COLLECTING AND PRESERVING. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2015 https://archive.org/details/b21943783 NOTES ON COLLECTING AND PRESERVING NATUBAL-HISTORY OBJECTS. BY J. E. Taylob, F.L.S. F.G.S. E. F. Elwtn. Thos. Southwell, F.Z.S. Db. Knaggs. E. C. Rye, F.Z.S. J. B. Bridgman. Professor Ralph Tate, F.G.S. Jas. Britten, F.L.S. Professor Bookman, F.G.S. Dr. Braithwaite, F.L.S. Worthington G. Smith, F.L.S. Rev. Jas. Crombie, F.L.S. W. H. Gbattann. EDITED BY J. E. TAYLOR, PhD., F.L.S., F.G.S., &c. LONDON : HARDWICKE & BOGUE, 192, PICCADILLY, W. 1876. . PREFACE. The following Essays were originally contributed to the pages of £ Science-G-ossip,’ by the various writers whose names they bear. From the constant queries relating to subjects of this kind, it was deemed advisable to furnish young or intending naturalists with such trustworthy information as would enable them to save time, and gain by the experience of others. For this purpose, the articles have been collected in their present portable form as a Handbook for beginners. May , 1876. . CONTENTS. *o» — PAGE Preface .. .. .. .. .. .. .. v CHAPTER I. Geological Specimens, by J. E. Taylor, F.L.S., F.G.S. 1 CHAPTER II. Bones, by E. F. Elwin .. .. .. .. .. 16 CHAPTER HI. Birds’ Eggs, by T. Southwell, F.Z.S. .. .. .. 27 CHAPTER IV. Butterflies and Moths, by Dr. Knaggs .. .. 44 CHAPTER V. Beetles, by E. C. Rye, F.Z.S. .. .. .. .. 67 CHAPTER VI. Hymenoptera, by J. B. Bridgman .. .. .. 95 CHAPTER VII. Land and Freshwater Shells, by Professor Ralph Tate, F.G.S. .. .. .. .. .. .. 102 Vlll CONTENTS. CHAPTER VIII. PAGE Flowering Plants and Ferns, by J. Britten, F.L.S. (First Part) .. .. .. .. .. .. 117 CHAPTER IX. Flowering Plants and Ferns, by J. Britten, F.L.S. (Second Part) .. .. .. .. .. .. 131 CHAPTER X. Grasses, &c., by Professor Buckman, F.G.S. . . 139 CHAPTER XI. Mosses, by Dr. Braithwaite, F.L.S. .. .. .. 145 CHAPTER XII. Fungi, by Worthington G. Smith, F.L.S. .. .. 159 CHAPTER XIII. Lichens, by Rev. James Crombie, F.L.S. .. .. 181 CHAPTER XIV. Seaweeds, by W. H. Grattann .. .. •• 195 Index 209 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING. i. GEOLOGICAL SPECIMENS. By J. E. Taylor, F.L.S., F.G.S. The great end of natural-history reading should be the development of a love for the objects dwelt upon, and a desire to know more about them. This can only be brought about by such practical acquaintance as collecting and preserving them induces. At the same time we should be sorry to see our young readers degenerate into mere collectors ! It is a great mistake to suppose, that because you have a full cabinet of butterflies, moths, or beetles, there- fore you are a good entomologist; or that you may lay claim to a distinguished position as a geologist, on account of drawers full of fossils and minerals. But this is a mistake into which young naturalists frequently fall. We have seen people with decided tastes for these studies never get beyond the mere collecting. In that case they stand on a par with B 2 GEOLOGICAL SPECIMENS. collectors of postage-stamps. Nor is there much gained, even if you become acquainted with English, or even Latin, names of natural-history objects. Many people can catalogue them glibly, and never make a slip, and yet they are practically ignorant of the real knowledge which clusters round each object, and its relation to others. Both Latin and English names are useful and even necessary ; but when you have simply learnt them, and nothing more, how much wiser are you than before? No, let the learn- ing of names be the alphabet of science — the means by which you can acquire a further knowledge of its mysteries. It would be just as reasonable to set up for a literary man on the strength of accurately knowing the alphabet, as to imagine you are a scientific man the moment you have learned by heart a few scores of Latin names of plants, fossils, or insects ! Let each object represent so much knowledge, to which the very mention of its name will immediately conjure up a crowd of associations, relationships, and intimate acquaintances, and you will then see what a store of real knowledge may be represented in a carefully-arranged cabinet. The heading of the present articles will have in- dicated the subject chosen for brief treatment. We shall never forget the influence left by reading such charming and suggestive books as Mantell’s GEOLOGICAL SPECIMENS. 3 ‘ Medals of Creation/ many years ago. Onr mind had been prepared for the enthusiasm which this little book produced by the perusal of Page’s ‘ Intro- ductory Text-book/ Phillips’s ‘ Guide to Geology/ and several others of a similar character. But we know of none which impels a young student to go into the field and hammer out fossils for himself, like Dr. Mantell’s works. It is impossible not to catch the enthusiasm of his nature. The first place we sallied out to, on our maiden geological trip, was a heap of coal-shale, near a pit’s mouth, in the neighbourhood of Manchester. Our only weapon was a common house hammer, for we then knew nothing of the technical forms which geological fancy so often assumes. We had passed that same heap of coal-shale hundreds of times, without suspecting it to be anything more than everybody else considered it, viz. a heap of rubbish. Why that particular spot was selected, we cannot now say. We had seen illustra- tions of carboniferous plants, shells, &c., in books, but we seemed to imagine their discovery could only be effected by scientific men, and that it required a good deal of knowledge before one should attempt to find them. Suffice it to say we made the pil- grimage to the coal-shale heap in pretty much the same mind as we should expect to get the head prize in some fine-art drawing. The humble hammer was b 2 4 GEOLOGICAL SPECIMENS. put into use, for a brief time without much effect, as we could hardly have commenced on a more barren kind of shale than we had chanced to hit upon. We imagined we could perceive traces of leaves and slender stems, but were afraid to trust our eyes. At any rate, there was nothing definite enough to raise our enthusiasm. But by-and-by, as the hammer kept cleaving open the thin leaf-like layers of shale, there appeared a large portion of that most beautiful of all fossil plants, the Lepidodendron. Those who are familiar with this object, with its lozenge-shaped markings running spirally up the stem, will readily understand the outburst of pleasure which escaped our lips ! That was the first real fossil — a pleasure quite equivalent to that of landing the first salmon. How carefully wras it wrapped in paper, and carried home in the pocket ! There never was, and never will be, another fossil in the world as beautiful as that insignificant fragment of Lepidodendron. We have seen a good many converts made to geology in a similar manner, since first we laid open to the light this silent memorial of ages which have passed away. Let a man have ever so slight ac- quaintance with geology, and give him the chance of hammering out a fossil for himself, and the odds are you thereby make him a geologist for life. There is something almost romantic in the idea that you GEOLOGICAL SPECIMENS. 5 are looking for the first time, and have yourself disentombed the remains of creatures which probably lived scores of millions of years ago! We would strongly advise our readers, therefore, not to fall into the error of supposing that fossil-hunting belongs to highly-trained geologists. On the contrary, it is by fossil-hunting alone that you can ever hope to be a geologist yourself. Auother mistake often made, is that of supposing these rich and interesting geo- logical localities are at a distance. It seems so hard to suppose, after reading about typical sections, &c., that under your very feet, in the fields where you have so often played, there occur geological pheno- mena of no less interest. But it is actually surprising what evidences of our earth’s great antiquity, in the shape of fossils, &c., may be studied and obtained in the most out -of-the-way and insignificant places. You say you have no rocks in your neighbourhood — nothing but barren sands, or beds of brick-earth or clay. Well, go to some section of the latter, exposed, perhaps, in some tarn or stagnant pond in a turnip-field. You examine the sides, and what do you see? Nothing, but here and there a boulder- stone sticking out. Well, be content with that. You said you had no rocks in your neighbourhood ; how, then, has that boulder, which is a rounded fragment of a rock broken off from somewhere — 6 GEOLOGICAL SPECIMENS. how has it come there? Here is a poser at once. Examine it, and you will perhaps see that its hard surface is polished or scratched, and then you re- member the theory of icebergs, and feel astonished to think that you hold in your hand an undeniable proof of the truth of that theory. Those very scratchings could have been produced in no other way ; that foreign fragment of a rock now only to be found on some distant mountain-side could have been conveyed in no other manner. Not content with the exterior examination, you break the boulder-stone open, when you may chance to find it is a portion of Silurian, carboniferous or oolitic limestone, and that it contains fossils belonging to one of those formations. Here is a find — an object with a double interest turning up where you never expected to discover the slightest geological incident ! You examine other boulders, and find in them general evidences of ice-action in their present re-deposition, and most instructive lessons as to the nature of rocks of various formations, from the granite and trap series to the fossiliferous deposits. In fact, there is no place like one of these old boulder-pits for making oneself acquainted with petrology, or the nature of stones. And now, as to the tools necessary to the young geologist. First of all, he cannot take too few! It is a great mistake to imagine that a full set of GEOLOGICAL SPECIMENS. 7 scientific instruments makes a scientific man. The following hammers, intended for different purposes, ought to be procured. Fig. 1 is an exceedingly useful weapon, and one we commonly use, to the exclusion of all others. It is handy for breaking off fragments of rock for ex- amination ; and, if fossils be included in them, for trimming the specimens for cabinet purposes. As a rule, however, field geo- are always divided over the merits of their hammers, some prefer- ring one shape and some another. Fig. 2 is gene- rally used for breaking up hard rocks, for whicli the bevel - shaped head is peculiarly adapted. It is usually much heavier than the rest, and is seldom used except for specific purposes. If our readers are inclined to study sections of boulder clay, and wish to extract the rounded and angular boulder from its stiff matrix, they cannot do better than use a hammer like Fig. 3. This is sometimes called the “ Platypus ” Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Pocket Trim- Duck’s-head ming-hammer. Hammer. 8 GEOLOGICAL SPECIMENS. pick. Both ends can be used, and the pick end is also good for working on soft rocks, like chalk. A little practice in the field will teach the student how to use these tools, and when, much better than we can describe on paper. The hammers can be Fig. 3. obtained from any scien- tific instrument manu- facturer, or from any of the dealers in geologi- cal specimens. We have found that the best ham- mers for usage, however, were to be made out of an old file, softened and well welded, rolled, and then hammered into a solid mass. If properly tempered a hammer made in this fashion will last you your life. So much for the rougher weapons of geological strife. Next, be sure and provide yourself with thick-soled shoes or boots. Geological study will take you into a good many queer places, wet and dry, rough and smooth, and it is absolutely necessary to be prepared for the worst. Patent leather boots and kid gloves are rarely worn by practical geo- “ Platypus ” Pick for clay, &c. GEOLOGICAL SPECIMENS. 9 logists. And we have heard it remarked at the British Association meetings, that they could always tell which members belonged to the Geological Sec- tion by their thick-soled boots. A similar remark applies to clothes. The student need not dress for the quarry as he would for the dining room. Good, strong, serviceable material ought to be their basis. Secondly, as to the student’s comforts and neces- saries. These are generally the last thing an ardent naturalist thinks about. For ourselves, however, we give him ample leave to provide himself with pipe and tobacco, should his tastes lie in that direction. We never enjoyed a pipe half so much as when solitarily disinterring organic remains which had slumbered in the heart of the rock for myriads of ages. As to the leer, we can vouch that it never tastes anything like so good as during a geological excursion. We have found the leathern bags sold for school- book purposes to be as handy to deposit specimens in, during a journey, as anything else. They have the merit of being cheap, are strong, and easily carried. If not large enough, then get a strong, coarse linen havresack, like that worn by volunteers on a field day. Paper, cotton wadding (not wool), sawdust for fragments of larger fossils, intended to 10 GEOLOGICAL SPECIMENS. be repaired at home, wooden pill-boxes, and a few boxes, which may be obtained from any practical naturalist, with glass tops, are sufficient “ stock-in- trade ” for the young geologist. The wadding does not adhere to the specimens as wool does, and the glass-topped boxes are useful, as it is not then necessary to open a box and disinter a delicate fossil from its matrix in order to look at it. Add a good strong pocket lens, such as may be bought for half-a- crown, and your equipment will be complete. If you intend to study any particular district, get the sheets published by the Geological Survey. These will give you, on a large scale, the minute geology of the neighbourhood, the succession of rocks, faults, outcrops, &c. In fact, you may save yourself a world of trouble by thus preparing yourself a week or so before you make your geological excursion* The pith of these remarks applies with equal force if you purpose, first of all, to examine the neighbour- hood in which you live. Don’t do so until you have read all that has been written about it, and examined all the available maps and sections. This advice, however, applies more particularly to geological ex- amination of strata. If you are bent chiefly on palaeontological investigation, that is, on the study of fossils, perhaps it will be best just to read any GEOLOGICAL SPECIMENS. 11 published remarks you may have access to, and then boldly take the field for yourself. In addition to a hammer, we would advise the young student to take a good narrow-pointed steel chisel, and a putty-knife. The former is very useful for work- ing round, and eventually obtaining, any fossil that may have been weathered into relief. The latter is equally serviceable for clayey rocks or shales. In arranging the spoils of these excursions for the cabinet, a little care and taste are required. We will suppose you to possess one of those many- drawered cabinets which can now be obtained so cheaply. Begin at the bottom, so that the lowest drawers represent the lowest-seated and oldest rocks, and the uppermost the most recent. If possible, have an additional cabinet for local geology, and never forget that the first duty of a collector is to have his own district well represented ! A com- pass of a few miles will, in most cases, enable him to get a store of fossils or minerals which cannot well be obtained elsewhere. Supposing he is desirous of having the geological systems well represented, he can always do so by the insertion of such paragraphs as those which appear in the Exchange columns of ‘ Science Gossip.’ It is by well and thoroughly 12 GEOLOGICAL SPECIMENS. working separate localities in this fashion that the science of geology is best advanced. You hear a good deal about the “missing links,” and it is an accepted fact that we, perhaps, do not know a tithe of the organic remains that formerly enjoyed life. Who knows, therefore, but that if you exhaust your district by the assiduous collection of fossils, you may not come across such new forms as may settle many moot points in ancient and modern natural history? The genuine love of geological study is always pretty fairly manifested in a student’s cabinet. Science, like charity, begins at home. It impels a man to seek and explain that which is nearest to him, before he attempts the elucidation of what really lies in another man’s territory ! It is not necessary that the student should waste time in the field about naming or trying to remem- ber the names of fossils, &c., on the spot. That can be best done at home, and the pleasure of “ collect- ing ” can thus be spun to its longest length. Box them, pack them well (or all your labour is lost), and name them at home. Or supposing you do not possess books which can assist you in nomencla- ture, carry your fossils or minerals, just as you found them, to the nearest and best local museum, where you will be sure to see the majority of them in their proper places and with their proper names. GEOLOGICAL SPECIMENS. 13 Copy these, and when you arrange your specimens in the cabinet, either get printed cards with the fol- lowing headings — Genus Species Formation Locality (which can always be obtained at a cheap rate from the London dealers), or else set to work and copy them yourself in a good plain hand, so that there is no mistaking what you write. As far as possible, in each drawer or drawers representing a geolo- gical formation, arrange your specimens in natural- history order — the lowest organisms first, gradually ascending to the higher. By doing so, you present geological and zoological relationship, so that they can be taken in at a glance. You further make yourself acquainted with the relations of the fossils in a way you never would have done, had you been content to huddle them together in any fashion, so that you had them all together. Glass-topped boxes, again, are very useful in the cabinet, especially for delicate or fragile fossils, as people are so ready to take them in their hands when they are shown, little thinking how soon a cherished rarity may be 14 GEOLOGICAL SPECIMENS. destroyed, never to be replaced. Pasteboard trays, made of stiff green paper, squared by the student according to size, can also be so arranged as that the drawer may be entirely filled, and so the danger of shaking the contents about may be re- moved. Each tray of fossils ought to have the above-mentioned label fastened down in such a way as that it cannot by accident get changed by removal. The spring and summer time are fast approach- ing, and we know of nothing that will so much assist in their rational enjoyment as the adoption of some study in natural science. Botany, entomology, orni- thology, geology, are all health-affording, nature- loving pursuits. We have passed some of the very happiest moments of our lives in solitary quarries, or on green hill-sides, “ The world forgetting, by the world forgot ! ” There, amid the wreck of former creations, and with the glory of the present one around us, we have yielded to the delicious sense of reverie, such as can only be begotten under such circumstances. The shady side of the quarry has screened us from solar heat, and, whilst the air has been melodious with a thousand voices, we have made personal acquaintance with the numerous objects of God’s GEOLOGICAL SPECIMENS. 