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THE NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT

OF ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

The Nature & Development

Animal Intelligence

By

WESLEY MILLS, M.A., M.D., D.V.S., F.R.S.C.

PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY IN m'gILL UNIVERSITY, MONTREAL, CANADA,
AUTHOR OF “ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY,” “COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY,”

“THE DOG IN HEALTH AND IN DISEASE,” ETC.

LONDON

T. FISHER UNWIN

PATERNOSTER SQUARE

1898

PREFACE

From various quarters the suggestion has come to me
to prepare a work on Comparative Psychology, as it
was known that this subject has engaged my attention
in no small measure for many years. It would be
easy enough to collect an additional number of
anecdotes of animals, and pen some reflections on
them. It might be possible to gather together some
accounts of the doings of animals of undoubted
accuracy and examine these critically, but all this
has been done, and we must now enter on another
stage — that of exact, systematic observation and ex-
periment. There are, however, many methods by
which so broad a science as Comparative Psychology
can be advanced, and I hope no word I may write
may suggest any of those narrow views for which even
scientific men are sometimes to be held responsible.
There are many points of view, and it will be well
to gather observations and opinions from every proper
source available.

My own views as to the nature and scope of Com-
parative Psychology will best be gathered from the

Y1

PREFACE

following pages, so that I will now quote to the reader
a few lines from the writings of others.

Prof. C. S. Minot, in a review of Prof. C. Lloyd
Morgan’s “ Habit and Instinct,” writes thus : —

“As a naturalist, it has seemed to me that the
naturalist’s method has an immense future in Psy-
chology. The method includes two main factors :
the observation of details, and the comparison of
homologous phenomena in different forms of life ; and
the method starts from the standpoint of evolution.
There need be no restriction, of course, upon the three
aspects of Psychology which have heretofore prevailed
— the metaphysical, introspective, and experimental,
but there should come soon, and with revolutionary
power, not merely enlarged interest in, and sympathy
with, Comparative Evolutional Psychology, but more
than that — eagerness to enter this field of enquiry and
to share in harvesting it” {Psych. Rev., vol. iv. Ho. 3,
p. 313).

Those who do me the honour of reading the pages of
this book will learn for themselves how completely
I share Professor Minot’s views, and that my convic-
tions have been followed by corresponding action.

But one may well ask : Who is able for so great a
task ? I know of no higher ideal of the requirements
for the worker in Comparative Psychology than that
set forth by Prof. Groos in his “Die Spiele der
Thiere.” He well says : “ The author of a psychology
of animal play should have, in reality, not alone two,
but many souls within his breast.” He would have

PREFACE

Vll

him combine, with all the varied ideas and experiences
of a m&n who has traversed the round globe, the
special knowledge of the director of a zoological
garden, and also that of him who has penetrated the
life-secrets of the forest, and who can, moreover, take
the point of view of the student of aesthetics. If these
are the qualifications for the special investigation of
animal play, they are not less called for in the other
realms of Comparative Psychology.

While the present writer can lay claim to no such
roundness of culture, he thinks he can confidently
assert that nothing will be found in the following pages
that has not some basis in his own observations or
experience.

The Author has on more than one occasion expressed
his belief that mere closet psychology is of little
value in advancing the subject as applied to animals.
Accordingly, it will be found that by far the greater
part of this book is made up of the facts of observation.

In determining the form the work should take, I
had to consider whether to re-cast all the material I
had been accumulating for the last fifteen years, or
republish what had already appeared in an almost
unaltered form. It seemed to me that in the end the
advancement of the subject would be best served by
the latter course. While there may be some repetition
in the papers that constitute the first part of the work,
this will serve to emphasise the views that have been
impressed more and more on one who has for ten years
been in daily intimate association with animals, and a

vm

PREFACE

close and unprejudiced (as far as may be) observer of
their life-ways.

Unless I mistake, there is now an interest in the
study of animals altogether unprecedented, and I hope
to see appear, within the next few years, accounts of
researches which, in many respects, will be in advance
of anything yet produced. It is largely with the view
of stimulating such researches that I have concluded
to publish the principal results of my own observations
and thinkings up to the present time, in a form readily
accessible to all who may be interested in such studies.
As I believe the facts to be of by far the most value
in our present stage of progress, they will be found
to preponderate over theory. Laws, of course, we
should try to establish, but I believe that we must go
on as patient observers and experimenters for many
years yet to come, before large generalisations can
be safely formulated.

There will be some — possibly in high places — who
may hold such work in light esteem, but they will
find that, sooner or later, their lofty seats must be
vacated, and that they must come down and delve.
Filling up books and periodicals is one thing, and
reaching truth another.

The work is divisible into four parts. Part I. con-
sists of addresses, in which my own views of the
subject are set forth. Part II. of studies, largely
practical, of two interesting states — feigning and
hibernation. These are on the borderland between
natural history and psychology, but must have

PREFACE

IX

special interest from whatever point of view regarded.
Part III. is, in my own opinion, much the most
important part of the book. It is a storehouse of
reliable facts, from which each reader may draw
his own conclusions. Part IV. consists of discussions
on a subject of considerable importance, as will be
evident. This division of the work into parts rather
than chapters permits of the reading of any one
division of the work by those who may not desire
to peruse the whole.

The prosecution of these studies has necessitated
the breeding and rearing of a large number of pure-
bred animals during the last ten years, and while it
has involved considerable expense for one who has
received no special favours from Dame Fortune, the
work has been a source of pleasure, and, it is hoped,
some psychological and biological wisdom also to
myself ; and if it leads to a truer and more complete
study of the psychic nature of animals than hereto-
fore, the Author will feel that his time, labour, and
money have not been expended in vain.

I count myself fortunate in being able, by the
kind permission of Mr T. Mann Jones, of FTortham,
England, to embody in this book, in the form of
brief notes, some of the observations and reflections
of so experienced and accurate a student of animal
intelligence as he has proved himself to be. Mr Jones
took the pains to write me, at considerable length,
after reading my notes on psychic development, for
which I am very grateful.

X

PREFACE

“ Animal Intelligence and how to Study It,”
appeared, in the first instance, in The Sherbrooke
Examiner; “ Comparative Psychology,” etc., in Appletons’
Popular Science Monthly ; “ Psychology and Comparative
Psychology,” in Science ; “ Squirrels : their Habits and
Intelligence,” etc., and all the papers following, as far
as page 276, in the Transactions, Royal Society of
Canada ; the “ Discussion on Instinct,” etc., in Science.

I desire to offer my thanks to the Editors and
Publishers of the before-mentioned periodicals for
their courtesy in readily assenting to re-publication
of the papers referred to, as also to those contributors
who have kindly allowed me to embody their views in
this book.

As the discussions in Part IV. are printed just as
they originally appeared, perhaps it may be well to
state that Professor Morgan’s views on the subjects
under consideration may be found fully developed
in his “Habit and Instinct,” and Professor J. Mark
Baldwin’s in papers that have appeared in the
American Naturalist, Science, and the Psychological
Review, though such contributions cover a wider
field than that traversed in the discussions to which
reference is now made.

THE AUTHOR

CONTENTS

PART I.

PAGE

Animal Intelligence, and how to Study It . 1

Comparative Psychology : Its Objects and Problems 17

Comparative Psychology ..... 31

Psychology and Comparative Psychology . . 46

PART II.

Squirrels : Their Habits and Intelligence, with
Special Reference to Feigning, with an
Appendix ...... 52

Hibernation and Allied States in Animals . . 79

PART IIL

The Psychic Development of Young Animals, and

its Physical Correlation . . .113

Xll CONTENTS

The Functional Development of the Cerebral
Cortex in Different Groups of Animals

The Psychic Development of Young Animals and
Its Physical (Somatic) Correlation, with
Special Reference to the Brain

PART IV.

PAGE

264

267

Discussions on Instinct .

277

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

PART I.

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE, AND HOW TO
STUDY IT.*

Is there any sane human being who is uninfluenced
by the advent of springtime ? Bright skies and
balmy air have no doubt much to do with that heigh-
tened good-feeling which we experience, but do they
explain the whole change in our being at that time ?
The budding trees and the springing grass have no
small share in the happy effect, but even yet the
analysis is far from complete. With no insects on the
wing, no birds in the trees, no squirrels frisking among
the boughs — would spring be spring ? Are we not also
influenced by the effect of the great contrasted change
in our fellow-men ?

The truth is, that no normal person is utterly in-
different to the world of life about him. But when
squirrels frisk and birds carol, why is it that we regard
them differently from mere mechanisms worked by a
string ? When we cage the bird or the squirrel, and
they become tame, why do we apply such terms as,
“ dear little fellow,” “ sweet pet,” etc ? Why does the

* An Address delivered to pupils of the Bishop’s College
School, Lennox ville, October 1896.

A

2

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

fond mother thus addi’ess her infant ? If the reply
were — Because she cannot help it, would it not express
an uncontrovertible truth ? If you choose, I will put
the same in another form and say, because it is natural
for her to do so. But these endearing terms are used
by the father, the brother, the sister, and even the one
who drops in as a casual visitor, and is not in the
remotest way allied by blood. While in these instances
there may be something in the intellect and feelings of
each, not in those of the other, there is much in
common — at least such we must assume, if we are to
furnish any reasonable explanation of the facts. So
that when the mother, the father, the brother, or
the sister speak of the squirrel as a “ dear little
fellow,” or the cage bird as a “ sweet pet,” they must
recognise in him some of those same qualities which
render the infant human being attractive. The fact is,
we make the world of animal life about us a reflection
of ourselves ; we spontaneously implant in the bird and
the squirrel qualities that are our own. They interest
in proportion as they seem to embody the same
thoughts and feelings as ourselves. We assume that
they have the same pleasures, pains — even the same
hopes and fears. Man makes himself the measure of all
things when he follows primitive impulses, and this is
the real explanation of the interest that the great mass
of human beings take in the world of animal life in
general, and more especially in these animals with
which we are brought into daily contact.

It must be clear that this is perfectly natural, as
much so as to feel a sympathy with our fellow-men,
though in a less complete and perfect way. It is only
when certain animals are believed to be disagreeable or
dangerous that they become repulsive, and in pro-
portion as they seem to approach our ways of viewing
things and share our feelings, are we drawn to them.

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE, AND HOW TO STUDY IT 3

If Tom Jones is not interested equally in all the
dogs he meets, it is because he believes they do not
possess the qualities of his own Carlo. They do not fit
into his mental world as well, they are not equally a
reflex of himself. Every boy if left to follow his
natural tendencies must believe that his dog’s thoughts
and feelings are the counterpart of his own. Were it
otherwise, why should he talk to his dog, play with
him, impute motives to him, blame or praise him, etc. ?

The change of view so general among civilised people
calls for an explanation : and here we must distinguish
between the clearly defined belief of the philosopher
and the loose views — probably little more than pre-
judices— of the vast proportion of people.

The creed of the many in Europe and America as
regards the relations of man to the world by which he
is surrounded is in no small measure shaped by religious
teachers. The result of this has been that man has
been placed on a pedestal — raised high above all other
creatures — and that is quite right too, but with this
there has been interwoven the idea of the great in-
feriority of the brutes — which is again correct — but
then there were associated with these views others
which, in my opinion, have served to divorce man’s
sympathies from his fellows lower in the scale, and to
lead him to view them in a distorted fashion. In
attempting to glorify man, many well-meaning teachers
have thought that they must depreciate his fellows, even
to the point of denying to the lower animals any
intellectual life proper at all — all was to be explained
by “blind instinct”; so that by the time Tom Jones
became a mature man he was unwilling to believe that
his dog thought and felt as he did, and especially was
he disinclined to set forth any such creed in words, and
by no means would he have dared to do so before his
teachers, lest he should seem to be thereby bringing

4

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

himself into comparison with a mere dog. “ Is thy
servant a dog, that he should do this tiling ? ”

But Nature is often wiser than her expounders, and
I venture to assert that it is, in spite of the indignant
protest of some people, because we are in not a little so
like dogs that a large part of our life is what it is, and
I hope before I finish this lecture to be able to convince
you, or, at all events, to indicate the methods by which
you may convince yourselves, that Tom Jones was quite
correct when he believed that his dog’s way of thinking,
feeling, acting, and being acted upon, are very much like
his own.

We all find some people hard to understand, and in
proportion as that is the case are such persons estranged
from us, and this is inevitable for the reasons that I am
trying to set forth, viz. : that community of thought and
feeling is essential to beget sympathy, interest, etc., and
when they exist, and in proportion often as they are
found, do they bind people together. You see these
principles ilustrated in every school. John takes to
James because, perhaps, they were at some other school
together, and found they had common views and in-
terests, and John finds it hard to get into sympathy with
Harry, because they seem to have so little in common.
John likes cricket and Harry lacrosse; John prefers to go
a-fishing, and Harry to race across country ; John is fond
of quiet fun, and Harry of the boisterous, rollicking sort
of amusement, and so one might proceed to illustrate at
great length. Now and then, however, we meet a person
who seems with extraordinary ease to be able to enter
into the frame of mind and feeling of a large number of
persons. Such people have, we say, wide sympathies,
and when rendered intelligent by education they take
broad views of things, and if possessed of vigorous in-
tellect and strong will, they are likely to become leaders
in the community. Possibly they may become dis-

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE, AND HOW TO STUDY IT 5

tinguished in literature or art, because of that power they
have of feeling themselves into many situations of
interest to their fellow-men. Now I take it that
Shakespeare was a man who possessed this faculty —
though in an eminent degree combined with many
others, as, for example, power of visual imagination and
word-painting. But he might have had the latter and a
host of other powers developed in the highest degree, and
yet not have been a Shakespeare. He could not have
felt like all the different characters which he put into
even one of his marvellous dramas. In the course of
one’s limited experience he will meet people who have
this power to put themselves in others’ places, who are
by no means Shakespeares, but who, notwithstanding,
have in this invaluable endowment an affinity with the
great poet ; and you will generally find that such people
are kind, slow to condemn, moderate in their censure
and just in their estimates, all of which is more or less
dependent on their ability to put themselves in the
place of others — many others of different psychic make-
up. Such are the people too, who are best adapted to
understand animals, although they may, or may not be
able to explain their mental qualities to others. There
is such a thing as feeling one’s way to truth when hard
logic and cold philosophy are unavailing. You will, of
course, not mistake my meaning here. I do not advo-
cate the substitution of sentiment for cool, many-sided
deliberation, but the putting one’s self in the place of
our fellow-men and the lower animals, and thus attempt-
ing to understand them. Indeed I would go so far as
to say that this is the only way to make any real pro-
gress ; all other methods must be aids to this final
attitude of the mind.

In the understanding of the lower animals we must
each become as a little child, and I know of nothing in
which this is more literally true than in the study of

6

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

comparative psychology — the psychic nature of animals
lower than man.

To illustrate my position further : If you could have
traced from early infancy up to the present time that
one of your school-mates with whom you are most
intimately acquainted — noting carefully every ten-
dency, every important change in his circumstances and
in his development, would you not be in a vastly better
position to understand him than you can be at present ?
Perhaps you sometimes feel that you are incorrectly
judged by others, and that if they only knew your past
they would think differently. Indeed, what human
being would not stand before us in a different light if
we knew his whole history — and this resolves itself into
his mental history finally. And then how incomplete is
this until we go back beyond the individual, and look
into the history and qualities of his ancestors, for after
all, we are very much what our ancestors have made us ;
in other words, past history is determining in no small
degree present events — the thoughts and feelings of our
ancestors had, to say the least, no small share in mould-
ing our own mental life. If one observes closely he will
find that the resemblance to parents is just as close
mentally as physically. I must not, however, dwell
now on a subject so large and so important as heredity.

But if it is essential that we know the history of an
individual human being to really understand him, it is
almost, if not quite as important in the case of the dog
or other of our dumb animals. Most of the dogs now
in my own kennel were born and raised therein. Did
time permit, I could interest you, I think, by showing
how certain traits of these animals, which contribute to
give them their individuality, are to be accounted for
either by incidents in their history or by peculiarities
which showed themselves soon after birth, and which
were in all probability inborn. To illustrate by a

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE, AND HOW TO STUDY IT 7

single case. A collie of mine is very shy, so much so tha»t
an observer recently remarked that he seemed to act as if
he were afraid of being beaten. As a matter of fact that
dog has always been treated with the greatest consider-
ation in view of his infirmity. He has improved con-
siderably, and the causes of this improvement in his
case I well understand. Tor the primary cause of the
shyness in this case one must make a study of his
ancestors.

Hot only is it necessary in order to understand the
individual dog to begin with him at his birth and to
follow his history throughout, but such a course is
essential for the comprehension of the nature of dogs in
general, and, personally, I am deeply convinced of the
importance of such investigations, after having been
engaged in them for some years.

When such studies are carried out on representatives
of different groups of animals, and on different breeds
or individuals, one’s conceptions of the true nature of
animal intelligence — or, to use a more comprehensive
term, the psychic life of animals — is vastly widened and
altogether more correct in every respect.

In studying together, for example, a litter of puppies
and a litter of kittens, the lines of development are
found to be almost parallel for a time, then to diverge
more and more. The same applies to the individuals
of the litter, even though the circumstances under
which they are reared are the same.

By this method of comparative study, questions as to
what is common to the race and to different races
closely allied, the relative strength of the individuality
of members of the same litter or family, the influence
of the surroundings, including in this all that we mean
by education, and a whole host of other problems arise,
and are to some extent solved. By varying the con-
ditions under which the different members of a litter

8

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

are reared, we may gauge the effect of the influence of
the environment on the members of the little animal
community. There are few more interesting problems
than the relative power of animal tendency and of
environment. The question as to what John Brown
may become as the result of education, knowing the
nature, and to some extent the strength of the qualities
that were born in him, is of vital moment. But such a
problem can be far more readily worked out for a dog
than for a human being, because the nature of the dog
and of its whole environment is simpler. Of late years
much attention has been given to the study of the
development of the infant from birth onward, and few
psychologists would now doubt that the science of the
mind has been put upon a sounder basis in consequence.

It must he apparent that such investigations are of
the highest importance to all those interested in educa-
tion. If we are ever to arrive at scientific, and therefore
sound methods of education, it must be by a study of
the true nature of the mind of man, and surely this will
be advanced by a careful investigation of the psychic life
of simpler natures, that is to say, of the lower animals.
Of course the higher in the scale the animal studied, the
nearer we are approaching on the whole to man. I say
upon the whole, for it does not follow that in all respects
the monkey, for example, a creature of superior intelli-
gence to the dog, is more like man. In docility,
some dogs at all events, are far in advance of monkeys,
and in this respect nearer to man. A monkey is often
a most perverse creature, even when plainly possessed
of considerable intelligence. Nevertheless, there is no
denying that a large ape approaches the psychic stakes of
man more nearly than the most intelligent dog.

There are comparatively few people of intelligence in
these days who would explain everything in the mental
life of animals by instinct. But among those who

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE, AND HOW TO STUDY IT 9

make a special study of mind — the psychologists —
and perhaps the biologists might be added, there is
considerable diversity of opinion as to the exact nature
of animal intelligence. One very distinguished writer
would deny the power of thought proper to any creature
that did not use language — articulate words. He
would even go so far as to affirm that man himself can
only think in words. But plainly his definition of
“ thinking ” must be very restricted ; it must be con-
fined to a very few mental processes, and leave out a
vast amount of what enters into the daily mental being
of every man. There are others that would not go
so far as this writer, who, nevertheless, deny to animals
the power to perceive relations and to reason. When
a dog appears to act as if he had reasoned, those who
hold such views would explain by admitting that the
animal had profited by experience ; they would concede
that he was intelligent, but claim that his apparently
rational action was merely the outcome of mental
association, or a use of “ sense-experience.” When, for
example, a dog or a cat opens a door by manipulating
the latch, writers of this school deny reasoning or any
analogous processes, but explain the action by utilisa-
tion of sense-experience under the law of association.
The dog somehow on one occasion, more or less accident-
ally, opened the door by using his paws or teeth on the
latch, and this at once established an association in
sense-experience ; hence any future repetitions have
nothing to do with any process of reasoning to the
effect that if the paw be used on the latch the door
will open. On the contrary, such writers deny the
power to the animal to perceive any such relations.

This theory reduces the mental life of the animal
very considerably, and restricts the dog’s thoughts
within a narrow compass. But is there not a danger
of cutting down the possibilities of animal intelligence

10

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

too much, and of assuming that in the mental life of
the great mass of mankind there enter more of
those higher intellectual processes (conceivable and
possible at times) than there really are even among
civilised men, not to mention the savage at all ? We
hardly realise, I fear, in how narrow a groove many
minds move for the greater part of the waking period
of every day ; and this will hold, whether we take the
case of those whose lives are one monotonous grind, or
those who limit their thinking by devotion to some
one simple but absorbing pursuit.

Let me illustrate by the case of a student who is
passionately devoted to cycling. I know of one such
case. His father is a professor, and in speaking of his
son’s absorption in this subject to the neglect of his
studies, he expressed himself somewhat thus : “ I would
not mind if my son spent a couple of hours a day on
the bicycle, and would forget it for the rest of the time ;
but wherever he is, he seems to think of almost nothing
else, hence he cannot study successfully.” Probably
you cau call up pretty well the condition of the mind
of this youth. He sees bicycles, he feels bicycles, he
beholds race-tracks and crowds, he hears applause, he
receives prizes in imagination, etc., etc., and this over
and over again with little variation. You might con-
struct a diagram giving a representation of the probable
thought relations in his case, seeing he lives in a
realm of “ sense-experience,” one in which the percep-
tion of relations only occasionally enters, if we are by
this to mean such perception as is impossible to the
dog.

Indeed, how much is there in such mental states
that is impossible to the dog ? If for cycling we sub-
stitute hunting, the case will be clearer. Do you think
that the pictures of the hunting-field on which the man
feasts, differ much from those the dog calls up ?

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE, AND HOW TO STUDY IT 11

It is quite true that the man can think otherwise
about his hunting, cycling, etc. He can discuss with
his fellows the causes of successes and failures ; he can
even write a treatise on hunting. But when the hunter
thinks matters over in his own mind after a day’s
sport — when he goes so far as to seek for explanations,
when he must perceive relations, do you conceive that
his state of mind is absolutely impossible to the dog —
that is, most of it ? The case for the ape is stronger
still, when we consider the wonderful resource he some-
times shows in protecting his offspring, in co-operative
defence, etc.

Some writers, who assume a very conservative
position in regard to animal intelligence, lay down the
rule that we must in no case interpret an action as the
outcome of the exercise of a higher faculty, if it can be
interpreted as the outcome of the exercise of one which
stands lower in the psychological scale. Hence they
think that many of the actions of such animals as dogs,
cats, etc., which some would attribute to reasoning or
an analogous psychic process should be explained in
some simpler way. But why should we bind ourselves
by a hard and fast rule like this one ? Is it not the
truth at which we wish to get? For myself, I am be-
coming more and more sceptical as to the validity of
simple explanations for the manifestation of animal life
whether physical or psychical. It is true the whole
matter is made easier for the student, in that he can
the more readily grasp and remember the opinions of
others, processes which take up a large part of his time.
If we analyse our own actions, especially the motives
for them, with special care, how often do we realise that
our fellow-creatures have judged us hastily and im-
perfectly. That our motives for actions are often found
to be far more complex than even we ourselves
supposed at first, is a view of the case that was pre-

12

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

sented to me when a youth by a very profound and
much-esteemed school-teacher of mine, who was good
enough to give me occasionally the benefit of his own
thinkings, and the more I examine myself, and look
into the psychic life of others, the more do I feel the
force and justness of my teacher’s view.

Are we not in like manner too ready to adopt simple
— unduly simple — explanations of the actions of the
animals by which we are surrounded ? You will, of
course, not suppose that I would claim that the motives
— using that term in the widest sense — which actuate
them are of equal complexity with those that determine
the actions of men in many cases ; but in all discussions
on animal intelligence, and the entire psychic life of
creatures that are, on the whole, lower in the scale than
ourselves, we must be careful to distinguish difference
in quality from difference in degree. And in the in-
vestigation of so important a distinction it seems to me
of the greatest moment to compare the human being
at various stages of his development with the lower
animals in a corresponding way hence, the, to my mind,
absolute necessity of investigation of the psychic
development of both the lower animals and of man. A
dog at different periods of his existence stands, as it
were, on different psychic planes. He leaves some
features of his early life behind him for good — not
many, however, while he adds and adds new develop-
ments which, in different dogs, vary with their special
experience, but not enough to obliterate the general
characteristics of the canine mind. Just the same may
be said of the human intellect, and there are few more
suggestive or fruitful studies for those who have an
interest in such investigation than the comparison of
the child and the dog at their different epochs of
development. Of course, the parallelism is clearer
during the earlier epochs, and the dog runs through the

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE, AND HOW TO STUDY IT 13

main stages of his psychic life very much more rapidly
than the child ; but apart from the use of language and
the special peculiarities of the psychic activity dependent
on this, there is a closer resemblance — at all events, if
we restrict our comparisons to unlettered, and especially
uncivilized men — than most persons would suspect, or,
owing to prejudices, would be inclined to admit. Nor
would I confine this statement to the dog, for a study
of a kitten for 135 days, from birth onwards, was a
revelation to myself, though I had been a steady ob-
server of animals for a long period of years. The
amazing persistence and intellectual resource shown by
this kitten were such as to remind me of nothing more
than the conduct of a child of unusual determination
and intelligence — in fact, just the sort of child that I
should expect to succeed in the world, no matter what
the obstacles in its path.

Nearly ten years ago, in a paper published in the
Popular Science Monthly * I made the statement that
“ Many of the performances of the lower animals, if
accomplished by men, would be regarded as indications
of the possession of marvellous genius,” and I see no
reason now to change that opinian.

That man can lay out the line of a railroad through
the trackless forest, over lofty mountains and across
deep valleys, is indeed evidence of wonderful mental
achievement. But if the surveyor could dispense with
all his instruments and mathematical calculations, and
were in possession of some mental endowment by
which he could straightway indicate the correct path,
would his performance not be immeasurably more
wonderful ? And would we attempt to belittle it by
assuming that it did not involve reasoning and the use
of syllogisms. If genius has any one quality about

* March 1887.

14

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

which men are agreed, it is that its performances are
inexplicable, either to the individual himself or to
others, in at all events, the most remarkable cases.
Take as instances in very different lines of thought
Newton’s perceptions of quantity and space relations,
and Mozart’s of tone relations. These perceptions were
immediate, and surmounted all ordinary rules of mental
movement. But when a homing pigeon covers 500
miles in so short a time that the rate of speed rises to
40 or 50 miles an hour, showing how straight is the
path by which it reaches its home, we are ready to class
the performance as wonderful for a bird, but not on a
par with any feat of human genius. So far as I know,
no one has as yet explained such a performance. I
have studied this subject, and made some experi-
ments with homing pigeons, but whether we explain
the matter as the exercise of very accurate perceptions
of landmarks — which is not an explanation without
great difficulties when long distances are involved — or
whether we give up the problem and say we have no
experience which enables us to understand it — the
result is still marvellous, and is closer to the per-
formance, of genius than anything else to which it can
be compared. It is to be remembered, too, that we may
find even in imbeciles or idiots certain psychic capa-
bilities as, c.rj. for music, developed to an amazing extent,
so that the generally low intelligence of a pigeon is not
to be set up as a plea of belittlement of its homing
performance.

Therefore, while man is a law unto himself, and to a
certain extent a law to all other creatures, while he
must look within to understand himself and use intro-
spection in attempting to get at the nature of the
psychic life of the lower animals, he must also recognise
the limitations of this final method, and realise that he
may stumble on problems regarding both himself (in

animal intelligence, and how to study it 15

the case of the genius) and the lower animals which
are insusceptible of solution.

I have always thought that this gratuitous assumption
of inferiority in all respects of the lower animals was
an evidence not only of man’s unbounded conceit, but
is further evidence that he had not even realised the
nature of the problems to be solved.

The more I study the subject myself, the more do I
hesitate to adopt outright the explanations already
given by those who have written on the subject.

I think we have of late made rapid progress, but
there is still great need of observation and experiment
without bias. All may gain in modesty and in
knowledge who will in the right way study animal
intelligence. Few people have the qualifications of
long and intimate association with animals, by habit of
personal introspection, etc., etc., to work out the deeper
problems, but we may hope that the number will
increase rapidly in the years to come.

To sum up then, somewhat imperfectly, it would
appear that all human beings, whether civilised or
savage, naturally have an interest in animals because,
consciously or unconsciously, they assume that they
resemble themselves psychically. Possibly the fact
that savages seem the better to understand animals in
some respects is owing to their being able the more
readily to place themselves on their psychic plane.
Closet comparative psychology cannot hope to
accomplish much. He who would understand animals
thoroughly must live among them, endeavour to think
as they think, and feel as they feel, and this at every
stage of their development. Observation, experiment
and introspection are all essential to the student of
comparative psychology, but we must recognise that
there may be problems in both human and comparative
psychology that so far, at all events, as certain indi-

16

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

viduals are concerned, are possibly beyond solution.
Such are probably few in number, and under attack by
new methods may be rendered still fewer ; nevertheless,
it is healthful for man to say now and then after the
fullest study — “ I do not know.” There are states of
our minds which no doubt bear a closer approximation
to those of animals than others, and these should be
seized upon and analysed, if we would understand the
mental life of animals. No small part of our psychic
life differs from that of animals rather in degree than
in kind. Nothing is to be gained for any cause, how-
ever, by overstating the case, and it is a mistake to
claim that between the highest men and the most
intelligent animals there is not a vast difference, even
if we do not go so far as to say there is a great gulf
fixed, as some appear to believe. This is another thing,
however, from assuming that the same holds for the
most lowly developed men and the most highly
developed animals. As to the differences in the latter
case, there is room for great diversity of opinion in the
present state of our knowledge.

Experiments with the lowest classes of men and on
all kinds of animals are urgently needed.

In the meantime a modest, enquiring, open state of
mind is that most becoming and helpful.

COMPAEATIYE PSYCHOLOGY: ITS OBJECTS
AND PROBLEMS.*

The term comparative psychology, in its modern sense,
gives us the widest desirable scope as including all
that pertains to the mind or soul of the animal kingdom.
It may have been at one time considered as highly im-
pertinent to ask whether the lower animals possess
mind, and to substitute the term soul would have been
dangerously suggestive of heterodoxy of a type rapidly
to be extinguished. However, few persons of any
degree of culture will now be found prepared to deny
that the inferior animals have minds. The questions
now to he settled are : What kind of minds ? In how
far do they resemble, and in how far differ from, our
own ? Few, it is true, have considered that they suffi-
ciently resemble the human mind to make it worth
while to investigate the subject at all. Probably the
great mass of persons have been led to believe that
man does and always has occupied a distinctive and
wholly isolated position in the universe of life — a centre
around whom and for whom all other forms exist.
This view seems to me totally unwarranted by the state
of our scientific knowledge at the present day. Further,
it is a view not only without scientific foundation, hut
calculated to lead to pernicious practical results.

By experiments on the lower animals, and by this
means almost wholly, has the science of physiology
been built up. We argue from the case in animals to
the case in man, and consider the inferences thus
derived valuable, even final — possibly too much so ;

* A Presidential Address delivered before the Society for the
Study of Comparative Psychology in 1887.

B

17

18

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

but we are apt to ignore the psychological similarity.
From experiments on the brains of the lower animals
we argue as to the nature of the brain of man. Why
not pursue the comparative method for the soul ?

This condition of things can be traced to the influence
of views still surviving, unscientific, as we believe, as to
man’s origin and place in the universe. At all events,
such views exist and influence practically our treat-
ment of the lower animals. Where man is concerned,
their rights are very seldom considered. The question
is not raised as to whose rights are paramount, but it is
tacitly assumed that when man is involved the brutes
have none. That such views have been up to the
present time operative to the neglect, and often the
positive annoyance, if not the actual persecution and
death of unoffending creatures, will be perfectly plain
to any one who will take the pains to examine into
the case.

If there is to be order in the universe, it must be
conceded that where respective interests clash in
certain cases, that interest and that creature of less
importance must give way to the one of greater
importance ; but man can never act righteously to his
fellow-creatures lower in the animal scale till he
recognises that he is of them not only in his body but
in his mind ; in other words, that they are truly
fellows, or, as some one has expressed it, “poor
relations.” But let this not be said in any pitying
sense, for it can be most clearly shown that in not a
few respects not only are these “ poor relations ” equal
but superior to man.

Physiologists have long been familiar with the higher
development of the senses in animals below man. There
is not a single sense that man possesses in which he
is not excelled by some one animal, often immeasurably.

Many of the performances of the lower animals, if

COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY

19

accomplished by men, would be regarded as indications
of the possession of marvellous genius. In the brutes
they are regarded as the outcome of “ mere instinct,” by
which is meant an endowment acting blindly and in-
capable either of philosophic explanation or of modi-
fication. While the fact seems to be that instincts, as
they exist, are the result of inherited experiences ac-
cumulated through considerable periods of time; that
they may be modified, and are constantly being modi-
fied by new experiences; that they may be lost or
replaced ; and much more that we have still to learn,
many of the instincts of animals are so far removed
from any knowledge or faculty we possess, that they
are at present inexplicable. But man must learn to
say “ I don’t know ” about a great many things still,
instead of assuming the validity of explanations which
are not true solutions at all, but mere assumptions.

And at this point allow me to indicate a danger that
should make us cautious and modest in attempting to
explain the behaviour of animals. We infer from our
fellowman’s behaviour similarity of motive and mental
processes to our own under like circumstances. We
find, the more experience we have, that we are often at
fault as to both. And when we are more free from the
thraldom of so-called systems and methods in educa-
tion, we may learn that the activities of the human
mind can not be reduced in all persons to precisely the
one plan, like so much clockwork. This may mar
somewhat the completeness and beauty of our philo-
sophy of education, but it may also in the end conduce
to human progress by providing the greater freedom,
and end in insuring an individuality of character which
seems to be now rapidly disappearing. Now, if indi-
vidual men so differ in psychic behaviour, how much
more is it likely that still greater differences hold for
the lower animals ! An objection may be based, how-

20

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

ever, on this, to the whole study of comparative psycho-
logy. The objection holds to some extent even for
human psychology; but, as we infer similarity of
behaviour in men to denote similarity of inner pro-
cesses, so are we justified in the same as regards the
lower animals, though it must be conceded somewhat
less so. We must always be prepared to admit that
there may be psychic paths unknown and possibly
unknowable to us in the realm of their inner life. But
if we regard man as the outcome of development
through lower forms, according to variation with
natural selection — in a word, if a man is the final link
in a long chain binding the whole animal creation
together, we have the greater reason for inferring that
comparative psychology and human psychology have
common roots. We must, in fact, believe in a mental
or psychic evolution as well as in a physical (morpho-
logical) one.

It is not inconceivable that special faculties which
do not exist in the lower animals have been implanted
in man ; but the trend of investigation thus far goes to
show that at least the germ of every human faculty
does exist in some species of animal. Nor does such a
view at all derogate from the dignity of superior man,
while it links the animal creation together in a way
that no other can. It opens up the subject for genuine
scientific study ; it tends to beget a respect for the
lower creation, which, while it fosters modesty in man,
also furnishes a foundation for broader sympathy with
those lower in the scale. The opposite view may lead
to our pitying the brute, but can scarcely yield as good
moral fruit. Let but an individual man assume that,
by virtue of something he possesses, he is radically
different from his fellows, and what is the result?
Your genuine aristocrat (in feeling) is a sad stranger
to humanity in general.

COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY

21

But where shall we draw the line ? Formerly the
line was drawn at reason. It wras said the brutes can
not reason. Only persons who do not themselves
reason about the subject with the facts before them
can any longer occupy such a position. The evidence
of reasoning power is overwhelming for the upper
ranks of animals, and yearly the downward limits are
being extended the more the inferior tribes are studied.
Perhaps the highest faculty man possesses is that by
which he generalises and forms conceptions of the
abstract. That animals have imagination or the power
to frame mental pictures of absent objects the grief of
the dog at the absence or loss of his master amply
proves, as does also the capacity of animals to dream.
If, as some assume, abstraction is a necessary part of
reasoning, then it must of course be conceded that
animals have the power of framing abstract concep-
tions. There is a certain amount of evidence that some
animals can count within narrow limits. It is scarcely
possible to account for the conduct of the horse, dog,
elephant, and ape, under certain circumstances, without
believing that they have the power to generalise upon
details. Once concede the power to form abstract
ideas, and there is then the basis for any other faculty
man possesses that is considered usually as peculiarly his.

Have animals a moral nature, or are they capable of
forming a conception of right and wrong ? The answer
to this introduces the question as to method of com-
parison. Should the highest of the inferior animals be
compared with the most civilised races of men, or with
man in his most degraded condition ? That neither of
these comparisons is just can be shown. As capacity
for education is one of the best evidences of mental
ability in both man and inferior animals, and as man’s
civilisation is the outcome of his own intellect, he must
be credited with this as evidence of his superiority.

22

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

It is to be remembered, however, that each marked
advance in progress has been made by the few great
intellects that have appeared, and only accepted, not
originated, by the many; that but for permanent
records in language, much of man’s civilisation would
have been lost as rapidly as acquired; that man’s
civilisation is the growth of thousands of years,
beginning with a condition of tilings scarcely if at all
higher than that now known to some tribes of animals ;
that what any child becomes is really largely depen-
dent upon the training it receives ; the child of the
savage, and that of the civilised man, can not be com-
pared any more than the latter and the inferior animals.
Now, the reverse of all this holds for the lower animals.
So far as any systematic training from man is concerned,
they are very much as they were thousands of years
ago. Before it were possible absolutely to compare the
highest man and the highest animal, it would be
necessary that for ages the effect of culture should be
tried on the lower animals. The astonishing results
achieved in the lifetime of a single animal, and the
results attained by the creation of hereditary specialists
as among dogs, put the whole matter in a light that
shows our usual comparisons to be somewhat unfair.
If the highest among dogs, apes, and elephants be
compared with the lowest among savage tribes, the
balance, whether mental or moral, will not be very
largely in man’s favour — indeed, in many cases, the
reverse.

We are not contending for the equality of man and
the rest of the animal kingdom ; even assuming that
the child and the dog have equal advantages, the child
will still be in many respects superior to the dog ; but
we are desirous of pointing out how much has been
overlooked in all these comparisons between man and
the lower animals. It will be noticed, that all those

COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY

23

species of animals, which have for ages been in contact
with man, have made great advances over their wild
progenitors, evidencing a capacity for education —
mental and moral — which is one of the best demon-
strations of superiority.

The assumption that man is only accidentally the
superior of the brute would but lead to confusion,
for it must be admitted that there is a scale, and that
man ranks first. We are simply desirous of doing the
lower -creation that justice which we feel assured has
not yet been allowed them, and of seeing the human
family interested in those that we think scientific
investigation is proving constantly are much more
our fellow-creatures than has generally been supposed.

If we compare the intelligence and general rectitude
of behaviour of our best races of dogs with the same
in any of their wild carnivorous allies, we are astonished
at the great difference in favour of the dog. To what
is this due ? Largely to what he has become by virtue
of association with man for hundreds if not thousands
of years — that is, to education, after a fashion. Nor
is such influence confined to the dog. Any observing
person, of moderate experience in travel, can call to
mind numerous instances of members of different
classes of animals trained to the performance of many
feats demanding intelligence. But while, in an irregular
way, dogs have been trained to certain duties for the
benefit of man for a considerable period, it can not be
said that any one of the tribes of the lower animals
has ever been subjected to any such mental or moral
discipline as man receives and has received for long
ages. We have ample evidence, in the condition not
only of savage man, but in the neglected classes of
large cities, as to what man would be without such
culture. Sufficient has been said, it is believed, to
show that we are not yet in possession of enough facts

24

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

to enable us to determine exactly the limit of mental
and moral capacity in the lower animals. As yet we
neither know adequately what they are or of what they
are capable. Both these subjects are worthy of human
investigation. Their elucidation must tend to give man
a better knowledge of himself, if only by contrast.

To return to the question of the moral nature of
animals. The study of the dog alone, in the light
of observations accumulated in the literature which are
often true of special individuals in a degree not of the
average animal (a fact which does not, however, at all
invalidate their force), or the study of any dog we may
ourselves own, can not but convince us that a sense of
right and wrong is possessed by that animal. It may
be that the dog does not rise to these conceptions
as understood by the learned divine discoursing from
the pulpit ; but neither does a large proportion of the
congregation when transacting the business of the week.
It may be, and perhaps is, largely true that the right
with the dog means what is in accord with his master’s
will ; that is, the dog may end at the stage in which
every child, even the most highly endowed, is found at
some period of his development. It is a condition
unquestionably in advance, by far, of that of scores
of tribes. Moreover, as in the child, and the less
endowed morally of men, even such ideas of the right
are powerfully operative in producing courses of useful
conduct. They lead to action on the one hand, and to
restraint on the other, instances of which, in the case
of the dog, are abundant, and some of them of a most
touching, we might almost say ennobling, character.
To affirm that the idea of right and wrong of the lower
animals does not rise above the hope of reward and the
fear of punishment is not to keep to the facts, unless
we include as the only reward, in many cases, the
master’s approbation, and the only punishment his

COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY

25

displeasure. When a child arrives at such a stage of
feeling, most persons would not be inclined to deny it
a moral nature and a very good one, too. We might
almost speak of a dog having a religion, with man
as his deity. But as a whole host of qualities —
some of them difficult to classify — go to make up
the character of the human individual so developed
and balanced as to deserve the epithet “gentleman,”
so there are many qualities in the best specimens
of the canine race that we can practically appreciate
better than define.

In all such discussions it must be borne in mind that
if we adopt the theory of organic evolution, we are
almost bound, of necessity, to a belief in the origin
and gradual development of mind from the faintest
glimmerings of consciousness, in the simplest proto-
plasmic creatures ; and that system will be most
philosophical and complete which can fill up the
gaps between the lowest manifestation of any quality
and the highest. Hence, many are inclined to believe
that the great distinction between man’s faculties and
those of animals lower in the scale is difference in
degree and not in hind, certainly in so far as they
run parallel. Such a view does not prevent our
conceiving of additional forms of psychic activity not
represented in man as the possession of the brutes.
That such seems probable will appear when we discuss
some of the problems still demanding solution. Nor
does such a view imply that there may not be avenues
of knowledge of a special kind open to man which are
closed to those lower in the scale, such as a special
revelation from a higher source. So far as we see,
indeed, there are no theological difficulties any more
than with evolution as ordinarily applied to animal and
plant forms.

Man’s present superiority over the lower animals is

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

traceable in large part to his eminently social tendencies,
resulting in the division of labour, with its consequent
development of special aptitudes and its outcome in the
enormous amount of force which he can, on occasion,
bring to bear against the various tendencies making for
his destruction. Indeed, the isolated individual man is
scarcely as well prepared in the struggle for existence
as most other animals. But the extent to which
animals do continue, it may be in pairs or in larger
numbers, to defend themselves against enemies ; hunt
down prey ; rear young ; elude enemies ; overcome
difficulties in travel ; work in concert in the preparation
of dwellings, and in many other instances, has been but
inadequately considered. And in many such cases it is
quite impossible to explain these things by that refuge
of the unthinking or prejudiced, “instinct.” The limits
of an address of this kind do not, of course, permit of
detailed evidence being adduced for the views main-
tained. Such evidence is, however, within the observa-
tion of all to some extent, and is, so far as the literature
is concerned, found in elaborate form in the admirable
writings of Romanes and Lindsay more especially.
Thus much by way of clearing the ground, of preparing
the mind for a careful and earnest study of our fellow-
creatures of the lower grades, without prejudice, and
without fear of any loss of self-respect by the con-
cessions we may be obliged to make.

As to how, so far as the study of comparative
psychology itself is concerned, the objects of this
society may be best advanced, let me now endeavour
to indicate briefly. A great part of the material avail-
able is found in literature of very varying reliability.
In many cases there is so obvious a prejudice in favour
of the particular animals whose performances are
described, that very large deductions must be made.
We shall do well to be more than cautious in what we

COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY

27

accept. At the same time, much that can not be re-
garded as wholly reliable may prove suggestive and
serve as the starting-point of investigations. But there
is no reason why many points now bearing the character
of uncertainty and indefiniteness might not be sub-
mitted to the test of experiment. Doubtless not a few
supposed facts would vanish into thin air if subjected
to such examination. However, I must at the same
time state that a careful perusal of the accounts of the
experiments of even the most skilful investigators by
this method, with its clearly defined but artificially
arranged conditions, has convinced me that such do not
wholly meet the case. They bear with them the danger
of fallacy against which one must constantly be on the
watch. It must always be considered that the great
question is, not how an animal’s mind may act, valuable
as that may be, but how it normally does act ; that is to
say, what are the natural psychic processes of the class of
animals under investigation ? The same caution, in
drawing conclusions, must be observed in the allied
science of physiology, one in which the conditions can
be much more accurately regulated. Plainly, it will be
desirable to keep our facts very sharply apart from our
explanations. The science of psychology is a very
youthful one, that of comparative psychology still more
so ; and, at the present stage of the science, any one
who contributes a single fact will be a real friend to
their progress. We must endeavour to secure a large
number of correspondents who will furnish accurate
accounts of phenomena in this realm, of which they
have been themselves the observers. We must place
all material coming at second-hand by itself, not as
worthless, but as calling for special scrutiny. But so
long as we have facts only, we have no science ; such,
indeed, are as the wood and stone for the building, and,
unless worked up into scientific form, may prove an

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

incumbrance. Let me, then, briefly indicate some of
the problems that have seemed to myself and others as
most urgently demanding solutiou.

One of the questions still far from clear is that which
we had under discussion last year, viz. : In how far can
the lower animals understand man’s various forms of
expression, especially his spoken words ? A priori, we
should not expect that creatures unable to invent words
should have the capacity to understand them in the
sense in which man himself does. I am inclined to
think that more has been claimed for the inferior races
of animals in this direction than an exact examination
of the subject will warrant. On the other hand, we
have probably very much underrated their capacity to
comprehend our various forms of unspoken longuage.
The subject calls for close observation. A kindred
problem is the degree to which various kinds of animals
can communicate with one another. This is a much
more difficult subject, and it may prove that the
creatures we despise as so very much inferior may
have modes of subtle communication which we are,
possibly, incapable even of comprehending.

The whole subject of the senses of the lower animals
is a field for investigation both by the psychologist and
the physiologist ; all the more important, as it is
scarcely possible to understand one form or degree of
sensation adequately, except by comparison with its
lower and higher forms. The field is as yet but little
tilled, but enough has been done to suggest this very
important question : Do the senses of the lower animals
and those of man differ only in degree, or also in kind ?
Is the sense of smell, e.rj. in the dog, merely more
acute, or is it not also characteristically different ? The
latter seems the more probable, when we consider how
different the hearing of man is in some respects (music)
from that of other animals, even the dog.

COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY

29

Among wholly unsolved problems ranks the nature
of the mental processes by which many different tribes
of animals find their way back to the place from which
they have been removed, when the distances involved
are great, and often when they have never travelled so
much as once the way by which they return.

Akin to this, possibly, though perhaps quite different,
is the question as to the nature of the faculties by
which animals are enabled to migrate. “ How a small
and tender bird, coming from Africa or Spain, after
traversing the sea, finds the very same hedgerow in
the middle of England, where it made its nest last
season, is truly marvellous” (Darwin). We are much
in need of more facts in regard to the migrations of
animals; and it is hoped that the systematic work
recently inaugurated by the American Ornithological
Association may lead to useful results in this field.
With regard to the so-called “ homing instinct,” it has
been noticed that savage or semi-savage man possesses
a power of finding his way in the trackless forest by
more accurate observation than that of which the
civilised man seems capable, While this throws light
upon the case of the lower animals, it does but very
inadequately explain it. It may turn out that both of
these puzzles are susceptible of simple explanation ;
but at present they strike me as rather belonging to
that class of psychic phenomena, the meaning of which
can be but inadequately understood by man, owing to
his not possessing the requisite faculties or those
faculties in sufficiently powerful or acute development.
The performances of a Shakespeare and Scott in litera-
ture, or a Beethoven in music, to the mass of men,
must be but imperfectly understood in any proper
sense of realisation. Probably these sons of genius
could have given little account of the “ manner of it ”
themselves. We might hesitate to call such faculties

30

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

as the above in the lower animals genius, or to acknow-
ledge any kinship ; hut genius among men is often as
limited and as disassociated with general mental power
as are certain marvellous faculties in the lower animals.
It may be that migration is accomplished by means of
some forms of acute sensation, according to which the
animal acts more or less blindly. Plainly, no mere
restless impulse can account for the performance,
though it may initiate it. These and many other
problems are before us ; and, like most recondite
problems, they will require the labours of many, each
bringing his little for their solution. But is it not
worth while ? Man can not live by bread alone. We
hunger for completeness in our knowledge and harmony
in our philosophy. But, apart from this philosophical
satisfaction, it cannot but prove for the interests both
of man and the lower animals that the latter should be
better understood.

Belonging, as most of you do, to the veterinary
profession, or, as I should prefer to call it, the pro-
fession of comparative medicine, either as students or
as practitioners and teachers, the more you comprehend
the mental workings and modes of expression of your
patients, the more successfully must you arrive at an
accurate knowledge of their symptoms, and so be the
better prepared to relieve the suffering among them,
and in so doing also advance man’s material interests.
To you, at the present time, must we especially look
for diffusing more enlightened and humane views,
views worthy of this renowned School of Comparative
Medicine, which many of you have come so far to
attend. It will be for you to intervene in cases of
public panic, like that witnessed in connection with the
recent hydrophobia scare ; reassure the public mind,
and protect our fellow- creatures of the lower ranks
from needless molestation. There is probably no class

COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY

31

of men whose daily life-work gives them so large an
opportunity for at the same time acquiring and diffusing
truer views in regard to the lower animals. Your
enthusiasm and success during the first year of our
existence as a Society, have been a matter of equal
surprise and delight to me, especially considering how
fully you are occupied with the ordinary duties of your
profession. "We hope to enlist the interest of others and
bring them into our ranks ; to accumulate a library of
books bearing on this subject; secure a large number of
correspondents from widely separated parts of the
continent, and in various other ways stimulate the
study which we feel calls for and is worthy of man’s
earnest attention.*

I cannot close this address without making grateful
reference on behalf of this Society to the kind manner
in which, in many ways, Principal M'Eachran, and the
Professors of the Veterinary College, have lent their
support to our projects.

COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY.!

In entering upon the third year of our existence as a
Society, it has seemed to me that it might be encouraging
to the older members and instructive to those who are
meeting with us for the first time, to review the work
of the Society for the past two years ; to point out what
we have tried to accomplish and what has been actually
achieved.

* This young Society, so far as known, the only one in
America for the study of Comparative Psychology, is composed
at present almost entirely of the students and teachers of the
School of Comparative (Veterinary) Medicine in Montreal,
though its membership is open to all eligible persons.

t Read before the Association for the Study of Comparative
Psychology in connection with the Montreal Veterinary College, in
1888.

32

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

Believing that men who had chosen Comparative
Medicine as a career, must have some real liking for
those animals, at least, which are classed as domestic,
if not for all creatures that breathe the breath of life,
and feeling assured that a knowledge of the mental
constitution of animals must prove invaluable to the
veterinary surgeon in the diagnosis and treatment of
the diseases of his speechless patients, in the latter part
of the year 1885, I called together such of the students
of the Montreal Veterinary College as were attending
my own classes in physiology, and suggested the desir-
ability of forming some sort of association for the attain-
ment of these objects. Those addressed responded to
my proposals as only young men can. Soon almost
every student in the College joined us. The Principal
and Professors aided, both by smoothing the way and by
active and cordial co-operation. A spacious and com-
fortable room was kindly placed at our disposal in the
Veterinary College building in which to hold our meet-
ings. As the project was tentative, we did not think it
well to fetter ourselves with many rules or regulations.
However, on commencing our second year, we felt
warranted in giving our Association a name, providing
for it a constitution and bye-laws, and taking such other
steps as tended to show that organisation was warranted
as a natural result of growth and development.*

In order to present the history of our Association
within a small space, you will bear in mind that the
accounts of papers read, and the discussions ensuing,
must appear in very condensed form ; and that the com-
ments I have now to make on them must be few, and
rather indicative of the line of investigation we have

* Thus far the Principal of the Veterinary College, D. M‘Eachran,
has been the Honorary President ; T. Wesley Mills, Professor of
Physiology, M'Gill University, President; W. J. Torrance, Record-
ing Secretary. The other offices have been filled by different members
of the Association, including the Professors of the College.

COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY

33

followed, and should continue to pursue, than as state-
ments of established results. Naturally, most of our
studies, though by no means all, have been of the domestic
animals, and, as was to be expected, the dog is the
creature whose mental nature has been most frequently
the subject of our enquiries — and this will likely be the
case in the future, also, for many reasons ; or if we can
establish some conclusions regarding the psychic opera-
tions and development of any one of the lower animals,
we then have more certain ground for comparison, even
if we never succeed in showing that we have any war-
rant for interpreting the mental operations of inferior
animals in terms of those of man. If we could establish
a relative scale of intelligence for animals below man,
much would have been accomplished. The first com-
munication laid before the Society grew out of a paper
read before the Veterinary Association by Principal
M'Eachran. In this communication the behaviour of a
dog that was manifestly possessed of unusual intelli-
gence was described in detail. Among other evidences
of this were his journeys to a baker’s shop to purchase
food for himself. Several such cases are on record, and
as I shall have occasion to bring this matter before you
again shortly, it will not be dwelt upon now. In all such
cases we cannot be too cautious in the explanations we
adopt. Mr Dawes, at the same meeting, sketched the
history of a Cocker Spaniel that, in consequence of early
training, would, on request, fetch any one of six different
articles.

This case led to the important enquiry : In how far,
or in what sense, do animals understand words ? In the
course of the discussion following, it was pointed out
that dogs would answer to their names when uttered
by strangers, in opposition to the view that the animal
was guided chiefly, if not solely, by the general de-
meanour of the person calling the dog, the tone of voice,

34

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

etc. The fact that each individual of a pack of hounds
will respond to his own name is also significant. The
observation that, as noticed by one member, his dog
would answer sometimes to names very similar, as
“ Dick ” and “ Vick,” was not without parallel in the
case of men, and was explicable either by imperfect
hearing or by inattention.

The case, as instanced by a terrier that seemed to
hunt equally well for rats, whether “ cows ” or “ rats ”
was the inciting term, did not furnish a wholly valid
objection, it was thought, for in all such instances the
accompaniments of the utterance of the mere word were
of more significance than the word itself. I shall have
evidence to present to you during this year which I
think will make it clear that at least many dogs really
do know their names in the same sense as very young
children, if not even in a higher sense.

Frequently, during the past two years, the influence
of breed, of the individuality of the owner or trainer
of the animal, of food, and general treatment has been
under discussion.

These questions are not only of the highest theoretical
interest, but of the greatest practical importance. At
one of our meetings certain members advanced a view
favourable to a course of severity in dealing with certain
horses, such, for example, as the “ bucking ” ponies of
the prairies. The President believed that it was of the
utmost importance that such a view should not be
entertained by veterinary surgeons, and that efforts
should be made to eradicate it from the public mind in
so far as it really exists.

