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GUL 68.18

Digitized by the Internet Archive
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https://archive.org/details/b24919391

MAYHEW’S

ILLUSTRATED HORSE MANAGEMENT.

MATHEW’S

ILLUSTRATED HORSE MANAGEMENT

CONTAINING DESCRIPTIVE REMARKS UPON

ANATOMY; MEDICINE; SHOEING; TEETH;
FOOD; VICES; STABLES;

LIKEWISE A PLAIN ACCOUNT OP

®Ij£ ^itoalioir, Mature, attb Ualnc of ibe Various |1owfs;

TOGETHER WITH COMMENTS ON

GROOMS — BLEEDERS — BREAKERS AND THAINERS.

EMBELLISHED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.

REVISED AND IMPROVED BY

JAMES IB VINE LUPTON, M.R.C.V.S.

AUTHOR OF SEVERAL WORKS ON VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ART.

FO UR TEEN TR EDITION.
LONDON:

WM. H. ALLEN & CO., 13, WATERLOO PLACE,

PALL MALL, S.W.

1890.

o

[The right of Translation and Re-prod action is reserved.]

PREFACE.

THE statements made in tlie following chapters become
self-evident to the man who can release his mind
from the trammels of conventionality, and will allow his
practice to be based and guided by those habits and
inclinations which are observed to be common to the
equine species.

During the early part of this century cases of farcy
and glanders were of frequent occurrence among horses,
which diseases were induced by defective ventilation
and drainage. The cause having been discovered, the
remedy, being simple, was soon applied, and what has
been the result ? Why, a diminution of these maladies.
But, unfortunately, even in these times, the wisdom in
the construction of stables, which necessitates that
expired gases shall pass out of the stable through the
medium of a ventilator, is opposed by those who fill tlie
ventilator and every aperture with straw, &c., in order,
as they say, “ to keep the stable ivarm The horse
should be kept warm, doubtless, and this is easily
obtained by the application of an extra rug ; at the
same time the air within the stable must be kept
pure, both in cold and in hot weather, and this alone
can be obtained by insuring effective ventilation and
drainage.

b

VI

PREFACE.

In the chapter on Anatomical Considerations the
present position of hay-rack, manger, and water-trough
has been questioned, and reasons have been assigned
why such stable furniture should be placed on a level
with the horse’s knees, rather than (as regards the
hay-rack) above his head. In attempting to establish
these facts, the organs of the horse brought into requi-
sition during the acts of eating and drinking have been
anatomically examined ; and so distinctly does Nature
explain why such arrangements occur, that it seems
difficult to understand how such spirited firms as
Cottam, Musgrave, &c., have not improved upon their,
original inventions by patenting extra stable-fittings
more in accordance with the dictates of common sense,
or, more properly, those which a superficial knowledge
of anatomy suggests.

In remarks made on shoeing, attention has been
directed to the position assumed by the foot of the
horse during progression. For years past it has been
taught that the horse brought his toe to the ground
before his heel, whereas ocular demonstration and
reasoning by analogy prove that during progression
the horse brings his heel in contact with the ground
before his toe. “ The art of writing well is to know
your subject,” and the art of shoeing well can alone be
successfully carried out by those who understand the
anatomy and physiology of the foot ; and for this reason
the article on shoeing has been carefully revised and
considerably extended, particularly in the direction of
physiological details above mentioned, and of diseases

PREFACE.

Vll

"likely to accrue from shoeing where Nature’ s wise laws
have been neglected or interfered with.

Many farmers, even at the present time, when a mare
is too old for work, attempt to breed from her, and
what is the result ? — usually disappointment, attended
with loss. Like begets like, and, in the case under
notice, an old mare is sure to transmit a weak consti-
tution to its offspring; moreover, in producing horses,
breeders should use great care, and bestow much atten-
tion to the selection of parents. A young and well-
formed mare, if mated with a horse possessing grand
points, usually produces a slashing colt. Again, some-
times defects in the female may, in the progeny, be
obliterated by the good qualities of the male ; but this
is by no means a general rule, and, consequently, it
behoves all lovers of good horses to breed from parents
of sound constitution, and from those possessing perfect
physical development.

The treatment of mares before and after foaling is
fully considered in the article on Breeding.

Horse-breakers of the present day have not yet learnt
that the horse is a timid animal. What is improperly
termed pluck, is fear, which has to be allayed by
kind usage, both in word and deed, when, by so doing,
confidence takes the place of timidity, and the horse
becomes tractable. The word “ brc 'er” is an improperly
applied term to a man who gives with firmness, yet
kindness, the first lessons to a young horse, but a most
fitting denomination for the person who, with spur,
whip, and cruelty, breaks the temper, never inspires

yin

PREFACE.

confidence, but drives all the best attributes out of the
three-year- old with lash and heels, — qualities which as
a two-year-old he possessed, and which judicious and
kind schooling would have intensified.

At the conclusion of this work several pages on early
training have been written with a view to prove the
cruelty inflicted on racing stock by two-year-old
racing. Many may ask, Where is the cruelty ? Let us
consider the ordeal through which a colt has to pass
previously to his becoming a two-year-old performer,
and then ask why, and give your verdict.

At one year and a half old this young creature is
in active training ; and in what state are the tissues of
his body at this tender age ? Why, they are growing,
and consequently the muscles are tender ; the bones
are not fully developed, proved by the fact that the ends
( epiphyses ) and centres ( diaphyses ) of the long cylin-
drical bones are not securely cemented together, so as
to form a strong shaft. Therefore, viewing the animal
in question merely as a machine, you would pronounce
it to be unfinished, and if acquainted with physiological
escince, would state such colt to be unformed and
incapable of performing severe physical exertion ; but
although a baby, as it were, he has to gallop, and hard,
too, with a weight on a back which ought not to carry
any ; and why ? because the owner, by carrying out
this system, expects to spend less and to gain more
money. Alas ! “ crescit amor nummi.” But should
gain lead us to inflict cruelty and injury upon dumb
creatures ? Certainly not. Racing was instituted for

PREFACE.

IX

the express purpose of improving our breed of horses,
but does early racing bring out the best horses ? It
may, but it destroys nine out of every ten of them ;
and consequently hundreds who, if allowed more time
before being worked, might grow into fine animals, are
denied this opportunity, for break-down, sprained sinews,
and muscular laceration unstring the harp of a thousand
cords, rendering the recipients of such injuries unfit
for racing purposes, and consequently from the Turf
they depart, often to the cart of the costermonger.

It is contended, moreover, that short races are not
calculated to produce horses of much stamina; they
may, but as a rule, small weedy animals are as well able
to run successfully over a short course as strongly-
built ones. The latter are those who produce our best
hunters, cavalry, and carriage horses, and, therefore, the
breed we wish to propagate. Whereas the progeny of
the former, following the rule of “ like getting like,”
would be unable to carry a pair of boots to hounds, and
consequently useless as progenitors of stock.

The great good of racing is that it acts as a stimulus,
causing persons, for love of honour or money, to breed
good horses ; these animals, on account of their per-
formances, are chosen as parents, and thus an improving
breed is kept up.

It is needless to mention further the disasters of
early racing— every horseman knows of the oft-repeated
publication that such a horse is struck out of his
engagements. But if no horse were trained until after
three years old, then the disasters would be less frequent,

X

PREFACE.

and we should obtain many useful animals in the place
of those ruined by early training.

“ What we require,” writes Admiral Rous, “is a,
National Prize of £5,000, to be run for by four-year-olds
and upwards, three miles, which might induce horse-
owners to show more mercy to young horses : ” in fact,
make a demand and the supply will not be wanting ; take
away the demand and the supply must cease. Institute
these longer races for older animals and for larger stakes,
and by this means horses will be preserved and their
powers conserved for great feats, which powers early
training deprives them of.

