A section of the lower extremity of the femur of a young
Ostrich, showing its cellular structure for containing air.
0. C. 217. Hunterian.

A. 197. Cranium of a Koala [Fhancolarctas vinereas). A large
ahsphenoid bulla ( = thin-walled projecting bony chamber

44

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

tilled with air) is connected with the tynipanuni ; that of
the right side has been opened. Red bristles show the
course of the Eustachian tubes and their openings into the
posterior ends of the Inilla). A cavity in the base of the
zygoma and mastoid i)rocess of the squamosal opens into
the tympanum ; it is partly closed l)y the skin on the dorsal
wall of the meatus ; a black bristle has been passed into it
from the bulla. These air-chambers render the bone light,
and may act as resonating chambers associated with
hearing.

Paulli, Morph. Jahrb., Bd. xxviii. 1899, p. 147.

A. 198. Cranium of a Chinchilla {Chinchilla lanujera). Each
tympanum has two bullae— one ventral and one dorsal.
The ventral is of large size ; it extends backwards and
upwards to half the height of the skull : red bristles are
inserted into the Eustachian openings. The dorsal bulla,
indicated by a black bristle, commences as a diverticulum
of the tympanic roof close to the membrana tympani : it
passes upwards on the inner side of the meatus, forms a
flattened projection on the dorsal surface of the skull, and
extends backwards and downwards to meet the ventral
bulla, from which it is separated by a bony septum. The
dorsal bulla is said to be formed in the periotic bone; the
ventral either in the tympanic or in a special cartilage.

Presented hy F. G. Parsons, Esq.

A. 199. Left half of the cranium of a Horned Sheep {Oris aries),
showing the air-filled cavities in the bones that communicate
either with the nasal chamber or tympanum. The frontal
sinus and its communication with the nasal cavity is indi-
cated by a black rod ; this sinus extends into the horn-core.
A blue rod has been passed into the middle meatus of the
nose from the large cavity in the superior maxilla (antrum
of Highmore). A red rod indicates the Eustachian opening
into the tympanum. The floor of the tympanum is ex-
panded into a bulla of less size than in the Carnivora, and
possesses no septum.

The bullae may serve as resonating chambers connected

ENDOSKELETON. — ANIMALS.

45

with audition. The frontal sinuses give lightness to the
bone and protection to the brain ; the antrum making the
superior maxilla light.

A 200. Cranium of a Cat {Felis domestka). Eed bristles
have been passed in the direction of the Eustachian tubes
into the tympana. A black bristle from the left frontal
sinus through a curved passage to its opening in the
middle meatus of the nose. A green bristle from the left
sphenoidal cell formed in the presphenoid into the postero-
inferior region of the nose. The tympanic element of the
temporal bone has given origin by its entotympanic portion
to a large tympanic bulla partly separated by a bony septum
from the true tympanum.

A. 201. The two halves of a transverse section of a Cat's cranium
{Felis domestka). Similar bristles have been introduced
into the air-containing chambers.

A. 202. Left half of a Human cranium, similarly treated ; a white
bristle has also been passed into the mastoid cells.

A. 203. Transverse section of a Human cranium. The frontal
and maxillary air-chambers are shown.

40

PHYRIOLOOTCAL SERIRB.

B.

FLEXIBLE BONDS OF UNION AND SUPPORT -
VERTEBRAL COLUMN.- JOINTS.
FLEXIBLE BONDS OF UNION AND SUPPORT.

AREOLAR TISSUE.

B. 1. Small portion of skin and subjacent structures of a Calf
{Bos fanrus), showing the areolar tissue that unites them.
It consists mainly of delicate wavy bundles of tough, flexible,
inextensile and inelastic white fi'brons tissue, loosely inter-
laced so as to allow of motion in any direction. The return
to the position of rest ia effected by fine branched fibres
of yellow elastic tissue.

Above is a piece of separate areolar tissue.

SPECIAL ELASTIC STRUCTURES.
Loisel, Jour, de I'Anat. et Physiol., t. xxxiii 1897
p. 129. ^ * ' '

Not essentially connected with the Skeleton.

B. 2. Portions of three specimens of Scallop {Fer-fen mawimm),
showing the two ligaments by which the valves are attached
to one another. The external ligament is structureless and
inelastic ] it extends along the straight hinge-line, but is
interrupted near its middle by the internal ligament. The
internal ligament is a wedge-shaped black mass, lodged in
a depression of the shell; it grows by additions to its ^^ntral
border; being very elastic, and compressed when the adductor
nmscle contracts, it acts like a spring, keeping the valve
apart in the most constant feeding-position of the animal,
and also acts as an opponent of the muscle by which
swimming is effected.

Quekett, Trans. Micro. Soc, vol. ii. 1849, p. 1.

B. 3. A portion of the elastic ligamentous substance from the
belly of an Elephant [Elephas indicus). 0. C. 74.

" On the abdomen of most quadrupeds arc to be found elastic
ligaments, especially on that of the elephant, whicb is a constant

FLKXIBLE BONDS OF UNION AND SUITORT.

47

support to the parts in their horizontal position ; and even the
cellular membrane of the elephant has a degree of elasticity much
above what is generally met with in cellular membranes. Hcuce
there is less expense of muscular contraction in such parts."—
flunter, On the Blood, 4to, p. lU.

//ii.nter/an.

B. 4. Posterior portion of the ventral walls of the abdomen of a
' Horse {.Eqims cabalhs) . The sldn has been in part removed
to show the " tunica abdominalis." This consists of two
layers: the superficial is composed of liundles of yellow elastic
fibres that extend from the posterior ribs and cartilages to
the pelvic brim. The deep layer consists of white fibrous
tissue, the fibres being directed outwards and forwards.
The tunica abdominalis gives firm support to the heavy
abdominal viscera ; it is defective in the mid line, which
probably favours the changes in bulk of the viscera.

Fresenfed by Prof. McFadyean.

B. 5. Two sections of abdominal wall of a Horse [E. cahallus)
showing the position of its layers, viz., skin, subcutaneous
tissue, tunica abdominalis, muscle, fiit, peritoneum.

Presented by Prof. McFadyean,

Connected with Vertebral Column.

SUPKASPINOUS.

B. 6. Two portions of the vertebral column of a Fox-Shark
{Aloi-iecias vulpcs) showing, from the side and in transverse
section, a continuous band of yellow elastic tissire (the
supraspinous elastic ligament) surmounting the dorsal
arches.

B. 7. Anterior portion of the vertebral colimm of a Shark
{Notidanus yrlsem). A round continuous cord of yellow
elastic tissue commences in a point immediately behind the
head and extends the whole length of the column, closely
adherent to the cartilaginous spinous processes.

B. 8. A supraspinous elastic ligament is said to be present in a
Brazilian bird (Lamprotes lorkntus). A specimen is much
wanted.

48

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES,

. 9. Back of the sknll, with cervical and four dorsal vertebra?,
of a Sheep (Oris aries), sliowiiig the (liganientuni nuchse)'
supraspinous elastic ligament. It consists of two rounded
bundles of yellow elastic tissue fused in the mid line, attached
in front to the occipital tubercle, and strengthened ])y a
broad bundle s|)ringin<.- from the spines of tlie 2nd, rrd,
4th, and 5th vertebra). The two bundles becoming flattened'
extend backwards as far. as the sacrum, greatly diminishing
in size. They are attached to the neural spines, especially
those of the anterior dorsal vertebrre. This h'gament serves
as an elastic support to the head and neck.

10. A similar preparation from a Dog {Canis fainUians).
The ligament springs as a round cord from the posterior
angle of the spinous pi-ocess of the second vertebra. It
passes backwards without further attachment in the neck,
and is fixed to the tips of the spines of the dorsal and
lumbar vertebrae. This arrangement appears to give to the
head greater freedom for movement.

Inteespinous.

B. 11. Five dorsal vertebrfc of a Crocodile {Crocodihis acntvs),
with portions of ribs attached. The spinous processes are
united by yellow elastic tissue, forming an interspinous
elastic ligament.

B. 12. Three inferior cervical vertebras of an Ostrich (Struflilo
camelus) showing the deep interspinous elastic ligament.

B. 13. Cervical vertebra of an Ostrich {Strutliio camelus). The
spinous process has been removed to show the attachments
of the elastic ligaments.

B. 14. Three dorsal vertebrae of an Ostrich, longitudinally bi-
sected, to show a similar disposition of elastic ligament
between the spinous processes of this part of the vertebral
column. 0, C. 72, JIuntenan,

FLEXIBLE BONDS OF UNION AND SUPPORT.

49

B. 15. Portion of the vertebral column together with part of the
skull and pelvis of a Maguari Stork [Euxenura maguari),
showing a series of interspinous elastic ligaments. The
ligaments extend between the neural spines from the axis
to the anterior end of the sacrum. They vary very greatly
in size in different regions of the vertebral column ; from
the first hgament (3 mm. diameter) they gradually diminish
and reach their minimum (1 mm. diameter) between the
6th and 9th vertebrae, they then again increase in size and
attain their maximum (6 mm.) between the 13th and 17th.
From the 17th vertebra onwards the ligaments are divided
into a superficial and deep series (Lig. elastica profunda
and superficialia) . They increase in size from before back-
wards, i. e. from 2 mm. and 3 mm. diameter to 5 mm. and
6 mm. respectively.

Barkow, Syndesmologie der Vogel, 1856, p. 32.

Subspinous.

B. 16. Head and vertebral column of a Sterlet [Acipenser
ruthenus) showing a subspinous elastic ligament. The
ligament originates at the back of the skull within the mass
of cartilage formed by the fusion of the five anterior dorsal
arches, and extends from that point to the tail with slight
lateral attachments to each arch. It lies throughout its
course between the upper ends of the dorsal arches^ cut off'
by cartilage from the neural canal. A subvertebral elastic
ligament is also present, projecting like a " typhlosole "
into the lumen of the dorsal aorta ; it extends from the
base of the cranium to the tail, and may be considered as
a modification of the aortic wall, with function subsidiary
to circulation. Black bristles have been inserted between
the subspinous ligament and the vertebral column, and
blue rods between the subvertebral ligament and vertebral
column.

B. 17. The vertebral column and part of the cranium of a Shad
{Clupea alosa), showing two similar elastic ligaments.
Though in their general features the ligaments resemble
those of the Sterlet, they both show a remarkable develop-
ment in the anterior region, the ventral ligament in

»>" PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

particular being so taut and powerful that the vertebral
column, even before the removal of the trunk-muscles, is
bent into serpentine curves. Towards the tail both liga-
ments are reduced in size.

B. 18. Two transverse sections of the vertebral column of a Shad
{Clupea alosa), taken from the tnmk (upper specimen) and
tail regions respectively, to show the relations of the sub-
vertebral ligament to the aorta.

B. 19. Anterior portion of the vertebral column, and posterior
part of the cranium of a Cod [Gadus morrlma), showing
the powerful subspinous ligament. It is partly attached to
the arches, as shown in the lower part of the preparation by
the removal of the left halves of two of the arches.

B. 20. Four vertebree of a Cod {Gadus morrhua) gi^ang an
end view of the ligament.

Interarcual.

B. 21. Seven dorsal neural arches and spines of a Sheep {Ovis
aries) showing the yellow elastic tissue (Ligamenta subflava)
by which the arches are united. Its probal}le duty is to
reestablish the normal curves of the spine after muscular
action.

At vertebral joint of ribs.

B. 22. Six vertebrte of a Snake (Python sehce), with portions of
the ribs left attached to the lower three. In front of the joint

Fig. 4.

X 20.

the attachment of the rib to the vertebra is effected by a
plate of yellow elastic tissue, the elastic fibres are closely
])acked, parallel to one another, at its fixed ends cartilage

FLEXIBLE BONDS OF UNION AND SUl'POKT.

51

matrix and cells are abundant, the fibres terminating
in a network after repeated brandling. The ligament
probably serves to drag the rib forward after the contraction
of the intercostal muscles has pulled it backwards. The
lio-ament has been left attached to the vertebrte from which
tlie ribs have been removed. (Fig. 4.)

Limbs.

B. 23. Eight pectoral fin of a Monk-fish {Rhinasguatina), show-
ing a series of elastic ligaments situated upon the ventral
surface of the fin. The largest and most important of these
lio-aments (indicated bv a black bristle) connects the
shoulder-girdle with the two anterior basal pterygia ; it hes
outside the joint capsule. The remainder of the series are
related in a similar manner to the basio-radial and proximal
row of interradial joints. On their inner side they are in close
connexion with the interarticular fibrous mass and covered
on the outside by the perichondrium. No such ligaments
are present on the dorsum of the fin. A similar condition
was found in Acanthias, but not in Myliohatis or the Skate.

B. 24. A longitudinal section through the mesopterygium, a
radius, and part of the shoulder-girdle of a Monk-fish
{Rhina squatina) , ^ho^'vag the elastic ligament that con-
nects the shoulder-girdle with the ventral surface of the
pterygium and its relations to the joint capsule. The
capsule has been removed from the dorsal surface of the
joint.

JOINTS.

Without known function, mostly the result of periodicity in rate

or nature of growth.

Plants.

B. 25. Terminal branch of a Euphorbia {E. neriifoUa) stained by
cupric acetate. The stem is jointed, showing a series of
constrictions. The joints do not increase the flexibility of
the stem, nor serve as places of ready fracture as in Cacti.
They probably only indicate periodicity in growth, and
have no function. The terminal segments bear large leaves.

Royal Garden Kexo.
e2

52

PHYSIOLOGICAL SPiRIKK.

B. 26. A similar specimen of E. lactea. The leaves in this plant
are minute and borne on the edges of the angular jointed
stem. They are soon lost, their duty being performed by
the succulent green stem. Roi/al Gardens, Kew.

B. 27. A similar specimen of E. glohosa having two flower-
bearing branches. As in the former specimen the leaves
are minute, soon lost, and borne only on the last formed
segments of the stem, the jointed character of which is very
marked. Royal Gardens, Keiu.

Animals.

B. 28. Hydroecium of a Hydroid zoophyte [Aglaophenia viyrio-
phylhirn), with a drawing of the structure of its stem
(hydrocaulus). The stem is composed of about seven or
eight tubes uniformly arranged in the internodes, but that
divide into two bundles at the nodes where they are arranged
in one plane. This allows of movement through about 40°
at the oblique surface of the node.

Hincks, Brit. Hydroid Zoophytes, vol. i. p. 290.

B. 29. Portions of a Fan-coral (Melitodes ochracea). From one
piece the crust has been removed. Another is in section.
The axis is divided into a series of nodes and internodes.
At the nodes the spicules forming the axis are loosely
arranged, partly fused together at their extremities, or
united by a small amount of horny matter. The jointed
character of the axis does not increase its flexibility, and
apparently only indicates a periodic change in its nature.

Joints ( = nodes) , points of development of organs, separated by
internodes that etFect the necessary elongation.

Plants.

B. 30. Nitella flexilis, with drawing of the minute structure of
growing end. The stem consists of greatly elongated cells,
each forming an internode, their protoplasm is reduced to a
thin layer lining the cell-wall, abundant cell-sap occupying
the interior ; the nucleus has disappeared by fragmentation,

JOINTS.

53

In the nodes the cells are small, filled with protoplasm, and
retain their nucleus. From the nodes are developed all
organs and accessory parts. Presented hy 11. Groves, Esq.

B. 31. Portion of the stem of Eqidsetam maximum with whorls
of branchlets cut short. The stem is hollow from the more
rapid growth of the circumference than the centre. It is
jointed, being divided into nodes from which the branchlets
spring, and from which all organs are formed. At the
nodes the vascular bundles communicate with one another,
and a septum is formed across the cavity of the hollow stem.

Royal Gardens, Kew.

B. 32. Three portions of the stem of Wheat {Triticum vulgare),
with leaves attached. The stem is hollow from the rupture
of the pith. At the nodes a septum separates the neigh-
bouring cavities ; at this point the vascular bundles of the
leaf (veins) are continued into those of the stem (cauhne
bundles). Presented hy Prof. G. Stewart.

B. 33. Terminal branch of Yellow Jasmine (Jasminum nudi-
fiorum). The stem is solid owing to the pith not being
ruptured. The insertions of the leaves indicate the nodes.

Presented by Prof. C. Steivart.

Joints that allow of continuous growth.
Animals.

B. 34. Two specimens of the test (corona) of an Echinus {K
acntus). They are about half-grown. One has been bi-
sected, the other has had the five sets of ambulacra!, and
five sets of interambulacral plates detached. One of each of
these has had each plate separated. There are 82 plates
in each ambulacrum, and 46 in each interambulacrum ;
the total number in the test, including the 10 apical plates,
being 650. Each plate enlarges by additions to its borders
their number being increased by the formation of fresh

plates at the apex of the test.

Presented by Prof. C. Stewart.

54

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIBS.

B. 35. A Trunk-lisli {Oslracion quadricornis) . The greater part
of its body is protected by hexagonal bony plates that
increase in size by additions to their margins.

B. 36. Separated bones of the carapace and plastron of a Tortoise
(Damonia reevesii). The bones are mostly of dermal origin,
and are siitiirally attached to one another. Growth is
effected at the sutural margins.

B. 37. Cranium from a child aged about 9 years. It is com-
posed of separate bones united suturally. Increase in size
is effected by additions to their edges, so that the capacity
of the skull may keep pace with the growth of the brain.
The adult size of the cavity in the frontal region is attained
in the second year, the posterior region at a somewhat later
period. The position of obliterated sutures arc indicated
by blue dots.

Merkel, Beitr. z. Anat. u. Embryol. als Festgabe zum
Henle, 1882, p. 164.

Joints that by allowing motion, diminish the risk of fracture.

Plants.

B. 38. A multinucleate calcareous Alga (Ci/niopolia barhaia), with
a drawing of its structure. Each branch of the thallus
consists of a central tube of cellulose lined by chlorophyll-
containing protoplasm. It is slightly constricted at short
interAf-als. The constricted part (node) is flexible. The
iuternodes bear wdiorls of lateral branchlets, those at the
proximal end being short, but increasing in length to the
distal end. Between the branchlets carbonate of lime is
deposited, rendering the internode rigid. The flexibility
at the node greatly dimishes the risk of fracture. This
plant is found on the shores of the Tropical Atlantic.
PI. IX. fig. 1. Presented hy G. R. M. Murray, Esq.

Cramer — Ueber die verticillirten Siphonen {JYeomeris
und Cymopolia).

B. 39. A similar specimen and drawing of another calcareous
multinucleate Alga i^Halimeda tuna). The fan-shaped

PI. XII.

C . Ste-//tu-t, del .

I.CYMOPOLIA BARBATA.
Dicuffu/ntiiic aiurt.X 40.
2.HALIMEDA TUNA.

Jivnq . secb. X 4-0 . »

f

PI. XIII.

C.St ewa-i-b del

I.AMPHIROA EPHEDR/EA.

Lon^.seci/.X 50 .
2.CRISIA EBURNEA.

X50.

»

PI. XIV

I

It

JOINTS.

55

ualcareous internodes are united by a bundle of about 20
noncalcified tubes forming the node. The calcareous matter
is most dense at the external surface of the internode.
From the shores of the Mediterranean and West Indies.
PI. IX. fig. 2. Presented by G. R. M. Murray, Esq.

B. 40. A calcareous Alga, one of the Floridese {AmpJdroa
ephedrcea), and drawing of its structure. The flexible nodes
consist of noncalcified cells. In the internodes the cell-
walls are calcified, stiff and brittle. When fresh or moist
the plant readily bends without breaking, but when dry the
slightest touch causes fracture. From the Cape of G. Hope
and AustraHa. PI. X. fig. 1.

Presented hy G. R. M. Murray, Esq.

Animals.

B. 41. Zoarium of a Bryozoan {Crisia eburnea), and drawing of
its structure. The tubular polyp -chambers (zooecia) have
rigid and brittle calcareous walls. The first zocecium of
each branch has a horny ring within the calcareous walls
that are here partly interrupted so as to expose the ring and
allow of flexion. This part constitutes the node. The
radical tubes by which the animal is attached have many
such nodes. PI. X. fig. 2.

B. 42. Zoarium of another Bryozoan {Cellarla sinuosa), and
drawings. The branching is dichotomous. Each branch
normally commences by 8 special zooecia having their
interior fined by flexible horny matter. The calcareous
walls break at this point, exposing the dark horny material
as a flexible bond of union forming the node. These con-
necting zooecia are devoid of the polypide present in all the
others, they also differ in other respects. PI. XI. fig. 1.

B. 43. Cellaria sinuosa. Being preserved in spirit the black
horny material of the nodes is more distinct, as it can be
seen through the calcareous walls of the zocecia.

B 44. Small portion of a Bryozoan {Memhranipora membranacea)
incrusting a Seaweed (Lotmmarm sacc/iamia), with drawing
of structure. The seaweed is constantly bending in the

56

PHYSIOLOOICAL SERIES.

water ; if the Menibranipora were rigid it would be the
subject of frequent fracture; this is prevented by each
calcareous lateral wall of the zooecium having two places
where it is membranous and flexible. The dorsal and
ventral walls are entirely membranous. PI. XI. fig. 2.
Nitsche, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., Bd. xxi. 1871, p. 418.

B. 46. Second antenna of a Lobster (Ilomarus vahjaris), with
drawing of its structure. The proximal segments can
alone be moved by muscles. The long and tapering distal
part (flagellum) is composed of calcified rings connected
by flexible noncalcified cuticle. This structure, that greatly
diminishes the risk of fracture, is common to all filamentous
antennse. The filamentous portion of the antenna that is
naturally straight has been coiled to show its flexibility.

Joints that allow of voluntary motion.

Invertebrata.

B. 46. Spines and plates from the test of a Sea-urchin (Hetero-
c.entrotus mammillatus, fam. Echinometradse), some in section,
with diagrams showing relation of soft parts. The spine
articulates by a ball-and-socket joint, the surface of the
socket being about half that of the mamelon.

B. 47. A similar preparation and diagram of Phyllacanthus im.
perialis, fam. Cidaridaa. A pit in the centre of the socket
and mamelon gives attachment to a round ligament. This
is also present in the Diadematidse and Echinoidea Irregu-
laria. The middle spine in the preparation is from P.
baculosa, the dried soft parts are still attached, the round
ligament has been painted blue.

Prouho, Arch. Zool. Exp., t. v. 1887, p. 252.

B. 48. Separated dorsal and ventral valves of a Brachiopod
{Magellania lenticular is), with the hinge-region of another
specimen. Two processes of the ventral valve (one painted
blue) are locked in depressions (one painted red) in the
dorsal valve. The valves can only be completely separated
by fracture. The articulation admits of but slight motion.

JAW.

57

B. 49. Three of the six joints of the great claw (chela) of a
Lobster (Homanis vulgaris). The dorsal surface of the
ischiopodite and meropodite is flattened, a single fulcrum
being formed by the entire length of the dorsal border.

In the joint between the meropodite and carpopodite
there are two fulcra, each about 14 mm. long. The outer
fulcrum is overlapped by a process of the meropodite. The
joint between the carpopodite and propodite has two fulcra:
the dorsal one, as in the previous case, is formed by a
narrow line of noncalcified cuticle, by which a special
calcified process of the carpopodite is attached to the pro-
podite ; on the ventral side the fulcrum is formed by
thick cuticle not attached to any process. The regions of
both fulcra are strengthened by a hollow process of the carpo-
podite that overlaps the propodite. On the dorsal side the
process has a semicircular groove, into which fits a semi-
circular ridge on the propodite. On the ventral side the
ridge is borne by the carpopodite, the groove by the pro-
podite. In each the fulcrum corresponds with the centre
of the semicircle. The fulcra have been painted blue.

Presented hy Mr. R. Barton.
Langer, Denkschr. d. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Bd. xviii.
1860, p. 101.

B. 60. The dorsal and ventral portions of the joint between the
carpopodite and propodite of the great claw of a Lobster,
separated to show the special semicircular articular surfaces,
the ridge on the ventral being borne by the carpopodite,
on the dorsal by the propodite. This probably increases
the strength of the articulation.

Vertbbeata.

JAW.

. B. 51. Joint between the right maxillary and mandibular carti-
lages of a Skate {Raja hatis). The articular surface of the
maxillary cartilage is irregularly rounded, that of the
mandibular concave. The upper border of the latter shows
a notch through which protrudes a synovial pouch 8 mm
in diameter. The synovial membrane has a few small
fringes, but is apparently healthy. The cavity of the joint

58

fHYSlOLOGIOAL SERIE8.

is tilled in all adults by loose lenticular or irregular-shaped
bodies. Some are of minute size, but the great majority
have a uniform diameter of 2 nun. They consist of mucin,
fibrin, and branched cells. Those removed from this joint
are shown below ; in bulk they measured between 6 and
7 CO.

B. 52. Portion of the skull with the right mandible of a Duck-
billed Platypus {Ornithorhynclms anatmns). The temporo-
maxillary joint has been opened from the front, to show the
absence of any interarticular substance between the two
joint surfaces. The condyle of the mandible is convex and
laterally expanded, the corresponding glenoid cavity being
concave from side to side, convex from before backwards.
The movements of the jaws are probably very simple in
character.

For Mammalian Joints. — Parsons, Jour, of Anat. &
Physiol, vol. xxxiv. 1899, p. 41.

B. 53. Right half of the skull of a Tasmaniau Devil {Sarcophilus
[^Dasyurus] ursiniis) showing the temporo-maxillary joint.
The glenoid fossa, as in placental Carnivora,is deeply concave
from before backwards, with well-marked pre- and post-
gleuoid processes. The condyle of the mandible is strongly
convex and fairly accurately fits the glenoid cavity. There
is no interarticular cartilage.

B. 54. Part of the skull with the left mandible of an Armadillo
[Dasypus sexcinctus). The cavity of the temporo-maxillary
joint has been exposed from the outer side to show the
small size and simple flattened character of the articular
surfaces and the entire absence of any interarticular
cartilage.

B. 55. A section through the temporal bone and condyle of the
lower jaw of a Beaver [Castor pbcr), gi^'i'^g ^ posterior
view of the double articular cavity and intermediate sub-
stance; and showing that the capsular ligament between
the interarticular substance and glenoid cavity is longer
than that between the interarticular substance and condyle

JAW.

59

of the lower jaw ; both of which, therefore, in extensive
motions of the jiiw backwards and forwards, must move
together upon the temporal bono. 0. C. 261.

Ilunterian.

B. 56. The left ramus of the lower jaw, and part of the cranium
of a Porpoise {Plwccena phoccena) . A section has been
made through the joint, to show the fibrous connecting-
substance in situ. 0. C. 240 a.

van Beneden, Arch, de Biol., t. iii. 1882, p. 669.

B. 57. A section of the ligamentous substance that unites the
lower jaw to the cranium in the Whale. 0. C. 240.

"The articulation of the lower jaw is not by simple contact
either single or double, joined by a capsular ligament, as in the
quadruped; but by a very thick intermediate substance of the
ligamentous kind, so interwoven that its parts move on each other,
in the interstices of which is an oil. This thick matted substance
may answer the same purpose as the double joint in the quadruped."
—Hunter, Phil. Trans. 1787, vol. Ixvii. p. 384.