Most of the difficulty experienced in managing
animals arises from their not understanding what is re-
quired of them, or from mental associations which have
been established by previous unwise or cruel treatment.
I cannot here refrain from stating the opinion of an

COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY

35

eminent horse-trainer with whom I lately conversed.
He holds that every horse should be broken and trained
by some one more or less of an expert ; that we expect
too great a variety of performance from the same animal.
Each is naturally, to a large extent, best adapted for
some one kind of work — in a word, each is, to a large
degree, fitted to be a specialist. But in this case a good
many drivers would require to be “ broken ” also. The
brutes are constantly suffering from the stupidity, as
well as the moral obliquity of man, their controller, but
not always and in all respects their superior. These
remarks do not apply alone to the horse or the dog. All
animals must first learn that they are to be subject to
man when required ; but, as I have always maintained,
the highest results are to be secured only by kindness
and discretion combined with firmness. A little reflec-
tion will show why this must be so. One does not
facilitate the working of a steam-engine by any sort of
forcible interference with the parts of the apparatus,
but by supplying good fuel and duly oiling the machine
where friction is greatest. So it is for man to study
the mental machinery, so to speak, and provide those
conditions most favourable to harmonious working ; in
a word, man must adapt to nature and not attempt to
make nature adapt to his views. The latter he cannot
do ; her plan was laid before he appeared on the scene.
If an animal is so stupid or so obstinate as not to yield
to such treatment, then it should be abandoned, for it
will not be worth any man’s while to injure his own
moral nature by what is really cruel treatment for the
sake of the value of such an animal.

At another of our meetings Mr Miller referred to the
case of a dog that was very anxious to accompany his
master, resorting to the artifice of placing himself some
two miles in advance on the road usually selected.
There are many such instances, and it seems impossible

36

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

to explain them, except by the exercise of reasoning
power or some mental process closely analogous. But
it must appear superfluous to contend any longer for
the possession of such a faculty in the higher groups of
animals at least. One of our members, Mr Metcalf,
himself the owner of a large number of dogs, referred to
the fact that one of them had a great dislike of beggars,
tramps, and such like persons. From what I have read
of similar and even more marked conduct, from much
that I have seen, and especially in a young dog I now
possess, I am almost persuaded that in certain dogs
such hostility is inborn, and, in certain cases, hereditary.
Mr Metcalf thought that the detention, without injury,
of would-be thieves, as in a case he reported, was
peculiar to the mastiff.

In February 1886, Mr John Miller read a paper on
the dog, with special reference to the Scotch Collie,
which brought out some interesting remarks from a
member who had witnessed the training and perform-
ances of these animals in Scotland. Everything went
to show that the collie dog is a specialist of marked
aptitudes, the result of ages of training and selected
breeding, though his general intelligence is also high.

At the following meeting Mr Ferron reported on the
intelligence of a certain bitch he had observed. The
animal imitated a cat in carrying kittens and in several
other particulars ; she was also remarkable in retentive-
ness of memory, and in other respects. This case was
all the more valuable a study, inasmuch as the animal
had received no training whatever.

The President instanced the case of a brindle bull-
dog that had, on several occasions, found his way home,
a distance of twenty -four miles, and in so brief a time
as to indicate that he must have taken short cuts.
Such cases suggest one of the most interesting and
puzzling enquiries in the whole realm of Comparative

COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY

37

Psychology : the nature of the mental processes by
which animals make their way back by a different
route to places from which they have been taken. I
have given the subject considerable attention, and I
hope before very long to be able to throw some new
light on this vexed question. At this meeting, a paper
published by Dr Packard in the American Naturalist,
for September 1885, on the “Origin of the American
Varieties of the Dog,” was read, on account of the great
interest of the subject. When we consider how widely
the dog has departed from all his supposed ancestors
in Iris physical traits, we are amazed at the extent to
which lower minds can be modified — we might almost
say radically changed — by contact with the dominant
mind of man.

This being the last meeting of the session, the Presi-
dent proposed certain subjects for study during the
summer. These were put in the following form :

To what extent have the lower animals imagination ?
What animals dream ? The persistence and modifica-
tion of instinct. Is there a “ homing instinct ” or a
“ sense of direction ” peculiar to animals ? What
groups of animalsjunderstand mechanical contrivances,
and which can use tools ? How far do the minds of
animals become modified by contact with man ? Have
any animals a special aptitude or a peculiar faculty for
determining where water is to be found ? The special
senses of the lower animals compared with those of
man ; feigning, catalepsy, etc., in the lower animals ; a
moral sense in animals below man.

It is not to be understood that our attention was
devoted exclusively to the dog during our first year of
existence as a Society, but it has appeared to me best
to give a sketch of our investigation of each animal
separately, so I now continue the account of our study
of the dog during last year. Before doing so, it may be

38

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

mentioned that the session was opened by the election
of officers and the delivery of an address by the
President, in which many of the topics proposed for
special study at the close of the previous year were
reverted to, and the objects of the Society indicated.
As this address has been published* and copies of it
are already in the hands of most of the older members,
I shall not further refer to it than to say that the
subject has attracted attention generally, and its treat-
ment, as was expected, has received some criticism.!

To return to our friend the dog. Early in the session,
Mr Simpson made an important communication, the
result of a careful study of a blind Pomeranian dog. Tie
had proved conclusively that this animal understood
his name, and also many other words, such as “ sneeze,”
“ bark,” etc. The dog had been blind for two years, but
had so made use of his remaining senses, and his mental
faculties generally, that he seemed, except in special
cases, but little worse off than before. He recollected
well the location of stable objects, and was able to
make his way successfully through the business portion
of a city of considerable size.

This paper led to much interesting enquiry, and light
was thrown on the subject by comparison with blind
men. Several members referred to cases of the latter
whose history was known to them. The President
thought that there was no doubt that the results, both
in men and the lower animals, were dependent not
only on greater acuteness of the other senses, but on
the greater amount of attention paid by the mind to the
data furnished by the former. It was to be remem-
bered that improvement in the senses, whether in the
blind or others, was largely to be referred to the brain

* “Comparative Psychology: Its Objects and Problems,” Popular
Science Monthly, March 1887.
t Science, vol. ix. Nos. 217, 222.

COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY

39

itself. This was especially clear on studying blind
persons. The progress made even in walking under
difficulties was owing, in the most successful cases, in
great part, to superior brain development. The subject
is of wide scope and of the very highest interest, but
we cannot enter upon a further discussion of it now.
At our January meeting Mr Pease reported some obser-
vations on a black-and-tan bitch. He had proved to
his entire satisfaction that this animal understood the
meaning of certain words perfectly well, in so far as
could be judged by her actions. Thus she never con-
founded such words as “ breakfast,” “ dinner,” “ supper.’
It will be seen that we have given the question of the
extent to which the dog understands words a good deal
of examination. It merits the closest study, for un-
questionably the magnitude of the gap between man
and the lower animals is owing to the capacity of man
to use, and his actual employment of, language. But I
must repeat what I said in my last year’s address, that
it is more than likely that we much under-estimate the
capacity of animals to communicate with each other
by a language of their own.

Unlike the dog, the cat has received very little atten-
tion and consideration from man. There are many
reasons for this neglect, but not least in significance is
the fact that puss is no flatterer ; the dog adapts him-
self to every caprice and whim of his master, but the
cat is always herself. To understand her thoroughly,
to see her at her best, she must be manipulated as a
delicate piece of mechanism, and treated in the very
kindest fashion. When so dealt with, the cat proves to
be by no means only a comparatively untamed em-
bodiment of certain strong instincts. I have main-
tained, and supported the opinion by some evidence,
that the intelligence and possible good qualities of the
cat have been much under-estimated.

40

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

The same may be said of another animal that has
been not only neglected by those interested in the study
of animal intelligence, but misrepresented in general.
I mean the pig. What would the dog be to-day if he
had, for hundreds of years, been valued only for his
flesh, and kept exclusively to be fattened for food?
The hog is charged with being dirty, stupid, and ob-
stinate. Why should an animal, overburdened with flesh
and fat, and consequently a sufferer from the heat of
summer, be so much blamed for betaking himself to a
pool even if muddy ? Man is largely responsible for
enforcing conditions involving filth on the hog. That
this animal is not lacking in intelligence has been
shown by his having been taught to hunt like a dog,*
and by an interesting case reported to our Association
by Mr Frank Miller. The animal was of the Chester
White breed, had been trained at the age of four
months, knew his name, would dance to music, go
seek when told, lie down, and obey other commands.
You will at least agree that the hog is worthy of
further consideration at our hands. Circumstances were
mentioned by one of our members which pointed very
strongly to the possibility of hogs having hibernating
capacity. This subject is of great physiological interest,
and not without its bearings on Comparative Psychology;
any new light on the subject, so far as animals,
especially, are concerned, would be very welcome.

We have had a few communications on the intelli-
gence of our domestic grazing animals. Mr Torrance
had observed that sheep had acted, on different
occasions, as if they were aware of the approach of
storms still distant. Their behaviour, in seeking
shelter, had been coincident with changes in the baro-
metric pressure.

* “Animal Intelligence,” by G. J. Romanes, p. 339.

COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY

41

Numerous reports from the sites of recent earthquake
shocks by observers of unquestionable reliability have
shown that many different kinds of animals were
sensible of something abnormal, which caused in them
manifestations of uneasiness or fear, some seconds before
anything unusual was noticed by man. As I hope to
show on some other occasion, such indications of acute
sensibility, on close observation, throw much light on
certain vexed questions in the science of Comparative
Psychology.

Among wild animals we have had several short but
interesting communications on the gopher of the
prairies ; also a very carefully prepared paper from
Mr Harris, giving the results of his own investigations
of the beaver and his work in the Canadian North-
West* Confirmations of these observations and addi-
tions thereto were offered by another member who bad
much experience of life on the prairies. It becomes
very clear that the. beaver is not only an animal of
strongly pronounced instincts, but of great capacity to
adapt itself to circumstances (plasticity of instinct, etc.).
I again raise the question : What is the mental differ-
ence between the performances of the beaver and those
of a man with marked genius for engineering operations,
apart from all training ? Only prejudice can prevent
us seeing that this is a case of the highest suggestive-
ness, and it is, to me, replete with instruction. The
time would fail me to attempt to even indicate to you
how far-reaching is such an enquiry. I cannot help
thinking that man would both understand himself
better and have a truer insight into the inner life of the
so-called inferior animals if he could get rid of some
of his conceit, and regard himself rather as of, than

* This paper has since been published, by request of the editoi-, in
the Canadian Journal of Fabrics.

42

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

apart, from the rest of the animal creation. The
achievements of the nineteenth century are great; so
also is its conceit.

The study of the apes and monkeys, on account of
undoubted physical and mental resemblances to man,
is naturally of the greatest interest. Accordingly, a
communication from Mr Clement on a monkey he had
kept under observation was welcomed by the Associa-
tion. This creature’s curiosity, observing powers,
retentiveness of memory, and confidence in his owner,
in contrast with a shyness towards strangers, were
pronounced. His power of imitation, it was thought,
had much to do with his mental progress. The
superiority of this monkey, as in other cases, was
evidenced by his capacity for education. As Mr
Clement well observed, there was much in the crea-
ture’s behaviour that suggested the child. The Presi-
dent had, in the case of this individual, verified
Darwin’s statement that monkeys have an instinctive
fear of snakes. When this animal was offered a dead
snake in a paper bag, he cautiously peeped in and then
ran away in terror, nor could he be induced to go near
the bag again. I may mention, incidentally, that there
is now, in Central Park Menagerie, New York, a
remarkable chimpanzee, of an intelligent expression of
countenance so human-like as to be positively startling.
If now he could but stumble on speech, what then ?
It seems not unlikely that the superiority of the
monkey’s brain over that of other animals may be
owing in part to the use of the fore-limb as a hand.
It has even been suggested that the greater brain-
weight of man, compared with that of woman, may, in
part, be the result of his more pronounced muscular
development.

We have endeavoured to throw some light upon the
question as to whether any animals have a special

COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY

43

aptitude in finding water. There is a certain amount
of evidence in the affirmative as regards frogs, turtles,
and allied animals. A member, well acquainted with
life on the plains, referred to the fact that thirsty
travellers are accustomed to follow a “ buffalo rut ” in
the confident hope of finding water. We need more
exact information on such subjects very much.

Turn inn; now to that most faithful servant of man,
the horse, we must confess to having made less progress
than in the study of the dog ; and I would suggest that
the reason is partly to be found in the very fact, that
this animal is a servant, rather than a companion, of
man. The whole nature of the horse is restrained and
modified so that he may be adapted to human uses, and
as a result, we fail to see him in his true nature, as a
freely developing animal. The horse has become, to a
large extent, a living automaton ; as such, he is an
interesting evidence of the dominance of one in-
telligence and will over another, but the real nature
of the animal is, in consequence, much obscured. We
have had, however, many interesting communications
on the horse. At an early meeting of the Association
Mr Dawes presented the formulated opinions of an
expert trainer. Among the most important of these
are the following : Horses know their names ; they
recognise each other after long separation ; the develop-
ment of high-speed trotting is largely dependent on the
intelligence displayed in the training; horses exhibit
judgment in the choice of track and in jumping hurdles;
some horses neigh when the groom is seen at the feed-
box or the water-tap ; some even attempt to turn the
tap ; horses frequently endeavour to throw vexatious or
unskilful riders. I shall be glad to communicate to
the Association the results of an important interview I
had during the past summer with an eminently success-
ful trainer. His experience confirms and amplifies

44

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

views I have on more than one occasion expressed
before you.

Several members stated that they had noticed that
horses have a special dread of bears, and could scent
them at a great distance. Some horses were also afraid
of a fur coat. No one, however, seemed to be able to
explain why this fear should attach to bears more than
to other ferocious animals ; one would expect, in fact,
that there would be much more danger to the horse
from wolves than bears. Is this the remnant of a
once powerful instinctive fear? At a later meeting
Mr Dawes continued the subject of equine psychology.
He explained that a mare in his possession had learned
to overcome, in succession, different mechanical con-
trivances, such as buttons, fastenings, etc., which had
been placed on the feed-box to prevent its being opened.
Mr Dawes also instanced the behaviour of one of his
horses, which showed considerable intelligent association
of ideas. This animal was accustomed to being driven
to the railroad station, and on certain occasions, on
hearing the whistle of the approaching train, had
started off on his own account, and after the train had
left he had returned home. The ability of horses to
remember incidents, sometimes trivial, after the lapse
of years, was testified to by several members.

Mr Ferron has also favoured us with some interesting
facts in regard to the intelligence of trotting horses ;
and the Principal of the College has pointed out
instances of equine sagacity of a very striking kind.
Horses had even come to the College hospital for treat-
ment of their own accord. While all our domestic
animals amply repay good treatment, of none is this
more true than of the horse. To take advantage of
this animal’s gentle, sensitive, plastic nature to subject
it to abuse, is the part only of a savage, and not of a
civilised human being. It is not to be forgotten that

COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY

45

ill-treatment of the brutes reacts on the moral nature
of the man that is guilty of it; in injuring them he
injures himself far more.

But the time fails me. This is necessarily a very
inadequate account of our work up to the present — a
mere sketch — but I hope it may suffice to encourage
old members and to arouse the interest and enthusiasm
of those now entering to fill the places of the men who
have left us, and whose efforts in this cause we must
gratefully remember. There is one thing which cannot
in any way be represented to others, and that is the
delight we have experienced in meeting together to
discuss the inner and, unfortunately for us, so much
hidden life of those beings that we have learned to
regard with more and more respect, and to consider
fellow-creatures. It will take some time to educate the
public mind up to the point of realising how much
these animals are really deserving of serious, respectful
consideration. To the enlightened veterinary surgeon
must we especially look for an improvement of the
condition of our domestic animals, and in no way can
this be accomplished more effectually than by learning
their true nature and making that known. We wish
to reach only the truth. No cause is in the end
advanced by over-statement of the facts.

Sensible rather of how much is still to be done, than
satisfied with our past progress, we renew our enquiries
in the firm belief that an honest, humble search after
truth will never be in vain.

PSYCHOLOGY AND COMPARATIVE
PSYCHOLOGY*

It is now more than ten years since I suggested to a
few of the students of this Faculty of Comparative
Medicine that it might he interesting and profitable to
band together for the study of the psychic nature of
animals, particularly those animals with which we are
brought into daily contact.

In December 1885, at a meeting called to consider
the subject, it was unanimously decided that a Society
should be formed to study Animal Intelligence as best it
could. Practically all the students, and those teachers
more immediately connected with the work of this
Faculty, joined the Association and entered into the new
project with enthusiasm. It was early decided that
only material obtained either at first hand, or from the
most reliable sources, should be brought before the
Association, and that principle, the wisdom of which
will not be questioned, has been acted upon throughout.

Whatever the value of the papers and discussions
which have engaged our attention, it may be fairly
claimed that the facts upon which they have been
based were beyond question. The first essential in any
student of nature is a strong desire to know the truth,
and, therefore, a great respect for exact observation at
the outset. While theories change — and this is inevitable
owing to the imperfection of our grasp of many-sided
truth — a fact is always a fact. The patient collection of
facts, so well illustrated by the illustrious Darwin, when

* An Address delivered to the Association for the Study of Com-
parative Psychology in Montreal, 1896.

46

PSYCHOLOGY AND COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY 47

theorising without very great regard to them was so
tempting in framing explanations of organic nature, is a
work that the world long undervalued, and the import-
ance of which it is to be feared all psychologists at the
present day do not adequately appreciate.

In this, at all events, our unpretentious Association
may claim to have trodden in the safe path. At the end
of our first decade of existence it may be profitable to
review what has been accomplished. It could scarcely
be expected that the members of this Association, being
for the most part undergraduates, whose time is largely
taken up with professional studies, should be able to
make elaborate original researches worthy of publica-
tion. From the first, however, our proceedings have
been given to the public in condensed form by the local
Press, and evidence has been abundant on every hand
that one of the results has been an altered attitude of
mind on the part of many intelligent persons in this city
towards the animal world about us, notably our domestic
species. This is not a work to be despised, for the wel-
fare of our fellow-creatures lower in the scale is largely
dependent on the views we entertain of their psychic
nature.

It is surely not to be supposed that such studies as
have engaged the members of our Association are with-
out a value of a professional kind ; for in the handling
of sick animals, in diagnosing their exact condition, in
appreciating their sensations, and generally in under-
standing their entire nature, the man who observes and
reflects on such things must be more competent as a
veterinarian, other things being equal, and certainly a
more agreeable visitor to both patients and clients.

But it is difficult, in my opinion, to over-estimate the
good to the individual who, in the right spirit, studies
animals. A frame of mind is established which, even
when one exaggerates animal intelligence, is rarely

48

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

practically harmful — often the reverse — and nearly
always begets sympathy and modesty.

Psychology has passed through great changes during
even the last decade. Now almost every college in
America of much importance has its Chair of Psy-
chology, and many colleges are provided with psycho-
physical laboratories. In America alone there are two
periodicals devoted to this subject, and at last peda-
gogical institutions are attempting to found the training
for teachers on the laws of the mind, i.e. on psychology.
In fact no recent educational movement has been more
widespread in its influence, or more rapid in its develop-
ment, than the modern psychology.

The scope and methods of the science have also
changed. While none the less introspective, it has be-
come more objective. The allied science of physiology
owes something to psychologists, notably in the direc-
tion of a more complete and accurate study of the senses,
and keen criticism of positions assumed by physiologists
in regard to the central nervous system.

The psychologists have borrowed freely from the realm
of mental and nervous disease, all of which marks a
new departure from which not only psychology, but
physiology and practical and scientific medicine, must
benefit.

It is usually a hopeful sign when methods of exact
estimation begin to be applied to any science. There has
been much diversity of opinion as to the extent to which
this can he or has been successfully done in psychology.
In the opinion of one of the most accomplished workers
in this department of the science, who occupied the Pre-
sidental Chair at the last meeting of the American
Psychological Association, there can be no doubt about
the value of such methods and their application. He
says : “ I venture to maintain that the introduction of
experiment and measurement into psychology has added,

PSYCHOLOGY AND COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY 49

directly and indirectly, new subject-matter and methods,
has set a higher standard of accuracy and objectivity,
has made some part of the subject an applied science
with useful applications, and has enlarged the field and
improved the methods of teaching psychology.”

But what shall we say of the status and prospects of
Comparative Psychology ? The works of Romanes were
well known prior to the beginning of the last decade.
They may be considered as marking about the first
serious attempts to treat the subject of Comparative
Psychology in a truly scientific spirit, and in a form ac-
cessible to the intelligent portion of the general public.

Much later appeared the books of Professor Lloyd
Morgan — works which possess the charm of unusual
clearness. If Romanes was open to the charge of claim-
ing too much for animals, Morgan is certainly cautious
enough to please the most conservative, unless it be
those who deny true intelligence to animals entirely.

It is a hopeful sign of the times in psychology that
a professor of philosophy, Dr Carl Groos, of Giessen,
has found material for a book of considerable size on
the play of animals, a subject which has been treated
by him with interest, learning, and critical acumen.

Animal intelligence is more and more attracting the
attention of the professed psychologist and biologist,
and that both realise the difficulties of the subject,
while its importance is acknowledged, is of good omen.
Comparative psychology is now beyond the stage of
neglect and contempt, though there are those who seem
to think that before we can judge of the mental
processes of animals, much greater progress must first
be made in the study of the human mind ; in other
words, they would take their standards, their criteria,
from human psychology. That we must in the end find
the clue to interpretation from ourselves there is no
doubt, but is it not the fact that every complicated

D

50

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

subject has been advanced by studies on a lower plane
and by the process of comparison ? Anatomy and
mammalian embryology would scarcely be worthy of
the name of sciences to-day but for studies conducted
on simpler forms. Do not psychologists sometimes
forget, as anatomists long did, that the human is
scarcely to be comprehended apart from the study of
simpler creatures ? Should we not look at psychology
as the naturalist now does at zoology, and endeavour to
discover the various grades in psychic processes, if such
there be, and it is only, so far as I can see, by com-
parative investigation that their existence or non-
existence can be established.

To do such work at its best requires a knowledge of
both biology and psychology, and an intimate acquaint-
ance with the ways of animals. Closet lucubrations
cannot be expected of themselves to advance com-
parative psychology very much.

Might not human psychology be made more objective
still, and is not the amount of wheat garnered much
out of proportion to the quantity of sheaves brought to
the thresher ? Has individual psychology received the
attention it deserves ? Might not the inductive method
be more fully applied to psychology ? I have long been
convinced that differences for races and for individuals
have been insufficiently recognised in physiology, and
at last there seems to be a reaction against the former
reckless leaps from frog or rabbit to man.

The physiologist cannot, however, afford to ignore
the frog or the rabbit even when his goal is man ; nor,
if I may venture to express an opinion, can the psy-
chologist do so either without some loss — possibly
great loss — to his subject.

I hope to see published, in the next few years,
detailed studies on many individual human beings of
both sexes, and also on individual animals. We must

PSYCHOLOGY AND COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY 51

have more facts for our conclusions. The departures
of French psychologists are very welcome, whatever
the final outcome may be. It cannot be doubted that
the study of hypnotism, double personality, and morbid
states of various kinds has greatly advanced our know-
ledge of the normal man and his fellows lower in the
scale ; and I should be disposed to say that the
investigation of the psychic processes of animals aids
in the comprehension of even such abnormal states as
those to which reference has been made.

At the recent great Psychological Congress at
Munich there was, among others, a Department for
Comparative Psychology ; and an Endowed Lectureship
on this subject has recently been established at
Aberdeen, so that it is clear that in this, as in other
directions, the world is moving.

If my view is correct that we are in need of vastly
more facts and observations, then is there room for
many workers. The experimental has a wide range of
application in Comparative Psychology, and as yet
but little has been done. In this direction, as I have
urged for years on our members, we could do much
to advance the subject we have at heart.

It has been my happy privilege to attend every
meeting of this Association held since its foundation,
and, reviewing the work of the past ten years, 1 feel
that, although it has been a humble one, the Society for
the Study of Comparative Psychology in Montreal has
not existed in vain.

PART II.

SQUIRRELS: THEIR HABITS AND INTELLI-
GENCE, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
FEIGNING.

WITH AN APPENDIX

Upon the Chickaree, or Red Squirrel.

I.

Until recently tlie habits of animals seem to have
been considered simply as interesting manifestations of
their life, but without any special reference to their
relations to the intellectual part of the creatures
concerned. But unless we assume that animals are
devoid of mind and true intelligence — an extreme and
untenable position — there must be a possible science of
Comparative Psychology, as there is of Comparative
Anatomy and Physiology. The study of animal intelli-
gence is possible, interesting, and important, whether
we regard man as derived from some lower form, and
his intellectual as well as his physical being the result
of evolution, or whether we consider that man stands
wholly apart in origin either as to body or mind. In
the latter case the study of the lower forms of mind
affords a useful contrast with its highest develop-
ment as seen in man ; in the former we aim at the
construction of a ladder by which we may climb from
the simplest manifestations of consciousness to the
highest performances of the most gigantic human
intellect.

I have selected the study of squirrel psychology as

52

SQUIRKELS

53

the subject of this paper, because so little seems to have
been written on the subject ; because these animals are
open to the observation of every one; ancl chiefly
because I have been able to give special attention to
them myself. Their habits will be considered
principally, but not exclusively, from the psychological
standpoint, and I shall apply the comparative method,
making such references to the habits and intelligence
of other rodents as seem to throw light on those of the
squirrel. While some attention has been paid to other
species of squirrels, my studies have been chiefly on the
Ground Squirrel ( Tamias Lysteri ) and the Eed Squirrel
( Scnirus Hudsonius ).

These species, in many respects, form a contrast to
each other. The Chipmunk, Chipping Squirrel, or
Hackee, has his abode underground in a specially
constructed burrow; the Eed Squirrel, or Chickaree,
lives in nests in trees, and the intelligence of the
latter seems to be altogether of a much higher order
than in the Ground Squirrel. This was abundantly
illustrated in my experiments with an ordinary wire
rat-trap having a spring door. The trap was scarcely
laid down near the haunts of the Chipmunk before one
entered it, in fact before my eyes, and there was never
any difficulty in securing as many as were wanted.
On several occasions, when one had escaped in the room,
on placing a small apple in the cage, the creature
re-entered it almost at once.

Very different was it with the Eed Squirrels ; at first
they entered the trap, but not afterwards. They
approached it, sometimes two or three together, ran
round it on the upper rail of the fence on which it was
placed, or sat on the top of it — in short, did everything
but enter it ; all the while seeming to enjoy the whole
greatly.

Having secured a couple of Ground Squirrels in the

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

manner described, I kept them under observation for
the period during which they survived, viz., one for
about a month and the other for between two and
three months. From the first one of them seemed to
take more kindly to his new surroundings than the
other; one appeared shy and dull, while his fellow
seemed as happy as any Chipmunk might be. They
were captured in September, and it has often occurred
to me that their habit of hibernation had something to
do with the behaviour of the one, though we should
expect that, in such a matter, both would be equally or
considerably affected. The degree to which, while
retaining their original habits, the latter became
modified in confinement, furnished me with an interest-
ing study, and suggested many problems. My ex-
perience does not agree wholly with that of Audubon
and Bachmann, who say in their “ Quadrupeds of
North America”: “We are doubtful whether this

species can at any time be perfectly tamed.” The one
of my Chipmunks that survived longest became, in a
short time, so tame that he would eat from the hand,
and even looked to be fed in this way. True, any
noise, or any unusual movement, might startle the
creature, when he would make the quick dart away
so characteristic of the species in the wild state, but
from this he very quickly recovered, and the tendency
to be thus frightened grew less and less. The authors
referred to also state that “ they appeared to have some
aversion to playing on a wheel, which is so favourite
an amusement of the true squirrels.”

This does not at all agree with my observations,
for though at first my Chipmunk was apt to be startled
when he found the revolver of his cage moving on his
entering it, he soon got used to it, and delighted in it as
much as any squirrel could — in fact, he used it by
night and by day, manifesting an ability to control it

SQUIRRELS

55

which speaks much for the readiness with which such
animals adapt themselves to new and difficult move-
ments, and which shows how highly developed those
parts of the brain must be which are concerned in the
balancing and kindred functions. I may here correct
another statement of the same authors. They maintain
that squirrels do not lap fluids as the dog and cat.
From repeated observations I know this to be an error,
so far as the Ground Squirrel is concerned at least.

It has usually been assumed that squirrels, and
indeed most rodents, feed wholly on vegetable food,
and that in those instances in which the contrary has
been observed, there was evidence of a perverted or
morbid appetite. Audubon and Bachmann, however,
state that the Flying Squirrel ( Pteromys volucella, Des.)
has been caught in traps baited with meat. A number
of writers,* especially within the past few years, have
drawn attention to flesh-eating habits in several rodents,
mostly under peculiar circumstances. Some interest-
ing questions arise in this connection : (1) In how far
is any rodent carnivorous when abundance of all the
different kinds of vegetable food that the animal uses
is at hand ? (2) What is the relation between

confinement and altered appetites ? (3) In how far are
such altered appetites evidence of morbid or perverted
conditions, and in how far simply the expression of
physiological needs ? The whole subject, I am inclined
to think, might be placed on a broad and sound
physiological foundation, but before that can be done,
many accurate observations are required, and possibly
also many series of experiments. If we may judge by
the common house rat, rodents possess unusual plasticity
as to feeding and other habits, and not less as regards
their mental life. I found that my Chipmunk would

* Science , vol. viii ; Canadian Naturalist, vol. iii.

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

take a great variety of foods, though the experiment
of feeding with meat was not tried. He drank milk
greedily.

There is one very peculiar habit, interesting from a
physiological point of view, to be observed in squirrels
in confinement. A writer in Nature (vol. x.) says: —

I have noticed that whenever it [the squirrel] cleans
itself, after licking, it sneezes violently three or four
times into its fore-paws, then rubs them, thus damped,
over its fur.” And this writer raises the question as to
whether this habit, which he believes voluntary, was
confined to squirrels. He does not mention what sort
of a squirrel his own was, but I have noticed this
behaviour as of the most frequent occurrence in my
caged Chipmunk. It seems to me, on the whole, most
natural to consider it a voluntary act of the same
character, and possibly for a similar purpose, as
clearing the throat in the human subject, or perhaps
even blowing the nose ; and I am the more inclined
to believe that it is voluntary from the account given
of the Flying Squirrel, as observed by Prof. G. H.
Perkins, and recorded in the American Naturalist
(vol. vii.). This writer states that on one occasion his
squirrel lapped some ink, but shortly afterwards
manifested disgust, and indulged in violent sneezings.
Under these circumstances it is difficult to understand,
by anything in our own experience, how the act could
have been reflex.

Speaking of the relative intelligence of squirrels, this
writer says : — “ I am inclined to believe that the Plying
Squirrel does not possess as much intelligence as the
Grey or Red, or some other species.” Prom the entire
account of the Plying Squirrel given by Prof. Perkins,

I should suppose that the intelligence of this species
and that of the Ground Squirrel are about on

SQUIRRELS

57

a par — the explanation of which will be considered
later.

A question of much interest to the naturalist and
psychologist, it seems to me, is the following, viz. to
what extent the intelligence of animals that hibernate
has been modified by this process, and in what directions?
With regard to hibernation, so far as the squirrels are
concerned, there seems to be great dearth of accurate
observations — in fact, the same remark applies to the
whole subject of hibernation, one of the most interesting
in the whole realm of physiology. A number of obser-
vations are to be found scattered through the literature,
but they are fatally lacking, in most cases, in precision
of observation and accurate record of dates. From a
short but valuable paper on the “ American Chipmunk,”
in the Popular Science Monthly (vol. vii.), by Dr C.
Abbott, we are led to believe that the Ground Squirrel
spends some time in his burrow before hibernation
begins, and that the food laid up is consumed in part
before the winter torpor sets in, and more especially in
spring before a fresh supply is obtainable in the usual
way. Concerning the winter habits of other species,
I have been able to learn nothing from any quarter
that definitely settles the question as to whether they
hibernate or not. Audubon and Bachmann (loc. cit.)
state that as much as one bushel and a half of nuts
has been found in a single hollow tree occupied by
a Chickaree, or Bed Squirrel. They also state that this
species may have several hoards. From different
remarks dropped by these writers, from what I have
myself observed, and from the statements of Dr Bell in
the valuable notes appended to this paper, I am inclined
to the belief that the Red Squirrel, and some other
species, do not regularly hibernate the whole winter
through; but whether they hibernate at all, in the
true sense of that term ; whether they have short

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

58

periods of hibernation followed by intervals of con-
sciousness, during which they feed ; whether they
remain in a condition of partial torpor, with slow-
ing of all the vital processes, and yet not in absolute
insensibility and with cessation of respiration, etc.
— all these questions seem to be as yet wholly un-
decided.

It has long been known that many cold-blooded
animals hibernate and, under altered conditions,
aestivate; it is further believed that among warm-
blooded animals, besides bats, many rodents, and some
allied animals hibernate. But when the matter is
looked into carefully it is found that the term “ hiber-
nation ” has been used in a loose and very plastic sense
by different authors. It is highly desirable, therefore,
that writers should state exactly to what extent the
animal they describe as “torpid,” “hibernating,” or
“ in winter-sleep,” deviates functionally from the
normal ; also, that the exact time of the observations
be recorded. There is a certain amount of evidence
that even birds, representing the highest type of
activity, may possibly hibernate, and that many
animals, not usually thus affected, may become so
under exceptional circumstances — indeed that man
himself, owing to peculiar states of the nervous system,
may pass into a condition (“ trance ”) having much in
common with the hibernation of lower animals. I
think it is very probable that, when the matter has
been fully investigated, all degrees of cessation of
functional activity will be found represented, from the
normal daily sleep of man and other animals to the
lowest degree of activity consistent with the actual
maintenance of life. The Flying Squirrel is nocturnal
in habits and exceedingly active, even in confinement,
as Prof. Perkins (loc. cit.) has shown ; but during the
day-time it seems not to be correspondingly quick — in

SQUTkKELS

a condition, in fact, resembling somewhat that of a
hibernating animal. The “ diurnal hibernation ” of the
bat is not to be forgotten. I noticed that my Chip-
munk invariably, after feeding, tucked his head down
and assumed a more or less ball-like form, highly
suggestive of a tendency to hibernation.

There are many questions that arise in connection
with this subject, one of which bears directly on the
subject of Comparative Psychology : How and to what
extent is the intelligence of animals influenced by
hibernation ? It may be considered pretty clear that
both the Ground Squirrel and the Plying Squirrel
hibernate, and these are certainly among the lowest —
perhaps are actually the lowest — in intelligence of the
whole tribe. We know that struggle among higher
animals develops mental adaptation and other forms
of intelligence, and it is rational to suppose that those
species of squirrels that do not hibernate throughout
the winter, but endeavour to prevail over their sur-
roundings, as well as to adapt themselves to them,
should be more intelligent than those spending a large
portion of each year in inactivity.

My Chipmunk, during its captivity, under certain
circumstances, kept to his original habits, e.g. when a
single nut was given him he would eat it immediately,
but if several were presented at once he would hide
them, one by one, in a corner of his cage, or, if sufficiently
small, pack them away in his cheek-pouches. He did
the same with cereal grains. When cotton-wool or
web-like material was placed in the cage he manipu-
lated it a good deal, but finally made a bed of it, in
which he buried himself out of sight.

Within the last ten years attention has been called
to “ singing ” in certain rodents, especially mice ; but
from numerous references in the literature it appears
that “ singing,” or something analogous to it, has been

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

noticed in a large number of rodents.* The well-
known note of the Chipmunk, from which it has
derived its name, is the only one I have heard from it.
After studying a colony of Eed Squirrels for some
weeks last summer, I came to the conclusion that they
have a capacity of vocal expression much greater than
is commonly believed. Their usual “ barking,” or trill-
ing, seems to be the commonest, the most instinctive,
and not largely expressive of anything beyond general
satisfaction ; but, I found that, under excitement, there
were many other tones, associated with great complexity
of emotion, which I am not prepared to analyse, but
which there can be little doubt the creatures themselves
employ as a means of inter-communication. Under
marked excitement, as the result of repeated inter-
ferences, I have heard a Eed Squirrel so mingle tones
of a musical kind that, a stranger arriving on the spot,
would certainly have been deluded into the belief that
he was listening to some bird, or rather to an excited
pair of birds. The musical character of this combina-
tion, together with its continuity and complexity, would
perhaps justify the designation “song.” One of the
writers on musical mice refers to their singing but
little in certain instances, except when excited, which
is a point of analogy with the Chickaree.

It would appear, therefore, that it is likely that
throughout the order Eodentia a genuine musical
appreciation and executive capacity exists, and, in some
instances, in a very high degree ; and that apart from
this, there is also considerable ability displayed in the
expression of states of emotion, at least, by vocal forms.
Manifestly, the degree to which animals can express
their psychic states — and especially in vocal forms — is
a matter of the greatest importance, and I have already

* See especially Nature, vol. xv. ; Popular Science Monthly, vol. i. ;
and the American Naturalist.

SQUIRRELS

61

expressed my conviction that animals have a power of
communicating with each other, altogether beyond
what has been generally surmised. The subject is
beset with great difficulties, and calls for the closest
observations.

II.

I propose, in this second part of my paper, to discuss
the subject of feigning in animals, and shall give, as a
basis for my views in the case of the squirrels, an
account of two Chickarees, in which such behaviour
was strikingly manifested.

Case I.

I was standing near a tree in which a Eed Squirrel
had taken up a position, when a stone thrown into the
tree was followed by the fall of the squirrel. I am
unable to say whether the squirrel was himself struck,
whether he was merely shaken off, or how to account
exactly for the creature’s falling to the ground.
Running to the spot as quickly as possible, I found the
animal lying apparently lifeless. On taking him up, I
observed not the slightest sign of external injury. He
twitched a little as I carried him away and placed him
in a box lined with tin, and having small wooden slats
over the top, through the intervals of which food might
be conveyed. After lying a considerable time on his
side, but breathing regularly, and quite free from any
sort of spasms such as might follow injury to the
nervous centres, it was noticed that his eyes were open,
and that when they were touched winking followed.
Determined to watch the progress of events, I noticed
that in about an hour’s time the animal was upon his

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feet, but that he kept exceedingly quiet. The next day
he was very dull — ill, as I thought — and I was inclined
to the belief, from the way he moved, that possibly one
side was partially paralysed ; but finding that he had
eaten a good deal of what had been given him (oats), I
began to be suspicious. Notwithstanding this apparent
injury, that very day, when showing a friend the
animal, on lifting aside one of the slats a little, he
made such a rush for the opening that he all but
escaped. On the third day after his capture, having
left the sitting-room (usually occupied by two others
besides myself) in which he was kept for a period of
about two hours, I was told, on my return, by a maid-
servant and a boy employed about the house, that some
time previously the squirrel had escaped by the window,
and, descending the wall of the house, which was
“ rough-cast,” he had run off briskly along a neigh-
bouring fence, and disappeared at the root of a tree.
When asked if they saw any evidence of lameness,
they laughed at the idea, after his recent performances
before their eyes. For several days I observed a squirrel
running about, apparently quite well, in the quarter in
which my animal had escaped, and I feel satisfied that
it was the squirrel that I had recently had in confine-
ment, but, of course, of this I cannot be certain.

I believe, now, that this was a case of feigning, for
if the injury had been so serious as the first symptoms
would imply, or if there had been real paralysis, it
could not have disappeared so suddenly. An animal,
even partially paralysed, could scarcely have escaped as
he did and show no signs of lameness. His apparent
insensibility at first may have been due to catalepsy or
slight stunning. But while there are elements of
doubt in this first case, there are none such in that
about to be described.

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63

Case II.

A Chickaree was felled from a small tree by a gentle
tap with a piece of lathing. He was so little injured
that he would have escaped had I not been on the spot
where he fell and seized him at once. He was placed
forthwith in the box that the other animal had occupied.
He manifested no signs whatever of traumatic injury.
One looking in upon him might suppose that here was
a case of a lively squirrel unwell, but events proved
otherwise. He ate the food placed within the box, but
only when no one was observant. He kept his head
somewhat down, and seemed indifferent to everything.
When a stick was placed near his mouth he savagely
bit at it ; but when a needle on the end of the same
stick was substituted he evinced no such hostility. He
made no effort to escape while we were in the room,
but, on our going down to dinner, he must at once have
commenced work, for, on returning to the room in half-
an-hour, he was found free, having gnawed one of the
slats sufficiently to allow him to squeeze through.
With the assistance of a friend he was recaptured, but
during the chase he showed fight when cornered, and
finally, as he was being secured, I narrowly escaped
being bitten. He was returned to his box, which was
then covered with a board weighted with a large stone.
Notwithstanding, he gnawed his way out through the
upper corner of the box during our absence on one
occasion shortly afterwards.

I think a more typical case of feigning than this one
could scarcely be found.

The accounts of these two cases are based upon notes
taken at the time, and this brings me to the most
interesting, and at the same time the most difficult
series of enquiries connected with the whole subject,
viz. What, upon analysis, is this feigning in animals ?

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

In how far is it instinctive, and in how far an intelli-
gent and deliberate adaptation of means to an end
under unusual circumstances ? How did the instinct
of feigning death and injury arise in the first instance ?
Has feigning been confounded with something else
totally different, such as the results of fear, surprise,
etc. ? Is the expression, “ feigning death,” not mis-
leading in itself ? The matter is so intricate, and such
diverse views have been entertained in regard to the
subject of feigning, that it will be necessary, in order to
arrive at a solution, to examine critically several of the
views advanced.

Feigning death has been observed in many different
genera of insects, in snakes, fishes, numerous birds,
crustaceans, and several mammals.

In a most interesting account of experiments on
certain animals, by Prof. Czermak, published in the
Popular Science Monthly (vols. iii. and iv.), it was
shown that in the crayfish, in hens, geese, ducks,
turkeys, pigeons, the swan, etc., a state, which this
writer recognised as having a physiological basis, but
which he did not attempt himself to explain, occurs.
In all these animals, under the influence of steady
restraint of motion, or, combined with that, prolonged
gazing at some object held just before the eyes, a con-
dition of quietude and partial or complete unconscious-
ness was induced for a shorter or longer period, after
which they regained their usual condition. In some
of the animals the muscles became rigid, i.c. the
cataleptic condition was induced.

About five years later Prof. Preyer gave the subject
a thorough experimental examination. The starting
point of all these experiments was the experimentum
mirctbile of Kircher, in 1646 ; Preyer seems to use the
term “ cataplexy ” to cover what is now more commonly
called “catalepsy,” or “hypnotism.” Preyer believed

SQUIRRELS

65

that the shamming death of certain species of the
Articulata, when threatened by danger, was due to
cataplexy. The condition was attended in certain
animals by stupor, violent tremblings of the ex-
tremities, and other pronounced disturbances of function
and psychic state. This writer then explained the con-
dition, called by some “ shamming death,” by a sudden,
powerful, unexpected, and unusual stimulus acting on
the centripetal nerves, producing an emotion of fear
which acts on the will, inhibiting it and producing
stupor; “deathly terror,” in a word, is the condition,
and not feigning, according to Preyer.

The well-known physiologist, Heidenhain, performed
many experiments, chiefly on the human subject, with
a view of arriving at a physiological solution of these
remarkable phenomena. He has framed the theory,
that hypnotism is due to the inhibition of the cortical
cells of the cerebrum, caused by the gentle prolonged
stimulation of the nerves of the face, eyes, or ears.

Dr Clarke, in the Popular Science Monthly (vol. ix.),
discusses the results of Czermak and others, and con-
cludes that “ they depend wholly and only on fear,”
for he maintains that the experiments succeed best in
the wilder individuals of the species. But Dr Clarke
is scarcely consistent, for he points out in the same
paper that animals cease to struggle because they find
it useless, and this he ascribes to intelligence.

Dr D. W. Prentiss, in the American Naturalist (vol.
xvi.), examines the matter from the physician’s point
of view. After referring to the “ dancing,” “ convulsive,”
and “ laughing ” manias, and to certain phenomena in
animals like those already described, he concludes that
the factors entering into the phenomena of Czermak
and others are fear, dissembling, curiosity, training,
changes in the condition of the blood (deficiency of
oxygen from restrained chest movements), and imitation.

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To m)T own mind all these explanations are partial
and inadequate. That terror, surprise, etc. are in
no sense essential for the induction of hypnotism is
sufficiently evident from Czermak’s experiments on
pigeons, which could not be put into this condition by
mere restraint, but only after uniting with this steady
gazing at a near object. Again, it is well known that
the human subject can be hypnotised by the latter
means alone, as Heidenhain first attempted to show.
The latter’s explanation, though perhaps as good as
can be given in the existing state of physiological
knowledge, does not apply evidently in its present form
to animals in which the cerebrum is not developed,
as in insects and other invertebrates. The view of
Dr Prentiss has the merit of breadth, but manifestly
some of his factors, as training, imitation, etc., cannot
apply to the hypnotic condition when first experienced,
at least in the lower animals.

Notwithstanding the inconsistency in Dr Clarke’s
article, he is probably quite correct in explaining the
quiet of animals, when restrained, in many cases by an
intelligent perception that struggle is useless. I have,
myself, frequently noticed, when controlling rabbits in
the laboratory for the purposes of observation, that so
long as there was no part of the fastenings loose, they
remained quiet without any attempt at freeing them-
selves ; but, if only a single limb became the least free,
then a general struggle began. But such an explanation
will not suffice when a greater or less degree of un-
consciousness supervenes.

It may, I think, be said that the phenomena included
under such terms as hypnotism, cataplexy, etc. are due
to influences reaching the nervous centres, unusual
either in quality or intensity, or with an altered relation
as to frequency of repetition when compared with those
associated with the ordinary experiences of the animal-

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When we fully understand the physiology of sleep, we
may then be able to give a final and satisfactory ex-
planation of these phenomena, but scarcely before.
However, I venture to assert, that most, if not all of
the phenomena of hypnotism, may find psychological
realisation in the experiences of every individual human
being, if he will but observe himself closely enough
over a sufficiently long period of time.

Turning now to feigning death. This subject did not
escape that great master of close observation, Charles
Darwin. He says, in his “ Essay on Instinct ” (now
published as an Appendix to Dr Romanes’ work,
“ Mental Evolution in Animals ”) :

“ Insects are most notorious in this respect. We have amongst
them a most perfect series, even with the same genus (as I have
observed in Circulio and Chrysomela), from species, which feign
only for a second, and sometimes imperfectly still moving their
antennae (as with some Histers), and which will not feign a
second time however much irritated, to other species, which,
according to De Geer, may be cruelly roasted at a slow fire with-
out the slightest movement ; to others again which will long
remain motionless, as much as twenty-three minutes, as I find
with Chrysomela spartii."

Darwin speaks of such feigning as instinctive.
Romanes ( loc . cit.) believes it instinctive, but thinks
cataplexy may have been of much assistance in originat-
ing and developing it. Both of these writers agree,
however, that instinct has been perfected by natural
selection.

If this shamming death, or rather assuming the
position of the dead, were really of benefit to the
animals, such an explanation might be valid if natural
selection be admitted at all. On the other hand,
Darwin has shown that the position assumed by the
shamming insects “in no instance was exactly the same ”
as that of the dead insects, aud in many cases it was as
unlike as could be. The question then arises in my

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

mind : May not this condition assumed by insects be a
peculiarity with which natural selection has nothing to
do — a sort of imperfection of their nervous system, if
it exposes them to enemies, the reverse if it conceals
them — at all events, not necessarily connected with
natural selection, for animals survive in spite of
peculiarities and imperfections ? In fact, the conception
that any animal is perfectly adapted to its surroundings
is unwarrantable, otherwise such an animal should
continue to live in perpetmm.

Preyer would ascribe the so-called shamming death
of insects wholly to cataplexy, which seems highly
probable. Couch, who is quoted by Romanes, would
explain certain behaviour of wolves, foxes, and some
other animals, usually set down to deliberate feigning,
by an effect analogous to cataplexy. He thinks their
senses are stupefied by surprise, terror, etc., so that they
are unable to escape.

The transfixing effect of fear in man has been well
described by the poets, including Shakespeare him-
self : —

“ Whilst they, distill’d
Almost to jelly with the act of fear,

Stand dumb, and speak not to him.”

Romanes inclines to give weight to the views of
Preyer and Couch so far as vertebrates are concerned.
He says : “ A fox would never have so good a chance of
escape from an enemy by remaining motionless as it
would by the use of its legs.” But if man is to be
reckoned among the enemies of this animal, then,
according to instances given by Romanes in the same
chapter, foxes have escaped from their enemies by
feigning death.

I have often noticed how one dog has escaped the
attack of another by lying down and assuming an

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69

attitude of complete surrender (see “Youatt on the
Dog,” Amer. Edit., p. 34.) Even dogs would not be
inclined to worry a fox apparently dead. And what of
the feigning of the opossum ? Eomanes finds a special
difficulty in this subject, because, as he says : “ On the
one hand, it is obvious that the idea of death and its
conscious simulation would involve abstraction of a
higher order than we could readily ascribe to any
animal, and, on the other hand, it is not easy otherwise
to explain the facts.”

I cannot help thinking that this difficulty is a sample
of those we make for ourselves by attempting to define
and classify where Nature has left things complex and
unsusceptible, of the sort of simple analysis after which
Eomanes and others are, in this instance, striving.

If there is a vertebrate animal in which the feigning
of death is an instinct, as pure as such an instinct can
be, that animal is the opossum ( Diclelphys virginianct,
Shaw). If invariability of behaviour under similar
circumstances be essential to an instinct, then the
opossum’s feigning is instinctive. From the account of
a writer in the American Naturalist (vol. vi.) we
learn that a Turkey Buzzard ( Cathartes aura ) may run
upon an opossum and, after flapping his wings a few
times over him, the opossum will go into a “ spasm,”
and the buzzard proceed to pick out its eyes, and
“ generally take a pretty good bite from its neck and
shoulders.” From all that I have been able to learn of
the behaviour of this animal in the presence of such
circumstances as lead to its so-called feigning, I have
been led to conclude that it is really largely, if not wholly,
a condition allied to, if not identical with, Preyer’s
cataplexy ; but no one seems to have given the subject
that accurate examination necessary for a solution,
in this, perhaps, the very best animal in which to test
it. The creature is abundant, and could be captured at

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any age and degree of development. In this case, as
the animal is poor in resources of escape by flight, etc.,
the instinct may be valuable to it, but from the above
account evidently not always.

The general intelligence of the animal is low, for it
will readily enter traps laid for it. I am the more
confirmed in the above-stated view of the case,* and
indeed of the extensive prevalence of such nervous
phenomena, from an examination of an account of the
behaviour of a Turkey Buzzard, given by Dr Prentiss
in the paper to which reference has already been made.
This writer states that, having winged a buzzard, on
coming up with it the creature lay on its side as if
dead. Believing it really was dead, he thrust it into
his game-bag, brought it home, and threw it down in
his yard, limp and apparently lifeless. A little later it
was found running around, but on being approached
it acted as before, and with each shamming it
“ disgorged,” to use the writer’s expression. He further
states that after a while it would only disgorge and
hiss. Now, on comparing this “disgorging” with the
phenomena described by Preyer, as witnessed in his
animals that were truly hypnotic, I feel quite persuaded
that this case of the buzzard is explicable by the facts
of hypnotism, especially as the symptoms disappeared
largely on familiarity with the surroundings: it was
not a genuine case of feigning. The author of the
account does not himself clearly indicate his view of
the case.

But Komanes, while inclined to the theories of Couch
and Preyer as a partial explanation, adduces from the

* Since writing the above I have been pleased to find that Dr
Charles C. Abbott has given the so-called feigning of the opossum
a careful, one might say, experimental examination. He has dis-
cussed the subject in his work, “A Naturalist’s Rambles About
Home,” and has been led to form conclusions similar to my own.

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n

writings of others instances of feigning in monkeys
which place it beyond doubt that animals may con-
sciously and deliberately feign; yet he regards the
matter as one of great difficulty. Unquestionably it
is, but I must again express my conviction that
Romanes has imported into the subject difficulties
which are not in the nature of the case present.
First of all, is it at all essential to “ feigning ” either
death or injury that an animal should have, as
Romanes supposes, the abstract idea of death at all ?
It is to be remembered that in these cases the animal
simply remains as quiet and as passive as possible,
which is in accord with all an animal’s experiences
as to escape from danger by any form of concealment.
We have all degrees of this. The little Chipmunk,
when a hawk is at hand, squats, if on a fence ; if near
its burrow, rushes in, according to Dr Abbott ( loc . cit.).
It is within the observation of all, that a cat watching
near a rat-hole feigns quiet ; in like manner a dog,
desirous of capturing the fly that has been tormenting
him, feigns apparent unobservance or unusual in-
activity. I suspect that a human being, suddenly
finding himself in danger, may, and often does, exercise
a similar control without any abstract notion of death.
Indeed, the extent to which the abstract in this sense
enters into the psychic life of men, if we except the
higher class of intellects and persons well educated,
is much less than writers have been wont to believe.
A great part of the whole difficulty, it seems to me,
has arisen from the use of the expression “ feigning
death.” What is assumed is inactivity and passivity,
more or less complete. This, of course, bears a certain
degree of resemblance to death itself.

Returning, then, to the case of my feigning Red
Squirrels, I should be inclined to explain their be-
haviour somewhat as follows : —

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By inherited instinct, as well as by all those life
experiences which had taught them that quiet and
concealment of their usual activities were associated
with escape from threatened evils, these little animals
were naturally led, under the unwonted circumstances
of their confinement, to disguise, in an extraordinary
degree, their real condition, and even to imitate an
unusual and unreal one. The mental process is a
complex of instinct pure and simple, with higher
intellectual factors added, and the cases of these
squirrels, thus feigning, are among the clearest that,
so far as I am aware, have ever been recorded. The
adaptations to effect escape prove that there was the
employment of intellectual processes of a pretty high
order, possibly too complex, however, for analysis with
safety, but not beyond realisation in our own conscious-
ness, and without the employment of any abstract idea
of death.

That, however, the hypnotic element may play a
part in the apparent feigning of death by squirrels
seems clear from a case communicated to me by a
student of the Montreal Veterinary College, Mr Craig.
He had caught a Chipmunk and placed it in a box,
to find in a few moments that it was lying as if dead.
Giving the creature liberty to escape, it presently did
so. On recapture the same followed. Considering the
relatively low intelligence of this species of squirrel,
and taking into account the case that Dr Romanes
mentions of his watching an apparently feigning
squirrel he had caught when he found that it had
really died of fright, it seems to me, upon the whole,
most reasonable to attribute the behaviour of the
Chipmunk in question to cataleptic or allied effects.

It thus becomes manifest how varied, and also how
complex, these cases of so-called feigning may be.
The subject is all the more interesting because it shows

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73

that there is much that is common in the psychic life
of human beings and that of the lower animals. It
places the study of their habits and intelligence on a
higher plane, and furnishes new motives for extending
our enquiries and attempting to give unity to our
conception of nature in this as in other domains.

Most remarkable evidence of high intellectual
capacity has been furnished by the conduct of elephants
under surgical operations, as instanced by Romanes in
his “ Animal Intelligence ; ” and Principal M'Eachran
has assured me that both dogs and horses have shown
a similar intelligence by coming, of their own accord,
to his veterinary hospital to have injuries treated, after
having been there and experienced the benefit therefrom.
Dr G. P. Gird wood, a few days ago, gave me an account
of what appeared to be a similar manifestation in a
Chickaree but recently caught, though in this case so
much, perhaps, cannot be claimed. This Chickaree
submitted, soon after being caged, to having parasites
removed from the skin, voluntarily remaining quiet
during the act.

With regard to the psychological rank of the various
species of squirrels, both from what I have been able to
learn from the writings of others, and from my own
observations, the Chickaree must be placed, I conclude,
at or very near the top of the list. The Chipmunk and
the Flying Squirrel seem to be, as already said, about
equal in intelligence, and both much below the Red
Squirrel, owing, perhaps, to the underground life of the
one and the nocturnal habits of the other, possibly also
to annual hibernation.