It is, therefore, trusted that at no very distant period
such radical reform may be gained, — a step calculated,
if taken, to ameliorate the sufferings of that noble
creature, the horse, who contributes so largely to our
health, wealth, and happiness.

JAMES IRVINE LUPTON, M.R.C.V.S.

Vineyard House, Richmond, Surrey.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I.

The Body of the Horse anatomically considered .... page 1

CHAPTER II.

Physic. — The Mode of administering it, and minor Operations . . .38'

C HAP T E R III.

Shoeing. — Its Origin. Uses, and Varieties 73-

CHAPTER IV.

The Teeth. — Their natural Growth, and the Abuses to which they are

liable 125-

CHAPTER V.

Food. — The fittest Time for Feeding, and the Kind of Food which the

Horse naturally consumes 160‘

CHAPTER VI.

The Evils which are occasioned by modem Stables ..... 183

CHAPTER VII.

The Faults inseparable from Stables . . 196

CHAPTER VIII.

The so-called “ incapacitating Vices,” which are the results of Injury, or of

Disease -224

CHAPTER IX.

Stables as they should be

All

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER X.

A few Hints to Grooms page 248

CHAPTER XI.

Points. — Their relative Importance, and where to look for their Develop-
ment 268

CHAP T E R XII.

Breeding. — Its Inconsistencies and Disappointments .... 321

CHAPTER XIII.

Breaking and Training.— Their Errors and their Results. . . . 336

INDEX ... 353

ILLUSTRATED STABLE MANAGEMENT.

CHAPTER T

THE BODY OF THE HORSE ANATOMICALLY CONSIDERED.

rpiTE horse, with proper usage, might become the com-
panion of man. It is true, the poor animal can be
goaded to excessive labour ; but the creature becomes de-
graded when it toils beyond the sphere of mortal sympathy.
No living animal should be subjected to the exactions of
avarice. Life was not made to be thus debased. "What,
however, the horse, when properly treated, is capable of
performing, remains to be hereafter demonstrated. How much
it can enact, and how greatly it can benefit, when justly
treated, the present customs refuse the willing drudge a
chance of proving. No steed is now permitted to grow till
its thews and muscles are matured. Before the season of its
utility can come round, the colt is seized upon by the im-
patience of gain, and the baby limbs are distorted by early
training, which forbids the natural powers to be developed.

We can, however, even by the inspection of the body, dis-
cover that it is admirably adapted for continuous and pro-
longed exertion. The maintenance of animal motion chiefly

1

2

ANATOMICAL considerations.

depends on the provision made for aerating the blood. In
proportion as the vital current can be revivified or oxygenated,
is health promoted by those efforts, which in most bodies
would, assuredly, induce congestion and death. Age becomes
very important when the subject is thus considered. Kespira-

THE FIGURE OF A HORSE, PORTRAYING THE COMPARATIVE IMPORTANCE AND THE
RELATIVE SITUATIONS OF SOME INTERNAL ORGANS.

1. The Luugs. 2. The Stomach. 3. The Colon. 4. The Diaphragm.
6. The Situation of the Bladder.

tion is in youth quicker than during adultism, because there
is so much more oxygen needed when the frame is in a grow-
ing state. By working the horse before maturity is attained,
the animal is obliged to labour before the various tissues of the
body are formed, before the respiratory organs are capable of
withstanding the effects imposed upon them during severe
physical exertion. Nevertheless, that the reader may judge
correctly of the care Nature has 'bestowed upon the forma-
tion of a creature destined for subserviency to man, the above
engraving is presented.

This illustration exhibits the lungs as of large propor-

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

3

tional dimensions ; while the stomach will be recognized as
of more than an equally diminished capacity. Everybody
must have experienced how greatly respiration is impeded
by a loaded digestion ; and Providence, when creating an
animal destined to display speed, seems to have antici-
pated the probability of such a contingency. The intestines,
however, are comparatively of large extent. Into these
receptacles the horse’s food passes, after having perfected the
first process of digestion, and there it is subsequently mixed
with the fluid secretion of the bowels ; whereby the nutritive
matter is separated and rendered fit for absorption.

The smallness of the horse’s stomach is in itself sufficient
evidence that the quadruped was designed to be a frequent
feeder. It was not intended to endure prolonged abstinence ;
for almost in every region which the animal may canter over,
its legitimate food abounds. Man, however, frequently starves
the creature, that a loaded stomach may not interfere with the
activity of the respiration ; he, in his ignorance and in his
presumption, not being willing to trust to the provision
made, anticipatory of this accident. At other times the
quadruped is suffered to overgorge, its keeper paying no
regard to its requirements. After an excessive fast, a
quantity of cut food is placed in the manger, and the ravenous
liorse eats, and eats, till its small stomach, being unequal to
the reception of much bolted provender, cracks its walls from
excessive repletion. Such a circumstance does not demon-
strate that Nature was wrong, or that the equine races were
formed unequal to their purposes ; but it satisfactorily esta-
blishes, that man cannot with impunity cross the designs of,
or run counter to, natural laws.

The horse was created to live off the grass of the field. This
habit necessitated that much ground should be travelled before
the appetite of so large a body could be appeased ; and the
distance was the greater as the animal was sent upon the earth

1 *

4

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

a nice feeder, — biting off tlie juicy tops of tlie herbage, not
tearing up roots and all, like the less scrupulous bovine tribe.
The time was also lengthened, by the equine race not being
gifted with a power to ruminate. The ox, having filled the
mouth, bestows little care upon the comminution of the food ;
but the jaw being moved twice or thrice, thereby crushing the
herbage, so as to form it into a pellet, the mouthful is for-
warded at once to the rumen. This receptacle is large, and
is somewhat hastily filled. Then the ox retires to a quiet spot
and there enjoys its meal ; the grass being regurgitated and
fully masticated, during which time the animal is said to be
“ chewing the cud.” The horse has no such power. The food
it gathers must be prepared by mastication and insalivation
before it enters the stomach; consequently, because of the
niceness of its appetite, and the absolute necessity for each
mouthful being separately comminuted, the horse, in a free
state, has to journey far and to feed long before it can lie
down and rest.

The equine race were meant to collect their sustenance from
the surface of the earth ; and, doubtless, the tribe are most at
ease when feeding with the head lowered to the necessary
position. A dog naturally lowers the mouth when it laps a
fluid ; but, if this creature be tempted to drink from a saucer,
held on a level with the ordinary elevation of the head,
repeated coughing will interrupt the draught and testify to
the inconvenience experienced by the animal. So, in the
instance of the horse, we may infer the meal is most relished
when the head sinks to its gratification ; and, to justify such
an inference, anatomy discloses a special provision made to
that end. Such a proof is of much more weight than any
assertion to the contrary of the united British public, as
emphasized by the fixed altitude of all the mangers throughout
the three kingdoms.

A serious suggestion here forces itself upon our mind; and

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

5

it is one the importance of winch, should recommend it to
the consideration of the public. Laryngeal affections are
among the most frequent annoyances of every stable, and
stand foremost among the most vexatious of the many evils
which the veterinary surgeon is expected to eradicate.

However, it is proved that if sustenance be swallowed, with
the head at a certain elevation, it must interfere with the most

A SKETCH, DISPLAYING THE ACTION OF THE JUGULAR VALVES, WIIEN THE HEAD IS
LOWERED TO FEED OFF THE GROUND.

irritable organ entering into the composition of the entire
body. Then, horse proprietors would do well to reflect upon
the fact, and to say, how far constantly-repeated provocation
may aggravate or induce the fearful laryngeal maladies to
which domesticated horses are peculiarly liable.