Hunterian.

B. 58. Half of the fibro-cartilaginous mass that formed the
squamoso-mandibular articulation of a young female
Balcmoptera acuto-rostrata. 0. C. 240 b.
Perrin, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1870, p. 805.

B. 59. The interarticular ligainentous substance from the joint
of the lower jaw of the Elephant {Elephas indicus). The
surface adapted to the temporal bone is concave in the lesser
and convex in the larger diameter ; the opposite or lower
surface presents a deep, oval excavation for the reception of
the condyle of the jaw. 0. C. -262. Hunterian,

B. 60. A vertical section of the interarticular substance from
the joint of the lower jaw of a younger Elephant, showing
the degree, of concavity on each side, so well calculated
for adapting two convex surfaces to each other. A bristle
is placed in an orifice leading out of the lower cavity.
0. C. 263. Ilunterian.

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

B. 61. The counterpart of the preceding preparation, divided
horizontally, and exhibiting a disposition of the outer
ligamentous fibres in concentric circles, similar to the inter-
vertebral substances of the spine. 0. C. 264. Hunterian.

B. 62. Right temporo-maxillaryjointofa Horse {Efjuu, cahallus).
The joint-cavity has been opened from behind to show thi;
slightly curved character of the articular surfaces and
the thin plate of fibro-cartilage intersposed between them.
The cartilage assists in adapting the articular surfaces to
one another during the complicated rotary and gliding
movements of which the jaw is capable.

Chauveau & Fleming, 'Anatomy of the Domestic Animals/
1873, p. 138.

B. 63. A similar preparation of the left temporo-maxillary joint
of a Sheep {Ovis aries). The surfaces of articulation are
more flattened than in the Horse, and eminently adapted
for gliding movements. Two slips from the masseter are
attached to the antero-lateral surface of the capsule ; one
near its upper border, the other where it is attached to the
interarticular substance.

B. 64. A vertical and longitudinal section of part of the lower jaw
and temporal bone of a young Lion [Felis led), exhibiting
the interarticular substance extending through the whole
of the joint, and dividing it into two synovial cavities.
0. C. 258. Hunteinan.

B. 65. The corresponding section of the same parts, showing the
similar conditions. 0. C. 259. Hunterian.

B. 66. A vertical and transverse section of part of the lower jaw
and temporal bone of a Lion, showing the extent of the
joint in that direction and the form of the interarticular
substance, convex from side to side above, concave below.
0. C. 260. Hunterian.

• B. 67. A vertical section of part of the temporal bone and ramus
of the lower jaw of a Human subject, exhibiting the forms

JAW.

61

of the glenoid and condyloid articular cavities, and of the
intermediate fibrous cartilage. 0. C. 265.

" Just under the beginning of the zygomatic process of each
temporal bone, before the external meatus auditorius, an oblong
cavity may be observed ; in direction, length, and breadth, in some
measure corresponding with the condyle of the lower jaw. Before,
and adjoining to, this cavity, there is an oblong eminence placed
iu the same direction, convex upon the top in the direction of its
shorter axis, which runs from behind forwards ; and a little con-
cave in the direction of its longer axis, which runs from within
outwards. It is a little broader at its outer extremity, as the
outer corresponding end of the condyle describes a larger circle in
its motion than the inner. The surface of the cavity and eminence
is covered with one continued smooth cartilaginous crust, which
is somewhat ligamentous, for by putrefaction it peels off, like a
membrane, with the common periosteum. Both the cavity and
eminence serve for the motion of the condyle of the lower jaw.
The surface of the cavity is directed downward ; that of the
eminence downward and backward, in such a manner, that a traiis-
verse section of both would represent the italic letter/. Though
the eminence may, on a first view of it, appear to project consider-
ably below the cavity, yet a line drawn from the bottom of the
cavity to the most depending part of the eminence is almost hori-
zonta"!, and therefore nearly parallel with the line made by the
grinding surfaces of the teeth in the upper jaw ; and when we
consider the articulation farther, we shall find that these two lines
are so nearly ijarallel, that the condyle moves almost directly
forwards in passing from the cavity to the eminence ; and the
paraUelism of the motion is also preserved by the shape of an
intermediate cartilage.

"In this joint there is a moveable cartilage, which, though
common to both condyle and cavity, ought to be considered rather
as an appendage of the former than of the latter, being more closely
connected with it, so as to accompany it in its motion along the
common surface of both the cavity and eminence. This cartilage
is nearly of the same dimensions with the condyle, which it covers;
is hollowed on its inferior surface to receive the condyle : on its
upper surface it is more unequal, being moulded to the cavity and
eminence of the articulating surface of the temporal bone, though
it is considerably less, and is therefore capable of being moved
with the condyle from one part of that surface to another. Its

62

PHYSIOLOGICAL SEniES.

texture is ligamento-cartilaginous. This moveable cartilage is
connected with both the condyle of the jaw and the articulating
surface of the temporal bono, by distinct ligaments, arising from
Its edges all round. Tliat by which it is attached to the temporal
bone is the most free and loose ; though both ligaments will allow
an easy motion, or sliding of the cartilage on the respective sur-
faces of the condyle and temporal bone. These attachments of
the cartilage are strengthened, and the whole articulation secured,
by an external ligament which is common to both, and which is
fixed to the temporal bone and to the neck of the condyle. On
the inner surface of the ligament which attaches the cartilage to
the temporal bone, and backwards, in the cavity, is placed what is
commonly called the gland of the joint ; at lease, the ligament is
there much more vascular than at any other i^art."— Hunter, On
the Teeth, 4to, 1st edit., 1771 , p. 9.

Hnnfenan.

VEETEBRAL COLUMN.

ACENTROUS.

Gadow & Abbott, Phil. Trans., vol. clxxxvi. 1895, p. 163,
& Gadovv', vol. clxxxvii. 1896, ji. 1.

B. 68. Three portions of the uotochord of a Sea-Lamprey
{Petromyzon marimcs), showing a series of cartilaginous
dorsal arches lying in the lateral walls of the mass of con-
nective tissue that surrounds the neural canal.

In the anterior region of the body (middle specimen)
the arches are irregular in shape, but further back, in the
region of the liver (lower specimen), they are more
regular.

The upper specimen is a transverse section through the
anterior region and shows the relation of the arches to the
neural canal.

Schneider, ' Beitrage zur vergleichenden Anatomic und
Entwicklungsgeschichte der Wirbelthiere,' Berlin,
1879, p. 51.

B. 69. Portion of vertebral column, and head of a Sea-Lamprey
(Petromyzon mannus). The ventral portion of the noto-
chord and cartilaginous cranium has been removed in front

VERTEBRAL COLUMN.

63

to show the pointed extremity of the notochord surrounded
by the cranial cartilage. 0. C. 230 C.

B. 70. Anterior portion of a Glutinous Hag {Myxine glntinom),
showing the notochord. 0. C. 230. Jfnnterkm.

B. 71. Portions of the vertebral column of a Sea-Cat (Chimcera
■monstrosa). The colunni, although without any suggestion
of vertebral bodies, is potentially chorda-centrous owing to
the invasion of the chordal sheath by cells from the skeleto-
o-enous layer. The continuous notochord is surrounded by
a delicate elastica externa and a very thick elastica interna
(chordal sheath). The latter is to a considerable extent
cartilaginous, and is divided into an inner and outer layer
by a series of narrow calcified rings, contiguous with one
another and far more numerous than the basi-dorsalia. The
dorsal arches are composed of basi-dorsalia, inter-dorsalia,
and supra-dorsalia ; towards the middle of the body the
supra-dorsalia disappear, and in the tail-region they are
followed by the inter-dorsalia. The ventralia consist of a
double row of small irregular cartilages. A certain number
of the anterior arcuaUa are fused together and enlarged to
provide a support for the anterior spine of the dorsal fin.
The skull articulates to the vertebral column by a diarthrodial
joint.

The upper specimen is the anterior portion of the vertebral
column, in it some of the.dorsalia are outlined in black.
The next specimen (part in sagittal section) is taken from
the middle of the body ; beneath is a transverse section
from the same region. The two lower specimens are from
the tail.

Hasse, ' Natiirliches System der Elasmobranchier/ Jena,
1882, p. 25.

B. 72. Specimens of the calcareous rings from the chordal sheath
of a Sea-Cat (Chimcera mediterrama) . The rings have the
form of narrow fibrous bands, with a deep concavity running
round their outer side. They are composed of dense
calcified connective tissue, the fibres and cells of which are
packed closely together with their long axes mainly parallel

64

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

to the circumference of the ring. Two isolated rings are
mounted above, and below are two pieces (one in section)
composed of several contiguous rings.

Hasse, 'Naturliches System der Elasmobrancbier/ Jena
1882, p. 33.

B. 73. Transverse sections of the spine of the Southern Chimajra
[Callorhynchus anstraUs), in which the notochord is persis-
tent, but has a thicker fibrous sheath, in which there is no
trace of calcification : the vertebr£e are indicated by the
small cartilaginous dorsalia and ventralia. 0. C. 236 a.
Hasse, Nat. Syst. Elasmobrancbier, 1882, p. 30.

B. 74. A portion of the notochord of a Sturgeon. A longi-
tudinal section has been made on one side, which exposes
some small cavities in the centre. 0. C. 232. Hunterian.

B. 75. A longitudinal section of the notochord and sheath of a
Sturgeon, showing the thickness of the sheath, and exposing
a larger central cavity in the notochord. 0. C. 233.

Jlimterian.

B. 76. A transverse section of the spine of a Sturgeon {Acipenser
sturio). It shows the persistent continuous notochord: the
inner layer of the fibrous sheath of the notochord has
increased in thickness. In the skeletogenous tissue are de-
veloped distinct, firm, and opaque cartilages — the dorsalia,
which consist of two superimposed pieces on each side, the
basal portion bounding the neural canal, the apical poi'tion a
superior canal, filled by fibrous elastic ligament and adipose
tissue : above this is the single cartilaginous supradorsal.
The ventralia are now distinctly developed, and joined
together b}' a continuous expanded base, forming an
inverted arch beneath the notochord, for the vascular
trunks. 0. C. 234. Hunterian.

B. 77. A longitudinal section of the anterior part of the spine of
a Sturgeon, which shows the gradual contraction of the
notochord as it approaches the head. The whole spine

VERTEBRAL COLUMK.

65

being composed of very elastic materials, renders the
existence of joints and vertebral bodies unnecessary.
0. C. 235. Hunterinn.
V. Ebner, Sitz. d. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Bd. civ. Hft. 3,
1895, p. 149.

Chord ACENTRO us.

B. 78. Portions of the precaudal cartilaginous vertebral column
of a Greenland Shark {Lonmargushorealis), part in section.
Each vertebra consists of cartilage only. A disc having a
thickness at its centre of 4 mm., increased to 10 mm. at the
lateral margins, and dorsally enlarging so as to come in
contact with those of neighbouring vertebras, but ventrally
separated by prolongations of the interventralia, represents
the centrum. It is formed in the sheath of the notochord
(= chorda-central type). Continuous with the dorsal sur-
face of the centrum are a pair of basidorsalia that commence
by a broad base. The intervals between the basidorsalia
are filled by the interdorsalia. Lateral processes, the basi-
ventralia and interventralia, largely repeat the features of
the dorsalia. The pairs of dorsalia and ventralia both fuse
in the mid line. The notochord is largely persistent.
Hasse, Nat. Syst. Elasmobranchier, 1882, p. 55.

B. 79. Portions of the vertebral column of the same fish from the
junction of the caudal and precaudal regions. There is no
trace of calcification. Red glass rods indicate some of the
openings for the roots of the spinal nerves.

B. 80. Portions of the vertebral column of a Fox Shark
{Alopecias vulpes) taken from the precaudal region.

In the lower specimen the anterior vertebra are in
sagittal section; the posterior vertebrae show the superficial
striations upon the centra due to the edges of a series of
radiating calcified plates, the relative size and position
of the arcual cartilages is also shown.

The upper specimen is a transverse section through the
middle of a centrum, and shows the radiating calcified
plates and the relations of the bases of the arches to the
centrum.

66

PHYSIOLOGICAL SEKIKS.

B. 81. Portion of the verteljral column of* a Fox Shark {Alopecias
mdpes) from tlu? caudal region, showing especially the
dorsalia and interdorsalia ; also ventralia and interventralia.

B. 82. Portion of the vertohral column (part in section) of a
Porbeagle Shark (^Lamna cornuhica) showing a flattened
continuous band of yellow elastic tissue closely adherent to
its cartilaginous spinous processes. The biconcave (amphi-
cojlous) vertebral bodies are well developed. Their cartilage
is calcified on their articular surfaces, and around the
sheath of the notochord, from which point four sets of
calcareous plates extend to the circumference, their intervals
being occupied by cartilage. The cartilaginous neural
arches (dorsalia and interdoi-salia) show the openings for the
dorsal and ventral roots of the spinal nerves, into the former
green and into the latter red glass rods have been introduced.
On either side of the ventral surface of the column are
cartilaginous plates, the ventralia and interventraUa.
Hasse, Nat. Syst. Elasmobranchier, 1882, p. 214.

B. 83. Transverse s(;ction of the vertebral column of a young
Basking Shark ( Selarlie maxima) that measured twelve feet
in length. The notochord is continuous, enlarging at
intervals to form the soft intervertebral discs. Concentric
rings of calcificatiou traverse the cartilaginous body.
These rings are interrupted by the cartilaginous con-
tinuations of the neural arches (dorsalia) and transverse
processes (ventralia). The concentric plates are in later
life followed by radiating ones. 0. C. 237 B a.
Hasse, Nat. Syst. Elasmobranchier, 1882, p. 236.

B. 84. Transverse section of half a vertebra of an older example
of a Basking Shark {S. maxima) shoM'ing the radiating
plates of calcified cartilage that invest the concentric ones.
There are also fine radiating lines of calcification between
the concentric plates.

B. 86. Terminal caudal vertebrae of a Piked Dog-fish (Acanthias
vulgaris) showing besides the vertebi-fe, the horny fila-
ments that support the extreme edge of the fin-membrane.
0. C. 279 D. Presented by W. Cliff, Esq.

Hasse, Nat. Syst. Elasmobranchier, 1882, p. 93.

VERTEBRAL COLUMN.

67

B. 86. Portion of the precaudal vertebral column including six
vertebrae of a Skate {Raja hatis). 0. C. 237 d.

B. 87. Three portions of the vertebral column of a Ray {Raja
clavata) taken respectively from the anterior, median, and
posterior regions of the body. The column is formed in its
anterior part (upper specimen) of a single rigid mass of carti-
■ lage, in which the only indication of segmentation is afforded
by the nerve-foramina (31 pairs) on each side. The charac-
ters of this part of the column have probably arisen in
response to the demand for additional strength to support the
enlarged pectoral fins. Somewhat posterior to the shoulder-
girdle, the segmented notochord appears ; its upper and
lateral surfaces are enveloped by basi- inter- and supra-
dorsalia and basiventralia (the latter are at first continuous
with the basidorsalia) . In the middle specimen the transition
from trunk to tail is shown ; the basiventralia become
separated from the basidorsalia^ migrate to the ventral aspect
of the notochord and there, with the addition of inter-
ventralia, form the haemal arches. The interdorsalia are
gradually suppressed. The lower specimen shows the
degenerate condition of the tail.

Hasse, Nat. Syst. Elasmobr. 1882, p. 168.

Aechcbntrous.

B. 88. Portions of the vertebral column of Lepidosteus os-seus.
The vertebral bodies are opisthocoelous and developed
entirely from the arches without invasion of the chordal
sheath by skeletogenous cells (archcentra). In the adult
the notochord is altogether suppressed. The three upper
specimens are taken from the precaudal region, the two
lower from the caudal.

Balfour & Parker, Phil. Trans., vol. clxxii. 1882, p. 386.

B. 89. Portions of the trunk region of the vertebral column of
a Cod {Gadus nmrluuC).

Each vertebral body consists of a deeply biconcave disc
of bone, smooth and hard upon its concave surface, but of
looser texture outside. It is attached to the bodies of
neighbouring vertebrae by the edges of its cavities by means

f2

68

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES,

of fibrous tissue. The biconical space enclosed between
each pair of vertebral bodies is filled with a gelatinous
material that represents the remains of the notochord.

The articulation of the bodies with each other is rendered
more rigid by an overlapping of processes on the bodies
by corresponding projections of the neural arch and
transverse processes of the succeeding vertebra.

An anterior view of a vertebra is shown above ; below,
11 vertebrae (the first 5 of which are in sagittal section) are
seen from the left side.

Scheel, Morph. Jahrb., Bd. xx. 1893, p. 1.

B. 90. The caudal extremity of the vertebral column of Lepido-
siren paradoxa seen from the left side. In this and in the
other Dipnoi the notochord is obliterated towards the end
of the tail and replaced by a number of rectangular blocks
of cartilage, each surmounted by a variable number of
arcualia. They probably do not represent vertebral bodies.
Klaatsch, Morph. Jahrb., Bd. xx. 1893, p. 151.

B. 91. A longitudinal and vertical section of two vertebrse of a
Siren (^Siren laceTtina). The articular surfaces of the
bodies of the vertebrae are hollowed out as in fish, but
the cavities are occupied by ligamentous fibres disposed
in concentric circles : the articular processes are joined
by capsular and synovial membranes. 0. C. 246.

Hunterian.

Mivart, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1870, p. 260.

B. 92. A longitudinal and vertical section of the cervical vertebrae
of a Turtle {Clielone mydas), the bodies of which are
connected by ligamentous substance passing between the
whole of their articular surfaces.

These surfaces, in the first, second, and third vertebrae,
are convex at the anterior part, and concave at the posterior;
in the fourth they are convex at both ends; the anterior
surface of the fifth is concave, the posterior plane; both
surfaces are plane in the sixth ; but the posterior surface
of the seventh vertebra is convex. 0. C. 248. Hunterian.

VERTEBRAL COLUMN.

69

B. 93. Eight dorsal vertebra3 of Monitor Lizard (Varanus
salvator) . A sagittal section has been made of the anterior
vertebrae, it shows the joint cavities between the procoelous
vertebral bodies. The articulations of the ribs are seen
on the posterior vertebrae.

B. 94. Vertebrfe of V. salvator in horizontal longitudinal section,
showing the procoelous intervertebral joints.

B. 95. Vertebrae with portions of ribs attached of Boa constrictor
{Python sehoi) . A strong common ligament extends along
the ventral faces of the bodies. The capsular ligament of
the ribs is most strongly developed dorsally and ventrally,
anteriorly the joint-cavity is bounded by a plate of yellow
elastic fibrous tissue.

Eochebrune, Jour, de I'Anat. et Physiol., t. xvii. 1881,
p. 185.

B. 96. A longitudinal and transverse section of the bodies of
the vertebras of a large Serpent {Python tigris), exhibiting
the forms of their articular surfaces, 0. C. 250 c.

B. 97. Left half of a portion of the vertebral column of a Boa
{Python tigris), the ribs being left attached. 0. C. 250 B.

B. 98. Two cervical vertebrae and one dorsal of a Crocodile
(C. acutus) showing, in end view, the structure of the
intervertebral joint.

Between each pair of centra there is a fibro-cartilaginous
intervertebral disc, that, owing to the procoelous character
of the joint, has the form of an obtuse hollow cone.

Along the outer margin of the disc there is a strong
fibrous band united superficially to the outer ligament but
free towards the disc, except at a point on either side. This
disc is the homologue of an intercentrum (basi-venti'als) .

A blue rod has been inserted in each specimen between
the fibrous band and the disc.

Gegenbaur, Jena. Zeitschr., Bd. iii. 1867, p. 400.

B. 99. Two dorsal vertebrae of a Crocodile {C. acutus) from
which the spines and dorsal arches have been removed to

70

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

show the intervertebral fibrous ham]. A green rod and
black bristles have been inserted in different places between
it and the intervertebral disc.

B. 100. A longitudinal horizontal section of two cervical verte-
br£B of an Ostrich {Struthio camelus), exposing the cavity of
the joint which unites these vertebrse ; here, the anterior
surface is convex, the posterior concave. 0. C. 251.

JIunterian.

B. 101. A longitudinal vertical section of two anterior dorsal
vertebrae of the Ostrich, the bodies of which are articulated
by a capsular ligament, as in the preceding specimen; the
articular surfaces are saddle-shaped, with the two faces in
reversed positions. The canal for the passage of the
medulla spinalis is enlarged near the articulation, to prevent
its being compressed in the motions of that part of the spine.
0. C. 252. Hunterian.

B. 102. Vertebra of Tachyglossns [Eclddna] aculeaia, and left
halves of two others, showing the intervertebral substance,
and its central cavity. 0. C. 246 A.

B. 103. A transverse section of the intervertebral substance of the
Bottlenose Whale {Ht/peroodon rostrata).

It is 153 mm. in diameter ; the external 13 mm. appears
of uniform consistency, and exhibits very little of the fibrous
character. The rest of the substance, to within 16 mm. of
the centre, is composed of ligamentous fibres arranged in
concentric circles, and at nearly equal distances; the
remaining central part appears to be wholly occupied by
glairy matter. 0. C. 245. Hunterian.

Hunter, On the Whale, Phil. Trans., vol. Ixxvii. 1781,
tab. xix.

B. 104. A longitudinal section of two caudal vertebrae of a Horse
{Equus cahallus). These vertebrae form a remarkable con-
trast to those of fishes, as they present to each other convex,
instead of concave, surfaces. 0. C. 242. Hunterian.

HIBS.

71

B. 105. A single vertebra from the tail of a Horse, exhibiting a
transverse section of the intervertebral substance, the
ligamentous tibres of which are disposed in concentric
circles, which recede from each other as they approach the
centre, and have a glairy fluid in the interspaces. 0. C. 243.

Hunterian.

B. 106. Atlas vertebra of a Seal [Plioca vituUna) . A stout wedge-
shaped ligamentous band is attached to the antero-ventral
surface of the vertebral body. It lies dorsal to the anterior
occipito-atlantal ligament with its narrow free border
directed forwards, and tills up the hollow between the two
occipital facets. The odontoid process is embraced between
this ligament and the transverse ligament of the atlas.

EIBS.

■B. 107. A dorsal vertebra, and the vertebral extremity of a rib of
an Ostrich, showing that the latter is articulated by
distinct capsular ligaments to two different parts of the
vertebra ; viz., the parapophysis below, and the diapo-
physis above. The orifice for the admission of air into
the rib may be observed in the angle of the neck and
tubercle. 0. C. 253. Hunterian.

B. 108. A portion of the sternum and the sternal extremity of the
rib of an Ostrich, showing that this part is also articulated
by distinct capsules to two points of the sternum. The
sternal and vertebral portions of the rib are also articulated
by a synovial capsule. 0. C. 254. Hunterian.

B. 109. Some dorsal vertebra with portions of ribs attached from
the Duck billed Platypus [Ornitliorhynclms anatinus). A
transverse ligament unites the heads of the ribs, it hes on
the ventral surface of the intervertebral disc.

B. 110. Bodies of the 3rd to the 11th dorsal vertebrae of a Mole
[Talpa europa^a) with the heads of the corresponding ribs.
A black bristle has been placed beneath the transverse hga-
ments ; these lie on the dorsal surface of the intervertebral
disc, and each is attached to the heads of a pair of ribs.
Sutton, Jour. Anat. & Phys., vol. xviii. 1884, p. 225.

72

PHYSIOLOCaCAL SRIllES.

B. 111. The 2nd to the 9th dorsal vertebra of a Fox-Squirrel
{Schirus luclovicianus), with tlie articular extremities of the
corresponding ribs. The dorsal arches have been removed
to show a transverse ligament passing between each pair of
ribs, froin head to head, on the dorsal surface of the inter-
vertebral disc. The ligaments (behind which a black bristle
has been placed) are only present between the heads of the
third to the ninth pairs of ribs.

B. 112. A dorsal vertebra, and the articular extremities of four
ribs of a Horse {Equus cahallus).

These are attached by capsular ligaments to the angles of
the body of the vertebra ; they have also a strong transverse
ligament which passes from the head of one rib, dorsally to
the intervertebral substance, to the head of the opposite rib;
thus connecting them firmly to each other, and to the
vertebra. 0. C. 257. Hunterian.

B. 113. Centrum of a dorsal vertebra of a Tapir (Tapinis terres-
tris) with the heads of the corresponding pair of ribs,
showing a similar transverse ligament.

B. 114. Portions of four dorsal vertebrae of Sheep {Ovis aries)
with extremities of ribs attached, showing the strong trans-
verse ligament that unites the heads of the ribs.

Presented by P. D. Cogliill, Esq.

B. 115. One mid-dorsal, and two last dorsal vertebrse, also articu-
lar ends of ribs, showing transverse ligament uniting their
heads. From a Seal {Phoca vituUna), seven days old.

The ligaments proper to each pair of ribs are two in
number, they traverse respectively the dorsal and ventral
surfaces of the intervertebral disc.

Presented hy the Zoological Society.

B. 116. The 7th to 11th dorsal vertebrre of a Dog {Canis famili-
aris), with the heads of the corresponding ribs attached.
The neural arches have been removed to show four stout
transverse ligaments. They are only present between the
heads of the seventh to the tenth pairs of ribs.

SHOULDER-GIRDLK.

73

B. 117. Tenth to thirteenth dorsal vertebrtE of a Chimpanzee
{Anthropopithecus troglodytes), showing ribs attached to all
the transverse processes.

SHOULDEE-GIBDIiE.

B. 118. Right scapula and clavicle of a Tasmanian Devil
[Sarcophilus [Dast/urus] ursinus). The clavicle is attached
by ligament to both the coracoid and acromion processes
of the scapula.

B. 119. Anterior part of the sternum vi'ith the clavicles of an
Armadillo [Dasypm sexcinctus) , showing the sterno-clavicu-
lar articulation. Each clavicle is attached to one of the two
anterior processes of the expanded manubrium sterni by a
ligament in which are embedded two nodules of cartilage.
Owing to the position of the sternal end of the clavicle
directly dorsal to the manubrial process, the ligament under-
goes a ventral twist in passing from one to the other.
Hoffmann, Niederl. Arch. f. Zool., t. v. 1879-82, p. 66.

B. 120. Left scapula and clavicle with the distal ends of the first
two ribs of Three-toed Sloth {Bradijpus tridactylus). The
clavicle is rudimentary and represented only by a nodule
of bone imbedded in a ligament that passes between
the sternal extremity of the first rib and the coracoid.
Humphry, Jour. Anat. & Physiol., vol. iv. 1870, p. 26.

SHOULDER.

B. 121. The right anterior extremity of a Bull - Frog [Rana
cateshiana) .

The shoulder-joint is laid open, and the capsule turned
back, to show an interarticular ligament passing from a
depression in the head of the humerus to a depression in the
centre of the glenoid cavity, and attached also to the inferior
margin of that cavity. A bristle is passed behind this
ligament : a small synovial bag projects into this joint just
above the insertion of the ligament.

This additional security against dislocation of the shoulder-
joint appears to be necessary in the frog, to obviate the

74

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIKS.

effects of the shock, or impulse, which the anterior ex-
tremities receive when the animal alights from a leap.
0. C. 255 k.