The wide geographical range of the Chickaree, as
referred to by Dr Bell in the Appendix, of itself
indicates great power to adapt itself to circumstances
requiring intelligence, and it has been shown abun-
dantly in this paper how the Red Squirrel can ac-

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commodate itself to new conditions and cope with
emergencies.

To what, then, is the superior intelligence of this
species due ? In my opinion, partly to the fact that he
has benefited by proximity to civilisation. While the
Black Squirrel ( Sciurus nicjer ) seeks the depths of the
forest, the Red Squirrel keeps near, by preference, to
the abodes of man. Among rodents, none perhaps
excels the domestic rat in general intelligence, a fact to
be ascribed to this same human contact. Indeed, there
is, perhaps, no group of animals that has long been
near man that has not been more or less elevated in
the scale of intelligence as a consequence, which, in
turn, shows that the intellect of brutes cannot be wholly
different from that of man. The applicability of this
explanation to the squirrels is not so obvious as in the
case of some other animals. The superior intelligence
of the Red Squirrel is doubtless the resultant of a
complex of factors which we can but imperfectly unravel,
but from what I have observed as the result of actual
experiment, I am forced to conclude that this creature
can readily adapt itself so as to overcome the obstacles
and avail of the advantages of man’s civilisation ; and
I see no reason why, as a consequence of ages of inheri-
tance of such naturally increasing capacity of adapta-
tion or its results, the general intelligence of the species
might not be raised. Such, however, probably con-
stitutes but one element of a complete explanation.

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APPENDIX

On the Chickaree, or Red Squirrel

{Sciurus Hudsonius, Pennant).

By Dr R. Bell, Geological Survey, Ottowa.

Geographical Distribution. — East of the Rocky Moun-
tains the Chickaree ranges northward to near the verge of
the forests, or to a line drawn from Fort Churchhill, on
the west coast of Hudson Bay, to the mouth of Mackenzie
River, and throughout the Labrador Peninsula, except the
Barren Grounds which form its northern part. It is also
common in Alaska. The rufous variety, universally known
as the Red Squirrel, is abundant throughout the Canadian
provinces and the northern, eastern, and middle states,
extending farthest south along the Alleghany Mountains,
or into Alabama. In the Rocky Mountains, and on the
Pacific side, the varieties Sciurus Dour/lassi and S. Fremonti
take the place of the more widely distributed form. An
animal which can maintain a cheerful existence over such a
continental area must necessarily be capable of adapting
itself to a great variety of circumstances, as to climate, food,
etc. The following notes will relate to the Chickaree in Iris
more northern haunts : —

Food. — Northward of the zone of butter-nuts, beech-nuts,
etc., the hazel extends a long way — say, to a line drawn
from Lake St John (on the Saguenay) to Lake Athabasca,
curving southward of James and Hudson Bays — and affords
a large proportion of their food. Besides eating them con-
stantly during the autumn, they store up considerable
quantities for use later on.

But the seeds of the black and the white spruce constitute
their grand staple in the north. By glancing at the map it
will be seen that the extent of territory in which the spruces
abound, to the total or partial exclusion of other food resources,
is so great that it may be said that the area in which the
Chickaree lives principally on the seeds of these trees forms
more than half of the total range of the species, so that,

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taken as a whole, these seeds really constitute their leading
article of food.

In old spruce forests in the north, the Chickaree is quite
numerous, and almost every tempting log or hummock which
commands a clear view all around (from which he can watch
the approach of enemies while feeding) is covered with the
scales of the numerous cones he has picked to pieces in order
to get at the seeds. They evidently thrive on this diet, for
their size and numbers, as well as their activity and audacity,
are unabated.

Habits. — Their mode of obtaining a supply of cones is
ingenious. The cones grow principally at the tops of the
spruce trees, and the largest and finest are always to be
found there. The Chickaree selects a tree which, either
from the steepness and density of its upper part, or from its
leaning to one side, makes it certain that the cones, if
detached, will fall to the ground ; then he cuts off the
heavily laden twigs and lets them drop. This is done with
an impatient rapidity. Should a person be sitting quietly
under a tree while one of these busy little creatures is at
work at the top, he will see the bunches of cones come
tumbling down in such quick succession that he might
suppose half a dozen squirrels were at work instead of only
one industrious little fellow. These bunches seldom lodge
in the branches below, but should the squirrel, on his way
down (after having cut off a satisfactory supply), notice one
of them arrested in a hopeful position towards the extremity
of a bough, he will sometimes run out and give it a second
send-off. In climbing tall spruce trees for observations of
the surrounding country, I have often noticed bunches of
cones lodged where, if started off a second time, they would
be certain to catch again in the thick branches before reach-
ing the ground. The squirrels seem to understand the
situation perfectly, and they leave such bunches to their fate,
probibly arguing that it would be easier for them to cut off fresh
ones than to trouble themselves further about property lost be-
yond hope of profitable recovery — a piece of wisdom which the
most successful business men have also learned to follow. The
Chickaree, having thrown down a sufficient stock for a few
days’ use, proceeds to carry them, as required, to his
favourite feeding-place, near by. I have occasionally noticed
a squirrel feeding with a fresh cone lying beside the one he
was actually dining off, as if it were waiting to be attacked

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77

the moment he got through with the first. They peel off
the scales in succession, and nibble out the seeds with great
rapidity. They leave their stock lying about under the tree,
and only carry off one or two cones at a time. A little drying
causes the scales to gape, and so facilitates the opening
process.

In the northern regions referred to, in addition to spruce
seeds, the Chickaree appears to feed a good deal on certain
brownish, mushroom-shaped fungi. These they seem to
prefer in a partially dried or decomposed condition, for they
carry them up and leave them for a time on the flat, spread-
ing branches on the sunny sides of spruce or other fir trees.
I have sometimes seen one of them making off with a fungus
nearly as large as his own body.

Constancy of Character. — No matter where you meet the
Chickaree in the north country, he has precisely the same
peculiarities of habit as elsewhere. In the depths of a dark
spruce forest, which offers no temptations for a visit from
even the few human inhabitants of these regions, and which
it is pretty certain have never before been trodden by the
foot of man, should you come suddenly upon a Chickaree,
he greets you with the same saucy familiarity as he would if
you disturbed him in a black walnut tree on the borders of
Lake Erie. After scolding the intruder, with his head
peeping round the trunk of a tree, should you throw a stick
at him, or make a feint to run to the side he is on, he will
merely dodge you to the other side and get up a little higher
before reconnoitring you again.

Wintering. — In the northern regions under consideration
the Chickaree appears to pass the coldest part of the winter
in nests in hollows under stumps, or in fallen trees, and the
Indians say that they come out and run about on fine days
in any month. They make nests — sometimes as large out-
side as a bushel measure — of moss, leaves, and a few small
sticks, in the branches of trees in thickets, at moderate
heights above the ground. These they appear to inhabit
principally in the autumn and spring.

Breeding. — The Indians have sometimes told me that the
squirrels have their young in the nests just referred to, but
I have not verified this statement myself. Their season of
heat is said to be the early spring, just when the snow
begins to melt. They rear but one family each year.

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

Size and Colouring. — Throughout the vast northern
region of coniferous forests inhabited by the Chickaree,
between the Atlantic Ocean and Mackenzie River, the
animal presents great uniformity of size and colouring. It
is considerably larger than the varieties to the south and
west, and the colour, instead of being decidedly rufous
above, as in the familiar Red Squirrel of civilised regions, is
of a grey-fulvous tinge. Melanism and albinism, or any
variation whatever, is extremely rare. I obtained a specimen
at Athabasca Lake, which is pure white beneath, from the
nose to the tail, the second half of which is also perfectly
white.

Enemies. — The marten seems to be the principal enemy
of the northern Chickaree, although they occasionally fall a
prey to the lynx, and they also appear to keep a watchful
eye on the mink, the fisher, and the weasel.

Feigning. — As to the Chickaree’s habits of feigning, I
may mention a case which came under my observation on
Lake Superior. Being detained one day by a head-wind,
my men amused themselves by capturing, alive, a mink and
a Chickaree, both of which they put into an empty box
with bars in front. The squirrel seemed to dislike the
presence of the mink more than he did his captivity, and
crouched in a corner with his head drooping and his eyes
shut, as if very sick or totally disabled. After the mink
had got over his first fright, and begun to take in the situa-
tion, he ventured to attack the squirrel, which immediately
displayed great courage and activity, completely mastering
his enemy for the time. Next morning, however, the poor
squirrel was found dead with his throat cut.

HIBERNATION AND ALLIED STATES IN
ANIMALS.

Eor a long time it has been known that many insects
pass into a state of profound torpor during the winter
season, from which they are apt to emerge, as seen in
our house flies, when the temperature rises sufficiently
high.

Snails are well known to provide against the
approach of winter by closing up their shells, within
which they sink into a protective sleep, and doubtless
hibernation is a very widespread phenomenon among
invertebrates.

There seems to be little doubt that in cold latitudes
all reptilia and amphibia hibernate, and in warm
countries aestivate. Nevertheless, definite investiga-
tions have been few. At the Philadelphia meeting of
the American Association for the Advancement of
Science of 1884, A. W. Butler made an interesting
communication on this subject, giving some definite
data, more especially in regard to the hibernation of
the “ box tortoise,” “ soft-shelled ” and “ hard-shelled ”
turtles, frogs, toads, newts, salamanders, and certain
fishes, which may be found stated succinctly in the
Proceedings of the Association for that year. His
observations apply to Brookville, Ind., U.S.A. He
concludes that : “ In this part of the Ohio Valley, tor-
toises, turtles, toads, and frogs are regularly found
hibernating ; while, on the other hand, newts, sala-
manders, and many species of fish do not, as a rule,
enter a torpid state.”

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There seems to be no doubt, however, that many
species of fish do hibernate. Turning to warm-blooded
animals ( homoiothermers ), it is thought that while the
brown bear of Europe and the badger sleep most of the
time in winter, they do not hibernate in the same sense
as e.g. the dormouse. The black bear is believed to
hibernate, though definite information about the winter
life of this creature and other American bears generally
would be very welcome. The hedgehog is regarded as
a true hibernater the winter long. It is known that
the tenrec of Madagascar sleeps for three months in his
burrow during the hottest part of the year. It is,
however, among the rodents that we must look for the
most perfect hibernation ; and the porcupine, the
hamster, the dormouse, the marmot — and, as some think,
the squirrels, are the best known examples. But if the
hibernation of the bat is not the most perfect, it seems
to have been about the best studied, for Marshall Hall’s
investigations of sixty years ago are still to be regarded
as classic.

In consequence of reference to this subject in a
paper on Squirrels, read before the Society in 1887, and
my appeals for assistance in the study of this wide
subject (in which one person can do comparatively
little of himself, at least in ascertaining those modifica-
tions which apply for different latitudes and conditions),
I have been able to obtain some definite information as
regards the winter sleep of squirrels especially.

J. P. Bishop, Professor of Science in the State
Normal School of Buffalo, N.Y., writes me :

“Regarding hibernation, I seriously doubt whether the Red
Squirrel, in the latitude of Central N.Y., ever really hibernates.
1 have seen him out at all times of the winter, and in all kinds of
weather even when the thermometer recorded temperatures
below zero and the air was full of snow. But he is much more
lively in warm days, which he prefers for feeding. The Grey
Squirrel is more sensitive to cold, but will come out upon
almost any warm day in. the winter.”

HIBERNATION AND ALLIED STATES IN ANIMALS 8l

I am also indebted to Mr W. Yates of Hatchly,
Ontario, a capable and loving observer of Nature, for
several notes. He says :

“Trappers are opposed to the belief that Red Squirrels
hibernate, for they may he seen in the woods in the most
inclement weather. They do not store up food in nests for
themselves, but rob the dormouse or woodmouse, and kill him
when they can.”

This seems also to be Mr Yates’ own view. He
says that Flying Squirrels, when the hollow trees on
which they take shelter are cut, at once betake them-
selves in the most lively manner to some other hollow
tree in the neighbourhood, the location of all of which
they seem to know beforehand. This scarcely argues a
very deep sleep — if sleep at all.

As to the Chipmunk ( Tamias Lysteri), which certainly
stores up food in a burrow, he seems more in doubt,
but is not inclined to believe that he hibernates for
very long periods at all events. He has seen them out
as late as 21st December. This observer has made
some very interesting observations on a tame racoon
(. Procyon Lotor). This creature lived in a hollow log
lined with straw, and “ drowsed away the greater part
of December and January, leaving any food placed
before him unnoticed.” The racoon is known to
spend the greater part of the winter in hollow elm
trees in this part of the country, and Mr Yates
points out that the cutting-down of most of these
trees resulted in the racoons betaking themselves to
underground burrows, including those once occupied
by foxes.

He says of the Woodchuck (Arctomys Monax ):

“Our Marmot hibernates sooner than the bear, racoon or
Chipmunk. Towards the last of October he deserts his burrow
in the fields tor one in the woods, choosing a dry, sheltered ridge,
and is never seen out till mild weather returns.”

F

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On this point Prof. Bishop writes me :

“Popular belief puts the time of hibernation of the Wood-
chuck from 1st October to May. I have seen them out well into
November, and have known of their being caught in trap3 on
1st January. I also saw the tracks of one myself on 2nd January.
From that time until May I have run across them or their
tracks after a warm day.”

Mr Yates expresses a positive opinion. He considers
that their winter sleep is of the most profound character,
for he says : “ The state of unconsciousness is death-
like.” As to bears, he simply reiterates the belief that
they hibernate only when food is not obtainable, in
which view, in the light of my own investigations,
I see nothing impossible.

My studies on the torpor of cold-blooded animals
( poikilothermcrs ) have been little more than casual
observations ; on the bat they have been more extensive,
still incomplete ; but the condition of the Woodchuck,
our American Marmot, during winter and summer in
confinement, has had my close attention for over five
years, almost continuously, by the help of other
members of my family, especially of my wife, the time
including the early morning and evening as well as the
hours of the working day. Of the habits of this
creature when in its natural surroundings I know but
little from personal observation.

The specimen on which my observations and experi-
ments were made during four successive years was kept
in confinement for some time prior to its coming into
my possession — how long I do not know. It was of
medium size, and seemed to get more tame as time went
on, but when frightened or angry it acted always very
much as a perfectly wild specimen. The marmot is a
creature of low intelligence, a natural result, perhaps,
of so much of its life being spent in a burrow, and so
much of its time being drowsed away, free from that

HIBERNATION AND ALLIED STATES IN ANIMALS 83

struggle for existence which has apparently been so
great a factor in all kinds of development.

On account of the destructive power of its teeth it
became necessary to have a cage constructed of strong
wire, with a suitable movable bottom, essential for
cleanliness.

My specimen would eat fruits, such roots as turnips
and carrots, bread, biscuits, etc. But he became
very fond of porridge with a little milk, and when
he was disposing of this, his smacking could be
heard all over the house. It seemed to agree with him
perfectly.

The object of my investigations being to ascertain
not only the nature of the winter sleep, but the char-
acter of its variations under a changing environment,
especially as regards temperature and meteorological
conditions generally, I kept the animal in different
rooms of the houses in which I lived successively
during the creature’s" lifetime, and also in different
parts of an outhouse in which my dogs, fowls, etc.,
lived.

It would take up too much space and prove rather
wearisome to attempt to reproduce here the records
which I have kept in detail. It will be both more
practicable and more profitable to give the general
results of studies on this one specimen for the four
years during which he lived, and then refer to the un-
expected result of the study of another specimen during
the past winter.

I think the following life-periods were recognisable
in the specimen I had under observation :

(1) A period characterised by either drowsiness or
sleep or profound torpor, lasting from about November
to April.

(2) A period of perfect wakefulness immediately
following, during which the animal was emaciated, in

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poor coat, and with a general low vital capital, lasting
for some weeks.

(3) A period of improving condition, with good health
and a desire to get free, which latter was also noticeable
in the preceding period.

(4) A period of maximum weight and vigour, with
perfect coat and an abundance of fatty tissue.

But little need be said about any of these life-periods
except the first. During the second the emaciation in-
creased rapidly at first on waking, and was equally
marked by voracious feeding. The meaning of this will
be referred to later. It is plain that the organism
entered on its long period of diminished vitality with a
large stock of reserve material, and it is equally clear
that this was drawn upon to the full.

I now turn to the peculiarities of the sleeping or
torpid condition. I have characterised the first period
as one of drowsiness, or sleep, or torpor, because there
are sub-divisions of the first period during which the
animal was found in a condition that was characterised
by drowsiness and no more ; again it was plainly only
sleeping, while again it was as profoundly torpid as it
ever became. The period of most profound sleep was
never reached all of a sudden, but was preceded by the
two states referred to above. Moreover, as the depth of
winter approached the sleep became more profound,
and the reverse with the approach of spring, so that we
might represent the depth of the sleep by a rising
followed by a falling curve with a rather long, flattened
top. During the whole of the first period the animal
nestled in the straw, with which he was always provided,
and when he was most profoundly unconscious but
little of him could be seen, often so completely was he
covered.

Another important matter : The amount of food con-
sumed was directly proportional to the depth of his

HIBERNATION AND ALLIED STATES IN ANIMALS 85

sleep. Not only did he eat less frequently, as a matter
of course, but the quantity taken at one time was less.
Occasionally, when fully hibernating, he would awake to
fall asleep again, merely after gathering the straw about
him a little closer, and not eat at all. His cage always
being supplied with food, there was no doubt about his
ability to provide himself when so inclined.

His excretions were also in proportion to the amount
of food consumed, and especially to the depth of the
sleep. The less he ate, and particularly the more pro-
foundly he slept, the less were his evacuations when he
awoke. He never befouled his bed, but always left it to
void urine and faeces.

During the period of mere drowsiness the animal
would be awakened by a gentle rustling against its cage,
and even when asleep, a noise, etc., would always arouse
it, but when in a torpid condition it could not be thus
aroused, but might be handled without being brought to
the natural condition, though handling and much less
disturbance always caused movement, a phenomenon to
be discussed later.

In the spring of 1891 my Woodchuck came out of his
winter sleep in a very emaciated condition, and this, as
usual, increasing after his awakening, he was in a doubt-
ful state; but the case was soon decided against the
animal in consequence of my servant having left him
for some time fully exposed to the sun’s rays. An
autopsy revealed the fact that the animal (a male) was
the subject of tuberculosis of the lungs, though possibly
but for this exposure he might have lasted another
year.

Through the kindness of Mr E. F. Korke, an under-
graduate in medicine of M'Gill University, I became
possessed of two specimens of the Marmot in the latter
part of the summer of 1891. One of these was very
large and in fine condition, and his escape soon after

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arrival has been a frequent subject of regret by me, as I
hoped to be able not only to continue the observations,
but to make them comparative, as it was my intention
to keep both under the same conditions — in fact, in the
same cage. But the curious part remains to be told.
Though I kept the remaining Woodchuck under exactly
the same conditions as the animal I had had so long, he
did not hibernate for an hour the whole winter, though
he drowsed and slept enough.

It has been generally considered that the hibernating
conditions of animals was dependent above all else on
the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere. My
experiments in bats seemed to warrant this conclusion,
for whenever the temperature reached the neighbour-
hood of 45° F. to 40° F., the other conditions being
favourable, my specimens began to hibernate. It was
also true that my Woodchuck was in the deepest sleep
during mid-winter when the cold is greatest. Whether
a bat could be put into a state of torpor during summer
by exposing it to a lowered temperature, I do not know.
However, Marshall Hall maintained that the diurnal
sleep of the bat (“ diurnation ”) was exactly the same
phenomenon as the winter sleep. The same writer
maintained that hibernating bats always awoke when
the temperature fell below freezing point, and his
observations showed that the temperature of the
animals was always a few degrees above that of the
surrounding atmosphere. Probably Hall is correct in
the main, for my bats, when the temperature sank
during the night much below freezing, were always
found dead in the morning. Whether they awoke first,
or simply passed from torpor to death, I do not know.

However, for the Marmot, I can assert positively that
this rule does not hold, for frequently the water was
found frozen in the apartment in which the animal was
kept, yet he was undisturbed. Nevertheless, I came to

HIBERNATION AND ALLIED STATES IN ANIMALS 87

the conclusion that this exposure is injurious to a
hibernating animal, and that it had something to do
with the poor condition in which my specimen was
found in the spring of the year in which he died.

Before discussing the true nature of the phenomena
of the winter sleep, I call attention to certain cases of
allied nature.

Such frequent references as we find to the hibernation
of swallows deserve some consideration.

It is also stated that in Scotland sheep have been
found alive after being buried for weeks beneath the
snow ; and Dr Frank Miller of Burlington, Vt., reported,
when a student, to the Society for tire Study of Com-
parative Psychology at Montreal, that hogs had been
found alive after being accidentally imprisoned below
the surface for several weeks longer than it seemed
possible for them to survive under ordinary circum-
stances, so that it would appear they had been in a
condition of hibernation or some such state.

Turning to the human subject: We have all read of
instances in man of “ suspended animation,” or “ trance.”
The case of Fakirs in India having been buried alive,
exhumed, and resuscitated after months, is attested by
such evidence as it is difficult to set aside, however
hard to credit.

Mr D. W. Boss, a student in medicine of M'Gill
University, has gathered the facts of a peculiar case in
so far as they are now obtainable. The individual in
question was known as “Sleepy Joe,” a farmer by
occupation. He was married and had several children,
one of whom, a girl, had the same drowsy appearance
as her father. This man would sleep almost constantly
for several weeks, awakening, however, to attend to
Nature’s calls and to take food. ITe would at times
awake more fully and then set to work, whether it was
day or night, and almost incessantly labour as if to

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make up for lost time. He was rather weak mentally,
but appeared ashamed of his sleepy tendencies, which
seemed to get worse as he grew older. He lived to be
about sixty years of age.

13r Aug. Robinson of Annapolis has kindly given
the following notes of a unique case :

“ J ohn T — • — , son of a pensioner, is now about sixty-
two years old. When he was twenty-eight years of age
his father committed suicide by cutting his throat in a
fit of insanity. Before his father’s death John had
shown symptoms of melancholia. He would sit by the
hour over his father’s bench (cobbler’s) laughing and
talking to himself, and working himself into a frenzy,
fighting imaginary foes, and going into immoderate fits
of laughter.

“ I cannot ascertain, after much enquiry, how long
this condition of things lasted before he lapsed into his
present state, but this much is certain, for the last
thirty years or more, about the end of September every
year, he falls into a deep sleep or stupor, and, as his
present condition is a fair sample of the manner in
which his winters have been passed since he was first
attacked, I will describe him as I found him on Monday,
10th December 1888, and repeat what I was told by
his friends regarding his attack this autumn :

“About 31st August Jack went to bed after eating his
evening meal, as usual, without exhibiting anything out
of the common in his manner or otherwise, or giving
any reason for the supposition that he was out of sorts
in any way. On the following morning he did not get
up, nor has he shown any more vitality than any sleep-
ing man up to this time. His sleep is very quiet
without any stertor, indeed it is as calm as that of a
child. Twice in every twenty-four hours he is taken
up, a person supporting him on each side, holding a
vessel for his convenience. He knows enough to

HIBERNATION AND ALLIED STATES IN ANIMALS 89

voluntarily empty his bladder. The urine is high in
colour and scant in quantity. About eleven o’clock
every night he seems to show rather more life than at
any other time, and advantage is taken of this to pour
a little thin oatmeal gruel, beef-tea, or soup down his
throat, he opening his lips to allow them to do so, and
slowly swallowing it. He only takes a very little each
time, and, if urged to take more, simply keeps his
mouth shut. About once in every thirty days, not
exactly at regular intervals, during the evening gener-
ally, the family will hear a peculiar chattering noise.
They never take any notice of it, for they know it is
Jack going down to the outhouse to empty his bowels.
He then returns to his bed and sleeps. He knows
enough to throw a quilt over his shoulders at such
times.

“ At the time of my visit I found his temperature 96°
F., pulse 60, regular, though not strong ; respirations
14, easy and quiet, skin cool. A pin stuck into his
arm caused no apparent change, and he might be
pinched until black and blue without its causing him
the slightest uneasiness.

“My first visit to Jack was about twenty years ago,
when I first came to live and practise in the vicinity,
and it came about in this way. Of course there was a
talk about the new doctor, and what he could do, so I
was called to see this queer case. I got all the par-
ticulars from the friends and neighbours, and what
means had been tried by other doctors, and then I
promised to try what I could do. On the following
day I went again, accompanied by my brother, also a
physician. We took with us a good galvanic battery.
One of the handles was placed in each hand and bound
closely to the fingers with wet bandages. We then
put on the full power of the instrument. Poor old
Jack was out of bed in an instant, and I shall never

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forget his look of astonishment and horror as he yelled
out : ‘ Damnation ! What’s that ? ’ I can also well
remember my own feelings of satisfaction and com-
placency when the ‘ natives ’ congratulated me on my
success in this, my first case. I walked off, as if saying
to myself : ‘ I knew I could do it.’ Well, Jack remained
awake about three days, and then I got a message that
my patient was off again. I went up and tried the
battery a second time, with only the effect, however, of
making him open his eyes and grunt out “Eh?” in a
querulous manner, and after looking about him for a
half hour or so, he lapsed into his former condition.
Next day I again tried the battery but without the
slightest effect, so I gave it up as a hard case.

“ This is all I have to say about this singular object,
except that, of course, he becomes very thin and
haggard before he rouses finally in the spring, and he
does not fairly waken until the end of May or first of
June. During the summer months Jack does exactly
the work he is told to do, but he must be told over
again every day ; for example, if desired to bring the
cows from pasture he will do so, but will not milk
them until told to, nor will he turn them a-field again
without being desired. He does not seem to know
what to do next, even though the same routine is
carried out every day. An exception, however, must
be made in one respect. He does not require to be told
when dinner or tea-time arrives, and is blessed with an
excellent appetite. Jack is always ready for his food,
and is not particular about quality, so that quantity is
there. He will talk quite rationally on any subject
when spoken to, and recollects distinctly most of the
incidents of his childhood. He will hold animated
confab with the cows, dogs, trees, wheelbarrow, or any
other object which happens to be in his way, and may
be noticed sometimes lecturing a tree for some time,

HIBERNATION AND ALLIED STATES IN ANIMALS 91

breaking out occasionally into uproarious fits of
laughter.”

When visiting, in 1890, Dr C. K. Clarke, Super-
intendent of the Asylum for Insane in Kingston, he
happened to make reference to a peculiar individual
known to a few as “ the sleeping woman.”

It at once occurred to me that her case would prove
a study of great value if it could be carried out, and I
suggested to Dr Clarke that he endeavour to supple-
ment such facts as we could learn, and such observations
as we were able to make by a joint visit to the subject
of this peculiar condition by a careful study of the case.
He succeeded much beyond my expectations in doing
this, and has published the results of his investigations
in the American Journal of Insanity for October 1891,
under the title, “ A Case of Lethargy,” and from that
paper I extract the principal facts in regard to this case,
which is so remarkable that it may be well to state
them somewhat fully.

“ Several seasons ago I heard that there was a patient
who had been in a trance for years, and from time to
time word was brought to the effect that the condition
still persisted, and that all efforts to rouse the woman
were without result.

“ A little more than a year ago I obtained permission
to visit the patient, but was not allowed to make any
extended examination.

“ On entering the room I found a thin, old woman in
bed, apparently fast asleep. Her respirations were
irregular and varied much during the visit (lasting
almost half an hour), running all the way from 24 to
44 per minute. The pulse quickened in a marked way
during my stay, and ran up from about 80 to 120.
The woman had her eyes half closed, and to all appear-
ances was oblivious to everything that was going on.

“ The nurse gave many details regarding the patient,

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and made a number of statements, some of which I
shall repeat in a few minutes. Many of these state-
ments we were able to verify at a subsequent period ;
others were undoubtedly inaccurate. Before going into
details regarding the every-day life of this case of
lethargy as we saw it, perhaps it would be well to give
a brief outline of the history of the patient. Unfortu-
nately, it has not been found possible to get as many
important facts as could be desired in connection with
this history, but great care has been taken to eliminate
all doubtful points. The patient was born in 1820 or
1821, and when she came under observation was almost
sixty-nine years of age. The neurotic history was
pronounced on * both sides of the house ’ ; evidence
going to show that her father had suffered from melan-
cholia. A reliable person states that the father died
from ‘ softening of the brain ’ — possibly general paresis.
The patient’s mother was subject (a member of the
family states) to attacks of partial loss of reason, which
could only be cured by change of air and surroundings.
It has not been possible to get an accurate account of
these attacks of * partial loss of reason.’ The patient’s
early history is not well known, but it has been stated
on good authority that she was “ peculiar,” and in child-
hood complained of some head trouble that caused her
to keep her hair cropped short. She was married when
very young, probably when seventeen or eighteen years
of age, as she was but twenty-one when her third child
was born. Three years after the birth of her last child
she was noticed to undergo a change in disposition and
acted ‘ strangely.’ She could not be depended on, was
untruthful and whimsical, and worried a great deal
about trifles.”

It is from a subsequent period (three years later)
that the history of this case must be dated.

The son, the youngest child, says: “The first re-

HIBERNATION AND ALLIED STATES IN ANIMALS 93

collection that I have of mother’s sickness was when I
was six years old. My little sister had died, and I was
just recovering from an attack of scarlet fever when
she was taken down. I think the attack was caused
by grief over sister’s death, and over-exertion and want
of rest. I do not remember how long she was sick at
that time, but I recollect that her left side was com-
pletely paralysed, and that after a time a strong liniment
was used which partially removed the paralysis, and
when she went to the country for several weeks she
came back well.

“ The second time that she was taken sick was when
I was twelve years old. She felt poorly for some time,
and was then taken with fits, or convulsions, which
lasted for, I think, three days, having sometimes four or
five in an hour. She was confined to her bed for, I
think, about two years, in very much the same condition
as at present. I do not know what curative means
were employed, but she gradually improved a little,
and was again sent out into the country, where she
seemed to recover.

“ She enjoyed pretty good health for about six years,
but had to be very careful ; she never drank tea or
coffee, and always had to have the hair on the back of
her head cut short.

“ About this time her father was taken sick, and we
moved into his house to take care of him. This seemed
to affect mother, and after a short time she was again
taken with fits, and soon went into her former condition.

“ During this sickness, which lasted about two years,
she used to sit up a great part of the time, and appeared
to be perfectly conscious. She knew father and those
who waited on her, used to call me her boy, but
appeared to be in a sort of stupor most of the time.
She was again sent into the country and came back
well.

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“ Then ensued a brief interval of about two years,
during which time she was in fair health, but was again
taken down as before, and was sick for nearly seven
years. During part of this time she was very low, and
we watched day after day at her bedside, expecting
each day would be the last; but she again rallied,
and gradually her bodily strength and reason returned
to her.

“ She was well for about five years, when she seemed
to be taken with a low fever and gradually went down
to her present condition.”

Such is the son’s account of the case, and from it we
learn that the history of nervous trouble dates back at
least forty years, and the inference is that the first
indications of lethargy then made their appearance.

The details of the conditions that existed during the
different attacks are almost entirely wanting, and it is
unfortunate that we are left almost completely in the
dark regarding the nature of the convulsive seizures
that occurred. Subsequent history would lead us to
believe that these were, in all probability, hystero-
epileptic in origin.

About the year 1862 the patient fell into a state of
lethargy that lasted for seven years or more. The con-
dition was not one of complete unconsciousness, and
although the woman appeared to sleep almost con-
tinually, occasionally she would wake up for a minute
or so at a time, and converse in a rational manner.

It is not possible to make more than general state-
ments in regard to these attacks, but it is beyond doubt
that the conditions were not identical with those that
characterised the last attack. Evidently the condition
of lethargy was not so profound.

The announcement of the death of a warm friend
was the immediate cause of her awakening. The
return to even an approach to a normal condition of

HIBERNATION AND ALLIED STATES IN ANIMALS 95

health was a very gradual process. She was lachrymose
and childish for some time, and could not use her limbs
properly for months — in fact, had to learn to walk again.

During the period of wakefulness that now ensued —
seven years or more — the patient, to a certain extent,
interested herself in the affairs of every-day life. She
went about the house, etc., hut was very quiet and
did not seem able to concentrate her mind on any-
thing. Her memory was markedly deficient, and she
seemed astonished to find people and places changed,
and could not realise the fact that she had been asleep
for such a long time.

When waking up from her long sleep, one of the first
requests made was for beer, and strange to say, the
same want was expressed many years after when
arousing from a subsequent attack.

About thirteen years ago the patient gradually passed
into the condition in which we saw her. At first she
spoke occasionally, but in a childish manner, and often
made a request for meat and potatoes, invariably using
the following words : “ Meat and potatoes, a plate all
full up to the top ! ”

Before giving the .details of the case as we saw it, it
will be well to repeat, in a general way, the statements
made by the nurses who had the care of the patient
before she came to the asylum : She seems to exercise
a certain amount of discrimination regarding her food,
and will eat enormously or not at all, and when her
appetite is not lost, does not seem to know when she
has had enough. Her diet is made up of minced meat,
potatoes, soft toast, milk, etc., and she is particularly
fond of meat and potatoes — in fact, will not touch
anything until meat and potatoes are provided. She
does not like sweet things. When not suffering from
diarrhoea, eats three times a day. Eats as much as any
healthy, active woman of her age. Objects to nauseous

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drugs, and endeavours to push the spoon away with her
left hand.

The attitude during the day is quite different from
that assumed at night, and the patient undoubtedly
sleeps more soundly at night than during the day. In
the daytime her legs are extended, at night, drawn up.
In the daytime she is put either on her back or right
side, at night on her left side, and remains in this
position until morning without moving — in fact, cannot
roll over. She will not settle down for the night until
a drink of cold water is given. In the daytime, some-
times for an hour or so at a time, appears to be nearer
a condition of consciousness than at any other time.
This occurs generally after breakfast, but she has to be
roused for her meals.

When heavy coverlets are put on the bed she
attempts to shove the blankets off with her left hand,
and likes to be very lightly covered. The eyes are
three parts closed during the day and completely closed
at night. The face sometimes becomes flushed. She
never speaks, and, in fact, has spoken but once in eleven
years or more, and that was quite recently (1890),
when she said : “ I am not asleep.” Her appetite has
been better since she has been in the long sleep than it
was before, and she eats thiugs she would not touch
when awake. At least once during the present attack
she has, unassisted, got out of bed, and there is reason
to believe she has done the same thing several times,
but not within three years, as her physical condition
renders it impossible. Several times the nurse fancied
the patient was moving about the room at night, but
for some time could not actually prove that such was
the case. At last, however, a fall was heard in the
middle of the night, and the patient was found lying
fast asleep at the bottom of the stairs, down which she
had fallen.

HIBERNATION AND ALLIED STATES IN ANIMALS 97

During the present attack she has fasted on several
occasions, and once went fifteen days without food.

It must be remembered that the nurses were speaking
of the last attack, and at a time when the patient had
been in a state of lethargy for more than eleven years.

In September 1890, I saw the patient with Dr
Clarke. This was my first, but Dr Clarke’s second
visit. We found the patient, an old woman, in bed.
She was lying on her back with her eyes half closed.
Her face, when we first entered, was somewhat flushed
and respiration rapid. When respirations were closely
observed it was noticed that they were most irregular,
and at times ceased for several moments. They
averaged 22 per minute. Pulse was 104, fairly strong
and regular, arteries almost free from rigidity. Axillary
temperature 98§°. The nurse stated that ordinarily
the patient’s bowels moved but once in three days, but
latterly she had developed a tendency to diarrhoea, and
since that had evinced a sense of discomfort until the
bowels were relieved. This sense of discomfort was
evinced by whining like a dog. Ordinarily she would
not give any indication that she wished to relieve her-
self, but the presence of the bed-pan would excite the
reflexes. She does not soil the bed. The statement of
the nurse in regard to the amount of urine passed
every day was, that a little more than half a pint would
be a fair average.

A physical examination of the patient was made.
The left foot was drawn as if there were a contracted
Tendo-Achillis ; right foot drawn down but not in such
a marked manner as the left. Marked rigidity of the
right knee and leg ; left leg and knee not rigid. Eight
ankle easily moved ; left rigid. Patellar reflexes
absent. Tickling the soles of the feet did not cause
any evidence of sensibility. Each great toe was drawn
under the second toe, this condition being especially

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marked in the left foot. When the soles of the feet
were tickled it was thought that the respirations were
slightly deepened, hut on account of the irregularity of
the breathing it was difficult to determine this point,
and it was considered undecided. Patient’s hair grey ;
nails healthy and not abnormally brittle. Facial
reflexes better than reflexes in any other part of the
body. Orbicular reflexes good even with air ; at the
same time it was noticed that flies crawling over the
face did not excite the reflexes. Pupils responsive to
light. Small bedsores found on hips, and evidence of
former deep-seated bedsores plainly visible.

While we were present the nurse endeavoured to
arouse the patient, and tried to get her to take some
food. A feeble protest was made (whining), the
patient winked for a few moments, and then went off
to sleep again. Bread was put in her mouth, but
remained there without any effort being made to
swallow.

On 9th October 1890, the patient came under Dr
Clarke’s care, and a series of observations of the most
complete character was made.

The patient, a thin old woman, apparently not
weighing more than sixty pounds, was carried into the
infirmary from the ambulance, and placed in bed. She
was asleep, and did not seem disturbed by the jolting to
which she had been subjected. Her temperature was
97£’, pulse 107, and respirations 20. Efforts were made
to arouse her, but without avail. Friends stated that
she had been in her present state of lethargy for more
than eleven years.

Her eyes were half closed, and it was found almost
impossible to get her to swallow anything. Next
morning her temperature was about normal; pulse 117,
respiration 18; still asleep with the eyes half closed,
as she remained nearly the whole time she lived.

HIBERNATION AND ALLIED STATES IN ANIMALS 99

She was under observation from October 1890 until
February 1891, when she died. In these four months
she was closely wratched, and until the last week of her
life gave little indication that she had the slightest
knowledge of the fact that she lived.

She would remain in any position in which she was
placed in bed, and if not fed would undoubtedly have
died without making any sign that she required or
desired food. Her temperature was almost invariably
sub-normal, sometimes falling to 95°, although occasion-
ally it would rise to nearly 102° without any cause
that could be determined. Her appetite was capricious,
although she undoubtedly had decided likes and
dislikes in regard to food. She preferred beef and
potatoes to anything else. The process of eating was
very slow, and sometimes it would be more than an
hour before she could finish a meal. When she drank
anything, milk was evidently preferred. She was very
clean in her personal habits, and never soiled the bed.

The quantity of urine passed was very small, not
averaging more than one-seventh of normal. The
bowels moved but seldom, sometimes only once in six
or seven days. It was possible to rouse her for a
moment or so to the extent of making her open her eyes,
but beyond this she would give no indication of con-
sciousness, and went to sleep again immediately. Her
legs were nearly always drawn up, although when the
patient was admitted it was stated that she always
straightened her legs at night. Her feet were almost
invariably very cold, and the hands sometimes so.
Occasionally her eyelids would tremble and quiver,
just as they will in a patient suffering from hysteria.
Generally, when much bothered, she would for a few
moments make a sort of whining protest.

The facial expression was quiet, almost death-like,
under ordinary circumstances, but sometimes, when

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undergoing examination, an expression suggestive of
pain would appear ; at the same time it is questionable
if pain was really experienced, as the heart and respira-
tions did not show the least disturbance.

A large amount of food for one so frail was
consumed in a day, although on some occasions the
appetite was completely lost. Sometimes, when
suddenly disturbed, she would start nervously, and
her hands would tremble. Trained Nurse Osborne,
who was with her very constantly, seemed to think
that there were times when she was nearer a condition
of consciousness than at others, and as this statement
was also made by the former nurses, possibly it is
correct.

Occasionally she would push down the bedclothes
with her hands, and the history of the case would go to
show that heavy coverings were always objectionable.

Nearly every day she was propped up in a chair for
half an hour. This did not seem to have any effect on
her general condition.

The account of her last days are interesting :
Early in February 1891, a marked change took place in
the patient’s condition. Diarrhoea developed, and the
woman was evidently suffering pain. On the 4th of
February she was undoubtedly awake, and in the
evening spoke in a hoarse whisper, asking for a sour
drink. This was the second time she had spoken in
thirteen years. On the morning of the 5th of February
again asked for a drink, yawned twice, and fell asleep
again. In the afternoon was again awake, fed herself
in an awkward way, and in the evening spoke again in
a natural manner. I sent for her friends, and they
endeavoured to get her to take notice of them, but she
did not appear to know them, and went to sleep as
usual. The trained nurse’s notes for the next few days
are as follows : —

HIBEBNATION AND ALLIED STATES IN ANIMALS 101

February 6/A. — Will feed herself with bread or any-
thing dry. Hand shakes too much to use a cup or
spoon. Will ask for anything she wants, but will not
speak at any other time. Always uses her left hand.

February 7th. — I was called in about 4 A.M., and
found her lying on the floor ; she would not speak, but
from all appearance no one had touched her ; she had
evidently got out of bed herself. At 9.30 A.M.,
she was cold and very white looking; about fifteen
minutes later her face was flushed and moist, body warm,
hands, knees, and feet cold. This soon passed off,
leaving her in her former condition. Temperature was
95f° lower than at 8 a.m. This afternoon asked for a
sour drink and a big cake. Spoke hurriedly, but quite
loudly and distinctly. Kissed the nurse twice when
asked to do so.

Feb'uary 9th. — Has not been well at all to-day.
Moaned when disturbed. Has eaten scarcely anything,
but has taken more milk than usual. Has had slight
diarrhoea since last Tuesday ; worse to-day.

February 11th. — Asked frequently for drinks to-day,
and last night said her throat was burning. Does not
appear to recognise any of her friends, nor to realise
that she is among strangers. So long as her wants
are attended to she seems quite unconscious of any-
thing else — not exactly unconscious either, but as
though she took no interest in what went on around
her.

February 12th. — Is better this morning; had no
diarrhoea during the night. Has asked three times
for something to eat, which sounds like meat, but when
I get it for her she won’t eat it.

February 13/ A. — Diarrhoea much worse to-day.

February 15/A. — Diarrhoea somewhat better.

On the 16th she was slightly better, and asked for
beer and cocoa, and said she felt as if she were burning

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up. From this time she steadily grew worse, and died
on the 26 th.

Dr Kuttan, Professor of Chemistry, M'Gill Univer-
sity, made elaborate analyses of urine sent to Montreal
from time to time, and without offering any detailed
statement here, I may say that the general conclu-
sions arrived at were as follows : The whole of the

urine passed in six days was sent, and he says the total
amount, if representing six days’ urine, is about one-
seventh the normal. This contains all constituents
in about normal quantities in relation to the volume
of the urine, except the phosphoric acid, which is about
one-third what it should be.

I. — Autopsy.

Inspectio Caclaveri.

Nutrition poor; body much emaciated; apparent age
65 to 70 ; weight about 50 ; rigor mortis complete.
A. M. staining on hands and feet; P. M. staining on
back of trunk ; bedsores on sacrum, tip and ball of
great toe ; feet and ankles oedematous ; legs flexed on
thighs by contracted tendons ; no teeth, and sockets
much absorbed.

Sectio Cadavcri.

Head. — Scalp thin and easily dissected ; calvarium
of average thickness ; tables thin, however, diploe being
in excess; dura mater not adherent to the skull,
slightly opaque at vertex ; one slight adhesion to brain
at margin of longitudinal fissure ; ante-mortem clots in
longitudinal and lateral sinuses, the clots in the lateral
sinuses being particularly well organised.

Brain. — The brain weighed about 35 oz. ; micro-
scopically, it was healthy in appearance— in fact, in

HIBERNATION AND ALLIED STATES IN ANIMALS 103

asylum experience, I have never seen as healthy a
brain in the post-mortem room.

Convolutions well marked and sulci deep ; grey
matter abundant ; brain substance firm ; ventricles free
from evidence of disease; brain not examined micro-
scopically.

Thorax. — Sub-sternal adhesions. Emphysema of
cellular tissue beneath sternum ; cartilages not ossified.

Heart. — Small — weight 3f oz. Pericardial fluid in
average quantity ; blood in great veins, and right
auricle fluid; walls of right auricle and ventricle un-
usually thin ; valves normal ; small post-mortem clot
in left ventricle ; walls of left ventricle hypertrophied ;
left auricle normal ; valves of left side normal.

Aorta. — Ascending aorta dilated into a fusiform
aneurism ; capacity about twice that of normal ; arterial
coats not thinner than normal; no evidence of atheroma;
no pressure effects noticed ; varicose veins on posterior
walls of the heart ; abdominal aorta atheromatous ;
ante-mortem clots in abundance.

Lungs. — Eight : Very adherent at apex ; small ad-
hesions all over surface of lung ; apex, a mass of
tubercle — in fact, tubercles were found scattered through-
out the whole of the lungs, and in the apex a small
cavity existed ; hypostatic congestion marked. Left :
In this lung a certain amount of hypostatic congestion
was apparent, and an occasional tubercle was found,
otherwise the lung was normal ; cord-like adhesions
of pleura on surface.

Abdomen. — Liver adherent to chest walls and dia-
phragm ; whole capsule torn off in taking out, and
remained attached to diaphragm and abdominal wall ;
weight, 20 oz. ; three vertical furrows present on
anterior surface of right lobe ; these fprrows were
about 2 inches in length, centre one distinctly marked ;
nutmeg condition present.

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Stomach. — Large ; about 2 inches from pyloric orifice
was a constricted portion.

This condition was undoubtedly not the result of
any inflammatory action, but the natural shape of the
stomach, giving rise to an appearance suggestive of a
rudimentary second stomach.

Intestines. — Small ; evidences of an old peritonitis ;
adhesions everywhere ; there were several constricted
portions from 3 to 6 inches long; in no place was
there complete stricture, and no scars were present;
above the constricted portions of the intestine was
much distended.

CLecum. — Walls much thickened and much venous
congestion ; inner surface dark red and roughened ;
had appearance of numerous varicose veins in wall.

Ascending Colon. — One portion constricted, and
part preceding dilated ; transverse colon, normal ;
descending, slightly dilated.

Kidneys. — Right : very small, about inches long ;
apparently normal. Left : about 1 inch longer than
right; apparently normal; capsules non-adherent.

We may sum up the case by saying that, in the
subject under consideration, we have a woman inherit-
ing from parents an intensely neurotic organisation, in
consequence of which she showed many indications of
an ill-balanced and unstable nature, culminating in
various vital crises, including periods of stupor. In
fact, this woman seems to have spent nearly one-third
of her whole existence in an unconscious condition,
being then a purely vegetative organism.

At one period of her life she was a veritable Rip
Van Winkle, finally sinking into a long lethargy from
which there was only a brief consciousness prior to the
final stoppage of the vital mechanism. But it is to be
noted that this curious condition was not the result of
any gross lesion of the brain, but of hidden molecular

HIBERNATION AND ALLIED STATES IN ANIMALS 105

peculiarities, which renders the case, to my mind, all
the more instructive when considered in connection
with all those states I am now considering.

II.

1 propose now to discuss the real nature of hiber-
nation and kindred states.

In the paper on Squirrels read before the Society in
1887, I said, speaking of hibernation : “ I think it is
very probable that, when the matter has been fully
investigated, all degrees of cessation of functional
activity will be found represented, from the daily
normal sleep of man and other animals to the lowest
degree of activity consistent with the actual mainten-
ance of life.”

As a matter of fact this is the conclusion toward
which all my investigations since that time have
tended. Though some maintain that in true hiber-
nation there is cessation of respiration, it would be
hard to prove this, for, as Hall showed, the circulation
continues, and the very beating of the heart against the
lungs displaces a certain amount of air, and in any
event we cannot leave out of account diffusion of gases,
which, in all cases of animals with lungs, plays an
essential part in the process of respiration.

It would be interesting to know the condition of the
heart in a hibernating frog or turtle ; but in such
creatures the skin, as also probably in snakes, has a
respiratory function. Live frogs will stay for hours at
the bottom of a tank in winter, provided fresh water
is flowing over them constantly. In fact, winter frogs
kept under these conditions respire largely by the skin.
So far as the bat is concerned, it is difficult to observe
any respiratory movements ; but in the Woodchuck I

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never fail to notice them at considerable intervals,
say once in five to nine minutes, even when hibernating
most profoundly. The respirations were peculiar.
Sometimes one deep inspiration, preceded by a sudden
relaxation of the enlarged chest, would be succeeded by
a long pause ; again there would be a series of very
slight respiratory movements. It was always possible
by the respirations alone to predict when the animal
was approaching the waking state.

The awakening was never sudden but gradual, often
extending over hours. I have seen something like this,
though less remarkable, in the bat. This is no doubt
protective to the vital machinery, for when Hall main-
tained that bats, suddenly awakened from the hiber-
nating condition, died speedily, he was, in the main, if
not entirely, correct.

A brief consideration of natural daily sleep will throw
light on winter sleep, etc.

Sleep is favoured by moderate exhaustion, a good
condition of nutrition, and the absence of all sorts of
peripheral stimuli.

The case of the youth having but one good eye and
one hearing ear, who could be put to sleep by closing
these up, is very instructive. This lad did not, however,
continue to sleep indefinitely, but awoke after a number
of hours, showing that though there are certain
conditions in the environment that favour sleep, the
latter is essentially a condition of the central nervous
system, and dependent on laws governing the latter.
This view makes it clear that sleep is naturally a
nocturnal condition for most animals, owing, no doubt,
to the evolution of life in relation always to the
environment. The fact is, we cannot conceive of life
except in, and by reason of, in a sense, some environ-
ment. The change of the seasons, day and night, and
all the periodicities of the inorganic world have, as a

HIBERNATION AND ALLIED STATES IN ANIMALS 107

natural consequence, stamped themselves on living
things, plants as well as animals. Sleep, then, is essen-
tially a rhythmic diminution of the activities of all the
tissues, but especially of that one which controls all
others, the nervous. Rhythm seems to be at the basis
of all things organic and inorganic, but has not been
enough considered in our explanation of living cells.
It was long the custom to explain sleep by amemia of
the brain, whereas the very amemia was due to a con-
traction of the blood-vessels of the part, accompanied
by the diminution of the heart-beat, both of which are
periodical and dependent on the rhythm of the nervous
system itself. Of course, temporary amemia of the
brain favours sleep, though it is not the essential
cause. As a natural consequence of the decline in the
activity of the great controller of the cell activities
(metabolism), i.e. the nervous centres, it is found that
all the functions of the body, without exception perhaps,
are diminished during sleep. Marshall Hall and others
since his time have shown that the gaseous interchange
in a hibernating animal is greatly lessened. This
diminished metabolism explains why the animal does
not require to eat, or but little. It explains the dimin-
ished excretions, etc., etc.

This being understood, it is not surprising that
hibernating animals may be kept under water for long
periods as is the case with newly-born mammals, as
kittens and puppies, whose vital machinery as yet
works very slowly, which are, in fact, in a condition but
slightly more advanced physiologically than the uterine,
which is a sort of reptilian pre-natal state, as regards
the circulation, respiration, etc.

As the metabolism of reptiles and amphibians is of a
much slower kind than that of mammals, it is not
surprising that their winter sleep is more profound ;
but it is to be observed that the change from their

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most active to their most sluggish condition is not
probably relatively greater than in the case of
mammals.

All forms of profound winter (or summer) sleep are
protective, both of the individual and the species.
Manifestly amphibia, reptilia, and other groups of
the animal kingdom must have utterly vanished from
the face of the earth but for such a power to adapt to
conditions. Probably many individuals, if not some
entire groups, have, through more or less complete failure
to adapt, disappeared before this habit of the nervous
system and of the whole organism became perfect
enough.

It is equally clear from the investigation given to
the subject that hibernation, like daily sleep, is not a
fixed and rigid thing, but just as it has been the result
of adaptation to the environment, by virtue of the
plasticity of function of all living cells, so the power to
modify still remains.

It is possible to conceive of its being lost in certain
groups of animals — indeed this phase of the subject has
been as much impressed on me as the other. Sleep,
hibernation, and all such states are not invariable, but
to a certain extent, so dependent on the surroundings
that — as in the case of my last marmot, also of turtles
and frogs kept within doors — there may be an omission
of that condition which is habitual under the normal
environment of the animal.

I would like to emphasise these facts, for they seem
to me to throw great light on the evolution of function
at all events, and on those changes which may become
so great as to lead, we can hardly say to what, in the .
lapse of time.

Por years I have had turtles, and especially frogs,
under observation during the winter months. Our
frogs for laboratory use at M'Gill University are kept

HIBERNATION AND ALLIED STATES IN ANIMALS 109

in a tank in which the water is being continually
renewed by a slow stream. They are not fed. None
of the frogs seem to pass into a condition of true
hibernation, but they descend to the bottom of the
tank and remain quiet, as if asleep or partially torpid,
as, indeed, I know they often are for hours. In this
is an interesting modification of that most profound
torpor which they experience when buried in the mud
of ponds.

Even in the winter life of a creature like the marmot
we may have all degrees of drowsiness or torpor, as I
have shown, and it is not to be forgotten that our
own daily sleep has its degrees, so that the night’s
sleep may be represented by a curve with a sharp
rise and very gradual fall, which may, as we all know,
be greatly modified by circumstances.

The same laws seem to apply to all the known cases
of human lethargy, hibernation, sleep, or whatever the
state may be called. In the case of the buried sheep
and hogs the protective value of the condition is
evident, as also in the case of the lethargic woman.
This individual, with so ill-balanced and unstaple a
constitution, would probably have been carried off by
some form of actual disease long before, had she
remained awake. She could exist as a mere vegeta-
tive organism, but not as a normal human being in the
ordinary struggle for existence. One thing which has
been much impressed upon me by my studies of this
whole subject, is the varying degrees of sensitiveness to
temperature and meteorological conditions in different
groups of animals and different individuals of the same
group. The bat as compared with the marmot, for
example, may be worked like a machine by varying the
temperature. On the contrary, the degree to which the
woodchuck is independent of temperature was a
surprise to me after my experience with the bat. But

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the woodchuck answered like a barometer to predict
storms. In fact, I am satisfied that many wild animals
have a delicate perception of meteorological conditions
which man has not, and which, in a sense, makes them
wiser than our science, and wiser than they know, for
they act reflexly, as it were. Often my marmot would
be heard in the night scraping the straw about him
prior to a storm that did not reach us for many
hours after.

Marshall Hall laid it down as one of his principal
conclusions that in hibernating animals “ muscular
irritability ” is increased.

If the term reflex be substituted for muscular, I
believe the conclusion is correct. I found, as a result
of scores of trials, that when the marmot was hibernat-
ing, he was more sensitive to slight stimuli, such as
blowing on the hairs of the skin, than when merely
sleeping. Plainly this was not a case of muscular
irritability at all, but it does indicate that the reflex
mechanism is more excitable, as it is, for example, in an
animal under the influence of strychnine, and as it is
in animals from which a portion of the cerebrum has
been removed.

It may be because the unconsciousness is so pro-
found, i.e. the brain so far from its ordinary functional
activity, for it is well-established that the brain in-
hibits the spinal cord normally, to a certain extent.

Apparently this increased reflex excitability must be
to the advantage of a hibernating animal, for the cord
and medulla oblongata are the parts of the nervous
centres that especially preside over the functions of
organic life, which are necessary to maintain a mere
animal existence.

All problems of a biological kind must ultimately be
referred to cells, and so with this of hibernation.
Indeed, it would seem that unicellular animals pass

HIBERNATION AND ALLIED STATES IN ANIMALS 111

into a condition which is related to that of hibernation.
The so-called encysted stage of protozoa is perhaps
analogous and similarly preservative of the individual
and the species.

The study of a subject like the present one gives rise
to many questions. Can the molecular machinery of
life entirely stop, and yet be set in motion again ? We
know that cold-blooded animals may be frozen and
completely restored to a natural condition. This and
the encysted condition of protozoa are suggestive of
such a possibility.