15 creation, animals and plants. How apt are the thoughts of the poet Crabbe, and how well do they convey the feeling of the young geologist in such places : “ It is a lonely place, and at the side Rises a mountain rock in rugged pride ; And in that rock are shapes of shells, and forms Of creatures in old worlds, and nameless worms ; Whole generations lived and died, ere man, A worm of other class, to crawl began.” 16 BONES. II. BONES. By Edward Fentone Elwin, Caius College. Why is it that the students of Osteology are so few in number ? It is a branch of science which offers a wide field for original research, and one in which at every step one’s interest must get more and more engrossed. It is a branch of science in which a sufficient portion of its elements may be rapidly learned, in order to set the student fairly on his road. The barriers which surround it are few : that is to say, the technical barriers are few. Many people who want to occupy themselves with scientific study are deterred, because of the feeling that there are so many laborious preliminaries to be gone through before they can begin to take any real pleasure in the pursuit. Now, in Osteology it is true that a wide and really almost unexplored field lies open before one, but the equipments necessary to fit one for one’s journey are easily attained. The first step is to get thoroughly acquainted with some one typical specimen, as a standard of comparison for all future work. It matters little what species is taken ; BONES. 17 whichever comes most convenient. Some familiar mammal of fair size is the best. The dog is as good as any, and easy to obtain. There ought never to be any real difficulty in getting a suitable specimen. If expense is no object, the simplest way is to get a preparation, set up so as readily to take to pieces, at any of the bone-preservers’ shops in London. One like this costs only a moderate sum, and is, of course, the least trouble, although the manner in which professionals prepare their bones is not altogether satisfactory. But we may regard this as something in the light of a luxury ; and it is not hard to prepare one’s own specimens, provided we do not mind a little manipulation with unsavoury objects. I have given hints as to the best method by which this may be done in various pages of ‘ Science-Gossip.’ * Of course, as one’s work gets on, one needs further specimens, but I do not think that anyone who keeps his eyes open need be at a loss in this matter. I have picked up several admirable bones ready cleaned by the wind and weather, and many slightly damaged ones may be got at naturalists’ shops for small sums, which are almost as good as the perfect ones for an observer’s purposes. Even single and isolated bones are often very instructive. But the first main point is that of getting the * ‘ Science-Gossip ’ for 1873, p. 39; for 1874 p. 226. C 18 BONES. forms, peculiarities, names, and positions of the bones of one skeleton fully impressed on the student’s mind. As to the books which are to help him to do this, it is very hard to know what to recommend. As far as I know, there is no really luminous book on osteology in existence. So far as learning the names and peculiarities of the bones, nothing could be better or more to the purpose than Flower’s ‘ Osteology of the Mammalia ’ ; but this treats only of one class, and does not get beyond technical description. The first and second volumes of Owen’s ‘ Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates ’ fill the gap the best of any, and yet these are by no means what we really want. There is a good deal about bones in Huxley’s ‘Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals,’ but in such a fragmentary and scattered form as to be of little use. The fact is, the field is yet open for an Osteological Manual. Much has been written on the subject. Pages of precise and accurate description, beautiful and artistic sheets of plates of bones without number, can be seen in any scientific library. But this is only half the matter. We want to advance a step farther. It is the relation between structure and function which needs working out. When a new bone finds its way into the student’s hands, he observes some peculiarity in shape or BONES. 19 structure in which it differs from the bones he is already acquainted, with ; the question naturally occurs to him, Why does this bone assume one shape in one animal, and in another is modified into a different form ? He may look in vain in his books for an answer to his query. And yet it is points like these which, in my opinion, make up the true science of Osteology. It is through careful, con- stant, and intelligent observation, that these enigmas are to be solved. Observation, indoors and out ; close attention to the habits of the animal in ques- tion, on the one hand, and careful consideration of its anatomical peculiarities, on the other. Let me give an instance of this, first of all taking it as an axiom that everything has been done with a purpose. Take, then, the skull of a crocodile. What do we find ? The orbits of the eyes, the nasal orifice, the passages leading to the auditory apparatus, all situated on a plane, along the upper flattened surface of the head. What, then, is the cause of this ? Palpably to allow the crocodile to remain submerged in the water, with its nose, eyes, and ears just above the surface to warn him of the approach of enemies or prey, and the rest of his carcase securely hidden beneath the waters. Take another instance. Observe the habits of a mole. With what rapidity it burrows under- c 2 20 BONES. ground, shovelling away the earth with its fore feet. Then look at its skeleton. We find just what we should have expected. The bones of its fore legs of astounding strength and breadth, furnished with deep grooves, which, together with its sternum or breastbone, which is furnished with a keel almost like that of the sternum of a bird, afford attachment to the powerful muscles. Its hind legs, being sim- ply needed for locomotion, are of the normal size. So, also, with the birds. The size of the keel of the sternum varies in proportion to the powers of flight which each species requires, for it is to the broad surfaces of the sternum that the great wing-muscles are attached. Take the skeleton of a humming- bird, which spends its life almost upon the wing. We find there a keel of so vast a size, that the re- mainder of the skeleton is reduced to insignificance in comparison. Of course, these instances that I have given are all of the most obvious nature, but they serve to show my meaning ; and the same line of reasoning can, I am sure, be extended to all the more minute points in osteological structure. In these researches, one is soon struck by the fact that in the modifications in various bones, or sets of bones, in accordance with the habits of each animal, the original type is never departed from, only modified. See, for example, the paddle of a BONES. 21 whale. More like the fin of a fish in general ap- pearance, and yet the same set of bones which are found in the arm of a man, are again found in an adapted form in the paddle of the whale. So, also, the fore leg of a horse preserves the same general plan. What is generally called its knee is in reality its wrist. It is there that we find the little group of bones which forms the carpus. All below it answers to our hand — a hand consisting of one finger. Take even a wider instance. Compare the arm of a man and the wing of a bird. Still greater adaptations have taken place, and yet the plan remains the same. We still find the clavicle or collar-bone, the scapula or shoulder-blade, the humerus, ulna, and radius, answering to the same bones of our arm, a small carpus or wrist, and finally the phalanges or fingers, simplified and lengthened and anchylosed to form but one series of bone, with the exception of a rudimentary thumb. It is not uncommon to find a rudimentary bone like this which in some allied species is fully developed. The leg of the horse again gives us a very striking example of this. There is, so to speak, only a single finger, but we find, one on each side of this single finger, two small bones, commonly known only as splint-bones. These are the rudimentary 22 BONES. traces of tlie same finger-bones, which in the rhino- ceros are fully developed. Now Osteology abounds in wonderful forms of structure like these. It is a study pregnant with pleasurable results, and is a real profitable study, and one in which each fresh student may do real solid work. It is all the little facts observed by naturalists from time to time all over the world, which on being collected together form the nucleus of knowledge ; for indeed all the scientific knowledge which we possess is little more than a nucleus, with which we are supplied. The mere collector of curious objects in no way furthers science. Plenty of people have amassed beautiful collections of insects interesting in their way, but of very tran- sient interest if it goes no farther. The collector possibly knows nothing at all of the wonderful internal structure of the animals he preserves. His insects are to him simply a mosaic — a collection of pretty works of art. So also the shell-collector — for I cannot call such a one as I describe a concho- logist — has often, I believe, the most vague ideas of what kind of animals they were that dwelt in the cases he so carefully treasures, and his collection is consequently of a dubious worth to him. Now, to those who study the anatomy of the mollusc as well as its shell, such a collection is full of the BONES. 23 deepest interest. He has learnt from his dissections that the habits of every variety of mollusc are accompanied by a variety of structure, which occa- sions a variety in the shape of the case which en- velopes it. It all blends together, and forms a harmonious whole. With a real love for science, as doubtless some of these collectors have, one is sorry to see so much time and money wasted on a pursuit which in their hands yields no fruit of any worth. The work of the mere collector can only be classed with that of the compiler of a stamp-album. Whereas, collections of natural objects, combined with intelligent study, are invaluable and almost indispensable to the naturalist. In Mr. Chivers’s note on Preserving Animals, No. 117 of £ Science-Gossip,’ the following passage occurs: — “The skeleton must be put in an airy place to dry, but not in the sun or near the fire, as that will turn the bones a bad colour.” I cannot com- prehend how this idea should have arisen. Perhaps the most indispensable assistant to the skeleton pre- parer is that very sun which Mr. Chivers warns him against. The bleaching power of the rays of a hot summer sun is astounding, and bones of the most inferior colour can rapidly be turned to a beautiful white by this means. It is for want of time and care in following out this method that the professional 24 BONES. skeleton preparers in London resort to the aid of lime, which, although it makes them white, is ter- ribly detrimental to the bones themselves. In a smoky city like London, the principle of sun- bleaching would be hard to follow ; but so great is its value, that more than once I have had valuable specimens sent down to me in the country, by a com- parative anatomist in London, to undergo a course of sun-bleaching ; and a specimen which I have re- ceived stained and blotched, I have returned of a beautiful uniform white, a change entirely due to that sun which we are told to beware of. The question, How are skeletons to be prepared ? is one which is repeatedly asked. People desire a method by which with little trouble the flesh may be removed from a specimen, and a beautiful skeleton of ivory whiteness left standing in its natural posi- tion. I can assure all such inquirers that this can- not be accomplished by any method at all. The art of preparing bones is a long, elaborate, and difficult one, and he who wishes to become a proficient in it must be alike regardless to the most unpleasant odours, and to handling the most repulsive objects. Mr. Chivers’s receipt for the maceration of specimens is about the best which one could have, only I should not advise so frequent a change of the water. What is needed is as rapid a decomposition of the flesh as BONES. 25 is possible, and then the cleaning of the skeleton just before the harder ligaments have also dissolved. But this requires very careful watching, and with the utmost pains it is almost impossible to get a skeleton entirely connected by its own ligaments. Another point which must be taken into consider- ation is this : What use is to be made of the spe- cimens after they are prepared ? Are they for purposes of real study, or simply as curious objects to look at? If the latter is the purpose, I must confess I do not think they are worth the trouble of preparing. If the former is the object for which they are intended, then I think no care or pains are thrown away. But for the real student of Osteology the separated bones, as a rule, are far more valuable than those which are connected. He needs one or two set up for purposes of reference, but the great bulk of his specimens should be separate bones. Osteology is one of the most delightful branches of comparative anatomy, and one not very hard to master. Let anyone try the experiment by getting together a few bones — and those from the rabbit or the partridge we have had for dinner are by no means to be despised — and then, by purchasing Flower’s ‘Osteology of the Mammalia,’ which is a cheap and first-rate book, he will learn what the study of the skeleton really is. And then let him 26 BONES. be on the look-out for specimens of all kinds on all occasions, bringing home all suitable objects he meets with in his walks, however unsavoury they may be, and he will be astonished to find how many specimens he will get together in the course of a year. I have now myself upwards of seventy skulls of various kinds, with often the rest of the skeleton as well, the greater part of which were gradually collected, by keeping constantly on the watch for them, within a year and a half. birds’ eggs. 27 III. birds’ eggs. By Thomas Southwell, F.Z.S., etc. I can imagine no branch of natural history more fascinating in its nature, or more calculated to attract the attention of the young, than the study of the nests and eggs of birds ; the beauty of the structure of the one, and of the form and colour of the others, cannot fail to excite wonder and admiration ; and the interest thus excited, if rightly directed, may, and indeed has, in many instances, lead to the de- velopment of that passionate love for all nature’s works, that careful and patient spirit of investigation, and that deep love for truth which should all be characteristics of the true naturalist. Who can look back upon the days, perhaps long passed away, when as a school-boy he wandered through the woods and fields, almost every step unfolding to him some new wonder, some fresh beauty — glimpses of a world of wonders only waiting to be explored — who can look back to such a time without feeling: that in those wanderings there dawned upon his mind a source of happiness which in its purity and intensity ranks 28 birds’ eggs. high amongst those earthly pleasures we are per- mitted to enjoy, and which has influenced him for good in all the changes which have since come upon him, lightening the captivity of the sick room, and adding fresh brightness to the enjoyments of health. Between the true naturalist and the mere “col- lector ” there is a wide gap, and I trust that none for whom I am writing will allow themselves to drift into the latter class ; the incalculable mischief wrought by those who assist in the extermination of rare and local species by buying up every egg of a certain species which can be obtained, for the mere purpose of exchange, cannot be too much deprecated, and I hope that none of my readers will be so guilty ; to them the pleasures of watching the nesting habits of the bird, the diligent search and the successful find are unknown; the eggs in such a cabinet are mere egg-shells, and not objects pregnant with in- terest, recalling many a happy ramble, and many a hardly-earned reward in the discovery of facts and habits before unknown. Every naturalist must be more or less a collector, but the naturalist should always be careful of drifting into the collector, his note-book and his telescope should be his constant and harmless companions. When the writer first commenced his collection, the mode of preparing the specimens for the cabinet was very rude indeed, and the method of arranging birds’ eggs. 29 equally bad ; he is sorry to say the popular hooks upon the subject which he has seen do not present any very great improvement ; in giving the results of his own experience, and the plan pursued by the most distinguished oologists of the day, who have kindly allowed him to explain the methods they adopt, he will, he trusts, save not only much useless labour, but many valuable specimens. Before saying a word as to preparing specimens for the cabinet, I wish to impress upon the young oolo- gist the absolute necessity for using the greatest care and diligence in order satisfactorily to identify, beyond possibility of doubt, every specimen, before he admits it to his collection. Without such pre- cautions, what might otherwise be a valuable, col- lection is absolutely worthless ; and it is better to have a small collection of authentic specimens than a much larger one, the history of which is not per- fectly satisfactory ; in fact, it is a good rule to banish from the cabinet every egg which is open to the slightest doubt. There are some eggs which, when mixed, the