B. 122. Eight shoulder-joint of a Duck-billed Platypus ( OrmVAo-
rhynchus anatinus). The glenoid cavity has the form of a
groove with open ends, deeply concave in a dorso-ventral
direction, but slightly convex transversely. The head of
the humerus is laterally expanded and constitutes a roller-
shaped condyle of slightly crescentic form ; the hollow of the
crescent fits against the lower (coracoid) lip of the glenoid
groove and is connected to it by a stout gleno-humeral
ligament. The form of the articular surfaces and looseness
of the capsule except where it forms the gleno-humeral liga-
ment allow of considerable rotation of the humerus.

Attached to the apex of the internal tuberosity there is a
small loose nodule of bone on which the subscapularis muscle
is inserted. This bone has been compared to the os humero-
scapiilare of the bird.

B. 123. Eight shoulder-joint of an Opossum {Didelphys marsu-
pialis). The capsule has been opened to expose a stout
gleno-humeral ligament, which arises from the glenoid
border beneath the biceps tendon, passes diagonally across
the joint-cavity free of the capsule, and is attached to the
inner side of the head of the humerus. The gleno-humeral
ligament in this and the following specimens is apparently
the middle gleno-humeral ligament of human anatomy.

B. 124. Left shoulder- joint of a Tasmanian Devil [Sarcopliilus
[Dasyurus] ursinus) showing a similar gleno - humeral
ligament.

B, 126. Left shoulder of a Six-banded Armadillo (Dasypus
sexcinctus). A blue glass rod has been placed beneath the
gleno-humeral ligament that is free in the joint-cavity.
A green glass has been passed beneath a special thickening
of the external wall of the capsule.

B. 126. Eight shoulder-joint of Kine-banded Armadillo (^Tatusia
novemcincta) . A bristle has been passed below the free
gleno-humeral ligament

SHOULDER. 75

B. 127. Right shoulder-joint of a Hedgehog [Erinaceus europanis) .
A black bristle has been placed below the delicate gleno-
humeral ligament.

B. 128. Right shoulder-joint of a Rabbit {Lejnis cuniculus),
showing the free gleno-humeral ligament.

B. 129. Right shoulder-joint of Gruinea-pig (Cavia porcellm),
showino; o-leno-liumeral ligament.

Presented by F. S. Eve, Esq.

B. 130. Right shoulder-joint of Capybara (Hydrochcerus caj^y-
bara), show gleno-huraeral ligament.

B. 131. Right shoulder-joint of Coypu [Myocastor coypus),
showing a gleno-humeral ligament.

B. 132. Left shoulder-joint of a Beaver {Castor canadensis) ,
showing a gleno-humeral ligament.

Presented by J. B. Sutton, Esq.

B. 133. Left glenoid cavity of foetal Elephant [Elephas indieus).
A fold of the capsule is situated near the dorsal border
of the glenoid cavity. The glenoid hgament may be seen
beneath the coracoid process.

B. 134. Right shoulder-joint of a Dog (Cams familiaris), showing
a gleno-humeral ligament.

B. 135. Left shoulder-joint of Colobus vellerosus, showing a fold
of capsule representing the gleno-humeral ligament.

B. 136. Right shoulder-joint of Orang-Outang {Simia satyrus),
showing a fold of the capsule representing the gleno-
humeral ligament. Presented by Victor Horsley, Esq.

B. 137. Left shoulder-joint of Orang-Outang [Simia satyrus),
ahowing a gleno-humeral ligament.

B. 138. The parts constituting the left Human shoulder-joint.
The capsular ligament is laid open to expose the head of
the humerus, and the tendon of the long head of the biceps

7G

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

muscle passing along the upper part of the articular cavity,
and attached to the marginal ligament of the glenoid cavity
of the scapula. The section of the capsular ligament
shows its relative thickness at the upper and lower part.
0- C. 255. Hunterian.

ELBOW.

B. 139. Right elbow of a Frog {Rana clamata) in which the
articular surfaces have been exposed. The bone formed
by the fusion of radius and ulna articulates by a simple
concave facet with the single hemispherical condyle of the
humerus. The internal epicoudyle is prominent, and bears
on its median surface a facet, which engages with a
corresponding facet on the inner surface of the ulna head.
The form of the articular surfaces indicates a very consider-
able freedom of movement in all directions except towards
the inner side, where it is checked by the epicondylo-ulnar
articulation.

Cuenod, Internat. Jour. Anat. & Physiol., vol. v. 1888
p. 390.

B. 140. Right elbow-joint of a Turtle {Clielone mydas). The
articular surface on the hiunerus for the radius is rounded
and smaller than that for the ulna. A fold of the
capsule projects from behind.

Presented by George Ring, Esq.

B. 141. Right elbow-joint of a Goose {Anser domesticus) opened
from the flexor aspect to show the form of the joint surfaces.
The curvatures of the two humeral condyles are eccentric
to the axis of rotation of the joint in different directions,
so that in extension the radius is drawn towards the shoulder
and the ulna protruded — in flexion the reverse. The
horizontal gliding of the radius upon the ulna is assisted by
the presence of articular facets where the two bones touch,
and by a band of fibro-cartilage (indicated by a black
bristle) stretched between the dorsal borders of their heads.
By this movement of the radius, the hand, upon extension
of the elbow, is automatically brought into line with the

ELBOW.

77

forearm. The flexor surface of the capsule is greatly
strengthened by more or less independent ligaments.
Garrod, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1875, p. 82.

B. 14:2. Left elbow-joint of Duck-billed Platypus {OraitJw-
rhynchus anatinus). The humerus has been displaced to
show the form of the joint surfaces. The ulna lies directly
behind the radius, and their combined articular surfaces form
a simple concavity which plays upon a corresponding single
convex facet on the humerus. The joint forms a perfect
hinge.

Tornier, Morph. Jahrb., Bd. xii. 1887, p. 407.

B. 143. Right elbow-joint of a Koala (Phascolarctus oinereus),
showing the form of the articular surfaces. The ulna lies
slightly to the inner side of the radius ; its articular surface
is composed of two distinct parts — one of which, as in the
Monotremes, forms a simple concavity with that of the
radius and articulates with a single convex facet on the
humerus ; the other has the appearance of a lateral excres-
cence upon the inner side of the first and articulates with a
separate convexity on the head of the humerus.

B. 144. A vertical section of the articular extremities of the
Human humerus and nlna, showing the trochlea of the
former bone to which the articular cavity of the latter is
adapted, and the mode in which the power of the triceps
brachii is increased by the projection of the olecranon, its
point of insertion, beyond the centre of motion. 0. C. 273.

I-Iunteria7i.

B. 146. Elbow-joint of Man dissected to show the form and
position of the orbicular ligament.

The ligament is a strong fibrous band attached to the
anterior and posterior margins of the lesser sigmoid cavity ;
it encircles the head of the radius and is attached, proximally
to the capsular ligament, distally by a loose thin membrane
to the neck of the radius. It assists in pronation and
supination by allowing the radius to freely rotate upon its
own axis.

Cathcart, Jour. Anat. & Physiol., vol. xix. 1885, p. 355.

T8

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

WRIST.

B. 146. m^ht wrist-joint of a Duck-billed Platypus {Ornklw.
rhynchus anatiniis). The scaphoid and lunar are fused to
form a single bone articulating with the radius and to a
slight extent with the ulna. Two large lateral prominences
on Its proximal surface engage with corresponding
depi-essions upon the radius and ulna, while the groove
between them is occupied by a process of the radius. This
interlocking between the proximal row of carpals and the
bones of the fore-arm restricts the movements of the wrist
to simple flexion and extension.

B. 147. Left wrist-joint of a Spider Monkey {Ateles melanocldr) .
An interarticular fibro-cartilage (triangular cartilage) is
inserted between radius and ulna in the distal radio-ulnar
joint. The articulation between the ulna and the cuneiform
bone is separated by an antero-posterior septum from that
between the radius and the scaj)hoid and semilunar.

B. 148. Left wrist-joint of Papio [Cynocej^lialus'] spldnx. The
posterior radio-carpal ligament consists of two fasciculi,
that converge from their separate origin on the radius to
a common insertion on the cuneiform. The styloid process
of the ulna is prominent and articulates with the cuneiform
and pisiform bones. There is a partial septum between the
two halves of the joint. Presented hy Prof. F. G. Parsons.

B. 149. A dissection showing the fibro-cartilage at the radio-
ulnar articulation of the left side of a Man. 0. C. 268 A.
Corner, Jour. Anat. & Physiol., vol. xxxii. 1898, p. 272.

DIGITS.

B. 150. A vertical section of the fore-foot of a Horse {Equus
cahallus) .

In this are illustrated all the contrivances for augmenting
the moving powers, and ditfusiug the concentrated forces
of pressure and percussion.

The interphalangeal joints are imperfect hinges, that
allow of slight lateral movements in addition to those of

rEL\aC GIRDLE.

79

flexion and extension. The posterior ligament of the 1st
interphalangeal joint is of great power to withstand the
tendency to overextension due to the weight of the hody :
it is united laterally to the tendon of the flexor sublimis and
extends up the posterior surface of the 1st phalanx to become
confounded with the sesamoid ligaments of the metacarpo-
phalangeal joint. 0. C. 279.

PELVIC GIBDLB.

B. 151. A section of the sacrum and pelvic girdle of a Man.
The dorsal portion of the sacro-iliac articulation is flrmly
united by fibrous tissue, the ventral shows a distinct
synovial cavity.

HIP.

B. 152. The OS innominatum and femur of a large Tortoise
(Testudo indica).

The hip-joint is laid open to show that the ligamentum
teres is absent. This simple form of joint obtains at the hip
in all Chelonian reptiles. 0. C. 255 a.

Presented Inj W. CUft, Esq.

B. 153. The right os innominatum, os marsupiale, and femur of
a Duck-billed Platypus {Ornithorh/nchus anatinus).

The anterior part of the capsule of the hip-joint has been
removed to expose the head of the thigh-bone, and the
cotyloid cavity, and to show that the ligamentum teres is
absent in this species.

B. 154. The left os innominatum, os marsupiale, and femur of
Echidna aculeata.

The head of the femur is turned out of the cotyloid
cavitv, to show the absence of the ligamentum teres. There
is a foramen at the back part of the cotyloid cavity, which
is deficient at that part, as it is in birds. 0. C. 255 D.

B. 155. Left hip-joint of a Koala (PJiascolarctus cinerem) .

The joint has been opened to show the ligamentum teres,

80

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

extending from the transverse ligament to the articular
cartilage of the head of the femur.

(No depression can be seen on the head of the femur in
the dried bone.)

B. 166. The right os innominatum and femur of the Two-todd
Sloth [Choloepus didactylus) . The hip-joint is laid open to
show absence of the ligamentum teres. 0. 0. 255 H.

B. 157. Upper part of the femur of a Two-toed Sloth {CJwloepus
didactylus). There is no ligamentum teres, but upon the
femur head there is a flattened area, at the spot where
in other mammals the ligament when present is usually
attached.

B. 158. Left half of the pelvis and upper part of the femur of a
Three-toed Sloth {Brady pus tridactylus) . The joint-cavity
has been opened to show the entire absence of a ligamentum
teres.

B. 169. Right hip-joint of an Armadillo (Dasypus sexcinctus).
The joint-cavity has been exposed to show the great size of
the ligamentum teres. It has an extensive origin from the
anterior margin of the cotyloid notch and from the capsule
in its neighbourhood.

B. 160. Right hip-joint of a young Pangolin [Maiiis penta-
dactyla). The ligamentum teres is absent.

Presented hy Dr. J. Anderson.

B. 161. Right hip-joint of a fcetal Elephant {Elephas africaniis).
The ligamentum teres is absent.

B. 162. The head of the right femur of an Elephant {Elephas
indicus) three years old.

The cartilaginous articular surface is uniformly smooth,
having no depression for the insertion of the ligamentum
teres. 0. C. 255 E.

B. 163. Left hip-joint of Pi^ocavia [flyraa;] capensis. The liga-
mentum teres is fused with the capsular ligament.

HIP.

81

B. 164. Right hip-bone of a foetal Horse {Equus cahallus) with
a portion of the head of the femur. The ligamentum teres
is separable into two well marked divisions. The one
(cotyloid) lies entirely within the joint-cavitj ; the other
(pubio-f'emoral) passes from the femur head through the
cotyloid notch and is attached to the pubis, pubic tendons
of the abdominal muscles, and tendon of origin of the
pectineus. Its close relation to the pectineus has led some
to regard the ligamentum teres as a divorced tendon of
that muscle.

Sutton, Ligaments, etc., London, 1882, p. 38.

B. 165. The left os innominatum and femur of a Seal {Fhoca
vitulind).

The capsule of the hip-joint is partly removed, and the
head of the thigh-bone turned out of the cotyloid cavity,
showing it to be quite smooth, without any depression for
a ligamentum teres, which is absent in this animal : the
cotyloid cavity has, however, the usual notch and depression,
the latter being filled with fatty membranous substance.
0. 0.255 B.

B, 166. Eight OS innominatum and femur of a young Walrus
( Odohcenus [ Trkhechiisl rosmarus) . The femur is dislocated
and the capsule of the joint removed to show the absence
of the ligamentum teres. 0. C. 255 B«.

B. 167. The left os innominatum and upper part of the femur,
with a section of the lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal verte-
brae, of an Orang-Outang {Simia saf.yriis).

The hip-joint is laid open, and the head of the thigh-bone
dislocated and turned forwards, to show its smooth and
uniform spherical articular surface, having no depression
for a ligamentum teres, which is absent in this species.
0. C. 255 I.

B. 168. Right hip-joint of a young male Orang-Oulang {Simia
satyr us). The ligamentum teres is absent, but a peculiar
mark on the head of the femur may indicate its presence
at a still earlier period.

82

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

B, 139. Right hi[j-joiiit of a Chimpanzee (AnthrojjjpUhecus
troglodtjtes), showing the ligamentum teres.

B. 170. The parts constituting the Human hip-joint of the right
side.

The anterior part of the capsular ligament is turned back
to show the extent to which the synovial membrane is
reflected over the anterior part of the neck of the thigh-
bone ; the thickness of the ligamentous part of the capsule
is also shown by the section. In the cotyloid cavity may
be observed the ligamentum teres, round which a bristle is
tied, and the depression containing the fatty and synovial
substance. 0. C. 256. Hunierian.

KUEE.

B. 171. The parts constituting the knee-joint of an Ostrich {Slru'
thio camelus), injected.

A section has been made through the patella, and the
anterior part of the joint is laid open to show the crucial
ligaments, and a very large tendon passing through the
joint to be attached to the front of the external condyle ;
also a tendon passing through a synovial sheath in the
ligament of the patella, in an oblique direction from the
femur to the tibia. Posteriorly, the capsular ligament is
removed, to show the semilunar cartilages and the ligament
connecting the external one to the head of the fibula, which
in this class of animals is articulated with the external
condyle of the femur, and forms part of the knee-joint.

The blood-vessels upon the inner condyle are successfully
filled, and exhibit numerous mutual anastomoses as they
approach the articular cartilage, forming what Dr. Hunter
termed " the Circulus articuli vasculosus ; the vascular
border of the joint." 0. C. 272. Hunterian.

B. 172. The parts constituting the knee-joint of the Omitho-
rhynchus anatinus.

The articular cavity is divided into two compartments
by a continuation and extension of the ligamentum mu-
cosum from the back of the patella to the crucial ligaments;

KNEE.

83

there being one synovial cavity common to the patella and
anterior part of the femur, with the internal condyle and
tibia, containing the internal semilunar cartilage ; and a
second common to the external condyle of the femur and
tibia, with the head of the fibula, in which is contained the
external semilunar cartilage.

The fibula has been rotated forwards to show a laro-e
facet upon the inner surface of its head, that articulates
partly with the femur and partly with the outer surface of
the head of the tibia.

B. 173. Right knee-joint of Koala {Fhascolarctus cinereas)
opened from behind.

The head of the fibula shares in the formation of the
joint, articulating by a small facet with the side of the
external condyle of the femur. A small nodule of cartilage
(fabella) in the tendon of the gastrocnemius, articulates by
a facet with the posterior surface of the head of the fibula.
There is no bony patella.

B. 174. Lower portion of the right hind limb of a Tasmanian
Devil {Sarcophilus \_Dasyurus] ursinus) showing the knee-
and ankle-joints. The head of the fibula has a small
facet upon its apex for articulation with the femur, and a
larger one upon its outer side which articulates with a
nodule of bone attached by ligament to the shaft of the
femur above the external condyle and to the head of
the fibula. The external lateral ligament has been divided
to show another ligament beneath it, that passes diagonally
backwards from the lower and outer surface of the external
condyle of the femur, and is attached by two branches to
the anterior and posterior surfaces of the head of the fibula.

B. 175. Right knee-joint of a Fruit Bat {Ptero'pas ediuardsii)
opened from in front. Tiiere are no interarticular
cartilages.

B. 176. The parts constituting the knee-joint of a Calf [Bos
tuurus).

The patella is turned down, to expose the anterior part
of the joint ; and on the opposite side the capsular ligament

g2

84

rHYSIOLOGlCAL SERIES.

is removed, to show the intervening semilunar cartilages
and crucial ligaments. This joint has in this animal a
partial septum extending across it (apparently a greater
development of what is called Ligamentum mucosum in
the human subject), which divides it into an anterior and
posterior cavity. 0. C. 296. Bvnterian.

B. 177. A vertical section of the parts constituting the knee-
joint of the same animal, showing the ligamentum mucosum,
producing an almost distinct anterior cavity between the
patella and condyle of the femur, and a posterior one
between the trochlea and head of the tibia. 0. C. 270.

Hunterian.

B. 178. The counterpart of the preceding preparation. 0. C. 271.

Hunterian.

B. 179. Left knee-joint of Lemur mongoz, opened from behind.
The posterior extremity of the external semilunar cartilage
is attached by a long ligament to the outer surface of the
internal condyle of the femur. In a similar way the
internal semilunar cartilage is attached by ligament to the
inner surface of the head of the fibula. The external
lateral ligament is double ; its inner fasciculus may
represent a divorced portion of the popliteus tendon.

Presented hy Prof. F. G. Parsons.

B. 180. The parts constituting the Human knee-joint.

The patella and part of the capsule are turned down to
show the ligamentum mucosum within the joint and the
anterior crucial ligament ; the extent of the synovial
membrane and the Kne of its reflection upon the condyles
of the femur ; the capsule is removed from the posterior
part of the joint to show the interarticular semilunar
cartilages and the posterior crucial ligament. The lateral
ligaments and part of the tendon of the popliteus are also
shown. 0. C. 265 a.

B. 181.. The interarticular semilunar cartilages from the Human
knee-joint, injected ; showing their transverse comiecting

ANKLE.

85

ligaments, and the different character of the upper and
lower parts for adapting a convex to a flat surface. 0. 0.
266. Hunterian.

B. 182. Small portion of the articular end of a femur. The
cartilage has been broken, it shows a vertical striation of
the fractured surface due to the cells being mostly dis-
posed in vertical rows. A thin layer of the free surface
projects, the cells being flattened and in horizontal layers.
0. 0. 267. Hunterian.

William Hunter, Phil. Trans., vol. xlii. 1742-3, p. 514.

Hammar, Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., Bd. xliii. 1894, p. 813.

ANKLE.

B. 183. The tendons and ligaments of the joint between the
tibio-tarsus and tarso-metatarsus of an Ostrich ; the thick-
ened tendon has been removed to show the interarticular
cartilage at the back part of the joint. 0. 0. 275 A.

B. 184. Right ankle-joint of a Duck-billed Platypus (Onii^/to-
rhynchus anatinus) . The internal malleolus of the tibia is
strongly developed and articulates by an outwardly turned
rounded head with a deep pit on the inner surface of the
astragalus — an arrangement strikingly similar to the peg
and socket articulation between the fibula and astragalus
in the Sloths.

The tibio- and fibulo-tarsal joints are entirely separated
from one another by an antero-posterior synovial partition.

B. 185. Right ankle-joint of an Opossum (Didelphys marsupialis) .
There is a well-marked semilunar interarticular cartilage
between the fibula and astragalus. It is attached in front
to the astragalus, behind to the fibula.

B. 186. Left ankle-joint of a Tasmanian Devil (Sarcophilus
[Dasyurus'] ursinus). An interarticular fibro-cartilage is
interposed between the fibula and astragalus. The natural
irregularities in the posterior margin of the tibio-fibular
articular surface are equalised by two nodules of bone
imbedded in the posterior ligament.

86

PHYSIOLOQICAL SERIES.

B. 187. Left ankle-joint of a Tliree-toed Sloth {Bradyjms iridac-
hjhis). The cavity of Ihe joint has been opened in front to
show a curious peg and socket arrangement by which the
intuiuing of the sole by the powerful tibialis anticus is
facilitated, and outward displacement of the foot during this
movement prevented. The peg is formed by a conical
extension of the lower extremity of the fibula ; its point is
directed diagonally inwards and downwards, and fits into a
corresponding concavity in the upper and outer surface of
the astragalus. A somewhat similar contrivance, though
far less strongly marked, is found in certain Monkeys,
e. cf. Na&alis, in which the sole of the foot is inturned in
climbing.

Humphry, Jour, of Anat. & Physiol., vol. iv. 1870, p. 22.

B. 188. Eight ankle-joint of a Spider Monkey (A teles melanocJiir).
The external lateral ligament is in three fasciculi similar to
those present in Man. The posterior portion of the capsular
ligament has been reflected upwards to show the inter-
articular cartilage attached to it.

B, 189. Lower ends of left tibia and fibula of a Spider Monkey
{Ateles melanochir) , showing the interarticidar cartilage
projecting from the posterior part of the capsule.

B. 190. Right ankle-joint of Papio [ Cynoceplialus] sphinx. The
external lateral ligament is in two fasciculi, corresponding
respectively to the middle and posterior fasciculus of Man.

Presented by Prof. F. G. Parsons.

MUSCULAR AND ALLIED SYSTEMS.

87

c.

MUSCULAR AND ALLIED SYSTEMS.
PLANTS.

C. 1. Two branches o£ Desmodium gyrans showing the diurnal
and nocturnal positions of the leaves. There is no special-
ised motile organ, but the entire leaf- stalk (petiole) is
straight during daylight from the uniform turgescence of
its cells. In the dark, the cells of the upper half of the
leaf-stalk becoming more turgid, causes the downward
curvature.

Sachs, Physiology of Plants (Eng. trans.), p. 623.

C. 2. Portion of a ternate leaf of Erythrina corallodendron, to
show the part between the leaflet and petiole by which
the motion of the leaflets takes place after sunset. 0. C. 28.

" There is an action in plants which appears to be the contrary of
expansion ; it may be considered as a relaxation, or an action of
those parts antagonizing the others which acted through the day,
or at other periods, and it takes place at the time these other
parts cease to act.

"This action has hitherto been considered as analogous to
sleep in animals ; whereas, sleep is a total loss of the sensitive
principle, and all the actions dependent on volition for the time ;
and, therefore, can only take place in animals endowed with
sensation. It is rather a defect in the animal, than an action,
or the exertion of a principle."— Jo7m Hunter, MS. Groonian
Lectures, No.l.

[The various actions that take place in plants at the close of
day, are described by Linnaeus in Amcenitates Academicce, iv.
p. 333, under the title Somnus Plantarum.']

Hunterian.

C. 3. Leaves of Iledysarum gyrans, in which the small lateral
leaflets have a power of moving up and down, with
a varying degree of velocity, and without any mutual
uniformity or co-operation. These motions take place
independent of external stimulus. 0. C. 31. Hunterian.

88

PHYSIOLOGICAL SEfllES.

C. 4. Poi-tion of stem and leaves of Hedysarum gyrans. TLe
main leaves assume the normal diurnal and nocturnal
positions. The small lateral leaflets are in constant
spontaneous periodic movement occupying a few minutes,
the temperature must be high (at least 22° C).

C. 6. Two portions of stem with leaves attached of a Scarlet-
runner (Phaseolus multiflorus). A swollen region at the
bases of the main leaf-stallcs and leaflets constitutes a special
motile organ. In the absence of light the upper halves
of the motile organs of the leaflets become more turgid,
causing the leaflets to droop ; at the same time the motile
organ of the main leaf-stalk becomes more turgid below,
thus raising the leaf-stalk into a more vertical position.

C. 6. A branch of Mimosa pudica, with two leaves ; one of them
is in the expanded state ; the other contracted, but erect.
0. C. 29.

" Although one only of the pinnules be touched, the contractile
movement is quickly propagated aloug the other three: it consists
of an approximation of the upper surfaces of the opposite subleaflets
to each other, with an overlapping of those of the same side." —
John Hunter, MS. Oroonian Lectures, No. 1.

Hunterian.

C. 7. Two portions of stem with leaves attached of a Sensitive
Plant {Mimosa pudica). The diurnal and nocturnal
positions are shown. The nocturnal position is rapidly
assumed on the slightest irritation. It probably is of use
in protecting the leaves from injury by tropical rain-storms.
Special motile organs are well defined.

ANIMALS.

INVERTEBRATA.

C. 8. Part of the margin of a large Medusa {Rhizostoma coimlea),
on the inferior edge of which the membrane is disposed in
numerous minute plic£e, running in the direction of the
circumference, and giving to it a fibrous or muscular
appearance.

MUSCULAR AND ALLIED SYSTEMS.

89

The muscle-fibres of MedusEe are derived from the ecto-
derm, and each consists of an elongated contractile fibril
connected with either a superficial epithelial cell or with
one that has migrated into the mesogloea. The fibres are
mainly present as a circular layer in the sub-umbrella, and
in this region show a very definite transverse striation,
connected no doubt with the sharp swimming contractions
of the bell. 0. C. 55. Hunterian.

0. & K. Hertwig, Der Organismus dur Medusen, Jena,
1878, p. 7.

C. 9. Two specimens of the Sea- Anemone {Actinia mesembryan-
themwn). The upper of the two is expanded, the lower
contracted. The contraction is due to muscle-fibres situated
in the mesoderm, but for the most part, as in Medusae, either
connected with or derived from the ectoderm. The fibres
are smooth. 0. C. 55 A.

0. & R. Hertwig, Jena. Zeitschr., Bd. xiv. 1880, p. 42.

C. 10. Masticatory apparatus (lantern of Aristotle) and neigh-
bouring portion of the test of Ecliinus esculentus.

The points of the five teeth project through the central
opening in the peristomal membrane. Each of the teeth
is supported by a " pyramid," composed of two " alveoli/^
connected at the base by two pieces forming the " trans-
verse arch.'^ The pyramids (jaws) are locked together by
five falces or braces ; over these are the five slender radii
or compasses. The muscles may be divided into four
groups, viz. : five pairs of protrusors of the jaws, they arise
from the actinostome between the auriculae, and are chiefly
inserted into the transverse arch ; five pairs of retractors
of the jaws and openers of the mouth, arising from the
auriculse and inserted near the tips of the jaws ; five that
arise from, and are inserted into, the neighbouring faces of
the pyramids, that approximate the teeth ; and five inter-
radials, that prevent the downward dragging of the outer
furcate ends of the radii when the jaws are protruded,
they might slightly tend to protrude the jaws, but this is
already provided for by other muscles. All the muscles

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

are nnstriped. Five pairs of ligaments (indicated by black
bristles) spi-ing from the actinostome and are attached to
the furcate outer ends of the radii ; they prevent the raising
of this end by the contraction of the interradial muscle.