The valves existing in the jugular veins are formed by
duplicatures of its internal lining membrane; and they are so
arranged as to prevent the natural tendency to regurgitate,
when the fluid within the vessel moves against gravity, men
the head is erect, and the venous current, flowing towards the
heart, is of course downwards or is favoured by gravity, then
the valves do not act ; but the passage of the blood forces the

6

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS

duplicatures of membrane to remain close against the sides of
the tube.

The jugulars conduct the dark-coloured blood from the
brain ; and as that important organ cannot endure the smallest
pressure, some special provision was imperative to carry away
the fluid, and also to anticipate the possibility of its return to
oppress the sensorium. When the horse is grazing, the head
is lower than the heart, and it naturally occupies that position
for the greater portion of the twenty -four hours. During all
that time the venous current must mount against the influence
of gravitation; and to aid the reader in properly understanding
the means by which this is effected, his attention is invited to
the foregoing diagrams.

The elevated crest, therefore, presents a clear channel to the
vital current. For that reason, the violent action or the most
rapid pace of the animal never produces congestion of its
brain. The racer may sink from exhaustion, but does not
perish from apoplexy. The head, when depressed, however,
shows the same canal divided by numerous intersecting marks.
Such lines are intended to represent the venous valves, which
assist the blood in its upward journey, and render impossible
the slightest pressure upon the sensorium. The first thing
which strikes the reader upon beholding the arrangement
depicted above, is the vast number of valves ; and this causes
him to inquire, where was the necessity for such repeated
checks. If the conservation of the brain was the only end to
be attained, might not that object have been assui’ed by a
single set of valves ? Such may seem a feasible objection ;
but to prevent the return current was, as Nature appears to
have conceived, best done by repeated assistance of the onward
flow ; consequently, these numerous valves anticipate the
possibility of regurgitation in any degree, and provide re-
peated checks to pressure from the supported column of heavy
venous blood.

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

7

There remains, however, another provision to be explained.
The return current has hitherto been spoken of, as though the
upward flow of fluid was its natural tendency. Still, every
person must have perceived the necessity, when liquid was to
be propelled in that direction, of something resembling a
forcing pump. Such an apparatus Nature has provided. The
head of a healthy animal is depressed only when eating or
when drinking. During the performance of either function,
muscles are contracting which compress the soft coats of the
veins, and thus help to drive the circulation against gravity.

Thus, during feeding, the head is maintained in a depressed
attitude for hours together ; and, throughout that space, a
most powerful agent is in operation. The lower jaw, while
the quadruped chances to be thus engaged, is in constant
motion, being opened and closed either in biting or in chew-
ing. When the jaw sinks, the muscles of mastication are
relaxed, and the venous blood rushes from the cranium into
the sinuses. But when the jaw is raised by those strong motor
agents, which render the bite of a horse so fearful an infliction,
the current from the brain is for a moment checked, and the
contents of the maxillary sinuses are energetically propelled
tip the jugulars. During the first half of the action, the valves
are in operation, having all the strength necessary for the
perfect performance of their allotted function ; but, during
the latter part, they are forced against the sides of the vessels
by the contractive masticatory influence, and cease to act in
any way upon the internal current of the blood.

Notwithstanding the strong conviction emphatically asserted
by the fixed position of the nation’s mangers, we must be
obstinate enough to disregard human authority when we
have an opportunity of studying the living book of Nature.
\ arves, though generally present in veins, aro never dis-
covered where the position of the vessel or other reason would
render such provisions unnecessary. The Great Creator often

8

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

makes one thing to serve more than one use; but never
creates when His work can answer no profitable purpose.

The use of veins is simply that of conduits, to convey the
refuse blood back to the heart, whence it is forced into the

A DIAGRAM, EXPLANATORY OP THE SPECIAL PROVISIONS DISCOVERABLE IN THE
HEAD OF A HORSE.

1. The Nostril leading direct to — 2, the Larynx, situated at the commencement of the
windpipe. 3. The Tongue. 4. The (Esophagus, or gullet. 5. The Soft Palate, which lies upon
the tongue, and affords a resting-place, whereon reposes the epiglottis, or the guardian carti-
lage to the entrance of the larynx (2). 6. The Guttural Pouches, or large membraneous and
open sacs, containing nothing but atmospheric air. 7. Nasal or frontal Sinuses.

lungs, and there revivified or rendered equal to its many forms
of nutrition. This mighty change is very simply effected.
When the thorax expands, air merely enters the lungs to
anticipate the vacuum, which otherwise must be occasioned
by the enlargement of the chest. The air consists chiefly of
two substances in a gaseous state — of oxygen and of nitrogen.
The venous blood, being very near to the inhaled air within
the lungs, extracts the oxygen from it, and in exchange, sends
forth a quantity of carbonic acid, which is voided with the
expired breath.

This change will take place when blood is extracted from
the body. If the contents of some vein are exposed to the

anatomical considerations.

9

atmosphere, they will in time change from a deep Modena red
to a bright scarlet hue. There is, however, this difference, which
marks the two processes. The alteration, when quickened by
vitality, is instantaneous ; but, the change, when it ensues
under human inspection, is slowly and, as it were, laboriously
accomplished. The size of the equine nostrils informs us of
the ample draughts of air, which the animal is fitted to
appropriate; it likewise testifies to the high state of that
vitality which could necessitate such a provision. Creatures
with small nostrils, for instance, ox and dog, are endowed
with a limited capacity as respects nasal respiration. Yet, as
a recompense, such creatures are formed to inhale through the
mouth. The horse, however, requires no such faculty ; its
nostrils are ample ; and, under ordinary circumstances, the
mouth is closed by a thick, fleshy screen, which hangs pen-
dulous from the most backward portion of the bony palate.

In the previous diagram, figure 1 indicates the space allotted
to the nasal chamber, near the external opening to winch will
be observed the numeral 8. The dotted line surrounding the
last figure represents the dimensions of a blind pouch, or cul
de sac, which separates the external from the internal wall of
the true nostril. The existence of such a provision has long
been a puzzle to physiologists ; but, if these gentlemen had
given Nat are full credit for that care with which the Common
Parent studies to preserve the beauty of the higher order of
Sis children, and had considered that the horse’s necessity
for different, quantities of air varies with different times and
during different occupations, they might have sooner com-
prehended the utility of the development.

Where the false nostril is placed is the only portion of the
nasal chamber which is not enclosed by bone ; consequently,
it is situated at the only place where the cavity admits of
distension and of contraction. The animal, in a passive state,
breathes very leisurely ; at such times the nostrils would sink

10

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

inward, or be deformed by the unavoidable collapse of the-
wall, weie not the false nostril present to permit its diminu-
tion, without materially affecting the external form. But, sub-
sequently to severe exertion, everybody must have remarked

the nostril spasmodically strain, as
though each effort would crack the
boundaries of the opening. At such
times the false nostril offers no stub-
born opposition to the violence of
respiration, while it serves to soften
down the aspect, which, if laid bare,
might show too fearfully.

A varied capacity for admitting air-
also presupposes a varied capacity to
alter the dimensions of the passages,
through which the atmosphere travels

1. The Septum Nasi. 2. The to tlie lungs- If tlie reader will again

Nasal chambers. 3. The Upper refor to the facial diagram, he will
Lip. 4. The False Nostrils. G 7

DIAGRAM OF THE FALSE NOSTRILS.

perceive a free space, in the centre of
which is placed the figure 6. These spaces (one on either
side of the face) represent what are termed the guttural
pouches, they being merely bladders containing air, and
communicating separately with each nasal chamber. A
bladder with an external opening is of course most readily
compressible. That no doubt may be entertained of the use
for which these vacant spaces were established, they are-
placed immediately above the course of the atmosphere to
the lungs, and would contract or dilate according to its
volume.