Yet in insects a condition of perfect quiescence is
accompanied by the most wonderful changes. The
worm-like caterpillar becomes within its cocoon the
butterfly, with locomotive powers immeasurably greater.

For myself, the more I study biological problems, the
less am I inclined to subscribe to rigid formulas of
being. The study of a single group of animals from a
physiological point of view, much less that of a single
individual, does not suffice to enable one to lay down
laws that will apply to similar processes in other groups
of animals except in the most tentative way. I can
never forget the lesson of my marmot that did not
hibernate at all, and what modification of present
views more extended study of this subject of sleep in
all its phases will produce, it is impossible to say.

All my own studies have greatly impressed me with
the plasticity of living things, their power to adapt to
altered environments, and, if I might suggest one of
the great changes that is likely to come over the
biology of the future, it is a recognition of the above
fact ; so that we will cease to generalise so widely
from such narrow data, or rather, perhaps, we will be
ready to believe that phenomena, very different from
those we know, may be possible in the realm of living
things.

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It has often occurred to me that possibly, if such
consideration were kept in mind, we should not be so
disposed to assume that the conditions under which
life now exists are precisely those under which it
always did exist.

PART III.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG
ANIMALS AND ITS PHYSICAL COR-
RELATION.

I. — The Dog.

Introduction.

For mind and body alike the past determines the
present in no small degree ; hence it follows that the
more perfectly the history of each step in the develop-
ment of mind is traced, the better will the final product,
the mature, or relatively fully-developed mind, be
understood. Anatomical researches were long con-
ducted on the bodies of animals before the light thrown
on structure by embryology cleared up the obscurities
which of necessity hung about parts, the origin and
early development of which were unknown.

Comparative anatomy had already done something
to give increased significance to anatomy as a whole,
but it was only by tracing the animal body back to its
primitive germ cells, following these cells in their
development into tissues and organs by the naked eye
and with the microscope, comparing these changes in
one animal with corresponding ones in another, and
indeed in plants, and interpreting them all in the light
of evolution, that the present status of biology has been
reached.

Psychology is as yet in no such position ; but it

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must be equally clear to those who, guided hy facts
alone, untrammelled by tradition, and dogma of every
kind, compare the pyschic status of the young with
that of the mature animal, that psychogenesis is a fact ;
that the mind does unfold, evolve, develop equally with
the body. And as with the body so with the mind,
each stage in this development can only be under-
stood in the light of all the previous stages.

This truth is apparently as yet only dimly compre-
hended, for, till recently, studies on psychic history,
development or psychogenesis have been all but un-
known, and as yet, even in the case of man, are very
few and confessedly imperfect.

But just as we have an ontogeny and phylogeny,
just as the anatomy, physiology, and pathology of
man are clearer from comparative studies on creatures
lower in the scale, so must it be in regard to man’s
psychology.

It follows, then, that all researches in comparative
psychology must be as welcome for the general science
of mind, and the special study of human psychology,
as those in comparative anatomy are to anatomy in
general, or the anatomy of man in particular.

Till very recently animals below man seem to have
been almost wholly neglected or misunderstood in all
that pertains to their psychic nature, one very obvious
result of which has been the inability to connect the
psychic states of man with others of similar, yet often
simpler, character in lower animals, not to mention
the impossibility of a science of mind in general, or
a true understanding of the psychic side of man’s
nature. Studies in infant psychology are of compara-
tively recent date, few in number, and in most instances
very incomplete; while, as regards animals lower in
the scale, such investigations are still more imperfect.

The relations of mind and body in both health and

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 115

disease have been made the subject of considerable
speculation and some valuable research, but the
subject is vast, and will unfold but slowly till our
knowledge of many things is greatly increased.

Much depends on the philosophical or scientific
attitude of the worker, as to the views be holds on such
a subject, or the interpretations he puts on observed
facts.

Nevertheless, to him who can lay aside prejudices —
sanctioned, it may be, by ages of belief — it is possible
to see that old interpretations fail, and that problems
of the mind, which the world has either ignored or
grappled with in vain, must be attacked from new
standpoints.

History and Objects of the Present Research.

In consequence of the foregoing and many other
convictions, some ten years since, I suggested to the
students of the Faculty of Comparative Medicine and
Veterinary Science of M'Gill University the desirability
of forming a Society for the study of Comparative
Psychology, more especially for the study of the psychic
nature of those animals with which they would be
professionally most brought into contact. During this
period, more than formerly, I myself bred and reared
large numbers of the smaller of the domestic animals
and pets with a view of understanding them in all
their varied aspects.

The longer, however, I continued my studies, the
more I became convinced that, as in every other case
to succeed best, one must begin at the beginning.
Accordingly I have for a few years kept full, and I
hope accurate, notes of the development, psychic and
physical, of individuals belonging to several different
groups of the above-mentioned animals.

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My purpose may -be stated about as follows : —

(1) To give a detailed history of the psychic develop-
ment up to a certain age of representatives of several
animal groups.

(2) To compare groups and individuals.

(3) To correlate tlie psychical and physical — or, at
all events, to make some attempt to connect, in time,
the psychic and physical development.

The completion of this work will even, so far as
I am able to accomplish it, take a considerable time
yet, so that I shall be obliged, in the present paper,
to confine myself to one group of animals, viz. dogs,
of which I have made a study during the greater part
of my life, and more especially within the past ten
years, as regards their psychic nature and certain other
features.

The present paper will be founded chiefly on the
notes or diary of three litters of puppies — two of the
St Bernard and one of the Bedlington terrier breed.

These histories, then, will concern, it will be observed,
only pure-bred dogs, as I have not as yet similar notes
on mongrels. As the dog is, after the monkey, more
like man psychically than any other animal, I hope
to make some comparisons with the development of
the young human being, though possibly not in this
paper.

Inasmuch as the diary of the last litter of St Bernard
puppies studied is more complete, and was written in
the light of my past experience, I regard it as much the
most valuable. It will therefore be given first of all, as
written day by day, with only a few verbal alterations,
from which each reader may form his own independent
conclusions.

This I purpose to follow by certain remarks. As my
work on the brain especially is not yet complete, the
physical correlation which has to do chiefly, of course*

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 117

with the nervous system, will be less fully treated than
the psychical development.

Diary.

The following record concerns a litter of pure-bred St
Bernard puppies, whelped in my kennel in the spring of
1894. Both sire and dam were of excellent breeding,
and the pedigree, for many generations, was known.
The dam had a gestation period of about sixty-one days,
so that the puppies may be considered to have been
born at full time, and they were certainly very strong
and active. They were of unusually even size, and with
little apparent difference as to vigour, etc. There were
seven of the male and six of the female sex, all of
which were not preserved ; for some time, however,
there were nine, and to the end of the sixth week
seven ; after that six.

The dam whelped in a separate compartment of the
kennel where she was all alone and free from dis-
turbance. The arrangement to meet the comfort of the
dam and her offspring, which I will term the pen, was
as follows : On a floor, slightly raised above that of the
kennel, some clean, dry straw was littered, the whole
being surrounded by a board enclosure to the height of
about 1 foot. This pen measured about 3 by 3 feet.
Care was taken to change the straw on the floor, while
the whole kennel was well lighted, comfortably warmed,
and properly aired. The dam was given the best of care
in all respects, never had an unfavourable symptom
during or after whelping, and was always able to furnish
her offspring with abundance of good milk. For many
reasons these details are of importance, and it is
necessary to state them in order that the record may be
properly appreciated. Nearly all the observations for
some weeks were made on the puppies in their birth-

118

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

place, as it was found that removal therefrom caused so
much disturbance that observations were impossible or
valueless except to illustrate this very point, important
in itself.

I have limited this diary to the first sixty days of
life, as nearly all the most important phases of develop-
ment show themselves within this period.

ls£ day. — Almost as soon as born and freed from the
investing placental parts by the dam, the puppies cry
out, though more loudly a little later, crawl slowly
but vigorously enough towards the teats of the dam,
and at once, in most cases, begin to such. It is noticed,
however, that other parts are sometimes sucked as well
as the teats. They huddle together and get between
the legs of the dam, and where the hair is longest, or
where, for any reason, there is most warmth, when not
actually nursing.

Their movements are very slow. Their eyelids are
still not grown apart nor their ears grown open.

Two of them weighed at the end of about twenty-four
hours 1 lb. 2 oz. and 1 lb. 6 oz. respectively.

They were not examined as to reflexes other than
sucking, reaction to temperature, etc.

I made, on the first day, the following experiment :
Placing a puppy on a surface above the floor, it was
found that, when it reached the edge, it became very
uneasy, spread its claws, grasped, etc., to avoid falling off.

On this and later days they cry apparently from cold
or hunger, or when removed from the usual environ-
ment.

4 th day. — The last experiment is repeated under
slightly varying conditions. A tortoise placed under
the same conditions walked or tumbled off. On this
day one puppy was conveyed to my laboratory, wrapped
up warmly in a blanket, without a cry or other sign of
discomfort, this journey occupying about half an hour.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 119

5th day. — When pinched, they gave evidence of feel-
ing by a cry and movement, though the latter is not very
marked. When the hand is laid over them in a caress-
ing way just afterwards they are at once quieted. I
regret that this experiment was not made earlier.

6th day — Several attempts are made to ascertain if
they smell, but with uncertain results. Warm milk
and meat were held near their noses. I think there was
some sniffing as a result, but cannot be certain.

7 th day. — Growing well. Two specimens (females)
weigh 2 lbs. 7 oz. and 2 lbs. 10 oz. respectively. Tested
taste by the use of milk and of aloes. A finger dipped
in milk is long sucked. When aloes, in solution, is
placed on the finger, the latter is not long sucked, and
the facial movements indicate disgust , quite the reverse
in the case of anything sweet. I endeavoured to learn
whether they knew if the dam were near them by smell,
but could not establish it. Up to this date, and long
after, no evidence of hearing to be elicited.

9 th day. — When the dam is out of the pen, as she now
often is, the puppies suck frequently at different parts
of the bodies of each other. They will suck vigorously
and for some time at my finger.

It is easy to notice now great progress in power of
movement, especially as regards the forelimb, mouth
parts, and head or neck. No movement of the tail at
all yet nor for some time.

10^A day. — I again attempted to determine whether
they could smell, in the same manner as before, but
with no definite results, though strongly inclined to
believe that they could to some extent.

When the dam, after an absence, steps into the pen,
two or three may happen to get between her legs after
she lies down. Presently these and others commence
to move in a lively way in all directions, and before long
manage to reach the teats.

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

11 th day. — Held a saucer containing warm milk under
the nose of one of the puppies. It took the edge of the
saucer in its mouth. Another tried to drink the milk
but did not succeed, its eagerness being in excess of its
ability to co-ordinate muscular movements.

The evidence of smell is still very doubtful.

It is now easy to discern that some are larger and in
better physical condition than others.

1‘ith day. — Last night it was observed that the eyes
began to open. At noon to-day they are not fully open,
being held by a thin sheet of tissue at the outer canthus ;
individual differences are very marked, however, in this
matter.

Smell is tested with pieces of cold cooked veal, warm
fried kidney, and cold cooked salted herring. All, when
these were put near the nose, licked their lips and moved
forward and to each side, following the objects evidently
by the nose.

They do not wink when the whole hand or a finger
is moved close before their eyes, but when the eye-
lashes are touched, or all but touched, they do wink.
The same refiex follows where the lid or corner is
actually touched.

It is very difficult to make out the pupil, and I was
not able to learn, though I tried day after day, whether
the iris contracted to light or not. Ho evidence of the
existence of vision could be obtained.

A feather inserted into the nostril causes the head to
be quickly drawn away.

Considerable twitching of the muscles is noticed
when they are asleep.

There is a tendency to groivling in sleep.

All the movements are better than on the earlier
days ; and for the first time slight tail movements are
noticed, none having been observed during the period
prior to opening of the eyes,

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 121

When a puppy is removed from the others in its pen
it manifests little uneasiness, but quite the reverse if
placed on the floor of the kennel, which is covered with
sawdust. It creeps about and cries.

14 th day. — Unable to get any evidence of seeing
objects, as no sign is given of any kind when various
things are moved before the eyes, nor is the winking
reflex any better established.

They seem, as before, to crawl against the board wall
of the pen without noticing it. The eyes are more
fully opened.

The loudest noises, including the sounding of a shrill
dog-whistle, that can be easily heard a quarter of a
mile away, causes no reflex movements of the ears, or
any other movement to indicate the possession of
hearing. On the other hand, a slight breath of air
causes reflex movements.

To-day I made a definite test of the temperature
sense. A glass pestle was heated till it could not be
comfortably borne on my skin anywhere, when its end,
about half an inch in diameter, was placed against the
paw of the puppy, which was rapidly withdrawn. A
similar reaction followed the application of ice, but not
so quickly.

They now begin to use the jaws apart from sucking.
They stand better and move faster, the hind limbs
being, however, much less under control than the front legs.

I suspected that the beginning of play appeared to-
day, but was not quite certain.

The tendency to growl is manifesting itself in sleep.

15^ day. — Eyelids continue to grow apart, so that
more of the globe of the eye can be seen. They seem
to wink reflexly a shade more readily under the former
tests, but more promptly with the finger close to the
eye than with the entire hand ipoved as close ns pos-
sible before the face.

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

One puppy appears to see, or be trying to see, the
dam, judging by the position of the head, etc., but it is
possible that it is partly guided by smell. I allowed
the dam to stand just within the pen at some little
distance (1 or 2 feet) from the puppies lying asleep
or drowsy. An uneasiness was manifested which in-
creased, and was probably due to their smelling the dam.

On bringing some sulphuric ether towards the
nostrils of one of the puppies there was decided evi-
dence of dislike.

When they are lying asleep, touching the lips gently
causes movements of the muscles of the face, and
especially of the tongue — an incipient sucking, in fact.
All tests of hearing give negative results. It is im-
possible to introduce a small probe into the auditory
canal — which attempt was made with the puppy under
ether so as to avoid the shaking of the head, which
might introduce fallacies, and be a source of danger to
the drum-head of the ear.

For this and other investigations that could not be
well carried out at home, one of the puppies was
conveyed to the Physiological Laboratory of M'Gill
University. The puppy, having sucked to its satisfac-
tion, was tucked up warmly in a basket, and conveyed
for twenty minutes in a street car without the slightest
signs of uneasiness.

Whenever the puppy recovered the least from the
ether anaesthesia it showed a tendency to whine, cry
out, move, etc.

To-day there was undoubted play witnessed, both
paws and jaws being used, especially the latter. The
second subject participated to a less degree. There
was no sucking of the ear or other part of the body in
this case, as had often happened before, when the mouth
of one canine casually came in contact with the ear,
paw, etc., of another puppy.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 123

16 th day. — Can discover little advance in vision.
The eyes are still more fully open.

If the puppies hear at all it is only in the faintest
way.

As the dam stands close beside the pen, when the
puppies lie drowsing, they soon begin to move the
muscles of the face, raise their heads, sniff here and
there, like a hunting dog catching scent of game, and
feel about, as it were, for the object giving the scent.
Presently they make, almost simultaneously, quick
movements as if to reach some object. I am convinced
that all this is from smell and not vision, though it
would be difficult to prove absolutely that sight had
nothing to do with it.

When the dam now sits on her haunches the puppies
manage to reach the teats.

They will still suck the finger when put into the
mouth, but for a much shorter period.

17 th day. — Playing more common. One began to
play with the foot of another, but soon changed to
sucking this part.

Slight movements of the tail are noticed during play
at times, and there is obvious increase in walking
power ; muscular co-ordinations of all kinds are better
made.

When a beef bone is held within half an inch of the
nose when the puppies are asleep, the movements of
tongue, lips, etc., before referred to as evidence of
smell, take place. When awake, they give evidence
of smelling cold roast beef at 3 inches.

When the dam stands at the end of the pen, some
2 feet from the puppies, that lie in about its centre,
they soon begin to move towards her, but not in a
straight line, as they would if they were guided solely
by sight. I am convinced that vision is very im-
perfect yet.

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

The ear-flaps have, for a eouple of days, been turned
forward instead of backward as at birth, but tests for
hearing give but uncertain indications as yet.

By touching, in a certain way, either the outside of
the flap of the ear, or its inside and adjacent parts, the
scratching reflex is excited on the same side. Occasion-
ally the puppy attempts to get rid of the irritation by
the use of the foreleg of the same side.

Upon suddenly seizing one of them it growls.

The winking reflex is more readily obtained, and the
latent period is shorter.

While the puppies may have some vague notion of
the existence of objects by their eyes, no clear evidence
of being able to see objects in the proper sense of the
term is to be obtained, notwithstanding many attempts.

For the first time they lick the finger without any
attempt to suck when it is presented to them.

They swallow, but not very well, a little fluid placed
in the mouth, though they retch when the handle of
a spoon is placed far back in the pharynx ; this is
neither very pronounced nor very sudden. Upon
putting the finger to the front of the mouth, the foreleg
is used to remove it without any attempt at sucking.
(Will or reflex ?)

Up to this date exhaustion , under any stimulus, is
a marked feature to which reference will be made
subsequently.

It is again noticed that all reflexes are more per-
fectly carried out, and the latent period shortening.

When the dam was nursing the puppies one of
them was put behind her. It felt about for a short
time, and then got round to the front and soon reached
a teat. Another did the same, though not so
quickly.

Individual differences are now more evident.

Certain important points were settled on the evening

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT oe young animals 125

of the 17th day, to which special attention is called.
The observations and experiments were made at
8.30 p.m.

During sleep, growling, twitching of the muscles,
sucking movements, licking, etc., are observed.

The dam was placed near the puppies when asleep.
There was licking of the lips, and general uneasiness,
but no actual waking up till the dam stood near the
centre of the pen where they were lying, when some
stood up, and were evidently “ feeling about for the
body scent,” as sportsmen describe the action of their
dogs when they detect the scent left by the bodies of
game birds as opposed to that of the feet.

Special tests were made of hearing. Clapping of
the hands rouses them suddenly, but not in that un-
questionable way seen later, for wafting the hand over
them does the same, but less suddenly.

Then low growling and low barking sounds are
made, which seem to rouse them at first a little, but
this was not demonstrative.

Upon sounding the dog- whistle loudly there was a
doubtful twitching of the ears, etc., but on repeating
any of these tests the results were still more doubtful
or wholly negative.

To determine whether this was due to the concussion
caused by clapping the hands, or to the actual aerial
vibrations, the physical stimulus in hearing, I stamped
on the floor where I stood when clapping the hands,
causing more concussion than the clapping possibly
could, but with no results.

Finally, a thick cloth was interposed between the
puppies and the hands, when the result was positive,
showing conclusively that hearing was now established
on the 17th day.

One of the puppies, upon having his back rubbed the
wrong way of the hair, or rather both ways, growled.

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE!

Several others were tried, but, while roused in a
measure, did not growl, and even the first one soon
ceased to react.

Although ordinary sounds do not rouse them, feelings
of discomfort do, for they rarely or never empty the
bowels or bladder now where they lie, but move aside
to do so. As in the case of rubbing the back, reflex
effects get fainter and soon cease.

187/t day. — Being without food for three hours the
puppies are very active. They walk about with tails
up, and play with each other.

In order to determine whether they are still guided
by the sense of smell or by sight also, two of the
puppies were removed from the pen and their eyes
bandaged, but this seemed to confuse them and render
them so uneasy that no conclusions could be drawn.

However, when they are held up before a good light,
they follow with their eyes the movements of the hand
or other object ; nevertheless, when they reach the dam
from the distant part of the pen, it is difficult to
determine how much they are guided by sight and how
much by smell. I am convinced that, while the former
is an aid, smell is still the most useful to them in all
such cases.

The peculiar noise made with the lips to attract the
attention of dogs, which I may term the lip-call, is
evidently heard, and as the position is shifted the
puppies follow the sound to right and left. While the
dog-wliistle is heard, it causes reflexes of the ears and
some startling, but does not rouse them so thoroughly
into movements as the lip-call and certain other
sounds.

When an attempt is made to plug the nostrils with
cotton wool, it is at once sneezed out reflexly.

Judging by the whining and crying after fasting,
hunger is more keenly felt than ever.

TIIE PSYCttiC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 127

A bandage placed over the eyes soon causes sleep.

Up to the present date the only nourishment received
has been the mother’s milk, but to-day artificial feeding
with cow’s milk diluted was added. The first attempts
at lapping, though far from perfect, were fairly good —
much better than the first attempts at swallowing fluid
artificially introduced. It is noticed that they follow up
slowly the spots where milk had been spilled. After
each feeding they lick each other’s faces thoroughly.*

l§th day. — The attendant reports the puppies as
baricing when he entered, as if at him.

The lip-call, at a distance of 6 to 8 feet, causes
them to prick up the ears quickly, which is soon
followed by crying (expectancy of food possibly).

One of the puppies scratches his own ear.

Teeth are appearing that for some days could be
felt beneath the gums.

20 th day. — Some get additional teeth.

21 st day. — Certain motor manifestations are worthy
of special mention.

Tails are wagged during play, and walking with tail
held erect is seen for the first time.

Several of them tried to get out of the pen.

When the muzzle is held by the hand both hind
legs were used in an attempt to remove it. (Will or
reflex ? )

The hand moved before the face, as if to strike,
causes winking.

Now they seem to hear almost every sound made in
their compartment of the kennel, which is about
15 by 6 feet.

22 nd day. — Some have all the upper incisors, and in

During four days I was absent from home, but the puppies were
carefully watched and notes taken by members of my family, who are
familiar with the ways of dogs, and had frequently been with me
when making my investigations on this and other litters of puppies.

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

one case the nose is all but covered with the character-
istic black pigment, though this one is in advance of
the others in this respect.

23rd day. — On my return on this day a long time
was spent with the puppies, and the following noted :

The dam is no longer so much inclined to stay with
her offspring, and does not wish to suckle them so
frequently.

The puppies are fed on the top of a large box, two at
a time. It is found that unless straw is placed on the
top of the box the puppies will not feed. They decline
to take half milk and water any longer, but must have
richer food, and considerable attention must be paid to
the temperature of the liquid.

Great improvement is noticed in lapping milk,
though one is observed attempting to gulp the milk as
it were (hunger, etc.).

Soon after feeding, the finger placed in the mouth is
not sucked but rather chewed.

The readiness with which all sorts of sounds are
heard, even when some distance away, is striking.

The puppies now follow a small object or a piece of
paper (2 by 3 inches) held within a few inches of the
face.

Much growling in play, also more advanced use of
tail. They also wag the tail now sometimes when an
object is presented to them, or when anything pleases
them. They turn the head quickly towards any part
of the body gently pinched.

On pinching one of them frequently and rapidly
much irritation is shown by the voice, expression of
face, etc.

They now very frequently stand with the paws on
the edge of the enclosing boards of the pen, and show
that they would like to get out. The height of the pen
is now about 15 inches.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 129

I notice one sleeping and another licking its face
after feeding, using its paw with movements closely
akin to those of the fore-limb against the mammary
glands when sucking.

I can observe a very considerable advance in the use
of the hind limbs in walking in four days.

During the night one of the puppies had got out of
the pen and was making loud outcry and trying to get
back.

24 th day. — Special tests as to sucking finger gave the
following results :

Some on one occasion suck the finger, others do not.

Later, three were tried, one asleep or almost so, the
others not, but all sucked the finger tip.

One lying sucks the finger, and puts up its fore feet
towards the hand, and spreads the claws , at the same
time moving the hind limbs somewhat.

One, when standing and sucking at the finger, also
lifts its paw.

25 th day. — A piece of meat held before the nose of a
sleeping puppy at a distance of 2£ inches wakes it
(smell). When this piece of meat is rapidly moved
before the face at 3 inches, it is as rapidly followed
by movements of the head. Was this owing to smell,
or sight, or both ?

When the meat is put into the mouth it is not
merely sucked, but an attempt is made to chew it.

When the hands are clapped sharply once, starting
is produced, suggestive of more than a mere reflex —
possibly real fright. When I whistle somewhat lightly
some of them bark.

26 th day. — When I whistle at the distant end of the
pen they bark, some of them, but, employing the lip-
call, they move in that direction.

Moving a small piece of rag before them as was
done with the meat yesterday, causes similar correspond-

I

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

ing rapid movements of the head, and it almost seems
as if they have some of that sense of fun, or whatever
it may be, that we witness in older dogs under similar
circumstances.

They can now follow a small object at the distance
of at least 1 foot; and at 5 feet they can follow the
movements of an object the size of a table-napkin.
Both the eyes and head are moved.

On striking a single blow on the bottom of a water-
ing-can, they all rushed off to the distant part of the
pen, with all the expressions of fear.

They are now well supplied with teeth in both jaws,
but in regard to this also there are individual differences.

They play much more.

Being rather chilly to-day they huddle together.

Same day at 7 P.M. — When all are playing a slight
hut well-defined sound causes them all to stop at once.

When the hand is put down in front of them, after
they recover, one comes up wagging the tail.

The eyes are now very widely open, the expression
changed, and they can follow the movements of
a table-napkin at a distance of 6 to 7 feet, but
winking by the old test is not appreciably more pro-
nounced.

One of the puppies, when placed on the floor of the
kennel covered with sawdust, plays about, cries, and is
evidently very uneasy, if not confused. When put on
the top of the box on which they are usually fed, it
sniffed and looked towards the white plate from which
they drink their milk. When held in the arms it soon
manifests uneasiness; when placed near the edge of
the box it grows very uneasy, but does not jump off.
Almost at once, when placed back in the pen, it became
quiet, and soon began to play. By its movements
it indicates clearly that the direction of sound is
perceived.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 131

27 tli day. — The puppies follow a small object (3 by 1
inches) dangled before them at 15 inches.

One is observed playing with a straw 3 or 4 inches
from it. In this act there is the use of the mouth and
the fore-limb, with all that this implies.

There is clear evidence that sounds made at the
outer door of the kennel, and in the adjacent yard, are
heard.

A basket in which meat had been kept, and giving
off a strong odour when brought near the pen, is plainly
smelled. The dam is brought within 3 feet of the
puppies, but unseen by them. First one, and then
another begin to sniff and soon to cry.

The playing shows advance ; better use is made of
the hind limbs, which develop functionally and much
more slowly than the forelegs. The head and neck
movements are also better in all respects.

Now, and even some days since, increase in the
quantity and quality of the coat, with changes in the
shape of the head are evident; and in both physical
and psychic characteristics, individuality is to be
noted.

To-day play seemed in one case to change into a
little quarrel for a few seconds.

One is observed to utter an abortive lark in its sleep.

28 th day. — Noises above the kennel in my pigeon
loft have greater effect on the puppies than on the
mature dogs in the adjoining’kennel.

They can now follow with the eyes the small objects
used in all these experiments at a distance of 4 or
5 feet ; while a napkin, etc., can be followed anywhere
within their kennel compartment.

Various objects, as a plate, glass, a folded napkin, and
a Spratt s dog biscuit, are presented, but they mouth
all about equally, so that distinct selective choice is
not shown.

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

A small Becllington terrier bitch that had never had
puppies was placed amongst them. All rushed around
her and tried to such her undeveloped teats. Then a
St Bernard bitch, nearly as large as their dam, was
placed in their compartment. Though from their mode
of sniffing it appeared that they recognised this animal
as a stranger, they soon tried to suck her also.

When they are spoken to in a friendly way they wag
the tail and give other evidences of sociability by the
face. They get up on the edge of the pen with forelegs
when either the dam or any person is about to leave
them, and follow with the eyes, and evidently would
with their limbs if they could get out.

They are not now nearly so easily fatigued by any
stimuli, being able to last out three or four times as
long as they could eight days ago.

29 tli day. — Puppies follow a small object at a distance
of 7 feet.

A high-pitched, peculiar sound causes ear reflexes and
barking, while a low-pitched sound, imitating barking,
has very little effect.

When a small piece of cloth is dangled before the
face of the puppy, it tries to catch it with the mouth, and
raises one foreleg at the same time, as if to assist in this.

Noticed well-executed scratching.

They seem thus far to prefer milk to broth or meat.

3(BA day. — I did not make special notes of observa-
tions on this day.

31s£ day. — It seemed that to-day the dam was un-
doubtedly recognised by sight alone.

When a bone and the napkin used in the last test of
this kind were presented to the puppies, each one at
once selected the bone. No chewing of the napkin, which
shows a distinct advance since the 28tli day.

They now observe a small object at any part of their
kennel compartment, i.e. at 12 to 15 feet.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 133

One was noticed watching with an intelligent ex-
pression the movements made in connection with
photographic apparatus within 5 feet of them.

When the lip-call is uttered they wag the tail like
older dogs.

32 nd day . — By lamplight a puppy follows by his
eyes a straw moved before him at 3 to 4 inches
distance. He also seems much interested in the shadow
of my hand on the wall.

On holding the coal-oil lamp near them, all licked at
the glass cistern containing oil (smell). One or two
touched the chimney with the nose or tongue, but the
majority turned away when it was near the nose, while
neither of those that had touched the chimney went
near it again.

They show sociability with human beings, and a
tendency to play with them.

They become very quiet and attentive when they
hear certain kinds of sounds, which is prolonged if the
sound continues.

33 rd day. — When a straw is rapidly moved before
them they snap at it to catch it.

Upon changing the straw bedding in their pen they
rub about in it much as old dogs, evidently well pleased.

There is a very distinct advance in the ability to
lap milk.

Now, when put on the covered floor of the kennel,
with its covering of sawdust, they do not manifest
uneasiness as before, but walk about and play. One
is seen to run at a slow rate, with his tail up, and
several make quick starts forward and backward. On
giving the lip-call, and snapping my fingers, one, a few
feet distant, ran towards me.

They now watch what is being done near them some-
what attentively.

A slight tap on some boards above them causes them

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

all to move quickly away with tails down and other
expressions of fear.

2>ith clay. — Tested them with a napkin and Spratt’s
dog biscuit as on the 28th day. Now they all show
very decided preference for the biscuit, which is not so
attractive as a bone to any dog. One or two began to
smell about the floor of the pen as an old dog does, and
yesterday one was observed scratching at a spot on the
floor where some excrement had been.

At this age puppies have very sharp teeth, and it is
not very uncommon now to hear one cry out when his
fellow uses his jaws too freely in play.

Scratching is more common.

While the winldng reflex , from a simple movement of
the hand as before, is not readily produced, a sudden
tap on the ledge of the pen will cause winking if they
are looking that way, and within a foot or so of the spot
struck. They also wink when the muzzle is suddenly
touched.

35 tli day. — They now retire to one end of their pen
to answer nature’s calls.

They are noticed smelling at the shoes of any one
who happens to be near them.

They bark in sleep like older dogs.

When the finger is thrust into the mouth some suck
a good while, some not at all.

36 th day. — They follow me around their kennel
compartment, and are inclined to seize the skirts of a
very long coat I wear. By way of testing recognition
of the dam, she and her other puppy, eight months old,
and nearly as large as herself, were brought to the
puppies together. They all at once rushed to the dam.
But soon after her removal they attempted to suck the
younger bitch, though from their sniffing it seemed to
me they noticed her strange.

Later in the day the small bitch (Bedlington terrier)

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 135

used for a similar test before, was placed among them.
They soon tried to suck her teats, at which, on account
of her smaller size, they could readily get.

37 th day. — Being a warm day the puppies feel the
heat a good deal, lie far apart from each other, and
pant with tongues lolling out.

At a distance of 10 feet, a mere word uttered in a
low voice rouses one that is drowsing.

Out of five tested only one sucked when the finger
was introduced into the mouth.

ZSth day. — They gave evidence of seeing me well,
though I was standing at an outside door of the kennel,
with two wire-mesh partitions between, and at a dis-
tance of about 12 feet.

Upon dangling a rope over their heads one seizes and
pulls at it, but when doing the same with a bright
chain they make off, showing fear. This was probably
owing to the noise it made, the brightness, and, in one
case, to the puppy having come in contact with it.

The compartment in which they are kept is closed by
a heavy wire-mesh door, through which every exit must
be made. They crowd around this often now, and
sometimes whine there when hungry.

39^ day. — High temperature ; puppies very uneasy.

Seeing me at some little distance, one of them wags
the tail like an old dog, showing its sociable and friendly
nature.

When one speaks they show pleasure by the tail,
expression of face, etc.

Two bones from cooked meat were placed on the
straw of their pen, which now has walls only a few
inches high, so that they can go in and out easily.

One or two go towards the bones, followed by others ;
one seizes a bone and walks out of the pen with tail
up, much in the manner of an older dog. I suddenly
removed the bone, when the puppy that had it sniffed

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

about, going back over bis track, evidently guided by
the scent it had left.

Some of them that had followed up the puppies that
had taken the bones return to the straw, seeking them.

The removal of a large piece of tin that has been
used to encircle a stove in a protective way, made a
noise which caused them all to rush away as so many
sheep, but when I gave the lip-call they soon recovered
and came towards me.

Given water in a vessel to drink for the first time,
they merely dip into it.

4:0th day. — Being decidedly cooler they do not whine
or cry, but play much.

One is seen violently shaking a piece of paper that
was in the straw.

Another is seen scratching his head, with the latter
inclined towards his leg in the manner of a mature dog,
though with much slower movements.

To-day one is seen to lap water when it is poured
into the vessel attached to the wire-mesh partition,
whereupon several others do so.

In the evening one is noticed moving about in a way
peculiar to an old dog prior to defecation.

When any one enters the kennel the puppies now run
about his legs eagerly.

They have almost deserted their pen, and lie about
on the floor of their kennel compartment, finding it
cooler, while the layer of sawdust makes it soft to rest
upon.

Alst day. — Their pen was wholly removed to-day, as it
served no good purpose.

They occasionally lie so that the head and body is in
a fashion supported, e.g. against the partition or walls of
the kennel, or with the head-on a part of the floor that
is there a little raised.

A very slight growl at the outer door of the main

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 137

kennel with three partitions or walls between (doors
being open) causes one of them, though lying apparently
asleep, to get up, and if anything happens they all
awake if one moves much or whines.

One of them is observed to snap at a fly.

At 10 p.m. I notice one of the puppies scraping away
the sawdust near the elevation referred to above, on
which he had laid his head in preparing to rest. He
tried the spot once or twice before he finally laid his
head down.

4:2ncl day. — It is very warm, and the puppies whine
and cry a good deal owing to the discomfort, as their
coats are thick and warm.

How there are many evidences that they hear as
acutely as mature dogs, if not more so, and sounds dis-
turb them more, as they do not know their meaning
so well.

They now show an interest in everything that goes
on within their field of examination with eyes, nose, etc.
In fact it is difficult to move about among them.

When they see one they may cry out if hungry, wag
the tail if recently fed and satisfied, sniff, etc.

This sniffing is a characteristic method of investigation
with_dogs, and its appearance, at this date and earlier, is
significant.

On every occasion, if they see or smell the dam (that
is seldom with them now, as they were gradually weaned
— the process ending to-day), they cry out.

While this litter is an unusually even one in physical
characteristics, at all events, individual differences are
to be observed in many directions. There are some
decided differences in psychic manifestations.

One, a bitch, seems to be quicker and more precocious
than the rest by a great deal.

One dog grovjls when feeding, as they do at present
all together from one large dish.

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

43rd day. — It is warm, and two are noticed lying in
a darker and more secluded part of the kennel, where
there are fewer flies perhaps.

It is noticed that now one often acts as does another ;
one seems to take its cue from another.

44 th day. — So very warm, the puppies are prostrated
by the heat, and lie about, maintaining mere existence.

45 th day. — To-day, for the first time, the door of their
compartment was left open, so that they might enter
an adjoining one, which is in general fitted up in the
same way, so that the environment is substantially
the same.

It was curious to note the results. It was some
minutes before the puppies, the precocious bitch ex-
cepted, realised that the door was really open, and
that they had free access to a new compartment. They
did not at once surmount the difficulty presented by the
door case only a few inches high. When some of them
came in and saw the water vessel attached to the other
side of the wire-mesh partition, they did not at once
comprehend that they could not drink from it, when
they saw their fellow on the distant side lapping. All
this, however, lasted but a very few minutes. Soon
they all were busy investigating the new place with
nose, eyes, feet, etc.

The new experiences evidently afford them unusual
pleasure in spite of the heat, as they play more than
for some days.

To-day I first used a switch to learn what effect it
would have on their crying, etc.

They seem to make the mental association to some
extent, but only imperfectly.

One of them, as they crowded around me, was trodden
upon, and this had a decided and somewhat lasting
psychic effect, as will be seen later. As he was running
away after this accident, I caught him, and was trying to

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 1 39

soothe the creature, but this was not at first understood,
and increased its terror.

Later in the day they understand the whip better.
I notice what may be termed wanton barking as well as
that which denotes but an excess of good feeling —
“animal spirits.”

Now and then one turns round on another that is
attempting to play with it in quite a fierce way.

They are running more than formerly.

There are physical changes and good growth notwith-
standing the long succession of hot — to them very hot
— days.

One of them is observed using both paws to scrape
away the sawdust from a part of the kennel floor. He
then puts down his head and tries the spot. This was
repeated three times before the puppy lay quietly at
rest.

Actions of one are followed by similar actions in others
much more frequently and readily than before.

46<A day. — It has been raining ; the sky is dull and
the atmosphere is moist, and though it is still warm the
puppies seem less restless and uncomfortable. They
cry much less.

£lth day. — I notice that the precocious bitch acts
towards the whip much as an old dog or a half grown
one often does. This is difficult to describe. The
animal shows that it understands what its relations are,
but seems to combine a sort of pleading with humour.
It is complex, however, and must be witnessed to be
understood.

The individual that was trodden upon now retires to
another part of the compartment when I appear ; there
is evidently a very unpleasant association of ideas.

At 11.30 p.m. I went to the kennel to see how all
my dogs were, as the night was very close. The door
directly opposite the puppy-kennel was open. I had

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no light and walked softly, yet two of the puppies,
lying against the wire-mesh partition, some 6 or 8
feet from where I stood in the darkness, awoke and
soon began to cry as I passed close to the closed main
kennel door. The old dogs were heard sniffing. They
evidently detected me by the sense of smell.

Was it wholly so in the case of the puppies, or were
they assisted by sight ? Hearing may, I think, be
excluded, though not with perfect confidence, so sharp
now are their ears.

In any case, this observation is of much significance,
even be it granted that they were not asleep at the
time I stood before the door of their kennel. It is
further to be remembered, in this instance, that by a
misunderstanding the puppies had not had their last
evening meal, and also lacked water.

48/A clay. — It remains warm. The flies are trouble-
some, and as the puppies lie asleep, or trying to sleep,
the same movements of the skin of the head, of the ears,
etc., may be seen as in mature dogs when flies irritate
these parts.

49 th day. — To-day, for the first time, the puppies were
removed for a time to a part of the yard enclosed by
wire-mesh. The earth furnishes a fresh surface with
various small objects on it.

The puppies proceed to investigate, as when before
they were given free access to new surroundings.

They seize and carry small objects, which they take
from each other, indulge in play, and evidently ex-
perience keen enjoyment. After, say, half an hour, they
lie down and sleep.

When I call “ Puppies ! ” from a verandah, at a height
of about 20 feet, and at about the same distance on
their plane, they look up, some of them at least, at once,
to my surprise, for I expected they would not be able
to detect the direction of the sound so quickly.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 141

The bitch puppy was taken upstairs in my house to-
day to be weighed. She, like two of the dogs, seemed
abashed by the new surroundings, but soon recovered,
and when some one entered by the front door down-
stairs, one storey, turned the head in the direction of
the sound.

5 Oth day. — When crying this morning, one of them
was well whipped, with the result that it remained
quiet for some hours after. Dogs, young and old, easily
acquire habits, good and bad, and barking and crying
are examples, and sometimes one or two whippings that
are felt puts an end to what renders the dog wretched,
as well as those who must listen to him, hence the
treatment alluded to above.

In attempting to give them some bromide of
potassium to quiet their uneasiness, it is found that
they fight against the unpleasant stuff, and it is with
difficulty they can be made to swallow it at all.

blst day. — They are awake very early (4 A.M.), and
eager for food and exercise.

I moved a whip over one that had been making a
good deal of outcry. She looked as if she knew what
it meant (had been before whipped two or three times).
As I moved the whip she put up one paw as if to ward
it off.

52 nd day. — Cooler to-day and the puppies are quieter.
Barking now frequent ; seems to be partly from excess
of animal spirits, and at other times from a sort of
wantonness. I notice an advance in co-ordination in
scratching ; they adapt one part to another still more
like an old dog than formerly.

53 rd day. — When I lift the whip, and wave it 3
feet above them, another lifts a paw. They all look as
if they knew the meaning of a whip better.

When I shouted “ Puppy ! ” from an upper verandah,
about 50 feet distant, two of them that were lying

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quietly in the sawdust arose, aud looked towards the
source of the sound.

54^7i day. — The same sort of pawing, and at the same
places as before.

It is scarcely possible to go into the kennel anywhere
now when they are awake without some of them
detecting my presence by ear, eye, or smell, or by all
three, as is now evidently often the case.

55 th day. — Warm. Much barking and restlessness.
They have for some two or three weeks had the range
of two compartments of the kennel, but they would
evidently like the range of the whole yard as well as
the outside run ; and if this were once permitted,
experience with other puppies has taught me, they
might be unwilling to stay in the kennel at all during
the day, which condition of things would not in several
respects be desirable.

The dog trodden upon still shows that he remembers ,
but will now turn to the lip-call.

56th day. — Eighth week. Though the litter remains
an even one, changes characteristic of growth and
development are evident.

The bitch puppy shows very pronounced changes in
colour of coat, expression of face, temperament, etc.,
and has the most marked individuality of any of them
at present. She seems still precocious.

57 th day. — They are so active it is difficult to move
around among them.

It is noteworthy that they use the kennel compart-
ment they occupied originally as a retiring place to
answer to nature’s calls, while they play, rest, and sleep
chiefly in the additional compartment last given them.
Perhaps this is to be accounted for in part by the
fact that, from the latter, there is a door opening out-
ward, and another of wire-netting, through which they
can look out and catch an occasional breeze.

THE TSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OE YOUNG ANIMALS 143

5 8th day. — An ox’s head, that had been boiled free
from all flesh, was placed amongst them. They all
attacked it eagerly, showing inexperience.

An old dog would have acted in this way only in
case of extreme hunger.

Some desist and again return to the attack, but show
that already experience has not been lost on them.
Some of them growl when others approach.

59 th day. — The puppies are given small rib-bones
from cooked lamb. Each carries off his own with tail
up ; uses the paws to steady the bone ; gets hold of it
with his teeth by the end, so that he may gnaw off
perchance some of it ; growls when a fellow approaches,
etc. All this was suggestive of the behaviour of an
old dog. The puppies plainly recognise the nature of
a fellow’s growl under these circumstances.

60 th day. — Temperature higher. The puppies show
the effect of the heat both physically and psychically.

61s£ day. — To-day one sheep’s head and a bone for
each is placed in their compartment.

In gnawing their own bone, in growling and acting
on the defensive generally, there is considerable advance
over the 59th day.

They are allowed into the large yard to-day for the
first time. They have seen this yard from the kennel
and from their wire fence run in the middle of it.
They mingle with the older dogs and act very much
like them. They try to suck the dam and both the
other bitches referred to before on the 28th, etc., days.

They move about the yard from the first, as if
acquainted with it, and choose the comfortably shady
places in which to lie. By the lip-call, etc., I get them
to follow me back to the kennel, but when inside the
door they hesitate and soon make for the yard. When
placed in their usual compartment in the kennel, after
being some hours in the yard, they cry, but not long.

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Brief Extracts from the Early Records of the Diary of
Another Litter of St Bernards , by the same Dam , but
Another Sire.

18 th day. — First seen playing.

20 th day. — They seize the finger instead of sucking it.
Come at lip-call, with tails up.

22 nd day. — They no longer mistake other parts for the
teats of the dam.

28 th day. — When called (“ Puppy ! ”) they wag the tail.
During the third week (the day not noted) the first
attempt at scratching observed.

7 th week. — Individual differences pronounced.

B nef Extracts from the Diary of a Litter of Bedlington

Terriers.

2nd day. — Taste tested with Epsom salts and nux vomica.
Cannot determine positively whether they either taste or
smell.

On the same day pinching causes them to cry out with
pain, but the latent period is notably long.

9 th day. — Concussion of the surface on which they lie
causes appearance of fright.

11 th day. — Eyes begin to open.

They smack their lips, etc. (the eyes being covered) when
meat is held 2 inches from the nose.

1 6th day. — Ears not well open. Hearing still doubtful.

Seem to smell at 3 or 4 inches.

19 th day. — When asleep I take the dam in quietly.
When within 2 feet the puppies begin to move — soon to
whine and cry.

Hearing still doubtful, but inclined to think it exists in
feeble degree.

This day they managed to get out of the pen, which is
5 or 6 inches high.

They also co-ordinate well in scratching.

First growling noticed.

Sexual differentiation shown in expression, in shape, and
psychic as well as somatic characteristics.

22nd day. — Clear evidence of recognising dam by smell
when she could not be seen.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YODNG ANIMALS 145

23 rd day. — Playing. Differences in coat, shape of head,
etc., showing a physical advance.

They now bite and cheiu at objects. They show a decided
aversion to Epsom salts.

25 th day. — Began feeding milk. They do fairly well at
first attempt to lap.

26 th day. — They push through some slats confining them,
showing considerable co-ordinative power, etc.

30 th day. — Repeated and rapid pinching of their sides
makes them very angry — snarl, etc.

The fall of a shovel causes them all to cower with fear.

32 nd day. — Lip-call followed by their approach with
wagging tad.

37 th day. — The sound of a whip surprises and seems to
puzzle them.

45 th day. — When about to punish another mature terrier
they hide away under the benches.

They are put down in the yard, a large one, for the first
time, and seem puzzled and shy.

4 6th day. — Great changes now visible in physical features,
expression of face (more knowing), etc. They now crowd
each other when eating from the same dish. Their move-
ments and whole demeanour more terrier-like. This is seen
in play very clearly.

They are now much more readily and profoundly affected
by noises.

47 th day. — Rapid development owing to enlarged ex-
perience ; much more aggressive.

50 th day. — Two of them given bones. Each goes off with
one. When one comes up to take the other’s, he pulls it
away but does not growl. Lies down to bone and uses his
feet to steady it like a mature dog. When the bone is
snatched up the puppy sniffs about after it.

Sexual and individual differences now more evident — I
mean that the peculiarities of shape, expression, and
demeanour that characterise a mature bitch, and which only
close observers of dogs detect, are now fairly well developed.

58<7i day. — When looking out into darkness at night they
show hesitation, fear, etc.

The discussion that follows is based almost entirely
on the diary of the litter of St Bernard puppies, ex-
tended over sixty days.

K

i46

Animal intelligence

The extract from the diary of another litter of St
Bernards (their half brothers and sisters) is introduced
for comparison chiefly ; that of the Bedlington terriers
for this reason, and in addition because it supplements
the chief diary, and in some respects makes good
omissions in investigations in the early days.

Remarks on the Diary , etc.

As the litter of puppies on which these remarks are
chiefly based was a very healthy, active, and especially
even one, there being no weaklings, and none very
much in advance physically or otherwise, the notes
are of the more value as representing observations in
perfectly normal specimens of pure-bred dogs.

The facts most striking in the first few days of life
are the frequent desire to suck, the perfect ability to
reach the teats of the dam just after birth, the misery
evident under cold or hunger, and the fact that the
greater part of existence is spent in the sleeping state.
The latter is so well known that I have not thought
it necessary to make special notes upon the subject,
but it, of course, gradually gives way to a form of exist-
ence in which sleep has a less and less prominent share.

There are many reasons why so much time is spent
in sleep, and why sleep is so readily induced, to some
of which reference has been made in the diary, and to
which I shall refer again.

All parts of an animal’s body, owing to nervous or
simply protoplasmic connections merely, are in relation
to each other, and this must constantly be borne in mind
if we would understand psychic as well as physical
(somatic) phenomena. The nervous centres, however,
constitute a sort of head office, or series of offices, where
the various changes of the body are reported, correlated,
etc., in all higher animals. In the youngest, though

THE TSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OE YOUNG ANIMALS 147

the cerebrum is but indifferently active as yet, the
lower nervous centres are constantly receiving impulses
coming from peripheral parts, the viscera included, and
if these are of an abnormal or disturbing character,
there result those forms of expression or external re-
presentation of the ingoing effects, mostly movements
which we can correlate with their causes. Hence the
young animal expresses its feelings of discomfort as
hunger, cold, etc., by movements, some of which result
in cries, whining, etc., and experiments, as well as the
behaviour of animals born without the cerebrum, show
that the higher parts of the brain may be little
concerned.

The feeling of discomfort from being in an atmos-
phere that is not warm enough, is different somewhat
from the sensation, likewise disagreeable, of a body
too cold being placed against the skin. Effects not
confined to the surface, but modifying the whole of the
vital processes, result from the former, as it is well
known that very young animals cannot exist at all
in a temperature below a certain rather high point as
compared with that endurable by mature animals.

Nothing is more striking than the efforts the animal
makes almost as soon as it is born to place itself in
an environment of comfort. The importance of this
instinct — just as fundamental as sucking, etc. — will be
evident when one considers that the vital processes
cannot continue except under these conditions. It is
even more important than that there should be a supply
of food within the first few hours.

Sucking. — Sucking has been so frequently referred
to by writers as an example of a perfect instinct, that
1 have taken pains to give some details regarding it,
and to trace its modifications and final decline.

It will be observed by any one who will, without
prejudice, examine the subject, that sucking is not

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

perfect at first ; that, like the lapping of milk, swallow-
ing, etc., hut much less so, it is improved by practice,
and that it is subject to modification with the increas-
ing experience of the animal. It is true the mechanism
of sucking, both muscular and nervous, in consequence
of countless ancestral experiences, is like perfectly
made machinery in good order, it will work on the
slightest stimulus, but later this machinery is better
oiled ; it works better. That there is but imperfect
discrimination as to what is sucked is well shown by
my diary, and that the act only continues a certain
time, when milk is not obtained, proves that the
instinct is fairly perfect. However, as the notes show,
the older the puppy the more perfectly does it utilise
the sucking mechanism, the less energy does it waste,
e.g. the feet are used to much greater advantage in
pressing the mammary glands after a couple of weeks
than in the first days.

Does the puppy find the teats shortly after its birth
by smell ? I am convinced that it plays no great part
in the matter for some days, as far as dogs are con-
cerned. After birth they crawl towards the mother’s
abdomen to get warmth ; they tend to suck almost any
fleshy object that comes in their way that is not cold ;
they meet the teats, which are the objects best adapted
to seize and suck ; getting satisfaction, this is continued.
No doubt, later, smell, the tactile sense, still later vision,
and a whole host of stored experiences guide in this,
as in other cases, in which instinct is essential and
most prominent in the result. But that smell is
essential that a puppy may reach its dam’s teats soon
after birth I cannot believe, from the many observations
I have made.

Pain. — That a puppy, in the first hour of its exist-
ence, feels discomfort cannot be doubted, but I regret
that I did not make some definite experiments on the

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 149

subject of pain on the first day, even in the first hour.
This has been made good in part by brief extracts
from a diary kept of a litter of Bedlington terriers,
previously introduced. Such experiments are necessary,
as the discomfort one witnesses in young puppies might
be due in certain cases to internal and not to skin
sensations.

Tactile Sensibility. — Very striking, indeed, are the
effects on a puppy of any age up to two months (and
noticeable even in mature dogs) of stroking, smoothing
movements with the hand. In some very young
animals, as birds, I find a similar effect, due to placing
the hand on them or over them. In this case the
effect is largely due to the heat of the hand ; in young
puppies the gentle tactile stimulus is the principal, but
not the sole cause of the quieting effect. In this way
a puppy may, when very young, soon be put to sleep,
i.e. the activity of the nervous centres is inhibited by
tactile sensations, so that the frequent lickings of the
dam not only cleanse but soothe the puppies. There
is, after the eyes are opened, a very rapid increase in
the acuteness of tactile sensibility, well shown in the
readiness with which a slight touch on the lips will
induce motor response, especially well seen in sucking
movements, etc.

Temperature Sense. — Experiments in this subject
were, unfortunately, not made in the early days. How-
ever, I tested a kitten, five days old, with an iron
warmed and also with ice, getting decisive results of
a positive kind. I think that it is likely that the
temperature sense is well marked from the first, though
the squirming, cries, etc., of young animals are not of
themselves conclusive as to this.

The Muscular Sense. — On this subject a few words
will suffice. Considering how numerous and perfect
are the co-ordinated muscular movements of compara-

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

tively young puppies, this sense must be early present,
and finally well developed.

Sense of Support. — I have found in the case of all
puppies, and several other kinds of animals examined,
that even on the first day of birth they will not creep
off a surface on which they rest, if elevated some little
distance above the ground. When they approach the
edge they manifest hesitation, grasp with their claws
or otherwise attempt to prevent themselves falling, and,
it may be, cry out, giving evidence of some profound
disturbance in their nervous system.

It would seem that there is no more urgent psychic
necessity to young mammals than this sense of being
supported. All their ancestral experiences have been
associated with terra firma, so that it is not very sur-
prising that when terra firma seems about to be re-
moved they are so much disturbed. To my own mind
this is one of the most instructive and striking psychic
manifestations of young animals, though I am not aware
that any attention has been called to it before ; and
instead of referring to it under any of the usual
divisions of sense, as the muscular sense, pressure
sense, etc., I prefer to treat the subject under the above
general heading, for it seems to me that the feeling is a
somewhat complex one.

It is interesting to note that a water tortoise I have
had for some years will at any time walk off a surface
on which he is placed. But this is not a creature that
always is on terra firma in the same sense as a dog, but
it frequently has occasion to drops off logs, etc., into
water. But again, I find this sense of support well
marked in birds that drop themselves into “ thin air.”
Nevertheless, a consideration of ancestral experiences
throws light on most cases, and perhaps on this one
also.

Taste and Smell. — These things are so closely

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 151

connected anatomically, and especially functionally,
that investigations on the one or the other, and
particularly on taste, at a very early stage, are at-
tended with great difficulties ; accordingly I have been
very cautious in drawing conclusions, and have thought
it better to place the first beginnings of their exercise
too late rather than too early. Certain it is that both
taste and smell are very feeble at first and gradually
developed. Prior to the opening of the eyes both exist,
but in feeble degree. The diary gives all the facts I
have to communicate on the subject.

The way in which smell calls into activity, first of
all, muscles of the face in a sleeping puppy, has been
very frequently brought to my notice, and shows how
closely afferent and efferent nervous paths are gener-
ally related, even when the main centres concerned are
at rather distant parts of the brain. The nervous im-
pulses that pass to the brain when strong enough, soon
spread to other parts, hence the puppy is not long in
moving its limbs, and, it may be, gets up, runs about,
cries, etc., — all these complicated movements having
been brought about, and, as I have often witnessed, in
a sort of machine-like way — the animal having no
clear and definite features before it at the first moment,
though, no doubt, the law of associative nervous and
psychic connections complicates this more and more as
the animal widens its experiences with age. As illus-
trating this subject, an observation of 'mine on a mature
dog is worth a brief recital. The subject was an Irish
setter bitch of an unusually affectionate nature. I had
not seen her for some months. She was lying ap-
parently asleep on her bench in a large dog show.
Upon walking up to her stall, and standing there a few
seconds, I noticed, the eyes being closed, movements of
the nostrils of gradually increasing force, then evident
sniffing, next a raising of the head, opening of the eyes,

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with first of all a dazed sort of expression, then one of
great surprise and enquiry, followed shortly by her
throwing herself upon me with a bark, almost a shriek
of joy. She passed through all the stages the puppy
manifests, but with those added ones coming from
enlarged experience and a richer psychic life.