C. 11. Section of an Ecliiuothurid. (Asthenosoma liystrix) showing
the arrangement of the muscles, by whose contraction the
alterations in form of the creature are produced. Two
of the five pairs of muscle-sheets are shown. They He
in the boundary lines between the ambulacra and inter-
ambulacra, taking origin from the outer ends of the
ambulacral plates. Each muscle-sheet is of crescentic form
and composed of more or less isolated bundles. The latter
radiate from a central tendon to the test. The fibres are
smooth.

P. & F. Sarasin, Ergebnisse Naturwiss. Forschungen auf
Ceylon, Bd. i. 1888, p. 93.

C. 12. A Sea-Cucumber [Holotliuria tubulosa) o\>Qn from the
dorsum to show the muscles of the body and cloaca. The
muscles of the body-wall consist of an outer circular and an
inner longitudinal layer. The latter is strongly developed
and is broken up into five radial bands, each divided down
the middle by a conspicuous furrow. Each band originates
from the calcareous ring around the oesophagus and extends
without interruption to the posterior extremity of the body.
A large number of fine branching strands of muscle radiate
outwards from the cloacal wall to the neighbouring parts of
the body- wall. They act as dilators of the cloaca.

C. 13. Another specimen of Ilolothuria tuhulosa, cut open to show
the muscles of the body-wall. 0. C. 56. Huntenan.

C. 14. The dermo-muscular tube of a Gephyrean worm
[Sipunculns opened along the dorsal surface.

There are three muscle-layers in the body-wall, whose
fibres (beginning with the outermost layer) have, respec-
tively, a circular, diagonal, and longitudinal direction. In
each layer the fibres are grouped together in regular par-
allel bundles. There are four retractor muscles of the intro-

MUSCULAli AND ALLIED SYSTEMS.

91

vert, which originate from the longitudinal layer on a level
with the anus and are inserted at the base of the tentacles.
The individual muscle-fibres consist of an outer sarcolemma,
a spirally fibrillated contractile cortex and a central proto-
plasmic portion. Upon the right, several of the longi-
tudinal bundles have been removed to show the underlying
diagonal layer, and on the left the circular layer is similarly
exposed by the removal of both longitudinal and diagonal
layers. 0. C. 56 A.

Andrese, Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., Bd. xxxvi, 1882, p. 228.

C. 15. A similar preparation of Pliascolosoma vulgare. In this
Gephyrean the muscles of the body-wall are far more
delicate than in Sipunculus and are arranged in two layers
only — longitudinal and circular— in both of which the fibres
form a continuous sheet. The course of the fibres in the
two layers can be seen where black paper has been inserted
beneath them. 0. C. 56 B.

C. 16. Right half of a Sea-Mouse {Aphrodite aculeata) showing
the muscular system, which in this worm attains a very
high degree of complexity. The muscle-layers of the body-
wall are broken up into a number of individual muscles, the
most conspicuous of which are six longitudinal bands— a
pair along the dorsum contiguoiis with each other, a ventral
pair separated by an interval of 7 mm., and a single band
along each side. The dorsal and ventral bands are contin-
uous from end to end of the body, but the lateral bands are
interrupted and firmly attached to the body-wall between
each segment by a tendinous intersection. The muscles of the
outer (circular) layer form a network of diagonal and trans-
verse bands that pass between and superficial to the longi-
tudinal bands. The interstices between them are occupied
by the hepatic caaca. A large series of perpendicular and
diagonal muscles traverse the body-cavity between each
segment, and each parapodium has its own particular pro-
trusor and retractor muscles. 0. 0. 57 A a,

C. 17. Portion of a Nereis {Nereis foliosa) showing two series
of muscles, which extend along the dorsal aspect from one

92

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

end of the animal to the otlier ; tliese are intersected at
regular distances, corresponding to the breadth of the seg-
ments. 0. C. 58.

Quatrefages, Ann. Sci. Nat., ser. 5, t. xi, 18(J9, p. 309.

C. 18. Two specimens of a Leech [Ilirudo medicinalis) . The
upper specimen is a transverse section taken through the
middle of the body. The viscera have been removed to show
several muscular strands passing perpendicularly through
the body from the dorsal to the ventral wall, their con-
traction flattening the body for swimming. These muscles
lie between the gastric pouches within metamerically
disposed connective-tissue lamellae. The individual muscle-
fibres are branched at either end. The lower specimen
shows the longitudinal muscles which form the inner and
most powerful layer of the body-wall. They are specially
developed along the ventral mid-line. The muscle-fibres
are spindle-shaped cells composed of longitudinally fibril-
lated cortex of contractile substance, surrounding a central
core of undifferentiated protoplasm within which lies the
nucleus. The protoplasm of the core extends to the peri-
phery of the cell between the cortical fibrils. 0. G. 57 A.
Leuckart, Die Parasiten dos Menschen, Bd. i. 1894,
p. 568.

C. 19. A Leech {Hirudo medicinalis) , having part of its external
tesument dissected off to show its longitudinal subcutaneous
muscles. 0. C. 57. Ilunterian.

C. 20. A Brachiopod ( Terebratella cruenta) from which the viscera
and a portion of the left side of the valves have been
removed to show the valvular and peduncular muscles.
The former — concerned in opening and closing the valves
— consist of two pairs of occlusors and a pair of divaricators.
The two occlusors of either side arise from the dorsal valve
slightly in front of the hinge ; for the first part of their
course they are independent and fleshy, but about the middle
of the body they assume a tendinous appearance, unite with
one another, and are finally inserted by a common expanded

MUSCULAR AND ALLIED SYSTEMS.

93

end to the ventral valve. The fibres of the posterior
occlusors (indicated by black paper inserted beneath them),
unlike those of all the other muscles, are transversely
striated. The striped muscle probably first suddenly closes
the valves, the closed state being maintained by the un-
striped anterior occlusors. The divaricators rise from the
ventral valve alongside the insertion of the occlusors, and
are inserted upon the cardinal processes of the dorsal valve
external to the hinge-fulcrum. The peduncular muscles
give rise to the slight movements of the valves upon the
stalk ; there are two pairs passing to either valve from
the sides of the peduncle.

Presented hy Prof. G. B. Howes.
Hancock, Phil. Trans., vol. cxlviii. 1858, p. 795.

C. 21. A Cirripede {Lepas anatifera) dissected from the right side
to show the muscular system. The most important muscles
are : — An adductor, passing transvei'sely between the scuta,
for the closure of the valves ; a group of longitudinal
muscles on the carinal body-wall, apparently to retract the
animal into its shell ; a series of muscles passing transversly
from side to side in the position of the decapod sternum ;
and the various muscles of the appendages. The majority
of the muscle-fibres are transversely striated, but smooth
fibres occur in the adductor muscle, mantle and peduncle.
0. C. 54 A.

C. Darwin, Monograph of the Cirripedia, Ray Soc. 1851,
p. 39 ; Gruvel, C. R. Acad. Sci., t. cxxiii. 1896, p. 68.

C. 22. The stem of the Eared Barnacle {Conchoderma aicrita),
deprived of its external theca to show two series of oblique
muscular fibres which arise from a central lino or tendon
on one side of the stem, and, winding spirally round, are
inserted into a similar line on the opposite side of the stem.
Beneath these oblique fibres, whose office is to compress
the peduncle, others may be observed which are longi-
tudinalj for the purpose of shortening the peduncle.
0. 0. 62. Hmitericui^

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

C. 23. The sheath of an Acorn-shell (Balanus porcalm), kid open
to show the attachments of the muscles to the moveable
opercular valves. 0. C. 54. IJunterian.
C. Darwin, Monograph of the Cirripedia, Ray Soc. 1854
p. 01.

C. 24. Longitudinal section of a Lobster {Homarus vulgaris),
showing the muscles attached to the right half of the body.
The chief muscles are indicated by numbers as follows.

I. Adductor of the eye-stalk. 2. Anterior gastric. 3.
Levator of antenna. 4. Depressor of antenna. 5. Sternal
levator. 6. Adductor of mandible. 7. Posterior gastric.
8. Tergo-epimeral. 9. Flexor of coxopodite of chela
(acting as an adductor of the whole leg). 10. Extensor
of basipodite of chela (acting as depressor of the leg).

II. Intersternal. 12. Deep abdominal extensor. 13. Ab-
dominal rotator. 14. Deep abdominal flexor (enveloping
portion). 14*. Its transverse portion. The most note-
worthy of this highly specialised series of muscles are
those connected with the movements of the abdomen.
They consist of extensors (12), flexors (14), and rotators
(13). Both flexors and extensors are composed of super-
ficial and deep layers, the former in each case being very
poorly developed. The deep flexor is a remarkable muscle
both on account of its size and its complicated formation.
It rises on either side from abdominal and cephalothoracic
regions and extends to the telson, with attachments to
each abdominal segment. Broadly speaking, it is com-
posed of a central core of fibres around which an enveloping
sheet (14) is coiled in a spiral. In each segment offshoots
(14*) from the central core run transversely across the
body to the central core of the muscle of the other side.
The enveloping fibres with additions from the central
core are attjiched to the anterior margin of each abdominal
sternite. bat the main part of the central coi*e is attached to
each tergum above the hinge-line, so that the action of
the muscle is partly one of extension although mainly
of flexion.

Owing to the immobility of the cephalothorax, the

MUSCULAR AND ALLIED SYSTEMS.

95

muscles belonging to this region are rudimentary. The
muscle-fibres are transversely striated. 0. C. 61 B.
Parker & Rich, Macleay Memorial Volume, p. 159.

C. 25. Muscles of some right appendages of a Lobster {Bomarus
vulgaris).

A. Proximal part of a thoracic appendage showing the
muscles of the two basal podomeres — coxopodite and basi-
podite. Owing to the shortness of these two segments,
their muscdes move the limb as a whole, giving rise to
adduction, abduction, elevation, and depression. The
muscles of both podomeres rise from the endophragm.
They are indicated by numbers, thus : — 1. Flexor of
coxopodite = adductor of limb. 2. Plexor of basipodite =
levator of limb. 3. Extensor of basipodite = depressor of
limb. 4. Extensor of coxopodite = abductor of limb.

B. An abdominal appendage. The muscles are simple
in their arrangement and produce backward and forward
movements of the limb and abduction and adduction of the
exopodite. 1. Extensor. 2. Flexor. 3. A complex mass
of muscle, the proximal part of which forms a continuation
of 1 & 2, while the distal part is composed of adductor
and abductor of the exopodite.

C. The Mandible. The adductors (1, 2, 3) are both
numerous and powerful, the abductors (4, 5) compara-
tively weak.

D. The Tail-fin and Telsou. The main muscles are
those concerned with flexion (1) and extension (2) of the
tail-fin. Besides these, there are muscles (3, 4) for the
adduction of the fin as a whole and (6, 8) of the exo-
podite, as well as (5, 7) for the abduction of the exopodite.
The last four muscles would also to a certain extent have
powers of extension and flexion. 0. C. 61 c.

C. 26. A section of the claw of a Lobster {Homarus vulgaris),
showing the fibres of the penniform muscle arising from the
propodite and inserted into the apodeme of the dactylopo-
dite. 0. C. 60. Ilunterian.

96

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

C. 27. A section of the propodite and dactylopodite of the claw
of a Lobster, showing the attachment of the penniform
adductor from another point of view. 0. 0. 61.

Hunterian.

C. 28. Portion of the claw of a Lobster [Homarus vulgaris),
opened to show the points of attachment of the adductor
and abductor of the dactylopodite, and the great contrast
between them in size and power. 0. C. 61 d.

C. 29. Leg of a Crab {Cancer pagurus) in which the several
segments of the limb have been opened to show a pair of
involutions of the shell (apodemes), which extend upwards
from the upper margin of each segment (podomere) into
the cavity of that next above it. They are situated opposite
each other in a plane at right angles to that occupied by the
fulcra of the joint and serve as surfaces of attachment for
the muscles of the leg. Being part of the exoskeleton
they are cast with it in exuviation. In each joint the plane
of the fulcra is nearly at right angles to that of the next
joint above and below, so that by a suitable combination
of simple hinge-movements a great range of motion can
be attained. 0. C. 61 A.

List, Morph. Jahrb., Bd. xxii. 1895, p. 392.

C, 30. A section of the larva of a large North American Moth
{Bomhyx regalis) showing two lateral series of muscles,
which extend along the dorsal and ventral aspects, through
the whole length of the body. These are intersected at
determinate distances, corresponding to the several segments
to which they are to give motion, and which have, also,
their own peculiar muscles. 0. C. 59. Hunterian.

C. 31. A freshwater Mussel (Anodonta cygnea), of which part of
the right valve is removed, and the mantle dissected away, to
show a pair of muscles (retractor pedis posterior) going
obliquely from their origin upon the valves, in front of the
posterior adductor, to their insertion on the foot. 0. C. 53.

Hunterian.

MUSCULAR AND ALLIED SYSTEMS.

97

C. 32. Right valve of a Mussel (Anodonta eygnen), sliowing the
pallial, adductor, and pedal muscles. The former eonsisis
of the miistailar border of the mantle. The two adductors
of the vahcs are cylindrical muscles of equal size that pai-s
transversely from valve to valve at either end of the body.
The pedal muscles form the bulk of the foot and extend as
a thin envelope over the surface of the visceral mass ;
definite anterior and posterior pedal retractor muscles can
be distinguished from the general sheet, attached to the
valves directly behind the anterior and before the posterior
adductors. The contractile cortex of the individual muscle-
fibres is either longititdinally fibrillated or shows a double
diagonal stria tion probably due to spiral fibrillation.
0. C. 52 A a.

Engelmann, Arch. ges. Physiol., Bd. xxv. 1881, p. 553.

C. 33. Right valve and muscular parts of an Edible Mussel
[Mytihis eduUs). The anterior adductor of the valves is
considerally smaller than the posterior. The pedal muscles
are very strongly developed. They consist on either side
of an anterior retractor pedis, attached to the valve above
the anterior adductor, and a series of 6 or 7 posterior
retractors attached in a horizontal line anterior to the
posterior adductor. The posterior members of the series
are inserted upon the margins of the byssal gland. 0. C.
51 c.

Sabatier, Ann. Sci. Nat., ser. 6, t. v. 1877, p. 9.

C. 34. Right valve and. muscles of a Clam [Mya arenarid). The
posterior part of the mantle is modified to form two mus-
cular tubes (the siphons) in which the fibres run in circular
radial and longitudinal directions. The longitudinal layer
is greatly developed, and forms a pair of definite siphonal
retractors. They have a very characteristic crescentic
attachment to the shell (pallial sinus), continuous with
that of the general mantle-border. Midway between the
anterior and posterior retractor pedis muscles is a small
elevator pedis. 0. (J. 52 A b.

C, 35. The valves of a Cockle ( Cardium edule) from which the

H

98

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

ventral parts have been romoved, to show the fibres of
the two adductor muscles. 0. 0. 52. Ihinterian.

C. 36. A vertical section throngh the umbo of a Cockle {Canlinm
ednle) . The viscera have been removed to show the posterior
adductor and posterior retractor pedis muscles. 0. C. .52 A.

C. 37. Two specimens of Fholas [DactyUncC] dudylus, giving a
superficial and median view of the muscular system. The
anterior adductor muscle lies almost entirely exterual to the
hinge-line, attached to a special upward reduplication of
the shell, and in consequence its contraction produces an
abduction o£ the valves, the elastic ligament that generally
performs this function being absent. An additional ad-
ductor of the valves is formed by an enlargement of the
postero-ventral border of the mantle. In the lower
specimen a fan-shaped anterior retractor pedis muscle is
shown attached to the anterior and ventral margins of
the falciform pi'ocess. 0. C. 53 D.

Bgger, Arb. Inst. Wiirzburg, Bd. viii. 1888, p. 151.

C. 38. Right valve of a Scallop [Pecten maccimus) with the chief
muscles attached. One adductor (the posterior) alone is
present, it is readily divisible into two portions — a large
anterior part of a greyish colour, and a very much smaller,
glistening white posterior part. The grey portion is com-
posed of transversely striated muscle-fibres. The white
portion consists of longitudinally fibrillated smooth fibres.
Experiments show that the grey portion is capable of very
rapid and transitory, the white of slow and prolonged
contraction.

The striped muscle is the main agent in swimming, by
the sndden closure of the valves a number of times in rapid
succession. It also probably serves, as in the case of
Terehratella, for the swift closure of the valves in case of
dano-er, the almost tendinous smooth muscle maintaining
the closure.

The pedal muscles are represented by a much reduced
left posterior retractor. 0. C. 51 B.

Blanchard, Bull. Soc. Zool. France, t. xiii. p. 76 ; Knoll,
S.B. Akad. Wien, Bd. ci. Abt. 3, 1892, p. 481.

MUSCULAR AND ALLIED SYSTEMS.

99

C. 39. A vertical section through the umbo of a Scallop {Pc.cten
maxlmns)^ showing the position and direction of the ad-
ductor muscle. 0. C. 51 A.

C. 40. A vertical section o£ the valves of an Oyster ( Ostrea edulis),
showing the adductor muscle and the disposition of its
fibres' at right angles to the shell. 0. C. 50. Iluntevian.

C. 41. The lower flattened A^alve of an Oyster, showing by a
transverse section the extent and shape of the adductor
muscle. 0. 0. 51. Hunterian.

C. 42. Eight valve o£ Anomia ephippium, showing the muscular
system. Close in front of the single adductor of the valves
is a large posterior retractor pedis which runs transversely
across the body from the left valve to the byssal plug. A
small fan-shaped muscle runs forward from the anterior
edge of the byssal ping and is attached to the right valve
near the hinge. There is also a small anterior retractor
pedis on the loft side.

V. Ihering, Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., Bd.xxx. 1878, p. 13.

C. 43. A Tectibranchiate mollusc from which part of the dorsal
integuments have been removed to show a sheet of inter-
lacing muscle-strands beneath. 0. C. 62 A.

C. 44. The muscular parts of an Ormer (Haliotis tuherculata) ,
showing a modirication of the columellar muscle related to
the sucker-like character of the foot. The muscle has thn
form of a massive truncated cone attached by its apex to
the shell slightly to the right of the mid-line and spreading
out below to form the substance oli the foot. A section
of the muscle has been cut to show its dense felted texture.
0. C 53 B. Presented hy F. Hutchesson, Esq.

C. 45. The muscular system of a Limpet {Patella vidgata),
showing a somewhat similar modification of the columellar
nmscle. At its origin, the muscle has the form of a back-
wardly directed horseshoe, from which the muscle-fibres
pass directly into the foot converging towards the mid-line.

h2

100

rHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

A shell with the muscle attachments outlined in red is
mounted below. 0. C. 52 A c.

Jlarvey Gibson, Trans. R. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxii. 18Hr».
p. (i"21.

C. 46. A Heteropod {Carinarki mediterfanea), from the left
side o£ which the integuments have been removed to show
the arranoement of the muscles of the body-wall. They
consist ol' a nnml)er of anastomosing bands that completely
surround the anterior [)arts of the body, and are specially
numerous in the fin (chiefly propodium), but become fewer
and more scattered in the metapodium. The mesopodium is
represented by a sucker upon the ])ostero-ventral margin
of the fin. They fall into three main gi-oups according
to their direction within the body-wall. i. A series rising
from the dorsum and passing diagonally backwards round
the sides to the ventral surface. ii. The converse of
the preceding, passing backwards from the ventral to the
dorsal surface, iii. Very delicate circumferential bands.
The muscle-fibres are smooth.

Kalide, Zeitschr. wiss. ZooL, Bd. xlvi. 1888, p. .345 :
Wackwitz, Zool. Beitr., Bd. iii. 1892, p. 134.

C. 47. Two specimens of a Snail {Helix aspersa), showing a com-
pound retractor muscle (the columellar muscle) by means
of which the whole anterior part of the animal can be
withdrawn into the shell. The muscle originates in three
bundles from the columella in the third coil of the shell ;
the two lateral bundles spread out in the foot on either side
of the mid-line, and also give off a slip of attachment to the
apex of each tentacle ; the central bundle is inserted into
the buccal mass. A small retractor penis passes diagonally
across the body-cavity from the penis to the muscular floor
of the pulmonary chamber. In the upper specimen the
Snail is seen from the right, in the lower from the dorsal
aspect. The several muscle-bundles are marked by black
paper. 0. C. 53 c.

C.48. A Cuttle-fish {Sepia ojirhialis) from which the skin and
viscera have been removed to show the muscles.

The mantle and funnel have also been longitudinally

MUSCULAR AND ALLIED SYSTEMS.

101

divided, and the two halves of each separated to expose
the inidei-lving trunk niuscles. The most important of
these are the retractor capitis (a compound muscle formed
by the fusion of paired median and lateral i-etractors) and
the depressor infuudibuli ; these two together pi-obablv
represent the columellar muscle of the gastropod.

The right tentacle is extended, the left coiled up within
its pouch.

The muscle-fibres show a very marked double diagonal
striation due apparently to the spiral arrangement of the
fibrils of the contractile cortex. 0. 0. A 63.

Brock, Morphol. Jahrb., Bd. vi. 1880, p. 2U2 ; Bal-
lowitz, Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., Bd. xxxix. 1892, p. 291.

C.49. A transverse section of one of the arms of a large (Juttle-
tish {Oni/choteuthis, Lichtenstein, 'Isis von Oken,'' a.d. 1818,
tab. xix. See also Lollgo hanksii, No. 166 D. Catal. Nat.
Hist. p. 33), showing the complex arrangement of the
muscular fibres. 0.(^.63. Nunterian,

C.50. Eight half of the muscular body-wall of a Tunicate
{Phallusia mamrnillata) . The nniscle-fibres run in all
directions over the body, forming an intricate network. A
more regular circular arrangement is noticeable around the
oral and atrial apertures.

C. 61. Muscular body- wall of a Tunicate (Cioiia iiitestinalis) .
The muscle-fibres are arranged more regularly in longi-
tudinal and circular layers than in I'hallusia. The fibres
that run in a longitudinal direction are gathered together
into definite bundles. The individual fibres are very long
and of the smooth variety.

Roule, C. E. Acad. Sci., t. xcv. 1882, p. 45.

C. 62. Asexual form of Salpa a/ricaua maxima, showing the
muscular system. The trunk-muscles consist of 9 isolated
ribbon-like bands, situated at intervals along the dorsum
transverse to the long axis of the body. They extend on
either side as far as the mid-lateral line. Around the mouth
and atrial aperture are several smaller muscles, the most

102

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

imporknt of which form sphincters. By the contraction of
the trunk muscles the water in the pharynx and atrial
chamber is forcibly expelled from the atrial aperture, and
the animal is in consequence propelled in an opposite
direction. The muscle-fibres show a distinct transverse
striation.

Knoll, Deukschr. d. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Bd. Iviii. 1891,
p. 671.

C. 63. Apreparation of thetrunk muscles of AmpMowus lanceolatus.
They consist of a series of open chevron-like muscle-plates
(myotonies) arranged parallel to one another along the
lateral parts of the body, with their apices directed forward
and slightly above the mid-lateral line, those of opposite
sides alternating. They are formed of longitudinal fibres,
and are separated from one another and from those of
the opposite side by a layer of connective tissue. They
entirely surround the body with the exception of the
ventral area of the atrial chambei-, where a layer of
transverse muscle is interposed between their ventral ends.
The fibres of which these nmscles are composed are trans-
versely striated and have a highly characteristic plate-like
form. The nucleus imbedded in a small quantity of un-
differentiated protoplasm lies peripherally. There is no
sarcolemma. The middle specimen shows the muscles in
position after removal of the integument. On either side
are several isolated myotomes showing their outer (on the
right) and inner (left) surfaces. 0. C. 63 a.

Langerhans, Arch. £. Mikr. Anat., Bd. xii. 1876, p. 291.

VERTEBRATA.

Form and Texture.

Texture of Muscle.

C.54. Portions of muscle from a Cod-fish (Gadus morrhaa),
which have been steeped in an acid, and reflect iridescent
colour in some lights, due to striation producing inter-
ference. 0. C. 36. Hiinterian.

MUSOULAtl AND ALLIED SYSTEMS.

103

C. 55. A portion of muscle from the neck of a Bull {Bos taurus)
which has been boiled, and the connective tissue, vessels,
and nerves removed from the lower part, and the muscular
fasciculi unravelled. 0. G. 33. Hunterian.

C. 56. A portion of a muscle which has been steeped in acetic
acid, and the fasciculi separated into their constituent
fibres. 0. 0. 33 A. Mus. Sir A. Cooper, Bart.

C. 57. A portion of the gastrocnemius muscle, injected, dried, and
put into oil of turpentine to show its vascularity. 0. 0. 35.

Hunterian.

C. 58. A portion of a simple muscle, injected, dried, and put into
oil of turpentine, to show its vascularity and the mode of
ramification of its minute vessels. 0. 0. 35 A.

Mus. Sir Astley Cooper, Bart.

C. 59. A portion of a semi-penniform muscle, similarly prepared
for the same purpose. 0. C. 35 b.

Mus. Sir Astley Cooper, Bart.

C. 60. A portion of the diaphragm of a child, injected, dried, and
put into oil of turpentine, to show the radiating disposition
of the muscular fibres indicated by the blood-vessels.
0. C. 37. Hunterian.

Texture of Tendon.

C. 61. Portions of tendons from the leg of an Ostrich {Strut/do
camelus), -which have in this animal an unusually brilliant
lustre. 0. C. 47. Hunterian.

C. 62. Part of a muscle and tendon from the leg of a Crane
(Grus cinerea) , showing the method of insertion of the
muscle-fibres into the superficial fan-shaped tendon. The
tendon is sharply defined from the muscle-fibres and shows
a strong tendency to ossification. 0. C. 64 Y s a.

Presented hy W. B. Tegetmeier, Esq.

C. 63. Section of one of the caudal tendon-bundles of a large
Fin-whale {Baloanoptera musculus). 0. C. 45 E.

104

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

C.64. A tendon from the leg of a Calf {Bos taurus), injected,
driedj and put into oil of turpentine, to show its small
degree of vascularity. 0. C. 49. Hicnterian.

C. 65. The Human tendo Achillis, injected, with part of the
gastrocnemius muscle, to show by contrast the diflFerence
in the vascularity of these parts. 0. 0. 49 A.

Presented by Sir William Blizard.

Forms of Muscle.

C. 66. A portion of the 'obliquus abdominis internus' of a
Rhinoceros [Rhinoceros unicornis), showing the expanded
form of tendon, termed 'aponeurosis.' 0. 0. 48 a.

C. 67. A portion of the sartorius muscle of the Human subject
to show the parallel straight direction of the umscular
fibres. 0. C. 37 a.