most experienced oologist will find it impossible to separate with certainty, and which cannot be identified when once they are removed from the nest. The difficulties in the way of authentication are by no means slight, but space will not allow me to dwell upon them ; the most ready means, however, 30 birds’ eggs. is that of watching the old bird to the nest, although even in this, as the collector will find by experience, there is a certain liability to error. In collecting abroad it will be found absolutely necessary (how- ever reluctant we may be to sacrifice life) to pro- cure one of the parents with the nest and eggs. As we are writing for beginners at home, we trust such a measure will rarely be necessary; but that an accurate knowledge of the appearance of the bird, its nesting habits, the situation, and the materials of which the nest is composed, will be found amply sufficient to identify the eggs of our familiar birds. This knowledge of course is only to be obtained by patient and long observation ; but it is just by such means that the student obtains the practical in- sight into the habits and peculiarities of the objects of his study, together with the careful and exact method of recording his observations, which even- tually enables him to take his place amongst the more severely scientific naturalists whom he desires to emulate. I will first describe the tools required, and then proceed to the mode of using them. Figs. 4 and 5 are drills used for making the hole in the side of the egg, from which the contents are discharged by means of the blowpipe, Fig. 6. Fig. 4 has a steel point, brass ferrule, and ebony birds’ eggs. 31 Fig. 4. I Fig. 5. handle, and may be used for eggs up to the size of the wood-pigeon’s ; Fig. 5 is all steel, the handle octagonal, to give a firm hold to the fingers in turning it, and may be used for eggs from the size of the wood-pigeon’s upwards. The points of both are finely cut like the teeth of a file, as shown in the woodcut. The blowpipe, Fig. 6, is about 5^ inches in length (mea- sured along the curve), and is made of German silver, which from its cleanliness, lightness, and freedom from corrosion, will be found tbe most suitable : it should be light and tapering, and with a ring at the upper end to prevent it from slip- ping out of the mouth when used. A piece of thin wire, Fig. 7, should be kept in the tube when not in use, to prevent it from becoming stopped up by any foreign substance. A common jeweller’s blowpipe may be used for large eggs, such as those of gulls and ducks. Fig. 8 is a small Drills for perforating i i n , i i-i Birds’ Eggs. glass bulb-tube, which may be used for sucking out the contents of very delicate eggs, and other purposes, which will be explained here- 32 birds’ eggs. Fig. 6. Fig. 7. German-silver Wire for unstop- Blowpipe. ping ditto. 33 birds’ eggs. after. The small drill and blowpipe may be carried inside the cover of the note-books. The sooner a fresh egg is emptied of its contents after it is taken from the nest the better. This should be done by making a hole in the side with the drill (choosing the side which is least conspicu- ously marked) by working it gently backwards and forwards between the forefinger and thumb, and taking great care not to press too heavily, or the egg w7ill burst with the outward pressure of the drill : a very small hole will generally be found sufficient. When this is done, take the egg in the left hand with the hole doivnwards , introduce the blowpipe, by blowing gently through which, the contents may soon be forced out. Water should then be intro- duced by means of a syringe or the bulb-tube, which may be filled and blown into the egg. After shaking, blow the w7ater out again by means of the blowpipe ; repeat this till the egg is free from any remains of the yolk or white : should the egg not be quite fresh, it will require more washing. Care should be taken to wet the surface of the egg as little as possible. After washing the interior, lay the egg, with the hole downwards, on a pad of blotting-paper to drain till it is quite dry. Should the eggs be much incubated, I should recommend that the old birds be left to complete their labour D 34 birds’ eggs. of love ; but a valuable egg may be made available by carefully cutting a piece out of the side, extract- ing the young one, and, after replacing the piece of shell with strong gum-water, covering the join with a slip of very thin silk-paper, which may be tinted so as to resemble the egg, and will scarcely be noticed. This is a very rough way of proceeding, however, compared with Professor Newton’s plan of gumming several thicknesses of fine paper over the side of the egg to strengthen it, through which the hole is drilled : the young chick is then cut into small pieces by means of suitable instruments, and the pieces removed with others :* the paper is then damped and removed from the egg. The old plan of making two holes in the side of the egg is very objectionable : a hole at each end is still worse. Many eggs would be completely spoiled by washing ; none improved. There is no necessity for washing at all, except such as are very filthy, and these eggs (which you may be sure are not fresh) are not such as should be willingly accepted as specimens: a little dirt only adds to the natural appearance of the egg ; washing in most cases cer- * “ Suggestions for forming Collections of Birds’ Eggs.” By Professor Newton. Written for the Smithsonian Institution of Washington, and republished by Newman, 9, Devonshire Street, Bishopsgate. birds’ eggs. 35 tainly does not. Never use varnish to the shell ; it imparts a gloss which is not natural : all eggs should not have a polished appearance like those of the Woodpecker. Should the yolk be dried to the side of the egg, a solution of carbonate of soda should be introduced : let it remain till the contents are softened, then blow out and wash well. G-reat care must be taken not to allow the solution to come in contact with the outside of the egg. Having blown the egg, and allowed the inside to become quite dry, procure some thin silk-paper gummed on one side, and with a harness-maker’s punch cut out a number of little tickets suitable to the size of the hole in the egg, moisten one of these, and place it with the gum side downwards over the hole, so as to quite cover it ; cover the ticket with a coat of varnish, which will render it air-tight and prevent its being affected by moisture. The egg thus treated will have all the appearance of a perfect specimen, and if kept from the light will suffer very little from fading. The note-book has been mentioned. This should be a constant companion ; nothing should be left to memory. When an egg is taken, a temporary pencil number should at once be placed upon it, and this number should correspond with the number attached to an entry in the note-book, describing the nest (if not removed), its situation, number of eggs, day of d 2 36 birds’ eggs. month, and any other particular of interest. When the egg is ready for the cabinet, as much of this information (certainly, name, date, and locality) should be indelibly marked ujion it as conveniently can be done (neatly, of course, and on the under side) ; also the number referring to the collector’s general list of his collection, into which the im- portant parts of the entry from the note-book should be copied. Never trust to gummed labels, which are always liable to come off ; by writing the neces- sary particulars upon the egg itself there can be no confusion or mistake. Most collectors have their own plan of cataloguing their collection. I have adopted the following, which I find to answer very well. Obtain a blank paper book the size of common letter-paper, rule a horizontal line across the centre of each page, and make a complete list of British birds, placing only two names on each page, one at the head of each division, prefixing a progressive number to each name : this number is to agree with that marked on the egg of the species named. Then follow the locality whence the egg came, by whom taken (if not by myself), or how it came into my possession, with any other particular worthy of note. With all eggs received in exchange or otherwise, this note should, if possible, be obtained in the handwriting of the person from whom they are re- birds’ eggs. 37 ceived, and the slip on which it is written be affixed in the book under the number. When specimens of the eggs of the same species are obtained from various localities, those from each locality should be distinguished by a letter prefixed to the number. The plan will be better understood by referring to the following extract : 62. Great Sedge-warbler ( Sylvia turtoides, Meyer). 62. Received of , from the cabinet of Mr. . a62. Taken by , a servant of , on the banks of the river Tongreep, near Valkenswaard, in the soirtk of Holland, on the 9th of June, 1855. The birds may be beard a long way off by their incessant “ Kara, Kara, Kara.” A few years ago not one was to be found near Valkenswaard. A. B 662. Bought at Antwerp in August, 1865. 118. Mealy Red-pole ( Fringilla borealis. Tern.). 118. Vyborg, at the head of Msesk Fjord (one of the two branches into which Varanger Fjord divides), East Finmark, Norway, July, 1855. The birds were very plentiful, and only one species seen, which appears quite identical with that which visits England every winter. C. D. E By means of these entries, and the corresponding number on the egg, mistakes are impossible, and the name and history of each egg would be quite as well known to a stranger as to the possessor. It needs not to be said that this catalogue is replete with the 38 birds’ eggs. deepest interest to its compiler. In it he sees the record of many a holiday trip and many a suc- cessful find. Some of the entries in my own register — the earliest date back five-and-twenty years — are memorials of companions long since dead, or sepa- rated by rolling oceans, but on whose early friendship it is a pleasure to dwell. Nothing can be more vexatious and disappointing than the receipt of a box of valuable eggs in a smashed or injured condition from want of care or knowledge of the proper method of packing. A simple method is recommended by Professor Newton, which, from experience, I can confidently recom- mend : — Roll each egg in tow, wool, or some elastic material, and pack them closely in a stout box, leaving no vacant place for them to shake; or a layer of soft material may be placed at the bottom of the box, and upon it a layer of eggs, each one wrapped loosely in old newspaper ; upon this another layer of wool or moss, then again eggs, and packing alternately until the box is quite full. Bran, saw- dust, &c., should never be used ; and it should be ascertained that the box is quite filled, so that no shaking or settlement can occur. Almost every collector has his own plan for con- structing his cabinet, and displaying his collection. BIRDS EGGS. 39 The beo-irmer, if left to himself, will find it a matter of no small difficulty, and many will be the changes before he arrives at one at all satisfactory. Mr. Osbert Salvin has invented a plan which I think as near perfection as it is possible to arrive at, and through his kiudness I am enabled to give a brief description of it. In the first place, his cabinets are so constructed that the drawers, of different depths, are interchangeable. This is effected by placing the runners, which carry the drawers, at a fixed distance from each other and making the depth of each drawer a multiple of the distance between the runners. For example: if the runners are three-quarters of an inch off each other, then let the drawers be 14, 2j, 3, 3f, 4|-, &c., inches deep. All these drawers will be perfectly interchangeable, and a drawer deep enough to hold an ostrich’s egg can in a few moments be placed amongst those containing warblers’ : every requirement of expansion and rearrangement will be vastly facilitated, involving none of those radical changes so worrying to a collector.* Mr. Salvin’s plan of arranging the eggs is equally simple, and admits of any amount of change with very little trouble. Each drawer is divided longitudinally by * Of course, cabinets thus constructed will be found equally con- venient for collections of bird-skins, fossils, &c. 40 BIEDS’ EGGS. thin slips of wood into three or more parts, about 4 to 6 inches across, as may be convenient ; a number of sliding stages are then constructed of cardboard, by cutting the cardboard half through, at exactly the width of the partition, and bending the sides down to raise the stage to the required height. A section of one of these stages will be seen in Fig. 9, and the Fig. 9. arrangement in the drawer at Fig. 10. A number of oval holes are then to be cut by hand, or with a wadding-punch of suitable size (altered in shape by hammering), and a thin layer of cotton-wool gummed on the upper surface of the stage : the holes, of course, should be suitable in size to the egg they are intended to receive. Between these stages sliding partitions must be placed : these should be made of just sufficient height that the horizontal part may fit closely on the wool, as shown at Fig. 9. These partitions should be made of thin wood for the birds’ EGGS. 41 upright part, along which a horizontal strip of card- board is to be fastened with glue, on which is to be placed a label bearing the name of the species of Fig. 10. 1 2 3 Cabinet Drawer on Mr. Salvin’s plan. egg displayed on the stage, as seen in Fig. 10. All this will be better understood by referring to the figures. Fig. 9 represents a longitudinal section of one of 42 birds’ eggs. the stages in its place, with the ends of the two next ; 1, showing the cardboard stage; 2, the cotton-wool; 3, the sliding partition ; and 4, the horizontal slip of cardboard to carry the label. Fig. 10 represents one of the drawers on Mr. Salvin’s plan : it is divided into three parts (1, 2, 3) by fixed partitions. No. 1 is represented empty ; No. 2 with the specimens arranged ; No. 3 with two stages and two of the movable partitions. This may appear very complicated at first sight, but a few trials will be sufficient to master the details, and the result will be very beautiful if neatly carried out. The eggs are well shown, not liable to fall out of their places, and it is very little trouble to alter the arrangement, every part being movable. Each drawer should be covered by a sheet of glass to exclude dust. Mr. Salvin’s cabinet is an excellent one for hold- ing the nests of birds, which should be removed with as little damage as possible, and placed in the drawers, under cover of glass. Great care must be taken to keep them free from moth, to which they are very liable ; for this purpose they should be dressed with the solution of corrosive sublimate. The young collector should remember that what is worth doing at all is worth doing well, and that the care bestowed upon his cabinet is not labour in birds’ eggs. 43 vain ; habits of exactness and precision of arrange- ment are absolutely necessary if he would make the best use of the materials which come in his way ; and, above all, never let him degenerate into the mere collector : his collection should be for use, and not merely ornamental. 44 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. IV. BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. By Dr. Henry Knaggs. The collector of Lepidoptera who aspires to success must read the hook of nature as he runs. If he have not the wit to note and turn to account each little fact which may come under his observation, neither he nor science will be the better for his collecting. He should, whenever he makes a capture, hnow the reason why, or he will never make a successful hunter. He should be ever on the alert : his motto, nunquam dormio. Some collect for profit, others for pastime ; but the aim of our readers, I take it, is not only to acquire a collection of really good specimens, but also at the same time to improve their minds ; and the best way of effecting this purpose is to hunt the perfect insect, not so much for itself as for the sake of the golden eggs, which, with proper care and attention, will in due course yield the most satis- factory results in the shape of bred specimens. This being the case, and space being limited, it BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. 45 seems best to simply touch upon the preliminary stages of insect existence, pointing out as we go those methods of collecting and preserving which experience has shown to he the most successful. There can be no doubt but that egg-hunting is a very profitable occupation, and far more remunera- tive than most people dream of, particularly as a means of acquiring the Sphinges, Bombyces, and Pseudo-bombyces. Eggs, speaking generally, are to be found on the plants to which the various species are attached ; and a knowledge of the time during which the species remains in the egg state, as well as the appearance of the eggs as deposited in nature, should if possible be acquired previous to proceeding to hunt. The most practical way of as- certaining the food and time is to watch the parent insect in the act of depositing her ova; but when the plant has been thus discovered, the best way is to capture her, and induce her to lay at our home. When eggs are inconspicuous, of small dimensions, or artfully concealed, the use of a magnifying glass is invaluable. Eggs may be preserved by plunging them in boiling water or piercing them with a very fine needle, or they may have their contents squeezed out and be refilled by means of a fine blowpipe, with 46 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. some coagulable tinted fluid ; but the shells them- selves, after the escape of the larvae, form, when mounted, beautiful objects for the microscope. The three most successful plans of obtaining caterpillars are searching, beating, and sweeping. The first requires good eyesight and a certain amount of preparatory knowledge ; the others are a sort of happy-go-lucky way of collecting, useful enough and profitable in their way, but affording a very limited scope for the exercise of the wits. In searching for larvae, the chief thing is to observe the indications of their presence. A mutilated leaf, a roughened bark, a tumid twig, a sickly plant, an unexpanded bud, an abortive flower, or a windfall fruit, should at once set us thinking as to the cause ; or, again, the webs, the silken threads, the burrowr- ings and trails, or the cast-off skins of larvae, may first call our attention to their proximity. Of course, larvae may be found on almost all plants, as well as in the bark, stems, or wood of many; but the col- lector should fortify himself with a knowledge of what each plant is likely to produce, and hunt ac- cordingly ; for though indiscriminate collecting may sometimes be successful, it does not tend to improve the intellectual powers. Beating is the more applicable method of working trees and bushes. It is carried out by jarring the BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. 