The part smell plays in the ordinary and extra-
ordinary life of the dog is a most interesting and by
no means exhausted subject, which, though tempting
to pursue, is somewhat aside from the scope of the
present paper.

As illustrating the development taste undergoes in a
few days, special attention is called to the accounts
given on the 28th, 31st, and 34th days.

Experiments on taste might have been made at an
earlier date, but this omission was supplied in the case
of another litter of puppies to which reference will be
found in extracts from a diary introduced later.

Some references to smell, as it influences habits, even
in very young puppies, have been referred to in the
diary.

In the dog, much more than in the man, are smell
and taste associated, and this becomes evident in the
early as well as the later psychic life of this animal,
as shown by the diary, though this is like many other
features, much more evident to the one who daily
associates with animals, than it can be from the best
description it is possible to write.

Vision. — Owing to the gradual opening of the eyes,
it is difficult to see the pupil, and to make observations
on the reaction of the iris to light. Apart from this,
the record of the development of vision will, it is
hoped, be found pretty complete.

The “opening of the eyes” is really a separation of
the lids, which are practically one at birth, by a process
of growth and absorption along the line of their future

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 153

edges. These processes take a few days for completion,
even after there is an obvious opening between the
lids ; and it is very doubtful if the animal sees at all,
in the proper sense of the word, until the lids are
completely separated, if even then ; so that the eyes
being open is in itself no guarantee that the animal
sees, or, at all events, more than light and shadows.

The slowness of reflex winking to appear in puppies
is surprising, the more so as mature dogs wink very
readily when any object is brought near, or moved
before the eye.

Quite otherwise is it with mature birds, and it is
almost impossible to get the young to wink, even on
touching the lids in some cases I have found.

In this, and a former litter of St Bernards, the eyes
began to open on the 11th day, and in a litter of
Bedlington terriers on the same day, or perhaps a little
earlier. One writer states that the eyes of dogs open
on the 8th day. I have never seen this, and do not
believe it holds for any pure-bred dogs, at all events.

But individual differences show to the extent of at
least twelve hours.

Hearing. — It is very easy to be deceived in this, on
account of motor effects resulting from concussion, or
from contact of blasts of air with the skin. I think,
however, my experiments will be deemed conclusive,
and the record of the development of this sense very
full.

There comes a time, as I have noted, when the young
dog is more affected by sounds than an older one,
owing to the less perfect development of his cerebral
cortex, which part of the brain is associated with all
higher psychic manifestations, with voluntary move-
ments, inhibitions, etc. To this the lack of experience
is to be added, for till the dog has learned better, noises
of all kinds are excitements which may have unpleasant

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associations or the reverse. The mature dog has em-
bedded in his nervous system and psychic nature a
series of connections which, without any reasoning
answer to warn him or the reverse, are perfectly
indifferent.

However, new and mysterious sounds may alarm a
mature dog more than a puppy.

The lower animals are more sensitive to concussions
than man, as shown by their behaviour prior to earth-
quakes, when there are slight oscillations of the earth,
wholly unperceived by man, yet causing alarm to the
domestic animals.

I have noticed that puppies are very early stimulated
by concussions, but regret that I have not exact ob-
servations with fixed dates to report.

One of the earliest indications of hearing is reflex
movement of the ears. These are quite distinct, of
course, from the voluntary movements often seen in
dogs and other animals. But similar, though less
marked, movements of the external ears may be
observed in man also, as any one may prove by asking
an individual to listen and determine the location of
a tuning-fork sounded behind him. These I have for
many years been accustomed to demonstrate to my
classes in physiology, though I have not noticed that
they are referred to in books. There seems to be no
relation between the extent of the reflex and the
voluntary movements of the ears, of which some people
are capable. When at concerts I have sometimes ob-
served them in great numbers and variety.

Another matter that seems to have received scant
attention, if I may judge from the absence of printed
references, is the condition of the ears in puppies up
to a certain date. At birth the external ear is turned
back, and its internal aspect strikes one by its relatively
undifferentiated character, and the auditory meatus is

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 155

scarcely to be recognised. The ear, in fact, grows and
differentiates after birth in somewhat the same way
as the eyelids, but the latter are invariably in advance,
so that there are physical reasons for the deafness of
puppies. Even after the ear seems to be opened up,
the introduction of a fine probe is impossible, as I have
shown.

Psychic manifestations may be looked at from so
many different points of view, and the correct inter-
pretation is so often doubtful, especially in the lower
animals, one’s explanations are apt to be so artificial,
narrow, or otherwise imperfect, that I shall, under
several headings, now refer to the early development
of the puppy.

Play. — I have endeavoured to follow very closely
the development of the play instinct, so important is it
as a means of physical and psychic development, as
well as an indication and an index of the latter — in fact
of both. The reader is referred to records of the 13 th,
15th, 21st, 27th, and 32nd days more especially. I
have felt keenly my inability to record all that I have
seen in this connection, not to mention the thoughts
suggested, which lack of space prevents me making
even an attempt to indicate.

What is play ? One observes, first of all, that the
puppy uses its mouth generally on a fellow, then, or
simultaneously, its paws; but soon the movements
-are more complicated, prolonged, and accompanied by
various vocal expressions, which are of a significance
which varies with the age of the puppy.

There is not the slightest attempt at play during
the period of eye-closure.

At first, playing seems to arise in part from an
excess of motor energy which must be discharged,
and as it is in the nature of the dog to use his jaws
so much, the play takes the special form of biting ; then

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the mouth is naturally assisted by the forelimbs. As
locomotive power increases, the puppy takes to walk-
ing away and returning to the attack, then running,
jumping, etc.

Soon he begins to shake objects, pull at them,
tear them. My observations show conclusively that
the movements in play appear in the order of the
final perfection of the co-ordinated movements of the
animal as represented, so far as the nervous system
is concerned, in the cerebral cortex by well-defined
centres. I am now, and for some time have been,
engaged upon experiments which show that the
cortical brain centres do not all develop at the same
time, but in a certain order, a fact which throws a flood
of light on the psychic, as well as the physical,
development of animals.

The pleasure of play is that of movement at first.
Later, there is no doubt a psychic complexity of feeling
not known to the very young puppy.

Nevertheless, the observations reported on the 26th
and 33rd days would seem to indicate that even at
this early age the puppy has some sense of fun or
humour.

Scratching. — I have endeavoured to note the earliest
attempts at this act, and give some details from time
to time, as it illustrates several points.

1 should be disposed to regard scratching as a
hereditary reflex perhaps, as is illustrated by the
experiment of the 17th day. In other cases, how-
ever, the element of will does enter more or less into
this act. Even an adult dog will move his leg in the
air in harmony with scratching irritation against his
side — a pure reflex. When, as noted on the 40th
day, the puppy turns his neck so as to adapt the
movements of the leg, and the position of the parts
to be scratched, it is plain that we have here the

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 157

element of will as well as a fine example of neuro-
muscular co-ordination.

The study of the development of such acts as
scratching, and that next to be referred to, are very
suggestive and instructive to the physiologist and
psychologist. I call special attention to this reflex
and its psychic effects referred to in the diary on
the 17th day, and, in the case of the Bedlington
terriers, on the 30th day.

Wagging of the Tail. — The tail movements of
the dog are so expressive that the history of their
development, and the analysis of their meaning at
the various stages of the evolution of his life, are
of more than ordinary interest. They are to him
what words are to mankind.

It is notable that I have been unable to be positive
as to the existence of any tail movements during the
period when the eyes are unopened, and this alone is
significant of the relatively low state of development
at this period. The reader is referred to the records
of the 13th, 17th, 21st, 23rd, 28th, 31st, 35th, and
42nd days especially for notes that bear on this
subject.

These movements, positions, etc., of the tail have
been to me signs of great significance, but I will leave
the reader to draw his own conclusions. Certain it is,
they are characteristic of certain stages of development,
but if I were to go into full detail in reference to all
they have suggested, this paper would become of in-
ordinate length. It throws not a little light on this
subject to remember that a centre for tail movements
has been demonstrated in the cerebral cortex of the
dog.

Sociability. — Of all animals known to us the do"
is the most sociable. This he early indicates by his
tail, the expression of his face, his attitudes, locomotive

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movements, voice, etc., and the reader is referred to the
diary for evidences of a development of these charac-
teristics of his nature, especially as regards man, a
development which is so rapid, after the 30th to
40th day, that the puppy, in a few weeks, has become,
in this respect, very like a mature dog.

Fright. — The diary contains references to this
subject on the 26th, 33rd, 37th, 39th, etc., days. After
hearing is established, fright is easily caused through
that sense, and apparently much more readily than
through vision at a very early period. At this time
also concussions, as such, are potent in producing fear.
I regret that the influence of concussions was not
more fully tested during the blind period. I find
that the Bedlington terriers were thus alarmed on the
9 th day.

Though the phenomena witnessed, when a puppy a
day old is in danger of slipping off a surface of support,
suggest alarm on its part, I question whether the puppy
is possessed of enough consciousness, so to speak, to
experience true fright.

Voice. — Puppies may, and usually do, cry (in a
manner scarcely to be distinguished from a kitten,
so that mature dogs hearing it, bark, thinking cats are
about) almost as soon as born. Gradually this voice
is changed to that which is characteristic of the dog.
Before barking in any form, growling in sleep, then in
play, has been observed. They were heard to bark in
sleep before doing so when awake. Such use of the
voice is reflex or similar to reflex action.

The diary contains the earliest observed use of the
voice in various ways with the circumstances stated,
and, among others, I call attention to the records for
the 23rd, 27tli, 35th, 42nd, and 59th days.

It will be noticed again that there is no proper use of
the voice beyond crying during the blind period, and

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 159

that there is a development of growling in sleep,
growling when awake, barking (incipient as in older
dogs) during sleep, probably in dreams, barking simply
as an expression of surplus of energy, barking in
wantonness, etc., all of which is, like the wagging of the
tail, highly characteristic of different psychic states.

All these modes of expressions are to be witnessed
with precisely the same interpretation in older dogs at
times, though, of course, generally the meaning of their
barking and growling is more definite. But the puppy
persists latent in the dog, just as does the boy in the man.

Dreaming. — Mature dogs do undoubtedly dream,
and if one may judge by similar use of the voice and
like general behaviour, puppies do also. Leaving out
of the question the doubtful evidence of growling in
sleep, the phenomena reported on the 35th day seem to
point to dreaming, for the behaviour of the puppy is
very similar to that of the mature dog.

Anger. — Much of the play of dogs is mimic fighting,
even from the first, and I have noted on the 27th day,
during play, a very brief but decided exhibition of anger,
such as may occasionally be seen among mature dogs,
or boys even of eight or nine years of age during rough
play. For the moment anger rules, and the extent to
which this is the case, and especially the length of time
over which it lasts, depends greatly on the breed of the
dogs. With terriers very early play at times becomes
serious, and later it may so often become fighting that
these dogs cannot always with safety be left together.
In few respects do the different breeds show their
characteristics, or at so early an age, as in this. For
a very early case of anger (or was it a mere reflex ? )
see the record of the 17th day, and for a clear case the
record of the terriers on the 30th day.

Memory. — In a sense all impressions are remembered,
i.e. the state of the nervous system, indeed the whole

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organism, somatic and psychic, is dependent on im-
pressions, ancestral, pre-natal, and post-natal. It is
simply impossible that it should be otherwise. How-
ever, in the more restricted sense of the word “ memory,”
a good instance is to be noted in the behaviour of the
puppy that was accidentally trodden upon by me. This
occurred on the 47th day, and up to the date of the
conclusion of the diary, on the 60th day, it was very
clear that he remembered this unpleasant event.

Memory is very retentive in dogs, though there seem
to be, in this respect, as much individual difference as in
human beings. I had a greyhound that could not see
a cat on the street without giving chase ; and he would,
after many months, remember the identical tree up
which the cat climbed when he was in pursuit. This
is, moreover, a case of visual memory in all probability,
as it is not likely that the scent from the cat would
remain for six months.

Recognition. — From several experiments recorded, as
the result of introducing other bitches into the same
compartment with the puppies, the reader may be able
to draw some conclusions. From the behaviour of the
puppies I conclude that, at the time of the later experi-
ments, the fact that they attempted to suck the
strangers is not evidence that they were mistaken for
the dam, but that they simply had such a desire to
suck that they were willing to accept what they could
get. They, in one instance, gave the clearest preference
for the dam, and at once, guided probably by sight
chiefly, for dogs’ judgments are quickest by sight,
though often corroborated by smell. Smell is their
surest guide, and always called into use in doubtful
cases. See especially the record for the 36th day. Of
course, I witnessed evidence for my conclusion, which
in this, and other cases, it is not possible for me to fully
communicate by words

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OE YOUNG ANIMALS 161

I have noticed in these and other puppies a quick
recognition of human association through what I have
termed the lip-call, not to he identified with any other
sound. Is this the result of heredity to any extent,
this sound having been used more than any other in
attracting the attention of dogs ? But so readily are
psychic associations formed that one must not be sure
of this. The dog, above all our domestic animals, is a
plastic creature, and his life is made up largely of
associative reflexes and kindred neuroses with corres-
ponding psychoses. This principle I regard as a key
that unlocks more of the secret places of canine
nature than perhaps any other, unless it be heredity
itself.

Humour. — The records of the 26th and 33rd days
seem to show that even such young puppies appreciate
fun or humour, much as a child does, and this can be
almost daily observed in mature dogs.

Attention and Fatigue. — My observations on these
subjects, some of which I have attempted to record,
show, in the plainest way, how very readily a puppy is
fatigued, but also indicate a gradual improvement in
this respect. This readiness in experiencing fatigue
explains why, moreover, one observer may be led to
question the observations of another on very young
animals. Again and again have I failed in my attempt
to get the same result on repetition. In fact, the rule
up to about the 20th day was, that success on repetition
of certain stimuli was very doubtful owing to fatigue.

This is well illustrated in the case of the growling
reflex, etc. of the 17th day, but it applies to all the
senses and the whole life of the animal, somatic and
psychic.

For this reason sleep follows at once on the exertion
play, with its physical movements and its sensory
stimuli tending to exhaust.

L

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Hence, too, the necessity of abundance of sleep in
early life for all animals.

How important that this state of things should be
recognised by all educators — in fact, all who have to do
with young children, to whom it applies equally with
dogs and other young animals !

Consciousness. — The dependence of consciousness
on sensory impressions is readily shown. It was found
that bandaging the eyes of the puppies sufficed, on the
18th day, to quiet them, and even put them asleep, when
in their usual environment (pen).

This subject is evidently closely akin to the previous
ones. While these relations exist all through life their
clearest demonstration is in the young animal.

Dreaming. — If mature dogs dream — and of this there
seems no reasonable doubt — the phenomena witnessed
in the puppies on the 35th day is evidence of the same
state. Growling in sleep was noted as early as the
17th day, but I would hesitate to refer this to dream-
ing— in fact, I do not think such an explanation ap-
plicable if the term “ dreaming ” be used in the same
sense in which it would apply to a mature dog having
a vision of imaginary events that arouse feelings.

Will. — It may, perhaps, be doubted if there be any
appreciable exercise of will proper during the period
when the eyes are unopened ; but on the 17th day,
when on the puppy’s ear being rubbed gently, he, in
addition to scratching, puts up his foreleg occasionally,
as if to remove the source of irritation, there is the
appearance of volition. At first reflex and voluntary
action are much mixed, of which there are many
examples to be picked out from the diary, but in
some instances cases of pure volition may be found,
e.g. when on the 20th day the puppies go to the wall
of their pen and attempt to get over it. But even this
is to me by no means so clear a case as that of the 41st

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 163

day, when a puppy watches a fly that has been torment-
ing him, and then, steadying his head deliberately, snaps
at it like a mature dog.

Suggestive Actions. — I prefer this term to “ imita-
tion,” as the latter has become associated, in most
minds, with the attempt to repeat what has been seen.
In dogs the first imitative action, or rather suggestive
action, is seen in play. One bites the other gently, and
this rouses the tendency to reciprocate. It comes
before all visual suggestive action. When several
mature dogs are kept together, one may witness daily
many interesting examples of imitative action. It has
an educative effect of the widest influence either for
good or evil on dogs. Much of sheep-worrying, etc., is
the result of suggestive action, and is not spontaneous,
except in so far as it is natural to all dogs to chase.

In the puppy, from the 40th day onward, suggestive
action is very common, and this greatly increases the
activity and hastens the psychic progress of the
members of a litter of puppies, as compared with a
single young dog kept apart.

It often, I have noticed, advances a puppy of a few
months of age to place him among older dogs ; and this
is sometimes followed by the best physical, as well as
psychic, results, especially if the young dog be allowed
to go out for exercise with the older ones, under
direction, of course, for dogs should not be allowed to
roam as they will any more than children. They, too,
soon learn the ways of the street. The manner in
which this principle of suggestive action was illustrated
on the 61st day, when in the yard among the older dogs,
was very striking.

Resemblances to the Mature Dog. — Every animal
is what it is by reason of its inherent tendencies as
reacted on by the environment, and at this stage it
may be interesting and instructive to call attention to

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the first occasion on which actions suggestive of those of
older dogs, if not practically identical, were manifested.
The reader is especially referred to certain records on
the 37th, 39th, 40th, 42nd, 43rd, 45th, 47th, 48th, 49tli
and 50th days.

Indeed, after the 50th day, these resemblances in
behaviour are so numerous, or, in other words, the
puppy is so matured, so fully equipped psychically, that
much less interest, or at all events importance, attaches
to the study of his psychic life.

Influences of Environment. — As has been explained,
when in the young puppy the eyes are closed, he is
very apt to fall asleep, and if all the stimuli through the
sensory organs were cut off, consciousness would be re-
duced to a minimum, if it existed at all. On the other
hand, as illustrating the influence of the environment,
in special ways, on the early psychic life of the puppy,
the reader is referred to records in the diary on the
23rd, 26th, 33rd, 45th, 46th, 47th, and 49th days among
others. There is not space for comment.

Reasoning. — I do not propose to enter into the
controversy as to whether animals not possessed of
articulate language can reason, or whether we should
name the process corresponding to that in man,
“ inference.”

That man can reason in a way that animals lower
in the scale cannot, is certain, but that much that we
assume to be of a higher order in the mind of man, and
perhaps consider reasoning of this higher order, differs
in no essential point from psychic processes in animals,
I am convinced, after many years’ close observation
alike of animals and man, including the working of my
own mind, which, after all, is the final court of appeal
for oneself. When, on the 41st day, the puppy
scrapes away the sawdust, and then some days later,
repeating the act, tries one spot with the head, not

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 165

being satisfied paws again just where there is a slight
elevation in the floor, is there reasoning ?

When on nearly every occasion on seeing me, the
puppy that had been trodden on retired with his tail
down, and an appearance of dejection, did he reason
that I might be again the cause of some unpleasant
feelings to him ?

Two evenings since, the weather being intensely hot,
the dam of these puppies was allowed to sleep on a
veranda (more airy) of the house instead of in the
kennel. She had not been on this veranda since last
summer. At a late hour I opened the door leading
from the veranda into the yard, and invited her to
come out. She declined to do so, which at first
surprised me. The dog did not wish to be removed to
the kennel, and this was borne out by the fact that on
the following evening, as she lay on the same veranda,
opening the door leading to the yard, and at the same
time that of the kitchen, she immediately got up and
walked into the kitchen. In the latter she had
received many a tit-bit. Wherein does the behaviour
of this St Bernard bitch differ from that of a child of,
say, five years of age who, when amid his play, is called
by his mother, but silently protesting turns quickly
away ? Does he, before turning, formulate any
sentences ? He can do so, to be sure, but does he —
must he ? Is not the process, or series of processes, in
his mind closely akin to those in the mind of my
St Bernard ?

Is the behaviour of the puppy that turns away when
he sees me different from, or akin to, that of its dam, in
the circumstances already detailed ?

In the case of pawing away the sawdust there seems
to be the recognition of a cause, yet it is possible to
separate this mental process wholly from the restless
moving about of an animal that does not find its bed

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quite comfortable, and which certainly requires no
“ reasoning ” to explain ?

Associated Reflexes. — When referring to reflexes
in general, I omitted to call attention to certain pheno-
mena which seem to me unquestionably of this character,
e.g. on the 23rd day, when one puppy licks the other
after feeding, as is always the case, it is observed to
place its paws on the head of the other, and spread the
toes exactly as in sucking the mother, when it places
its paws against the mammary glands, and so in other
instances. The association in one kind of use of the
mouth (sucking) is made with another kind as licking,
etc.

Experience. — Any one who without prejudice watches
any young animal, cannot fail to be impressed with the
readiness with which, within certain natural limits, it
profits by its experience ; and this is one of the lessons
of the diary of these puppies, evident in all directions,
instinct included. As one instance, among many, I
refer the reader to the advance noted in regard to the
bones on the 59th and 61st days, and the entire be-
haviour of the puppies in the yard, on" that day. The
manner in which they acted, as if they were well ac-
quainted with the yard, the various ways in which their
movements and actions suggested the old dog, illustrated
to me in a way, that was somewhat of a surprise, the
readiness with which they availed themselves of every
experience, and quickly worked it into their nature.

The Mysterious. — That dogs do, in some fashion,
recognise causation, and are puzzled by its apparent
absence, seems to be beyond doubt.

The earliest manifestation of this I have noted on the
38th day, in connection with dangling a bright chain ;
nevertheless, this is not to my mind a clear case.

Individuality. — From time to time reference has
been made to individual differences, both psychic and

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 167

physical. It is not easy to make perfectly evident in a
diary the extent to which individuality is shown, but
even in the blind period it exists, and to a close
observer, familiar with dogs, and the particular breed
being studied, it shows itself in a variety of ways, often
it may be difficult to describe in words. Sometimes,
when but a few weeks old, a puppy foreshadows his
future in an unmistakable way.

Periods of Development. — A study of the diary
will show that the two great periods are : that before
the eyes are open, and that succeeding this one. The
time between the opening of the eyes, and the establish-
ment of real vision and hearing, constitutes a transition
or intermediate period.

Development is very slow in the first period, and
existence almost a vegetative one, yet not wholly so, for
by the skin, the muscular sense, to some extent, by taste
and smell, by visceral sensations, etc., the animal’s
nervous centres are being modified.

The intermediate period is marked by a considerable
advance, though slow, as compared with the progress
made within the next few days.

The period between about the 17th and the 45th day
is that of greatest importance in the life of the dog.

After that there is constant improvement, from ex-
perience, up to the 60 th day, and this is well marked —
more so than at any later time, but it is not of equal
importance with that preceding.

These periods glide into one another, and many others
might be interpolated, but I desire to avoid artificiality,
which is sure to result from the attempt at numerous
divisions of any kind.

There is not the sharp line of difference between the
dog and other animals, before the eyes are opened and
afterwards, which some writers would have us believe,
though between the animal, when it can neither see nor

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hear, and the same animal ten days afterwards, there is
indeed a vast difference. But as to the rate and nature
of development the reader may draw his own con-
clusions, and to enable him to do so has been my chief
object in giving a record of facts so detailed and as free
from gaps and omissions as possible. I am convinced,
moreover, that the whole difference in the periods referred
to is not to be referred merely to the presence or absence
of vision and hearing.

About this time the whole nature of the animal seems
to undergo a comparatively sudden leap forward in
advancement, possibly as the result of the accumulated
experiences of ages acting through heredity — I mean
that the advances directly referable to the advent of
seeing and hearing would tend to accumulate by
heredity, and to be expressed in the organism in time
in a more decided manner.

General. — The preceding are a few of the many
aspects of the psychic (and physical) development pre-
sented within the first sixty days of existence of puppies.
I deprecate hard and fast lines of demarcation in biology
and psychology, believing that in nature one thing, as a
rule, glides into another at some stage of development, at
all events. My commentary on the diary is, therefore,
not claimed to be complete, if indeed it is possible
to recognise all that there is in psychic development,
however closely one may observe, however perfectly
analyse.

Physical Correlation. — Already, for some years, the
relations of mind and body have been recognised in a
general way, and studied with results of definite value ;
but while there have been isolated experiments and
observations made on young animals bearing on the
relation between physical development and the psychic
status, I am not aware that any complete and systematic
study of the subject has been attempted. That the mind

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 169

and the body must be studied together will, I am satis-
fied, become more and more evident as investigations on
the one, independently of the other, prove disappointing.
This applies more particularly, no doubt, to the mind, but
not wholly. While to a practised observer very many
shades of change in physical developments may be
observed, there is no good method of measuring most of
them, and it is more than difficult to express much of
what is observed in a way to make it appreciable by
the mind of the reader.

Until our knowledge of the relations between the
mind and the body — between the history of the body
and that of the mind — between ontogeny and psychogeny
(psychogenesis) is made very much more complete, it
would appear that it is desirable that a contemporaneous
account be kept of every change of whatever kind
observed, both physical and psychic.

We dare scarcely say that matters so apparently
trivial as the change in colour of the iris, or as the
pigmentation of the nose, for example, are in no relation
whatever with psychic development.

Has the eruption of the teeth in the puppy no
relation to psychic growth and development? In
itself the direct causal relation from increasing experi-
ence thus afforded by their use is not all, and there is
doubtless in this more than we are in a position to
define as yet. As soon as the teeth appear, and the
jaws are more used, as is now the tendency, the puppy
advances in consequence of this very use of teeth and
jaws, but this is probably not the whole story.

From the chief diary, and the comments on it, the
reader will be able to cull many instances of psychic
and physical correlations. Between the physical
changes in the eye and ear especially, and the psychic
results, the closest relation is evident, and this should
suggest that similar close connection exists elsewhere,

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

While the puppy sprawls in the blind period, he cannot
investigate objects, and we find, as the sensory organs
advance in development, the animal’s locomotor power
increases, so that he can the better use all his senses,
hence the great strides he makes in development from
one part undergoing a change which adapts it to the
well-being of other parts and the entire organism.

As a matter of fact, motor power is, in the young
animal, a very fair guide to its general advancement,
and in tracing the development of the puppy one notices
this daily.

There is a certain order of progress : first the tongue
laps, etc., as in sucking ; then after the eruption of
teeth, use of the jaws at the same time ; and more so
later the movements of the fore-limb — long, in fact
always, in advance of the hind-limb — the tail soon
taking a share in the movements.

These movements not only increase in power, but in
precision, i.e. they are co-ordinated, and this is well
illustrated by many facts stated in the diary.

These movements, the development of the senses,
etc., etc., are of course impossible without the nervous
system, and they gain in precision and variety, accord-
ing to the rate and extent to which the cortex of the
cerebrum is developed into functional activity. My
own experiments on the brains of young animals are
not yet complete, so that I shall not here refer to them
further than to state that they bear out the view just
stated. During the blind period the cerebral cortex is
found to be unexcitable, while in the mature dog move-
ments of definite groups of muscles may be readily
obtained by stimulation of the cortex.

Differences in Breeds. — Both physically and
psychically there are differences in development in
the various breeds of dogs.

I found that the litter of Bedlington terriers

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 171

developed much faster psychically than St Bernards,
and they also mature earlier, physically and otherwise,
a remark that applies to the smaller breeds of dogs
generally.

They sooner show, especially in movements, a great
superiority, which strengthens the opinion I have
expressed, that, among animals, the degree of advance-
ment in co-ordinated movements is a fairly good guide
to psychic progress at early periods.

What remains to be done. — I am now anxious,
as all my work has been done on pure-bred dogs, to
study a litter of mongrels.

It has been thought well to confine this paper to the
study of the early development of dogs.

I can see the desirability of supplementing this paper
by the account of some one dog from birth to maturity,
and possibly I may be able to do this.

I purpose following this paper by another similar
one on the development of other animals in the earlier
periods of existence, considerable material for which
has already been accumulated, so that I hope in time
to get the facts in such form, that broad and sound
conclusions as to development of young animals may be
drawn.

As the dog, after the monkeys and apes, more closely
resembles man psychically than any other animal, it
seems to me that it would be very profitable to attempt
a comparison of the development of the young dog
and the infant. But this task must also be deferred.

For various reasons I have not referred in detail to
the fragmentary work of others, chiefly because the
original papers are not, in most cases, accessible to me
now, and because prolonged discussions and com-
parisons with their results would add to the length of
an already long paper. I present my observations with
such conclusions as I have tried to draw cautiously,

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

and without prejudice, believing that, whatever their
defects, they constitute the most complete account of
the subject, published to date.

Some Conclusions. — The dog is born blind and
deaf. He possibly smells and tastes feebly, but this
is difficult of demonstration ; but in any case he smells,
tastes, has tactile and muscular sensations, the tempera-
ture sense, and can experience pain before he can
either see or hear.

The eyes are open before the ears, but seeing objects
does not correspond in time with the opening of the
eyelids, which is gradual, the result of processes of
growth and absorption. Hearing follows sooner on
complete opening of the ears than seeing on opening of
the eyes.

There is progressive improvement in both seeing and
hearing.

Both begin about the 17th day, and are in a high
state of perfection about the 30th day, hearing being,
upon the whole, rather more rapid in development.

Smell and taste are demonstrable on the 13th day,
and are well developed about the 30th day.

Hewly born dogs are very much affected unfavour-
ably by a temperature below a certain moderate point
(50° or 60° F.), and are capable from the first of such
movements as enable them to avail themselves of the
heat from the mother’s body.

They give evidence of feeling hunger, and are capable
of making certain slow movements at birth.

They find the teats chiefly, if not wholly, by touch,
and continue sucking in consequence of the satisfaction
of the appetite for food.

Up to about the 20th day puppies are very readily
fatigued, and incapable of attention to anything for
more than a very few seconds at one time.

They early show an appreciation of any decided

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 173

change in the environment, indicating that experience,
even in the earliest days, is not lost on them. In other
words, the environment does and must act on the
nervous system, with results that manifest themselves
if in no more definite way, at least in this : that new
experiences (stimuli) cause comfort or discomfort, as
evidenced by quiescence or wriggling, cries, etc.

Co-ordinated muscular movements appear in greatest
perfection in a certain order, viz. mouth and head
parts, fore-limbs, hind-limbs, tail, etc.

These seem to be related to the order of development
of the centres of the cerebral cortex.

The epochs most differentiated from each other in
the psychic and somatic life of the dog are (1) that
prior to the opening of the eyes, and (2) that subse-
quent to this event.

The former suggests intra-uterine life by its negative
character, and is well marked off from the period that
follows, the more numerous avenues of knowledge exist-
ing, and their utilisation, and in other respects not well
understood, of the latter period. In other words, the
animal, after this period, can come more fully in con-
tact with environment, with corresponding results in its
development. It seems, besides, more impelled to do
so ; there is more vim in its whole nature. A transi-
tion period between the time when the eyes and ears
begin to open, and when the animal actually sees
objects and hear sounds, may also be recognised.

The era of most rapid and most important develop-
ment is subsequent to the period when seeing and
hearing are established — when the animal is in posses-
sion of all its senses, etc. This extends between the
20th and the 45th. day approximately.

Suggestive action, beginning perhaps with the first
manifestations of the play instinct, has, especially as
time passes, a very important share in determining the

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direction of development, and what manner of dog the
individual becomes. It is education in the more
limited sense.

The order of development of the senses and co-
ordinated movements as well as reflexes, and the mani-
festation and perfecting of instincts, have a distinct
relation to the needs, as well as the general develop-
ment of the animal, e.g. smell is always more impor-
tant to the dog than any of his other senses, and it is
early developed. The same remark applies to the
movements of the jaws and the limbs over those of
other parts.

The detailed study of the development of the dog, as
recorded in the foregoing pages, illustrates how depen-
dent all subsequent advancement is on the early and
full development of the senses and co-ordinated move-
ments. They bring the nervous centres into contact,
so to speak, with the environment.

The same is illustrated in the study of the human
infant ; but in the case of the dog the investigation is
not surrounded by the same complications or, at all
events, prejudices.

Although it is not possible as yet to determine the
physical and psychic correlations down to the minutest
details, from what has been accomplished, it seems
reasonable to hope that a complete correlation may be
ultimately established.

The first sixty days of a dog’s existence are of so
much more consequence than any later period, that the
writer has decided to limit this paper to this period,
within which almost all important features in develop-
ment appear.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OE YOUNG ANIMALS 175

II. — The Cat.

The present paper is a continuation of that series on
the psychic development of animals, or psychogenesis,
the first part of which appeared in the Transactions of
the Royal Society of Canada for 1894.

As the desirability, purpose, and scope of such
investigations have been set forth in the paper on the
dog, just referred to, no lengthened introduction will
be necessary in the present instance.

The records were made under more favourable
circumstances, and are more extensive and complete
than those concerning any other animal that I have, up
to the present, been able to study.

The kitten seems to me to have been one of more
than ordinary interest, and though the observations
extend over 135 days, had the animal not disappeared,
I should have continued my records.

The diary will tell to each reader its own story, and
I shall therefore make the observations upon it some-
what brief and suggestive, rather than attempt to
exhaust the lessons it teaches, and as this paper will
be followed by one in which the dog and the cat will
be compared, there is additional reason for making the
notes upon the records, and the part of the paper
devoted to conclusions from the observations, briefer
than they might otherwise be.

The readers who peruse the first of the series, and
the subsequent papers, will naturally derive more
profit — whatever that may be— from the present paper.

Diary.

The following notes were made on a litter of kittens,
the parents of which were ordinary domestic cats.

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They were born 29th July 1894, and came first
under my personal observation two days later.

2nd day. — Eyes and ears closed. No evidence of
hearing on sounding a shrill dog-whistle, etc.

Eubbed hands well on a St Bernard and a beagle
dog and placed them near the nose of one of the
kittens. It sniffed and became uneasy , but did not hiss.

The beagle was induced to lie down and the kitten
placed against its belly (male dog). The kitten turned
away.

With a view to testing taste , salt, sugar, and aloes in
solution, as well as cow’s milk, are used. Kitten sucks
a feather dipped in solution of sugar, but manifests no
sign of disgust when aloes is substituted. There is
uncertainty as to salt and milk.

As to smell, aloes and iodoform brought near the nose
cause the kitten to open the mouth and show signs of
disgust. Blistering fluid (liquor epispasticus) and
strong carbolic acid produce the same effects in a minor
degree.

When milk is presented no attempt is made to lap it.

When I try to introduce milk into the mouth with
my finger, the kitten uses its fore-paws to remove
finger.

At present, the animal may be said to crawl rather
than walk. It shows great uneasiness when it gets near
the edge of a table, and holds on vigorously with its
claws, manifesting uneasiness by its cries. Kemoval
from its ordinary environment of comfort also results
in crying.

When the end of a glass pestle, heated to a degree
uncomfortable to the human skin, is placed against the
sole of the kitten’s foot, withdrawal follows.

Gentle touching of the mouth or nose, especially the
inner surface of the nostrils, leads to a decided
retraction of the head.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 177

It seems to require a good sharp pinch to cause
withdrawal of a part in a way to indicate pain, and the
latent period is notably long.

6th day. — Evidence that iodoform is perceived at a
| inch, blistering fluid at a | inch, carbolic acid at
1 inch, and aloes at 2 inches.

The kitten manifests a desire to escape from salt and
aloes but not from sugar.

Moves better ; makes an attempt to crawl out of a
small basket which is lying half tilted over.

The same sort of a pinch as before causes more
decided movement with a shorter latent period.

The kitten shows no less uneasiness, but rather more,
when brought near the edge of the table.

At a distance of 4 inches from the beagle dog the
kitten opens its mouth and spits. When the hands are
rubbed on the beagle, and brought near the nose of the
kitten, the same thing happens, but the hands must be
brought within 1 inch of the nose ; and the animal
seems to mind it less and less, though this is not so
manifest when brought near the dog. It still turns
away from the belly of the dog when laid against it.

8th day. — Eyes begin to open in two of the three
kittens.

When I make a loud hissing noise the kitten with
the open eyes opens its mouth and hisses, and, when
the loudness of the noise is suddenly increased, its jaws
snap together audibly.

• The use of the dog-whistle is followed by uneasy but
not sudden movements of all three kittens. Ho sudden
movements of the ears in reaction to sound at present,
though they evidently hear.

9th day. — The eyes of one of the kittens still not
open.

Two of the kittens tested seem to smell equally well
iodoform at f inch, carbolic acid at 1 inch, blistering

M

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

fluid at 1\ inch. Dislike manifested by turning the
head away and putting up the paw to nose, as if to push
away something. The mouth is also opened.

ICitten licks with evident pleasure at some candy.
It licks at salt also, but soon shows disgust. Aloes
give a doubtful reaction.

When the foot is pinched the kitten now cries out
sharply.

There is a noticeable improvement in locomotor
action.

It is impossible for me to convince myself that any
of the kittens see. There is a strong tendency to keep
the eyes closed a good part of the time. The winking
reflex is not produced by moving objects before the
eyes, but follows only when the hairs of the lids are
reached, or the lids themselves, or some other part of the
face or the head is touched.

On the other hand, both a sharp sound from the whistle
and a loud sound, imitative of a bark, causes the kittens
to start, but a hissing sound affects them most, and at a
distance of 3 to 4 feet will cause them to open the
mouth and hiss.

The cars now move reflexly to sound, but turn
towards the point from which sound comes, or, at all
events, towards the side rather than straight back, as
in dogs, or as in rabbits, etc.

Quivering of the ears is noticed, but the cause is not
obvious. They turn to the quarter from which sound
comes.

10 Ih day. — No clear evidence of power to distinguish
objects by the eyes as yet. The ears are noticed to
move without any apparent stimulus. The quivering
still continues. With each mew the kitten shuts its
eyes.

A sharp whistle causes the animal to start , but the
ears move but little. The kittens crawl rather than

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 179

walk yet, though the pace is increased. There is some
amount of tail movement.

1 1th day. — Two of the kittens give evidence of
seeing, though one rather better than the other. The
eyes are now well open. Seem to see at 10 to 12 inches’
distance, though the evidence of this is not conclusive.
Winking reflex on movement of the fingers before the
eye at a \ inch or a little more.

They can now cry with a relatively loud voice.

On testing taste with aloes, disgust is very plainly
shown.

Ears seem to be moved voluntarily. The quivering
continues.

12 th day. — When cooked beefsteak is held within
1 inch of the nose it is smelt , as evidenced by sniffing,
etc.

When held near the nose of another it hisses.
Neither shows any desire to secure the morsel. When
placed in the mouth of one of them it is allowed to
drop out.

The pupil is now observed to act, and there is
intolerance of strong light. The eyes, however, are
not quite free from irritation.

Very sensitive to touching by hand anywhere about
the head. This was noticed in attempting to cut, ever
so gently, hairs on the head with scissors.

Kitten turns to right or left as sound comes from one
side or the other. Sometimes hisses.

Still walks badly with hind legs.

13 th day. — From this date only one kitten observed.

Is disturbed by iodoform at 2 inches from nose.
The impression seems to be somewhat lasting. When
aloes is within £ inch of the nose the kitten hisses.

Pupils vary readily with the amount of light.

Winking reflex as before.

It appears as if it moves its own head in response to

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

movements of the head or body of an observer at
2 to 3 feet, but there is some doubt about this.

When lifted from its basket and placed on a table,
the creature manifests uneasiness and cries, as has been
the case from the first.

Now walks a little better.

14 th day. — When a small piece of cooked liver is
held near the nose it licks its lips. When the liver
or milk is put against the tongue there is no evidence
of taste.

Now follows the finger at 10 to 12 inches.

15 th day. — A small dog goes up to the basket in
which a kitten is lying. It hisses owing to smelling
the dog (not seeing). When out of the basket does the
same at 4 to 6 inches.

Walks in about a three-quarters erect position.

1 6th day. — Is seen for the first time to lick its paw.

The kitten and its mother brought into the house, and
placed in a box about 16 inches long, 12 broad, and
9 high, made comfortable by a flannel covering on
the bottom. This box was placed within a few feet
of where I usually sit in my study, so that observations
were easily and frequently made.

Kitten uses fore-paws when sucking to press on
mammary glands of mother. It often sleeps apart
from the old cat now. Its growth begins to be rapid.

Is seen to use right hind-leg to scratch ear and head
on several occasions, and before stopping makes similar
movements without touching body.

On holding a small object within 9 inches or less in
the box it hisses feebly. Is seen to be biting gently at
the lower woollen covering in the bottom of the box.
This is the first indication of play, or something closely
akin to it, that has been noticed.

17 th day. — Kitten follows with its eyes a small object
at 2 feet distant, and later, my copy of a journal

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 181

(11 by 8| inches) at 4 feet. Is able to locate whether
a light “ Hist ! ” is uttered on the right or left.

Licks its paws occasionally.

Sleeps a great deal.

18 th clay— Seems to be folloiving with its eyes the
movements of a fly at 4 to 6 inches.

Turns to bite at objects and puts paws together — a
sort of feeble attempt at play.

Clivibs up side of box to the top and then cries, as
though desiring to get out.

On calling “ Puss ! puss ! ” softly, at about 3 feet,
the kitten turns toward the sound and moves the ear
nearest to it.

A piece of cooked meat is held near, but no special
effect is noticed.

At 5.15 p.m. the kitten is seen to be plainly follow-
ing files with the eyes at 18 inches, and slightly raises
paw in an attempt to catch them.

Licks its own paw, and then licks mother’s leg which
is close to it.

In the evening it gets lively and makes attempts at
play, and crawls over the mother, biting at her and
itself (play).

The nose is now getting pigmented.

19 th day. — At 11 p.m. to-day follows finger by
lamplight at 4 to 5 feet, climbs upon mother, and sleeps
there.

20 th day. — When “ Puss ! puss ! ” is called to-day,
the kitten hisses softly (surprise).

There is now nearly always a distinct movement of
the ear towards the direction of sounds.

Is taken from the box to-day, and, when free, walks
toivards it.

21 st day. — Grows well, still sleeps much, and is very
quiet.

After being out of box a short time it returns to it

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

and tries to climb in. Makes two such attempts and
almost succeeded.

Can now follow a finger at 6 feet.

Licks its right hind-leg, and holds it in a position
convenient for the purpose.

Some incisor' teeth have appeared both above and
below.

22nd clay. — Distinguishes a finger at 6 feet.

When I scraped the fingers against the box in which
it lies, hisses (surprise).

Licks herself on neck and chest, a difficult muscular
feat.

Biting skin like mother.

Now walks relatively well.

On two occasions to-day climbs to top of box from
the outside, does not go in, but puts paws on inside.

Does not now return to box so soon when allowed
out. It walks around, smells at spots on the carpet, but
wishes to get into the box in about two minutes, and
manages to scramble in with difficulty.

It is noticed that the paws spread greatly in walking,
so that it may be said to be plantigrade at this period.

Between 6 and 7 P.M., for the last three days, the
kitten plays a little, lying on its back and using mouth
and paws.

A small dog is brought near where it stands on the
floor. It puts up its back and tail, hisses — even spits —
with the fur erected.

Can now follow with the eyes the journal before
mentioned at a distance of 8 feet.

Its hearing is also plainly more acute.

Several times to-day it has stretched up in box, and
looked around as far as possible. When allowed out it
goes around investigating with nose and eyes, but still
soon wants to get back. After failing once or twice,
manages to scramble in, but without hurting itself.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOtJNG ANIMALS 183

Later the same day succeeds on the first attempt.

The method of descent involves not only considerable
control of muscular movements, but some knowledge
acquired by experience.

24 th day. — Mother away. Kitten cries, as if wanting
to get out of box. Is lifted out, and after walking
around a good deal, climbs back in the same manner as
before, but with much less trouble. Finding the

mother there it begins to play with her. Its attitudes,
etc., much more distinctly cat-like than before.

Takes notice of shadows in box and elsewhere at
night.

25 th day. — Takes no notice of milk placed in saucer
before it, though held close to the nose, but when put
on its lips is removed with the tongue.

A string dangled before it produces no effect.

Is noticed to watch its mother’s actions more intently,
as well as what in general may be going on around it.

When asleep I call fairly loudly, at a distance of
3 feet, “ Puss ! puss ! ” but with negative result.

At 11 p.m. desires to get out of box. Hesitates when
on the edge, and finally glides down near the leg of a
table, within a few inches of the box.

On stroking its head, it presses up against the hand
like an old cat.

2 6th day. — Is playing in box early this forenoon.
Now and then walks with tail up. Cannot always walk
without some unsteadiness.

Notices spots on carpet; sinks claws into it.

Seeks a corner , cries, evacuates fajees, which the
mother at once removed, as when her progeny kept
closely to the box.

Later it leaves the box again, and is taken back by
the mother, which carried the kitten by the loose skin
of the neck.

Soon it leaves the box again and goes to a part of the

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

room where there are some book-shelves, the lower ones
of which are not completely filled with books, but hold
other things.

The mother follows it. The kitten is put back into
its box.

First noticed to-day what seemed to be purely volun-
tary movements of the ears.

Continues to notice shadoivs, and to-night tries to put
its paw on them.

Still takes no notice of meat.

Licks hind foot, and, while doing so, spreads its toes
apart, as an old cat may be seen to do under similar
circumstances.

27 tli day. — On getting out of box starts on a little run
for the book-shelves.

It was taken from among the objects on the shelf,
turned towards the box, and given a few taps. It ran
on to the box and got into it.

The mother is in the box moving her tail to and fro.
The kitten plays with it.

I suddenly appear near the box with a coat on — light
in colour, with pronounced vertical stripes — when the
kitten at once opens its mouth, and, on my going nearer,
hisses.

Later is seen watching flies, at a distance of 6 to 7
feet, flying.

Now gives evidence of hearing slight sounds at some
distance in the room, and apparently notices the notes of
a piano downstairs.

The movements of the ears are more pronounced.

The kitten continues to show a strong desire to get to
the book-shelves, about which the mother manifests
some anxiety, which she evinces by staying close to
her.

Mother is making her toilet — the kitten bites at her
in opposition. The mother then seized her by the neck,

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 185

and after holding her quiet for a few seconds, goes on
with her operations, but puts one leg over her as if to
be on guard against any further interference.

2 &th day. — Feeding again attempted. A small
quantity of milk is given in a little saucer, which the
kitten licks, but seems to get some of the milk into the
nose, which causes sneezing.

Flays with a small piece of coal found in her
box.

On suddenly throwing aside a curtain that covers the
book-shelves, the kitten is found there, and hisses.

I place her in a rocking-chair, over 18 inches from the
floor, but she manages to scramble down without injury
to herself.

About 5 p.m. the entrance to the book-shelf was
barred up. The kitten first tries every part of the
barricade, then pushes in the curtain, cries with vexa-
tion, climbs upon a box near, leaps from this on the
curtain, holding on with the claws. After trying again
and again desists, and after a few moments returns to
the attack. At last she gives up, returns to her box,
settles down and sucks her mother, and then soon after
falls asleep. Her attempts to get into this shelf and
accomplish her object were to me a study of unusual
interest, especially as the animal was only 28 days old.

The eyes are now capable of much quicker move-
ments than before.

Now hears “Puss!” however lightly uttered, also
hears dogs barking in the yard.

This has been a day of activity and notably great
advancement.

29 th day. — Quieter to-day (reaction ?).

Without its mother last night for the first time.

Takes a little milk twice to-day.

There is some difficulty in keeping the milk out of
the nose, which is owing to inability to hold the head

i$6

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

just right. When solid food, as meat, is put in the
mouth, it is rejected.

Shows a desire to use claius ; sticks them into objects.

In play have seen an incipient run on two or three
occasions.

When the mother has been cleaning the kitten, after
answering nature’s calls, there have for some days been
cries, but to-day there is active protest with teeth and
claws, which, however, the mother heeds but little.

When placed on a window ledge, 2 feet from the
floor (and seeming more), the kitten looks down and
plainly would like to get down, but does not venture
to try the descent.

After lapping milk to-day it cleans itself (toilet).

Is seen for the first time to wash its own face.

30 th day. — To-day, a pan , containing some line sand
in the bottom, is set near the kitten’s box which is to
be used as a retiring place to encourage cleanly habits.
The sand will be frequently renewed.

The studies in connection with this have proved very
interesting and instructive to the writer.

The kitten climbs out of box, and goes to the corner
of the room near the box, and cries. It is then lifted
into the pan and soon passes urine.

It then visits the book-shelf and tries to get in ; cries.
Not succeeding, it returns towards its box, and having
to pass the pan on the way, it puts one paw into the
sand, but withdraws it and goes on.

It soon enters its box and sleeps.

Later, is out of its box.

The tearing of the paper wrappers from a journal
startles it considerably.

In the evening leaves its box and plays a good deal.
It can now walk well, and run in some fashion.

It carries tail in all ways now, and moves it more
or less.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OE YOUNG ANIMALS 187

It makes many attempts to get into the book-shelf
and at last succeeds.

For its play, even the leg of the table suffices. It
darts back as if it was afraid of it, etc.

31s£ day. — Is out of its box; cries; is put into pan;
after some delay urinates.

Plays with carpet, a piece of coal, the edge of box,
etc., its back being arched, tail up, etc.

Notice movements of tongue, jaws, etc., when asleep,
as if sucking or lapping milk.

This morning the kitten stretches , like an old cat, four
or five times when it gets out of its box (first time seen).

A string, curled up at end, is dangled before it in the
box. The kitten starts back and hisses.

In the evening it is found behind the barricade of
the book-shelf sleeping on some books. It is taken
out, but works its way back again. It finds getting
out difficult, but perseveres.

To-day plays with a ball and a spool.

This evening laps milk without any trouble for the
first time.

32 nd day. — Kitten seems uneasy ; is placed in the
sand pan ; after crying and pawing it passes urine.
Then slips out and stretches itself.

Still some trouble with nose when lapping milk.

Enters the pan of its own accord. No results.

It tries the book-shelf barricade, but not succeeding
gives up, and sits in its box near by, and grooms itself well.

Later, it makes a more determined attempt on the
barricade, and with success. It has difficulty in getting
out, but soon goes in again and remains from half to
three-quarters of an hour.

Enters pan ; cries ; urinates ; much licking of the
paws after it leaves the pan.

On moving one of my fingers before it, the kitten
boxes with it.

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

Physical. — Its eyes are changing colour, being a sort
of blue-grey. Paws no longer splayed. Its fur is
darker in colour. It is rather a light tabby. Fore-legs
not quite straight. Tail carried vertically a great deal.
To-day spends much time sleeping behind the barri-
cade. When taken out, it goes back persistently.

Still sucks the mother, using the fore-paws vigor-
ously in pressing on the mammary glands.

It may be said to jump out of the box now rather
than scramble out, i.c. lands on floor with a sort of
leap, though it still scrambles in much as before.

33 rd clay. — Found behind the barricade this morning
before daylight. When trying to prevent its advance
in a certain direction, the kitten evades me by running
under a rocking-chair, where it is partly hidden.

See it trying to catch a fly in the pan to-day.

When put in the pan now it nearly always paws the
sand whether there is anything further or not.

Mother and kitten play together to-day for the first
time.

Though the book-shelves were closed by a curtain
tacked on them, the kitten managed to get in, though I
do not know how.

Now goes towards persons sitting or walking in the
room, and wanders about more or less.

Is startled by water running from a sink with down
suction to-day, though about 30 feet distant.

?Ath day. — In a sort of perverse play bothers its mother
so much that she puts her forelegs about the kitten to
hold it quiet. Then the latter scratches so vigorously
with hind-legs that the mother cries out.

To-day the kitten is kept in the pan, notwithstanding
restlessness and crying, till it glasses fceces for the first
time here. This followed by much grooming of itself,
as in an old cat.

The kitten has now a look of much greater intelligence.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 189

o5th day. — Growing well. Weighs lj lbs. Is given
milk, then placed in pan and uses it.

To-day when called “ Puss ! puss ! ” as it lies behind
the barricade, it comes out.

Now manifests pleasure in being stroked.

Its vision is now so keen it can rapidly follow
movements of the fingers, etc.

It scrambles into the hook-shelf by a new way and at
a much greater height.

Is seen to catch at its own tail for the first time.

Two Skye terrier puppies are brought near the kitten.
It makes a great fuss, showing all the signs of anger,
etc.

Some cooked fish (of which cats are notoriously fond)
was placed before the kitten. It licked this but did not
eat any, though there seemed to be a certain amount of
surprise and excitement.

36 th day. — The day is dull, and the kitten, lies in its
box a great deal in the forenoon, though later it rouses
itself and plays with its mother.

I try for some reason to intercept the kitten when it
makes a long run to escape.

To-day, for the first time, it crosses the threshold of the
room door, but was scared back.

For the first time, too, it sinks its claws into an upright
object, as an old cat often does.

Some raw meat is placed before its nose. It sniffs at
this, but makes no attempt to eat it.

It begins to understand better the meaning of the
call “ Puss ! puss ! ”

Its manner of play now much more active and com-
plicated.

Is noticed stalking on two occasions to-day — once
towards the mother’s moving tail.

37 th day. — This morning early the kitten enters the
pan, of its oivn accord, and functions.

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

When I cough at 6 feet the kitten puts up its back
(surprise).

It is given milk on the window ledge referred to
before, and, when it has finished lapping, scrambles down
between the wall and a rocking-chair.

Later it conies over to me and climbs up my clothing
into my lap.

Visits the pan again of its own accord, and functions,
after which it retires to its box and sleeps.

Climbs into a waste-paper basket, and, after moving
about among the papers a little while, climbs out
without upsetting the basket.

The kitten walks out of the room, but on being
turned back towards the door, and the hands clapped, it
runs in again.

Again uses pan of its own accord.

Walks out of the room and begins to climb the stairs
leading to a higher flat.

Climbs into my wife’s lap in the evening, and from
thence gets upon a table beside which she is sitting, and
plays with objects on the table.

At the sound of footsteps in the room inclined to
retreat from the table.

38 th day. — Slept long behind the barricade this
morning. On awakening goes spontaneously to the
pan.

To-day goes behind books on another shelf near my
table, and, when removed, returns.

Cooked meat is licked, but not chewed or swallowed.

Goes from my daughter’s lap to the table top and
sleeps there. On awakening, it looks down after
moving about some, crouches, but hesitates to go
further.

About 9 P.M., on this day, when sitting on one of my
legs, the other being separated from this only about the
length of the kitten, wishing to get across to the other

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 191

leg, it fears to leap, but walks up higher, where there it
finds a natural bridge.

The kitten is put on the window ledge where there
is some milk. It soon wishes to get down, hesitates,
cries, looks to mother apparently for aid, walks along
the whole ledge, in doing which, as the window is open,
it must pass over a surface only 1£ inches wide. At
last I hold a journal a little way from the ledge upon
which the kitten steps and is lowered by me to the
floor.

Sucks mother now practically only at night, though
up to the present it has eaten no solid food.

39 th day. — When lapping milk the old difficulty is
noticed to-day and occasionally still.

Climbs on my lap, and thence upon the table by
which I sit, making use of the table-cloth as a means of
ascent.

Gets from an ordinary chair to the table, and comes
upon my lap by a little leap — the distance being about
7 inches — first crying, however, as if aware of the
danger and difficulty.

If at any time it is out of the room a little way, and
hears footsteps, etc., runs back.

Now goes from table to any chair that may be near it,
and thence to the floor by a sort of scrambling descent.

On dangling a string before it, the kitten at first
hisses, and then in a moment plays with it, catching it
with her paws again and again.

Goes to pan spontaneously. Always cries before
answering nature’s calls, and paws the sand invariably
afterwards, and sometimes before.

40 th day. — Weight 1£ lbs. Growing well.

Tries to get on a low chair about a foot from the
floor, on which there is a stool that almost covers the
top. In this it fails. The kitten then goes to the book-
shelf near, and tries to reach the chair. The stretch is

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

too long, and the result is the first and only fall I have
ever seen her sustain.

When sitting on my knee its mother calls for her.
The kitten crouches as if to hide. Saw something akin
to this lately, when she was sitting in a big chair, and
the mother was seeking her.