C. 68. A muscle — the ' biceps brachii ' of a Child, showing
the aggregation of the fibres into two masses converging
and uniting below into a single tendon of insertion, and
forming a ' biceps ' muscle. 0. C. 45 A.

Mus. tSi'r Astley Cooper, Bart.

C. 69. A muscle — the ' extensor antebrachii ' of a Child, showing
the arrangement of the fibres into three masses, united
below into a single tendon of insertion, and forming a
' triceps ' muscle. 0. C. 45 b.

Mus. Sir Astley Cooper, Bart.

C. 70. A muscle— the chief extensor of the leg of a Child, showing
the arrani£ement of the fibres into foui- masses which unite
below to be inserted, by the intervention of the patelln, into
the tibia. 0. C. 45 c. Mns. Sir Astley Cooper, Bart.

C. 71. A portion of double penniform muscle from a Whale
[lialmiioptera musculns?), showing this form of muscle and
the coarseness of the muscular fasciculi. 0. C. 41 A.

CUTANEOUS.

105

C. 72. A section of a muscle, consisting of a single series of
oblique fibres, constituting the half-penniform muscle.
Q Q 3g_ Hunterian.

C. 73. A section of a muscle, consisting of a double series of
oblique fibres, constituting the complete-penniform muscle.
Q Q_ Hunterian.

C. 74, A section of a pennif'orm muscle. 0. (!. 40. Hunterian.

C. 75. A section of a penniforni muscle. 0. C. 41. Hunterian.

C. 76. A transverse section of a complex muscle, to show the in-
termixture of the muscular and tendinous fibres. 0. C. 44.

Hunterian.

C. 77. A section of a muscle, in which the fibres are disposed
obliquely in several double series, with tendon intervening;
constituting the complex muscle. 0. C. 42. Hunterian.

C. 78. A longitudinal section of a complex or multi-penniform
muscle. 0. C. 43. Hunterian.

C. 79. A transverse section of a complex muscle. 0. C. 45.

Hunterian.

Regional.
Cutaneous.

lu all classes above Fish, the names attached to iudividual muscles are
taken from lironn's Thier-reichs. An exceptii)ii has however been made in
the case of the hind limbs of the Lizard (Nos. 0. 173 & C. 174), in which
the names employed by Gadow (Morph. Jahrb. vii. 1882) have been substi-
tuted to facilitate comparison with the Crocodile.

C. 80. The skin of a Hedgehog (Erinaceus europmis) with the
head, Hmbs, and tail, showing the powerful cutaneous
muscles by the action of which the Hedgehog is rolled into
a ball and completely enveloped and protected by the dorsal
spine-bearing region of the skin . They can be conveniently
separated into those concerned with (1) rolling, and (2)
unrolling. The first group comprises the large orbicularis
panniculi, a broad muscular band peculiar to the Hedgehog,

106

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

closely adherent to the skin of the back along the bonier
of the spine-bearing area, and a series of small muscles
arising from the head, fore limbs, tail and ventral mid-line
of the body, and inserted Into the inner margin of the orbi-
cularis panniculi. These latter muscles draw the extremities
together and at the same time drag the orbicularis panniculi
so far towards the ventral surface that it can act like the
running string in the mouth of a bag and cause the complete
enclosure of the animal in the spine-bearing region of the
skin. Unrolling is caused by the action of the longitudinal
and transverse fibres of the dorsal region of the skin, with
the help of certain small muscles arising from the skull and
vertebral column, and so arranged that they draw the skin
towards the middle of the back. 0. G. 64 z n.

C. 81. Head and fore limbs together with the anterior half of
the skin of a Hedgehog {Erinaceus eurojjceiin) , showing
many of the cutaneous muscles in this region more clearly
than in the previous specimen. 0. C. 64 z o.

C. 82. Hind limbs and posterior half of the skin of a Hedoehoo-

, too

[Jinnaceus europceus), showing the cutaneous muscles.
0. 0. 64 z 2J.

Himly, Ueber das Zusammenkngeln des Igels, Bruns-
wick, 1801, p. 28.
Dobson, Monograph of Insectivora, 1882, p. 41.

Head and Neck.

Ruge, Festschr. Gegenbaur, Bd. iii. 1896, p. 195.

C. 83. Left half of the head and branchial region of a Doo-fish
{Scyllium catulus), from which the skin has been removed
to show the superficial muscles. These, with the exception
of the large adductor mandibulae, are all derivatives of a
common superficial circular layer (constrictor arcuum),
the main function of which is to ex])el the water from the
pharynx through the gill-openings.

C. 84. Right half of the head and branchial region of the same
Dog-fish showing the deeper branchial muscles. These

HEAD AND NECK.

107

fall into three groups. 1. Interarcual muscles. 2.
Adductors, serially homologous with the great mandibular
adductor. 3. Ventral longitudinal muscles, these arise from
the coracoid bar as a common mass and are inserted in pairs
into the base of each visceral arch.

Vetter, Jena. Zeitschr., Bd. viii. 1873-74, p. 405.

C. 85. Head of a Haddock {Gadus ceglejinus), showing the super-
ficial muscles of the left side. In this and other bony fish
the muscles of the head are far more numerous and subdivided
than in the Dog-fish, although their phylogenetic origin
from similar simple muscle-sheets can be inferred with some
degree of certainty. The specialization of the muscles is
closely related to the greater number of skeletal parts and
their increased mobility ; it is particularly apparent in the
adductor of the jaw and in the opercular muscles. In all
probability the opercular palatine and hyoid muscles
represent the great superficial constrictor of the Selachian.
Vetter, Jena. Zeitschr., Bd. xii. 1877-78, p. 489.

C. 86. The muscles of the left branchial arches of a Haddock
(Gadus ceylefinus). The muscles are highly specialized and
provide for a great variety of movement, both of the
individual arches and of the branchial skeleton as a whole.
The dorsal muscles in particular, owing no doubt to their
connection with the pharyngeal toothed pad formed by the
hypopharyngeal bones, show a high degree of complexity
and can produce movements in anterior, posterior, dorsal
and lateral directions.

C. 87. Head of a Python {Python sebai), showing the chief
muscles. They fall into three groups. 1. Those concerned
in the movements of the lower jaw, consisting of parieto-
quadrato-mandibularis, analogous in function to the temporal
and masseter of mammals ; occipito-quadrato-mandibularis,
analogous to the depressor maxillae inferioris (digastric);
transverso-maxillo-pterygoideo-mandibularis, analogous to
the external pterygoid; and a curious pair of muscles
(intermaxillares) that pass diagonally across the floor of the
mouth from either mandibular joint to the anterior end of the

108

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERtRS.

opposif,e mandible ; they check excessive divarication of the
mandibular rami. 2. Those concerned with the movement
of the palate— the pterygo-sphenoidalis posterior and anterior
tor the approximation of the posterior and anterior ends
respectively of the pterygoids, and a levator of the pterygoid
(pterygo-parietalis). 8. A retractor of the vomer Tvomer
sphenoideus).

D' Alton, Arch. f. Anat., 1^34, p. 348; Duges, Ann. 8ci.
Nat., t. xii. 1827, p. 337.

C. 88. Head and neck of a Rook {Trypanocom.v fruyilegus), in
which the tongue and pharynx have been displaced to show
the muscles of the jaws and hyoid. Tiiey are few and
simple. The jaw is depressed by a single-bellied muscle,
very similar in its position and general appearance to the'
de]jressor of Ornithorhynchus shown in Xo. ( 9;). It i<
possibly homologous to the posterior belly of the manimalian
depressor. The beak is closed by a double temporalis and
a well-developed pterygoid. The geniohyoid is the most
important muscle connected with the hyoid apparatus, it
passes backwards from the lower jaw and is wound round
the apex of the hyoid cornu — it i)rotrudes the tongue.
Retraction is caused by the styloglossus. 0. C. 04 y //.
Shufeldt, Myology of the Raven, London, 18^0, p. 15.

Presented hy St. George Mivart, Esq.

C. 89. Head and anterior part of the sternum of a Uape Hyrax
{Procavia [Hyra,e\ cape/isis), showing certain muscles of
the neck. From the upper ascending ramus of the jaw on
either side there arises a voluminous muscle, whose fibres
pass downwards and backwards — some of them are inserted
upon the manubrium sterni, but the majority meet those of
the corresi)onding muscle of the opposite side in a median
raphe. The function and homologies of this muscle are
obscure, but it possibly represents a migrated portion
(sterno-maxillary) of the sterno-mastoid, such as occurs in
the Horse and other Ungulates. Its presence gives the
well-known puffy appearance to the neck of the Hvrax.

George, Ann. Sci. Nut., ser. 6, t. i. 1874, p. 102.

HEAP ANP NECK. 109

C. 90. Portion of the liyoid bone o£ a Horse [Eguus caballns),
showino- the hyoideus hitns passing between the posterior
cornu and the ceratohyal on eitlier side, and a mnscuhir
band (hyoideus transversus) that unites the upper ends of
the ceratohyals over the base of the tongue.

Presented hy Prof. MrFadyean,

C. 91. Anterior portion of the lower jaw of a Seal {Plioca vitidina)
showing the muscles of the intermandibular space. The
mylohyoid is divided into two parts. The one situated
25 mm. behind the symphysis passes directly from one
mandible to the other, and has much the characters of the
transversus mandibulre of Rodents. The second portion lies
posterior and slightly dorsal to the first, its fibres pass
obliquely forwards towards the mid-line, and there unite in
a median raphe. The space in front of the mylohyoid is
occupied by the anterior part of the geniohyoid.

C. 92. Hyoidbone and epiglottis of a T>o^ (Canu familians) ,
showing a well developed hyo-epiglottidean muscle. It
arises by a separate head from the lower end of each cerato-
hyal ; both heads pass backwards and upwards, unite, and
are inserted in common upon the anterior surface of the
epiglottis. 0. C. 64 z q. Presented by Prof. McFadyean.

C. 93. Head, thorax, and proximal part of the fore limbs of a
Lemur [Lemur mongoz), showing the superficial muscles on
the left, the deep on the right. The following points may be
noted : —

(On the Left side). The division of the deltoid into three
parts is very distinct The two heads of the biceps are
almost entirely separate, being only slightly joined towards
their distal end. This condition is more usually found in
Galago than in Leinur.— {On the Right side). The cleido-
mastoid is independent of the sterno-mastoid. The omo-
hyoid has no tendinous intersection. The depressor
maxilhe inferioris (digastric) is strongly digastric, a slender
tendon (indicated by black bristles) passes from its inner
border to the mylohyoid.. 0. C. 64 m bf.

Presented by Prof. F. G. Parsons.

Murie & Mivart, Trans, /ool. Soc, vol. vii. 1872, p. 12.

110

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

C. 94. Head of Orang-Ontang {Simia satyrus) with the skin
removed from the left lialf to expose the superficial muscles.
These are well developed upon the face, more especially in
the protuberant mobile lips. They are extremely variable
in the details of their arrangement, and their boundaries are
very indistinct. This group of muscles is derived from the
platysma myoides and sphincter colli, it is su])plied by
the 7th nerve, and can probably with safety be referred to
the hyoid portion of the sujierficial constrictor of the
Selachian. 0. C. 64 M c. Presented hy C. Dent, Esq.

Euge, Untersuchungen iiber die Gesichtsmuskulatur der
Primaten, Leipzig, 1887, p. 2.

Depressor maxillae inferioris (Digastric).

Dobson, Trans. Linn. Soc, vol. ii. 1882, p. 259 ; Parsons,
Jour. Anat. & Physiol., vol. xxxii. 1898, p. 436.

C. 95. Part of the skull of Ornithorhynchus anatinus, showing
the masseter and depressor maxillae inferioris (digastric)
muscles. The depressor rises from the posterior border of
the glenoid cavity and is attached to the ventral surface of
the hinder part of the mandible. It is doubtful whether
this muscle is homologous with the depressor of other
mammals, in spite of its somewhat analogous position and
action.

C. 96. Skull of Potorovs [Ilypstprymnttsi tridactylns, with the
depressor maxillte inferioris (digastric) and mylohyoid
muscles. The depressor is indistinctly digastric, the anterior
and posterior bellies being separated from one another by
a slight constriction and tendinous intersection. A few
tendinous fibres pass from the intersection to the posterior
margin of the mylohyoid. The anterior belly is attached
to the mandible near the symphysis.

C. 97. Head of a young Three-toed Sloth {Bradyjms tridactylvs)'
showing the chief muscles of mastication. The two bellies
of the depressor maxillae inferioris (digastric) are separated

DIGASTRIC.

Ill

by a weak tendinous intersection. The intersections of
opposite sides are united by a subbyoidean tendinous arcade,
wbicb forms a base of origin for the anterior bellies. The
latter occupy the whole of the intermandibular space.

C. 98. Skull of a Mole (Talpa europcea), showing the depressor
maxill?e inferioris (digastiic) muscles. They are of the
monogastric type, interrupted on a level with the angle
of the jaw by an extremely feeble tendinous intersection ;
they arise from the paroccipital region of the skull by a
largej fleshy origin and gradually taper to a fine tendon
attached to the middle of the mandible, and also by a few
fibres to the posterior margin of the mylohyoid.

C. 99. Skull of Galeopithecus volans with depressor maxillae
inferioris (digastric) and mylohyoid muscles. The
depressors are monogastric with a feeble tendinous inter-
section. They are attached to the angles of the jaw. The
anterior part of the mylohyoid is intimately bound to the
geniohyoideus.

C. 100. Occiput and lower jaw of a Hare [Lepns europcieus),
showing the depressor maxillce inferioris (digastric) muscles.

In this family of Rodents the depressor is monogastric,
represented by the anterior belly alone ; the place of the
posterior belly is occupied by a long tendon attached to the
paroccipital process. 0. C. 64 z Z h.

Parsons, Jour. Anat. & Phys., vol. xxxii. 1898, p. 441.

C. 101. Head of a Guinea-pig {Cavia porcellus), showing the mas-
seter and depressor maxillae inferioris (digastric) muscles.
The anterior and posterior bellies of the depressors are
separated from one another by a slightly constricted area
the surface of which is tendinous. The anterior bellies are
attached near the symphysis at either end of the trans-
versus mandibulse. 0. C. 64 z I c.

Parsons, Jour. Anat. & Phys., vol. xxxii. 1898, p. 489.

C. 102. Skull of Dasyprocta ayuti, with depressor maxillfe
inferioris (digastric), mylohyoid, and hyo-epiglottidean

112

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

muscles. Tlio two bellies of the depressor are separated, as
in the Guinea-i)ig, b}' a constri(;tioii and superficial central
tendon. A fine tendon connects the latter with the
posterior margin of tlie mylohyoid. Tiie interinandibular
space close behind the symphysis is occupied by an inde-
pendent portion of the mylohyoid (transversus mandilmhe; :
its contraction divaricates the lower incisors.

C. 103. Head of a Fox-Squirrel {'Sciurus hidoririanii.s), showing,
from the ventral aspect, the depressor maxillae inferioris
(digastric) muscles. They are stronglv digastric ; the
central tendons have an attachment to the hyoid, and by
union with one another in the mid-line form a siib-liyoidean
tendinous arch, from the anterior margin of which the
anterior bellies arise. The latter are closely contiguous and
occupy the median third of the intermandibular space.
They are inserted at the symphysis menti. 0. C. 64 z I a.
Parsons, Jour. Anat. & Phys., vol. xxxii. 1898, p. 438.

C. 104. Part of the skull and hyoid bone of a Colt {Eqiui.i
cahallus) showing the depressor maxilla? inferioris (digas-
tric) and stylohyoid muscles. The depressor is strongly
digastric ; its long central tendon perforates the tendon of
attachment of the stylohyoid. A large part of its posterior
belly is attached directly to the inner surface of the angle
of the mandible. The stylohyoid is divided into two
portions by the posterior process of the stylohyal. The
proximal part (mastoideo-styloideus) — regarded by some
as part of the depressor — passes from the paroccipital
process to the stylohyal. The distal part rises by a slender
tendon from the outer surface of the posterior process of
the stylohyal. Presented by Prof. McFadyean.

C. 105. Occiput, hyoid, and lower jaw of a Sheep {Ovis avies),
showing the depressor maxilla? inferioris (digastric), stylo-
hyoid, mylohyoid, and hyo-epiglottidean muscles. The
depressor is a strongly digastric muscle with its anterior
belly attached far back upon the inner surface of the
mandible and partly also into the rajdohyoid. The mas-
toideo-styloideus is fan-shaped ; the stylohyoideus rises

DIGASTRIC.

113

from the apex of the posterior process of the stylohyal ; it
runs over the outer surface of the depressor and is attached
to the body of the hyoid.

C. 106. Occiput and hyoid bone of a Calf (Bos taurus), showing
the depressor maxillae inferioris (digastric) and stylohyoid
muscles. The mastoideo-styloideus portion of the stylohyoid
is more developed than in the Sheep and extends for a
considerable way down the inner surface of the stylohyal.

C. 107. Skull of a foetal Seal (Phoca viiulina), showing the
monogastric depressor maxillae infeiioris (digastric). The
anterior part of the left depressor shows signs of longi-
tudinal division. There is no tendinous intersection.
Miller, Challenger Reports (Zool.), vol. xxvi. 1888, p. 215.

C. 108. Head of a young Otter {Lutra lutra) with mastoideo-
styloideus, styloglossus, and parts of the depressor maxillae
inferioris muscles. The depressor (most of which has been
removed) is monogastric. The stylohyoid is represented
by its mastoideo-styloidean portion only.

C. 109. Lower jaw of a Dog [Canis familiaris) , showing the
depressor maxilla3 inferioris (digastric), mylohyoid, and
stylohyoid muscles. The depressor is of the monogastric
type, but sometimes — as in this specimen — shows a very
delicate tendinous intersection on a level with the angle of
the jaw. It Ls attiiched to the mandible near its middle.
The stylohyoid muscles are very slender, that on the right
sends a slip to the depressor, while the main part of the
muscle vanishes before reaching the hyoid.

Presented by Prof. McFadyean,
Ellenberger & Baum, Anat. des Hundes, Berlin, 1891,
p. 131.

C. 110. Occiput and lower jaw of a Crested Baboon {Cynoioithe-
cus niger), dissected to show the depressor maxilla3 inferioris
(digastric) muscles. The po.sterior belly on each side
terminates anteriorly in ii long central tendon, which unites
with its fellow of the opposite side to form a tendinous

114 PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

subhyoid arch. The anterior bellies arise from the anterior
margin of the arch and radiate from it as a single sheet to
the mandibles. 0. C. 64 M & c.

Parsons, Jour. Anat. & Phys., vol. xxxii. 1898, p. 438.

C. 111. Left half of the head of an Orang-Outang {Simia saty-
rus), seen from the basal aspect. The depressor maxillae
inferioris (digastric) is represented only by the posterior
belly. It is inserted by tendon upon the inner surface of
the angle of the jaw. In many individuals traces of the
anterior belly have been observed. 0. C. 64 M c a.

C. 112. Depressor maxillse inferioris (digastric) muscles of a
Chimpanzee {Antliropopitliecus troglodytes). The general
arrangement is very similar to Cynopithecus (C. 110).
The central tendon perforates the tendon of attachment
of the stylohyoid. 0. C. 64 M c b.

Trunk.

C. 113. Transverse section through the caudal region of a Dog-
fish (^Scyllium catulus). In consequence of the complicated
course and shape of each myotome, a large number of
them are cut through in a single section. The concentric
rings upon the section surface are the result of a series
of hollow conical projections from the anterior face of each
myotome, lying one within another and separated from
each other by the intermuscular septa of fibrous tissue.
O.C. 63 b.

C, 114. Part of the vertebral column of a Mackerel (Scomber
scomber), with a single myotome attached to the left side.
The fibres of the myotome run longitudinally, attached by
either end to a fibrous intermuscular septum that traverses
the body in a dorso-ventral direction and is attached to
vertebral column and superficial trunk-fascia in the form of
a W with the base directed backwards. The median part
of the myotome (i. e. the middle bend of the W) is pro-
longed forwards, above and below the mid-lateral line to

TRUNK.

115

form a pair of hollow cones, which fit accurately into the
cavity of the two similar coues of the myotome in front and
are themselves filled by those of the myotome behind.
Between and superficial to the bases of the cones there is a
wedge of soft muscle of a dark reddish-brown colour.
0. 0. D a.

C. 115. Transverse section through the body of a Mackerel
{Scomber scomber), showing the concentric rings due to
the section of muscle-cones of successive myotomes and the
division of the trunk-muscles into dorsal and ventral
columns by a longitudinal lateral septum. The brown
superficial lateral muscle in this specimen has assumed a
lighter tone than the general trunk-muscles. The pattern
formed by the cut edges of the intermuscular septa is here
far simpler than in the Dog-fish, and indicates a less com-
plicated form of myotome. 0. C. 63 D h.

C. 116. A portion of the trunk of a Python [Python sebce),
dissected from the left side to show the musculature external
to the ribs. A lateral cutaneous muscle (cutaneusexternus),
composed of numerous ribbon-like strands, arises high up on
each rib and passes downwards and backwards to the skin.
It is opposed by the cutaneus internus, arising in separate
fasciculi from the point of each rib and passing forwards to
the ventral parts of the skin. On either side of the back
there is a large composite mass of muscle, which forms a
specially strong and important feature in the muscular
system of the constricting serpents, its chief components
are the capito-vertebralis and the retractor cost£e biceps.
Beneath the strands of the cutaneus externus lies a sheet
of muscle composed of intercostal es superiores and inferiores,
posteriorly they have been separated to show their attach-
ments. Each fasciculus of these muscles passes over from
12-10 ribs between its origin and insertion. In the lower
part of the specimen the intcrcostales proprii are visible,
passing from rib to rib. 0. C. 63 I.
D' Alton, Arch. f. Anat. 1834, p. 432.

I2

116

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

C. 117. The right half of a portion of the trunk of a Python
{PytJwn sehcn) seen from within; to show the internal
rib-muscles.

Dorsal to the origin of the abdominal muscles, there
are two costal retractors ; of these two the internal (M.
costo-vertebralis superior) is the most strongly developed!
Its fasciculi arise from the hypapophyses of the vertebra,
and passing forward over 6 ribs are inserted in the seventh.
The last three ribs in this specimen have been stripped,
leaving only the costo-vertebralis inferior at their base ;
this is a small muscle for the protraction of the ribs
O.C. 63l.

C. 118. Ventral body-wall and ends of the ribs of a Python
(P . sehce) seen from above, showing the abdominal and lower
internal costal muscles.

The abdominal muscle (composed of two sheets inti-
mately connected together) arises from the middle of each
rib and passes diagonally across the body direct to the
ventral middle line, where it is inserted in a strong apo-
neurosis. It tends to flatten the body during locomotion.
The left half of this muscle has been retained, the right cut
away, to show the ventral shield muscles and the cutaneus
internus passing forward from the ribs to the skin. Two
internal costal retractor muscles are shown on the right
side^ the one (retrahens costarum brevis) takes a longi-
tudinal course between the points of the ribs ; the other
(retrahens costarum longus) arises beneath the origin of
the abdominal muscle and is inserted on the 5th rib in front,
6 mm. from the point. 0. C. 63. K.

C. 119. Transverse section through the body of a Python [Python
sehce), showing the position and double nature of the
abdominal muscle-sheet. 0. C. 63 n.

C. 120. A portion of the ventral body-wall of a Python (P. sehce)
seen from above, showing the ventral shield muscles. The
most conspicuous cf these are the interscutales majores.
They take their origin from the middle of the antei'ior edge
of the ventral shields and pass outwards and backwards to

FORE-LIMB.

117

their insertion on the side scales 2 or 3 rows behind ; they
tend to erect the free edge of the ventral shields.

Superficial to these muscles lie a series of more or less
longitudinal muscles passing from shield to shield, they drag
the scales individually forward, sliding one over the other.
This action brings the free edges of the shields flat against
the body. 0. C. 63 m.

C. 121. Posterior extremity of the tail of a Spider Monkey
(Ateles sp.). The skin has been removed from the dorsal
surface to show the mode of attachment of the tendons to
the ventral skin. 0. C. 64 M 5 6.

Fore-limb.

C. 122. Right pectoral fin of a Dog-fish {Scyllium catulus).
Several fairly disiinct off-shoots from the trunk-muscles
enter into direct relations with the shoulder-girdle and fore-
shadow the trapezius, latissimus dorsi, and pectoral muscles
of higher veteb rates. The limb-muscles are in the form of
simple dorsal and ventral sheets, separable towards the base
of the fin into superficial and deep layers, both are inserted
into the horny fin-rays. The transition from trunk- to
limb-muscles is well shown.

Humphry, Jour. Anat. & Physiol., vol. vi. 1872, p. 271.

C. 123. Longitudinal section through the left pectoral fin of a
Dog-fish {Scyllium catulus), showing the arrangement of
deep (basio-radial) and superficial layers of muscle on either
surface of the fin.

C. 124. Eight pectoral fin of a Sea-Cat {Chimara monstrosa).
The muscles in connection with the shoulder-girdle are more
numerous and show greater individuality than in the Dog-
fish. Those proper to the fin are still comparatively simple —
the superficial and deep layers being clearly defined only
on the ventral aspect. Upon the dorsal surface the general
muscle-mass, owing to the normally rotated position of the
fin, is so folded upon itself that its posterior part runs diagon-
ally from the base of the scapula to the posterior margin of

118

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

the fin, and is thus able to produce the rotary movements
so important in swimming. The fin as a whole can be
protracted and retracted by the latero-scapularis and coraco-
basalis.

C. 125. Right pectoral fin of a Cod [Gadus morrhua), showing
the muscles. Deep and superficial layers can be recognized
on both surfaces of the fin, in the form of well-defined
muscles which cross one another at an acute angle. A
small muscle (dilator) is situated along the anterior border
of the fin and inserted on the base of the anterior fin-ray.

C. 126. Right pectoral fin of Periophthalmus koelreuteri. The
muscles upon the dorsal (inner) surface of the fin are
greatly developed, probably in connection with the land-
walking habits of the fish— and extend for a considerable
distance down the fin-rays.

Hammerle, Bericht. d. Naturforsch. Gesell. Freiburcr,
Bd. X. 1897, p. 20.

C. 127. Fore limbs of a Hell-bender {CryptohrancJius alleglian-
iensis), showing in the upper specimen the superficial, and
in the lower the deep muscles. As in other Urodeles the
limb movements are of a very generalized nature without
any great precision. The muscles are accordingly simple
in their arrangement and mostly have the form of broad
sheets. The coraco- brachial muscles are strongly de-
veloped, as in the Reptiles, but as yet there is no repre-
sentative of the biceps unless perhaps the coraco-radialis
proprius may be so regarded. The dorso-humeralis gives
origin to a very large and extensive dorso-epitrochlearis
(anconeus scapulae medius), and is itself in part continued
to the humerus upon the outer surface of the arm — a
course that suggests the condition of the latero-scapularis
in the Dog-fish. The superficial extensor and flexor
sheets of the fore-arm are each divided into three seg-
ments. The median of these is attached to the fingers,
and the lateral to the radius and ulna respectively. The
deep layer is chiefly confined to the hand and distal part
of the fore-arm. The following is a list of the muscles,

FOUE-LIMB.