47 larvae from their positions by. the aid of a stick or pole, in such a manner that they will fall into an inverted umbrella, or net ; or a sheet may be spread beneath for their reception. Sweeping with a strong net, passed from side to side with a mower-like movement, is better adapted for working low ground- herbage. The umbrella- net, shown in Fig. 11, is, perhaps, the best for the purpose. It is constructed Fig. 11. • by hinging two lengths of jack-spring on two pieces of brass, and adapting them to the stick of the net, the upper piece of brass being fixed, the lower movable. When captured, lame should be transferred to 48 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. chip boxes, or else to finely and freely perforated tins, the latter better preserving the food. A very y box foi the purpose is formed by fitting a second lid on to the bottom of a chip box, and then cutting from the second lid and bottom a hole, as shown in Fig. 12 (2) ; larvae may then be inserted Larva preserving is carried out by first killing, and then squeezing and extracting the contents through the anal orifice by means of a crochet hook. When this has been done, the skin is inflated, but not to such an extent as to distend the segments, and is kept thus inflated while it is being dried in a heated metal chamber. Afterwards, if the colours are observed to have faded, they may be cautiously restored by the application of paint. These objects, mounted on suitable artificial leaves, are then ready for the cabinet. Chrysalis collecting is conducted according to the situation of the object sought. Some are to be Collecting Box fox- Larva.'. Fig. 12. through the hole ; but when the lid is shifted round, and the holes are not opposite, of course there will be no opening, as in Fig. 12 (1), and the contents are secured from escape. BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. 49 found in the chinks of bark or under loose bark? which may be detached by means of a powerful lever. Some are suspended from trees, bushes, copings, hanging head downwards, or girded by silken threads to low plants or walls ; others are to be found in the stems or trunks of their food- plants ; many are concealed in cocoons of more or less perfect construction, others again amongst fallen leaves, but the majority are to be met with under the surface of the ground ; in which case we shall have to dig for them by the aid of a trowel or broad chisel. The best situations for subterranean pupae are open park-like fields, borders of streams, open spaces in fir woods, and they are usually situ- ated within a foot or so of the tree trunks, at the depth of two or three inches, though sometimes considerably deeper. Of course both larvae and pupae of aquatic species will have to be sought for in their element, among the plants they frequent. Chrysalis preserving is a simple matter : the pupae may be killed by plunging them into hot water or by baking; frequently, however, we find that the natural polish disappears with death, and this may be restored by varnishing. It is advisable that the cocoons also, where practicable, should be preserved, to give a notion of their appearance in nature. E 50 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. Moths and butterflies may be sought for at rest or on the wing. They may be disturbed from their hiding places or they may be attracted by various alluring baits. At rest on stems of grasses and other plants butterflies may be taken on dull, sunless days ; but it requires some experience to detect a butterfly with its wings raised up over its back : the little “Blues” may thus be freely boxed in their localities. Again, such butterflies as hybernate may be found in old sheds and outhouses, or under stacks. Moths may be taken at rest on tree trunks, palings, and walls, or amongst foliage and ground herbage. Some species are to be freely captured in this way after their evening flight is over. Of course, for evening work, a lantern to assist our vision will be indispensable. On the wing, some butterflies are exceedingly active, others comparatively sluggish ; some fly high, others low. In hunting them, the chief points to be remembered are not to alarm, but rather cautiously to stalk our game, and strike, when we have an opportunity, with precision. It is impor- tant also to avoid throwing a shadow over them, and it is a good plan to get to windward of them — anything like flurry will be fatal to success. Moths which fly by day may be chased in the BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. 51 same manner, but some may be observed disporting themselves round trees ; these must be watched, and netted as they now and then descend. Others fly at a very low altitude, and are only brought into the field of vision by our assumption of the recumbent position. At night again, though we watch for any- thing stirring the air, among the trees or the herbage, our tactics are somewhat modified ; for, if the insect be of whitish colour, we should so place ourselves that its form will stand boldly out against a mass of dark foliage, whereas, if it be dingy in hue, we must take the sky for our background. Disturbing insects, and thus causing them to start forth, and so render themselves visible, is another method of collecting. This is carried out in various ways. First, the occupants of high trees may be expelled by jarring the trunk with a heavily loaded mallet, or by thwacking the trunk with a long hazel stick ; but a sharp look-out must be kept, for some sham death, and fall plump down, while others make off as fast as they can. Other plans are to pelt the trees with stones, or pump on them with a powerful garden engine, or beat them with a long pole ; and of all trees the most profitable for this purpose is the yew ; though firs, oaks, beeches, and other trees are not to be despised. e 2 52 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. For beating bushes there is nothing better than a walking-stick, and for low herbage a long switch passed quickly from side to side with a tapping movement is best adapted. The tenants of tree trunks may be disturbed by brushing the surface with a leafy little bough, or, better still, by the use of a strong fan, with which a powerful blast may be driven, the net being held in such a position as to intercept such insects as are blown off. Thatch-beating in the autumn is a very profitable employment, particularly in the matter of Depres- sariee. Sweeping need only be mentioned here, for moths collected by the process are anything but perfect insects. There are various methods of attracting moths and butterflies. The first is effected by confining a virgin female in a muslin cage, the frame of which may be very readily formed by bending three pieces of cane into circles, and fixing these together at right angles, as shown in Fig. 13. When this baited cage is placed in a favourable position, and the weather is propitious for the flight of the males, the latter will, in some cases, congregate, and may be freely captured. Then, the food-plant of the species is an attraction Fig. 13. Frame of Cage for Virgin Lepidoptera. BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. 53 at which we stand the best chance of procuring im- pregnated females. Various kinds of blooms possess alluring qualities for insects : of these, sallow and ivy are the greatest favourites with collectors. They should be worked after dusk by means of a lantern and net ; but the combination of a lantern fixed to a long stick, with a Fig. 14. Lantern and Net. shallow net beneath and a little in advance of it, as shown in the cut, is the apparatus best adapted for the purpose; the object of the net being to intercept any insects which may happen to fall under the stimulus of light. These attractions should be first well searched over, and afterwards, a sheet (split if necessary) having been carefully spread below the bushes, a gentle shaking should be administered. Besides these blossoms, heather, ragwort, bugloss, 54 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. catchfly, bramble, various grasses, and a vast number of other flowers, are wonderfully attractive. In working patches of bloom we should remain sta- tionary and strike as the visitors arrive. Again, over-ripe fruit, the juicy buds of certain trees, sap exuding from wounds in trees, are all more or less attractive. The secretion of aphides, commonly called honeydew, observable in hot seasons on the leaves of nettles and various other plants and trees, is also well worth attention, and is at times very productive of insects. Sugaring is the next attraction, and a very im- portant one it is. “Sugar” may be prepared by boiling up equal quantities of coarse “ foots ” sugar and treacle in a sufficient quantity of stale beer, a small quantity of rum being added previous to use, and also, if considered advisable, a flavouring of jar- gonelle pears, anise-seed, or ginger-grass. This mixture should be applied by means of a small paint brush to the trunks of trees, to foliage, flowers, tufts of grass, or indeed to any object which may present a suitable surface ; for in some localities we are put to shift to know where to spread our sweets. This operation should be performed just before dusk, and soon afterwards the baited spots should be visited and, by the aid of a lantern gently turned on them, examined, a net being held beneath the while. The BUTTEBFLIES AND MOTHS. 55 best form of net for the purpose is formed by socket- ing two paragon wires into a Y-piece and connecting their diverging extremities by a piece of catgut, as shown in Fig. 15. The catgut, being flexible, will adapt itself (see the dotted line) to the surface of a tree trank when pressed against it. With regard to insects captured at sugar, they are usually remark- Fig. 16. Box with linen joints. ably quiet, and may be boxed without difficulty, and, with a few exceptions, may be conveyed home in the boxes, care being taken to let each have a separate apartment. The boxes should be strengthened with strips of linen pasted round the joints, as shown in Fig. 16, otherwise accidents may occur, particularly on wet evenings or on rough ground. The skittish Fig. 15. 56 BUTTEKFLIES AND MOTHS. individuals may be best captured by means of the sugaring drum, of which a cut is given in Fig. 17. This apparatus consists of a cylinder, one end of which is covered with gauze, the other provided with a circular valve, which works in a slit. For use, the valve is opened and the cylinder placed over the insect, which naturally flies towards the gauze ; then the valve is closed, the corked piston, shown at the upper part of the cut, placed against it, the valve re-opened, the piston pushed up to the gauze, the insect pinned through the gauze, and the piston withdrawn with the insect transfixed to it. Light is another most profitable means of attract- Fig. 17. Sugaring Drum. BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. 57 ing. The simplest way is to place a powerful mode- rator lamp upon a table in front of an open window which faces a good locality, and then wait net in hand for our visitors, which usually make their appearance late in the evening, and continue to arrive until the small hours. Those who prefer it can use the American moth-trap, which is self- acting, detaining such insects as may enter its portals ; or those who can afford the space may fit up a room on the same principle. Street lamps are very profitable in certain localities, and amply reward the collector who perseveringly ancl minutely Cyanide Bottle and Ferrule. examines them. The apparatus depicted in Fig. 18 is very useful for taking off such insects as may be on the glass of the lamp : it consists of a cyanide bottle attached by a ferrule to the end of a suffi- ciently long stick. When placed over an insect, 58 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. Fiw. 19. stupefaction is quickly produced. A net of the shape represented in Fig. 19 is also very useful for getting at the various parts of the lamp. The best methods of stu- pefying and killing insects on the field is the cyanide nn+tlo ivvonQ vArl hv •nmm'nnr Lamp Net. Fig. 20. bottle, prepared by placing alternate layers of cyanide of potassium and blotting- paper in the bottom of a wide-mouthed bottle, the mouth of which is accurately stopped with a cover, which is better for the purpose than a bung. The chloroform bottle, which is generally made with a little nipple, through which the fluid flows slowly out, and covered with a screw-tap, as in the cut 20, is also handy. The chloro- form should be dropped over perforations in the bos containing our patient, these perforations having been previously made by a few stabs of a penknife. After the fluid is dropped, our thumb should cover it, when the vapour will quickly enter, and the inmate speedily become insensible. Afterwards the coup de grace may be given to the insect by pricking it under the thorax with the nib of a steel pen dipped in a saturated solution of oxalic Chloroform Bottle. BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. 59 acid. If we are smokers, a puff of tobacco may be blown into the box with like result. If we are desti- tute of any apparatus, and brimstone lucifers for the purpose of suffocating our captures under an inverted tumbler cannot be obtained at some roadside inn, we must fall back on the barbarous practice of pinching the thoraces of such as cannot be carried home in boxes. At home we shall find the laurel jar and ammonia bottle the most useful. The former is made by partially filling a large wide -mouthed bottle or jar with cut and bruised dry leaves of young laurel : if any dampness hang about them, we shall have the mortification of seeing our speci- mens become mildewed. The latter consists in adding a few lumps of carbonate of ammonia, or some drops of strong liquid ammonia, on a sponge, to the bottle in which our captures, with each box lid slightly opened, have been placed. But it must be borne well in mind, firstly, that ammonia is in- jurious to the colours of most green insects ; and secondly, that if the specimens be not well aired after having been thus killed, the pins with which they are transfixed will become brittle and break. Insects should be left in the ammonia for several hours, and are then in the most delightful condition for setting out. To pin an insect properly is a most important 60 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. procedure. The moth, if of moderate dimensions, may be rested or held between the thumb and fore- finger of the left hand, while the corresponding digits of the right hand operate by steadily pushing a pin through the thorax, bringing it out between the hind pair of coxae until sufficient of the pin is exposed beneath to steady the insect in the cabinet. The direction of the pin should be perpendicular when the insect is viewed from the front, as in Fig. 21. Fig. 22. Front View of properly pinned Side View of ditto. Insect. Fig. 21 ; but a lateral view should show the pin slightly slanting forwards, as in Fig. 22. Pins made for the purpose in numerous sizes are sold by Mr. Cooke, of New Oxford Street. Setting out moths and butterflies is an operation which, if skilfully performed, adds much to the beauty of the future specimens. The method of setting most popular is carried out by means of saddles and braces. These so-called saddles are BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. 61 pieces of cork rounded as in the sectional figure, a groove being cut out for the reception of the bodies of the insects : they are generally strengthened by Fig. 23. Cork Saddle for setting out Insects. a strip of wood, upon which they are glued. Braces are wedge-shaped pieces of card or thick note- paper, the thick end strengthened, if necessary, with a disc of card fixed by shoe- makers’ paste, and pierced with a pin through it, as shown in Fig. 24. The mode of applica- tion of these appliances is beau- tifully shown in Fig. 26.* But before these straps can be applied, the wings must first be got into position by means of the setting needle and setting bristle, which Braces for setting out are thus manipulated (the set- ting bristle, by the way, being formed by fixing a cat’s whisker and a pin into a piece of cork, at * Figs. 26 and 27 have been kindly lent by Messrs. Reeve & Co. 62 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. the angle shown in Fig. 25) : — After the insect is straightly pinned upon the saddle, and the legs, Fig. 25. Setting Bristle. antennae, and, if necessary, the tongue, got into position, the left fore-wing is to be pushed or tilted into its place by means of the setting needle, which Fig. 26. is merely a darning needle with a handle ; and simul- taneously it is to be held down by the bristle ; then a small brace should be applied to the costa of BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. 63 the fore wing. Next the hind wing should in like manner be adjusted, and as many braces as are considered necessary to keep the wings in their place should be added. Lastly, the right side of the insect should be treated in a similar way. A very useful mode of setting, invaluable when we are destitute of saddles, is known as “four-strap” setting, and is well explained in Fig. 27. In this case the lower straps are first put into such a posi- tion, that when the insect is placed over them the middle of each of the costae will rest upon them ; then the wings are got into position, and the second pair of straps are applied over the wings, the latter retaining their position through the elasticity of their costae: two more straps are generally added to secure the outer borders of the wings, as shown Fig. 27. Four-strap setting. 