Euns into the hall, thence to the bedroom, and when
scared out does not at once return to the study.

To-day jumps from the table to the chair, 16 inches
below the table, and about 12 inches out from it.

Climbs up the cane back of a rocking-chair, and
returns by the same method easily.

Hearing seems to have reached its maximum acute-
ness, as a very slight sound arouses her, even when
drowsing.

41 st day. — On entering the room this morning the
kitten walks towards me. As I stand, it mounts on
hind-legs and puts its fore-paws against my leg.

Is on the table when I am writing, and manifests
much interest in the movement of my pen.

After using the pan to-day, covers up the actual spot
wet for the first time, though always paws somewhere.

When I enter the room in the afternoon, the kitten
gets down from a rocking-chair and comes to meet me.

When sitting on my knee, 3 feet from the table,
it manifests a desire to get on the table by looking
towards it and crying.

4:2ncl day. — Has been out in a dark corner of the
hall leading to the study, and in a bedroom also not
far off.

Climbs up my leg, and thence to table, three times
in succession, though put down each time.

Sits on the table watching the movements of my
pen, or playing with various objects it finds about.

Again visits the waste-paper basket, and plays with
some crumpled papers in the bottom.

the psychic Development of young animals 193

Smells keenly at my fingers that had handled a
recently hilled mouse.

When the mouse is presented to it, the kitten smells
it, licks it, and then bites it. When I attempt to draw
the mouse away, the kitten holds on with its teeth and
claws, and growls slightly.

Jumps down from a height of feet to-day without
any fall.

43rd day. — Kitten sleeps much to-day. When
awake wishes to be either in my wife’s lap or on the
table.

Offer it some meat. Smells and licks it, but makes
no attempt to eat it. Licks its lips long after the meat
is put to its mouth, as if to get rid of the last trace of
the meat. When it is brought near it again, makes
off.

Is very playful this evening. Interferes so much
with the pen as one writes, it is impossible to do so
while it is near.

44 th day. — Plays vigorously, but not long at one
time. Sleeps a great deal.

In the evening finds a new hiding-place, and fails to
make any sign when called.

Is put in pan, but will not remain in. Micturates
in a corner , and is given a mild punishment, which is
well borne.

In the evening visits the pan, and after using it
takes great pains to paw up the sand into a heap.

Catches flies. Plays with one of them after it is dead.

Puns into the most distant room on the flat on
which the study is, i.e. it goes further from home, so to
speak, than ever before.

4:5th day. — Paces about much to-day, under chairs,
out of the room, etc.

Of its own accord visits the pan, and defsecates twice,
taking pains to cover up what is passed.

N

194

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

4 Stli day . — Eats for the first time to-day small piece
of cooked meat and potato ; licks the plate on which it
is, and seems to like the food very much.

Acts with a dead mouse as before.

Plays with its mother so violently that the latter
seizes it and holds it down.

417 th day. — A piece of catnip that affects mature cats
so peculiarly, produces no such effects on the kitten,
which seems rather to dislike the smell.

48 th day. — Full of an apparently reckless activity.
Climbs up and down chairs, etc., with great vim and
rapidity, but never falls. When tired, sleeps, and
leeps long.

Meat is offered to-day. Smells at it, but does not
eat till a small piece is placed in its mouth, when it
eats with apparent relish all placed before it.

When on the table a spool falls to the floor. In an
instant the kitten leaps from the table to my wife’s lap,
and thence to the floor. In its play runs behind the
book-shelf, and rushes out at its mother from behind
the curtain again and again.

49£/t day. — Catches flies on the window ; takes no
notice of dead flies.

When engaged in this sport it upsets a vessel con-
taining a little milk, and is so startled by this that it
rushes down at once with a peculiar expression on its
face.

50 th day. — When we are at dinner to-day the kitten
runs into the dining-room on the flat below its home.

Since this long wandering from home it is difficult to
keep it in the study, as it wishes to be here, there, and
everywhere, maintaining ceaseless activity when not
asleep.

Jumps from the table to the floor by one clear leap.

51 st day. — The kitten climbs from my chair up my
back, and rests on my shoulder.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 195

As its mother walks upstairs, the kitten crouches
back from the top, as if to spring on her by surprise.

52 nd clay. — Again climbs up my back, and remains
there while I walk downstairs.

On coming home late I go into the dining-room, into
which the kitten also shortly walks.

53rcZ clay. — I can notice a change in the shape of the
kitten’s head. It is more elongated, etc.

Its eyes are also changing colour — getting lighter.

hUh day. — Is very playful all day.

At night, late, when I go into the dining-room, the
kitten follows, and, when there, climbs half way up a
wire-netting door separating the kitchen from the
dining-room.

On stroking the kitten to-day it is noticed to purr for
the first time.

55 th day. — On stroking the kitten it purrs. Soon
after, it sits on the table and purrs of its own accord,
still louder.

5§th day. — Manifests an unusual desire to sit in my
lap, and on the cushion of the chair between my
legs.

57 th day. — The kitten eyes very closely, from the top
of a rocking-chair, a canary bird in a cage at a height
of 2 or 3 feet, and at about 4 feet distant.

It also crouches when it sees flies moving on the floor,
etc.

A small dachshund dog is brought into the study
to-day. The kitten puts up its back, growls, etc. The
little dog and the kitten are then taken on my wife’s
lap. The kitten holds off, but looks interested, and
finally approaches and smells at the dog.

Spontaneous purring occurs this evening.

The kitten “ washes its face,” first with one paw, then
the other, in an elaborate way not seen before.

58 th clay. — It is beginning to be difficult to keep the

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

kitten out of the dining-room, and to-day it tries hard
to get in by the wire-gauze door.

59^ day. — The kitten seems to be uneasy when quite
alone.

Came upstairs to-day to use the pan.

There is a fire in the grate in the study for the first
time this autumn. The kitten touches the poker, which
is hot. It hisses, etc., but soon after it touches it again
and again, in its usual persistent way.

60 tli day. — After tea I lie down on a sofa in a room
adjoining the dining-room, whereupon the kitten climbs
upon the sofa, and walks from my legs up to my chest,
where it remains purring.

Now generally comes when called “ Puss ! puss ! ”

Present physical condition :

Colour not very greatly changed. Is still a light
tabby.

The shape of the head is now much more like its
mother’s.

The eyes seem to be getting lighter.

Weight, 2\ lbs. '

Height, 7 inches.

During the past two weeks it shows much wayward-
ness. When an attempt is made to thwart the kitten
in any way it bites, scratches, etc., in a half-earnest,
half-playful way.

63 rd day. — Slips, by some mishap, in part into a
water pitcher, which is followed by hissing and a great
fuss generally.

65 th day. — Por the first time is allowed outside on
the front steps. No longer remains as much in the study.

67 th day. — Kitten to-day micturates in the corner of
the study, notwithstanding that it had been solicited to
use the pan. Is punished with a small strap.

70 th day. — For the past two days the kitten is much
inclined to repeat the offence of the 67th day.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 197

Very active and very mischievous.

Seems to take a delight in interfering with my
reading, writing, or whatever I may be engaged in.

Late in the evening I call, “ Puss ! puss ! ” but no
puss comes. After looking here and there it is dis-
covered beneath the table, beside the waste - paper
basket, trying to hide from me. When I go to one
side of the basket the kitten betakes itself to the
other.

77£A day. — Is plainly growing fast, especially in
height.

The kitten, up to the present, has been out of doors in
all about half a dozen times. On one occasion cried to
get out.

The kitten still cries when it feels any want, or when
it cannot accomplish its object, or is disappointed, e.g.
it will cry if it goes to the window and cannot find flies
to catch.

A Skye terrier is brought into the study, also the
dachshund that was in before. Seems more inclined to
attack the Skye than the other dog.

Is more especially fond of sitting in my wife’s lap,
and begins to show attachment to her above all the
other members of the family.

Now likes to lie before the fire. This especially
shown yesterday, a wet and cold day.

Now shows fondness for fish.

Now often, when put in the pan, will scrape up the
sand, yet keep looking about awaiting a chance to escape.

The kitten now takes its sleep mostly at night. It
has a much more intelligent, older, more matured look
than a couple of weeks ago.

81s£ day. — When calling for it at night in the dining-
room it again plays at hide-and-seek.

84 th day. — Physical growth evident. The kitten’s
eyes are now the colour of its mother’s.

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

Shows increased fondness for sitting in my wife’s lap,
near the fire, etc.

Less trouble for some days in getting the kitten to
use the pan.

The dachshund puppy is brought into the study.
The kitten manifests less excitement; evidently re-
members him.

The kitten can now, and for at least three weeks
past, watch a long series of events intently.

87 tli day. — In carriage of body, tail, etc., very like a
mature cat.

8 8th day. — The kitten is offered some bread and
milk, which it sniffs at, but evidently does not want.
After thus smelling at the food it scratches around it, as
if to cover it up.

91s£ day. — Now, when allowed out the front door, the
kitten runs across the road to a vacant lot opposite
without special fear. When let in, follows one up close,
as I notice a mature cat often does.

The way in which the kitten makes a choice as to a
difficult leap to-day, after much evident observation,
apparently careful weighing of difficulties, etc., before
the decision and choice between several possible ways
are finally made, is a fruitful study.

The same judgment is shown in its behaviour
towards a parrot kept in the same room. The parrot
has always proved more than equal to any of the
kitten’s advances, and this the latter seems fully to
realise.

98^/t day. — Growth in height noticeable, though I see
the kitten daily so much.

The canary’s cage is set in a new position near the
parrot. The kitten makes a spring on the cage and
falls back. It is punished for this, and takes it well.

Later, it moves up towards the parrot, but the latter
is ready to nip its paw, etc., so the kitten with-

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 199

draws, showing some dread of this quiet but watchful
creature.

The kitten still shows the mischievous tendency. It
likes to knock down spools from the table, and especially
to take pins out of the cushion.

Will sometimes cry for my wife to sit down so that
it may lie in her lap.

lOlsi! day. — Was outside this morning when my dogs
were being taken out for exercise. Is taken by surprise,
and rapidly climbs a tree just at hand, to the height
of 30 feet. Does not seem to know how to descend, or
fears to do so. A long pole is hoisted up to it, and,
after being pushed a little with the pole, it takes
the hint and gets on the pole, and so is lowered
down.

105^A day. — The most marked feature in the kitten’s
conduct for a week past has been its sociability, or its
pleasure in being near those human beings with which
it has been most associated. Seems to look now to my
wife as its best friend.

When lying on the floor near a rocking-chair in
motion, the kitten puts its paw near, but not under the
rocker.

The canary’s cage is again near the parrot’s, and the
kitten seems to find it difficult to refrain from leaping
at the canary.

Is now very fond of getting out of doors and roaming
about.

Last night, as soon as the lights were put out, the
kitten cries, as if wanting to get out of the study,
wishing to go downstairs ; does so, and at once goes to
the front door.

Was taken up again struggling vigorously. When
placed in the pan it at once makes use of it.

The kitten seems now to show a great increase in
her liking for us all.

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

To-day, by a series of climbings, gets to my shoulders,
then puts up its paws on my bead, and purrs in a most
decided way, suggestive of pleasure and affection.

107 th day. — Is trying to get into a flower-pot with
earth in it, apparently with the object of using it as
the pan; and about two weeks ago was observed to
scratch at sand in a vessel set near the fire to dry.

l\Qth day. — Kitten sits in bedroom window looking
out, and evidently enjoying the sunshine and view.

l\2th day. — Was again found up in a tree very near
the house, though the cause is unknown.

The dachshund was in the study to-day. The kitten
evidently remembered the dog, and they at length put
nose to nose.

When the kitten looks down on the dogs from the
upper veranda, it shows some fear, begotten of its tree
experience, I think, rather than from instinct alone.

Later, the kitten gets sufficiently familiar with the
dachshund to be inclined to play with its tail and take
other liberties.

After being fed of late the kitten quiets down, seems
pleased, perhaps grateful, purrs, etc.

118 th day. — In order to test its behaviour, a living
mouse, tied by the tail or hind leg, is confined in a
pasteboard box. The kitten smells at the box eagerly,
and follows up the box as it is carried away. When the
mouse is released the kitten seizes it with a growl. It
does not at once kill the creature, but plays with it.
When I go near the mouse it is seized with accompanying
growling. After thus playing with the mouse for from
fifteen to twenty minutes, the kitten eats it completely.

119 th day. — The dachshund is brought into the study
to-day. Is less afraid, and inclines to be more aggressive
with the kitten.

The kitten is inclined to play with the dog, but very
little seems to bring forth a hiss.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 201

After the kitten has been out in the cold (latter part
of November), it expressed great pleasure on its return
to comfort, as manifested by purring, rubbing itself
against one’s legs, etc.

When any member of the family goes downstairs late
in the evening, the kitten will also go (food).

127£A day. — The dachshund brought into the study
to-day. Both lie on my wife’s lap. By degrees the
kitten takes more and more liberties, such as biting its
ears and neck playfully.

Both go down to the dining-room when dinner is
ready. A plate with meat and potatoes on it is set
down before them. The kitten snatches a piece of meat,
but does not venture to take any more food from the
plate.

Later, a Skye terrier is brought in, but the kitten does
not make free with it.

Now follows my wife about much like a dog, going
after her even out of doors.

When standing near the table the kitten jumps from
it upon her shoulder. #

129£A day. — Flies are now very rare, and whenever
the kitten sees one it makes for it.

Sits in the window watching snowflakes fall, and tries
to catch them through the window-panes.

To-day, a member of the family the kitten seldom sees,
goes into the cellar to get some meat for the cat, and as
he walks down the steps he calls, “ Puss ! puss ! ”
The kitten seems puzzled, and runs about looking up at
my wife in the kitchen and crying, and this is repeated,
and every time with the same result. My wife goes to
the cellar door, induces the kitten to go down a step or
two, when the kitten, observing the one who is calling
it near the meat, runs down.

135£A day. — The kitten is out early in the evening in
front of the house, and is after a while sought for but

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cannot be found, having, in all probability, been picked
up by some one passing.

Remarks on tlie Diary.

Since I propose to make a comparison between the
development of the dog and the cat in another paper,
by which more instructive results may, it is hoped, be
reached, the remarks that follow are to be considered
rather in the light of suggestions as to some of the
ways in which the diary may be utilised than as a
commentary at all complete.

It will be seen from the records that the evidence for
taste and smell before the 3rd day is not very convinc-
ing; that the evidence for a temperature sense, the
feeling of pain, ordinary reflex action from tactile sensi-
bility, etc., is more conclusive.

By the 6 th day a great advance is recorded in regard
to all these qualities.

Fatigue is still readily experienced.

Sometimes, as e.g. on the 9th day, an apparently
decided advance is shown in a single day.

The experience of fear or surprise seems to be ex-
perienced first about the 9th day through the sense of
hearing, if we except that uneasiness and crying that
results almost from the first when the animal is removed
from its usual surroundings.

The spontaneous movements of the ears, and more
doubtful movement of the tail, on the 10th day, are
worthy of note.

Attention is called to the advances in vision as noted
on the 11th, 13th, 14th, 18th, 22nd, 25th, 26th, etc.,
days.

On the 8th day the eyes began to open, but hearing
was then established.

On the 11th day winking is caused reflexly by the

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 203

movement of an object before the eyes at the distance
of a | inch.

On the 13th day the pupils respond to light.

On the 14th day a small object is followed by the
eyes.

The 16th day was memorable, as on that day was
noticed the first licking of the paw, the first act of
scratching, and the first play.

On the 18th day the nose, uncoloured at birth, began
to pigment.

The 21st day furnishes evidences of recognition by
the kitten of its box as its home, for, after being out, it
returns to it and climbs in.

Attention is directed to the various stages of
development of muscular co-ordination, as illustrated
by the kitten’s toilet-making, play, getting in and out
of its box, and from one object to another in the room,
and which can be followed from the somewhat full
records of facts bearing on this subject. The records of
certain days are clear on this point, e.g. 16th, 18th,
21st, 23rd, 28th, 29th, 30th, 32nd, 33rd, 37th, 51st.

The behaviour of the kitten towards the same dog at
different times, and as compared with the second dog,
seems to me to indicate an interesting struggle between
instinct and other qualities, and shows how the result,
in any one case, depends on past experience, the stage
of development, and much more that each reader will
put into the case, according to his own views of
physiology and psychology.*

* Mr T. Mann Jones’ remarks on this subject will be read with
interest: “You deal with the notion of hereditary (psychical)

memory and aversions more gently than I should. As early as a boy
I had come to the conclusion, from experiments, that if I allowed
hereditary memory of dogs to kittens, I must also allow they had
hereditary memory of a chemical laboratory ; and later, my experiments
on fowls convinced me if I admitted memory (psychic) of the hawk’s
cry, I must also admit similar memory of the report of a gun and the

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

Similar remarks may be made as regards the
behaviour of the kitten towards the sand pan. This
little history illustrates, it seems to me, some of the
fundamental laws of all training and education, whether
applied to the human being or the lower animals.* *

The case is simpler as regards the latter, but not
wholly different, and observations of the kind made in
this case impress me more than ever with the import-
ance of attempting to give the fullest possible record of
every feature in the psychic development and the
physical development of those animals by which we are
surrounded.

The history of the kitten’s whole bearing towards
the book-shelves has been to me a most instructive
one. I have never witnessed such perseverance in
the accomplishment of an object in any young animal

sound of watchman’s rattle and ‘penny squeakers.’ It was a redudio
ad absurdum.

“In 1872 and 1873 I reared two small broods of chicks by the aid of
a largo tom-cat, Pedro, who acted as foster-parent, and in whoso fur
they nestled when cold, and slept at night. When half-grown, or
less, they would run towards any cat, and were attracted by the voice
even if they did uot see the animal, and would have been killed but
for the watchful aid of Pedro ; yet, they avoided all my hens, and took
refuge hastily with Pedro if a ‘ clucking ’ or broody hen oalled them,
or a cock crowed near them ! ”

* Mr T. Mann Jones writes me as follows : “ I was greatly pleased
to see you had noted the rise of the habit of cleanliness in the
kitten. I have given considerable attention to this in children, dogs,
and cats. I have been often surprised that no naturalist whose works
I have read had given the subject the attention it probably deserves.
From personal observation, and such information as I could get from
mothers and nurses, I have come to the provisional conclusion that
early self-control as to the sphincters, whether in man or animal, is a
pretty fair indication that the adult will possess more than average
self-control. What a difference in setting up ‘cleanly’ habits
corresponds with in later life of self-indulgence and ready acceptance
of every suggestion to mere instinctive action, i.e. we have a weak-
nerved animal more or less, though often a very obstinate one.

“ May I suggest a probably fresh field of observation in animal
psychology connected with this ? The efforts of the long-haired dogs
to avoid uncleanlines3 when suffering from diarrhoea. Punch avails
himself of a wire fence, using the second wire as a skirt holder, by
carefully adjusting his long fur on it, and the lower wire as a seat 1
. . . The plan answered, Great gratification followed.”

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 205

— not excepting the child. It seemed that the greater
the obstacles, the greater the efforts the kitten put forth
to overcome them — behaviour that we usually consider
especially human, and ever an evidence of unusual
strength of character.

That this kitten was not an ordinary one in many
respects I am quite prepared to believe, but still the
animal was a cat, and a cat only, and that such
“ character ” should have been shown was a surprise to
one who has been a long and close observer of animals.

I have seen something akin to this in that remark-
able bird the parrot, but not in a parrot so young as
this kitten.

One of the remarkable features in the whole group
of the felidce was illustrated in this kitten, viz. the
slowness with which they learn to eat and drink, and
the length of time before difficulties are fully over-
come.

A comparison of the kitten’s behaviour towards the
parrot and the canary furnishes food for reflection, and
in this, as in all such cases, all narrow explanations
prove inadequate; and while the laws of association
etc. may explain much, they do not seem to me to
explain all in the case of the lower animals, any more
than in the case of the child or the man.

Conclusions.

While there can be no doubt that cats are born deaf
and blind, the question of smell and taste is more
difficult to settle. Up to the third day, and even then,
there is no clear evidence of smell and taste, though, on
the whole, it would appear that the facts in favour of
the existence of smell are more certain than in the case
of taste.

There is evidence, on the 3rd day, of reflex action,

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

brought about through stimulation of the skin ; of the
existence of the ability to distinguish hot and cold
objects, and of capacity to suffer pain ; though, as
regards all these, the latent period is relatively very
long. At birth, and up to the 3rd day, though it is
likely that all these powers exist in the animal, the
evidence is feeble.

Motor power is restricted to such an extent that the
animal can crawl only and but slowly.

Tactile sensibility, the sense of pain, and the tem-
perature sense reach their highest degree of develop-
ment earlier than hearing and vision.

Hearing is established before seeing, and reaches its
greatest perfection sooner than vision.

In the progress of all the senses to full development,
the course, while marked by definite steps, is often so
rapid that distinct advances may sometimes be noted
in a single day.

Hot only in the development of the senses, but in all
other phases of progress has this been clearly evident
in the case of the kitten under observation.

Apart from the senses, etc., there seems to be a
definite order in which all the features of feline nature
appear, c.g. purring, crouching, stalking, etc.

Certain physical changes are correlated in time with
certain psychic developments, the significance of which
is in some cases clear, in others obscure.

III. — The Mongrel Dog.

The Mongrel ancl the Pure- Bred Dog Compared.

In my first paper on the psychic development, etc.
of the Dog, the observations and conclusions applied
to pure-bred animals only, though two widely different
breeds were compared.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 207

It seemed to me desirable for many reasons that the
mongrel should also be studied, accordingly this paper
will be devoted to that purpose, and to a comparison
between the mongrel and the pure-bred dog, in a
manner to harmonise with my general plan of treat-
ment of the subject of psychogenesis in the lower
animals.

Diary,

The puppies under observation belonged to a litter
of nine, of which seven were preserved. The dam was a
strong, healthy black animal, and the sire was unknown.
The dam and puppies were kept under similar con-
ditions to those described in my first paper on the Dog,
i.e. in a pen on the floor of a separate compartment of
the kennel, on which at first there was abundance of
good straw, and at a later date sawdust. The puppies
were born in December, and artificial heat was
maintained in the kennel constantly, so that the
animals were always comfortable. The dam was well
fed, and otherwise properly cared for throughout, and
from beginning to end was perfectly well, and able to
nurse her puppies in an entirely satisfactory manner.

1st day. — Vigour of puppies shown by a strong voice,
somewhat between a growl and a bark.

They respond to a prick or punch and to a hot body,
but not so quickly. Oil of wormseed placed near the
nose causes a sniffing; pure carbolic acid causes the
face to be distorted ; blistering fluid leads to protrusion
of the tongue ; and tincture of iodine to sniffing.

When soup is similarly placed before the nose there
is no evidence of smell.

Solutions of salt and of sugar, also cow’s milk, are
presented at different times. Certain conclusions
cannot be drawn. The brush on which the solution
of sugar is presented, is sucked vigorously, however.

The puppies will not crawl off a table, etc.

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

2nd day. — The irritating substances used on the first
day produce more marked effects.

No positive evidence is forthcoming as regards milk,
but sugar seems to be agreeable.

When salt is put in the mouth it is rejected doubt-
fully, but aloes most decidedly. Both are used in
solution.

5 th day. — Irritants affect the puppies through the
nose at a greater distance.

It remains doubtful whether meat is smelt or not,
but milk and a solution of aloes seem to be,, for the
puppies cease to make their characteristic sounds when
these substances are placed before the nose.

They do not yet seem to show any shortening of the
latent period of reflex action on pinching.

9th day. — None of them show any signs of opening
of the eyes.

10 th day. — When blistering fluid in a bottle is
brought near, active movements result; the head is
lifted up, the tongue put out, and sneezing, etc., follows.

Now, when a solution of salt of the same strength as
that used before is presented, it is rejected, and there is
frothing at the mouth, etc. Much disgust is also shown
towards aloes ; with milk the result is not pronounced,
but with sugar there is undoubted enjoyment.

Eyes begin to open.

19 th day. — On clapping my hands, and uttering
“ Hist ! ” vigorously, the ears are moved, indicating the
ability to hear.

20th day. — Evidence of hearing, as above, at the
distance of 4 feet.

A piece of meat, put within a |-inch of the nose
of one of the puppies, causes it to move towards the
object and lick the lips. The same follows when
cheese is used. When the same experiments are tried
with sleeping puppies they also lick the lips.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 209

Stamping with moderate force on the floor on the
kennel (concussion), within 2 feet of the puppies,
rouses them far more effectively than a sound of
considerable loudness.

One of the puppies is brought into my study. It
moves about, crawling rather than walking, with its
tail carried or held, much as in a turtle, the hind legs
being much spread out.

No great uneasiness manifested.

The puppy is a picture of healthy vegetative existence.

The incisor teeth are appearing.

As an evidence that the puppy is influenced by the
change in the environment , it may be mentioned that
the cheese and the meat do not produce now the effects
they did when the puppy was in its own pen.

Under favourable conditions a mere trace of salt
causes decided signs of disgust.

When blistering fluid is held within 2 to 3 inches
of the nose the puppy acts as if something unpleasant
were in its mouth.

The puppy winks occasionally, apparently spon-
taneously, but winking cannot be induced reflexly
until the moving finger is approached so close to the
eye as to almost touch the eyelashes.

When the finger and thumb are moved, as in
snapping the fingers, but without causing any noise,
the puppy under observation turns its eyes in the
direction of the object, so that I have no doubt that
a small object, as a finger, is distinguished at 3 to 4
inches, and a larger one at about 2 feet. When the
fingers are snapped in the ordinary way, the head, as
well as the eyes, are turned towards the exciting object,
showing that vision and hearing are both stimulated
effectively and together.

Motor activity is still poorly developed.

The coat, straight before, begins to show waviness.

0

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ANIMA INTELLIGENCE

24 th day. — To-day a puppy follows a fish-bone by
smell, and attempts to bite at it.

25 th day. — The appearance of the eyes show an
advance over a few days ago.

When the dam is brought within 6 to 8 feet of the
puppies they seem to become aware of her presence by
smell first of all, but when within a few feet of them
they follow her with the eyes.

There is a decided improvement in locomotion.

The puppies now have all the upper incisors, the
canines above and below, and two molars above and
two below.

Hearing is now very acute. A very feeble “ Hist ! ”
when within a couple of feet, causes movement of the
ears, turning of the head, and an expression of the
face that indicates clearly that the puppy hears.

A “ Hist ! ” of moderate intensity is heard readily at
5 feet.

There is a tendency now, when any object is placed
before the puppies, to groxol or bark at it in a meaning-
less way.

31s£ day. — To-day a slight sound caused a starting.
The puppy (henceforth the only one) seems to have
reached that period when hearing, as a mere sensation,
is perfect, but the interpretation of sounds very
imperfect, hence he is startled by many sounds that
later produce no such effect. When a bone is placed
within 4 inches of him he sniffs at it, and gets up to
secure it.

He makes the first attempts at gnawing a bone, using
his paws to steady himself, and once lifts a paw as if to
place it on the bone, but does not actually do so.

The puppy now evidently sees small objects at some
distance quite well.

He now stands quite erect on his legs, and to-day
climbs over the rungs of a small rocking-chair.

the psychic development of young animals 211

Wlien in the house to-day he manifests shyness or
appreciation of the strangeness of his surroundings.

When his head is stroked he acts somewhat as a cat.

Has begun a sort of playing with his dam.

The social tendency is clearly evidenced.

38th day— Has grown much. There is a great change
in his attitude, manner of walking, etc. The puppy can
now run fairly well.

He has wonderful control of his tail, moving it when
he approaches vigorously, as an old dog.

For a week past his social tendencies towards human
beings have been very marked.

He is now provided with, practically, his full comple-
ment of teeth.

His eyes and general facial expression have also greatly
changed.

He is still readily startled by sounds.

He as yet reposes a good deal, which perhaps accounts
in no small degree for his perfect health and excellent
state of nutrition.

He now sees small objects at a distance of 8 to 10
feet at least.

He is ready to eat almost anything given him.

He can now bite accurately at any part of his
body.

3 9th day. — His weaning is begun regularly to-day.

42 nd day. — The following experiments were tried to-
day : When a finger was put in his mouth he sucked
it, but he would take no notice of a stick presented in
the same way. Bread he tackled at once, using his back
teeth to crush it. Meat he devoured eagerly. He had
received no nourishment of any kind for one hour
previous to these experiments.

4coth day. — Puppy is brought into my study. Shows
little or no shyness after a few moments. He is inclined
to move about and use his nose in an investigating way.

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

He can now run fast and well, liis power over his
hind legs being good.

He hears perfectly even faint sounds.

On being held before a piano, when it is played upon,
he manifests no special effect.

46^ day. — The puppy gets up to a water-pan over a
foot high, and, resting his front paws on it, laps water,
the whole proceeding reminding one of a mature dog.
This was first done, however, three or four days ago.

A small Skye terrier, and afterwards a collie, are
allowed to enter the puppy’s compartment, but he does
not seem inclined to notice them much.

Lies with his head on the sill of the door of his com-
partment.

47^/i day. — After I play a little while with the puppy,
and then retire, he barks impatiently to get out.

49 tli day. — The puppy is playing in the yard.
Scratches at the snow like an old dog. After defoecation
he draws himself along in the snow.

He pulls at the withered branch of a vine growing
against a fence.

He ascends a snow bank in the yard, wagging his tail.

He seems very much at home with the older dogs,
and adapts well to his surroundings.

52 nd day. — The last remark applies with much greater
force now.

He is very free in all his movements. Carries his tail
up, and wags it vigorously.

Considerable change is observable in the shape of
his muzzle within a few days.

On being given a bone he does not commence on it at
once, but carries it to his bed instead of gnawing it on
the sawdust that covers the floor of his pen.

bZrd day. — To-day the puppy is trying hard to get
out of his compartment, pushing his head through be-
tween the iron- wire door and the sill, and using his paws

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OE YODNG ANIMALS 213

to enlarge the opening — in fact, he behaves in this very
much like a mature dog.

5 6th day. — When he is out of his compartment (the
door open) and he is told to go in, and one stamps with
the foot, he retreats to his box, but soon wants to come
out again.

63 rd day. — He now mingles with all the dogs of the
kennel, large and small, seems to enjoy the life, and
manages to adapt admirably to his entire environment.

69^ day. — Prior to defecation moves about, smells,
turns round and round, etc., just like an old dog.

Shows sexual feeling, if one may judge by his actions
towards a mature bitch.

87 th day. — Since the last record, his progress in
adaptation and in general development has been steady.
As the chief stages in development had been now over-
taken, he was removed to my laboratory for experiment
on the brain.

Remarks on the Diary.

Observations on the temperature sense, tactile sensi-
bility, and the sense of pain were not made as early as
desirable in the pure-bred puppies, but this omission
was made good in the present case, as the diary shows,
and there can be no doubt that these senses all exist
from the moment of birth. The evidence that true
smell, as distinguished from the mere sense of irritation
of the nose by pungent vapours, is less conclusive,
while that for taste is more doubtful still.

The increasing development of tactile sensibility, and
especially the readiness of the nervous system to respond
to stimuli acting on the nasal mucous membrane, is well
illustrated by the observations recorded at different
times in the early life period of the puppies.

Both smell and taste are very feebly developed before
the eyes are open, but about the 10th day there was

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

clear evidence of both enjoyment and disgust through
taste, at all events.

The general advancement of the animal is well shown
in its behaviour towards blistering fluid on the 10th day.

By the 20th day smell had become a powerful moving
force in the animal, as it always will continue to be.

The manner in which a sleeping dog, young or old,
is affected by the presence of food with a pronounced
smell, is very impressive to one who witnesses it.

At so early a period as the 24th day this puppy’s
sense of smell was so well developed, it will be noticed,
that he followed a bone by its aid quite well. At this
period he used his eyes, as well as his nose, to guide him.

At this date also hearing was good — in fact, by the
25th day the dog had reached a period of fair develop-
ment of all his senses, and with considerable motor
power, which, of course, also implies a corresponding
development of the muscular sense. Hearing seems to
be the most rapidly developed of all the senses, i.e. the
period from its first beginnings to its greatest acuteness
is relatively short.

The pleasure of the puppy on having its head stroked,
on the 31st day, is noteworthy.

The Mongrel Dog and the Pure-Bred Dog Compared.

In my first paper on the dog, certain differences were
noted between two varieties of pure-bred dogs — the one
large and the other small, viz. between the St Bernard
and the Bedlington terrier. I now propose to compare
the pure-bred and the mongrel, chiefly on the basis of
my records in the earlier and in this paper.

The mongrel showed more vigour at birth, and shortly
after, as evidenced to me at a distance, by the voice.
He also seemed to be somewhat less influenced by cold,
though more persistent, or at least more successful, in
getting all the heat possible from the dam.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OE YOUNG ANIMALS 215

Although this is not specially noted in the diary, the
mongrel did not show fatigue quite as soon as the pure-
bred dog.

The eyes began to open earlier than in either the St
Bernard or the Bedlington. I could not get certain
evidence of smell in the case of the St Bernard
before the 12th or 13th day, but in the mongrel there
is some evidence of smell on the 10th day, at latest.
The Bedlington smelt meat on the 10th day. I am
not prepared to state that dogs do not smell at all before
the 10th day, or even the 5th day, for which there was
some evidence, or even on the first day, hut I am of
opinion that before, at least a few days after birth,
smell is so feebly developed, if at all, that one could not
demonstrate its existence to an unbiassed observer. I
refer now, not to the effect of irritating volatile liquids,
but to the ability to smell food.

The mongrel showed signs of disgust with aloes, and
a positive liking for sugar, as early as the 2nd day. I
could not establish this for the pure-bred dogs for some
days later.

It is noteworthy that, on the 3rd day, the mongrel
sucks one’s finger more readily than a piece of meat.

Though dogs are carnivorous animals before a certain
period in their development, they are no more excited
by meat than any object whatever, showing, in the
clearest way, that there is an order in psychic as in
physical development.

Owing to absence from home when the mongrels
were passing from the 11th to 18th day, I am unable to
make any accurate comparison in this case as to the
beginnings of vision and hearing.

In both the mongrel and the pure-bred dogs, the
winking reflex is very slowly developed, and long
remains feeble, i.e. is excited with difficulty.

Certain considerations must be borne in mind in

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

attempting to compare the mongrel pnppy and the
St Bernards. The latter, I consider an unusually active
litter, while the mongrel, for a considerable period,
seemed to me more than usually vegetative. Moreover,
while there were always at least four St Bernards
together, this mongrel was the only one of this litter
after about the 20th day.

One of the features of development greatly impressed
on my mind by these comparisons, not to mention
many other similar ones, was the influence of one on
another in all the lines of development. This was
shown both negatively and positively in the case of
the mongrel. After he began to mingle with the older
dogs his progress was marvellous. He seemed in a
few days to overtake himself, so to speak, and his
advancement was literally by leaps and bounds. It is
very difficult to give an adequate idea of this feature
of the mongrel’s history in a diary, but I wish to
note it specially, because it seems to me to show that,
while education, in the wider signification of that word,
may in a sense account for development, it is equally
true that the real nature of any animal will, in the
main, assert itself sooner or later, however unfavourable
the early environment. In other words, heredity is,
was, and ever will be, stronger than environment.

One may safely say that in all kinds of dogs the
perception of light and shadows precedes the seeing
of objects, and that the latter is comparatively slowly
developed.

The mongrel seems to have been very slow in develop-
ing the play instinct, which I attribute largely to his
being the sole puppy from an early period, and therefore
seeing no other dog but his dam.

In both the mongrel and the pure-bred puppies
hearing progresses rapidly to perfection of sensation.
Within about ten days the maximum of acuteness is

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 217

reached, and the puppies are then very readily startled
by noises, i.e. they are reflexly greatly affected through
the ear, much more so than through the eye. This
fact has been very strongly impressed on my own
mind again and again.

As regards voluntary movements, there were differ-
ences to he noted. The mongrel seemed the sooner
to gain control over the hind limbs. The same may
be said of tail movements. Though one could not
trace so general a development in the mongrel as in
the St Bernards by a certain period, the former had
the greater power over his tail, both as regards variety
and vigour of movement, especially the latter.

There was a comparatively sudden development in
this mongrel which I can scarcely think is common,
but, in regard to this point, I must speak cautiously
till further exact observations are made, as I do not
wish to make statements of mere general impressions,
with no definite basis of observation.

The movement of the ears especially, though others
also fall into this class, following on noises, are purely
reflex, and constitute one of the most delicate and
early evidences of hearing, but, as in the case of the
pure-bred puppies, concussions are earlier and more
readily effective than sounds.

While both the pure-bred dogs and the mongrel
recognise a change in surroundings, and are affected
by it, herein lies one of the great differences between
them alike in puppyhood and in after life.

One may compare the man “well born,” and sur-
rounded by conditions that tend to form the gentleman
in the completest sense of the term, with the pure-bred
dog, just as the mongrel represents the peasant, whose
ancestors and whose surroundings alike are against the
highest attainments.

The mongrel lacks all that refinement, modesty,

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

perhaps I may say, at all events that delicate apprecia-
tion of his own place and that of his fellow dogs
and human beings, which constitute such conspicuous
features in the psychic whole of the pure-bred dogs.
The latter show towards each other, in a kennel with
many together, when their owner encourages and gives
a chance for their exercise, kindness, justice, and many
qualities utterly foreign to the nature of the majority
of mongrels. I do not now use the term mongrel in
the sense of a cross between two pure-bred dogs, but
in the more popular acceptation of a dog bred from
parents that were mongrels, and perhaps the remoter
ancestors quite unknown.

It is interesting to enquire whether these features of
the psychic organisation are shown in the young puppy,
and if so, when.

Almost from the lirst the mongrel puppy shows an
ability to scramble for himself in “ this rough world ”
not manifested by the pure-bred dog. His very voice
on the first day of his existence may, and in this
case did, suggest this, but in nothing was it shown
so much as in the successful manner in which he
held his own among the dogs of the kennel, large and
small. This was all shown before the puppy was two
months old. His confidence in himself, his power to
adapt to unfavourable surroundings, was as advanced
at this age as the St Bernards at four months. He
reminded me of a forward boy, lacking in all true
modesty and due appreciation of what was due to his
seniors. Yet this mongrel, by virtue of this very
psychic condition, succeeds in his purposes, if one
may so express it.

In the litter of St Bernards, the most prominent and
precocious one could not compare with this mongrel.
In the lower animals, development is so rapid that new
features in the psychic character at time seem to reach

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 219

a comparatively complete development rather suddenly,
even when the animal is watched daily. This was
especially observable in the mongrel poppy after a
certain date, and was, I think, all the more so because
his development for a time seemed rather slow, which
I attribute in part to his being the sole puppy for most
of his life.

And here I would draw special attention to facts of
this character. The puppy’s weaning was not begun
till the 39th day, as his dam was well able to supply
him with milk, and his nutrition was excellent, but
when this process, generally requiring a good deal
of care, and often attended by much derangement of
health, was begun, there seemed to be no need of
gradation, etc. The puppy was ready at once in every
sense to eat all kinds of food fit for a dog.

When he was allowed out in the yard, all voluntary
movements seemed to undergo a rapid development,
which was not largely due, I think, to special exercise
or practice, but to the sudden development of elements
of the nerve centres that had been functionally latent.

As before stated, this case of rapid development in
different directions has impressed me very forcibly,
and seems to be in harmony with a law of nature of
pretty wide application.

I do not think this puppy’s intelligence was equal to
that of the St Bernards at three months, though super-
ficial observation might have led one to conclude the
reverse. Forward people often pass with the undiscern-
ing for having an ability they do not possess, because
of their confident, showy bearing, and the same remark
would apply to this mongrel puppy. The animal is
now more than four months old, and I have seen
nothing in him to lead me to alter this opinion, though
much to confirm what I have endeavoured to make
clear, as having impressed me as true of the psychic

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nature of mongrels, as compared with pure-bred
dogs.

The characteristic physical features of the adult
certainly appear in mongrels sooner than in all the
larger breeds of dogs; in other words, they mature
sooner than these breeds, both physically and psychically,
though not in all cases more rapidly than the smaller
breeds of terriers. While all pure-bred dogs must
have a definite rate of development, according to the
breed, it must be plain that mongrels will vary much
more individually according to the nature of the
ancestors which have contributed to their highly com-
posite origin in many instances. In the very nature of
the case, the pure-bred dog is an inbred animal, while
the mongrel is generally the very reverse. He, in fact,
approaches far more closely to the wild Canidcc in this
respect.

From this it would be expected that the physical
changes would be of a kind that would appeal to the
eye much less — would be, in fact, less readily referred
to any type or pattern; and in no small degree is this
true of his psychic characteristics, though these things
are much more readily observed than made clear by
any records.*

* I append Mr T. Mann Jones’ remarks, which grew out of a dis-
cussion of the question ol latent or undeveloped power in both human
beings and animals, though they will suggest much beyond that,
while they constitute one of the most interesting animal histories
with which the author is acquainted : “This latent power is

apparently called forth in some dogs to a great extent by slight
stimulation. My grandfather selected pups of different breeds, among
others Newfoundlands, mastiffs, and bloodhounds, as he distrusted
the ordinary view of ‘ instinct ’ as the cause why certain breeds
would attend to sheep, or were sheep-dogs, and he found in each race
individuals who made as intelligent sheep-dogs as those who ‘ were to
the manner born.’ When I had my opportunity I made observations,
and I sought information from farmers and shepherds. They say :
‘Any dog of any breed which is powerful enough bodily, makes a
good sheep-dog if he will try to he one .’ ‘ Special instinct ’ appears

here to be an unnecessary cause. To exemplify by an individual. In

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 221

IV. — The Dog and the Cat Compared.

Although, in popular estimation, the dog and the cat
are considered as opposites in almost every respect, in
reality they have much more in common than any two
of those animals commonly kept by man, as should be
expected from their place in nature.

A comparison will, however, prove profitable, it is
believed, and this will be based chiefly on the diaries of
the papers on “ The Dog ” and “ The Cat ” respectively.

Both the dog and the cat, it is scarcely necessary to

Appendix D. of Herbert Spencer’s ‘ Justice,’ there is some account of
Judy and her pup. Punch is the monkey who was five years old when
I wrote some letters to H. S., which he inserted in the ‘Justice.’
He commented on Punch’s actions, calling him ‘ The Christian Dog.’
The pup was suckled almost in the dark, and the mother removed
to some seven miles off as soon as he could lap milk, to prevent the
rise of imitative habits.

“ I could not note that his head differed notably from Jack’s (the
sire) at two years of age, nor from the mother’s, so far as I recollected,
but ‘strain’ of the environment told on him. Somehow he dis-
covered that one of the family could not hear, and took her under his
charge, and for eight years he has never let horse, vehicle, or tramp
approach her without warning, and if she misunderstands his indica-
tion as to direction, he either stops her altogether, or, if there is danger,
hustles her, and in some urgent cases, by no means gently, out of the
way. But the unaccustomed environment told in another way. In
consequence of accidents I have had to walk with a crutch. I came to
a slippery place one day, and slightly slipped. The dog shrank as if
struck ; he had been running finely over such places freely before, but
directly I came near another place of the kind the dog assumed the
‘ danger step,’ or ‘ cautious step,’ looked up in my face, and walked
with this step which dogs naturally use when approaching an un-
known and possibly dangerous object. I was much puzzled one day
by his use of this gait, and his ‘edging me ’ out of the direct line I
was taking, as there was no apparent reason for it. On standing and
looking back, he at once pointed, and on examining the grass I found
that a brood of very young geese (without the parent) was hidden in
the long grass, and if he had not turned me I must have stepped upon
them. The dog’s sire was a pure otter dog, mother a mixed breed,
with much of the Spaniel in her. It is doubtful if there is any
pointer blood, yet the dog is always pointing or indicating by other
gesture — not birds, however, but things we should not otherwise
observe. A slip among the rocks of those he is attached to, if very
definite, calls forth a positive shriek, followed by his hastening with-
out regard to falls and tumbles to the one who has slipped.”

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point out, are born blind and deaf, but the eyes of the
cat open sooner than those of the dog, and hearing is
also acquired somewhat earlier, hut in both the pro-
cesses of learning to see and to hear are gradual ones.

The pupillary reflex is established sooner in the cat.

So early as the 9 th day the kitten studied and
previously reported on turned its ears towards the
direction of a sound.

There is this difference, too, in the movement of the
ears : the kitten, when reacting to a sound, turns the
ears or ear reflexly to the side rather, while the dog
tends to draw them hack.

I have observed nothing in the young dog that
corresponds to the quivering movements of the ears in
the kitten, seen as early as the 9th day, and which
possibly are imperfectly executed voluntary move-
ments, like the trembling of the hand in old people.

There is nothing in the dog that corresponds exactly
to the hiss, or when feebler, the opening of the mouth
in the kitten when surprised. So far as I know, this is
sui generis among our domestic mammals, though there
are analogies perhaps in birds, as in the hissing of
geese or ducks, and the snapping of the beak in pigeons,
even when very young, to which abundant reference
has been made in my corresponding paper on birds.

So early as the 3rd day the young cat gives evidence
of the possession of genuine smell, as shown in its
behaviour towards a dog placed near it. At the same
time, the sense of the smell is very feeble. Upon the
whole, it would seem that taste and smell are both
present rather sooner in the cat than in the dog, and
in both the beginning is feeble, but they go on to
fairly rapid development. However, I have not
changed my opinion, as expressed in my first paper on
the dog, that the dog, and I will now add the cat, find
the nipple of the mother by touch rather than by smell,

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 223

and that they are drawn towards the belly of the
mother by the warmth of the part.

In both the dog and the cat there is a long latent
period in the case of reflex movements from a pinch,
etc., as compared with such an animal as the rabbit,
though there can be no doubt that the tactile sensibility,
the capability of feeling pain, and the temperature
sense, as well as feeble motor power, hardly worthy the
designation (voluntary), exist in the dog and the cat at
birth.

I am not prepared either to affirm or deny that taste
and smell are present at birth, but if they do exist, I
am quite sure they are of the feeblest, of very little use
to the animal, and play but a very subordinate part in
its life during the blind period.

The kitten is at first, if not always, more sensitive to
a touch, has finer tactile sensibility about the mouth
than the puppy.

There are the same individual differences as to the
exact date of the opening of the eyes, the eruption of
the teeth, etc., in the kitten as in the puppy.

The dog and the cat resemble each other in the
slowness with which they acquire power over the hind
limbs.

Neither the puppy nor the kitten have any appreciable
voluntary control over the tail during the blind period,
but the dog finally uses the tail much more than the cat
in the expression of his emotions. What the dog does
with his tail the cat often expresses by purring, which,
as I have shown in the paper on the cat, is developed
somewhat late — much later than the friendly wagging
of the tail in the dog ; and as will be seen by a com-
parison of the notes (diaries) on the dog and on the cat,
while there are definite stages in tail carriage for each,
these are different altogether for the two animals, and
herein we notice a far greater difference than in loco-

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motor activity. Tlie tail movements and carriage are
definitely related to the character of the animals, and
to those that watch them closely express distinct and
varying phases of emotion, etc.

The antipathy of the cat to the dog, while related to
a psychic state, based on self-preservation from intruders,
is peculiarly marked towards the dog, though whether
more so than towards any other similar animal, or,
towards, say a large part of the animals that might be
found in any menagerie, is one that I have not investi-
gated. I have been very much impressed by the fact,
that at an early age the kitten, when suddenly disturbed
in any way, reacts much as if a dog had come upon it,
though in a less marked manner.

Nevertheless, the behaviour of a kitten, even a few
days after its birth, towards even the smell of a dog on
the hands, is very suggestive of an instinctive fear or
dislike of the dog. At the same time, I have seen a
kitten act much the same when an irritant was placed
near its nose, or, after it could hear, when it was
startled by a noise. This subject is worthy of further
study.

Equally striking in the kitten, as in the puppy, is
the rapidity with which the creature tires under any
sort of stimulus, especially within the first twenty days
of life. After a few trials, sometimes after the very
first one, the smell of a dog ceases to produce the re-
action in the cat during the blind period, and unless
one is aware of this, all sorts of erroneous conclusions
may be drawn regarding very young animals. This
tendency to rapid fatigue indicates, in reality, both why
the animals do sleep and must sleep so often. I am
quite satisfied that any sort of irritation, whether from
within or from without, that will prevent frequent
periods of sleep occurring, will disorder the health and
even cause death in young animals, and I believe this

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 225

is one reason why parasites are so injurious to very
young animals.

As in the case of the dog, a young kitten, even on
the day of its birth, will be slow to crawl off a surface
— as a table. These animals have what amounts to a
sense of support, the absence of which causes them
uneasy sensations. They turn away from the space
beyond their support because it does not afford the
essential sensation, and as I have remarked in my first
paper on the dog, this seems to me as fundamental as
anything that is to be found in animal psychology.

In the cat, as in the dog, the winking reflex is slowly
developed, and is never so marked as in man. A cat
can look at one much more steadily than a dog, and for
a longer time, a fact which has its own psychical
significance.

The cat knows no shyness or modesty in the sense in
which a dog, especially a pure-bred dog, experiences
such a feeling.

In one particular the cat is greatly in advance of the
dog at the corresponding period, and also finally, viz.
in co-ordination of voluntary movements.

Though according to my notes, the kitten did not
begin to use the limbs in scratching (quite a complicated
movement for a young animal) much before the puppy,
if at all, still progress, even in this direction, was much
more rapid in the cat. I have taken care to give a very
complete account of the movements (actions) of the
kitten, so that there might be available a full history
of the development of these movements in an animal
in which they finally reach extraordinary perfection.

There is no comparison between a puppy’s range of
co-ordinated movements at three months, and those of
a kitten of the same age.

That in the course of evolution the possession of sharp
nails has had much to do with this, I feel satisfied.

p

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In both dog and cat the cortical centre of the brain
for the fore-limb is readily excited by artificial stimu-
lation ; but this crude method and general result do
not bring out the differences that the animal can by
its own will accomplish, and serves, when taken with
the facts of the animal’s actual life, only to show how
very imperfect are our physiological imitations of will-
power in these animals.

None of our domestic animals has such power over
the fore-limbs as the cat, and this is well established
when the animal is even two months old. The develop-
ment, as my diary shows, is very rapid when once it
begins.

And this is closely related to the play of the kitten.

Play is especially instructive. The young animal
has an excess of vital energy. Very soon this begins
to express itself in imitative actions. I hope my
diaries will furnish scope for comparison of the puppy
and the kitten as regards play. Herein the animals
differ widely, and reflect to perfection their psychic
moods.

The crouching, lying-in-wait, the concealment, of
which I have made several records for the kitten, are
only late and comparatively feebly developed in the
dog — all of which is, of course, related to the manner
in which the mature animal secures its prey in the
wild state.

The Canulce hunt either alone or in packs, and rely
on swiftness and concerted action.

The Felidce lie in wait, mostly alone or in pairs, and
spring on their prey, so the kitten, when quite young,
does not wait for a mouse to appear, but gives its
instinct free scope in its attacks on flies, and if these
be not forthcoming, it will, out of something, construct
imaginary prey for its gratification.

Again, the cat is very slow to develop, as my diary

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 227

shows, the social instincts so far as man and other
animals are concerned. How seldom a cat seems even
to miss its old friends, if indeed they are to it friends.
Not that I believe the cat an entirely ungrateful
animal. It is very sensitive to good and to had treat-
ment, but it is not dependent on man either physically
or psychically. The cat may, of its own accord, take
to the fields and woods to secure an independent
existence, and so long as the environment is favourable,
it may, it would seem, be utterly oblivious alike of
friends and foes.

This independence was shown quite early in the case
of my kitten. At the same time, one of the most
interesting features in this psychic study has been
noting the way in which higher mental states and
better qualities prevailed in the end in this kitten,
under good treatment. It had finally become social
and affectionate, discriminating in favour of the one
who had really done the most for its comfort. But of
self-denying, purely unselfish devotion to a master, as
in the case of the dog, there seems to be little — very
little — in the cat. But puss is no flatterer, and her
readiness to resent ill-treatment may have had much
to do with her not occupying a higher position in man’s
esteem.

I have, myself, raised a cat from the depth of de-
gradation, so to speak, to self-respect and the respect
of others by patient and persevering good treatment,
and I am anxious to record the fact, as I believe the
cat to be much misunderstood, and its intelligence
greatly underrated.

If the term intelligence be employed in a wide sense,
and be made to cover the power an animal has to
adapt means to ends, in a more or less conscious way,
including the adaptation of its own organisation to the
environment, then the diary of the cat will furnish an

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interesting record bearing on this subject. In fact,
from this point of view, the cat, during the first three
months of its life, is decidedly in advance of the dog.

In the mature cat, instinct in securing prey plays so
prominent a part, that we are apt to overlook a great
deal in the mental experience of the cat. Her psychic
life is withdrawn from us to a greater extent than that
of most of our domestic animals. I do not know of a
single good history of the complete development of the
cat from birth to maturity, so that I regret the more
the loss of my kitten before she had reached the age of
at least one year.

The diary also shows that the cat has a good memory,
though whether equal to, or better than, that of the
dog, I am not prepared to say; the evidence is in-
sufficient for the purpose.

On the question of will-power there is, however,
ample evidence for making comparisons.

If the quivering movements of the ears were im-
perfect voluntary movements, these may be considered
about the first manifestation of will in the kitten, and
there is nothing to correspond to this in the dog at so
early a state.

While attempts to get from the original nest or
home took place at an early period in both the dog
and the cat, they were more persistent in the latter.

I have given, in considerable detail, the history of the
kitten’s attempts to get into my book-shelves, etc., and
I must repeat that this furnishes to me the most im-
pressive evidence of the existence of a strong will-
power, intelligently expressed, that has ever come
under my observation in so young an animal of any
kind. While I think that the kitten, whose history I
have recorded, was above the average in strength of
character, if 1 may so express it, yet, in making all
allowance for this, there is still a very large margin in

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 229

favour of the cat. I doubt if the dog does at any period
of his life possess this persistence to the same extent
as the cat, and, as in many human beings, this character-
istic is associated with unusual physical stamina. The
cat’s power to live, in spite of its unfavourable sur-
roundings, and her power to resist disease and recover
from injury, are undoubtedly greater than in the dog.

The cat is notoriously an independent creature, and
in common estimation devoid, or nearly so, of docility ;
but this very independence and readiness to resent
tends, as I have before explained, to cause the cat to be
misunderstood. I have, with set purpose, given in great
detail my kitten’s history, with reference to education
in cleanliness, and growing out of this subject alone, a
long, and I venture to think, valuable paper might be
written on the subject of the education of animals and
human beings.

It will be observed that the kitten’s instincts were
met by placing a sand-pan directly in its path from a
box in which it slept to the book-shelves, which it was
determined to visit.

From the first moment that its foot was placed in the
sand, I noticed that a powerful appeal had been made
to the creature’s psychic nature, — a new experience
engendered a new psychic life, — awakened dormant
emotions, tendencies, etc., and these were fundamental.
To my mind, this is at the very root of all sound
education.

At times, it is true, a little gentle restraint had to
be used to prevent the chain of psychic connections
forged by these experiences from being broken. But
how different the result in this case from that which
followed opposition to the kitten’s going among the
book-shelves. The latter was an instructive thing, the
expression of the feline nature to seek retirement in
the day-time, and so strong was it, and so supported by

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will-power and intelligence, that this kitten baffled
human efforts in this case to go counter to its nature.
I have been accustomed to encourage even young
puppies, as soon as they are able to leave their nest,
to form habits of cleanliness, but I have no notes on
this subject at all so complete as in the case of this
kitten, though some will be found in my first paper on
the dog.

But I now leave the reader with the diary before
him to draw his own conclusions.

The cat can be taught much, but her education must
be conducted somewhat differently from the dog’s,
because her nature is not in all respects like his.