119

indicated by numbers and capital letters. 1. Capiti dorso-
scapiilaris. 2. Basi-scapularis. 3. Thoraci-scapularis.
4. Pectori scapiilaris internus. 5. Pectoralis. 6. Supra-
coracoidens, similar to the supracoracoidens of Reptiles,
Birds, and Monotremes. 7. Goraco-bracbialis longus.
7^. Coraco-brachitais brevis. Attached to tbe inner
border of tbe coraco-bracbialis longus is a fine tendon —
coraco-radialis proprius— which is considered by some to
represent tbe biceps, but is more likely a purely Amphibian
muscle. 8. Humero-antebrachialis inferior. 9. Pro-
coraco-humeralis. 10. Dorso-humeralis. 11. Dorsalis
scapulse. 12. Anconeus. A. Humero-radialis volaris.
B. Humero-phalangei volares li-v. C. Humero-ulnaris
volaris. The distal fibres of this muscle are continued along
the border of the little finger and form an abductor minimi
digiti (humero-metacarpus v. dig. volaris). D. Ulnari-
metacarpi volares. E. Humero-radialis dorsalis. F. Hu-
mero-digiti li-v. dorsalis. G. Humero-ulnaris dorsalis.
H. Ulnari-phalanx ii: dorsalis. I. Carpo-phalangei. Be-
tween the toes are well-developed interossei.
Mivart, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1869, p. 264.

C. 128. Left fore-limb of a Bull-Frog {Rana catesUana), showing
that the tendon of the anconeus is thickened as it passes
over the elbow-joint ; that it plays on a convexity at the
lower and back part of the humerus, and acts as a substitute
for the olecranon. O.C. 276 b.

C. 129. Left fore-limb of a Surinam Toad {Pipa americana),
showing a sesamoid bone interposed like a patella between
the tendon of the anconeus and the elbow-joint. 0. C.
276 c.

C. 130. Left fore-limb of a Lizard {Varanus salvator), showing
the superficial muscles. The muscles, as might be expected
from the active and accurate movements of the limbs, are
far more numerous and specialized than in the Urodele ;
they are in most cases powerful, but show no special con-
centration of strength in any particular region of the limb.
The following may bo noted :— The supracoracoidens ; a

120

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

nmscle that in the ascending series is last met with in
the Monotremes (see No. G. 139). Coraco-antebrachialis
(biceps) : both heads rise from the coracoid and unite near
their insertion ; the outer one is digastric, with a central
tendon where the muscle crosses the shoulder-joint ; the
muscle is inserted, as in many lower mammals, into both'ulna
and radius. The coraco-brachialis : divided into two parts,
both of great size. The humero-antebrachialis inferior
unites with the coraco-antebrachialis before its insertion.
The anconeus rises by four heads, respectively scapular,
coracoidal, and humeral (two) in their origin ; the coracoid
head is to a large extent represented by tendon. The
carpo-digitalis ventralis brevis (flexor sublimis digitorum)
is entirely confined to the hand and takes origin from the
annular ligament. The teres major is absent. 0. C. 64 y t.

C. 131. Right fore-limb of a Lizard ( Varanus salvator), showing
the deeper muscles. An accessory pronator (ulno-carpaHs*)
is present, crossing the arm from the inner and anterior
surface of the internal condyle to the radius above the
insertion of the epitrochleo-radialis (pronator teres) ; it
probably forms part of the uhio-radialis (pronator quad-
ratus). 0. C. 64 YM.

Fiirbringer, Morph. Jahrb., Bd. i. 1876, p. 688 ; Mivart,
Proc. Zool. Soc. 1867, p. 775.

C. 132. The nerves and superficial muscles of the right fore-limb
of a Crocodile {Crocodilus acutus). While the musculature
in general is weaker than that of the Lizard, there is a
marked preponderance in strength of the muscles of the
shoulder and upper arm over those of the fore-arm.
The muscles most developed are those concerned in the
dorso-ventral movements of the shoulder (dorsalis scapulae
[deltoid] and pectoralis) and in the extension of the elbow
(anconeus), movements of considerable importance to the
Crocodile in balancing and steering through the water.
The following comparisons may be made with Varanus : —
The dorsalis scapulae (deltoid) is double. The coraco-
antebrachialis (biceps) has only one head. The coraco-
brachialis longus is absent. Between the humero-ante-

rORE-LIMB.

121

bracliialis inferior (bracliialis aniicus) and outer humeral
head of the anconeus is a muocle (humoro-radialis) that
passes from the kiteral tubercle of the humerus to the
radius ; it probably represents part of the deltoid. The
humero-radialis lateralis (flexor carpi ulnaris) is single.
The carpo-digi talis ventralis brevis is confined to the hand.
O.C. 63 E.

C. 133. The nerves and deep muscles of the left fore-limb of a
Crocodile {Crocodilus acutus). There is no ulno-carpalis
(accessory pronator). The teres major is well developed.
0. C. 63 F.

Furbringer, Morph. Jahrb., Bd. i. 1876^ p. 767.

C. 134. Part of the sternum, shoulder-girdle, and left wing of a
King Vulture {Cathartes papa), showing the muscles. The
pectoralis is separable into two distinct portions. The
larger of the two (mostly removed in the specimen) is
superficial in position ; it rises from the posterior part of
the body of the sternum, the border of the sternal keel, and
the clavicle, and is attached to the radial crest of the
humerus. The second part (which has been slightly raised
to show the supracoracoideus beneath it) rises from the
sternal keel and clavicle beneath the first, its fibres rapidly
converge to a narrow flat tendon which is attached to the
humerus distal to the first part. The pars extensor secund-
ariorum of the metapatagealis is well marked : this muscle,
situated beneath the skin of the elbow, spreads the proximal
secondaries ; it is remarkable for the length and delicacy
of its tendon of origin. The deltoid extends little more
than halfway down the humerus. 0. C. 64 Y h.

C. 135. Right wing and half the trunk of a Rook {Trypanocorax
frugilegus), showing the muscles. During flight the wing
is mainly moved as a whole from the shoulder ; its primary
movements are depression and elevation, constituting re-
spectively the essential parts of the stroke and recovery.
The down stroke is produced by the pectoralis major, a
muscle that occupies the greater part of the cavity between
the surface and keel of the sternum ; elevation is due to a

122

PHYSIOLOGICAL SRRIES.

smaller muscle (supracoracoideus) that arises from the
sternum beneath the pectoralis major, passes as a tendon
over the point of the shoulder to its dorsal surface in a
canal formed by the union of the three bones of the
shoulder-girdle, and is finally attached to the humerus
proximal to the radial crest. The recovery is also probably
to a great extent assisted by the pressure of air due to the
momentum of the bird. During the down stroke the wing
is usually fully extended, but in the recovery the wrist and
elbow are flexed, the patagium at the same time being
contracted by the propatagealis and a system of elastic
ligaments in connection with it. The wing is also capable
of extensive rotation at the shoulder, whereby the angle
made by its surface to the horizon can be adapted with
great nicety to the most varying conditions. The tendons
of the fore-arm and hand are remarkably long and slender,
while all the heavier and more important muscles are con-
centrated upon the body or near the shoulder. By this
means the wing is rendered light and manageable, and at
the same time the centre of gravity of the bird is lowered.
Note should be taken of the muscles of the hand, which
are quite rudimentary, and of the propatagealis muscles.
The latter are represented b}^ two muscular slips that rise
together from the dorsal end of the clavicle and are inserted
by long tendons into the wrist, extensor metacarpi ulnaris,
and the surface of the patagium ; the tendon of the anterior
of the two muscles consists mainly of elastic tissue. Some-
what analogous patagial muscles are found in certain flying
mammals. 0. C. 64 y o.

Presented hy St. George Mivart, Esq.
Shufeldt, Myology of the Raven (London, 1890), p. 66.

C. 136. Right wing of a Rook [Trypanocorax frvgilegus), s\\o\\'mg
the deep muscles. Attention is drawn to the following : —
The biceps, a single muscle, rising by two tendinous heads
from the coracoid and humerus respectively ; it is inserted
on the ulna. The deltoid is double and attached to the
outer surface of the humerus as far as the external condyle.
The entepicondylo-radiales : two powerful pronators of
the fore-arm. The supinator (ectepicondylo-radialis) is

TTORE-LIMB,

123

weak. The extensor metacarpi vadialis is so attached to
the humerus and base of the thumb that upon extension
of the elbow it is tightened, and is capable, without
any contraction of its own, of fully extending the hand.
0. C. 64 Yjo. Presented ly St. George Mivart, Esq.

C. 137. Eight shoulder of a Rook ( Trypanocorax frugilegus),
showing in njore detail than in the previous specimens the
levator (supracoracoideus) and rotator muscles of the
humerus. A green rod has been placed beneath the supra-
coracoideus to show its tendon entering the canal between
the bones of the shoulder-girdle. The distal part of its tendon
can be seen below the deltoideus minor. 0. 0. 64 Y q.

Presented hy St. George Mivart, Esq.

C. 138. Eight wing of a Wild Duck {Anas hoscas) from which
the skin of the ventral surface has been removed to show
two elastic ligaments. The most important of these
(indicated by black paper) is situated along the free border
of the propatagium, and represents in a modified form the
tendon of the propatagealis muscle. The elastic tissue
appeai-s abruptly in the tendon 10 mm. from the muscle, and
is attached partly to the distal end of the radius, partly by
means of a long inelastic tendon to the base of the thumb.
In action it tends to flex the elbow during the recovery, and
at the same time tightens the patagium. The other elastic
ligament runs along the iilnar margin of the wing and is
attached to the quill of each of the remiges; at the elbow it
passes into a diffuse layer of subdermal elastic tissue con-
nected with the metapatagealis muscle. In this hgament
the elastic tissue is mainly present between the feathers,
which are by its means drawn together when the arm is
flexed.

Fiirbringer, Anatomic der Vogeln, 1888, p, 583.

C. 139. Eight fore-limb of a Spiny Anteater {Tacliyglossus
[ Echidna'] aculeata), showing the superficial muscles. This
limb, both in its musculature and general features, affords an
excellent example of the peculiarities associated with digging
habits. It is remarkably short and thick-set, and^ while all

124

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

the muscles are ^velI developed, those brought into play
during the backward scratching movements (latissimus
dorsi, extensor antebrachii, flexor digitorum) are exception-
ally powerful. Apart from the intrinsic strength of these
muscles, the efficiency of the latissimus dorsi is largely
increased by its direct insertion upon the internal condyle
of the humerus. The large size of the pronator teres, in
comparison with the supinators, may perhaps be accounted
for by another digging movement, ?. e. the turning out-
wards of the palm of the hand to throw the dirt clear of
the body. Besides these features connected specially with
the action of the limb, the following muscles are of great
interest owing to their strongly reptilian characters :— The
supracoracoideus (found among mammals only in the
Monotremes). The biceps with no scapular origin. The
coraco-brachialis longus and brevis, two large muscles with
striking reptilian features {No. C. 130). The extensor
carpi radialis longior inserted upon the scapho-lunar (the
usual reptilian insertion). Attention is also drawn to the
following peculiarities :— The latissimus dorsi is double, one
head originating from the dorsal vertebrae (cut short in the
specimen), the other from the posterior angle of the sca-
pula. Owing to the outward rotation of the anterior border
of the scapula, the origin of the supraspinatus has been
shifted to its ventral surface and that of the subscapularis
to the dorsal. There is a distinct epicoraco-brachialis.
The flexor digitorum (probably answering to both flexor
subhmis and profundus) forms a single fleshy mass from
which at the wrist five stout tendons are given off" to the
fingers. The palmaris longus is absent. 0. C. 64 z.

C. 140. The deep muscles of the left fore-limb of a Spiny Ant-
eater ( Tacliyglossus [EcJiidnd] acxdeata). 0. C. 64 z a.
Westling, Bihang Svenska Vet.-Akad. Haudlingar,
Stockholm, Bd. xv. 1889, p. 12.

C. 141. The right fore-limb of a Duck-billed Platypus (Ornitho-
rhynclms anaiinus), showing more especially the muscles
of the fore-arm and hand. In the main they agree with
those of Ecliidna. The insertion of the pronator teres is,
however, to the middle of the radius, and there is a distinct

FORE-LIMB.

125

though small flexor sublimis. It is confined entirely to the
hand, as in reptiles, and consists of four small bellies that
rise at the level of the wrist from the common deep flexor
tendon, and are inserted lower down into the sheaths of the
four inner deep tendons.

Coues, Commun. Essex Inst., vol. vi. 1871, p. 151.

C. 142. Superficial muscles of the right fore-limb of a Wallaby
{Macropus ruficollis) . The musculatiire, in conformity with
the somewhat rudimentary nature of the limb, is of a very
feeble description, especially in the fore-arm and hand.
The most powerful group of muscles are the extensors of
the elbow. The following features are of interest : — The
deltoid is single. There is a very strong connection
(" achselbogen ") between the latissimus dorsi and pecto-
ralis, indicating the original continuity of these muscles
(see No. 0. 122). The coraco-brachialis brevis, as in all
Kangaroos, is alone present. The biceps originates by a
single head from the coracoid^ passes superficial to the
shoulder-joint, and divides during the latter part of its
course into two distinct bellies, attached respectively to
ulna and radius. The supinator longus is attached to the
carpus. 0. C. 64 z d.

C. 143. Left fore-limb of a Wallaby (Macropus ruficollis) showing
the deeper muscles. The flexor sublimis rises about the
middle of the forearm from the surface of the flexor pro-
fundus. O.C. 64ze.

Parsons, Jour. Anat. & Physiol., vol. xxxii. 1898, p. 125.

C. 144. Left fore-limb of a Koala (Phascolarctus cinereus), show-
ing the coraco-brachialis, brachialis internus, and biceps
muscles. All three varieties (longus, medius, and brevis) of
the coraco-brachialis are present. The insertion of the
medius and longus occupies the entire distal half of the
inner side of the humei'us. The coraco-radial and gleno-
ulnar portions of the biceps, as in many Marsupials,
are quite separate from one another ; the tendon of the
long head lies outside the capsule of the shoulder-joint.
0. C. 64 z ^ a. Presented by Prof. G. B. Howes,

126

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

C. 145. Muscles and nerves of the right fore-limb of a Great
Anteater {Myrmecophaga Juhata). The limb is mainly
used for digging, and is remarkable for the great size
and strength of the extensors of the elbow and of the flexor
digitorum. The latter muscle, in particular, is enormous
ajid nearly equals in bulk all the rest of the fore-arm
muscles put together. It will be noticed that there is no
indication of specially powerful movements of the shoulder
such as are found in Echidna (No. 0. 139), and probably a
larger share of the work is done by the flexion of the fingers.
The following peculiarities should be noted : — The extensor
antebrachii is assisted in its action by a very powerful
dorso-epitrochlearis on the inner side of the arm. The
subscapularis is intersected by ten tendinous planes, and is
perforated by the short head of the biceps (in the Sloth
the subscapularis is completely double.) The biceps is
inserted both into the radius and (in conjunction with
the brachialis internus) into the ulna. The epitrochleo-
anconeus, as in most other Edentates, is remarkably power-
ful. The supinator longus is divided into two parts, one
of which has the usual characters, the other is inserted into
the fascia coveiing the flexor surface of the fore-arm.
The extensor carpi radialis longus is absent. The flexor
carpi ulnaris is double. 0. C. 64 z ^ c.

Pouchet, Memoires sur le Grand Fourmilier, 1867, p. 5 ;
Windle & Parsons, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1899, p. 314.

C. 146. The right fore-limb of a Three-toed Sloth {Bradypus
tridadylns), showing the muscles. In this Edentate, which
spends its life suspended by its hook-like claws from the
branches of trees, the extensor muscles are feebly de-
veloped throughout the arm, but the pectoral muscles and
flexors are very powerful. The biceps is remarkable.
It coiLsists o£ three parts :—(l) Along ribbon-like strip
arising from the region of the coracoid in close connection
with the deltoid and inserted partly into biceps in. and
partly into the fascia on the flexor surface of the fore arm ;
it passes superficial to the pectoralis major. (2) The long
head arises by tendon from the base of the coracoid, per-
forates the origin of biceps Ui., and is inserted ijjto the

FORE-LIMB.

127

ixlna. (3) The short head arises from tlie humerus on a
level with the pectoralis insertion, and is inserted on the
radius. The flexion of the elbow is probably to a great
extent helped by the supinator longus and pronator teres.
The former muscle is in two parts, and arises from the
whole length of the humerus distal to the deltoid. The
flexor digitorum has a common belly which gives off a
powerful tendon to each of the digits.

Windle & Parsons, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1899, p. 314.

C. 147. Muscles of the left fore-limb of a Manatee {TricJiechus
manatus). Locomotion is entirely due to the powerful
spatulate tail, the fore-limbs being mainly used for balan-
cing and steering, and also to a limited extent for clasping
the seaweed when browsing. The muscles, besides showing
many peculiarities in detail, are remarkable for the great
development of those connected with the fingers. In con-
sequence the hand has greater freedom of movement than
its external appearance would suggest, and affords in this
particular a striking contrast to the flipper of the Cetacea.
The following muscles should be noticed : — The cephalo-
humeral (cleido-occipitalis) , originating from the occiput
and inserted on the humerus between the deltoid and
pectoralis major (its insertion only is shown). The biceps
is in a much reduced condition ; it consists of two separate
heads — one of fair size rising from the coracoid and inserted
halfway down the inner side of the humerus, and a smaller
long head rising from the glenoid border and inserted
partly upon the humerus near the short-head insertion, and
partly by a fine tendon upon the radiu?. The brachialis
internus is of great size, and seems to have more or less
usurped the function of the biceps. The tendons of the
extensor digitorum communis branch out at the wrist at a
wide angle, and when in action would strongly adduct
the digits. The supinator longus is attached to the carpus
(a common insertion among Marsupials). Only one ex-
tensor carpi radialis is present. The pronator teres is fused
with the flexor carpi radialis. This composite muscle and
the flexor sublimis pass very obliquely across the fore-
arm, and doubtless have a strong pronating action. Tho

123

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

triangular space between tlie ulna and the outer side of the
little finger is occupied by a large muscular sheet (flexor
carpi ulnaris ?) which forms a powerful abductor minimi
digiti. The interossei are remarkably developed. The
following muscles are absent : teres minor, coraco-brachialis,
supinator brevis. 0. 0. 281 E.

Presented by the Directors of the Brighton Aquarium.
Murie, Trans. Zool. Soc, vol. viii. 1874, p. 156.

C. 148. Superficial muscles of the right fore-limb of a foetal
African Elephant {Elephas africanus). The muscles are all
of a distinctly massive type, and being for the most part
fleshy close down to their insertions, form a stout supporting
and stiffening investment to the limb-skeleton. A strong
ligamentous band (partly elastic) covers the extensor
lateralis, and elastic tissue is associated with the flexor
carpi radialis. The following special features deserve
notice : — The tendon of the latissimus dorsi is double, and
embraces that of the teres major. The dorso-epitrochlearis
rises to a great extent from the posterior angle of the
scapula. The biceps is represented only by the long head.
The pronator teres is rudimentary. The supinator longus
is attached to the carpus. 0. C. 64 x a.

C. 149. Left fore-limb of a foetal African Elephant {Elephas
africanus), showing the deeper muscles, especially those of
the fore-arm. 0. C. 64 x b.

Miall & Greenwood, Jour. Anat. & Phys., vol. xii. 1878,
p. 264.

C. 150. Two transverse sections through the proximal part of a
muscle (flexor carpi radialis ?) from the fore-limb of an
Indian Elephant (^Elephas indicus), showing a remarkable
development of elastic tissue in the perimysium. The
elastic tissue forms a stout layer upon the outer surface of
the muscle, occupying a quarter of the circumference and
connected to a variable extent with a series of elastic sheets
and strands that pass between the muscle-bundles. (Fig. 5.)

Presented by Lord George Sanger, Esq^.

FORE-LTMB.

129

C. 151. The remainder of the same muscle. Part of its deep
surface has been dissected away to show the arrangement
of the elastic tissue between the muscle bundles in sheets

Fig. 5.

of variable thickness ; the stoutest of these, in which the
fibres are approximately parallel to the long axis of the
fasciculi, lie in the interspace where several fasciculi meet ;
they are connected by thinner sheets in which the fibres
take a course diagonal to the fasciculi. Towards the
distal end of the muscle the elastic sheets have a more
ribbon-like character and are inserted upon the inner
surface of the tendon. Upon the reverse aspect of the
speciroen the superficial layer of elastic tissue is shown ;
halfway down the muscle it abruptly assumes the struc-
ture of an ordinary tendon. This great development of
elastic tissue in the fjexor of the wrist is doubtless connected
with the weight of the animal, and probably both assists in
the elastic support of the normally over-extended foot and
diminishes the risk of rupture of the muscle or tendon
under the sudden strain thrown upon them during rapid
locomotion. Presented hy Lord George Savger, Esq.

C. 152. Right fore-foot of a Horse (Eguus cahallus), showing
the intrinsic muscles and tendon attachments. Owing to
the excessive reduction in the number of digits, the in-
trinsic muscles are few. Two lumbricals are present (in

K

130

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

the specimen most of the inner one has boen removed),
originating from the sides of the deep flexor tendon and
inserted into the fetlock. The interossei of the splint-
bones are rudimentary and lie between them and the
metacarpal, while the short flexor of iii. dig. has been
transformed into the great posterior suspensory ligament
of the fetlock. 0. C. 284 m.

C, 153. Right fore-limb of a Calf {Bos taurus), showing the
superficial muscles. The reduction in number of the digits
and the acute angles at which the several bones meet indi-
cate that the limb is suitable for rapid movement. The
muscles, with the exception of the extensor antebrachii, are
of slender build, but occasionally {e.g. teres major, brachialis
internus) gain considerable extra power by their insertion
at a distance from the joint. As in the bird's wing (C. 135)
the limb is rendered light and mobile by the concentration
of the weight towards the proximal end, the distal tendons
being of great length. Increased rigidity of the elbow-joint
is gained by the loss of all movements of pronation and
supination ; in consequence, pronators and supinators are
absent. The following details are of special interest : —
The biceps is represented by the long head only, the tendon
of origin lies outside the capsule of the shoulder-joint, its
insertion is upon the radius. The extensor digitorum com-
munis is double ; the tendon of the inner head is attached
to III. dig., that of the outer to lll. dig. and iv. dig.
The extensor carpi ulnaris is fused at its insertion with
the flexor carpi ulnaris. In front of the flexor carpi
radialis there is a fibrous band, which probably represents
the pronator teres. 0. C. 64 x e.

Presented by Colonel Burgess.

C. 154. Left fore-limb of a Calf {Bos taurus), showing the deep
muscles. On the extensor surface a small slip is shown
which, rising from the ulna, passes over the extensor pollicis
and unites with the extensor communis. The flexor pro-
fundus rises by three very distinct heads from the humerus,
olecranon, and radius respectively. There are no lumbricals.
0. C. 64 Presented by Colonel Burgess,

FORE-LIMB.

131

C. 155. Right fore-limb of a Seal {Phoca vitulina), showing the
superficial muscles. The adaptation of the limb to a
swimming life is shown in its musculature by the high
development of the rotator muscles, especially those of
pronation. During the backward stroke the palmar surface
of the hand is turned outwards by the action of the usual
pronator miiscles assisted by some of the flexors (flexor
carpi ulnaris, palmaris longus) which run from the point
of the elbow towards the radial margin of the hand. At
the same time the digits are spread by an abductor minimi
digiti arising from the elbow, and inserted in the subcuta-
neous tissue on the outer side of the little finger. Supina-
tion takes place during the recovery, whereby the narrow
anterior border of the limb is turned to the front and off"ers
the minimum of resistance to the water. In this action the
usual supinators are assisted by the extensor pollicis brevis
and extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis. The following
muscles show exceptional features : — A fasciculus of the
extensor antebrachii (marked * in the specimen) rising
from the vertebral end of the scapula posterior to the spine
and inserted partly into the elbow, partly into the abductor
minimi digiti (it is sometimes called dorso-epitrochlearis,
but this name seems better applicable to a tendinous strand
running from the latissimus dorsi to the internal condyle).
The latissimus dorsi is in two parts — one inserted into the
teres major, the other into the outer bicipital ridge with
the pectoralis major. The extensor digitorum communis is
double.

C. 156. Left fore-limb of a Seal (Phoca vitulina), showing the
deep muscles. There is a small sabscapularis accessorius,
which rises from the posterior border of the scapula near
the glenoid and is inserted into the joint-capsule and upper
part of the humerus.

Miller, Challenger Reports, Zool. vol. xxvi. 1888, p. 142 ;
Lucse, Abhandl. Senckenberg. Naturf. Gresellsch.,
Bd. ix. 1873-75, p. 474.

C. 157. Right humerus and part of the fore-arm of a Dog (Cants
J'amiliaris), showing the brachialis internus. The nmscle is

k2

132

rHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

of large size ; it has a usual but generalized mammalian
origin from the posterior and outer surfaces of the proximal
half of the humerus and winds spirally around that bone.
It joins the tendon of the biceps at its distal end, and is
inserted with it by a bifurcated tendon upon both ulna and
radius. 0. C. 64 z g- a. Presented hy Prof. McFadyean.
Ellenberger & Baum, Anatomic des Hundes (Berlin,
1891), p. 198.

C. 158. Radius and ulna of a Dog ( Canis famiUaris) , with the
rotator muscles. The pronator quadratus is very strongly
developed, and occupies nearly the whole of the interosseous
space. The upper part is possibly a precursor of the deep
portion of the pronator teres. The biceps is attached to
both ulna and radius. Presented hy Prof. McFadyean.

Macalister, Jour. Anat. and Physiol., vol. ii. 1868, p. 8.

C. 159. Left hand and part of the fore-arm of a Spider Monkey
{Ateles sp.). The suppression of the thumb gives rise to a
hook-like prehensile hand somewhat similar to that of the
Sloth, but far more mobile. The tendon of the extensor
metacarpi pollicis is of exceptional strength, and acts upon
the hand, as a whole, through the mediation of the thumb-
rudiment. The other long extensors of the thumb are
absent. The thumb-attachment of the first interosseous
muscle is retained. A blue rod is placed beneath the
tendon of the extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis, and a
green rod between the thumb-rudiment and the index.
0. C. 64m&(i.

Leche, Bronn's Thier-reichs, Bd. vi. (Mammalia), 1897,
p. 843.

C. 160. Left arm of a Baboon { Papio \ Cynoceplialus] bahuin),
showing the chief muscles *. In this ape, which in its
locomotion is to a great extent quadrupedal, the muscles in
general are powerful and, when compared with those of

* In dealing with the Old World Apes great assistance has been derived
from an unpublished work on Catarrhine Myology, kindly lent by the
author, Dr. Arthur Keith.

FORE-LIMB.