Such a condition of parts imagines the windpipe also able
to alter its dimensions, so that it may be in accord with other
structures ; and anatomy discloses facts which amply support
such a supposition. The larynx or opening to the windpipe is
composed of several pieces of cartilage and of numerous

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

11

muscles. The presence of the first plastic and highly elastic
structure is a proof that the larynx is of no fixed shape, while
the division of the organ into distinct parts, together with the
internal and external presence of many muscles of motion, is
absolute confirmation that the larynx was created not only to
assume various forms, but also to exhibit different capacities,
according to the requirements of the animal economy.

So, also, with the windpipe itself, and the tubes which
proceed from it ; these are formed of distinct rings, or of
separate pieces of elastic cartilage so curved as to form rings,
but having free overlapping ends, which are operated upon by
muscular fibre.

The diagram inserted on the next page accurately depicts
such a ring; it also shows that the springy cartilage is not
made of one thickness throughout, but is of that form which
the mechanic of the present time recognizes as that best
adapted for the preservation of continued elasticity. The
shape and the free ends evince that such a ring must always
have a tendency to expand, and by this perception we re-
cognize the purpose of the muscle, which draws the ex-
tremities over each other ; thus, two opposing forces regulate-
the capacity of the circle.

The presence of muscular fibre is always absolute proof of
motion. Where muscle exists and morbid circumstances render
motion an impossibility, the function being destroyed, the
motor organ becomes pallid, or suffers atrophy. The existence,,
therefore, of such a structure in a healthy condition is always
sufficient proof that the function of expansion and of contrac-
tion was present during life; thus we reach an absolute
certainty that the air-passages of the horse possess a property
of adapting themselves to the necessities of the animal.

Then, looking at these structures, we find them not only
free, but so composed as to be always open, excepting when
the momentary swallowing of the food causes the larynx to

12

ANATOMICAL considerations.

close. To breathe is the primary necessity of life. Health
cannot be maintained unless the blood is sufficiently oxygen-

ONE OP THE CARTILAGINOUS RINGS, NUMBERS OP WHICH JOINED TOGETHER FORM THE
TRACHEA, OR THE WINDPIPE OF THE HORSE.

a. One of the cartilages from the trachea of a horse, having free and overlapping extremities.

b. The muscular fibre situated within the ring, which regulates the diameter of the circle.

ated: this fact makes us doubt the national wisdom, which
persists in thrusting the quadruped into stables, rendered
close and hot by the products of impurity.

In the head of the horse we discern evidences of the care
bestowed to preserve a harmony of form. Above the nasal
chambers are certain hollow spaces, indicated by the figure 7.
These empty chambers may serve to impart depth to the
voice, but as the horse is generally a silent creature, such
obviously must be only a secondary purpose. To preserve
the undulation of the outline was assuredly the primary intent,
though, at the same time, the vacancies aid the reverberation
of sound, and, with other structures, also lighten that part of
the body in which they are situated.

The passage of the air to the lungs, and the admirable
provisions to admit its ingress and its egress, without destroy-
ing the mild and characteristic aspect of the quadruped,
having been described, it now becomes our duty to dwell
Upon the extraordinary conditions which conserve the passages

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

IS

of the food. Referring again to the diagram here reproduced,
we see the mouth, occupied by the tongue (fig. 3), on the
base of which organ reposes a dark body, particularized by
the figure 5. This last is the soft palate, which drops
pendulous from the osseous roof of the masticatory orifice.
Upon the soft palate lies the most forward of the laryngeal
cartilages, which is anatomically spoken of as the epiglottis;
while the most backward of the laryngeal cartilages, which
are called the aretenoids, repose beneath the roof of the
pharynx. This pharynx is the enlarged and muscular com-
mencement of the gullet, the situation and direction of which
channel is notified by the number 4.

We thus perceive in its course the food is apparently thrice

X DIAGRAM, EXPLANATORY OF THE SPECIAL PROVISIONS DISCOVERABLE IN THE
HEAD OF A HORSE.

1. The Nostril leading direct to— 2, the Larynx, situated at the commencement of the wind-
pipe. 3. The Tongue. 4. The (Esophagus or gullet. 5. The Soft Palate, which lies upon the
tongue, and affords a resting-place, whereon reposes the epiglottis, or the guardian cartilage
to the entrance of the larynx (2). 6. The Guttural Pouches, or large membraneous and open'
sacs, containing nothing but atmospheric air. 7. Nasal or frontal Sinuses.

forbidden to enter the gullet of the horse. In the first place,
there is the soft palate, retained firmly in its position by
pressure of the epiglottis ; the second obstacle we recognize in
the opening of the larynx ; and the third impediment appears.

14

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

in tlie aretenoids, that seem to bar all entrance to the tube
which leads to the stomach. Moreover, the gullet itself being
a muscular organ, in the passive state of semi- contraction is
closed ; thus appearing to oppose a further hindrance to the
admission of sustenance into its proper receptacle. However,
upon inquiry, the reader will discover these provisions, which
appear at first glance to be ranged against the entrance of
nutriment, are in reality only so many elaborate protections,
all tending to the comfort and well-being of the animal.

The soft palate so effectually closes the posterior of the
mouth, as to prevent that cavity from being employed to
modulate the voice ; though such a peculiarity does not dis-
tinguish all the equine tribe. Everybody must have remarked
the bray distend the jaws of an ass, whereas, the neigh flutters
only the nostril of the horse. The different channels through
which the sound has to emerge, fully accounting for the marked
contrast which is conspicuous in the voices of the animals.
Moreover, the horse does occasionally vomit ; but, save when
the organization is disturbed by the agonies of death, the
voided matter is generally ejected through the nostrils.

However, the reader will, perhaps, best understand how the
apparently closed cavity is rendered subservient to its uses by
the process of deglutition being described. A portion of food
is bitten off by the incisors ; the substance is by the action of
the tongue next passed to the molars, or is placed between
the grinding teeth. There it is thoroughly comminuted;
while this is being performed, the saliva is secreted and
mingled with the mass so as to render it quite soft or
pultaceous. In this state it is formed into a pellet, and is then
pressed by the tongue against the palate or roof of the mouth.
The morsel, being now round and soft, is afterwards, by a
more energetic contraction of the tongue, driven against the
pendulous palate, which seemingly closes the posterior of the
orifice.

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

15

Tlie last organ lies in that direction which enables it to offer
.a formidable resistance, especially when supported by the base
•of the tongue, to any substance proceeding from the stomach.
In the contrary direction it is only held down by the epi-
glottis ; that comparatively feeble body is forced to yield
before the greater contractile power of the lingual organ. The
epiglottis flies forward, covering the opening to the larynx,
in which position the posterior cartilages or the aretenoids
also fold over the more forward protector. A secure floor is
thus formed, preventing anything from falling into the wind-
pipe, where intrusion of the smallest substance would provoke
the most alarming spasm ; while a roof to the passage is also
made by the raised soft palate, whereby the nasal chambers
are protected from the encroachment of undigested matters.

A safe way being thus provided, the pellet is shot into the
pharynx, which, independently of the will, immediately con-
tracts upon any substance coming within its reach, and drives
the morsel into the oesophagus, or gullet. The tube, surprised
by the presence of the morsel, is obliged to separate for its
reception ; but it immediately closes on the stranger, thereby
driving it lower down, when the contractility of the fibre being
again aroused, it is once more driven onward; and this action
is continued until the food is safely lodged within the walls of
the stomach.