The dog, especially the pure-bred dog, is docility it-
self. The dog may be forced to obey, the cat cannot.
The dog usually delights to obey, or at all events to
meet the approval of his master, and he only fails to
make this evident when carried away by the force of
his instincts. The cat may be coaxed or bribed into
docility, but the latter is not a prominent feature in
her character.

It is a mistake, however, to suppose that the cat
cannot be taught, and taught much, and I think the
diary of the kitten, to go no further, shows this clearly.

Certain it is, however, that one will learn more of
the cat’s intelligence by quiet observation, than by any
attempt to form her nature by education, after the
manner so successful with the dog.

The tendency of the kitten to arouse in the evening,
and display an activity greater than during a large part
of the day, is, to my mind, an early exhibition of a
fundamental trait in the psychic life of the Felidce.

They are essentially nocturnal animals, and to witness
how early this was shown was interesting.

I have noticed nothing like this in puppies, though
it must be remembered that the cat is more like her

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 231

feral congeners, and reverts to a wild state more readily
than the dog — in fact, that such reversion is far from
uncommon.

In my first paper on the dog, I have called attention
to suggestive actions. In the true sense of the word,
the cat is perhaps less imitative than the dog, but so
great is her tendency to be excited by any kind of
motion, that she can, as is well known, be set into
activity, with the greatest ease, by a ball, or almost
any moving object when a kitten of a certain age.

In this susceptibility the cat is in advance of the
dog — in fact, her motor energy is more intense, and
her power of correlated movement much greater, but I
am inclined to consider that in all this the cat is less
imitative than the dog. The behaviour of one kitten
has less influence on the others than of one puppy on
his fellows.

The individuality of the cat is intense, though it
is the individuality of a strong nature manifesting
itself by independence rather than great difference in
conduct.

As an admirable example of associated reflexes, to
which reference has been made in treating of the
dog, the history of the sand-pan furnishes excellent
examples.

The whole history of the kitten is an illustration
that, however strong instincts may be in an intelligent
animal, its psychic life is determined by experience, i.e.
there comes to be almost no pure instincts — instincts un-
modified by experience, if such a thing is conceivable, as
the language of some writers would seem to imply. Each
day of this kitten’s life showed me a progress dependent
on experience, and the same applies to the dog; but I must
add that for the first eight or ten weeks the kitten
seemed to get the most out of its experience, though in
the case of the mongrel, whose nature, as I have pointed

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out, seemed after a time to develop with great rapidity,
under the impulse of experience, was a rival in this
respect with the cat ; but that case is exceptional, I
must believe.

As regards reasoning, I have in nowise changed the
opinions I expressed in my first paper on the dog, and
I would apply them with almost, if not quite equal,
force to the cat.

Some General Conclusions.

The conclusions that may be drawn from the diaries
of the dog and the cat respectively, with certain modi-
fications in some directions, hold for both.

This applies especially to the larger proportion of
what is most fundamental, to what is instinctive, and
is bound up with the vegetative life of the creature.

Nevertheless, even in some of these fundamentals of
psychic life there are differences, e.g. in the mode of
waiting for and securing prey, differences which appear
long before development is complete.

Upon the whole, the cat develops more rapidly than
the dog.

The greatest difference between the cat and the dog
is in their relations to man and to their own species.

The dog is essentially a social and a gregarious
animal ; the cat an independent and solitary creature,
traits which are early shown.

The dog is docile in the highest degree ; the cat to a
slight degree, as compared with the intelligence she
possesses.

The cat is far in advance of the dog in power to
execute highly complex co-ordinated movements.

In both the dog and cat the play instinct is early
and highly developed, but in the manifestation of this,
the peculiar qualities of each are well exhibited.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 233

In will-power and ability to maintain an independent
existence, the cat is superior to the dog.

In the higher grades of intelligence, the wisest dogs
are much in advance of the most knowing cats, which
is foreshadowed, if not actually exemplified, in the early
months of existence.

The nature of the dog, as compared with the cat,
tends to beget prejudices in his favour with the mass
of persons, in any comparisons as to intelligence,
desirable qualities, etc., so that there can be little doubt
that in general the dog is over-estimated and the cat
under-estimated by the great majority of persons ; at
the same time, the nature of the dog is much nearer
that of man’s than is the cat’s.

The kitten may amuse, but even a puppy dog touches
chords of sympathy in the heart of man that the cat
can never reach.

V. — The Eabbit and the Cavy, or Guinea-Pig.

In pursuance of the plan followed in other papers, I
shall first give a record of observations on which to
base conclusions.

Both common and pure-bred rabbits have been
studied, and this rodent will be considered before any
comparison is made with the cavy or guinea-pig.

The following notes refer to a litter of common
rabbits.

Diary.

1st day. — The animals are found on the first day to
be blind, the eyelids not yet having opened, and deaf.
They are also naked , or almost entirely lack hair.

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They can move about, but only in a sprawling , feeble
way.

They lie in a nest lined with the mother’s hair, and
the slightest movement near causes them great dis-
turbance.

A couple are removed from the nest after making
observations on them there, and taken into the house
for closer study.

The slightest touch, or even a slight puff of air from
the mouth causes them much disturbance ; they move
in an irregular, ill-co-ordinated way, but evidently are
greatly affected.

It is especially difficult to get anything near the
mouth without causing movement, owing, no doubt, in
part at least, to the “ feelers ” in some instances, but
not always.

A fly crawling across the head causes jerky move-
ments of the head as a whole, and of the ears.

Irritating liquids, as blistering fluid, iodine, carbolic
acid, etc., when held before the nose, cause movements
of face parts.

Aloes, in solution, and milk placed before the nose
give negative results.

When solutions of Epsom salts, common salt, and aloes
are placed on the tongue, this organ is protruded in a
way suggestive of dislike.

There is in one case even a feeble attempt to wipe
away the substance with the paws.

A pinch causes violent movements, though there is
no sound made. In fact, as far as my observations go,
young rabbits rarely, if ever, utter any sound.

The ears are inclined backward and lie close to the
head, as in dogs, cats, etc., at birth.

The animal can manage to stand for a moment, after
a fashion, but the usual mode of progression is by a
sort of crawling.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 235

From the first the respiratory movements of the
nostrils, so characteristic of rabbits, are shown.

They can also wipe the face with the fore-paws — a
very characteristic act of the rabbit, or perhaps one
should say, of the rodent.

The manner in which they push under one another
and huddle together, shows how they, like other young
animals, are rendered uneasy by cold and quieted by
warmth.

They will not crawl off a surface, but when they near
the edge turn back.

3 rd day. — There is a very noticeable increase in size.

Their movements are more pronounced.

The first scratching of a surface (in this case, my hand,
as one lies upon it) noticed.

This is a highly characteristic act of mature rabbits.

When they are put back into the straw near the nest
proper, they push through and get to the other young
ones in the nest, evidently attracted by the warmth.

Cannot induce them to suck my finger, as puppies
will do readily, though a little more inclined to suck the
lips or the end of the tongue.

4:th day. — Hair is now growing over the whole sur-
face of the body.

7th day. — Irritating liquids used before now produce
more decided results, and at greater distance.

The evidence that milk is smelt, though doubtful in
one case, seems clear in another.

Testing as regards taste I have found very difficult
in the rabbit, as the tendency to withdraw the mouth
suddenly is very strong.

There seems to be no doubt, however, that a solution
of aloes produced disgust.

There is a great advance in movements. They are
very quick and irregidar, and may be to one side or the
other as likely as forward or backward. Reference

236

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

is especially made now to movements produced re-
flexly.

When placed on a table, the young rabbit moves
about in a circle, in a half-crawling fashion, and feeling
the way, as it were, with the head.

It uses the paws fairly well to get rid of anything, e.g.
a feather put against the mouth.

It is easy enough now to make out the colour of the
various members of the litter.

The ears are held bach and down only as yet, still
there is an approach to the position of the ears, at times
of old rabbits.

When irritating substances are put before the nose
the ears are moved, probably reflexly.

They are still both blind and deaf.

9 th day. — Twitching, as in the case of puppies and
kittens, is noticed during sleep.

1 Oth day. — The eyes of some of the litter are now
open.

When I produce a short, sharp sound by a dog- whistle,
taking care that they do not feel the blast of air, they
move, turn the head to one side, and also move the ears.
The effect is less pronounced after two or three trials
(exhaustion) though very marked at first.

Can get no clear evidence of vision, nor any eye
reflexes, such as winking.

There is such a tendency to jump about that one
almost leaped from my hands, though the source of the
stimulus was not obvious.

11th day. — The eyes of some are not yet open.

13 th day. — A great advance in growth is to be
observed within a very few days.

When one touches the nose, or other parts of the head,
they almost jump out of the nest, reminding me of an
animal reacting to a stimulus, when under the influence
of strychnine.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 237

Very decided advance made in the position of the ears ;
they are more upright and are moved more readily.

Can get no evidence of vision.

Can get no reflex from the eyes till the cornea is
touched, and not very good then.

About the hearing there can be no doubt whatever.

14 th day. — The ear carriage is still better. Eye re-
flexes feebly present.

They are found out of the nest, and go to the mother
to suck when distant from her 2 or 3 inches.

15 th day. — Since they strike against the side of the
nest (board) I am satisfied there is no distinct vision.

They are able to reach the mother when 3 or 4 inches
distant.

They seem to smell fresh, green food placed in the
larger box, with which their nest communicates.

They do not seem to start quite so much when
touched as they did.

The rapidity of general growth, and especially of the
hair, is impressive.

There is an obvious advance in smell and taste.

While not certain, I have a suspicion that they begin
to distinguish objects. They possibly take notice of
shadows.

The first attempt at eating made to-day by nibbling
at grass put before them.

They now begin to lope in the manner peculiar to
rabbits.

They also begin to get up on the hind legs.

They will by no means creep off any surface on which
they are placed.

They now hear a soft whistle at from 4 to 6 feet, as
is evidenced by starting movements and ear movements
(reflex).

The ears, however, do not move backward or forward
but laterally.

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

These organs are now thinner, held more erect, and
better unfolded, so to speak.

1 6th day. — I think they begin to distinguish objects
by sight, though it is difficult to demonstrate this.

It is impossible to produce the winking reflex till the
eyes are actually touched.

17 th day. — It is difficult now to say whether they
approach objects through sight or smell.

1877i day. — When I sneezed close to their box to-day,
they all huddled together, in a startled way, in a corner
of their nest, in a manner very characteristic of older
rabbits when alarmed.

By the manner in which they leave and enter their
nests, I conclude that they retain the memory of the
relations of objects, apart from visual and olfactory
sensations.

The mother is now weaning her offspring.

One is seen circling around in the box, as if attempt-
ing to find the mother by feeling, making it doubtful if
distinct vision is even yet possible to them.

To-day they eat clover.

20 th day. — They not ouly eat green food, but gnaw
at a crust of stale bread.

They jump about in the box, as it playing.

They seem to follow by smell a green stalk I hold in
my hand.

One is so startled by my sneezing that it jumped off
the top of a barrel on which I had placed it.

The ears are now relatively longer and thinner, and
are better held.

21 st day. — They detect objects (food) by smell at an
increased distance.

They are leaping about a good deal, apparently from
excess of vitality.

22 nd day. — They follow my finger as I move it, so that
I think there is now no doubt that this is done by sight.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 239

They eat stale bread quite well.

24 tli day. — The young rabbits are removed to a large
cage. They now show fear when a sudden motion is
made, showing that they see well — at some little distance
at least — and I am under the impression that this was
the case two or three days ago.

They now lope mostly like older rabbits, i.e. they use
the two hind legs together — a sort of leaping.

2 6th day. — They appear now to see objects at a
distance of 3 or 4 feet, if not more.

28 th day. — They move on the waving of a hat at a
distance of 8 feet.

29 th day. — Being cool to-day, they are quieter, and
huddle together.

3 (BA day. — They seem now to be practically mature,
from a psychic standpoint.

Diary of Himalayan Rabbits.

I now give some extracts from notes on a litter of
pure-bred rabbits, which may, in some directions,
supplement the facts recorded above, and in others
furnish grounds for comparisons and contrasts.

2nd day. — A breath of air causes reflex movements.

One of the litter is seen to use its hind-leg to scratch
itself.

3 rd day. — They are seen to use the hind-legs to
scratch the body, and the fore-legs to wipe the face.

4 th day. — Already they show jerkiness in movement
under the slightest stimulation.

Qth day. — Any attempt at voluntary movement, if
such it may be called, is very jerky.

When put on a barrel top, one of the rabbits turns
round, but does not crawl off.

8 th day. — Placed one on the barrel top again. When
the hand is held near, it will move towards it, attracted
by the heat probably — possibly by smell.

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

10 th day. — Eyes not yet open.

Green food held within 2 or 3 inches is sniffed
at.

Hair has now grown on the body to the length of a
quarter of an inch.

12^/i day. — Eyes of some of the litter now open, but
not of all.

The slightest touch with a leaf of green food causes
them to leap in the nest.

They now move the cars and start when I produce a
moderately loud noise with a dog-whistle. The ears
are moved to the extent of one-quarter to one-half inch.

14</i day. — They now move readily from the nest,
which, as in the former case, is situated in one corner,
and elevated a few inches, to some other part of the
box and back.

Suspect feeble vision, but cannot demonstrate it.

They begin to nibble green food.

15 tli day. — Their mode of progression is more like that
of the mature rabbit, i.e. loping rather than walking, in
the ordinary sense of the word.

17 th day. — They are seen not only to lick and scratch,
but to bite.

18 th day. — Begin to poke into corners now when
placed on the floor.

19 th day. — There is no doubt that they now see.

20 th day. — One now begins to show the dark markings
on tail, ears, and nose, characteristic of the breed.

They now scratch hard at the wood of their box at
times.

21st day. — They eat oats.

25 th day. — A fair pad of hair has developed on the
foot.

They are now put down with the members of the
other litter, twenty-two days older, and act very much
as they do.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OE YOUNG ANIMALS 241

2 8th day. — Their hair has grown about as long as
that of their parents.

The Cavy, or Guinea-Pig.

The following notes were made on a litter of common
cavies, and will serve to mark the contrast between this
rodent and the rabbit in the rate of development, etc.

Diary.

The cavies were born between 2 p.m. and 5.30 P.M. in
July, and were tested at 9 A.M. — say, after about seven-
teen hours.

Not only are the eyes open , but they see well, and
when the finger is moved before the eyes the winking
refieo: follows.

Some of them are placed on my study table, and run
so fast they almost get off the table before being caught.

The ears are well opened up, and when I whistle
moderately they again run almost off the table.

I find it more difficult to demonstrate whether they
smell or not than in the case of the rabbit.

When volatile, pungent liquids, like blistering fluids,
are placed near, the eyes seem to close, and the same
happens with aloes.

Like rabbits, they are born with teeth (in front), and
this makes it not very easy to get things into the mouth
to test taste.

I am quite unable to decide whether they taste or not.

They are tested again at 11 a.m. the same day.

Pungent, volatile liquids, such as used with the
rabbit, and aloes do not seem to affect them so much as
the rabbits, e.g. no sneezing is produced.

When a feather, dipped in a solution of sugar, is
placed in the mouth it is sucked, but they turn away
from similar treatment with aloes.

Q

242 ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

A couple of them are put iuto a box 18 by 18 inches,
in which there is some salt, some brown sugar, some
“ peppermint rock ” candy, and some camphor.

They licked at the salt once but did not repeat this,
but went again and again to the sugar or remained by
it. They did not remain near the other substances.
They were not kept long in this box.

A leaf of lettuce was just after placed before them.
They seemed to like to be near it, and very soon
began to nibble at it.

They wipe the face with the paws much like a
mature cavy.

Of the three constituting the litter one was from the
first much larger.

The larger one was observed to get from its nest to
the box, a distance of 2 inches, when not more than
three and a half hours old.

2nd day. — At 1.30 p.m. one of the cavies was put
into the box occupied by a rabbit. It did not approach
or attempt to suck it. I am satisfied it recognised the
creature as “ strange.”

It eats sugar from my finger, and follows the finger
by sight I think.

The eye must be almost touched before the winking
inflex is produced.

3rd day. — Nibbling at green food.

4th day. — Eating green food.

'Itli day. — Eating food, oats, and stale bread, and they
seem, in most respects, to act like old cavies.

8th day. — One is taken to my laboratory for the pur-
pose of brain study. On the way it sgueaks a good deal.

They eat well, but follow up the mother at times
to suck.

10 th day. — They now eat as fast and well as
mature animals, and in nearly all essential respects
resemble them.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 243

There seemed to be little more to record though they
were kept to maturity. Other litters were also studied
with the same result.

Remarks on the Diary of the Rabbit.

By a comparison of the records for the common and
the pure-bred rabbits, it might appear that the latter
were, in some respects, in advance of the former, but
this is apparent rather than real, I think, as in the
common rabbit observations were probably not made
quite early enough in some instances.

The marked development of tactile sensibility at so
early an age in the rabbit is very noteworthy. The
creature also responds unusually well, as compared with
other animals, as the dog and cat, to pain-proclucing
stimuli.

While there is the same uncertainty as to taste and
smell at birth, and for a day or two, upon the whole, the
evidence is in favour of the rabbit being in advance
somewhat of the dog and the cat in these respects.

The total absence of voice in the young is in harmony
with the sparing production of sounds by the adult.

The movements of the ears, while more marked, are
more akin to those of the dog than of the cat.

Movements are developed sooner in the rabbit, and
more rapidly become of the kind characteristic of the
animal group than in the dog or cat.

The very early date (2nd day) on which scratching
was observed, illustrates the rapidity with which co-
ordinated movements reach a considerable degree of
complexity.

The very early date at which jerky movements are
manifest, and which are later represented by that rapid
scurrying toward a burrow, etc., is noteworthy. Few
animals equal the rabbit in this, and the early develop-
ment of these movements affords another instance of

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

what seems to be a general law : that those capabilities
which are most important in the life of the creature
appear early — at all events, as regards qualities essential
to the maintenance of existence.

It will be observed that by the 7th day taste and
smell are well developed, and the movements of the
fore-limbs, as in brushing the mouth, excellently co-
ordinated.

Hearing and vision do not seem to be developed much
sooner than in the cat or dog, but hearing especially, as
in these creatures, reaches perfection rapidly.

In spontaneous attempts at eating, the rabbit is very
much in advance of the dog and cat.

There are very decided physical changes accompany-
ing the psychic ones, many of which have been noted
in the diary.

Remarks on the Diary of the Cavy ( Guinea-Pig ) — The
Rabbit and the Cavy Compared.

The cavy shows so clearly, soon after birth, that it
sees, hears, smells, tastes, etc., that it would be hazard-
ous to assert that these functions do not exist at birth.

However, I think very close observation convinces
one that they all require appropriate stimuli to develop
them — that is to say, a cavy does not see, smell, or taste
as well during the first hour of its life as it does a few
hours later, and marked as is the progress, there is a real
development, though the steps towards perfection are
rapidly taken.

The contrast with the rabbit — not to mention the dog
and the cat — in the condition at birth, and the extreme
rapidity with which perfection in all respects is attained,
is striking in the highest degree.

During the first five or six days of life the rabbit
and the cavy are wide apart, though they both belong
to the same great animal group.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 245

After a month the psychic differences are slight, and
at maturity they are physically much alike, though the
rabbit is probably somewhat higher in the scale.

In the one case the development of body, correlated
with a certain psychic status and some peculiarities,
takes place in utero, in the other case after birth, and
that this contrast should be manifest among creatures
in many respects so closely allied, both physically and
psychically, is especially instructive.

Some excellent observations on the cavy will be
found in Prof. Preyer’s “ The Mind of the Child.”

General Conclusions.

The investigations on the rabbit and the cavy
illustrate sharp contrasts at birth, and for some time
after, in animals that, in mature life, have much in
common, both physically and psychically.

The cavy, soon after birth, is able to care for itself,
and can maintain an independent existence.

The rabbit at birth is blind, deaf, incapable of any
considerable locomotive power, and is, generally speak-
ing, in a perfectly helpless condition.

But this creature attains to a condition of comparative
maturity, physical and psychic, within a month, so that
it is then quite capable of caring, in all respects, for
itself. All its instincts, except the sexual, are in full
development about this time or soon after.

In both the rabbit and the cavy, so simple is their
psychic life, that there is little to note by way of
advance after they are a few weeks old.*

* .Th® following account, by Mr T. Mann Jones, shows that under
special circumstances the rabbit may show not a little intelligence and
“character”: “ In consequence of the difference I noted in ability
and character as between young and old rats, when I was a boy, in
1862, I procured eight young rabbits, so soon as they could really do
without the mother. Within a couple of months I saw that the

246

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

After the first month of existence comparison with
the dog, cat, and allied creatures ceases to he suggestive.
The rodents are left quite behind. They seem capable
of little education either by man or by nature. In
other words, they get little from experience beyond
that which strengthens their instincts and emphasises
their simple psychic life.

During this rapid psychic development, physical
changes of an equally rapid and decided character take
place, and are undoubtedly correlated with the psychic
changes.

VI. — The Pigeon — The Domestic Fowl.

The Pigeon.

So far as I am aware, no investigations on birds of
the kind set forth in this paper have been made, except
in the case of the domestic fowl and the pheasant. As
my observations on the pigeon are the most complete,
they will be recorded first.

I have bred a large variety of pure-bred pigeons for
many years, and have kept notes on a considerable
number of subjects relating thereto, but the following
are the most complete consecutive records bearing on
the psychic development of pigeons that I have made,
and are accompanied with a fairly complete account of
contemporaneous physical changes ; and I trust that
so long an acquaintance with pigeons may be some
guarantee of correct observation and interpretation.

majority showed distinct ‘character.’ I selected the two in which
this was most marked. One associated himself with my cats and
fowl, and protected the young chicks by driving away strange cats.
The other associated with the family and children, and its actions to
me were those of a very attached dog. It appeared to take an interest
in everything I did, sat beside me when I was analysing, and moved
among my apparatus with the caution so often noticeable in the cat.”

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 247

My pigeons have been kept in a large, airy, clean loft,
have been well fed, and provided with plenty of good
water — a most important matter in the case of pigeons.

They have been at liberty to fly out of the loft freely
almost every day. As a matter of fact, the state of
health in the entire loft has been good.

All of these things are, of course, of importance in
interpreting the records that follow.

It seemed to me highly desirable that not only
different breeds, but different individuals should be the
subject of observation.

I would remind those not familiar with the habits of
pigeons that the male and female, unlike domestic
animals, pair up mostly for life if not interfered with,
so that, speaking generally, a number of pairs may be
kept in the same compartment of a loft without
crossing, whether they be of the same or of different
varieties, when once they are thoroughly mated.

The male and female sit on the eggs in turn, and
both take upon them the work of feeding, which
consists of disgorging into the mouth of the young
water they have swallowed and partially digested or
softened food from their own crops.

During the first few days after the hatching of the
young, the parents supply a secretion from their own
crops, known popularly as “ pigeon’s milk,” and which
chemical analysis has shown lately to be a term not
wholly inappropriate.

Diary of the Pigeon.

Owl Pigeon. — Hatched out by its own parents, that
also fed and reared it.

When born, the eyes seem to be closed.

2nd day. — On touching the back of the young one, it
moves its head and opens its eyes.

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

3rd day. — It does not wink when its eyes are touched,
and it is doubtful if it sees.

On touching the bird it moves more than it did
yesterday, and now and then it opens its mouth a
little.

On removing this If inch from its mate nestling, it
shifts back again, guided chiefly by the warmth from
its fellow, I take it.

It is placed on a perch about 1^ inch wide. It does
not fall off, but clings to it. When my hand is held
within 1 inch, and below it, the bird puts down its
beak, touches my hand, and scrambles down into it.

Every time I use the dog-whistle the bird moves its
head, which is a proof of hearing, for care is taken to
exclude the contact of the blast of air from the whistle.

4 th day. — It will, when placed on the perch, as
before, put its head down a great distance, but does
not move from its secure position; but it does creep
off into my hand under the same circumstances as
yesterday.

5 th day. — It spreads out its wings when disturbed in
any way, or when in danger of falling off' the roost.

There is no evidence that the bird can distinguish
objects by the eyes.

The winking reflex seems to be wholly wanting.

A solution of quinine and one of sugar are used to
test taste, but with no clear results. When blown on,
etc., it utters the sounds peculiar to young pigeons.

6th day. — The bird can see at a distance of 1 foot
to-day, as evidenced by its movements when the hand
is passed before it.

Holds its eyes open a good part of the time now.

Under the application to the tongue of solutions of
sugar and of salt, there is some shaking of the head,
which is possibly evidence of taste.

7th day.— Clear evidence of vision at 2 feet.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 249

If the bird is placed anywhere out of its nest, it
moves about in a restless way.

8th day. — Evidence of vision at 4 feet.

9th day. — Can now see objects distant 6 feet.

When the sides of the beak are touched, movements
follow, as if preparing to receive food.

10 th day. — Objects now seem to be visible to the bird
at any part of its own compartment of the loft, i.e. at
9 to 10 feet.

To-day, for the first time, is witnessed undoubted
defensive snapping, or pecking with the beak, when the
hand is brought near it, whether in its nest or on the
floor of the loft.

Feathers are now grown out far enough to enable one
to judge of their colour.

11 th day. — Growth of feathers and general growth
now considerable.

The bird can now walk fairly well.

12^ day. — An improvement in walking and feather-
ing noticeable since yesterday.

13 th day. — When placed on the floor of the loft,
within a few inches of the nest, it attempts to return
to the nest through some slats that fenced it in. The
nest is on the loft floor, and is covered with sawdust
only now, though at first there was also a little straw.

15 th day. — The bird can now get back to its nest
when 2 feet away, and also succeeds in pushing between
the slats.

1 6th day. — The parents have somewhat neglected the
feeding of their offspring to-day, as they are preparing
to sit again.

VI th day. — Better fed to-day. When either parent
enters the little compartment in which the nest is, the
young one scrambles over a brick that surrounds the
nest to solicit food.

19 th day. — The bird is now well-feathered.

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

When placed on the perch, it clings more firmly than
before, and in a different fashion — in fact, more like a
mature pigeon.

27 th day. — The bird is practically completely
feathered.

34 tli day. — This owl-pigeon is leading a compara-
tively independent existence, and is out of its nest most
of the time, and flying about the loft, though occa-
sionally fed by the parents, which are sitting on
another nest of eggs (two).

Dragoon-Pigeon hatched out and fed by its Parents.

This one will be named B, to distinguish it from
another, C.

ls£ day. — Eyes unopened. The loudest whistle pro-
duces no effect. The bird is evidently deaf.

Blowing on it causes the bird to move. Putting its
beak to one’s mouth, it opens the former.

When placed on an elevated surface it does not weep
or fall off, though it moves its beak about, up, down,
etc.

2nd day. — Eesponds to the dog-whistle to-day.

Eyes open, but usually kept closed.

3rd day. — Eyes more completely open, but lids are
usually held closed.

5 th day. — Keeps its eyes open most of the time.

It can now hold up its head pretty well, which is an
impossibility in all pigeons just after birth.

6 th day. — The eyes are kept open nearly all the
time, and the head held better — in fact, well.

7 th day. — Progressing, but as yet does not peck with
the beak at the approach of an intruder.

9 th day. — Does snap with the beak to-day, but does
not peck.

1( )th day. — Pecks to-day.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OE YOUNG ANIMALS 251

1HA day. — Feathers shooting from the skin, hut
it is difficult to determine the exact colour yet.

12 th day. — A great advance in growth and feathering
in twenty-four hours.

When one approaches, it pecks hard, and uses its
wings offensively also.

12>th day. — Colour of the bird, though one not
naturally easily made out, is now clear.

14 th day. — When taken from the small compartment
in which its nest is, it walks back promptly and
well.

15 th day. — The wings are well covered with feathers.

18 th day. — The bird does not peck when approached,
but shrinks.

When its wings are drawn out it pulls them in again
(as did the owl-pigeon on the 22ncl day).

2 Oth day. — Shrinks to-day, but when it gets back
into a corner of its nest it then pecks vigorously.

24 th day. — Behaviour similar to that of 20th and
following days.

28 th day. — Out of the nest, looking after itself to a
large extent, and beginning to fly.

3Mh day. — The iris is turning red. Hitherto it has
been of a dull, ill-defined colour.

Another Dragoon-Pigeon , C, of different Parentage.

Though the diary was kept in the same way as the
previous one, only such parts of it will be given here as
serve to bring out something new or to mark individual
differences.

1st day. — I could get no definite reaction to tests for
taste or smell.

Eyes held closed, but can be opened.

4 th day. — Holds its head somewhat differently

from B.

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

When touched turns reflexly towards the source of
the stimulus.

11th day. — B has, in twenty-four hours, been the
subject of a phenomenal growth and advance in physical
development generally, so that it now seems days in
advance of C.

1 6th day. — Very pugnacious when approached.

2 Oth day. — Strikes vigorously with beak and wings.
It desists when placed in the hand, but is as bad as
ever when put down again.

22nd day. — When striking at me it got sawdust into
its mouth. This was promptly ejected, however.

28 th day. — Out of the nest and flying about as the
other one.

Short-Faced Tumblers, D and E.

Unless otherwise stated the notes refer to D.

1st day. — The eyes are fairly open.

The opening of the ear is very small.

2nd day. — E can sit up fairly when it does not
attempt to move, but if it does it sprawls about badly.
The head seems too heavy, and its neck too long,
but it is a vigorous specimen of this somewhat delicate
variety.

3rd day. — When the wing is pricked the head is
dipped downward and forward somewhat forcibly, but
not towards the side stimulated.

6th day. — The head and neck are well supported.

The eyes are still held open only part of the time.
The parents sit over the birds at eventide, though very
hot in the loft.

7 th day. — The eyes held open almost all the time.
Does not winlc even when the eyes are touched.

10 th day. — Much growth and general advancement
evident.

13 th day. — The bird pecks when I put my hand near

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OE YOUNG ANIMALS 253

it. The growth of feathers is just now slight, but that
of the body rapid.

14 th day — Still more inclined to peck, etc. Can see
growth in twenty-four hours.

1 5th day. — Pecks vigorously. I placed it on one
hand, and on extending the other towards it the bird
no longer pecks, but uses voice, beak, etc., as when its
parents approach to feed it.

16 th day. — After being on my hand it is placed back
in the nest, and then behaves as noted above on the
15th day.

11th day. — It is now growing rapidly, and feathering
fast, so that the colour can be made out. Though
quite pugnacious before, when taken in the hand it
grows quiet.

19 th day. — The bird is now about one-third feathered.
When approached it uses beak and wings as before,
but a touch seems to quiet it.

20 th day. — The most pugnacious it has yet been.

22 nd day. — Still more pugnacious.

24^A day. — Can notice a distinct advance in growth
and feathering since yesterday.

2Qth day. — Does not peck, etc., to-day.

21th day. — Pecking again.

29 th day. — It is to-day standing on a brick that is
beside the nest, and still pecks.

2>4ih day. — It has begun its independent existence
to-day, and is flying in the loft, picking up grain,
drinking water, etc.

Its iris has begun to take on the final characteristic
“ pearl ” colour.

Remarks on the Diaries of the Pigeons.

I have intentionally made records on different
varieties of pigeons, in order that it may appear to

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

what extent they resemble and differ in their psychic
and physical development.

The resemblances are more readily apparent from
the perusal of records than the differences, as many
of the latter are of a kind readily enough recognised
by an experienced observer, but not easily repre-
sented by verbal descriptions.

Special pains were taken to ascertain whether the
sense of support, as I have called the quality, is present
in birds as in mammals.

From the records it will be seen that it is well
marked.

The young bird, placed on a perch, feels about, as
it were, with its beak for some solid object, and not
finding it, remains where it is, but if it touches anything
resisting, it begins to move towards it.

The lower an animal in the scale, the more difficult
it seems to be to establish the presence or absence
of taste and smell at an early period, if I may judge
from those of our domestic animals examined by me.

I am unable to speak with certainty as to whether
pigeons within the first two or three days possess
these senses or not, but that later they do, I have
abundant evidence.

Tactile sensibility, and the ability to feel pain, are
present just after hatching, as my records show that
even a breath of air gently blown on the young
pigeon causes it to move.

Additional evidence is furnished by the fact that a
gentle stroking tends to quiet the bird.

They are highly sensitive to warmth and cold. One
can quiet the most disturbed and pugnacious young
one by gently holding the warm hand, a warm cloth,
etc., over it.

A single cold day is liable to kill young pigeons if
their parents do not sit over them constantly, and some-

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 255

times even when they do. The essential vital processes
of the body seem to be deranged by cold.

The eyes, though shut for the 1st day, or a greater
part of it, can be opened forcibly. Nevertheless, the
slit between the lids is at first very small. There
is no doubt, in my mind, that pigeons are blind at birth.

The records show that they can soon see, and so early
as the 6th day can distinguish objects at the distance
of 1 foot.

The diaries give facts which will enable one to note
the rate at which progress in this direction takes place.
By about the 10th day the pigeon’s vision for objects
anywhere in a good-sized loft is excellent.

The practical absence of the winking reflex in young
pigeons is noteworthy. However, it is not easy to
cause mature birds to wink. Moving an object before
its head, when the bird is held in the hand, causes
movement of the head rather than winking.

The pupillary reflex is, however, soon and well
established in birds.

There is no doubt that the newly-hatched pigeon is
deaf, but I have found that hearing may be demon-
strated on the 2nd day in some cases.

It is very rare, indeed, that pigeons manifest any
signs of hostility, etc., when caught up in the hands.

Birds sitting on the nest will sometimes, however,
peck vigorously, and the early age at which this pecking
or snapping of the beak is exhibited seems to me note-
worthy. It illustrates how purely instinctive the
matter is. It reminds me forcibly of the hissing of the
young kitten, the more so, as both are often evidences
of surprise rather than real hostility.

I have not noticed that the newly-born pigeon has
voice, but after a few days (five in one case) the bird
“ squeaks ” on the approach of the parents, and especi-
ally when being fed.

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

Later, the voice is used under such circumstances
very persistently.

At first the young pigeon can scarcely sit up in any
fashion, but in a few hours this is possible, the greatest
difficulty being the management of the head and neck,
which often fall to one side or forward.

The gradual progress in motor power and co-ordination
has been fully noted in the diaries.

By-and-by the young pigeon recognises its own nest
when near it, and when alarmed will retreat to it. This
is a matter of vision largely, though, as noted in the
case of the young rabbits, there may be some sort of
memory of distance and direction through tactile and
muscular sensibility or otherwise. The subject is
obscure and worthy of more study.

So close is the relation between psychic and physical
development, that, from the appearance of a bird, one
who has observed closely could be able to predict its
behaviour ; and this seems to me to be undoubted
evidence of some sort of correlation between the physical
and the psychic. Now and then it will happen that
from one pigeon having been hatched a few hours in
advance of the other, by its being better able to persist-
ently thrust forward its beak for food to the parents, it
fairly starves the other one, or, if not completely, to
such an extent that the difference in both physical and
psychic development is very striking. Again, owing to
innate vigour, one of the two birds in the nest may
make a sudden advance, as was noted in the dog, in
which case the same result as just referred to follows.

There are many signs of development that appear
progressively, such as changes in the shape of the skull
and beak, the method of holding the head, the relative
proportion of parts, etc. ; but, upon the whole, the rate
of feathering is a fairly good guide to progress, both
physical and psychic.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 257

Though differences between the mature forms of
varieties of pigeons, so pronounced as regards physical
form, less so psychically, but still real and always
present, are obvious to even a superficial observer, it is
interesting to note that even at an early date such
differences do appear. To illustrate : the Dragoon is a
bird of a very bold appearance, and as compared with
many varieties, is somewhat wild. It has been spoken
of as the “game bird” of the pigeon family. Such
characteristics are manifest in the young before they
are twenty days old. They peck sooner and more
vigorously in the nest. They are shyer of approach,
etc.

This cannot be explained by a more rapid develop-
ment, for several other varieties mature sooner than
they do.

Changes in the colour of the iris are as significant,
it would seem, as in mammals.

Some Conclusions.

Pigeons, when hatched, and for the first day or two,
keep their eyes mostly closed, though the eyelids are
not actually united at birth.

They are both blind and deaf when they first emerge
from the shell, and for a certain period afterwards.

Perfection of hearing and vision are gradually but
rapidly acquired.

Taste and smell cannot be demonstrated at birth, but
can be shown to exist some days later.

From the first tactile sensibility and capability for
painful sensations exist in exquisite development.

Pigeons, even more than mammals, seem to be
sensitive to heat and cold.

R

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

The sense of support is very fully developed almost
or quite from the beginning.

Voice is present in a few days after hatching.

Motor co-ordinations peculiar to birds, and the power
of recognising their own nest, parents, etc., are gradually
but well developed.

Physical changes peculiar to this group of birds, and
with modifications for each variety, occur at fairly
definite periods, are closely related in time, and are
probably in some way bound up with psychic changes.

The Domestic Fowl.

This bird is so different in many respects from the
pigeon, that I have thought it better to keep the notes
I have taken apart.

These observations were made on pure-bred Anda-
lusian chicks, though many others have been studied.

Diary .

Chick A, hatched out some time before daylight, is
taken from the nest for the first time, and tested at
4.30 p.m.

It pecks three times in succession at a very small
speck on the table, and touches it each time. It strikes
a crumb about a £ inch in diameter two or three times,
and then swalloios it.

Soon after it pecks at a smaller crumb, and takes it
up and swallows it on the first attempt.

It also pecks accurately at a dark spot on the table.

Chick B, of about the same age (same hatch), picks
up bread-crumbs and particles of hard-boiled yolk of
egg without missing.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OP YOUNG ANIMALS 259

It also pecks at its own foot and the nail of one’s
hand.

Chick C, hatched only a little while since, seems
feeble, creeps rather than stands, and is soon tire
out.

All those tested do, without doubt, hear as well as see.

They easily follow the hand by the eyes at a distance
of 6 inches.

Can get the winking reflexes only when the eyes are
all but touched.

A dark-coloured box, a piece of cotton, and the hand
are brought near the chicks in succession. The hand
alone is followed, showing that it is the warmth that
attracts.

Solutions of salt and sugar, applied to the tongue,
produce no decisive signs of the possession of taste.

Two pigeons — the one a White Pouter, the other a
Black Owl — were brought near, to test whether the
chicks would show any instinctive fear. They mani-
fested none whatever; on the contrary, they would
nestle under them.

The birds are tested again about twenty-two hours
later.

Previous to the first testing, they had not been from
under the hen, and since then they have been under
her and nowhere else.

The three chicks now peck well at all that is put
before them, as oatmeal grains, canary seed, etc. They
peck readily, and touch the objects successfully. The
hardest objects are not always taken up at once, how-
ever.

Some scales of dried lime-wash from the wall are
placed before the chicks. In one case a chick pecks at
a scale several times, then gets it into the mouth, but
only to eject it.

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

In another case it is not distinctly taken into the
mouth and expelled, but is simply picked up and at
once dropped.

Water is presented to the chicks. They peck at
some drops on the side of the tin containing the water.

They accidentally get the beak into the water, when
drinking follows.

They do not spontaneously put in the beak and drink,
either before this accidental result or after, and in this
matter they all three behave alike.

They are seen to scratch the head with a foot.

At this age another lot of six, which are with a
different mother, do drink on invitation (clucking) of
the mother.

They also eat rather better on her invitation than
without it.

They run to the mother from a distance of 4 feet.

Five hours later. — The mother hen drinks, whereupon
two of the chicks run rapidly from a distance of 6
inches and drinlc.

One of them wipes its beak on the ground.

The hen is later in a box, and cannot be seen by the
chicks, yet they move towards her, i.e. in the direction
of the sound she makes.

3rd day, 2 p.m. — They have been fed a couple of times
before to-day.

They are now given very small pieces of meat, with
which they run off, peck it against the ground, and make
off from each other, as does a mature hen. One even
escapes through wire-netting into the next “ run.” They
are now out of doors in suitable “ runs.”

One is seen to swallow a piece too large with no more
difficulty than a mature bird apparently.

One of the chicks begins to eat lettuce, on which the
mother hen is feeding.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 261

A pigeon (the same one used before) is thrown into
the run where the hen and chicks are. It flies about a
little, and then alights. The chicks did not show the
least fear, etc., though the hen attacks the pigeon,
uttering a faint sound (danger signal) peculiar to fowls
when a bird, as a hawk, flies over them.

9th day. — Feathers shooting out well. Differences in
colour very marked.

14 th day. — Tried the Black Owl pigeon, as before.
No special manifestations on the part of the chicks, nor
were there any when the other of the two pigeons before
tried was suddenly thrown into the run and fluttered
about.

Remarks on the Diary of the Chicks.

Previous to writing the notes on the chicks that were
the subject of the present paper, I had observed fowls,
young and old, from boyhood.

The brilliant and suggestive observations and experi-
ments of Mr Douglas Spalding had fallen under my
eye, and the criticism of his work by so good an
observer as Prof. Preyer, determined me to make
some special independent observations.

I had the impression that Spalding’s statements
{Macmillan's Magazine, February 1873, referred to
also in Komanes’ “ Mental Evolution ”) were somewhat
overdone.

My own observations confirm that suspicion, and
justify Preyer’s criticisms (“ The Mind of the Child ”),
so that I am of opinion that Spalding’s statements
require revision, though reliable in the main.

Different chicks behave in a way sufficiently unlike
to warrant differences of opinion in detail, and one

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

should be on his guard against statements of a too
sweeping character. My own observations, etc., on the
chick, agree pretty well with those of Prof. Lloyd
Morgan on young pheasants (“Nature” vol. xl., p. 575).*

It will be seen from my records that even in the
same clutch of chickens there are marked individual
differences. Thus one may strike a crumb accurately
every time it pecks, and pick it up on the first attempt ;
another misses, or shows great difficulty in getting it
into the mouth.

But few remarks are called for in the diary, in view
of what has already been published on the chick by
others.

I call special attention to the failure of the chicks to
oe frightened at any time within my records (fourteen
days) by the pigeons placed amongst them, in a way
that one would have supposed might have called forth
any instinctive dread of a rather large flying bird.

My own impression is that chicks do not, in all cases,
show fear when the shadow of a bird, as a hawk, passes
over them. In other words, instinct is not the hard
and fast thing it is sometimes supposed to be.

The sense of support, not referred to by other
observers, is well marked.

The chick is very sensitive to cold, though I think
less so than the pigeon, except in, perhaps, the case of
the most delicate varieties, as pure-bred bantams.

Some Conclusions on the Chicle. The Chick and the
Pigeon, etc., Compared.

The chick, when it emerges from the shell, or very
soon afterwards — certainly within a few hours — can see,

* See also this author’s “ Habit and Instinct,”

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 263

hear, taste, pick up and swallow food, drink, run about,
etc.

Its progress is so rapid that in a few days it can lead
an independent existence, provided it be protected
against cold, wet, etc.

The chick stands to the pigeon in physical and
psychic development, in somewhat the same relation as
the rabbit to the cavy or guinea-pig.

In all these cases, when full maturity is reached, the
psychic difference is not great. The rabbit and the
cavy are about on the same mental plane, and so are
the pigeon and the fowl.

They all illustrate general laws of development, and
the study of these creatures, somewhat low in the
vertebrate and psychic scale, seems to me to throw
much light on the problems of psychology, viewed not
as human psychology alone, but in the broadest possible
sense.

THE FUNCTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE
CEREBRAL CORTEX IN DIFFERENT
GROUPS OF ANIMALS.

In connection with my investigations on the psychic
development of young animals,* it seemed important,
in regard to the question of physical correlation, to
ascertain, in so far as that is possible by experimental
methods, at what period the cortex of the brain becomes
functionally active. Nothing, to my knowledge, has
been done of late years on this subject. I determined,
therefore, to give it as complete an investigation as
possible. Realising that breadth of investigation was
important, as well as thoroughness, the experiments
have not been confined to one or two groups of animals,
but -cover several. This, together with the desire to
report only what was thoroughly well determined, has
extended these investigations over a long period and
involved much labour.

Only those individual animals have been used the
exact age of which was known, and, as a matter of
fact, most of them were born . and kept under my own
observation, so that their exact age and, in many cases,
their breeding, etc., were known. It is scarcely neces-
sary to state that the experiments were rendered
painless.

* The author has thought it well to introduce here just so much of
this paper as will make the following one somewhat clearer. Both
appeared in the first instance in the Transactions of the Royal
Society of Canada, in 1896.

2G1

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 265

General Conclusions.

In the dog, cat, rabbit (and in so far as the writer’s
experiments go, in the rat and the mouse) neither the
brain cortex nor the underlying white matter is ex-
citable by electrical stimulation at birth or for some
days afterwards.

The cortex is usually not excitable till about the period
when the eyes open, though there are exceptions to
this rule, most frequent in the writer’s experience in
the cat, in favour of an earlier date.

The white matter of the brain, just beneath the
cortex, is generally excitable, either at an earlier date
than the cortex, or with a weaker stimulus.

The reaction for the limb movements is obtainable
invariably somewhat earlier in the dog and the cat,
and generally so in the rabbit, than those for the
neck, face, etc.

Localisation for the cortex, and still more for the
white matter, is at first ill-defined, but gradually,
though rapidly, becomes more definite.

In the cavy (guinea-pig) the cortex and the white
matter beneath are electrically excitable either at birth
or a few hours afterwards, and perfection of reaction
and localisation is reached in a few days.

Before the brain cortex responds to electrical ex-
citation, ablation of the motor area (centres) leads to no
appreciable interference with movements.

The younger the animal, the stronger the current
required to produce reaction up to the time that localisa-
tion is well established, i.e. the weakness of the current
required to cause a movement is an indication of the
degree of development of the centre in question.

Differences for breeds and individuals exist and

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

constitute, to some extent, exceptions to the above
general statements.

In the above, “ cortex ” refers to the grey matter in
or near the motor area, and “white matter” to the
brain substance immediately beneath.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG
ANIMALS AND ITS PHYSICAL (SO-
MATIC) CORRELATION, WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO THE BRAIN.

It seemed to me important that psychic and somatic
development should be traced contemporaneously, so
closely are they related, and in the preceding papers
an attempt was made to realise, to some extent, this
ideal, but as my researches on the brain were not
completed till after the publication of these investiga-
tions, I thought it better not to attempt to utilise them
at the time. The investigation bearing on the functional
development of the cerebral cortex, with special regard
to the motor centres, extends to all the groups of
animals falling under my studies in psychic develop-
ment, and is presented in the present volume of the
Transactions, so that it is now possible to deal with the
most important part of the somatic correlation, viz.
with the brain. Naturally, I shall draw chiefly from
the latter paper, and from those on psychic development
for the facts, etc., on which reliance will be placed in
attempting further progress, in regard to a more com-
plete correlation of the somatic with the psychic.

No attempt will be made in this paper to discuss
somatic correlation in general, as that subject has been
treated in the previous papers.'

It would be quite correct to speak of the relations as
anatomical and physiological correlation, but as move-
ments are so bound up with the psychic developments of

267

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

animals, I think it will be more instructive to consider
the subject from this point of view, and in doing so, the
psychic will be first taken into account.

I. — The Dog.

As soon as a puppy is born, it is capable of cries,
crawling, and sucking, and if we except those concerned
with the vital or vegetative functions, these about cover
all its possible movements. Up to the period when
the eyes open there are no new movements. Every one
of these can be produced experimentally as reflexes,
and the question is : Are they naturally of this char-
acter ? They improve from day to day, but that is a
feature of all reflexes, even the best organised (as
swallowing), though it has hardly been adequately
recognised.

As pointed out in my paper on the functional
development of the cerebral cortex, the latter is
absolutely inexcitable at birth, and for a good many
days after — indeed, not till about the period of the
opening of the eyes — and as I find the white matter
also inexcitable at birth, there seems to be no other
view possible of these movements than that they are
reflex, and that when the brain is called into action,
parts lower than the cortex, or even the underlying
medulla, in the youngest puppies, must function.

Nevertheless, the animal at this period is progressing,
for the improvement of these reflexes implies the more
perfect organisation of a neuro-muscular mechanism,
which is probably availed of later in all voluntary
movements.

In adult life our own movements are often carried
out with a perfection in proportion to the degree in

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 269

which they are reflex, or according to the facility with
which higher centres rise lower ones, and thus economise
psychic energy.

But even so early as the 12th to the 15th day
new movements are possible. The eyes have opened,
the ears also, and both eyes and ears move, rather
reflexly at first beyond doubt, but very soon the puppy
moves both eyes and ears voluntarily at times, and
still later he fixes the eyes, which is clearly a voluntary
act.

It is obvious that there is now an approach to walk-
ing (instead of crawling). There are tail movements
by the 17th day, and the scratching reflex is excitable.
The tail movements are, at this period, almost certainly
reflex. Voluntary movements of the tail do not seem
to be possible till a good deal later, which corresponds
with the well-established fact that the cortical centre
for tail movements is not developed till comparatively
late.

The barking of the 19th day was probably a reflex,
much simpler than such as results later. At this stage,
puppies often bark in their sleep, not a common occur-
rence with mature dogs, though it does take place in
dreaming. By the 23rd day, the puppies stand with
the paws on the edges of the boards constituting the
walls of their pen. This act may be reflex at times,
possibly, but on other occasions it is clearly voluntary,
and, as they try to get out, we are left in no doubt that
they are capable of willed movements, so that by this
time, and probably before, there are undoubted volun-
tary movements. Corresponding with this advance,
I have found before the 20th day very distinct cortical
localisation for the limbs, head, and face.

Later than this, improvement in reflexes is noticeable,
but still more the rapid development of older and the

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introduction of new voluntary movements, involving
more and more complex co-ordinations, and from the
psychic aspect the manifest possession of the power to
use the machinery of the nervous system and muscles
in a way that implies the existence of a growing in-
telligence and will, and the careful observation of a
litter of puppies, as shown in my paper on the dog,
will impress both the physiologist and the psycho-
logist with the rapidly-increasing complexity of the
life of a young dog, a complexity in which reflex
and voluntary movements, instincts, intelligence,
emotions, and will blend in varying, but ever
augmenting, degrees of intricacy, with all of which
the rapidly -developing cortex is correlated, and, as
I have endeavoured to show in earlier papers, there
is a large amount of somatic correlation over and
above that of the brain, which is constant as to
period of development, but with variations for in-
dividuals and breeds.

The rapidity of psychic development of a terrier, as
compared with a St Bernard, is very striking, even
within the first six weeks of life, but persists to
maturity ; and this, I have found, is correlated with a
decidedly slower functional development of the cerebral
cortex in the St Bernard. The difference in the motor
co-ordinations in the latter and the terrier is so striking
within the first six or eight weeks of life as to be
ludicrous.

XI. The Cat. The Dog and the Cat Compared.

Nearly all that has been said of the reflexes of the
dog applies, of course, to the cat. There are, however,
as would be expected, some that are peculiar to the cat,

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 271

as hissing, which manifests itself at a surprisingly early
date in the kitten, long before the eyes open.

As pointed out in my paper on the cat, there is a
general and more speedy development in this animal,
as compared with the dog, and this holds even for
reflexes, i.e. they reach perfection more rapidly — in fact,
speaking generally, the cat develops faster than even
the smaller varieties of dogs, as terriers.

By the 16th day the kitten, specially observed by
me, licked its paw. This, under the circumstances, can
scarcely be regarded as a pure reflex ; certainly, dogs
do nothing comparable to this at so early a date. It
also scratched its head with the hind leg on the 16th
day. Whether this be regarded as voluntary or reflex,
it indicates that the cat is in advance of the dog.

Nothing could better demonstrate the more rapid
psychic development of the cat than the earlier date
at which it steadily follows a moving object with the
eyes, or fixes them for some time on a stationary one.
In fact, the kitten does this at a time when it is still
doubtful if the puppy sees objects, as such, distinctly.

On the 18th day the kitten climbed up the side of
its box and tried to get out. Nothing comparable to
this occurs in the puppy till a good deal later. It may
be said that the history of the cat during the first six
weeks of its life contrasts strongly with that of the dog,
as regards the more rapid development of reflex move-
ments, the earlier appearance of voluntary movements,
and the speedier perfection attained by each, together
with the more ready and complete utilisation of ex-
perience, the early intelligence, the strength of the will,
and the power of attention.

All this is correlated with that earlier development
of the cerebral cortex which I have shown occurs in
the cat, and there is probably a greater difference than

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

can be made manifest by our crude methods of experi-
ment.

A very marked feature in the psychic development
of the cat is the early appearance of the play instinct,*
and the perfection of the fore-limb in carrying out the
movements necessary for its manifestations. The cat
has incomparably better use of the fore-limb at an
early date. I have recorded observations on play
(with use of the paws) as early as the 22nd day, and,
as is well known, the kitten and the older cat have a
variety and perfection of movement of the fore-limb
never acquired by the dog. This is distinctly corre-
lated with brain development, for, as I have pointed
out, movements of the fore-limb are in the cat the first
that can be induced by electrical excitation of the
cortex, and to this observation my experience leads me
to believe there are practically no exceptions, while
the case is very different for the dog. Some investi-
gators have expressed the opinion that the fore-limb is
also the first to respond in the dog, but this does not
accord entirely with my experience. It has occasion-
ally been so in the puppies on which I experimented,
but in the large majority the hind-leg responded first.
Mongrels and pure-bred animals of different varieties
were used. I do not therefore believe that the state-
ment that the fore-leg in the dog is always the first to
respond to electrical excitation, can any longer be main-
tained as a sound generalisation, but it may be, as I
have suggested. in my paper on the brain, that the
truth is, that sometimes the one and sometimes the
other limb is the first to react, and that large allowance

* The whole subject of play in animals is exhaustively treated by
Dr Karl Groos in his “Die Spiele der Thiere,” Gustav Fischer,
Jena, 1896, which has been translated into English, with additional
notes by the German author.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 273

must be made in any general statement for individual
and breed differences.

III.— The Rabbit.

Such a creature as the rabbit contrasts in the most
marked manner with the dog and the cat.

A rabbit to the last is much more a creature of
instincts and reflexes pure and simple, with relatively
but little intelligence, all of which is in harmony with
its simple modes of existence. Its food is in the wild
state usually abundant, and as its escape from enemies
is accomplished by swiftness in flight, or by taking
refuge in its burrow, there is little in its environment to
develop intelligence. With the Carnivora it is quite
otherwise. They obtain their food by cunning, stealth,
stratagem — it may be concerted action, as in the case
of wolves, hyenas, wild dogs, etc.

The ease with which reflex actions are excited on the
very first day of existence in the rabbit is striking, and
remains a very distinct peculiarity ; and on the same
day the paws were used to wipe away an offending
substance placed in the mouth. On the 3rd day
scratching of a surface was observed, an act which has
no small part in the burrowing life of rabbits. By the
15th day they eat, and from this date onwards they
progress rapidly to perfection of reflex and voluntary
action. The early and rapid development of chewing
or eating movements, soon associated with the use of
the paws to hold food, contrasts in the most decided
way with the slowness of the development of good
eating movements in the dog, and still more so in the
cat. The rabbit’s cortex is inexcitable till about the
period of the opening of the eyes, on the 9th to

S

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tlie 12th day, and the movements in which the head
and face parts are concerned can he induced by
electrical stimulation about this time. It is to be
specially noted that these movements can be produced
in the rabbit, experimentally, almost as soon as those of
the fore-limb — in fact, I question whether, in some
cases at least, they are not excitable earlier and with
greater facility, i.c. with a weaker current. With the
hind-legs the case is altogether different — in fact, my
investigations would lead me to infer that the liind-legs
are never related to the cortex in the same way as the
fore-limbs. In no case have I been able to establish
to my satisfaction the existence of a cortical centre for
the hind-legs of the same nature (to put the matter
cautiously) as those for the fore-limbs, head, face, etc.
The relation between the early, and all but simultaneous,
development of the cortical centre for the fore-limbs
and head (and face) parts, and the physiological and
psychic manifestations of the young rabbit afford one
of the most beautiful and striking illustrations of cor-
relation known to me.