133

monkeys whose arms are mainly used for prehension, show a
marked development of the extensor antebrachii group.
The following features are of interest, particularly in their
relation to the Anthropomorpha ; — The latissimus dorsi is
united with the teres major before its insertion. The dorso-
epitrocblearis is large. A coraco-brachialis brevis is present
(a fairly constant muscle in Cyuomorpha, but usually absent
in Anthropomorpha). The three parts of the deltoid are
very distinct, leaving a considerable gap between the
acromial and spinal portions. The epitrochleo-anconeus
is well-developed. Palmaris longus fairly strong. There
is no extensor polHcis brevis. 0. 0. 64 D.

Champneys, Jour. Anat. & Physiol., vol. vi. 1871, p. 178.

C. 161. Right fore-limb of a Crested Baboon {Cynopithecus
niger), showing the dorso-epitrocblearis, coraco-brachialis
(brevis and medius), and bracbialis internus muscles.
O.C. 64m

C. 162. Eight fore-limb o^Mucacus rnaurus showing the muscles.
As a whole they do not display the powerful development
of the Baboon (C. 160), but in their details the two limbs
are closely similar. In addition to the features pointed
out in connection with the Baboon, it may be noted that
the deltoid is not separated into its three divisions and the
pronator teres is inserted somewhat lower down the radius.
Blue rods have been placed beneath the coraco-brachialis
brevis, extensor profundus, and the extensor digitorura
lateraHs. The latter- sends tendons to both iv. dig. and v. dig.
(this is general in Orangs, Gibbons, and Cyuomorpha).
0. C. 64 MCI. Presented hy J. Ahraliams, Esq.

Haughton, Proc. Irish Acad., vol. ix. 1867, p. 283.

C. 163. Right arm and half the chest- wall of a Gibbon (Ilylobates
leucisGus), showing the superficial muscles. In this essen-
tially arboreal anthropoid, the flexors of the elbow greatly
exceed the extensors in size and strength, but the
disproportion is not carried to the fore-arm as in the
Sloth (C. 146). The following details are noteworthy in
comparison with other Anthropoids. The deltoid extends
more than halfway down the humerus. The supinator

134

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

longus is attached very high up on the radius. The
pronator and supinator muscles are weak, as well as all
the muscles belonging to digit v. There is no extensor
pollicis brevis. 0. C. (34 M i.

For the Anthropoids : Hepburn, Jour. Anat. & Physiol.,
vol. xxvi. 1891-92, p. 149.

C. 164. Left arm of a Gibbon {Hylohates leuciscus), showing the
deep muscles. The pectoralis minor is attached to clavicle
and coracoid process. The latissimus dorsi (as in the other
Anthropoids with exception of the Gorilla) is united to the
teres major before its insertion. The dorso-epitrochlearis
is short and broad ; its fibres run diagonally to the inter-
muscular septum, and are attached to it between the
proximal two-thirds. The short head of the biceps arises
from the coracoid, and from nearly the whole length of the
humerus ; most of its fibres join the long head, but those
that rise nearest the elbow run directly to the surface of
the supinator longus. There is a flexor longus pollicis.
0. C. 64Mm.

Keith, Nat. Sci., vol. ix. 1896, p. 373.

C. 165. Right arm of an Orang-Outang {Simia satyrus) and
lower part of the left arm, showing respectively the super-
ficial and deep muscles. The pectoralis major has a slight
origin from the clavicle. The pectoralis minor is attached
to the coracoid and scapular end of the clavicle. The dorso-
epitrochlearis is of medium development. There is no
eoraco-brachialis brevis. The two heads of the biceps
are separate through their whole extent (a fairly common
variation in the Orang) ; both are inserted on the radius ;
there is no fascial insertion. Pronator teres and supinator
longus are both inserted higher up the radius than in Man.
There is no tendon from the flexor profundus to the thumb.
Extensor pollicis brevis is present as a subdivision of the
extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis. The pronator quadratus
is very weak. Extensor lateralis (ext. min, dig.) supplies
iv. dig. & V. dig. 0. C. 64 m cL

Presented by C. Dent, Estj.

C. 166. Distal part of the right arm of an Orang-Outang {Simia
satyrus), in which the deep flexors and lumbricals are more

FORE-LIMB.

135

clearly shown than in the last specimen. Between the
tendons to ill. & iv. there is a fine tendon, inserted partly
into tendons lii. & iv. and partly into the lumbrical.
0. C. 6inda. Presented hy Victor Horsley, Esq.

Keith, Nat. Sci., ix. 1896, p. 317.

C. 167. Eight arm and half the chest- wall of a Gorilla {Anthropo-
pithecus gorilla), showing the superficial muscles. The
pectoralis major has a large clavicular origin ; its two parts
are separated from each other and from the deltoid by
considerable gaps. The epitrochleo-anconeus is fibrous.
The flexor carpi radialis has an extensive origin from tlie
oblique line of the radius. The palmaris longus is absent.
An extensor poUicis brevis is present. 0. C. 64 N a.

C. 168. Deep muscles and arteries of the left arm of a Gorilla
[Anthropopithecus gorilla) . The pectoralis minor is attached
to the coracoid process in common with the short head of the
biceps. The teres major and latissimus dorsi are separately
attached to the humerus. Coraco-brachialis brevis is absent.
The dorso-epitrochlearis is almost rudimentary ; it joins the
extensor antebrachii. The extensores carpi radialis longus
and brevis are separate from their origin. 0. C. 61 N h.
Keith, Nat. Sci., ix. 1896, p. 28.

C. 169. Superficial muscles of the right fore-limb of a Chimpanzee
(Anthropoj)ithecus troglodytes). The three parts of the
deltoid are readily separable from one another. The dorso-
epitrochlearis is tendinous for its distal third and extends
down to the inner condyle. The coraco-brachialis is remark-
able ; it is represented by medius and longus : the longus
arises from the inner surface of the short head of the
biceps, and has a double insertion, (1) by several fibres
into the anterior border of the dorso-epitrochlearis, and
(2) into the inter-muscular septum between brachiahs
internus and extensor antebrachii near the internal condyle.
The supinator longus has a two-fold origin from the outer
side of the humerus ; the two heads unite about the
middle of the fore-arm ; their common tendon is attached
close above the styloid process of the radius. The extensor
carpi uluaris gives off u small slip to the annular ligament.

136

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

The two portions of tlie adductor pollicis (transversns and
obliquus) are entirely distinct.

Presented hy John Marshall, Esq.

C. 170. Left fore-limb of the same Chimpanzee, showing the
nerves and deep muscles. The pectoralis minor is attached
to the head of the humerus. The coraco-brachiahs is
represented by the medius, perforated by the musculo-
cutaneous nerve. The fle.tor carpi radialis has a supple-
men taiy tendon of attachment to the trapezium (indicated
by a black bristle). The radial segment of the flexor pro-
fundus supplies the index and gives off a small muscular
slip and tendon (flexor longus pollicis) to the thumb. The
foui-th lunibrical has a double origin from tendons iv. & x.
of the flexor profundus. Presented by John Marshall, Esq.

C. 171. Left elbow of a Chimpanzee {Anthropopiiliecics troglo-
dytes), showing the supinator brevis. The muscle is broken
up into several laminae, distinguishable mainly from the
different course of their muscle-fibres, and is overlaid by a
remarkable sheet of muscle (indicated by a blue rod) that
rises from the outer side of the humerus close above the
condyle beneath the extensor carpi radialis, and is inserted
into the radius with the distal part of the underlying
supinator brevis.

C. 172. Deep muscles of the left hand and distal part of the arm
of a Chimpanzee {Anthropopithecus troglodytes) . The rudi-
mentary tendon that represents the flexor longus pollicis
rises from the sheath of the flexor profundus tendon ii.
Besides the usual three adductor palmar interossei, there are
also upon this surface of the hand four abductor interossei
attached to the sides of the first phalanges of digits ii., iii.,
IV. (blue rods are placed beneath their tendons). These
muscles are probably not true palmar interossei, but slips
from the dorsal interossei that have migrated to the pahnar
surface. Each of the extensors of the thumb is inserted
one bone above its usual human attachment.

Hepburn, Trans. R. Soc. Edinburgh, vol. xxxviii. 1897,
p. 557 ; Keith, Nat. Sci., vol. ix. 1896, p. 251.

HIND-LIMB,

137

Hind-liml).

C. 173. The muscles of the right pelvic fin of a Dog-fish
(Sct/llium catulus) . The deep and superficial muscle-layers
on hoth surfaces of the fin are inserted into the horny fin-
rays. On the ventral surface they are only recognizable as
distinct layers by the different direction of their fibres.
Those of the superficial sheet rise from the pelvis and
median tendinous septum and run directly to the rays ;
while those of the deeper layer are interrupted in their
course by the basal pterygia. On the dorsal surface the
layers are more distinct; the superficial rises from the
general aponeurotic sheath of the trunk, and runs in well-
defined bundles to the fin-rays (a deeper slip of this muscle
(A) is attached to the base of the clasper) . The deep layer
rises from the basal pterygia.

Davidofif, Morph. Jahrb., Bd. v. 1879, p. 454.

C. 174. Eight pelvic fin of a Sea-Cat {Chimcera monslrosa),
showing the muscles. Upon the ventral surface the layers
are simple in character and not very clearly defined, but
upon the dorsum the superficial sheet shows marked indi-
cations of subdivision into three independent muscles
(superf. A, B, C). The anterior part of superf. A, from
its position, would act as a protractor of the fin.
Davidofi^, Morph. Jahrb., Bd. v. 1879, p. 473.

C. 175. Eight pelvic fin of a Cod {Gadus morrhita), showing
the muscles. The superficial layer (Su) on both surfaces of
the fin is divided into several well marked muscles, which,
according to their position, act as dilators, approximators,
levators, or depresso.-s. The deep layer (Pr) on both
surfaces is simple. All the muscles are attached to the
base of the fin-rays.

C. 176. The hind limbs of a Hell-bender {Cryptohranchus allegJian-
iensis), showing the superficial muscles in the upper speci-
men, the deep muscles in the lower. The arrangement of the
muscles in simple superficial and deep layers is more strongly
marked than in the fore-limb ; it can best be seen in the
muscles on the inner surface of the thigh. The following are
the names of the individual muscles (indicated by numbers

138

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

and capital letters).—!. Pubo-iscliio tibialis : a large sheet
that corresponds to the pubo-ischio-tibialis of the Lizard.
2. Candali pnbo-ischio-tibialis ; where this muscle unites
with the pubo-ischio-tibialis there is a slight tendinous inter-
section ; it has been suggested that this may have some
relation to the intersection seen in the semitendinosus of
Man. 3. Ischio-flexorius. 4. Ischio-caudalis. 5. Pubo-
ischio-femoralis externus. G. Pubo-ischio- femora lis
internus. 7. Caudali femoris. 8. Ilio-extensorins, part i. ;
this muscle expands into a tendinous sheet over the knee,
and is continued as a fine tendon to the distal end
of the tibia between the femoro-tibialis (0) and femoro-
digiti i-v. (D). 8.* llio-extensorius, part ii. 9. ]lio-
femoro-fibularis (iliac head). 9.* Ilio-femoro-fibularis
(femoral head) : these two muscles roughly correspond
to the biceps. 10. llio-femorahs. A. Femoro-fibulse
digiti i-v. : a muscle that possibly represents gastro-
cnemius, soleus, plantaris, and flexor brevis digitorum.
B. Femoro-fibulse metatarsi i., ii., m. c. Femoro-
tibialis. D. Femoro-digiti i-v. E. Fibulae metatarsum ii.
F, Femoro-fibularis. G. Tarsu-digiti I- v.

De Man, Niederl. Arch. f. Zool, Bd. ii, 1874-75, p. 61.

C. 177. Superficial muscles of the right hind-limb of a Lizard
(Varanus sal valor). The simple sheets of muscle seen in
the fish, and to a less extent in the Urodele, are here
broken up into numerous individual muscles, but traces of
their original continuity can be seen in the connexions that
occur, both between laterally contiguous muscles and those
of different segments of the limb. An excellent example
of this continuity is afforded by the gastrocnemius, which
passes over the heel as a flat tendon to form the point of
origin for the short flexors of the foot. The muscles, owing
to their generalized character, cannot be directly compared
with those of mammals, but they show many points of
resemblance to the Bird, the most noteworthy being the
presence of an accessory rectus femoris internus (ambiens),
a purely reptilian and avian muscle usually continued over
the knee to join one of the flexors of the shank, but here
inserted upon the crest of the tibia with the femoro-tibialis.

HIND-LIMB.

139

The following muscles should he noticed : — Puho-ischio-
tibialis, a large powerful muscle prohably answering to the
mammalian gracilis ; it is absent in Chelonians, Crocodiles,
and Birds. The pubi-tibialis, a double muscle, though
single in many Lizards ; it is absent in the Crocodile.
The two peronei are separate ; in many Lizards they form
a single mass. The inner head of the gastrocnemius is
tibial in origiii and double. 0. C. 64 Y v.

C. 178. Left hind-limb of a Lizard (Varanus salvator), showing
the deep muscles. The connection between the flexor
tibialis externus and internus and the second part of the
inner head of the gastrocnemius should be noted ; also
a curious long slender tendon rising from the lower
margin of the caudi-femoralis and inserted upon the
tibia in conjunction with the pubi-tibialis. 0. C. 64 Y w.
Gadow, Morph. Jahrb., Bd. vii. 1882, p. 329.

C. 179. Left hind-limb of a Crocodile {Crocodilus acutus),
showing the nerves and superficial muscles. Several that
in the Monitor are single are here replaced by two, for
instance— ilio-fibularis, caudi-femoralis, ambiens. Several
also are entirely absent, notably the large pubi-ischio-
tibialis. The first part of the ambiens is strikingly bird-like ;
its tendon passes diagonally outwards over the knee and
is inserted into the peroneus posterior. More or less
intimate connections occur between the superficial muscles
in the region of the ankle; thus, the tibialis anticus joins
the extensor longus digitorum, and the peronei unite with
one another and with the gastrocnemius. The great size
of the caudi-femoralis indicates its importance. It seems
to act not only as a retractor of the whole limb, but also to
produce the lateral movements of the tail. 0. C. 63 G.

C. 180. Nervesand deep muscles of the right hind-limb of a Croco-
dile ( Crocodilus acutus) . The flexor tibialis internus is more
complex than in the Monitor : two of its divisions unite in
a common tendon with the flexor tibiahs externus. The
tendon is forked and inserted by one end upon the neck of
the tibia, and by the other, which runs down the leg parallel

140

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

to the inner head of the gastrocnemius, to the plantar fascia.
This hitter tendinous extension seems to represent the
similarly disposed slip of the gastrocnemius of the Monitor.
The long tendon of the caudi-femoralis is inserted into the
outer head of the gastrocnemius. 0. C. (53 h.
Gadow, Morph. Jahrb., Bd. vii. 1882, p. 375.

C. 181. Portions of tendons from an Ostrich (Struthio camelus),
showing two passing through a sheath formed by a third,
which, intervening between them and the centre of motion,
acts as a patella to them. 0. C. 274. Ilunterian.

C. 182. The parts constituting the tarsal joint of an Ostrich.
The flexor tendons of the toes pass through a sheath in
the tendo Achillis, which is considerably thickened at
that part ; and while it securely retains them in their
proper situation, removes them further from the centre
of motion at that joint, and augments the lever of the
moving power. 0. C. 275. Huntetian.

C. 183. The tendons and ligaments of the joints of the toes of
the Ostrich {Struthio camelus). The sheath of the flexor
tendons is of extraordinary thickness behind the metatarso-
phalangeal joint. 0. C. 275 B.

C. 184. A vertical section of the tarso-metatarsal bone and
phalanges of the greater toe of an Ostrich (Struthio camelus) ,
and of their flexor tendons. Each bone has its proper tendon
inserted into it, which forms a sheath for the tendon of the
succeeding phalanx : and on the ])lantar aspect of each
joint is situated a ligamentous substance (analogous to
those in the human linger), forming part of that joint, and
playing on an articular surface in the lower extremity of
the superior bone. These act like patellas, removing the
flexor tendons farther from the centres of motion of their
respective joints, and forming so many elastic cushions
to protect the joints and obviate the effects, by diffusing the
forces, of pressure and percussion. 0. C. 276. Hunterian.

C. 185. Superficial muscles of the right hind limb of a Rook
{Trypanocorax frugilegus). Union between the muscles of

HIND-LIMB.

141

tbo different segments of the limb is not so noticeable
as in Eeptiles. The only connection of the kind which
may perhaps be compared with that between the flexor
tibialis externus and gastrocnemius of Reptiles, occurs
between the tendinous intersection of the caud-ilio-flexorius
and the inner head of the gastrocnemius. The common
gastrocnemius tendon (formed by the union of a tibial and
two femoral heads) is likewise continued over the heel to
the middle of the tarso-metatarsns. Certain muscles of the
i\i{g\i — ambiens (absent in the Rook), ilio-tibialis, the two
portions of the cand-ilio-femoralis, and the two portions of
caud-ilio-flexorius — are noteworthy for the approximately
constant variations they exhibit in difFerent groups of birds.
In a similar Avay the particular mode of arrangement and
connection of the deep plantar tendons has been used for
taxonomic purposes. The heel is capped by a large sesamoid
cartilage, which, as was seen in the previous specimen of
the Ostrich, removes the tendons that pass over it to a
suitable distance from the centre of motion. 0. 0. 64 Y r.

Presented by St. George Mivart, Esq.

186. Right hind-limb of a Rook (Trypanocorax fruyilegm),
showing the deep muscles. The caud-ilio-flexorius is
divided near its insertion into two parts by a tendinous
intersection. The muscle-fibres on the distal side of the
intersection are arranged at an angle to the long axis
of the proximal and larger part of the muscle, and are
attached to the femur close above the condyle. The ilio-
flbularis (biceps), before its insertion upon the fibula,
passes through a pulley-like tendinous loop that stretches
from the external femoral condyle to the origin of the
flexor perforatus iv. By means of this mechanism the
power of flexing the shank upon the thigh is greatly
enhanced. The long flexors of the foot are very much
subdivided. The short extensors are reduced to a curious
little extensor hallucis brevis, which rises from the anterior
surface of the tarso-metatarsus and passes round the outer
surface of the first metatarsus to the dorsal surface of the
backwardly directed hallux. 0. 0. 64 Y s.

Presented by St. George Mivart, Esq.
Shufeldt, Myology of the Raven (London, 1890), p. 155.

142

rHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

The following seven specimens are designed to show the
arrangement of certain thigh-muscles — ambiens, caud-ilio-
femoralis 2 parts (femoro-caudal + accessory femoro-caudal,
Garrod), caud-ilio-flexorius 2 parts (semitendinosus + accessory
pemitendinosiis,6ran'0f?), and ilio-tibialis (tensor fasciae, G^arrot^j,
and the branches of the great sciatic nerve.

Garrod, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1873, p. 626.

C. 187. Thigh with the pelvis and upper part of the shank of a Kiwi
{Apteryx mantelli) (subclass Struthioniformes). In this
bird all the muscles in question are present. The iliac
part of the caud-ilio-femoralis is, however, peculiar, being
perforated by the sciatic nerve — a condition only found in
Struthiones and Crypturi. A blue rod is placed beneath
the portion of the pars ilio-femoralis posterior to the
perforation for the sciatic nerve < a pale blue rod beneath
the pars caudi-femoris ; and black bristles beneath the
tendon of insertion of the arabiens. 0. C. 64 Y h.

C. 188. A similar specimen of the thigh-inuscles of Pau.vi mitu
(suborder Gallinee, order Gallograllae, subclass Galliformes).
In this bird all the muscles are present. The pars caudi-
femoris of the caud-ilio-femoralis is, how^ever, very slender.
O.C. 64 T a.

C. 189. Muscles of the thigh of a Great Bustard [Otis tardci)
(suborder Fulicarise, order Gallograllae). The pars caudi-
femoris of the caud-ilio-femoralis is absent. 0. C. 64 y /.

C. 190. Muscles of the thigh of a Tree- Duck (Dendrocygna
autumnalis) (subclass Anseriformes). The pars accessorius
of the caud-ilio-flexorius is absent. The pars ilio-femoris
of the caud-ilio-femoralis is very strongly developed.
O.C. 64yc.

C. 191. Muscles of the thigh of a Buzzard (Buleo tachardus)
(subclass Falconiformes) . All the muscles in question but
the ambiens and pars caudi-femoris of the caud-ilio-
femoralis are absent. O.C. 64 Y d.

HIND-LIMB.

143

C. 192. Muscles of the thigh of a, King Vulture {Catharten papa)
(order Pseudogryphii, subclass Coraciiformes). Both parts
of the caud-ilio-femoralis are absent. 0. C. 64y </.

C. 193. Muscles of the thigh of a Hornbill [Buceros, sp.) (order
Picarise, subclass Coraciiformes). The ambiens, caud-iHo-
femoralis (pars ilio-fetnoris), and iho-tibialis are absent.
0. C. 64y<'.

The following specimens show certain A^•^r^ations in the
arrangement and mutual connections of the deep plantar tendons
which are approximately constant for different taxonomic
groups of birds.

Garrod, Proc. Zool. Soc. 187.5, p. 330.

C. 194. Right foot of Roller (^Eurystomus pacificus): the tendon
of the flexor longus hallucis unites with that of the flexor
profundus without crossing at the lower end of the tarso-
metatarsus. From the common tendinous expansion
thus formed, individual tendons are given off to the toes.
0.0 64 Y A.

C. 195. Right foot of a Laughing Jackass [Dacelo gigas). The
tendon of the flexor lono-us hallucis fuses near the distal end
of the tarso-metatarsus with the outer side of the flexor
profundus tendon. The flexor profundus gives off tendons
successively from its inner side to i., li., & iii. digits. The
tendon for iv. arises from the point of union of the flexor
longus with the flexor profundus. This arrangement is
probably a modified form of that seen in the previous
specimen. 0. 0. 64 y m.

C. 196. Right foot of a Cuckoo {Cnculus canorus). The flexor
longus tendon crosses superficial to that of the flexor pro-
fundus about the middle of the tarso-metatarsus, and at
this point is attached to it by fibrous bands (vincula). The
tendon of the flexor longus goes to I. ; that of the pro-
fundus to II., III., IV. This arrangement is common to
many four-toed birds. 0. C. 64 Y I.

144

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

C. 197. Right foot 0^ a Hook (Tri/panocorax/7-ufjileffus). The
tendon of the flexor longus crosses superficial to that of the
profundus in the same manner as in the previous specimen,
but is not united to it by a vinculum. It goes to i. The
profundus tendon divides at the base of the toes into three
tendons for ii., III., and iv. digits respectively. This
arrangement is found in most Passerine birds. 0. C.
64 Y i. Presented by P. Sharpe, Esq.

C. 198. Muscles of the left hind-limb of a Duck-billed Platypus
{Ornithorhynchus anatinus). The gluteus maximus (of
which the origin and insertion only have been preserved)
is of great size, and is remarkable for its insertion to the
posterior surface of both bones of the shank close above the
ankle. The gluteus minimus is much fasciculated and is
supplied by both iliac and crural nerves, in this feature
(characteristic of the ilio-femoralis of Reptiles and Urodeies)
the Monotremes differ from all other Mammals. The
gastrocnemius is single — represented only by the inner head;
it is joined in the middle of the shank by the soleus (thought
by some to be the outer gastrocnemial head with a fibular
origin), and the two together form the tendo Achillis. The
flexor fibularis in the absence of the flexor tibialis sends
tendons to each digit. The flexor brevis rises partly from
the common tendon of the fibularis, partly from the cal-
caneum. The first part supplies ii., the calcaneal head iv.
& V. The extensor longus digitorum is double. A green
rod has been placed beneath the tendons of the extensor
longus. A blue rod beneath those of the extensor brevis.
Coues, Communic. Esse^ Instit., vol. vi. 1871, p. 159.

C. 199. Distal part of the left hind-limb of a Duck-billed
Platypus ( Ornithorhynchus anatinus), showing the deeper
muscles. The short extensors rise entirely from the fibula.
They are two in number — i. Extensor brevis v. dig., which
probably also potentially includes the peroneus brevis —
its tendon bifurcates upon the dorsum of metatarsal v. ; one
branch, representing the peroneus brevis, is inserted upon
the apex of metatarsal v., the other upon the phalanges,
ii. Extensor brevis digitorum, rising beneath the preceding

HIND-LIMB.

145

and inserted by a broad tendinous expansion into all the
digits. The pkutaris is small, and rises from the inner
surface of the fibula, it is inserted upon i. The popliteus
(pronator tibiae) rises from the fibular process and is inserted
upon the hinder margin of the tibia.
. Ruge, Morph. Jahrb., Bd. iv. 1878, p. 593.

C. 200. Superficial muscles of the left hind-limb of a Spiny
Anteaier (Tachi/gloss us \_Ecliidna] aculeata) . The limb is
excessively muscular (the creature is said to be able with
ease to push out of its way stones of 30 lb. weight). The
muscles for the retraction of the thigh and flexion of the knee
are the groups most strongly developed. The power of
flexing the knee in particular is increased by the insertion
of the gluteus maximus and biceps in the middle of the
shank. The origin -of the gluteus maximus is restricted to
the posterior sacral and anterior caudal vertebrae — the muscle
is separable into three bundles, two inserted into the fibula,
the third upon the tibia just distal to the gracilis. There
is no tensor fasciae latse. The sartorius rises from the
pectineal process. The extensor muscles of the digits lie in
the same plane and cannot, as in Ornithorhynchus, he
separated into extensores longi and breves. 0. C. 64 z h.

C. 201. Deep muscles of the right hind-limb of a Spiny Anteater
[TacJiyglossus \_Echidna\ aculeata). The rectus femoris
agrees with that of Ornithorhynchus in having only one
head of origin. The plantaris is larger than in Ornitho-
rhynchus but similar in other respects. The peroneus
brevis is absent. 0. 0. 64 zc.

WestUng, Bihang Svenska Vet. - Akad. Handlingar,
Stockholm, Bd. XV. 1889, p. 30.

C. 202. Proximal part of the right hind-limb of a Bennett's
Wallaby [Macropun rnficollis) , showing the superficial
muscles. The thigh muscles are large and powerful,
especially the rectus femoris, vastus externus, femoro-coccy-
geus, and biceps. The latter muscle is closely connected
•with the femoro-coccygeus ; it has an additional head
which rises from some of the anterior caudal vertebrre and

h

146

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

unites with the ischial head and femoro-coccygeus in a
common insertion on the anterior surface of the tibia ex-
tending from the knee nearly to tlie ankle. The sartorius,
as in other Marsupials, runs directly along the anterior
margin of the thigh, and acts as a supplementary extensor
cruris. The tensor fasciae latse is absent. 0. C. 64 z/.
Parsons, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1898, p. 700.

C. 203. Left knee of a Bennett's Wallaby {Macropus ruficollis),
showing the rotator muscles. They consist of a popliteus
and pronator tibiae. The former rises from the femur,
external semilunar cartilage and head of the fibula, and
is inserted upon the posterior surface of the proximal end of
the tibia. The part that rises from the fibula-head forms a
separate slender muscle, parallel to the main portion but
quite distinct from it. The pronator tibiae is confluent with
the popliteus and forms a deeper layer of fibres that pass
directly between tibia and fibula. 0. C. 64 z i.