Few persons can comprehend the above explanation without
being forcibly impressed by the beauty and the nicety of the
whole arrangement. The elevation of the soft palate closes
the nostrils, and at the same time provides a floor for the
gaping passage to the lungs. The motion of the soft palate
nudges the epiglottis, which lies upon it and causes that
cartilage to bend over the opening to the larynx. The bowing
down of the epiglottis induces the aretenoids also to stoop,
thus forming a safe floor to the necessitated passage. Across
the chasm, now rendered secure, the food is shot into the

16

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

pharynx and conveyed to the stomach, the whole process being-
accomplished in an instant, for the act of swallowing provokes-
no sensible impediment to the continuance of respiration.

These things, however instructive or amusing they may be
when related, nevertheless are too little thought of ; nor is
the horse itself sufficiently considered. Were the lessons,
which its body should teach mankind, properly understood,
those abuses, that are at present limited to no class, would
instantaneously cease to be practised. Most people of this
country, however, treat the horse as though it were an original
inhabitant of the English climate. Rich and poor in this
respect are equally faulty ; save that those are most to blame
who, possessing wealth, can command the leisure requisite for
inquiry, and, being blessed with ability to gratify their inclina-
tions, have no excuse for lack of sympathy in the pressure of
necessity.

The horse carries about its person the signs which testify
he once roamed within a warmer climate than our northern
region. The certificate of his origin is legibly written in the

THE PUPIL OP THE HOESE’s EYE IN THE OPPOSITE STATES OP CONTRACTION AND DILATA-
TION, SHOWING THE SITUATION AND THE USB OF THE COBPOBA NIGEA.

eye. This organ mutely attests that the temperate zone was
not the birthplace of his progenitors. He has long been a
captive in Britain, but the proof of his proper dwelling-place
no time can obliterate. The eye of the horse, like that of the
camel, displays a special provision, fitting the creature to

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

17

endure the- strongest glare of a tropical sun, even when
reflected from a level waste of shining sand.

The corpora nigra, in the eye of the camel, are blackhodies,,
pendent from the margin of the iris. The purpose of so special
a provision is not apparent, when darkness occasions the
opening to dilate ; but when the glare is powerful — so power-
ful as to induce blindness even in the natives of those lands
where a concentrated light is possible — then, the wisdom of
this beautiful disposition of parts becomes apparent.

The pupil of the horse’s eye is never circular, being, wherL
much dilated, rather oblong in figure ; but, when exposed to
the direct rays of the summer’s sun, the opening energetically
contracts. Then the pupil is best represented by a mere line,
for the edges of the iris at such a season seemingly touch each
other. In this condition the uses of the corpora nigra can
hardly be mistaken : the little black bodies appear to fit into
one another, forming apparently an impenetrable network
opposed to the entrance of too strong a glare.

Let the reader, however, temperately consider this matter..
The pupil in the eye of the horse is not more distant than two
inches from the origin of the optic nerve. When the division
to be seen through is so close, and the object to be viewed is
exhibited under the strongest natural light, the merest crevice
will be equal to all the purposes of perfect vision. The full
glare of the sun alone occasioning the horse’s pupil to con-
tract, that which causes the opening to almost shut also
provides the excess of light, which alone could render useful
that narrow division through which objects must bo re-
cognized, while the dark bodies beipg stationed before the'
point of sight, answer the purpose of the smoke which lads
load upon glass when they are ambitious of gazing at the sun.

The reader must have remarked the pupillary line, through
which -the domestic cat exercises perfect vision, during the-
bright noon of a Midsummer day. The eye of the feline race-

2

18

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

is, however, possessed of no other protection. The contraction
may be the effect of weakness of sight ; at all events, the
reviser thinks he may conclude the far-famed eye of the cat
to be inferior to that of a horse. The domestic mouser is
popularly said to see in the dark ; the steed has been long
known to penetrate the gloom which sets the strained vision
of its master at defiance ; but it remains to be granted that
both horse and cat are equally fitted to roam by night. The
habits of the herbivorous creature would, however, assert it
to be possessed of such a faculty ; and the anatomist discovers
in the visual organ of the animal a provision specially adapting
it for these nocturnal peregrinations.

XZAGBAM, EXPOSING THE INTEEIOE OP THE HOUSE'S EYE, AND DISPLAYING THE SITUATION
OF THE TAPIDCM LUCIDUM, OE GLOSSY SUEFACE DEVELOPED WITHIN THB OBGAN.

Upon the upper and forward surface of the inner, dark
chamber, and so placed as to catch, to concentrate, and to
reflect every stray ray of light upon the optic nerve, the
tapidum lucidum is discovered within the globe of the horse’s
eye. This structure is, after death, very bright, or of metallic
lustre, and, because of its concave form, is admirably adapted
to its particular function. That no doubt may remain as to
the design of such a provision, the tapidum lucidum is found

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

19

■only -within the eyes of those quadrupeds created to roam by
night. It is altogether absent in such animals as were destined
to move about during daylight.

The tapidum lucidum, therefore, viewed in conjunction with
the corpora nigra, becomes an inferential proof that the horse
originally inhabited some land in which the coolness of the
night offered the greatest temptation for pleasant pasturage ;
consequently, this creature was formed to enjoy the bounties
among which it was permitted to roam. We know the cat
was imported from the tropics ; and, seeing that the eyes of
both animals, in one marked particular, resemble each other,
we may conjecture the horse originally inhabited a warmer
climate, while the likeness between the equine race and “ the
ship of the desert ” demonstrates that locality was the hottest
portion of the earth.

The eye of the horse is also provided with a power which
could seldom be needed in these northern climes, where the
fleetness of the equine tribe might readily set at defiance the
comparative feebleness of all the predatory beasts of prey.
Besides, the wooded state of this country must have rendered
the presence of telescopic vision unnecessary. Upon the far-
stretching level of the desert, however, where larger and more
ferocious animals prowl by night, the possession of such a
faculty would be a needed protection. Accordingly, we find
the interior of the globe to consist chiefly of water, the outward
covering being formed of a tough substance, which is easily
compressible, while all the hidden portion of the exterior is
enveloped by muscular fibre.

Situated directly upon the forward portion of the ball, are
the two oblique muscles. These are inserted at opposite places,
and each pulls in a contrary direction to the other. The two,
simultaneously acting, could not move the organ, but would,
obviously, tend to fix it, or to render the globe stationary.
The outer substance of the horse’s eyes is composed of a thick

2 *

20

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

and pliable covering, purely tendonous in character. The
interior consists of fluid, perfectly pure and transparent. At
the back of all is placed the optic nerve, while the exterior is
enveloped by several thick and straight muscles.

The motor agents are endowed with an ability to contract-
or to shorten in their reach. When parts of this nature
operate upon a plastic substance, which is filled only with a
fluid, they must of necessity tend to alter the shape of that
body on which they repose. The oblique muscles act to
prevent rotation ; the pressure, therefore, can only compress.

DIAGRAM, DISPLAYING THE COATING OF MUSCULAR FIBRE WHICH COVERS THE SOFT
GLOBE OF THE HORSE’S EYE.

elongate, and force backward the ball of the eye. By such a
capacity that telescopic property is produced, which man.
feebly imitates by a complex and costly machine.

Anatomy also discovers another important function proper
to the eye of the horse, which equally indicates a sandy plain
to have been the original habitat of the tribe.