IV.— The Cavy, or Guinea-Pig.

The cavy comes into the world able to take care of
itself. It can, in a few hours, if not at once, run about
quite well, eat, etc. It is at the set-out as far on in the
path of development as a rabbit some days after its
eyes are open, though in the end there is little difference
between these two rodents physically or otherwise.

Corresponding with this advanced physiological and
psychic development, the cortex is, as I have shown,
excitable at or soon after birth, so that here again there
is rendered evident by experiment a close correlation
of the kind considered throughout this paper.

THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 275

V. — Birds.

One learns how large a proportion of the possibilities,
physiological if not psychic, in the pigeon are not
dependent on the cerebral cortex, or even the entire
cerebrum, by ablation of the latter. Movements,
though not spontaneous, are nearly as perfect afterwards
as before, and much light is thrown on the nature of
reflexes.

I have, after careful investigation, been unable to
find any motor cortical centres whatever. The whole
cerebral cortex appears to be absolutely inexcitable,
except, perhaps, as concerns certain eye movements,
and as for these a strong stimulus is required, it is
doubtful if they are of cortical origin in the usual sense
of the term.

Nevertheless, unless we deny the existence of
voluntary movements to the bird — an extreme position
— we are landed in physiological difficulties, inasmuch
as it has been assumed by nearly all physiologists that
the cortex is essential to voluntary movements. The
case of the bird seems to me to show that we have
much to learn as to the nervous mechanism of
voluntary movements, notwithstanding all the in-
vestigation that has been given to this subject.

Conclusions.

In the dog and the cat there is a period, extending
from birth to about the time of the opening of the eyes,
characterised by reflex movements, the sway of instincts,
and the absence of intelligence. During this time the
cerebral cortex is inexcitable by electrical stimulation,
so that the psychic condition during the blind period is
correlated with an undeveloped state of the motor

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centres of the cortex of the cerebrum. The advance in
movements, first of the limbs, and later of the head and
face parts, together with the psychic progress associated
with this, is correlated with the rapid development of
the cortical centres for the limbs in the first instance,
and later, for the head and face in the period im-
mediately following the blind stage.

This is more rapid and more pronounced in the cat
than in the dog, and is correlated with the greater
control in the cat over the fore-limbs and with certain
physiological and psychic developments characteristic
of the cat.

Similar conclusions apply to the rabbit, except that
the difference in the rapidity of development of head
and face movements is correlated with an earlier
organisation of the corresponding cortical centres, and
that there is a greater difference between the fore-limb
and the hind-limb, with all of which there are special
psychic correlations bound up with certain peculiarities
of the rabbit’s modes of life.

The vast difference in physiological and psychic
development of the cavy at birth is correlated with the
presence of cortical cerebral centres, readily excited by
artificial stimuli, centres which in a few days reach a
practically perfect state of development.

The psychic manifestations of the pigeon and the
fowl have not the same sort of cerebral cortical
correlates as the animals referred to above.

PART IV.

DISCUSSIONS ON INSTINCT.

Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan on Instinct.

To the Editor of Science — In an account of a discus-
sion on “ Instinct,” given in Science of 14th February,
Prof. Morgan is reported thus : “ He described his own
interesting experiments with chicks and ducklings, and
held that these and other evidence tend to show that
instincts are not perfected under the guidance of
intelligence, and then inherited. A chick will peck
instinctively at food, but must be taught to drink
[Italics mine]. Chicks have learned to drink for
countless generations, but the acquired action has not
become instinctive.”

In one of a series of papers now in the Press on
“ The Psychic Development of Young Animals and its
Physical Correlation,” I have given in detail an account
of a study of the pigeon and the chick. It so happens
that this very question of drinking by chicks has been
especially noted, and I find a record of one observation
to the effect that a newly-hatched chick, pecking at the
drops on rim of a vessel containing water, accidentally
got its beak into the liquid, whereupon it at once
raised its head and drank perfectly well in the usual
fashion for fowls. Was this by teaching or by instinct ?

Later, the chicks seem to peck and drink, sometimes
on seeing the mother do so. The act seems to be, in

277

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

such a case, a sort of imitation, so far as its inception is
concerned. But will any one contend that that first
act of drinking, referred to above, was other than
instinctive ? Again, when a chick first drinks, on its
beak being put into water, can the act be considered as
the result of teaching ? Is the chick so intelligent as
to carry out an act so complex in such a perfect way, as
it does on the very first occasion, as the result of
“ teaching ” ? Surely no one will deny that sucking is
an instinctive act, yet a newly - born mammal sucks
only when its lips come in contact with the teat. Is
not the case very similar with the chick ? The only
difference is, that the chick is slower to recognise water
than food, but as soon as the beak touches water it
drinks, and there is no teaching about it. Considering
how seldom a fowl drinks, yet pecks all day long at
particles of food, it is not surprising that the chick is
slower to recognise water (drink) than food. But it is
one thing to say that a chick learns to recognise drink,
and another to affirm that it learns to drink. The pro-
cess of drinking is quite as perfect as that of eating
from the very first, if not more so, for a chick at first
often misses what it pecks at, and fails to convey the
object into its mouth in other cases, though it may
touch it.

The view that instincts are perfect from the first,
and undergo no development from experience, I believe,
after much observation, to be as erroneous as it is
ancient.

Instinct is never, perhaps, perfect at first, and, so
far as I can see, could not be owing to general im-
perfect development in the animal of motor power, the
senses, etc. A young puppy will suck anything almost
that can pass between his lips, as a chick will peck at
any light spot or object if small, be it food or not. My

DISCUSSIONS ON INSTINCT

279

own records abound in observations that amply prove
the position taken, and while my experiments and
observations on birds are in the main in accord with
those of Prof. Morgan, so far as I know them, I cannot
but believe, if I have correctly understood his views, as
reported at the New York Meeting, that he has mis-
conceived or overstated the case under consideration.

The subject of heredity is too large to enter upon
now. I may say, however, that my researches in Com-
parative Psychology, and especially in that part bearing
perhaps most closely on the question — psychogenesis,
do not incline me to believe any the more in that
biological ignis fatuus — W eismannism.

Wesley Mills.

M'Gill University, Montreal.

Peof. Moegan’s observations agree with those of
Prof. Mills and others. A chick swallows water in-
stinctively, but must be taught to drink by example
or by accident. The chick might die of thirst in the
presence of water, as the sight of the water does not
call up the movements of pecking at it, as do food and
other small objects. The mother hen replaces natural
selection, and the action, though continually practised
by the individual, has not become instinctive, because
it has not a selective value. Prof. Morgan’s argument
seems to be satisfactory. If actions which occur but
once in the lifetime of the individual ( e.g . the nuptial
flight of the queen bee) are thoroughly instinctive, and
others which are practised continually by the individual,
do not become instinctive in the race, we can scarcely
regard instincts as hereditary habits, but must rather
attribute them to variations, fortuitous or due to un-
known causes, and preserved by natural selection.

The Weitee of the Note.

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Instinct.

To the Editor of Science. — Some remarks appended
to my letter, published in Science No. xil, on the subject
of Prof. Morgan’s views on “Instinct” by “ The Writer of
the Note,” in view of the importance of the subject, are
worthy of further consideration.

Before drawing conclusions from observations on
domestic animals, it is well to consider similar facts in
connection with their wild congeners, especially if such
conclusions are of a far-reaching character, and it cannot
be too well borne in mind that our experiments are very
clumsy imitations of nature in a large proportion of cases.

If food be set down in considerable quantity before
newly-hatched chicks, and in a vessel similar to that in
which water is usually held, they will be relatively slow
to recognise and eat such food, but in a wild state the
congeners of the domestic fowl, as grouse, pheasants, etc.
do not find food or water before them in such way.
Their food is distributed, however, much more like the
particles we scatter before the chick than does their
water supply resemble that of our methods.

A young grouse would naturally get its water from
the dew on herbage, possibly from rain-water that had
gathered in little hollows of the ground, surface, etc.
And when the birds approach a stream, the surface near
is moist or wet, the particles it would naturally peck at
would be found up to and beyond the very margin of
the water, so that the contact of the beak with water in
all these cases would be inevitable, and drinking would
come about as naturally as eating.

When “The Writer of the Note” says: “A chick
swallows water instinctively, but must be taught to drink
by example or accident,” the latter term evidently having

DISCUSSIONS ON INSTINCT

281

reference to the observation specially described in my
letter, he plainly either misses the real point of my ob-
servation or neatly evades it. One might as well say
a puppy learns to smell by accident, for, in the case
in question, the chick did not swallow water merely,
but raised its head like an old fowl and dranh perfectly
well on the very first occasion that its beak had ever
been immersed in water (as a puppy sucks when its lips
first come in contact with a teat, etc.) ; and this I take
it is what happens in nature. The young grouse in the
forest, or even the chick on a grass plot or in a garden,
would come in contact with water without any assistance
from the mother bird.

The assumption that “ the chick might die of thirst in
the presence of water, as the sight of water does not
call up the movements of pecking at it, as do food and
other small objects,” is purely gratuitous. It is not
primarily so much the sight, but rather the touch of
water — inevitable, as I have tried to show, in a wild
state — that in the very first instance leads to drinking,
though the bird would also peck at shining dewdrops,
as my chick did at the drops on the rim of a vessel
containing water. With a fair chance, and plenty of
water about, in a condition at all resembling that in
nature, there is no such thing for a vigorous, hardy
chick as death from thirst.

That habits may be hereditary in dogs I have many
times observed in my own kennel, during the last eight
years, and, without expressing any opinion as to the
origin of instincts now, I can see no impossibility in
their dating back to habits.

A doctrine which asserts that eating is instinctive,
but that drinking is not, is, to my mind, one to marvel
at, and is a poor foundation- for theories of evolution or
heredity.

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Comparative Psychology will, I fear, continue to suffer
till those who assume to deal with it authoritatively
spend more time among animals and less in their studies.
A few observations or experiments do not give them
insight into the psychic nature of animals, and it were
well, I venture to think, if the qualifications of the
comparative psychologist, as set forth by Dr Groos, in
the preface to his admirable work, “Die Spiele der
Thiere,” were thoroughly known and believed in by all
psychologists. Wesley Mills.

M‘Gill University, Montreal.

Newly-Hatched Chickens Instinctively Drink.

To the Editor of Science. — In the issue of 6 th
March 1896, appears an excellent and accurate note by
Wesley Mills, calling attention to an error of state-
ment made by Prof. Morgan in Science (issue of 14th
February 1896).

With due deference to “ The Writer of the Note,” who
follows Mr Mills, and who says that Morgan’s argu-
ment is satisfactory — that “ a chick might die of thirst
in the presence of water ” — I desire to say that this is
not my understanding of the case. I have been, during
the last thirty-five years, a breeder of fowls as an
amateur, and I have given the hatching and rearing of
chickens close and continued attention. I have re-
peatedly placed a shallow water-dish before the bars of
the coop in which a newly -hatched brood had been placed
the day previous, taken there directly from the hatching
nest, and in which they never had food or water

DISCUSSIONS ON INSTINCT

283

offered. Repeatedly, before these small chickens, not
twenty-four hours from the shell, and before they had
been offered food, I have filled their shallow water-tray,
and observed them toddle out to it, peck at it, or at
once thrust their bills into it, to clrink at once by up-
lifting tlieir heads , as all adult fowls do, the hen never
putting her head out from the bars, or showing these
young chicks how to do what they instinctively did.
I have made the same experiments repeatedly with
food, with the same result, i.e. that chicks instinctively
drink and eat without any example being set by the
mother hen. Henry W. Elliott.

Lakewood, Ohio, 11<7i March 1896.

The Instinct of Pecking.

In discussing Prof. Morgan’s lecture on “ Instinct,” it
has several times been stated that chickens pecked
instinctively, but had to be taught to drink. There
was a note in Nature last year, concerning some species
of Asiatic pheasants — it may possibly have been the
Jungle Fowl — to the effect that the young did not
peck instinctively, and did not offer to take food
spread before them. The natives seem aware of this
peculiarity, and in the particular instance recorded, a
native induced the young birds to peck by tapping on
the ground with a pencil near the food. They seemed
attracted by the sound and movement, and were thus
induced to peck at the food. F. A. Lucas.

“ Science,” 13 th March 1896.

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Instinct.

To The Editor of Science. — Having read with con-
siderable interest the discussions under “ Instinct,” and
having noticed the different opinions expressed con-
cerning the eating and drinking of the chick, I thought
that perhaps my personal experiments in regard to the
matter might be of interest.

About eight years ago I was desirous of studying the
chick before and after hatching, and for this purpose I
placed about three hundred eggs in an incubator. I
shall confine myself to those that were allowed to hatch.

Those that hatched were divided into two groups, —
an unhealthy and a healthy group. Those in the first
group were fed and given water until they became
strong enough to care for themselves. Those in the
second group had food and water placed so that they
could get them, but they were not fed nor given water,
nor were they taught how to secure food and water.
No tapping on the dish or on the floor, and no putting
of the bill in the food or water was practised. They
were left entirely to themselves.

By watching these chicks, I noticed that they would
occasionally run over their food and water, and fre-
quently they stumbled in them. If the beak became
wet, up would go the head, and the water was swallowed.
If food adhered to the beak, some would get on the
tongue, and it would be swallowed. In time they
seemed to recognise that the food and water were
palatable by repeatedly stumbling in them and getting
them on the beak, and finally, they learned how to
secure them, i.e. how to pick them up. I noticed that
at first they did not know how to pick up, but, after
repeatedly trying, they learned how. The majority of
these chicks lived and developed.

DISCUSSIONS ON INSTINCT

285

Now, if we consider the attempt to pick up, from
observation I conclude that it was by instinct ; but if
we consider the picking-up, I conclude that it was an
acquired characteristic.

In conclusion, I might say that at the end of the
3rd day all of the chicks — about fifty — instinctively
attempted to pick up, and that at the end of the 5th
day they were able to pick up and place the food or
water so that it could be swallowed.

J. C. Hartzell, Jr.

Orangeburg, S.C., 25 th March 1896.

To The Editor oe Science. — Prof. Lucas seems to me
to have advanced this discussion on “ Instinct ” by his
reference to a letter in Nature, which appeared in vol.
lii. p. 30. According to the writer, it is customary
for the Asamese natives to “ teach ” the young Jungle
Fowls to peck.

If this be true, what then becomes of Prof. Morgan’s
distinction ?

As a matter of fact, if one observes a good many
chicks, he will find that a large proportion of the birds
never peck without suggestion (the term “ teach ” seems
objectionable) from the hen or some substitute. The
chief value of such facts grows out of their showing
that instincts are never perfect, and never of that type
once believed in — the unalterable, inevitable, and un-
varying— like the rising and setting of the sun; and
for such rigid notions the reports of some scientists
are in part responsible. It sometimes happened that
experimenters in biology, etc., omit the exceptions and
report only “ good experiments,” so that a false view of
the case must necessarily arise. Prof. Baldwin seems
to adopt Prof. Morgan’s views, for he refers to the

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observation that the chicks drank “ only after they had
the taste of water by accident, or by imitating the old
fowl.” Granted — but they also peck only after seeing
small objects under certain conditions, and there is no
instinct that does not require some stimulus in the
environment to bring it into action. The mechanism
is ready, but it is useless without this stimulus.

If one knew but of those domestic chicks, or those
jungle chicks, that peck only on seeing this act, one
might speak of a certain imperfection in the instinct
of pecking, as, if you will, in drinking; but what I
must again object to, is drawing radically different
conclusions as to the nature of eating and drinking
by chicks, and even building theories of evolution on
them.

As I understand Prof. Cope is to reply to Prof.
Baldwin’s views on “Consciousness and Evolution,”
through the medium of the American Naturalist, I
will only remark regarding his discussion in Science,
p. 438, on “ Heredity and Instinct,” that, while I find
his views very interesting, as illustrations of natural
selection, the Lamarckian principle, the influence of
environment, etc., they seem, in the main, to fall within
the range of principles already recognised by the Dar-
winians and Lamarckians, though perhaps not ade-
quately. But I fail to see that a single safe step can
be taken in explaining evolution either in biology or
psychology, if the effects of the environment and of
use be ignored ; indeed, Prof. Baldwin’s very facts and
illustrations are, to my mind, only comprehensible by
the introduction of those factors ; and why there should
be such anxiety on the part of many to get rid of
factors so obvious, and to substitute for them the bio-
logical fatalism and reasoning in a circle of Weismann,
is a puzzle to me.

DISCUSSIONS ON INSTINCT

287

I trust Prof. Baldwin will not insist on coining many
new terms, or favour their adoption, as far as evolution
is concerned. “Social heredity” is about equivalent,
is it not, to social environment, and the entire environ-
ment is one into which, as a rule, the animal is born,
so why speak of “ social heredity ” ? Technicalities
have their advantages, but they often conduce to
mental myopia, and hamper the comprehension and
progress of truth by binding it up in packages, so to
speak — packages which all cannot readily undo.

Wesley Mills.

M‘Gill University.

In Prof. Mills’ communications on “ Instinct,” he
seems to have missed the point in the case of each of
those criticised — “The Writer of the Note, ’’Prof. Morgan,
and myself. In the case of the fowl’s drinking, it is
not the mere fact that drinking and eating may differ
in the degree to which the performance is congenital ;
the reports seem to show that this varies in different
fowl, but that instincts (in this case drinking) may be
only half congenital, and may have to be supplemented
by imitation, accident, intelligence, instruction, etc., in
order to act, even when the actions are so necessary to
life that the creature would certainly die if the function
were not performed. That is the interesting point.

Then, in criticising me, Prof. Mills accuses me of
ignoring the “ effects of environment and of use.” On
the contrary, these are just the facts which I appeal to.
By adaptations to the environment and by use, the
creature manages to keep alive; other creatures die
off ; so certain determinate directions of congenital
variation are singled out and inherited. Thus phylo-
genetic variations become determinate, just through

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these ontogenetic adaptations. This takes the place
of the Lamarckian factor. Lamarckism is an “ obvious ”
resort in all cases, of course, but it seems to me so easy,
that in many cases it is shallow in the extreme.

But my view is very far from being Weismannism,
I reach determinate variations by means of new
functions or adaptions which keep certain animals
alive to propagate. It is really a new theory, as Prof.
Osborn, who has reached about the same point of view,
declares. This is also just the value which Prof.
Morgan attaches to his observations.

J. Mark Baldwin.

Princeton, 17 th April 1896.

To the Editor of Science — It seems to me that it
would be well to keep the issue with which this
discussion started in view, and then the direction in
which the truth lies will be clearer. Nothing could
be more explicit than the statement by “The Writer
of the Note” in Science of 14th February, which was
this: “A chick will peck instinctively, but must be
taught to drink. Chicks have learned to drink for
countless generations, but the acquired action has not
become instinctive.”

In other words, the view that eating is instinctive,
and drinking is not, was that taught by Prof. Morgan
and endorsed by “ The Writer of the Note ” in a sub-
sequent communication. Feeling that an important
truth was being imperilled, I advanced facts to show
that such a view was untenable. This was followed
by the recital of additional facts by others, so that it
was plain to myself — more so than ever — that such a
theory as that first advanced was not sound. I was
aware that all three of the writers supporting this view

DISCUSSIONS ON INSTINCT

289

were in accord, constituting a sort of trinity in unity ;
there was, nevertheless, a great lack of harmony which
seemed to be owing to the somewhat important defect
that their views were not endorsed by Nature.

Now, to my surprise, Prof. Baldwin claims that I
have missed the real point, which he takes to be that
an instinct may be only “half congenital,” and cites
this drinking of chicks; but, according to the above
quotation, drinking is not instinctive at all, so that it
looks as if the shoe was on the other foot.

In 1894, in a paper read before the Royal Society Canada,
on “ The Psychic Development of Young Animals,” pub-
lished in the Proceedings of the Society for 1895, and
a copy of which was forwarded to Prof. Baldwin, I
emphasised the conception that instinctive acts are
never perfect at first, or, as Prof. Baldwin would prefer
to say, are only partially congenital, though whether
such an expression as “ half congenital ” is a valuable
addition to the English language I doubt. Now, it
would be strange that I should alter my own views
without noting the change, and miss the point in a
matter which I was, I think, the first to emphasise ;
in fact, I have, in this very correspondence in Science,
urged this view — the imperfection of instincts. If
Prof. Baldwin, and those he professes to interpret, will
grant that eating and drinking in chicks are instinctive ;
that both alike are imperfect at birth ; that, congenitally,
the chick is in the same condition to all intents and
purposes as regards eating and drinking, he will, I
believe, be in accord with the facts, and we shall all
agree that the much-overlooked imperfection of instincts
is well illustrated by the subjects under discussion, but,
I should like to add, universal in its application, though
in varying degree, the imperfection being in some cases
not very obvious to our inadequate observation.

T

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But in discussing evolution I feel that we are on a
different plane. Here the appeal to facts is of a much
less decisive character.*

I have been trying, since reading Prof. Baldwin’s
letter in Science of 1st May, in reply to my own, to
ascertain his real views in regard to evolution, and
have some hesitation in deciding whether I really grasp
his meaning or not. However, a few concrete cases
may make matters plainer. A and B are, let us
suppose, two individuals that survive because they can
and do adapt to the environment ; X and Y die
because they cannot ; or, in Prof. Baldwin’s terminology,
A and B adapt to their “ social heredity ” constituting
“ organic selection,” which is ontogenetic, or affects the
individual. But the survival of individuals specially
adapted affects the race or phyllum. But surely an
individual adapts to an environment (“ social heredity ”)
because of what he is congenitally. In the language
of evolutionists, this is survival of the fittest, or natural
selection, though Prof. Baldwin seems to think he has
introduced a new factor in his “ social heredity.” The
name is new, and to my mind objectionable, as there is
no real heredity ; the idea is not.

Ordinary people express themselves by saying that
we become what we are because of “ education,” “ cir-
cumstances,” etc. We say: “The man is the product
of his age.”

People tend to believe too much in the power

* Although the bearing on evolution of the observations under
dicusssion was not the principal theme of these communications, it
may be stated that, under “Determinate Evolution,” Prof. Baldwin
has elaborated his views in their most mature form in the July
(1897) number of the Psych. Rev., in which article also, reference
is made to the opinions of others holding views similar to his own.
Prof. Morgan has discussed the subject fully in his “ Habit and
Instinct.” — W. M.

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291

of education, circumstances, etc., and too little in
heredity; hence all sorts of cures for deep-rooted
evils are ever welcome. But we find that the changes
wrought by “ social heredity ” are very much on the
surface, and, in consequence, there may be but little
outcome from these effects — possibly none in some
cases — iu heredity, as ordinarily understood, which does
not, however, contravene the Lamarckian or any
other well-recognised principle of heredity or evolu-
tion. To return to the concrete : A and B have
offspring, differing slightly from themselves ; the
“ social heredity ” has had little effect, therefore, on
the race in the case of the lower animals, much less
than in the case of man, possibly, and if the offspring
C and D be placed in widely different environments,
the slight extent to which they have varied (con-
genitally) will be all the more evident.

A Lamarckian explains these variations, such as
they may be, by the influence of the use and disuse
of parts, and evolutionists of other schools in other
ways. Prof. Baldwin misapprehends, I take it, the
sense in which I employed the term “ use ” in the
phrase in which he quotes from my last letter. The
Lamarckian sense was that intended.

I must repeat that, after reading a good deal of what
Prof. Baldwin has written on this aspect of evolution, it
still seems to me that while he has, with new terminology,
set forth old views in a new dress, that there is really
no new principle or factor involved. I do not, of course,
consider such writing without special value, though
it may sometimes be provokingly difficult to under-
stand from the new technicalities employed, for the
relative parts played by heredity and environment
in the make-up of each individual is an interesting
and practically very important problem.

292

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

If I have failed to understand Prof. Baldwin fully,
and so to appreciate his views at their full value on
the score of originality, I regret it. However, it is
likely that others are in the same case, and I venture
to suggest that the remedy for our denseness, if such
it be, is to be found in a specific and concrete treat-
ment of the subject. Wesley Mills.

M'Gill University, Montreal.

The Habit of Drinking in Young Birds*

To the Editor of Science. — In response to a request
that has just reached me, may I ask for space in your
columns to say that the statement I made with regard
to the habit of drinking in young birds was to the
following effect ? The chicks that I have observed
pick instinctively at any small objects at suitable
distance. If a small drop of water be such an object,
they will peck at that. But if a shallow tin of water
be placed in their run the stimulus of the sight of
still water does not evoke any instinctive drinking
response. If there be grains of sands or food or
other objects at the bottom of the tin, they will peck
at these, and incidentally find the water. Sometimes
they will peck at a bubble on the brim. Sometimes,

* As Prof. Morgan explained, in a communication to Science, lie
refrained from taking an active part in this discussion because he was
engaged at the time on his “ Habit and Instinct,” in which the subject
was to be fully considered. Since then that work has appeared, and
in acute, philosophical insight, clearness, and general charm of treat-
ment, is equal to anything that has yet come from this able writer’s
pen. In this work he has also, in the most generous way, acknow-
ledged the contributions of myself and others to the subject under
consideration. — W. M.

DISCUSSIONS ON INSTINCT

293

when one is thus led to drink, others will follow by
imitation. No sooner does the beak touch the water
than, in the domestic chick, ujd goes the head, and
the instinctive drinking response is shown. I have
seen ducklings waddle through the tin repeatedly and
not stop to drink, though I had reasons for believing
that they were thirsty, for when I dipped the beak
of one of them beneath the water he drank eagerly,
and continued to do so for some time. On the other
hand, a little moor-hen or water-hen, when I quickly
lowered it, at about sixteen hours old, into water, drank
so soon as its breast touched the surface. It then
swam off with instinctive definiteness of co-ordinated
leg-movements.

The statement of fact (so far as my observations go)
that I made was tins : That the sight of still water
evoked no instinctive response ; but that the touch of
water in the bill at once evoked the characteristic
instinctive behaviour. C. Lloyd Morgan.

Instinct and Education in Birds *

The discussion, first provoked by the note in Science
of 14th February, relative to the origin of instinct and
the inheritance of acquired habitual actions, and the
remark of Prof. Wesley Mills (p. 441) that “before
drawing conclusions from observations on domestic
animals, it is well to consider similar facts in connection
with their wild congeners,” have led me to make a few
experiments upon a fledgling of our common kingbird

* By Prof. H. C. Bumpus, in Science, N.S., vol. iv., No. 86, 21st
August 1896.

294

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

(Tyr annus tyrannies), captured 2nd July, as it was
taking one of its first lessons in flight.

As is well known, the kingbird is exclusively insec-
tivorous, and generally captures its prey on the wing,
though it does not refuse insects that may lurk in the
foliage, and it may occasionally descend to the ground
in pursuit of grasshoppers, whose movements have be-
trayed their whereabouts. Being thus, in its activities,
so different from the omnivorous chick, and belonging,
moreover, to the great group of Gymnopsedes, or birds
which, naked-born, are fed in the nest, we might expect
certain differences from the instincts and habits of the
precocious, downy chick. Such differences may throw
light upon the questions of Comparative Psychology,
though, as the material for purposes of generalisation is
augmented, they may prove to be variations of no direct
suggestive value.

Prom 2nd to the 11th July the bird, almost inces-
santly calling for food, was kept in the house and fed
from the hand with shreds of meat, moist bread, and a
few insects. Water was taken from the wet finger, not
as a drop from the tip, but finger and all were seized,
the subsequent motions of deglutition being the same
as though any large morsel were being engulfed. To the
present day (16th July) the bird has utterly refused to
accept the pendent drop ; nor could it be induced to
peck a drop from a leaf or from the surface of any
object whatever.

On 11th July I offered the bird a small porcelain
dish (such as is used for extract of beef) filled with
water. Though hungry, and presumably thirsty, no
effort was made towards taking the water, but the dish
was repeatedly seized with the same eager fluttering
that characterised the general reception of any proffered
article, edible or not. (It was noted that the tongue

DISCUSSIONS ON INSTINCT

295

during this act was in rapid motion.) While making
an unusually awkward lunge at the edge of the dish the
bill was accidentally thrust deep into the water, and
quickly withdrawn with an unmistakable air of surprise,
followed by an effort to cat the water held between the
mandibles. The jaws snapped, the tongue could be
seen shooting back and forth, and the head, first held
horizontally, was only slowly tipped backward, and then
not in the way of the chick, described as instinctively
perfect, but after the retching method of mouthing and
swallowing any object not readily responsive to the con-
tractions of deglutition, and which must needs have the
added assistance of the attraction of gravitation.

Though the porcelain dish was afterwards repeatedly
offered from 11th to the 16th July, and invariably
evoked notes of approval, the bird, in securing the liquid,
always bit the edge, and never once dipped the beak
beneath the surface, nor drank in the approved method
of the chick. The earlier awkward movements, however,
were greatly improved through repetition. The sub-
stance of the water seemed never to be visually observed,
and the empty dish held in the hand evoked the same
clamorous approval as when filled with water, and was
later recognised, even when accidentally met, though a
saucer which had not contained food or water evoked
no sign of interest.

On the morning of 12th July, it was noted that if
water was allowed to fall from a height, the bird became
greatly agitated, opened its mouth, and vigorously struck
at the descending drops, and several were swallowed
with evident signs of relish. Up to this time, while in
my possession, the animal had taken food only when
placed by the fingers in the gaping mouth, and had
made no effort to pick, selectively, the food from be-
tween the fingers, nor had it even changed its position

296

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

on the approach of food, but had remained in one place,
fluttering and incessantly calling until the food was
brought to it. On the morning of the following day,
falling drops were again struck at and seized, though
the bird did not relish tire accompanying wetting. At
noon the drops were again seized and swallowred. Signs
of disapproval of the wetting were shown on the morn-
ing of the 14th, and on the morning of the 15th the
bird avoided falling water and was content with biting
the edge of the dish.

From the above observations I am inclined to agree
with Prof Mills that the nature of eating and of
drinking are not radically different, and, as the physical
condition of substances may pass imperceptibly from
solid to liquid, so the physiological processes are practi-
cally the same whether the food is solid, pultaceous,
or liquid, though I should not attempt to compare
too closely the relative perfection of the two processes.
I do not, moreover, feel that the first act of drinking
is, in its totality, necessarily instinctive. In other
words, “ when a chick first drinks on its beak being
put into water” the act may be considered as, very
largely, a result of self-teaching.

The phenomena of eating and of drinking have not,
in the discussion, been definitely defined, and there
has been some lack of discrimination in the use of the
word “swallow.” The beak, moreover, is mentioned
by Profs. Mills and Lloyd Morgan as the organ, the
stimulation of which produces the act of drinking,
though Prof. Baldwin attributes the action to the
stimulation to the sense of taste.

It seems to the writer that the entire process of
eating and drinking should be divided into three parts,
viz. (1) seizure ; (2) mouthing or mulling ; and (3) de-
glutition. It is only in the first of these that the term

DISCUSSIONS ON INSTINCT

297

“ instinct,” in the sense of inherited habit, is necessarily
used. Baldwin, Mills, and Lloyd Morgan are practically
agreed that the young chick seizes instinctively on
being stimulated by some small, striking object at a
suitable distance. This object may be nutritious, or it
may be a feather, a pencil, or a nail-head, a drop of
water, or a drop of ink. The mechanism is ready, and
the stimulus, properly applied, produces the instinctive
mechanical, or, as Lloyd Morgan would prefer, organic
action.

The object now held between the mandibles and
mulled is subject to the examination, strikingly evident
in the kingbird, of the tongue, an organ at the same
time tactile, gustatory, and locomotory. It stands at
the portal which leads from instinctive to refiex action,
and is at once the inspector, reporter, and director of
that which first stimulated the eye, and now, through a
motor response, has been placed where it may stimulate
other special sense organs — taste, touch, and probably
smell. It is here that instinctive action becomes guided
by individual control, and intelligence begins to act
through experience.

The mouth-parts of the young kingbird are large,
and the deliberate movements are easily observed. I
feel, therefore, that this second, and essential, portion
of the process of eating and drinking in the small-
mouthed chick may have been neglected or overlooked.
Moreover, the process of the perfecting of the action of
eating and drinking, through repetition and the guid-
ance of the intelligence is, in the kingbird, com-
paratively slow, and inclines one, on the grounds of
Comparative Psychology, to the belief that the complex
act of the chick may be only apparently perfect from
the first, the successive processes of co-ordination being
in the chick much more quickly perfected.

298

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

The process in the kingbird, as above detailed, gives
at least an opportunity for the more definite limitations
of those actions which Prof. Baldwin has, perhaps
unfortunately, called half-congenital.

The action of the callow bird in deglutition is prob-
ably performed as a reflex on the stimulation of the
presence of food in the pharynx. Small fragments upon
the beak, and in the anterior portion of the mouth, are
not perceived, and do not quiet the almost irritating
clamour of the gaping young. The enormous size of
the mouth, the thickened “ lips,” and the bright-coloured
concentric markings of the oral walls, make a target,
the sensitive centre of which (the opening of the
oesophagus) only a most awkward parent could fail
to hit. We might argue that the young nestling has
not, at first, a definite sense of taste ; and actual
experiment on the kingbird shows that most unsavoury
morsels, when placed in the mouth, are swallowed,
though not without subsequent signs of surprise, if
not of disgust. It is not, then, difficult to perceive
that the young bird, while still within the nest,
acquires, as a result of the selective activity of the
parent, a taste for certain food. The discriminative
exercise of the sense of taste is thus a result of direct
tuition. The young cow-bird, whose foster-parent has
been a vireo, will doubtless acquire a relish for food
very different from that enjoyed by, perchance, its own
brother, but the ward of a graminivorous finch.

It may be objected that the orphan chick, selecting
food without the discriminative direction of a parent,
is not a parallel case with the young kingbird. The
bird in my possession was so tame, that when it reached
an age comparable with the newly-hatched chick, I
could take it into the fields and observe it as it foraged,
chick-fashion, for itself. I think that I saw it capture

DISCUSSIONS ON INSTINCT

299

its first insect — I, at least, observed its ability as an
insect catcher develop from almost nil to expertness.
During these excursions, observations were made and
data collected for the determination of the following
questions : Is there an inherited discrimination in

favour of the capture of certain edible insects in pre-
ference to others ? If unsavoury insects are un-
wittingly taken into the mouth, are they swallowed ?
If ejected from the mouth, are there signs of disgust ?
When unsavoury examples are met a second time, are
they avoided ?

To the first question I can reply that, at first, all
insects were indiscriminately seized. A vile-smelling
hemipteron was as tempting as a luscious grasshopper
or cricket. Distinctly unsavoury insects ( Tctraopes ,
Coccinclla) were not touched a second time, except with
the greatest caution ; though species which were only
moderately distasteful (Lema) might be taken and
devoured, but 'without relish. In one case a large
brown ant — the first found — was seized, mulled, and
vigorously ejected. The next day the bird was taken
to the same tree, and, on perceiving a second ant of
the same species, eyed it closely and deliberately, and
then shook its head and vigorously wiped its beak,
with unmistakable signs of recollection. I mention
this particular case, though it is not the only one, to
illustrate how quickly the bird was self - taught, for
the ant was only one of a dozen different species of
insects which were met, and it was so instantly seized
that a prolonged visual image was not gained. I might
add that the kingbird subsequently refused even to try
the edible qualities of a large black ant of a different
species, though the bird watched the insect’s move-
ments with much interest. Profiting by mistakes, it
soon learned to examine critically all strange food,

300

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

before the tongue should force the couteuts of the
mouth ou towards the pharynx.

Can we not, then, conclude that the forcing of accept-
able food and drink into the pharynx is not “instinctive,”
but is the result of a series of satisfactory discoveries
of the young bird, which lead up to the placing of the
food where it will bring about the stimulation of the
reflex centre of the gullet, and the accomplishment of
the final act of swallowing ? — a series which is intelli-
gently adopted by the bird, and improved by practice.

It is perhaps well, before closing, to revert to the
peculiar habit of the bird in snapping at falling drops.
From the first, the attention was markedly attracted by
flying insects, and any small objects in motion seemed
to have a peculiar charm. From this fact I am inclined
to think that the seizing of drops was no more than the
striking at moving objects, though it is possible that
the adult habitually takes water on the wing by seizing
falling drops of dew or rain.

INDEX.

Abbot, C., on the Chipmunk, 57
Advances, intellectual, how made, 22
American, Naturalist, account re
feigning, 69

Audubon, on the Red Squirrel, 69

Bachsiann, on the Red Squirrel, 57
Baldwin, J. M., on instinct, 285, 287,
289

on social heredity, etc., 290, 291

Beaver, power of adaptation in, 41
BedliDgton terrier puppies, diary of,
144

Beethoven in music, 41
Bell, R., on the Chickaree, 75

on the Mink, 78

Bishop, J. P., on hibernation, 79
Boy, views as to dog’s thoughts, etc. , 3
Breed, its influence, 34
Butler, A. W., on hibernation, 79
Bumpns, H. C., on instinct and
education in birds, 293, et seq.

Cat, neglect of study of, 39
Cataplexy, hypnotism, etc., views on,
66, 67, 70

Caution in interpretation, 19, 27
Cavy (or Guinea-pig), the young, at
birth, 244

contrast between, dog and cat,

244

conclusions, general, in regard

to rabbit and, 245, 246

development of senses in, 244

diary of, 244-45

ears, at birth in, 241

eating in, 242

eyes, condition at birth, 241

Cavy, locomotion in, 241, 242

Preyer on, 245

progress in, 242, 243

- — — rabbit, compared with, 244, 245

remarks on diary of, 244, 245

smell in, 241, 244

teeth in, 241

taste in, 241, 242, 244

— — voice in, 242

wiping the face by, 242

Cerebral cortex, functional develop-
ment of, in, 264

general conclusions regarding,

264

Chick, the diary of, 258, et seq.

■ — — colour of feathers in, 261

drinking by, 260

feathering iD, 261

hearing in, 259, 260

individual differences in, 262

instinctive fear in, 259, 261,

262

method of eating meat, 260

mother, influence of, on 260

pecking at objects by, 258, 259,

260

Preyer on, 261

remarks on diary of, 261, et seq.

scratching by, 260

sense of support in, 262

some conclusions regarding,

262, 263

Spalding, 1)., on, 261

swallowing by, 258, 260

taste in, 259

vision in, 259

warmth, effect of, on, 259, 262

wiping, reflex in, 259

wiping beak by, 260

302

INDEX

Chickaree, significance of wide ranges
of, 73

Child and dog compared morally, 25
Chimpanzee, expression of, etc., 42
Chipmunk, habits, etc., of, 53, 55,
57 59 72

Cortex at birth, in the dog, 268, 270

in the dog and cat compared,

270 273

in the rabbit, 273, 274

in the cavy, 274

in birds, 275

general conclusions regarding,

275, 276

Craig, , on the Chipmunk, 72

Darwin, C., on feigning, on migra-
tion, etc., 29, 42, 47, 67
Dawes, on Cocker Spaniel, 33,

on horse training, 43, 44

Dog, special cases, 33, 35, 36, 39
Dog and Cat compared, 221, ct seq.
cat in advance of, in co-ordina-
tion of movements, 225

cats and, education, 227, 230

comparison of the brain de-
velopment in, 226

conclusions, general, as to differ-
ences between, 232, 233

experience and instinct, effect of

former on cat, 231

independence in the cat, 227,

229

intelligence and memory, 228

reasoning in the cat, 232

slow development of social

instincts in the cat, 227

suggestibility in cat and dog,

231

will-power in the cat, 228

Dreaming in the lower animals, 37

Earthquakes and animals, 41
Eating, is it instinctive ? 281, et seq.
Education, influence of, 8
Elliott, Id. W., on drinking of newly-
hatched chicks, 282, 283
Environment, influence of, 8
Evolution and intelligence, 25
Experiments needed, 16

Feigning in squirrels, 61, 62, 63, 72

its nature, 64

and intelligence in squirrels, 73

Ferron, , on the dog, 36

on the trotting horse, 44

Foundation of the Society for the
Study of Comparative Psychology
in Montreal, 32, 46

Genius and animal performances, 13,

19

Germ of human faculties in animals,

20

Germs and animals, 41
Girdwood, G.P. , account of Chickaree,
73

Groos, C., study of play in animals,
49

on the comparative psychologist,

282, and Preface, p. vi.

on play in animals, 272

Habits, hereditary, 281
Hall, Marshall, on hibernation in
bats, 80, 86, 107

Harris, , on the beaver, 41

Heideuheim, on hypnotism, 65
Hibernation, discussion of nature of,
105, et seq.

in cold-blooded animals, 79, 82,

108

in human beings, D. W. Ross,

A. Robinson, andC. K. Clarke, 87,
89, 90

in pigs, Millar, 87

in squirrels, 57, 59

in warm-blooded animals, 80,

81, 82

Himalayan rabbits, 239, ct seq.
Homing instinct, 29

pigeons, suggestion as to the

nature of their feats, 14
Horse, and bears, 44

causes that retard mental

development in, 43

special case, 44

training of the, 43

Hydrophobia scare, the veterinary
profession and the lower animals,
87, 89, 90

Imagination in animals, 21, 37
Imperfection of instinct, 289
Individual, history of, important, 67
Inference from men to animals, 20
Inferiority of animals in all respects
questioned, 15

Intelligence and hibernation, 57
Instinct, to explain animal intelli-
gence, 19

Jones, T. Mann, remarks on kitten,
tom-cat, 'sheep-dogs, etc., 203, 204,
220, 221

Kitten, the diary of, 175, etc.

advance of, 202

affection in, 200

anger in, 189

INDEX

303

Kitten, attachment of, 197, 199

behaviour towards bird, 195,

199

catnip, 194

dog, 195, 197, 200, 201

fire, 196

flower-pot, 193, 197

lap, 193, 195

mouse, 193, 194, 200

parrot, 188

biting in, 182

bookshelves, special experience

with, by, 184-88, 204, 205
call of “Puss ! puss!” effect of,

181, 183, 185, 189, 196, 197, 201
catching of tail by, 189

catching flies, etc., by, 188, 193,

194, 201

caution in leaping, 191, 198, 199

choice by, 198

climbing in, 181, 182, 190, 191,

192, 194, 195, 199, 200

concealment by, 193, 197

conclusions, general, regarding,

205, 206

condition of eyes and ears at

birth, 176

covering by, 193

crouching by, 190, 195

crying in, 183, 186, 187, 188,

191, 192, 197, 199, 201

discussion of diary of, 202, etc.

dislike in, 178

eating, etc., in, 205

expression altered in, 197

of intelligence in, 188

fatigue in, 200

fear in, 186, 187, 190, 191, 192,

194, 196, 200, 202

feeding of milk, 185, 186, 187

of solid food, 189, 191, 193,

194

— fondness shown for fish by, 197

growth of, 189, 191, 196, 197

hearing in, 177, 179, 181 192,

202

hissing in, 177, 178, 180, 181,

182, 184, 187

influence of environment on,

176, 189

Jones, T. Mann, remarks of, 203,

204, 220, 221

— Reaping by, 188, 192, 193, 194,

licking in, 181, 182, 190

law of association as explana-
tion in, 205

movements of ears, 178, 184,

202

of eyes, 185

Kitten, movements of head, 179

of hind legs, 179

of tail, 179, 182, 183, 186

in crawling, 176

in sleep, 187

opening of eyes in, 177

out of doors, 197

pain, sense, latent period in,

177

persistence in, 196, 197, 199

physical changes in, 188, 194,

196 197

play in, 181, 182, 185, 188, 192,

195, 197, 203

power of attention in, 198

pupil, reflex in, 203

punishment of, 193, 196, 198

purring in, 195, 196, 200

quivering of ears in, 178

reaction towards dog by, 176,

177, 180, 203

reflexes, pupillary, 179

winking, 179, 202

resemblances to mature cat, 198

running off, 189, 193, 194

sand-pan, experiences with, 186,

187, 189, 190, 193, 197, 199, 204

scratching, 180, 198, 200, 203

shadows, observation of, by,

183

sleeping in, 181

smell in, 176, 177, 179, 193

sniffing in, 189

sociability in, 196, 199, 200

stalking in, 189

— — stretching in, 187

tactile sensibility in, 176, 179

taste in, 176, 179, 197

teeth, period of appearance in,

182

temperature, sense in, 176

toilet-making by mother, 186

by self, 186, 188, 195

use of claws, 189

use of mechanical means by,

191, 199

uneasiness in, 176, 177

vision in, 178-84, 202, 203

voice in, 179

walking and wandering of, 180,

183, 188, 192, 194, 196, 198, 199,
201

watching movements of, 192,

193

waywardness, etc., in, 196, 197,

199

Lindsay, , works on Animal In-

telligence, 26

Litter, different members of, 7

304

INDEX

Lucas, F. A., on pecking in pheasants,
etc., 283, 285

Man, a law unto himself, etc. , 14
Man’s superiority ; its basis, 26, 39
M'Eachran, D., intelligence in horses,
73

paper by, on a dog, 33

Mental life in the mass of mankind,
10

Metcalf, , on dogs, 36

Migration, the explanation of, 30
Millar, F., on imprisoned swine, 87

on a pig, 40

on a dog, 35

J., on a Scotch Collie, 36

Mind in animals, its nature, 17
Minot, C. S. , on Comparative Psy-
chology, Preface, p. vi.

Monkey, study of the, 42

and dog compared, 8

Moral nature in animals, 21
Morgan, C. Lloyd, discussion of his
views on Instinct, 277, el seq.

letter on “The Habit of Drink-
ing in Young Birds,” 292, 293

mental attitude of young birds, 49

on young pheasants, 262

Motives complex, 11

Newton and space perception, 14

Owl-pigeon, 259, 261

Packard, on origin of the dog, 37
Parallelism in thinking of child and
dog, 13

Pease, , on black-and-tan bitch,

39

People, some hard to understand, 4
Pig, neglect of the study of the, 40

trained, 40

Pigeons, the young —

colour of feathers in, 251

iris in, 251

conclusions, general, regarding,

227, 258

condition when hatched out, 250

conditions under which kept,

246, 247

— diary of, 247, et seq.

Dragoon (pure bred), diary of,

250, et seq.

ears, condition of, 252

effect of stroking, 254

warmth and cold on, 248,

254

Environment, effects of, on, 249

eyes, condition of, 250, 252

when hatched, 247

Pigeons, the young, feathering in,
249, 250, 251, 253

flying by, 251-253

growth in, 252, 253

herring in, 248, 250, 255, 256

homing tendency in, 249

iris, colour of, 253, 257

movements, general, 249

of beak, 250

of head, 250

of wings, 248, 251, 252

reflex, 252

in walking, 249

in flying, 250

Owl (pure-bred), pigeon, 259, 261

pecking by, 252, 253

at an intruder by, 250, 251

snapping, etc., in, 255

positions of, 256

psychic and physical develop-
ment in, 256, 257
— — progress by, 255

pupillary reflex in, 255

pugnacity in, 252, 253

reflex movements in, 252

remarks on the diary of, 253, et

seq.

resemblances and differences in,

254

sense of support in, 248, 250

sitting in, 252

short-faced tumbler (pure-bred),

diary of, 252, et seq.

snapping with beak of, 249, 250

soliciting food, 249

standing, 252, 253

tactile sensibility in, 247, 249,

252, 254

taste and smell in, 254

vision in, 253, 255, 256

voice in, 253, 255, 256

winking by, 252

reflex in, 248, 255

Prentiss, D. W., discussion of pheno-
mena observed by Czermak, etc.,
65, 70

President of American Psychological
Association, views of, on psycho-
logy, 48

Preyer, , on shamming death, 68

on chicks, 261

Problems, 37

Psychic development and physical
correlation, 267, et seq.

of young animals, 113, et seq.

bearing of other studies on, 113

Psychologists’ attitude towards the
subject of Animal Intelligence, 9
Psychology, in colleges, etc., 48
its tendencies, 48

INDEX

305

Public mind and Animal Intelligence,
45

Puppy, mongrel, diary of, 207, et seq.
— — advantages and disadvantages
over pure-bred, 218

adaptability in, 212, 213

barking in, 212

behaviour towards a bone, 212

biting in, 211

characteristic features, when

appearing, 220

compared with pure-bred, 215,

et seq.

comparison of intelligence with

that of St Bernard, 219

concussion, effects on, 209

conditions under which kept, 207

crawling in, 209

discussion of diary of, 213, et seq.

eating by, 211

effect of mingling with others of

its own kind, 216

environment, effect of, 209, 212,

213, 217

gnawing in, 210

growling in, 210

hearing in, 208, 210, 212, 216

intelligence in, 212

investigation by, 211

locomotion in, 210, 211, 212

- — — movements in, of ears, 208, 217

eyes, 209

hind-legs, 209, 212, 217

jaws, 210

tail, 209, 212, 217

muscular sense in, 214

opening of eyes in, 208

perseverance of, 212

- — physical changes in, 209, 212,
220

play in, 211, 212, 216

pure-bred compared with, 215

et seq.

reflex effect through ear, 217

resemblances to mature dog,

212, 213.

sense of pain in, 207, 213

sense of support in, 207

sexual feeling in, 213

shaking of head, effect of, in,

211

shyness in, 211

sociability in, 211, 212

smell in, 207-10, 213, 214

starting in, 210

sudden development in, 219

taste in, 207-9, 213

temperature sense in, 207, 213

teeth in, 209, 211

vigour of, 207

Puppy, mongrel, vision in, 209, 210,
211

— — voice in, 207

weaning of, 209

winking in, 211

Puppies, pure-bred —

anger in, 159

are teats found by smell ? 148

association, mental, in, 138, 139

attention in, 133, 161

barking in, 127, 129, 134, 139,

145

biting and chewing by, 145

changes, physical in, 131, 142,

145, 168, 169, 170

chewing in, 128, 129

concussion, effect of, in, 144,

154

co-ordination of movement in,

145

crying, crawling, sucking in,

113, 132, 147, 148

differences in breeds of, 170

differentiation, sexual, in, 144,

145

dreaming by, 162

drinking by, 127, 128

environment, influence of, 164

exhaustion in, 124

experience, effect of, 143, 166

expression, change in, 130

eyes, when open, 120

fatigue in, 161

fear in, 129, 130, 134, 136, 144,

145, 158

feeling in, 119

general conclusions regarding,

172-74

growling in, 125, 128, 137, 143,

144

habits, barking, crying, etc., 141

hearing, advance in, 125, 137

discussion of, in, 153

— perception of direction of

sound, etc., 127, 130-34, 137

— reflex, 121

special tests of, in, 125

humour in, 161

hunger, when felt, 126

imitation in lapping water, 136

in general, 138, 139, 163

individual differences in, 124,

137

individuality in, 131, 166

interest in surroundings, 137

investigation by, 138, 140

irritation shown, 128, 131, 145

jaws and front legs, use of, 121

lapping in, 127, 128, 133, 136,

145

306

INDEX

Puppies, pure-bred ; latent period of
pain sense, 144

licking in, 120, 124,125

lip-call, effect of, 126, 161

movements, when sucking, 129

of hind-limbs, 1 29

of head, ears, etc. , 129, 140

memory in, 142, 159

muscular sense in, 149

new surroundings, influence of,

118, 120, 130, 145

pain, sense of, in, 148

periods of development in, 167

physical correlation, 168, 170

play in, 122, 123, 126, 128, 131,

136, 145

remarks on, 155

pleasure in new straw, 133

on seeing human being, 135

reasoning in, 165

recognition in, 160

reflexes, associated in, 166

in hearing, 121

in scratching, 124

in winking, 121, 124, 134

retiring-place of, 134, 142

scratching in, 127, 132, 136, 141,

144, 156

similarity to the mature dog in,

163

smell in, 119, 120, 122, 123, 129,

133, 144, 151

suggestivo action in, 163

tactile sensibility in, 149

tail movements, 120, 123, 130,

132, 135, 144, 145, 157

tails, wagging and position of,

117

use in play, 128

taste in, 131, 134

and smell, 151, 152

teeth in, 130

temperature sense in, 121, 149

the mysterious, 166

uneasiness when removed from

pen, etc., 118, 120, 130
vision in, 121, 123, 128, 130, 131,

133, 152

voice in, 158

whip, behaviour towards, 141

where kept, 117

Qualifications to understand ani-
mals, 15

Babbit, the young —

behaviour when placed with

others of older litter, 240

condition of skin, 234, 235, 236,

240, 241

Babbits, the young, condition of feet,
240

co-ordinated movements in, 243,

244

diary of the common, 233, et seq.

pure-bred Himalayan, 239,

et seq.

early development of taste and

smell in, 244

ears, position, movements, etc.,

of, 234, 236, 237

eating in, 237-40

excitability in, 239

effect of warmth on, 235, 239,

240

eye reflexes in, 237

fear in, 238, 239

growth in, 235, 236

hearing in, 233, 236, 237, 240

hearing and vision compared

with these senses in dog and cat, 244

investigation by, 240

jerky movements in, 243

locomotion in, 234, 237, 238,

239, 240

loping in, 237, 239

movements in, 234, 235, 236,

239, 240

of ears, compared, 243

generally compared, 243

memory in, 238

opening of eyes in, 236, 240

pain, sense in, 243

physical and psychic changes

in, 244

play in, 238

psychical maturity in, 239

remarks based on the diary of

rabbits, 243 et seq.

scratching in, 235, 239, 240

smell in, 234, 235, 238, 240

tactile sensibility in rabbits, 243

taste in, 234, 235

taste in rabbit as compared with

dog and cat, 243

twitching in, 236

vision in, 233, 237, 238, 239, 240

weaning of, 238

wiping face, 235, 239

voice, absence of, 243

Beason in animals, 21
Bight and wrong, recognition of, by
animals, 24

Bobinson A., on hibernating man, 88,
89, 90

Bodents and plasticity of habits, 55

mimical appreciation in, 60

Bomanes, G. J., reference to works
of, 26

— influence of, 49

INDEX

307

Romanes, G. J. on feigning, 67, 68, 69
Ross, D. W.,on “ Sleepy Joe,” 87
Rule in interpretation of Animal In-
telligence, 11

Ruttan, R. F., analysis of urine of
lethargic woman, 102

Scale in intelligence, 23
“Sense experience” in animals, 9
Senses in the lower animals, 28
Shakespeare, sources of his power, 5

and Scott in literature, 29

on effects of fear, 68

Shamming death, 65, 66, 67
Sheep and storms, 32, 40
Sick animals and Animal Intelligence,
47

Simpson, , on the dog, 38

Singing rodents, 59, 60
Society for the Study of Animal
Intelligence, founding of, 46
Spalding, D., on Chicks, 261
Squirrels, Black and Red, compared,
74

entering traps, 53, 55

flying, and sneezing, 56

intelligence in, 56

nocturnal, 58

Status of Comparative Psychology, 49

St Bernard puppies, diary of, 117, 144
Studies, detailed, 50
Study, of animals, how to, 35
Summary, imperfect, of Author’s
views on Animal Intelligence, 15

Thinking, different meanings of, 9

Torrance, , on sheep, 40

Training in animals, 23, 33, 35
Turkey buzzard, and feigning, 69

Understanding of animals, 5
Unsolved problems, 29

Veterinary profession, and Animal
Intelligence, 30

Views, unscientific, as to man’s
origin and relations, 18

Water, aptitude in finding, 43
Weismannism, 279, 286
Woodchuck, hibernation in, 81, 82,
et seq.

Words, their understanding of, by
animals, 33, 34, 38, 39
“Writer of the Note” on Instinct,
279, 282

Yates, W.,on hibernation, 80, 81, 82

PRINTED AT THE EDINBURGH TRESS, 9 AND II YOUNG STREET.

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