64 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. in the drawing; but these, though advantageous, are not absolutely necessary. The saddles, with their contents, should be kept in a drying house, which is a box adapted for their reception, and freely ven- tilated, until the specimens are thoroughly dry, when the latter may be cautiously removed, and trans- ferred to the collection. To preserve our collection from decay, consider- able care and attention is necessary. In the first place no insect which is in the least degree sus- pected of being affected by mites, or mould, or grease, should on any account be admitted to our collections. It is best to be on the safe side and submit every insect received from correspondents, whether mity or not, to quarantine, by which is meant their detention for a few weeks in a box the atmosphere of which is impregnated with some va- pour destructive to insect life ; such as that of benzole. Our own specimens we should kyanize by touching the bodies of each with a camel’s-hair brush dipped in a solution of bichloride of mercury of the strength six grains to the ounce of spirits of wine, — no stronger. As for mould, it is best destroyed by the appli- cation of phsenic or carbolic acid, mixed with three parts of ether or spirit. As preventives, the speci- mens should be kyanized as above. Caution in the BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. 65 use of laurel as a killing agent must be exercised, and the collection must be kept in a dry room. Grease may be removed by soaking the insects in pure rectified naphtha or benzole, even by boiling them in it if necessary. When the bodies only are greasy, they may be broken off, numbered, and treated as above. After the grease is thoroughly softened, the insects should be covered up in pow- dered pipeclay or French chalk, which may be sub- sequently removed by means of a small sable brush. As a precaution against grease, it is advisable to remove the contents of the abdomina by slitting up the latter beneath with a finely pointed pair of scissors before they are thoroughly dry, and packing the cavities with cotton wool. The males, especially of such species as have internal feeding larvae, should be thus treated. Some prefer to keep their collections in well-made store boxes, which possess many advantages over the cabinet ; for example, they may be kept like books in a bookcase, the upright position rendering the contents less liable to the attacks of mites ; they are more readily referred to, and are more portable, and they admit of our gradually expanding our collec- tions to any extent. Cabinets, on the other hand, are preferred by many, for the reasons that they are compact and generally form a handsome article F 66 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. of furniture ; moreover, good cabinets are made entirely of mahogany, which is the best wood for the purpose ; deal, and other woods containing resinous matter, having a decidedly injurious effect on the specimens. As a preservative, there is, after all, perhaps nothing better than camphor ; but it should be used sparingly, or its tendency will be to cause greasiness of the specimens. BEETLES. 67 Y. BEETLES. By E. C. Bye, F.Z.S., etc. The general rules, so ably expounded by Dr. Knaggs in his instructions for collecting Lepidoptera, as to constant alertness and making “ the reason why ” the starting-point of investigation, apply with equal force to the collector of Coleoptera, and need not be here recapitulated. But they do not, in the instance of the latter, require generally to be ob- served, except as to the perfect state of beetles ; for, owing to the hidden earlier conditions of life of most of those insects, and to the long period during which these conditions exist, it is but seldom that the pur- suit of rearing them, so universally and profitably adopted by the Lepidopterist, is found of much use to the collector of beetles. And this is very much to be regretted ; because, in the majority of cases, if the latter succeed in rearing a beetle from its earliest stage, and keep proper notes of its appearance and habits, he will probably be adding to the general stock of knowledge, as the lives of comparatively few, even of the commonest species, are recorded from the beginning. It may be, also, in addition f 2 68 BEETLES. to the reasons above mentioned, for the usual want of success attending the rearing of beetle larvae, that the fact of bred specimens being frequently (from the artificial conditions attending their development, and from their not being allowed that length of time which, in a state of nature, they require after their final change before they are ready to take an active part in their last stage of life) not nearly so good as those taken at large, militates considerably against the more general use of this method of adding to a collection. In this respect, of course, the Lepidopterist is actuated by precisely opposite motives ; as for him, a bred specimen is immeasur- ably superior to one captured. And the fact of so few beetle larvae being known at all, or, if known, only to the possessor of somewhat rare books, renders it very likely that a mere collector, finding a con- siderable expenditure of patience and trouble result in the rearing of a species of which he could at any time readily procure any number of specimens, may very probably abandon rearing for the future. These observations, however, are not in the least intended to dissuade anyone from breeding or en- deavouring to breed beetles. On the contrary, it is obvious from them that it is precisely by attend- ing to these earlier stages that the earnest student (novice or expert) has the most chance of distin- BEETLES. 69 guishing himself, on account of the more open field for discovery. And in the instance of many small, and especially gregarious, beetles, breeding from the larvae is frequently very easy, if only the substances (fungus, rotten wood, roots, stems of plants, &c.) containing them be carefully left in precisely the state as when found, and be exposed to the same atmospheric or other important conditions. In fact, to ensure success and good specimens, it is best that in their early stages beetles should be “ let alone severely.” It may be here observed that we have been lately in this country indebted to the minute observations and great tact of some of our best students of Micro- Lepidoptera (in which branch of entomology we are second to none in Europe) for some most interesting additions to our knowledge of habits, and for long series of beetles usually rare in collections. Dismissing then the earlier stages of beetles, the following observations will apply only to the imago, or “ beetle proper.” And here I would repeat how evident it is that the knowledge of “ the reason why” is especially indispensable to the beetle col- lector, judging from the extreme rarity of the occur- rence of any new or valuable insect in the stores of a mere random collector or a beginner. For him, no old hand detects an equivalent to Daplidice or La~ 70 BEETLES. thonia in liis duplicate boxes ; whereas, among Lepi- dopterists, “ school-boy’s luck ” is proverbial. I can give no reason for this statement, founded on my own (by no means trifling) experience in the way of examining specimens. And in this idea I think I am corroborated by the very great rarity in old collections and records of many species now uni- versally common ; the directions in older manuals, as to looking under stones, on walls, paths, &c., pretty clearly showing that the majority of captures in the olden time were what are now irreverently designed as “ flukes.” Still, it is astonishing to what good account a sharp observer may turn these casual meetings, often to him resulting in the discovery of “ the reason why ” as to the particular species acci- dentally found, and to the correlative increase of his collection. And, apart from captures during collect- ing expeditions, good things will at times occur to the alert entomologist: one, for instance, who will startle his friends in the streets by suddenly swoop- ing with his hat after an atom flying in the sunshine, or who is not too proud to pick up another, racing on the hot pavement, during those days of early spring, when the insect myriads, revelling in warmth and light, after their long winter’s durance, may be seen madly dashing about, even in towns : on such a day, for instance, as that whereon a certain well-known BEETLES. 71 doctor among the beetles found that living carabi- deous gem Anchomenus sexpundatus, far from its native Sphagnum and heath, wandering on the flag- stones of the W.C. district. But, before referring to special modes of hunting, it may be as well to mention the instrumenta belli required for the equipment of the Coleopterist in this country. These are but few, and of the simjdest kind ; indeed, in entomology, as in the gentle art of angling, it is often the most roughly accoutred that secures the best basket. The umbrella net, figured at p. 47, used both for beating into and sweeping, cannot be dispensed with, and a beating stick can be cut out of the nearest hedge. The net itself should be of fine “cheese cloth,” or some strong fabric that allows the passage of air, but not of beetles ; otherwise, if of too close a fibre, it is apt to “ bag ” with the inclosed air, and reject its con- tents during the operation of sweeping. The net being of course used with the right hand, its left top edge especially bears the brunt of the attendant friction, and gets soon worn; it is consequently advisable to have an outer strip of stout “ leather- cloth ” sewn strongly over the rim there for some little distance, extending that protection also to the right top edge, though not for so long a space. The curved handle of the stick should be sawn off as soon 72 BEETLES. as possible; it frequently catches in. the pockets of the sweeper, causing a jerk to the net, and dispersal of its contents. For a similar reason, the ferruled apex may well be removed. Some collectors keep the sharp cutting edge of the spring sides of the net uncovered, sewing the net itself to holes drilled at intervals on the lower side of the springs : a net of this kind cuts very close, and where there is much herbage soon gets full of fragments, taking a long time to examine. It will be found handy if the bag of the net be cut to a point from the front towards the handle side : this causes the contents to gravitate to the bottom, as far as possible from the point where the rim meets the substance swept. A common umbrella (easily slung by a stout string over the back when not in use) is an admirable (some think, superior) substitute for this net, as it can be held up higher by the ferrule, and tall bushes and trees (of which the branches nearer the top are usually most productive) can be beaten into it with more certainty of their beetle contents bein'g caught. The steel frames will be found in the way when the beetles are being bottled ; consequently, a good large gingham may be consecrated to collecting, and its inside (not merely the outer ribs) covered all over up to the middle (leaving no aperture there if possible) with thin white calico, stitched over the frame. BEETLES. 73 Another good form of net for sweeping or dragging in long grass or herbage, is of the common fishing landing-net description, made of very stout wrought- iron or steel wire, either in a simple hoop, if a mode- rate size only be required, or with a single hinge to fold into two, or with three such hinges, folding into four, as may be desired. I have used one of these four-folding nets for years, and never found it fail. One end is hammered out flat and perforated, the other forming a male screw (1J inch long), bent at right angles with the body of the frame, passes through the hole, and fits into a female screw in a strong and long ferrule, fixed in the usual way to the end of a stout oaken walking-stick. As the power exerted in sweeping with such a net is great, and the action continuous, the simple screw is not enough, and a small screw hole is drilled right through the ferrule and the screw end of the net ; a small thumb-screw, in shape like an old-fashioned clock key, going transversely through both, and effectually hindering lateral displacement. The framework of the net and the ferrule are better made of the same metal, because, if made of two metals of different density, the stronger soon wears away the weaker ; and the stick must be inserted deeply into the ferrule, and held on with two deep pins or small screws on opposite sides (not on the same level, 74 BEETLES. however, as the wood is in that case weakened), one being insufficient to stand the strain. The net, of the same substance as that above mentioned, is made with a loose “ hem ” to slip on the frame before screwing it in the ferrule. A leather-cloth edging all round is advisable, and the bag should be cut long enough to prevent the possibility of the contents jerking out. Another very good plan for securing the frame to the ferrule is to have both ends of it soldered together into a deep square-sided plug, fitting into a corresponding square hole in the ferrule. The small cross-screw or pin is here also to be used, but the angles of the plug naturally keep a much tighter hold than the worm of a screw. Such a frame as this cannot, of course, be folded. For water beetles, a similar net to that last men- tioned is effective, but it should be stouter and with a flat front, for dredging closely against the sides and bottoms of ponds. The best substance for its bag is fine sampler canvas ; and a very large, stout bamboo cane is at once light and strong for its stick. To avoid friction the bag may be affixed to small wire rings let into holes on the lower edge of the frame, or running on the frame itself. A sieve is one of the most remunerative imple- ments, and may be procured either simple or folding. It consists of a stout wire-framed circle, connected BEETLES. 75 by a strong linen band, six inches deep, with the bottom of an ordinary wire sieve, the meshes of which are wide enough to allow any beetle to pass through. Leaves, grass, flood refuse, ants’ nests materials, cut grass, seaweed, haystack and other debris, are roughly shaken in this over a sheet of brown paper, which should invariably form part of a Coleopterist’s appa- ratus. A stout piece of double waterproof material may be substituted ; and, in marsh collecting, must be used as a kneeling pad. For ordinary bark collecting, a strong ripping chisel (of which the blade is well collared, so as not to slip) is as useful a tool as can be procured ; but for real tree working, no ordinarily portable instru- ment is thoroughly effective. Light steel hammers with a lever spike may delude the collector ; but a woodman’s axe, a saw, a pickaxe or crowbar, will often be found not too strong. For cutting tufts, &c., a strong garden pruning-knife is good, and an old fixed- handled dinner-knife (carried in a sheath) better. For holding the results of the operation of these instruments, the collector needs but one or two collecting bottles — one rather small and circular, of as clear and strong glass (not cast) as can be got, with a wide mouth and flat bottom. Its neck should not slope, but be of even width, or the cork will often get out of itself. This cork should be a deep one, 76 BEETLES. and be perforated longitudinally by a stout and large round quill, the bottom of which should be level with the bottom of the cork, the top projecting some incli and a half, with the upper orifice not cut off straight, but slightly sloped diagonally, so as more easily to scoop up beetles from the net or hand. It is closed with an accurately fitting, soft, wooden plug, rather longer than the quill, reaching exactly to the bottom of it, but with its top projecting above the top of the quill, and broader than it, so as to be easily pulled out by the teeth when the hands are occupied. The bottle should be secured by stout twine to the buttonhole, enough play being left for it to reach the net in any ordinary position. I usually secure the external junction of quill and cork with red sealing-wax, and have more than once found the bright red catch my eye when I have lost my bottle. [N.B. This loss will always happen to every collector ; generally after a peculiarly lucky day’s work : so use the string-preventive.] The body of the bottle may usefully be half covered with white paper gummed on. A few stout, plain glass tubes, papered in like way, and with plain corks, should be carried for special captures ; and a cyanide bottle,* as mentioned * “ Killing bottles,” containing cyanide of potassium under a layer of gypsum, may be bought at most natural-history apparatus dealers, and are useful as relaxing depots. BEETLES. 77 at p. 57, or one containing bruised and shredded young laurel shoots, will be found useful for safely bringing home larger species, or such as would devour their fellow-captives. When put into these, beetles almost instantly die and become rigid, needing a stay of two days or so to become relaxed, in which condition they will then safely remain for a consider- able period. In the first collecting bottle a piece of muslin should be put, to give the contents foothold : these are brought home alive, and killed by bodily im- mersion in boiling water, after which they are placed on blotting paper to drain off superfluous moisture. Good things should always, when practicable, be set out at once, as the pubescence is apt to get matted if they are consigned for too long a period to the laurel or cyanide bottle ; but such as remain un- mounted can be put in a little muslin bag, and de- posited in laurel until a more convenient opportunity. Beetles also, when taken in large numbers during an expedition into a productive locality, may be collected indiscriminately into a bottle containing sawdust (sifted to get rid both of large pieces and actual dust), slightly alcoholized, or with a small quantity of carbolic acid or cyanide of potassium in it. Each night, on reaching home, these will be found to be dead, and they can then be transferred to a larger bottle or air-tight tin can, partially filled with the 78 BEETLES. same materials and a little carbolic acid to check undue moisture. Filled up with sawdust, this will travel in safety for any distance, and almost any time. Species of moderate size, say up to that of an ordinary Harpalus, are in this country usually mounted on card. Much is to be said both for and against this practice : it enables the proportions and formation of limbs to be well appreciated, and it preserves the specimens securely ; but there can be no doubt that it prevents an inspection of the under side, except at the slight trouble of extra manipula- tion in floating off in cold water and reversing, and that the gum used clogs the smaller portions of the insect that come in contact with it. Specimens larger than those mentioned should be pinned through the centre of the upper third of the right wing-case (never through the scutellum or thorax), and the limbs extended in position with pins on a setting board, made of a flat strip of cork glued on deal. Both these and the mounted examples must be left to dry, for a week at least, in the open air : if the boards are fitted in a frame, they can be re- versed (as soon as the gum is dry in mounted specimens), so that the specimens are bottom up- wards— dust cannot then collect on them, and there is less chance of mites attacking them. Specimens BEETLES. 