Horses, when travelling in the desert, are compelled to
perform their journey in a cloud of dust sufficiently dense to
blind them, had not Nature supplied to the horse’s eye a
protection against so terrible an affliction, which consists in
the existence of a membrane, which is reflected over the front
part of the eyeball, and thence over the interior of the eyelids.
If the layer common to the eyeball or eyelid be touched by
any foreign matter, it is incapable of communicating to the
sensorium more than a feeling of uneasiness ; but, when the

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

21

two layers, viz. that of the eyeball and eyelid, meet, the
.offending agent, i,e. when the two surfaces of the membrane

are brought into opposition, then agony ensues.
The membrane, now under con-

sideration, renders it an impossi-
bility for any substance to get “into
■the eye ” ; the pain present, when
such an assertion is commonly made,
gives the strongest proof that the
.foreign body is retained between
' two surfaces of that delicate struc-
ture, which is called conjunctiva.
.Dryness is, however, destructive of
the feeling and of the transparency
■ of this membrane. Nature, there-
fore, has created a special gland
for assuring its perpetual moisture.
This last body is situated imme-
diately beneath the surface, under
■the upper lid, and towards the
■outer corner of the eye. It is, on
ordinary occasions, stimulated to'
send forth its secretion by the act
of winking, and the outer corner,
being situated above the inner

DIAGRAM, EXPLANATORY OF THE
SITUATION OF THE LACHRYMAL
GLAND, OR THE SOURCE OF TEARS,
AND OF OTHER PARTS PROPER TO
1HE HORSE’S EYE.

a. The outer angle, b. The puncta
lachrymalis, or round body, situated
at the inner angle of the eye. c. The
lachrymal gland, covered by the
upper lid, and placed near the outer
angle of the eye. e e. The position,
extent, and doubling of the conjunc-
tiva, or of the investing mucous
membrane, which envelops the outer
portion of the globe, and lines the
lids.

corner of the horse’s eye, the moisture is, by the motion of
the lid, instantaneously brushed over the circular globe.

The gland of the horse, however, has a distinct use, not
shared by any similar provision to be found in the eye of
man. In the human being, grief or pain provokes the secre-
tion : these are always accompanied by floods of tears. Some
writers assert, they have witnessed agony induce tears in
the quadruped ; but the reviser has seen fearful operation
inflicted on the noble animal, — he has heard groans testify to

22

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

the sufferings endured ; — yet, he has never beheld tears flow
from the eyes to such an extent as to even approximate to-
weeping.

Pain, when occasioned by some foreign body between the-
two layers of membrane, produces not weeping, but a positive
overflow of liquid, the purpose of which will be best explained
after the reader has been made acquainted with a particular
organ, situated at the inner angle of the eye.

The lower corner of the organ is characterized by a round
body, which, being enveloped in a single layer of membrane,
is strictly without sensation. Upon this body the grime of
the human eye accumulates, and we shall shortly perceive that

its presence in the horse is not
without a purpose. Next to the
foregoing development, and so
placed as to accurately fit the
globe, is a structure which ana-
tomists name the cartilago nicti-
tans, or the winking cartilage.
The forward portion of this car-
tilage possesses a fine edge, while
its base presents a broad sur-
face, which reposes upon the
fat at the back of the orbit. Now, as fat is not compres-

THE CAETILAGO TTICTITANS, WHEN BE-
HOVED FROM THE EYE OF A HOESE.

sible by ordinary force, whenever the muscles draw the
globe backward, the adipose matter is driven forward:
this last carries with it the cartilago nictitans, which is con-
sequently projected suddenly over the surface of the globe.
But, when the muscles relax, the fat resumes its original place,
and with it the cartilage also retires.

When any foreign body gets between the two layers of
membrane, instant winking results ; the gland, stimulated by
the motion of the lid, sends forth a gush of liquid. It is not
simply a tear or two, but a deluge of fluid is emitted ; this-

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

23

flood, aided by the action of the lid, carries the foreign sub-
etance in the course of gravity, or from the external towards
the internal corner of the globe. While this is taking place,
the pain also excites the powerful muscles of the eye to
spasmodic activity. With every spasm the fat is displaced,
and the cartilage darts from the inner corner partially over
the round surface of the eyeball. The process continues until
the substance is partly brushed and partly washed to within
the range of the fine anterior edge of the cartilage, when, by
its withdrawal, the foreign particle is lodged upon the round
insensitive body developed at the inner corner of the eye.
Towards the last point the tears naturally tend, and any
exciting substance, when there placed, is soon floated on to
the hair of the cheek.

DIAGRAM, TO ILLUSTRATE THE ACTION OF THE CARTILAGO NICTITANS UPON*

THE HORSE’S EYE.

•By joining these many proofs, we gain a moral certainty
concerning the region whence the horse originated. The eye
is seen to be gifted, not only with a special provision against
the glare of the desert, but it also possesses a peculiar de-
velopment fitting the animal to enjoy the cool pasturage of the
night. The eye is likewise endowed with a telescopic power.

24

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

suited to sweep the far-stretching horizon of the sandy waste.
Moreover, the organ discloses a special apparatus evidently
designed to overcome those accidents to which inhabitants of
arid plains, when rapidly travelling long distances, and in large
herds, were exposed.

The reviser is aware that gentlemen of known probity
have reported the existence of herds of wild horses careering
free and unbroken over the plains of Asia. Such was formerly
said to be the case, and was also credited as an established
fact, with regard to Southern America. Subsequent inquiry,
however, has shown that the wild animals of the pampas are
no more than neglected flocks roaming, apparently without
an owner, but which, in reality, are allowed thus to gain a
cheap livelihood by a careless proprietor. These American
herds are liable to the claim of some man, almost as wild as
the animals themselves ; so, also, the reported Asian quad-
rupeds turn out to be the recognized possession of some wan-
dering Tartar.

SOME OP THE DEEP-SEATED MUSCLES IMMEDIATELY INVESTING TUB SPINB OP THE HOKSB.

1. The hair. 2. The skin. 3. The adipose, or fatty tissue directly under the skin. 4. The
burste mucosa;, or synovial sacks placed above each dorsal spine. 5. The yellow, elastic
ligament connecting the dorsal spines together. 6. The spines of the dorsal vertebrae.
7. The semi-spinalis dorsi muscle. 8. Tho heads of the ribs. 9. The levntorcs costarun*
muscle. 10. Tho ribs.

However, to leave the consideration of particular parts, and
to view the entire body anatomically, the vertebra} or spinal
chain, as forming the base of the skeleton, becomes of primary

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

•25

importance. The backbone of the horse consists of various
pieces, so firmly held together by interlacing ligaments and
muscles, that students, when desirous of dividing the spine of a
dead animal, often find it easier to saw the bones asunder than
to separate them with the knife. The neck is composed of
seven bones ; the back is formed by eighteen vertebras ; the
loins consist of six pieces ; and the sacrum is made up of five
distinct parts, although long before adultism all of these last
are united by osseous junction.

THE SPINE OE THE HOESE, OE THE BASIS OP ITS ANATOMICAL EEAMEWOEK.

The sacrum, therefore, is not reckoned among the true
vertebrae, the number of which, however, amounts to thirty--
two. Of these many divisions, the bones of the neck alone
are not subject to deviations. The lumbar may be five or
seven, and the dorsal limitation is either one above or one
below the usual amount, neither of which varieties are of very
rare occurrence. The links of the backbone differ in form
and in function. The dorsal vertebras seem, at first sight, to
possess no lateral processes, whereas, in the lumbar region,
these developments are so extended as to constitute the prin-
cipal features of the several parts. So, also, the two first bones
of the neck enjoy great motion, and .all the links of the neck
are very far from stationary. But the parts of the back, on
the contrary, are all but fixed ; yet, although each is endowed

26

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

with a very limited movement, tlie whole is gifted with an
evident elasticity, which affords an easy seat to the rider.