C. 204. Right hind-foot of a Bennett's Wallaby (Macropus rufi-
collis), showing the long flexor tendons. Owing to the loss
of the 1st and reduction of the 2nd and 3rd digits, the
tendons of the inner side of the foot are rudimentary. The
. tendon of the plantaris passes over the heel and near the
distal end of the metatarsus divides into two, which supply
the 4th and 5th digits. The flexor profundus (represented
by the flex, fibularis alone) sends tendons to all four digits.
Although the hallux has disappeared, the extensor longus
hallucis still exists and sends very fine tendons to diarits
II. & HI. The tendon of the extensor brevis quinti digiti
(peroneus quinti) is as large as that of the peroneus longus.
The peroneus brevis is absent. 0. C. 64 z g.

C. 205. Left hind-foot of Bennett's Wallaby [Afacropns ruficoUis) ,
showing the deep flexor tendons and short flexors of the
foot. 0. 0. 64 z h.

C. 206. Gastrocnemius, soleus, and plantiiris from the right hind-
limb of a Tree-Kangaroo [Dendrulagus benneltianus). The

HIND-LIMB.

147

soleus is attached to the deep surface of the outer half of
the gastrocnemius throughout its entire length. The
plantaris tendon passes from the inner to the plantar
surface of the spirally twisted tendon of the gastrocnemius.
0. C. 64 Z k. Presented hy F. J. Bennett, Esq.

C. 207. The distal portion of the left hind-limb of a Koala
{Phascnlarctus cinereus), showing a powerful pronator
muscle of the shank. It arises from the anterior border o£
the inner side of the head and shaft of the fibula, and passes
diagonally downwards to be inserted upon the posterior
border of the outer side of the tibia. The head of the fibula
articulates with that of the tibia by means of a small facet,
allowing of limited motion in an antero-posterior direction.
The contraction of the muscle produces a movement of
pronation by drawing the fibula obliquely across the tibia.
The muscle is usually regarded as a fusion of the popliteuij
with the pronator tibife. Two of the short extensors
(i. e. IV. & V.) (Peroneus quinti and quarti digiti) rise from
the fibula. 0. C. &izkh.

Presented hy Prof. G. B. Hoioes.
Young, Jour. Anat. & Physiol., vol. xv. 1881, p. 392.

C. 208. Lower part of the right hind-limb of an Armadillo
[Dasypus seiccinctus), showing the peronei muscles. The
peroneus brevis arises from the femur as well as from the
fibula. The p. longus has an additional origin from the
patella. The tendon of the peroneus longus before crossing
the sole in the usual way, has a strong insertion upon the
base of metatarsal v.

Galton, Trans. Linn. Soc, vol. xxvi. 1870^ p. 559.

C. 209. Nerves and superficial muscles of the right hind-limb of
an Anteater (Alyrmecophaga jubata). The muscles of the
thigh, more especially those upon the flexor surface, are
notable for iheir strength, as well as for a marked tendency
to subdivision ; thus, the caudal and ischial heads of the
scmitendinosus are entirely separate, and the semimem-
branosus and gracilis are each represented by two distinct

L z

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

muscles. The biceps has both ischial and femoral heads,
o£ which the latter rises not from the femur but from the
deep surface of the femoro-coccygeus. The tensor fasciae
liitEE, gluteus maximus, and femoro-coccygeus, on the
other hand, are fused into a single sheet. The sartorius
is weak. The muscles of the shank are in comparison
with those of the thigh decidedly feeble. The soleus is
quite distinct from the gastrocnemii, and has a separate
insertion upon the calcaneum. The accessorius, as in
other Anteaters and Sloths, is strongly developed. The
short extensors of all the toes but v. rise from the dorsum
of the foot. O.G. 64:2 k d.

Windle & Pa rsons, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1899, p. 990.

210. Superficial muscles of the right hind-limb of a Three-toed
Sloth (Brady pus tridactylus) . The great strength of flexors
and adductors, in comparison with extensors previously
mentioned in connection with the fore-limb (C. 146), is
equally striking in the hind-limb. This feature is specially
marked in the flexors of the knee-joint. Below the knee
the muscles on either aspect of the limb are fairly equal
in size. The flexors of the knee, apart from their size, owe
some of their power to the degree (especially marked in the
gracilis and biceps) to which their insertions approximate
to the distal ends of tibia and fibula. Mention may be made
of the following muscles: — The gracilis, a remarkably strong
double muscle, its two parts are inserted about the middle
of the tibia and fibula respectively. The biceps cruris
is also double, one portion rising from the tuber ischii,
the other from the outer side of the femur. This
femoral head is again met with in Man and some few
Primates. The semitendinosus and semimembranosus form
a practically continuous sheet. The two heads of the gastro-
cnemius are separate to their common insertion on the heel;
they cross one another in the lower part of their course.
There is no plantaris unless it is represented by the femoral
head of the flexor digitorum. The peroneus longus rises
partly from the outer condyle of the femur in conjunction
with the extensor longus digitorum. The accessorius is
very large.

HIND-LIMB.

149

C. 211. Left hind-limb of Three-toed Shih {Brady pus tridactylus)
showing the deeper muscles. The flexor digitorura (flexor
fibularis) is very large, it rises from the outer side of the
femur above the origin of the gastrocnemius (this part may-
represent the plantaris) , and from a large part of the anterior,
inner, and posterior surfaces of tibia and fibula. The tibialis
anticus has a double origin, from the upper part of the tibia
and from the lower half of the fibula (the second origin
may represent the extensor hallucis). Both portions are
inserted upon the inner margin of the entocuneiform.
This muscle has a powerful supinating action, turning the
foot into its usual climbing position with the sole towards
the mid-line. (See No. B. 187.)

Humphry, Jour. Anat. & Physiol., vol. iv. 1870,
p. 17.

C. 212. Muscles of the lower part of the left hind-limb of a
Two-toed Sloth {Cholcepus didactylus). The two heads of
the gastrocnemius form distinct muscles with separate
insertions on the os calcis ; their tendons are longer than
in Bradypus, and cross one another before reaching the
heel. The tendon of the inner head is enveloped by the
soleus and soleal origin of the accessorius. The tibialis
posticus is double (an Edentate characteristic). A large
part of the tendon of the tibiahs anticus passes round the
inner side of the foot and is attached to the flexor tendons,—
by this palmar extension its rotary action must be con-
siderably increased, and at the same time additional power
of flexion given to the toes.

Humphry, Jour. Anat. & Physiol., vol. iv. 1870,

p. 17.

C. 213. Eight hind-foot of TvfO-toed Sloth {Cholcepus didactylus)
showing the muscle insertions. The attachment of the
tibialis anticus to the flexor tendons and accessorius is
very clearly seen. The flexor tendons show a curious
bipenniform striation in their digital part.

C. 214. Distal part of the right hind-limb of a Guinea-pig
{Cavia porcellus), showing the double origin of the tibiahs

150

PHYSTOLOCIICAL SERIES.

anticus. One head, the largest, rises as usual from the
front of the tibia ; the other (indicated by black paper)
hy a long narrow tendon from the external condyle
of the femur in close contact with the tendon of origin of
the extensor longus digitorum. This femoral origin of the
tibialis anticus is frequent among the CaviidEe.
Parsons, Proc. Zool. iSoc. 1894, p. 288.

C. 215. Eight hind-hmb of a Beaver {Castor fiber), showing the
superficial muscles of the shank. The flexors of the foot,
and particularly the ])lantaris, are remarkably developed.
The soleus joins the outer head of the gastrocnemius in its
distal third, but the two gastrocnemial heads are separate
throughout their length. The tendons of the gastrocnemius
and plantaris are twisted round one another, in such a way
that the tendon of the inner gastrocnemial head passes
superficial to that of the outer head and of the plantaris to
be inserted external to both upon the outer surface of the
OS calcis. The tendon of the plantaris meanwhile passes in
the same direction superficial to that of the outer head of
the gastrocnemius. This spiral twisting of the component
parts of the tendo Achillis appears to be of very general
occurrence among mammals. 0. C. 64 z I.

Parsons, Jour: Anat. & Physiol., vol. xxviii. 1894,
p. 414.

C. 216. "Nerves and superficial muscles of the left hind-limb
of an Elephant (Elephas africanus). The ensheathing
character of the muscles noticed in the case of the fore-
limb, and calculated to give support and rigidity to the
joints under the great superincumbent weight, is here
even more marked. The external gluteal sheet (tensor
fasciae latse, gluteus maximus, biceps cruris) in particular
is remarkable. It forms a continuous layer coated
(especially in its dorsal parts) by yellow elastic tissue.
From the knee to the foot the muscle-fibres to a great
extent give place to fibrous tissue, which at the back of
the leg is confluent with a similar fibrous expansion of
the semitendinosus (divided longitudinally in the speci-
men to show the underlying muscles). The following

HIND-LIMB

151

features are also o£ interest :— Tlie sartorius and gracilis,
which in the Indian Elephant are poorly developed, seem
here to be absent. The semitendinosus and semimembra-
nosus are united along their posterior border. The extensor
longus digitorum is fleshy to the level of the metatarsals.
O.d 64 xc.

C. 217. Distal part of the

{EJephas africanus), showing the deep muscles. The
peroneus longus rises from the outer condyle of the femur
• 'The peroneus brevis is attached to metatarsal iv., and
the tibialis anticus to metatarsal ii., an insertion found
also in Hyrax {Procama). 0. C. 64x(f.

Miall & Greenwood, Jour. Anat. & Physiol., vol. xii.
1878, p. 276.

C 218. Eight hind-foot of a Horse [Ecpms cahallus), showing
the course of the great tendons and the modified or

■ rudimentary character of the intrinsic muscles. There
are two rudimentary interossei rising respectively from the
inner surface of each splint bone-their long delicate
tendons are lost upon the fetlock. The flexor brevis medu
has undergone an important change-similar to that seen
in the corresponding muscle of the fore-limb-by the re-
placement of most of the muscle-fibres by y^^jte fibrous
tissue The ligament (suspensory ligament of the tetlock;
thus formed forks at its lower end, embraces the first
phalanx, and is inserted partly into the plantar sesamoids

■ of phalanx i. and partly into the extensor tendon. It
• effectually prevents any undue extension of the fetlock

(metatarso-phalangeal) joint.

Cunningham, ' Challenger' Reports, vol. v. 1882, p. 94.

C 219. Superficial muscles of the right hind-limb of a Calf
* (Bos tauTUs). The general form of the limb (as already
indicated in the case of the fore-limb C. 153) is suggestive
of rapidity of movement. The muscles of the thigh-
particularly the extensors-are strongly developed, and the
flexors of the foot, although not in themselves powerful,

152

PHYSIOLOGKJAL SERIES,

gain a most effective action by their advantageous in.sertion
upon the backwardly pi-olonged calcaneum. Tlie reduction
in the number of the toes and the consequent shifting of
the muscle-insertions renders the homology of several of
the shank-muscles very uncertain. The following details
are noteworthy :-The size of the biceps, and the extension
of a slip from its posterior border to the heel. The origin
of the sartorius midway between the crest of the ilium and
the pectineal process. The large size of the gracilis.
The^ slender and rudimentary character of the soleus.
^- ^ff- Presented by Colonel Burgess.

C.230. Deep muscles of the left hind-limb of a Calf {Bos
taurus). A large prje-semimembranosus is present,
accompanied by a poorly developed semimembranosus!
The several components of the extensor cruris are sharply
marked. The tibialis anticus is in two parts — one rising
from the front of the tibia, the other in conjunction with
part of the extensor longus digitorum from the femur.
There are two short extensors rising from the dorsal
surface of the tarsus and inserted upon the digits ui. & iv.;
they are joined in the middle of their course by the
tendon of the extensor longus digitorum. The tendons of
the flexor fibnlaris and flexor tibiahs unite just distal to
the heel, and the common tendon thus formed passes, when
on a level with the phalanges, through a loop formed by
the plantaris tendon. The tibialis i)osticus is absent.
The short flexors of ill. & IV. have been modified as in the
Horse to form the suspensory ligament of the fetlock.
0. C. 64 X A. Presented hy Colonel Burgess.

C. 221. Superficial muscles of the right hind-limb of a Seal
{Phoca vkulina). The limb shows great adaptation to a
swimming life. As far as the ankle it is closely applied to
the body, and is capable mainly of strong rotatory move-
ments. The most important of these (produced by the
gracilis, semimembranosus, semitendinosus, and popliteus)
takes place inwards and turns the sole of the foot backwards
during the stroke. Rotation in the opposite direction is
due to the long head of the biceps. The foot is free and

HIND-LIMB.

153

has great powers of flexion and extension. Adduction of
the toes, to minimise the resistance of the water during the
recovery, is eifected by a slight modification of the extensor
longus digitorum tendon. The division of the tendon
occurs so far down the foot, that the branches are set at a
wide angle and upon traction draw the toes together. The
tensor fasciae latse is continuous with the obhquus
externus abdominis. The adductors are absent or perhaps
fused with the large obturator externus. The biceps is
formed of two distinct parts, one of which (short head)
rises from the sacral vertebrae, the other (long head) from
the tuber ischii. The latter is attached along the whole
outer border of the fibula and acts as an outer rotator.
Tho peculiar arrangement of semitendinosus and semi-
membranosus makes it difficult to decide their homologies
with any certainty. The soleus is absent.

C. 222. A similar specimen of the deep muscles of the left hind-
limb. The peroneus longus is attached partly to the
external condyle of the femur. The short extensors rise
from the dorsmn of the foot with the exception of that to
V. (peroneus quinti dig.).

Miller, Challenger Reports (Zool.), vol. xxvi. 1888,
p. 176; Luc^, Abhandl. Seckeuberg. Natur. Gesellsch.,
Bd. ix. 1873-75, p. 448.

C. 223. Distal portion of the right hind-limb of a Dog [Ccwis
familiaris), showing the muscles of the shank .^ud foot.
The plantaris is of great size and is fused at its origin with
the outer head of the gastrocnemius. The main tendons of
the flexor tibialis and flexor fibularis are united in the sole
of the foot. An extensor brevis digitorum Y. (peroneus
quinti) is present, rising as usual from the proximal part
of the fibula. The short extensors ll., nr., iv. are well-
developed and rise from the dorsum of the foot. The
tibialis posticus, extensor hallucis, and flexor tibialis, owing
apparently to the absence o£ the hallux, are all more or
less rudimentary. The soleus is absent. 0. C. 64 z h.

Prefentetl hy Prof. McFadyean.

154

PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES.

C. 224. Part of the left hind-limb of a Dog {Canh familiaris).
The tendon of the plantaris passes in a seraispiral round
the inner side of that of the gastrocnemius ; it is not
wholly attached to the calcaneum but passes over its
surface and is continued into the flexor brevis digitorum.
A small pronator tibiae is present. 0. C. 64 z ^ c.

Presented hy Prof. McFadyean.
Gruber, Arch. f. Anat. und Physiol., 1878, p. 438.

C. 225. The superficial muscles of the right hind-limb of a
Lemur [Lemur mongoz). In this arboreal animal the
extensor muscles are decidedly feeble ; the flexors of the
knee, on the other hand, have considerable power, mainly
owing to their insertion at some distance below that joint.
The sartorius, gracilis, and semitendinosus unite near their
distal extremities and are inserted by a common tendon.
The biceps rises from the proximal part of the anterior
border of the semitendinosus. The prse-semimembranosus,
as in other Lemurs, is absent. The tibialis anticus is
inserted by two tendons. The flexor brevis digitorum
rises by two separate heads : 1, from the plantar fascia;
2, from the deep flexor tendons, this latter part may include
the accessorius. 0. C. 64mZ^/«.

Presented hy Prof. F. G. Parsons.
Parsons, Jour. Anat. & Physiol., vol. xxxii. 1898, p. 741.

C. 226. Distal portion of the left hind-limb of a Lemur {Lemur
mongoz), showing several of the deep muscles. A pronator
tibias is present between the heads of the tibia and fibula.
Its fibres pass slightly downwards from the fibula. A
corresponding muscle is situated between the distal ends of
the same bones. The two outermost short extensors
(peroneus quarti dig. et quinti dig.) rise from the fibula,
those belonging to the inner three toes from the dorsum of
the foot as usual. A blue rod has been placed beneath the
second part of the flexor brevis (see preceding specimen),
and a green rod under the lumbricals. 0. C. 64 M 6 g.

Presented hy Prof. F. G. Parsons.
Murie & Mivart, Trans. Zool. Soc, vol. vii. 1872, p. 74.

HraD-LIMB.

155

C. 227. Eight Lind-limb of Macacus mauriis, showing the super-
ficial muscles. The chmbing habits of the monkey are
indicated by the comparative weakness of the extensor
cruris, the insertion of the flexors of the knee, especially
the ffraciUs and semitendinosus, far down the shank, and
the considerable development of the posterior (fenioro-
coccygeal) part of the ectoghiteal sheet. The following
details are of interest in comparison with other Primates: —
The gluteus maximus is continuous anteriorly with the
tensor fascife lat^, bat is separated posteriorly by a gap
from a large muscle that rises from the tuber ischii and is
inserted partly into the fascia covering the lower part of
the thigh and partly into the fibula. The anterior portion
of this muscle apparently represents the femoro-coccygeus ;
the posterior portion, the ischial head of the biceps. There
is no femoral head to the biceps. The insertion of the
gracihs is continued by a fibrous expansion to the heel.
There is a well-marked prse-semimembranosus. The
tibialis anticus divides distally into two separate parts
inserted respectively by tendon into the internal cuneifoi-m
and metatarsal I. The calf muscles are weak. The soleus
is fleshy to the heel. 0. G. 64 M h.

Presented hy J. Abrahams, Esq.

Haughton, Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., vol. ix. 1867, p. 278.

C. 228. Superficial muscles of the left thigh of a Baboon [Papio
[^Cynoceplialml habuin). The muscles show in general a
high degree of development. Those that form the ectogluteal
layer are stronger and far more separate than in Macacus.
A prse-semimembranosus is present. The components of
the extensor cruris are strong and very definite. The
ischial head of the biceps is fused, as in Macacus, with the
femoro-coccygeus ; there is no femoral head. 0. C. 64 K.

C 229 Superficial muscles of the right shank and foot of a
^,,hoon [Papio [Cynocephalus-] babuin). The calf muscles
are more powerful than in Macacus. The plantans is of
considerable size, and the soleus independent and fleshy to
the heel. The tibialis anticus resembles that of Macacus.
0. C. 64 I.

156

PHYSIOLOCilCAL SERIES.

C. 230. Muscles of the left foot of a Baboon {Papio [ CynocepJuilus]
bahuin). The accessorius is well marked. The flexor
brevis digitorum has two separate points of origin : 1,
from the calcaneum with insertion upon ii. ; 2, by several
fasciculi from the conjoined deep flexor tendons, this part
sends tendons to digits iii., iv., v. There is an independent
muscle-slip situated upon the plantar surface of the
abductor v. The tendons of the extensor brevis to I. and
n. rise from a single belly. 0. C. 64 m.

C. 231. The right hind-limb of a Crested Baboon {Cynopithecus
niger), showing the semimembranosus and prae-semimem-
branosus, the duplicity of the tibialis anticus for the
distal half of its course, and the independent insertion of
the soleus. 0. C. 64 M & e.

C. 232. Nerves and superficial muscles of the right hind-limb
of a Gibbon [Hylohates leuciscus). The muscles are of
slender build, with no great intrinsic strength, but, as
in so many other arboreal creatures, the power of the
flexors of the knee is largely increased by their insertion at
a considerable distance below the joint. The muscles of the
ectogluteal layer form a continuous sheet, with the exception
of a certain degree of individuality in the tensor fasciae
latse towards its insertion. The biceps has both ischial and
femoral heads which unite as in Man to form a single
tendon inserted on the fibula. The sartorius, gracilis,
and semitendinosus form (as in the Lemur C. 225) a
common tendon inserted partly on the tibia, partly con-
tinued downwards into the superficial fascia of the leg.
The sartorius in this and the other anthropomorphous apes
rises from the ilium considerably farther back than in Man.
The flexor brevis digitorum rises, as in the lower Primates
and Lemurs, partly from the deep flexor tendons, its cal-
caneal head supplies ii., that from the flexor tendons nr.,
IV., and V. 0. C. 64 M /.

C. 233. Nerves and deeper muscles of the left hind-limb of a
Gibbon (Hylohates leuciscus). The prte-semimembranosus

HIND-LIMB.

157

in not separate from the adductor magnus, althougli it
may possibly be represented by the slender round tendon
that continues from the distal limit of the insertion of the
adductor magnus to the supracondyloid ridge. The soleus
rises by a round tendon from a very small area of the fibula
(the origin is far more extensive in other Anthropoids) and
is fleshy to the heel. Planturis and accessorius are absent.
0. C. 64Myt.

C. 234. Superficial muscles of the right hind-limb of an Orang-
Outang (^Simia satyrus). This Anthropoid exhibits but
little agility while in captivity, and is seldom observed
to go on all fours after the manner of quadrupeds, or the
inferior Apes, but in using its long arms in progressive
motion on the ground, it supports itself on the bent fingers
as on a pair of crutches and swings the body forward
between them. The diminutive hind limbs, with their long
hook-like digits and greatly reduced halluces, appear to
be especially destined for the actions of grasping and
climbing, and are by no means calculated to support the
body erect, although capable of doing so for a short time.
There is no tensor fasciae hitse. The femoro-coccygeus
is separate from the gluteus maximus ; it rises in common
with the ischial head of the biceps, and is inserted as usual
upon the femur superficial to the origin of the femoral
head of the biceps. This partial fusion of the femorp-
coccygeus with the biceps is interesting, in comparison on
the one hand with the Baboon and Macaque (C. 227 & 228)
in which the two are entirely confluent, and on the other
hand with the rest of the Anthropoids in which the femoro-
coccygeus is united to the gluteus maximus. The two heads
of the biceps have a slight muscular connection close to
their insertion. The pectineus is in part continuous with
the adductor longus. 0. C. 64 m e.

Presented by C. Dent, Esq.

C. 235. Left hind- limb of an Orang-Outang {Simia satyrus)
showing the deeper muscles. The prse-semimembranosua
is not separate. The flexor fibularis (flex. long, hallucis)
has a strong condylar origin. A larger part of the flexor

PHYSIOLOaiCAL SKRIES.

brevis is calciineal than in the Gibbon — this part suppHes
II. & III. ; that rising from tho deep flexor tendons, iv.
only. The plantaris is absent. 0. C. 64 m/.

Presented hy C. Dent, Esq.

C. 236. Right hind-limb of an Orang-Outang (Simia satijrus),
showing more particularly certain of the deeper muscles
surrounding the hip-joint and those upon the plantar
surface of the foot. The scansorius is well marked. In
the foot there is a small flexor accessorius. The flexor
fibularis (flex. long, hallucis) supplies iii. & iv. The
flexor tibialis (flex, longus digitorum) ii. & v. There is
no deep tendon to the hallux. 0. C. 64 M g.

Presented by Victor Horsley, Esq.

C. 237. Left knee of an Orang-Outang {Simia satyr us), showing
the origin of the popliteus from the joint-capsule and fibula-
head as well as from the more ordinary position on the
external femoral condyle. 0. 0. 64 m /t.

Presented hy Victor Horsley, Esq,

C. 238. Right hind-limb of a Grorilla {Anthroj)Qpithecus gorilla) ,
showing the superficial muscles. The ectogluteal sheet is
continuous. The two heads of the biceps are entirely
separate at their insertion. The muscle-fi.bres both in the
gastrocnemius and soleus extend to the heel. There is no
plantaris. 0. 0. 64 N c.

C. 239. Deep muscles of the left hind-limb of a Grorilla (^Antliro-
popithecus gorilla) with arteries. There is a well-marked
prai-semimembranosus. 0. C. 64 Nri.

C. 240. The deep plantar tendons from the left foot of a Gorilla
(Anthropojnthecus gorilla), with the flexor brevis digitorum,
accessorius and lumbrical muscles. The flexor fibularis
(flex. long, hallucis) sends tendons to I., ill., iv., and a
strengthening slip to the tendon of ii. The flexor tibialis
(flex. long, digitorum) supplies ii. & v. The calcaneal

HIND-LIMB.

159

portion of the flexor brevis provides tendons for ll. &
III., while IV. & V. are supplied by the portion that rises
from the plantar tendons. The accessorius though present
is weak. Only two lunibricals are shown. 0. C. 64 N.

C. 241. Superficial muscles of the right hind-limb of a Chim-
panzee {AnthropopitJiecus troglodytes). There is a distinct
though small tensor fasciae latse. The gluteus maximus
and femoro-coccygeus are closely united. The ischial and
femoral heads of the biceps cruris do not unite before their
insertion. The semitendinosus shovA's a delicate tendinous
intersection in the middle of its length. A separate prae-
semimerabranosus is present. The tibialis anticus is double
for some distance above the annular ligament. A fine
tendon, probably representing the extensor brevis v.,
separates off from the peroneus brevis and runs along the
dorsum of v. to the phalanges.

Presented hy John Marshall, Esq.

C. 242. Nerves and deep muscles of the left hind-limb of a
Chimpanzee (Anthrojwpithecus troglodytes). A plantaris
is present. Presented hy John Marshall, Esq.

C. 243. The left deep flexor tendons with the flexor brevis
digitorum and lumbrical muscles of a Chimpanzee {Anthro-
popithecus troglodytes'). The flexor tibialis (flex. long,
digitorum) supplies a tendon to v. and the greater part of
that to II. The flexor fibularis (flex. long, hallucis) sends
tendons to I., ill., iv., and strengthens that to ii. The
flexor brevis has origins from both calcaneum and the
tendons of flex, tibialis, the former supplies ll. & nr.,
the latter iv. & v. The tendon to ii. is also enforced
by a large muscular slip from the flexor tibialis tendon.

C. 244. A vertical section of the Human tibia and patella, and of
the tendon of the extensors of the leg, showing the distance
to which the tendon is removed from the centre of motion
by the interposition of the latter bone. 0. C. 277.

Hunteri'a)i.

160 PHYSIOLOGICAL SUFilES.

C. 245. Rioht deep plantar tendons of a Bushwomnn, with the
flexor brevis digitoruin, accessorius, and lunibrical muscles.
The flexor fibularis (flex. long, hallucis) sends a large tendon
to I., and strengthening shps to the three inner tendons of
the flexor tibialis (fl. longus digitorum). The accessorius is
inserted into both flexor fibularis and tibialis. The flexor
brevis digitorum of ii., in., iv. rises from the calcaneum ;
that to V. forms a separate muscle and, as in most lower
Primates, takes origin from the tendon of the flexor tibialis.
0. C. 64x.

Flower & Murie, Jour. Anat. & Physiol., vol. i. 1867,
p. 203.

C. 246. Right deep plantar tendons of Man. The flexor fibularis
(fl. longus hallucis) goes mainly to I., but also sends
strengthening slips to the two inner tendons of the flexor
tibialis (flex, longus digitorum).

twnted by Taylor and Fkakcis, Red Lion Court, "Fleet Street

Xtfo. C3

Hoy