79 dry more rapidly in spring and summer than at any other time, and of course more readily in dry weather. For mounting specimens, five or six small pieces of the finest and most transparent gum tragacanth, or “ gum dragon,” with rather less than the same number of pieces of clear gum arabic, are to be put in a wide-mouthed bottle with about a large wine- glassful of cold water. In a short time (twenty-four hours at most) the gum absorbs the fluid and swells ; then add half as much more water, and stir the mixture, which, on being left for another twenty-four hours at most, will be ready for use. The mixture should be dull white, of even texture, and not quite fluid. Never make a large quantity at one time, or be persuaded to put anything else into it. Card for mounting should be the whitest, smoothest, and best that can be procured. “ Four-sheet Bristol board ” for large specimens, and three-sheet for ordinary use, are about the proper degrees of thickness. Robersons, of Long Acre, artists’ colourmen, have promised the writer to turn out cardboard of this kind with an extra milling, to ensure a good surface. Upon strips of this card, pinned on a setting board, the insects to be set out are mounted, one at a time, and not too close to each other, each on a separate “ dab ” of the gum, the limbs being duly set out with a fine pin or needle mounted in a paint-brush stick. A pin with 80 BEETLES. the point very finely turned, so as to form a minute hook, is very useful ; and for extremely minute work a “ bead-needle ” is valuable. The gum-brush should not be used in setting, but one or two very fine-pointed camel’s-hair brushes may be found of advantage. Before mounting, reverse the specimen on the blotting-paper, and brush out its limbs as far as practicable with a damp flat brush. Yery refrac- tory individuals may require to be gummed on their backs ; as soon as the gum is dry, their limbs can be more easily got into position, and they can then be gently damped off their temporary mount, and treated as above. A small pair of brass microscope-forceps, ground or cut to a minute point, will often materially assist in getting refractory limbs into position. French white liquid glue (not made of shell-lac) is useful for fastening down larger specimens, as it is very strong and dries readily ; and with a very small quantity of it rows of specimens can quickly and securely be roughly mounted, in the Continental way, which is preferable in many cases to leaving the insects for a long time in laurel before setting them out. Such specimens can afterwards, if desired, be relaxed by leaving them on damp sand, or in the cyanide or laurel bottle, and be then set in the way above indicated. BEETLES. 81 Care must be taken, in setting, not to put the specimen lop-sided on the card, or to distort its segments unnaturally by pulling them out of posi- tion, &c., and not to allow gum to lodge anywhere on the upper surface. It is easy, soon after a spe- cimen is securely mounted, to remove with clean water and brush any superfluous gum. In preparing such insects as are liable to “ run up ” in drying (e. g. the Staphylinidse), the abdomen should be duly pulled out by a bead-needle inserted at its apex ; and to prevent the contraction of the internal mus- cles in drying, this part may be held with the liquid glue above mentioned. Usually, by putting these insects as soon as mounted into a box and keeping it closed for a few hours, while the first drying takes place, the proper dimensions of the abdomen may be preserved, and thus the natural facies of the insect retained. The contents of the bodies of very large insects may well be removed, either by the anal orifice, or by an incision on the lower side of the abdomen. rThe Oil-beetles ( Meloe ) alone require careful stuffing. This is best done by separating the entire abdomen from the metathorax, beneath the elytra, and close to their point of insertion : the body is then easily emptied and washed out, and may be filled with cut-up wool, which packs closely ; when gummed on again, the junction is not visible, G 82 BEETLES. and the entire insect preserves its wonderfully obese appearance. To save time, in mounting many specimens, it is better to merely gum straight on the strip of card as many specimens as can be managed at a sitting. The left side of each of these can then be slightly damped with clear cold water, and its left limbs set out: when all are thus done, the first one will be nearly, if not quite, ready to have its right side treated in like manner ; and so on to the end. Very refractory specimens will sometimes require to be even held down with little braces of card on pins, and to have each limb damped and set out by a separate operation. The card of large specimens will often curl upwards in drying, owing to the amount of damp : to counteract this, the lower face of the card may be washed with a wet brush, just before gumming its surface. Before putting insects away, when dry, the indi- vidual specimens should be cut off the strips of card by a straight cut on each side, one at right angles to the sides in front, and another behind, all (except the last) close to the tips of the limbs as set out, so that the whole card forms a parallelogram. A very little practice will enable the operator to do this both certainly and quickly. No two individuals (save perhaps a male and female, of whose sexual BEETLES. 83 relations there can be no doubt, or an example mounted on its back, to show its under side, along with a member of the same species) should be allowed to continue on one card ; much less should a row be left together. The reason of this is, that in many cases species closely resembling each other often get confused ; and it is, moreover, difficult to get a glass of anything but a very low power to bear upon all parts of the individuals without injuring some of them. Each specimen should have sufficient card left behind it to allow of a glass of high power being- passed between it everywhere and its pin. The pin should perforate the card in the middle of, and close to, its hinder margin ; and the whole card be lifted three-fourths up the pin, to keep it from mites and dirt as much as possible. Proper entomological pins can be obtained of all sizes at the agents of Edelsten, 17, Silver Street, St. Martin ’s-le-Grand ; also (with all other apparatus) of any natural-history agent or dealer in London; such as Mr. E. W. Janson, 28, Museum Street, or Cooke, New Oxford Street. “No. 8” pin is, perhaps, the most useful size. In re- moving many specimens, proper insect forceps will be found handy : these can be obtained at the two last addresses ; or of Buck, cutler, Tottenham Court Road. Specimens will occasionally become discoloured with grease, usually from defective drying, though G 2 84 BEETLES. many water beetles and internal feeders, and most autumn-caught specimens, are specially liable to this defect. Benzine is an effectual remedy for it and for mites, and can be liberally applied with a brush. Carbolic or phaenic acid, dissolved in that fluid (or alone, see p. 64), is an effectual safeguard against mould from damp ; and when in solution with water, this acid has been found useful as a wash for card and boxes, which then are not attacked by mites. To re-card a specimen that has become discoloured (whether from either of these causes, or from age), it is only necessary that it should be floated in cold water for a few minutes ; the insect can then be dried, well saturated with benzine, and again mounted, looking as fresh as ever. But, in re-carding specimens, it is necessary to be very careful with such as were originally kept too long in a laurel or cyanide bottle, as they are apt to become so rotten that a little damp will cause a “solution of continuity.” As to storing the specimens when quite dry, I can add nothing to the excellent observations of Dr. Knaggs, at p. 65 ; the same remarks applying with equal force to Goleoptera ; except, perhaps, that, even when the collector has (and is satisfied with) a cabinet, he is likely, in proportion to the real work done by him, to establish type-boxes of all the difficult groups. BEETLES. 85 For the examination of insects, readily manipu- lated by being pinned singly on a square, flat, thick piece of cork or bung, a pocket glass is, of course, necessary. In this case, the best instrument is the cheapest in the long run, whatever its cost ; and one by a good maker, such as Ross, with modifications of four powers, will suffice for any ordinary work. For very small species, a Coddington, of the clearest definition and highest power attainable, is of im- mense help. But when the collector finds that he needs a compound microscope to separate species, it is the firm opinion of the pi’esent writer that that collector had better take to some other pursuit than studying Coleojptera. To anyone, however, whose researches entail an examination of the minute cibarian and other organs of beetles, whether for purposes of classification or otherwise, the compound is absolutely necessary ; though even then the lower powers are usually sufficient. For rough dissection, all that is needed are an oculist’s very small lance- headed dissecting-knife and a stout and fine needle. With these, under a lens mounted on a little stage to allow the free use of both hands, much may be done. The writer, however, has seen and used a very pretty (and comparatively inexpensive) dissecting- stand, with various powers and much latitude of motion, by Ross. 86 BEETLES. After mentioning that, in sending mounted beetles by post to correspondents, it is far more practical to use a strong box, not too deep, to fasten the pins securely, with a layer of manufactured wool in the lid (glazed side towards the beetles, so as not to catch limbs), and to put more wool outside, and write the address and affix the stamp on a label at- tached, than it is to pack carelessly, write “ With care ” outside,* and then grumble at the post-office because the insects are broken, — I think I cannot with use, say anything more upon beetles in their preserved condition ; and I will therefore now give some hints as to their haunts when alive. To exhaust the accidental-capture system above alluded to, mention must first be made of sand-pit collecting, a most profitable employment, especially in spring and early summer. A clean, straight-sided silver-sand pit is the best, and if in or near a wood its attractions will be at their highest. Beetles, flying of an evening and by night, dash against the pit sides and fall to the bottom ; others merely crawl in for shelter, or tumble over the sides, and many seem attracted by the mere damp at the bottom or in the corners. Old collectors used to recommend a * It is, however, always as well to write “ Insects,” signifying contents that are “caviare to the million,” and therefore not likely to be appropriated en route. BEETLES. 87 sheet spread out to attract insects ; and there is no doubt that a certain number can be found by such means, just as they can be picked up floating on horse-troughs or on ponds. Artificial traps exist in the corridors of the Crystal Palace, some half-inclosed country railway stations, and such places ; crawling up the windows of which many specimens are to be found. But these can only be considered as indica- tions of what species occur in the district, as they are mere stragglers. Deliberately laying traps in sand pits, on commons, &c., will be found most pro- ductive. Small dead animals, fir branches, dead leaves, &c., can be examined time after time with profit in such situations. Burying a stout branch with the bark on, leaving the top above the soil, and periodically examining it when damp and nearly rotten, has been found effective ; many insects collecting beneath the loose wet bark. After heavy floods, as during severe droughts, beetles may be found in great profusion; in the former case, by sifting the refuse left by the water ; in the latter, by diligently examining the damp residuum of former ponds, and if no damp be found, by even searching below the surface where it last occurred. The wet hay, often decayed and mouldy, at the bottoms of stacks, which bad farmers have placed 88 BEETLES. directly on the ground, will be found to teem with beetle-life ; as will the margins of dung and vege- table-refuse heaps, wood-stacks, cut grass, &c. ; and many good things may be taken by gently weaving a light gauze net to and fro, just before sunset, close to such places, whither the instinct of nature impels the flight of myriads. In winter, isolated tufts of grass in wret places, on the margins of streams, the crests of banks, &c., must be cut close to the ground, and gently torn in pieces over brown paper. Wherever many insects seem to be found, it will in most of these cases be found advisable to sift the fragments, and bring home the beetles and small stuff unexamined in a bag with a string at the neck to prevent their escape. Moss should be treated in this way, and the layers of black and rotting leaves found in woods, especially at their outskirts. Beech leaves usually produce many species, and the autumn and spring are the best times for hunting for them. In winter, also, many species will be found hybernating in grass at the roots of trees, under bark, &c., in conditions not usual with them at other times. In autumn, fungi, in woods especially, will be found most productive. General sweeping, except during the winter, will BEETLES. * 89 always be more or less remunerative. No general rules can be laid down for this ; in a good neighbour- hood (on chalk or sand, or, better still, in a district where both these soils are found) beetles will swarm almost anywhere in due season, and the most un- likely-looking spots will frequently be found the best in the end. In luxuriant herbage, among low shrubs, in the close-growing vegetation of hill-sides, the sweeping net may be plied with success ; but the best way, with all Phytophaga at least, is to start with a fixed idea as to catching certain definite species, and then, at the right time, to hunt for such plants as these are known or supposed to frequent ; and, such failing in the district, to try their allies. Of course, the collector will not fail to sweep flowers in woods and lanes, whereon, in the hot sunshine, many showy beetles bask. Many good things will be found by sweeping under fir trees, especially towards evening, and even by night ; in many places, especially marshes, nocturnal feeders may be secured by the vague use of this net. By night, also, many species may be found at sugar put on trees for moths, and on ivy or sallow-blossom. Beating is most productive in early summer, especially in the second year’s growth of young cuttings in woods ; and the oak, hazel, and poplar will generally yield many species to the tap of the 90 f BEETLES. stick. Good thick, and especially old hedges, must also be always carefully thrashed into the net ; very many good things, otherwise not procurable, will reward this toil. Another scheme for getting rare species is to beat the tops of trees with a long pole, placing beneath a sheet or tent covering. Breaking away the extreme edges of banks, throwing water on them, treading heavily on the margins, diligently examining grass and roots close to the water, reeds (especially if cut and on the ground in heaps), &c., will bring to light great numbers of wet-loving beetles. Water beetles, pure and simple, must be dragged and dredged for, especially round water plants beneath the surface, and along the sides of ponds, in eddies of running streams, in the moss on stones in them, and on the stones themselves, &c. The Coprophaga will be found readily in the droppings of various Mammalia, and also in holes bored in the ground beneath, often to a great depth. An easy and clean way to secure them is to throw droppings, ground and all, into water, the beetles coming to the surface. As to wood beetles, they must be sought for under and in bark, in solid wood, in decaying branches, and such places ; a rule to be remem- bered is, that most of these occur at the tops of BEETLES. 91 trees : hence the paucity of so many species in col- lections. Indeed, to properly hunt for the majority of them, it is necessary to obtain carte blanche and a ladder, if any success he hoped for. Felled trunks are, of course, easy to manipulate ; and their freshly- cut stumps, exuding either resin or a peculiar and often sweet mucor, are very attractive to many beetles, as is freshly-cut sawdust, and most espe- cially the (to us) fetid and acrid juice resulting from the attacks of the larva of the Goat-moth. Rotten fruit, &c., are also not to be passed by with- out examination. Many small species occur in, or can be obtained from, the topmost twigs of trees blown down by the wind. Dead animals, as before mentioned, must be ex- amined, as must the vegetation and soil near them. A keeper’s tree in a wood will always produce some- thing for the collector, who need only hold his net beneath the gibbeted ferse and bang their hides and bones with his beating-stick. During different stages of decomposition and desiccation, beetles of widely varied affinities will result from this method of collecting. Ants’ nests would require a special notice, so pro- ductive are they : their material can be sifted and their neighbouring “ runs ” or paths examined, traps laid near or on them, and periodically cleared 92 BEETLES. out, &c. Bees’ and wasps’ nests also produce good, though fewer species, and are, moreover, not quite so easy of access. The nests of birds, especially if the latter are gregarious, and, indeed, the habita- tions of any animals, will be found to harbour many beetles, amongst other insects. In gardens, the beetle collector should lay cun- ning traps of cut grass, twigs, planks, bones, &c. ; by a periodical examination of which he will secure many good things. If there be a hothouse about the premises, it and its belongings will always act as a bait. Large tracts of waste land and commons, though superficially apparently unproductive, often contain congregations of good species, in some little oasis of damp or vegetation ; moreover, on them several peculiar beetles occur. Hills and mountains will often suddenly repay the toil of the collector, who has despondently worked his way up, turning over stones, and finding comparatively nothing. The moss, &c., attending the channels of any streams in such places should be carefully searched, and the stones on the top especially not neglected. River banks and salt marshes are invariably frequented by good insects, and the very heaps of seaweed, dry or wet, on the shore harbour countless beetles. In such places small sand-loving plants should be BEETLES. 