Along the top of the backbone runs a strong cord of yellow
elastic fibre, which unites the several parts, holding these
firmly together as one whole. The elastic cord, however,
passes directly from the last dorsal spine, to be fixed into the
back portion of the skull, thus skipping over all the bones of
the neck. The fibres of this cord are longitudinally arranged,
and, however elastic such a substance may be, the dorsal
arrangement would not allow of that freedom of motion which
was requisite in the neck of an animal which was to crop its
food from the surface of the earth.

The necessity, however, was fully met by an elastic cloth
being, as it were, thrown over the cord, and extending thence
to the bones of the neck. By this arrangement frequent
attachments were avoided and grace of outline was preserved,
while no deterioration was made in that provision, by means
of which the heavy head is supported without apparent strain
upon the muscular fibre. One end of the elastic expansion
being inserted into the cervical bones, all the ease and beauty
of movement is rendered possible by the retractile property of
the cloth-like ligament being fully equal to the sustenance of
the weight, but not strong enough to resist the action of the
muscles when excited. Thus, the muscles situated at the base
of the neck serve to depress the head; the elastic cloth answers
as a counterpoising force, which steadies the movement ; the
action of the motor agents near the crest, aided by the liga-
mentous elasticity of the neck, serve to elevate the part, while
the muscular power at the base of the bones regulates and
guides the upward motion.

But the reader may be desirous to learn how far the back
of the animal is suited to endure the weight of the rider. The
bones of the spine, not being joined by osseous union, may
give solidity to the part ; but it must be self-evident the chain

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

27

possesses no inherent power to sustain the smallest pressure.
Therefore the body of the rider, when placed upon the hack,
cannot be upheld by bone alone. The weight must repose
upon the muscles and the ligaments by which the solid parts
are kept together. Man, therefore, when mounted upon a
horse, is seated upon elastic substances, animated by the
powers of vitality ; this • circumstance readily accounts for the
pleasurable feelings and the lightness of spirit communicated
to the master when in the saddle; although the delicacy
of the structures on which the burthen is cast should also
instruct, that an elaborately and a delicately organized body
ought to be shielded from labour until age has confirmed and
strengthened the several portions of the frame.

When contemplating the uses for which the quadruped was
created, we perceive the necessity of that huge mass of
muscular fibre with which the back is cushioned. We also
recognize the beauty of intention which those numerous sup-

THE THOKACIC PIUMEWORIC OP THE HOESB.

Showing the manner in which the ribs spring from the spiue to unite upon the
bone of the breast.

ports called ribs, embody and declare. These props, eighteen
on either side, must greatly strengthen the main structure,
although each is of a loose texture, and every one is more or
less pliable. The innate property of elasticity belonging to
the horse’s ribs seems to have been long known to country

•28

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

urchins, who, out of these hones have been accustomed to
form bows, whence to propel juvenile arrows. Nature, how-
•ever, seems not to have been satisfied with this provision, for
the inferior portion of the ribs consists of cartilage, which
anatomists speak of as the most elastic substance in the body ;
this yielding termination rests on the sternum, or breast-bone,
as structure, more than three parts of which are composed of
the last-named material.

The manner in which the fore limb is united to the trunk,
likewise offers matter for the reader’s admiration. Considering
that the horse is a beast of burthen, man, were he designing
a creature fitted for such uses, would assuredly have sought to
gain strength by the insertion of bone. Bone, however, would

BOMB OB THE MUSCLES WHICH ATTACH THE EOEE LIMB TO THE TRUNK.

Three muscles have already been removed, viz., the panniculus carnosus, the levator humeri,
ud the latissimus dorsi.

1. The Trapezius. 2. The Seratus magnus. 3. The Subscapulo Hyoirdeus. 1. The Rhom-
oideus. 6. The Pectoralis anticus. 6. The anterior portion of the Pectoralis magnus. 7.
The Pectoralis parvus. 8. The Pectoralis transversus.

have interfered with that agility which, no less than strength,
is an attribute of the horse’s body. The presence even of a
clavicle joining the shoulder to the thorax would have exposed
a jumping quadruped to repeated fractures. Nature, therefore,
bound the parts together by interlacing fibres. And to afioid

anatomical considerations.

29'

an idea of the marvellous care bestowed on this arrangement,,
the foregoing diagram is submitted to the contemplation of the
reader.

The rider, therefore, when mounted on a horse, is not only'
seated upon fleshy and ligamentous fibre, and upheld by pliable
bone based upon elastic cartilage, but, as the thorax is sup-
ported by the anterior extremity, he actually swings upon the
strongest and most yielding substance known throughout
animated nature. Could mortal ingenuity, by the exercise of
any force or duration of thought, have perfected so exquisite
a work ?

The bones within the fore limb are not self-sustaining.
Remove their coverings, and they will not retain their several
places, but will fall in a heap upon the earth. The fact proves,
that the osseous framework, although it confers solidity upon
the body, is, nevertheless, upheld by the structures with which
it is enveloped. The bony column, however, when united and
bound together, exhibits an intention of bestowing elasticity,
quite as much as of conferring strength. In the first place,
the solid column is crowned by a broad, but thin plate of
cartilage, the yielding property of which has already been
dilated upon. So that the trunk not only swings upon living
fibre, but the primary weight is endured by what anatomists
designate “the most elastic substance in the body,” of a shape
and form which develop to the uttermost its bending property.

The arrangement of the shoulder-blade and the bone on
which it rests being angular, evidently contemplates a yielding
to any force coming from above. The two next bones cannot
be viewed as meant solely for strength, though the several
parts of the knee and shank are slightly columnar in their
order •, nevertheless, the pastern bones again display an intent
. to yield rather than a design at gaining decided resistance..
Yet, even there remains further food for contemplation when
viewing these dry bones of a quadruped. The shock, of winch

30

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

the rider complains, when doomed to cross the trank of some
poor animal whose body has been disorganized by abuse, is
occasioned by the bones having been, through disease, thrown
from their natural positions.

Engineers well know that sand will oppose the force of a
cannon-ball, the power being rapidly exhausted, which has to
travel through numerous separated particles. Each grain
of sand, therefore, being distinct, a bag of that substance
offers a good preventive to the concussion produced by the

explosive force of gunpowder. But the
reader, when endeavouring to ascertain
the provisions instituted by Nature to
save the equestrian from concussion,
can at once perceive the purpose for
which the osseous support of the limb
was formed of several pieces, as well as
appreciate the beauty and grace of mo-
tion which are thereby assured.

Looking at the illustration, we observe
that certain of the component solids of
the limbs are altogether out of the per-
pendicular, and, consequently, must
receive other support than is derived
from the bone immediately below them.
Indeed, no portion of the structure is
decidedly columnar in its arrangement.
Either the parts are crooked, or they
lean in a direction from the plummet-
line. The angularity of the two topmost
b. pieces can, however, not possibly escape
notice ; neither can the slanting position
of the pastern bones fail to attract attention. Noting these
peculiarities, the reader recognizes that the bones of the fore
extremity cannot be self-sustaining, but they must be upheld

THE BONES OF THE FORE LIMB.

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

31

or retained in tlieir relative situations by the structures winch
■surround them in the living subject.

The scapula and humerus, or the two topmost bones, are
rendered firm by the joint action of the powerful extensor
and flexor muscles, appertaining to the
shoulder. The pastern bones transfer
their weight to the strong tendon which,
passes immediately under their lower
surfaces. The other bones are held in
their situations by the energetic con-
tractility of the muscles whicli embrace
them. Hence, it is obvious, the rider,
when seated on the back of a horse,
is not upheld by any osseous resistance.

His burthen reposes upon living fibre.