93 pulled up by the roots, and, with the neighbouring soil, shaken over brown paper. The sand itself may in many instances be scraped, and burrowing beetles brought to light ; but if the hunter comes upon a dead fish or bird, a full bottle will be his. Thus it will be seeu that almost every locality contains beetles, if the collector can only detect them (and it may be as well here to impress on him that it is better to bottle a dubious insect and ex- amine it at home, than to reject it for being appa- rently common). Still there can be no doubt that certain soils and districts are much more productive than others ; for instance, most of the midland and western counties, and some of the south-western, are not by any means so prolific as the eastern, southern, and many parts of the northern districts of Great Britain ; clay being the worst of all soils for the Coleopterist. The collector will do well, after a first hurried “ burst ” at all beetles that come in his way, to select a special group, and lay himself out to work it carefully, buying or borrowing the works of autho- rities upon it, and making himself master of the botany connected with it, if it be a group of plant- frequenting habits. By such a way of working, he will more quickly, though step by step, acquire a good collection, and a stock of useful knowledge, 94 BEETLES. than by any other. He will of course keep a register of the date and place of capture, and any pecu- liarity of habit of each insect he takes. Figures of the date of the year (usually the last two are suffi- cient), followed by another set, commencing with 1, will generally be quite enough ; corresponding entries being made in the first column of a ruled diary. These figures may be written in ink on the under side of the card of a mounted specimen, or on a circular disc of paper, pierced by the pin of one too large to be carded. HYMENOPTERA. 95 YI. HYMENOPTERA. By John B. Bridgman. Having been asked to give some instructions as to the method of setting and preserving the aculeate Hymenoptera, it is with great pleasure I comply, and I hope it may be the means of inducing others to collect these insects. To begin at the beginning, it is almost needless to state that the females of all of them (a few of the ants excepted) are furnished with stings, but with very little care one need never be stung. As Mrs. Glass says, “ First catch your hare ” : so first I shall give a few instructions where to look for and how to catch these insects. All the apparatus necessary is a gauze ring-net, a cyanide bottle, and a pocket full of small card pill-boxes; the cyanide bottle is best made by wrapping a small piece of cyanide of potassium in two or three thick- nesses of blotting-paper, tying it round with cotton to prevent it shaking out, then fixing it to the bottom of a wide-mouthed flat bottle with sealine:- wax, which is made to adhere firmly to the glass by heating the glass carefully over a lamp, and then 96 HYMENOPTERA. corking it up. The pill-boxes ought to have the tops and bottoms fastened in with liquid glue (a prepara- tion of shell-lac). These are all that are required to catch and bring home the game ; which is to be looked for at the flowers of trees, bushes, and plants — one season’s experience will teach the best, as some species frequent one, some another, and some almost all. The flowers I have found the greatest favourites are sallows, willows, sycamore, holly, blackthoru, bramble, hawkweeds, ragwort, thistles, and umbelliferse. Some bore in putrescent wood, and must be looked for on or in the neighbourhood of old posts and palings; some are to be found flying about dry banks, hard-trodden pathways, on heaths, while old sand pits are favourite places ; but they should be sought for in any warm, rough, weedy spot ; and some may be obtained by digging them out of their burrows with a trowel. My plan of proceeding, after having got one in the net, is to catch hold of the net so that the insect is inclosed in a sort of sack, I then uncork the cyanide, and introduce that into the sack, holding the net firmly round the neck of the bottle, so that there is no other escape for the insect from the net but into the bottle, then gradually work the insect into the bottle and close the mouth with several folds of the net, watch my opportunity and insert the cork : HYMENOPTERA. 97 when the insect is stupefied, which happens in a few seconds if the bottle is slightly warm, I turn it into the pill-box. A word of caution : it is necessary to be methodical in carrying the boxes. I always keep the empty ones in my right-hand pocket, and the filled ones in the left-hand one, as, if they are carried sometimes one way, sometimes another, sooner or later a previously filled one will be opened to put an insect in, which will result in the former tenant speedily making room for the new comer ; and my experience has been, if you do lose anything it is generally your best capture. Having got home with the left-hand pocket more or less filled, turn the boxes out, preparatory to killing the contents, which must be done with burnt sulphur. My mode of proceeding is as follows * I stupefy the contents of each box with chloroform, in a manner I will describe farther on. Having o stupefied them, I empty them all into a short, wide- mouthed, round bottle, haying a piece of glass tube put through the cork; the mouth of the tube is plugged with cotton wool, not too tight, to act as a strainer. I then put this in a Nabob pickle-bottle (any other bottle will do as well), through the stopper of which I have drilled a hole about a six- teenth of an inch in diameter, in which is fixed a copper wire, having a shallow tin cup at the end. H 98 HYMENOPTERA. In this tin cup is placed the sulphur. The tin cup is then held over the flame of a lamp, gas, or candle, till the sulphur is burning, then put it into the bottle and press it down. When all the oxygen is consumed the sulphur goes out. Leave them for about three hours, take them out, and put them into a damp box for twelve or more hours : they will then be in a splendid condition for setting. To stupefy the insects I tip the lids on one side, put them into the sulphur bottle, pour a drop or two into the tin cup, and put it into the bottle. Be careful not to chloroform them too much, as if killed so they become so rigid that it is with diffi- culty they can be set. Having killed them, there only remains to pin and set them. There are various sizes of pins used; most collectors have fancies of their own on this subject ; I shall therefore only say what is my prac- tice. The pins I use are D. F. Tayler & Co.’s, New Hall Works, Birmingham ; No. 15 for bumble-bees only; the other sizes I find most useful are 15, 10, and 18. Some pin the insects straight, and some with the pin inclining forward. Having pinned them, the next thing is to set them. There are two ways of doing this ; one is, cut an oblong square of stout cardboard, and put a pin through one end ; after the legs are stretched out, this is put into the il ; Ml'.'.KjI' l I'.liA. uu v\i. w. «*orl< f one on one Ji Bid c, ti II I In; upper but lace ol no/I' in jnxt below tin? level ol' the wing*, which are then laid out on (In) card, and held there by a brace the Maine whnpe iih the I able f' o — Section of Pliyscia parietina. a. Cortical stratum. 6. Gonidic stratum- c. Medullary stratum. the naked eye that it consists of three dif- ferent layers, which when microscopically examined present the appearance shown in the above figure. But in addition to this microscopical examination, it is also requisite to observe the different chemical reactions produced on the asci or the hymeneal gelatine with iodine (I), which will tinge these either bluish or reddish wine-coloured, or else leave them uncoloured. Similarly the thallus, including both the cortical layer and the medulla, may be tested with hydrate of potash (K), and hypochlorite o 194 LICHENS. of lime (C), the latter being applied either by itself or added to K when wet. In some cases no reaction will be produced by these either upon the cortical stratum or the medulla; in others they will be tinged yellowish or reddish. The formulae for the preparation of these reagents are : for iodine, iodine, gr. j ; iodide of potash, gr. iij, distilled water, ± oz. ; for hydrate of potash, equal weights of caustic potash and water ; for hydrochlorite of lime, chloride of lime and water of any strength. After correctly ascertaining the specific name of the specimens collected, this is to be written on the slips of paper to which they are affixed, above the locality and date, and the best of them, including all varieties and forms, selected for subsequent mounting in the herbarium. This may be effected either in the same way as the mounting of phanerogamic plants, or by affixing the specimens to pieces of millboard covered with white paper, and arranging them according to the order of the genera and species in the system of classification which may be adopted. For facility of reference the latter is undoubtedly the preferable method ; and if the. cards are disposed in a cabinet with shallow drawers, they will not, so far at least as our British species are concerned, be found to occupy too much space. SEAWEEDS. 195 XIV. SEAWEEDS. By W. H. Grattann. In some articles published in ‘ Science-Gossip ’ a few years ago, I gave some directions for collecting and preserving Marine Algae, or seaweeds, and although, I think, it will be difficult to simplify those directions, or even to add much that would be really serviceable to young beginners in this de- lightful pursuit, it is my intention, in going over the ground once more, to be as explicit as I possibly can ; and here, on the threshold of the subject, I have a few words to say to one or two occasional contributors to that journal, who, in calling attention to the beauty of marine vegetation, and urging young persons to collect and preserve Algae, have advised them to ignore books on the subject, and go to the shore, use their own eyes, and collect for themselves, &c. I am sorry very greatly to differ from such advice. Collecting in this way may be amusing enough to those who care not for science, but when it leads to parcels of seaweeds, picked up at random, being sent to botanists with a request that the names of such o 2 106 SEAWEEDS. plants should be sent to the writer, it is the reverse of pleasure to the scientific botanist, for it gives him infinite trouble, and enables him to convey but very imperfect information to his applicant. The editor of that journal has often been thus' appealed to, and packages of decayed rubbish have frequently been sent to me for examination, containing species or rather fragments of plants, which, for the most part, were utterly worthless and defied identification. Almost all collectors commence by mounting plants which a little experience proves to be really wbat the old poet termed “ alga projeda vilior ” ; but as seaweed-gathering, like everything else, requires practice, beginners must not be disappointed because they do not find rarities or fine specimens whenever and wherever they may seek for them. When I think of the difficulties 1 experienced at the outset of my study of marine botany, especially in the collecting and drying of seaweeds, I feel strongly inclined to urge all beginners to obtain some in- formation concerning Marine Algse before they go to the shore to collect for themselves. A very few hours of study with an experienced algologist, or even a perusal of some illustrated work on British algm, will save much trouble and materially assist the unpractised eye in selecting specimens for the herbarium. I may here mention as highly useful to incipient algologists Dr. Landsborough s ‘ British SEAWEEDS. 197 Seaweeds,’ and Professor Harvey’s ‘ Manual,’ either of which may be obtained for a few shillings ; but if my readers are resident in London, I advise them to pay a few visits to the Library of the British Museum, and there inspect Hr. Harvey’s ‘ Phycologia Britannica.’ In this magnificent work they will find coloured figures of nearly every British seaweed, with drawings from magnified portions, and various structural details of the highest value to students ; and I once more impress on all collectors the im- portance of some degree of book-learning ere they sally forth, bag or vasculum in hand, to cull the lovely “ flowers of the ocean,” or gather what best may please them from the rejectamenta on the shore. If the collector wishes to learn, not merely the names of plants, but to distinguish species, he will do well to provide himself with a copy of Harvey’s little volume the ‘ Synopsis of British Seaweeds,’ and a Stanhope or Coddington lens, by means of which he can examine portions of delicate plants as he finds them, and compare them with the descriptions given in the ‘ Synopsis ’ ; in this way, if he have any success during his excursions, he will quickly become familiar with most of the plants which are cast ashore or grow within tide-marks. Time will not admit of, neither is space at pre- sent available for, a single line beyond what may be practically serviceable to my youthful readers ; 198 SEAWEEDS. therefore I will hasten to describe the course of action in seaweed-collecting as I have practised it for many years. At once, then, to the shore, but not to the sandy shore, for only useless decayed rubbish, or here and there some straggling plants of Zostera marina, or grass-wrack, will be met with there. The collector must away to the rocks, and search carefully every pool he meets with, from a little distance below high-water mark, and so on down to the water’s edge, always remembering that it is better to collect while the tide is receding than as it is coming in. Presuming that few persons will think of collect- ing seaweeds much earlier than the month of May, let me observe that most of the accessible species of olive and green plants which grow on rocky shores and in tide-pools, will be found from May to June in pretty fair condition, but very few red plants, except those which grow on the shady sides of rock- pools, or under the shelter of the larger olive weeds, will be met with until a considerable space is laid bare by the receding water at the low spring tides, about a day or two before and after the full moon. As nearly all the rare red weeds grow in deep water, they are seldom taken in any degree of per- fection unless they are dredged ; but in the summer months, say from June to the end of August, many fine plants are occasionally thrown up from deep SEAWEEDS. 199 water, and others are found growing on the stems of the great oar-weeds, portions of which are cast ashore, beautifully fringed with one or more species of Delesseria and other rare Rhodosperms — in fact, during the rising tide, diligent collectors may secure many a lovely deep-water plant as it comes floating in, but which, if allowed to remain long exposed to the action of sunlight, will fade in colour and de- compose before it can be mounted. This is espe- cially the case with all the soft gelatinous red plants, such as the Callithamnia, and all the Gloiocladiae, as well as a few of the softer olive weeds ; and here I may observe that there is one genus of beautiful olive plants, the Sporochnacese, which must on no account be put into the vasculum with any of the delicate red plants, for they not only very rapidly decompose, but injure almost all others with which they are placed in contact. The species are not numerous, and they may be easily recognized, after having been previously studied from the coloured figures either in Harvey’s ‘ Phycologia,’ or in Brad- bury and Evans’s ‘ Nature-printed Seaweeds.’ It is also a curious fact respecting this genus, that while they are all of a beautiful olive tint in the growing state, they invariably change to a fine verdigris-green in drying ; and indeed this is very generally the case with the filamentous olive weeds, the F uci, or common rock-weeds, as constantly turning quite black after 200 SEAWEEDS. mounting: whence the term, that of “Melanosperm,” which is given to the subdivision to which all the olive weeds belong. As there are so fewr seaweeds which have gene- rally known common names, I shall make no apology for using the names by which they are known to science, presuming that all intending collectors will, as I have already suggested, gain some knowledge of Terminology ere they go out “ seaweeding.” Beginners should be cautioned against the very natural error of bringing home too many plants at a time ; they must be moderate in their gatherings, or be content to risk the loss of some choice specimens, which will decompose unless they are attended to before night. The first thing to be done upon arriving at home, is to empty the collecting-bag into a white basin of sea-water, and to select the best and cleanest plants as soon as possible, giving each a good swill before placing it in another vessel of clean water, and getting rid of rejected plants at once, so that the basin first used will be available for re- washing the weeds before they are severally placed in the mounting dish. When a day is fixed on for seaweeding, the collector should order a large bucket of clean sea-water, which, after being left to settle, should be strained through a towel, so as to be as free as possible from sand and dirt. Two or three large pie-dishes will be necessary, the deeper the SEAWEEDS. 201 better, and white, if such can be obtained. Place these on a separate table with towels under them, and reserve a table specially for the mounting dish and the parcels of papers, calicoes, and blotting- papers. The large white bath used in photography is very well adapted for mounting seaweeds ; the lip at one corner is convenient for pouring off soiled water, and its form — that of an oblong — is most suitable for receiving the papers on which the plants are to be mounted. Beside this vessel should be placed the following implements — a porcupine quill, two camel-hair pencils (one small, the other large and flat), a pair of strong brass forceps, a pen- knife, a pair of scissors, a small sponge, an ivory paper-knife, and two thin plates of perforated zinc somewhat less in length and breadth than the inside of the mounting dish. Smooth drawing paper, or fine white cartridge paper, is generally employed for mounting. The operator should be provided with three different sizes of paper, and these should have each a piece of very fine calico and four pieces of blotting-paper to correspond. The process of mounting one of the filamentous or branching species is as follows : — The specimen being cleaned and placed in the mounting dish, a piece of paper of suitable size is laid on one of the perforated zinc plates, and both are then slipped quickly under the floating weed. The root 202 SEAWEEDS. or base of the specimen is then pressed down on the paper with a finger of the left hand, while the right hand is employing the forceps or porcupine quill in arranging the plant in as natural a position as possible, ere the zinc plate is gently and gradually raised at the top or bottom, as may be necessary, to ensure a perfect display of every portion of the plant ; but if, upon drawing it out of the water, it should present an unsightly appearance from too thick an overlapping of the branches, the whole must be reimmersed, and a little pruning of superfluous portions may be employed with advantage to the specimen and satisfaction to the operator. Care should be taken that the water be drained off the paper as completely as possible before the calico is laid over the plant, and this is accomplished by raising the paper containing the plant as it still lies on the zinc plate, and transferring it to a thin board placed in an inclined position against one of the basins, and with the large camel-hair pencil paint off the water as it runs away from the specimen, and absorb what remains, when the paper is laid flat, with the sponge. Delicate species may be left to drain for a few minutes, while the operator is arrang- ing other specimens. When the water is sufficiently drained off, the paper is then laid on the blotter, and the piece of calico is placed upon the plant — a sheet of blotter being laid upon the calico. SEAWEEDS. 203 Care should be observed in subjecting plants to pressure, which, in the first instance, should be suffi- cient only to help the absorption of water. The first set of blotting-papers should be changed in half an hour after the whole batch of specimens have been placed in the press, and these must be thoroughly dried before they are used again. After the second or third change of blotters, the plants should remain under strong pressure for two or three days ; but the pieces of calico must not be removed until it is pretty certain that the papers and plants are quite dry. With the exception of the Fuci or common rock- weeds, I never place seaweeds in fresh water : with these, especially Fucus serratus, F. nodosus, F. vesi- culosus, and F. canaliculatus, a few hours’ immersion in fresh water is an advantage, as it soaks the salt out of their fronds and renders them more pliable. As all the Fuci turn black in drying, and few of them adhere well to paper, I arrange my specimens in single layers between the folds of a clean dry towel, and keep them under pressure until they are quite dry ; they may then be put away loosely, or gummed on sheets of paper. The foregoing directions for mounting filamentous seaweeds are applicable to all the branching species of Olive, Red, and Green plants ; but in each of the three subdivisions there are a few species which are so gelatinous — in fact, so soft and spongy, that they 204 SEAWEEDS. require the utmost care during pressure, otherwise they adhere to the calico and break off in frag- ments as it is drawn away. Such plants must be left to dry in a horizontal position for an hour or so before the calico and blotters are placed over them, and pressure must be very slight until they have adhered closely to the paper. Among the Chloro- sperms, or green plants, there are the various species of Codium, young plants of which only are manage- able or indeed desirable. In the Melanosperms, some species of the genus Mesogloia will require care and patience in mounting, as well as the long string- like plant, known as Chorda filum ; and again, the spreading tuberous mass called Leatlisia tuberiformis, portions of which should be cut from the rock, the sand scraped and washed out, then laid on the wet paper, and allowed to shrink for some hours ere calico blotters and pressure be applied. These difficulties are much more numerous among the Rhodosperms, or red seaweeds, experience only teaching the best -method of treatment. I will, however, mention the names of some very trouble- some plants, the fronds of which, if subjected to pres- sure too soon, burst and discharge their carmine con- tents ; not only presenting an unsightly appearance, but destroying the specimen. These are Grijjithsia corallina, Dudresnaia coccinea, Naccaria Wiggliii , all the Chylocladia, and the rare Gloiosiphonia, as well SEAWEEDS. 205 as the slimy worm-like plant known as Nemalion multijidum. In addition to these troubles among the red plants, there is an opposite difficulty connected with several Rhodosperms which must be pointed out ; and that is owing to an absence or scarcity of gelatine in their substance, which is in some of a stout, leathery, or horny nature, and in others is due to a coating of carbonate of lime, which completely envelops the vegetable structure. Among the former may be mentioned the several species of Phyllophora, and several among the genera Gigartina, Chondrus, and Sphserococcus ; and in the latter, all the calcareous Algae, especially the well-known Corallina officinalis and Jania rubens. All these, and several others of a membraneous nature, among the olive as well as the red weeds, must be first mounted in the ordinary manner, and when they are tolerably dry and begin to shrink away from the paper, fill the mounting- dish with stale skimmed milk ; refloat the plants on their papers in the milk, and indeed go through the same process as before with the sea-water, but be careful to absorb all the milk from oil' the surface of the plants and the back of the papers, and then, after the usual time for drying and pressing, the most obstinate seaweed will be found adhering per- fectly to the paper, and will remain so permanently. One more difficulty must be referred to for the 206 SEAWEEDS. benefit of young beginners, who, in mounting some of the Laminaria and that peculiar olive weed called Himantlialia lorea, may wish to preserve the thick- branching roots and stems. First wash the roots as clean as possible, and then, with a sharp penknife, make a clean cutting horizontally of the whole root and some little distance up the thick round stem ; then, after having removed the cut portions, place the inner surface of the root and stem on the paper, and the gelatinous matter which oozes from the plant will cause the roots to adhere firmly to the paper, and in drying, the usual olive tint of the various species of Laminaria will be finely preserved. Some botanists employ a mixture made of isinglass, dissolved in alcohol, to fix some of the horny or robust species on paper ; but if gum be made use of, it is better to employ gum tragacanth than gum- arabic, because, in drying, the former has none of that objectionable glare which is peculiar to gum- arabic. As regards the best method of pressing seaweeds, I think I can hardly do better than refer my readers to the figure of a Seaweed Press (Fig. 45), which I invented for myself many years ago, in which I have pressed many thousands of beautiful seaweeds. Almost any degree of pressure can be obtained in it : first, by the thumb-screws on the iron rods at each corner, and, finally, by means of the clamp which is SEAWEEDS. 207 strapped on the top of the press. Any intelligent cabinet-maker or ironmonger could provide such a press from an inspection of the figure ; the cost, of course, varying with the dimensions and the number of boards. Fig. 45. Seaweed Press. ith respect to localities favourable to seaweed- gatheiing, I may specially mention the south coast of Devon; from Exmouth, where Bryopsis and Padina pavonia grow in perfection, to Torquay and the coves of .Lorbay, and down the coast to Plymouth, 208 SEAWEEDS. Cawsand Bay, and finally Whitsand Bay, the “happy himting-grounds ” of the enthusiastic algologist. On the north-east coast, Filey and Whitby must be mentioned, as well as the shores upwards from Tyne- mouth to Whitley. Peterhead is also a good locality, the rare Edocarpus Mertensii, Odonthalia dentata, and Callithamnion jloccosuni being found there in abundance. Other favourable stations in Scotland, well known to me, are Lamlash Bay and Whiting Bay; nor must the Isle of Wight be forgotten, for in the rock-pools, at Shanklin especially, the most magnificent form of Padina pavonia may be found growing during the summer months in the utmost profusion. In conclusion, I beg leave to inform my readers that I have recently published a volume on British Marine Algae, in which every species that is likely to be met with by ordinary collectors is described, and every British seaweed that is capable of illustra- tion in a work intended for popular information, is figured from plants in my own possession, aud, in addition, diagrams and figures from drawings of magnified portions, illustrative of structure and fructification, appear throughout the pages of my work. ( 209 ) INDEX. A B PAGE PAGE Adventures of fungus hunt- Beating for beetles .. 89 ers 178 for larvse 47 Advice to fungus collectors 179 Beech 121 Affixing lichens . . . . 1S9 Beetles 67 Agaric placed to catch by post 86 spores 172 , where to find them Ap'aricus cucumis , . 176 86-94 melleus . , 175 Bentall’s drying-paper 141 mucidus 177 Best season for lichens . . 188 Agrostis stolonifera . . . . 140 trees for insects 51 American moth-trap . . • . 57 Birds’ eggs 27 Ammonia for insects . . . , 59 nests 42 Anatomy of molluscs . , 22 Bivalves 104 of vertebrates . . 18 Bleaching hones 23 Anchomenus sexpunctatus 71 Blooms for attracting in- Ants’ nests for beetles . , 91 sects 53 Apothecia 191 Blowing eggs 30 Apparatus for taking in- Blowpipe for eggs 31 sects 57 Bog mosses 145 Arm of man 21 Bombyces 45 Arrangement of eggs . . 39 Bones 16 of fossils . . 11 , 13 of dog 17 of plants 135 Bone-preservers’ shops 17 of shells . . 116 Books on seaweeds 196-7, 208 Arranging grasses . . . . 142 Boring holes in eggs . . 33 lichens 191 Bottle for beetles 76 Artificial beetle-traps . . 87 Boulders 5 Assiminea Grayana .. . . 108 Box for carrying insects . . 55 Attracting insects • • 57 Braces for insects 61 p 210 INDEX. PAGE Breeding beetles . . . . 68-9 Bulb-tube 31 Bulimus acutus 107 Butterflies and moths . . 44 at rest 50 Butter-worts 123 Buying eggs 28 0 Cabinet for fungi . . . . 173 Cabinets for insects . . . . 66 for plants 136 Cage for virgin lepidoptera 52 Callithamnion floccosum . . 208 Campanula glomerata . . 129 rotundifolia .. .. 130 uniflora 130 Cardboard for mounting beetles 79 Cataloguing of eggs . . . . 36 Caution in carrying boxes 97 Ceratodon purpureus . . 152 Chemical testing of lichens 194 Chip boxes 48 Chloroform bottle . . . . 58 Chorda filum 204 Chrysalis collecting . . . . 48-9 preserving 49 Classification of mosses .. 154 Cleaning the inside of eggs 33 shells 113 Coal-shale 3 Collecting and preserving insects 44 birds’ eggs abroad . . 30 fungi 160 mosses .. .. .• 146 PAGE Collecting plants and ferns 117 seaweeds 195 4 Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates’ 18 Construction of egg cabinet 38, 40 Conovulus 107 Converts to geology . . . . 4 Coprinus atramentarius .. 160 domesticus .. .. 161 Coprophaga, where to find 90 Corallina officinalis .. .. 205 Cork saddle for insects . . 61 Corrosive sublimate .. .. 133 Cortical stratum of lichens 193 Cotyledons 120 Cure for mould on insects 64 D Decomposition of fungi .. 164 Description of eggs . . . . 37 Difficulties in seaweed mounting 206 Dioecious plants .. .. 127 Directions in mounting beetles 82-3 Discoloured beetles . . . . 84 Discriminating fungi .. 175 Dissection of beetles . . . . 85 Distribution of lichens .. 182 of mosses 156 Dried yolk 35 Drying fungi 166 Drying-paper for grasses . . 141 Duck’s-head hammer . . 7 Dudresnaia coccinea . . . . 204 INDEX. 211 E PAGE Economy of lichens . . . . 184 Ectocarpus Mertensii . . 208 Egg collector’s note-book . . 35 drills 30 Eggs of moths, & c 45 Embryo of plants .. .. 119 English names of plants .. 134 Entomological pins . . . . 83 Equipment of coleopterist 71 for fungus hunting .. 161 for gathering plants 128 of geologist . . . . 9 of hymenopterist . . 95 for procuring land and freshwater shells . . . . 102 for seaweed collecting 200 Examination of lichen spores 192 of mosses 149 F Fading of eggs 35 Favourable spots for shells 108 Fertilization of plants .. 126 Flowers frequented by hy- menoptera 96 of plants 126 Flowering plants and ferns 117 Fluid for mounting slugs 115 Fore leg of horse .. .. 21 Fossil hunting 5 plants 4 Fossils in boulders . . . . 6 French chalk for insects . . 65 Fries’ ‘Fungi’ 180 Fruits of plants 128 Fuci 203 Fungi, collecting of .. .. 178 Furze 123 G PAGE Gardiner’s ‘ British Mosses ’ 153 Gathering lichens .. .. 187 Gentiana collina .. .. 130 Geological cabinets .. .. 11 enjoyment 14 equipment . . . . 9 examination of strata 10 hammers 7 maps 10 specimens 1 Geology in fields .. .. 5 Glass-topped boxes . . . . 13 Gloiosiphonia 204 Gonidic stratum of lichens 193 Grasses, when to select . . 128 , collecting of .. .. 139 , preserving of . . . . 140 Griffithsia corallina . . . . 204 Grossulariacese 134 Gum for mounting beetles 79 Gumming down plants . . 133 H Habitats of grasses . . . . 144 Habits of mole 19 of snails 109 Half-hatched eggs .. .. 33 Harvey’s ‘ Phycologia ’ . . 197 Helix caperata 107 virgata 107 Hepaticm 145 Herbaria 132 Herbarium sheets .. .. 136 Himanthalia lorea . . . . 206 Holcus mollis 140 How to get fungus spores 171 How to prepare skeletons 23 P 2 212 INDEX. PAGE Hybernation of butterflies 50 Hydrobia ventrosa .. .. 108 similis 108 Hymenoptera ' 95 Hypothecium of lichens .. 192 I Identification of eggs . . 29 Insect forceps 83 J Jania rubens 205 Jungermanniaceas .. .. 154 K Kew herbarium 132 Killing hymenoptera . . 97 insects 58-9 snails Ill L Labelling eggs 36 fossils 11 specimens 134 Labels 135 Lactarius turpis .. .. 176 Laminaria 206 Land and freshwater shells 102 Landsborough’s ‘ British Seaweeds ’ 196 Lantern for catching in- sects 53 Larvae on fungi 166 Leathsia tuberiformis . . 204 Leaves of plants .. .. 125 Lens for examining beetles 85 PAGE Lepidodendron 4 Lepidoptera 44 Lichen flora of Europe .. 185 Lichens, collecting of . . 181 Lime ( Tilia Europcea) ,. 120 Liver mosses 145 Localities for fungi .. .. 164 seaweed gathering . . 207 obtaining shells 106-110 London Catalogue .. .. 129 Luck in capturing beetles 70 Lycopods 145 M Maceration of specimens . . 24 Mclvor’s ‘ Hepaticae Britan- nicae ’ 153 Mantell’s, Dr., Works .. 3 Marasmius caulicinalis . . 176 foetidus 176 impudicus 176 Materials for beetle pre- serving 80 Medals of creation . . . . 3 Medullary stratum of li- chens 193 Melanogaster ambiguus . . 165 Melanosperms 204 Membraneous seaweeds . . 205 Method of setting out in- sects 61 Microscopical examination of lichens 193 Microscopical examination of mosses 150 Missing links 12 Mode of securing hymen- optera 96 INDEX. 213 PAGE Modelling slugs, &c. .. 114 Monoecious plants . . . . 127 Mosses 145 Mosses in bogs 157 in fields 156 on heaths 156 on rocks 157 on shady banks . . 157 by streams .. .. 157 by trees 157 on walls 156 on waste ground . . 156 in woods 157 Moths at rest 50 Mounting beetles .. .. 78 mosses 152 plants 131 seaweeds 201 Mussel shells 104 Mussels, how to prepare 111 N Naccaria Wigghii . . . . 204 Neglect of lichens .. .. 182 Net for beetle catching 72-73 for sugaring . . . . 55 for water beetles .. 74 O Obtaining caterpillars . . 46 Odonthalia dentata . . 208 Odour of fungi 176 Oil-beetles 81 Olive-coloured seaweeds 199 Osbert Salvin 39 Osteology 16, 22 of the mammalia .. 18 P PAGE Packing eggs 38 fungi 163 lichens 174 Paddle of whale . . . . 21 Padina pavonia . . . . 208 Page’s Introductory ‘ Text- book ’ 3 Paraphyses of lichens . . 192 Paper for grasses . . . . 140 Petrology 6 Peristomes of mosses . . 155 Phallus impudicus .. .. 165 Phillips’s ‘ Guide to Geo- logy ’ 3 Physcia parietina .. .. 192 Pinning insects . . . . 60 Pins for setting hymenop- tera 98 Pisidium, how to prepare 112 Plants for herbarium .. 125 Platypus hammer . . . . 7 Poa compressa 140 pratensis 110 Poisoning fungi .. .. 174 Pollen of plants .. .. 127 Polyporus 172 igniarius 166 Precaution against grease 65 Preparation of mosses . . 148 Preparing shells for cabinet 110 Preservation of fungus spores 171 of lichens .. .. 188-90 of mosses 151 Preserving animals . . 23 cocoons 49 eggs for cabinet . . 28 214 INDEX. PAGE Preserving fresh fungi 165 fungi in fluid . . 170 insects’ eggs 45 insects from decay . . 64 slugs 110 Pressing seaweeds . . 206 P seudo-bombyces 45 Public herbaria 132 Q Quarantine for insects 64 R Rare fungi 178 Rearing beetles from larvae 68 Re-carding beetles . . 84 Red seaweeds 198 Removing bodies from shells 112 grease from insects . . 65 Repairing eggs 34 Rhinoceros bones 22 Rhizomes 123 Rhodosperms 204 S Sand pits for beetles 86 Searching for larvae . . 46 Season for collecting shells 109 Seaweed gathering . . 207 207 Seaweeds, collecting of . . 195 Section cut through aga- ricus 170 Seeds of plants 12S Setting bristle 61 moths for cabinets 62, 63 PAGE Setting out liymenoptera 99 Skeleton of mole . . . . 20 Skeletons of birds . . . . 20 Skull of a crocodile .. .. 19 Sliding stages for egg cabi- nets 40 Snail shells 104 Solution for killing slugs 114 Specimens showing gills, &c., of fungi 169 Spermagones . . . . . . 191 Sphinges 45 Sterigmata of lichens . . 193 Study of the larger fungi . . 177 Stupefying insects . . 97-8 Subterranean pupae . . . . 49 Sugaring 54 drum 56 Sweeping for beetles . . 89 Sycamore 122 T Table for liymenoptera . . 99 Thallus of lichens .. .. 193 Thatch beating .. .. 52 Tools for fungus collecting 162 for lichen collecting 186 Tortnla muralis .. 147,150 Trimming hammer . . . . 7 Triticum repens 140 U Umbelliferae 134 Umbrella net 47 Use of camphor .. .. 66 of osteological speci- mens 25 INDEX. 215 V PAGE Varieties of species .. 129 Varnishing eggs . 35 Vasculum for lichens . 185 W Washing eggs . 34 Where to find caterpillars 46 PAGE Where to find chrysalis .. 49 fungi .. 160 lichens .. 184 mosses .. 147 seaweeds . . .. 199 to “ sugar ” .. 54 Woody specimens of fun- gus 172 ■ LONDON : PRINTED BT WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS. 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