The bone limits the sphere of contrac-
tility, and thus gives firmness to the
limbs; but it endures no portion of the
weight. So exquisitely has Nature adap-
ted her creature to its uses, that in the
liorse man is provided with a means of
conveyance, remarkable for fleetness, but
more wonderful for the elastic and buoy-
ant seat which an admirable body affords.

Had direct weight been cast upon the
bones, the shock communicated by
placing the foot upon the ground would
have been so concussive as to have made
the saddle a seat of torture. This is no
speculative conjecture, but it is a deduction drawn from
positive fact. Hard work causes the pastern bones to quit
their natural slant, and to assume a more upright direction.
They very rarely become actually perpendicular ; but as they
verge to a vertical direction, the jar communicated to the

THE PRINCIPAL FLEXOR TEN-
DONS OF THE FOEE LEG.

1. The Perforans. 2. The
Perforatus. 3, 4. Accessory
Muscles. 6, 6. Restraining
Ligamonts. 7. The Pedal
Cartilage divided. 8. The
Navicular Bone.

32 ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

rider becomes most distressing. The tendons of the foreleg
are, therefore, of all importance; the utility of these structures,
cannot be better illustrated than by appealing to the terrible
effects which ensue upon injury to these organs.

However, that the reader may fully
appreciate the simplicity developed in
the various arrangements exposed upon
dissection, the next illustration is in-
serted, against which numerous lines are-
fixed. Those marks indicate the points
where synovia, a substance like to white-
of egg, is interposed between the ex-
tremities of the bones. Each separate-
bone, thus, not only rests upon a liquid,,
but the ends of these formations are,
likewise, tipped with cartilage, thus-
doubly securing the ease of progression ;
for concussion of the foot would be likely
to occur, had not the above wise ar-
rangements necessitated that the shock,,
given to the foot when it first reaches
the ground, should travel through differ-
ent bones, tipped by cartilage, and sepa-
rated by the interposition of a fluid.

Looking toward the quarters of a
horse, we perceive that the spines of the-
loins ( lumbar vertebrce) bend forward,
while those of the haunch (sacral vertebrce ) incline backward,
thus leaving a free space dividing the uppermost bones of two
neighbouring regions. Inspecting the last lumbar bone, we
ascertain it to be united by its lateral processes, yet it does
not touch- the first sacral’s body, all other parts of the chain
joining at their centres.

What takes place at this spot which could render imperative

THE ARTIST S IDEA OF A
horse’s FORE LIMB.

The lines indicate the
places where synovia (or
a fluid resembling white
of egg) is interposed be-
tween the different struc-
tures.

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

33

such an arrangement ? In wliat action is the inclination of
the trunk so opposite to the position of the quarters as to
render necessary such a special provision as is here exempli-
fied ? In prancing, in rearing, and in jumping, the hind legs
are firmly planted upon the earth ; then, by exertion of the
powerful muscles of the quarters, the forward trunk is raised.
This action could not have been exhibited had the spines of
the sacral bones ranged in the same
direction as those of the lumbar
vertebrae; and to enforce the reason
of this evident provision, a free
space characterizes this particular
joint, others being formed by the
interposition of cartilage.

The skeleton of the quarters is
characterized by further distinctive
peculiarities. The sacral bones are
fixed one to another, 'and joining
them at the spine, is the huge hip-
bone. This is the heaviest of the
many 'weighty pieces which com-
pose the osseous frame of the horse.

It is irregular in form, and remark-
able for an unusually rugged ex-
terior. An anatomist, by simply
inspecting it, could designate its
uses; so emphatically is everywhere
written the origin and insertion of
powerful motor muscles. In every ridge, in every indentation,
in every inequality, anatomy discovers such a purpose ; thus,
when “ the gnarled and bossy ” developments upon this bone
are viewed in conjunction with the solid and uneven appear-
ance of the lower osseous supports of the hind limb, no person,
properly instructed, can doubt that the quarters are peculiarly

3

THE BONES OF THE HIND EXTREMITY.

34

ANATOMICAL considerations.

the seat of muscular power in the equine race, and that the
angular arrangement of the bones suggests the immediate
purpose of flexion and extension.

The inferior bones of the an-
nexed sketchlead to the foot ; but
as the osseous structure of this
part is illustrated in a previous

- * I

sketch, and as the fore and hind
feet of the horse are in the lead-
ing particulars alike, little need
be written concerning them, with
the exception that the hind foot
of the horse being the point
whence all the strain of propul-
sion must proceed, the part, from
such a cause alone, will be liable
to certain distortions. The evils
engendered by the- cruel im-
patience of mankind, which forces the colt into too early
labour, causes the natural position of this member to become
distorted. The pastern bones, should the toil continually be
enforced, assume a vertical position, and the shank bone after-
wards projects. If these warnings are disregarded, inhumanity
provokes the heels to be drawD upward, and a valuable help-
mate is thus incapacitated from assisting man in his earthly
task.

While writing of the horse, it should not be forgotten that
in this country there is another animal — the ass — which
properly belongs to the equine race, and which is liable to
most of the evils, as well as worthy of much of the commen-
dation already pronounced for the horse.

The donkey labours beyond the care of its enslaver, and
without the region of human sympathy. It is, however,
chiefly the property of those whose feelings are subject to

THE HINT) QUARTER OF A HORSE,
FROM WHICH THE SKIN HAS BEEN
REMOVED.

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

35

their necessities, when its food is the refuse of the stable, but
its work is often as despotically severe. Be its toil exhaustive,
let it work without cessation throughout the day and far into
the night, no eye regards its fatigue with commiseration. It
is an object only to laugh at. The popular belief is, that the
tribe is so peculiarly hardy, as to be altogether removed from
the necessities, the liabilities, or the accidents common to every
other form of life.

The young horse may be stinted in its food, but it is spared
from work until a certain period has arrived. All classes have
their stated ages when the colt should first begin to labour ;
but the ass has no recognized season of rest, even for its im-
maturity. It is forced to work so soon as need can see in the
growing body a capacity to assist. Foals are often to be seen
dragging loaded trays about the streets of London, and the
day’s toil is lengthened or shortened by the quickness or the
slowness of the day’s sale. The food is, during this time, the
refuse of the stock; seldom can the owner spare from his
earnings that which will purchase fodder for the life which is
the partner of his fatigues.

The donkey is harnessed for the early market. The coster-
monger rides with his family to make his bargains for the
day, and the stock-in-trade being procured, he and they ride
with it back again. The wretched creature, on reaching home,
is not released or permitted to rest, but has to support the
tray whilst the family arrange for the display of vegetables
which are intended for the morning’s sale, after which the
poor brute is started on his daily round with a kick or blow,
accompanied with continuous threats, which are usually carried
into effect.

If the proprietors of asses have few faiths, they are all
thoroughly imbued with one belief, which is, that the animal
in their keeping cannot possibly feel exhaustion. Their
credulity does not stay here. They are impressed with a con-

3 *

36

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

viction that no creature of the donkey tribe has any sort of
feeling. The last article of belief makes the man select the
■weakest portion of his dumb servant’s spine for a seat, when
he feels inclined to ride. The reader, to whose notice dia-
grams of the equine spine have been submitted, knows that
the loins alone are unsupported by other bones. The absence
of that which renders this region the weakest division of the
vertebrae also makes this portion of the quadruped’s back the
most yielding and elastic. Here, the fashion of vulgarity fixes
the rider’s seat, when he strides the ass. The veterinary
student will remember that few of the lumbar bones in the
carcasses he dissected, when at college, were in their integrity.
The reviser has encountered two, three, and even four bones
of the six, which compose the part, locked together by osseous
deposit.

Such a form of union proves the animal to have suffered
inflammation. The injury must have been endured, and the
agony must have run its course, for an osseous junction is
positive evidence that all the stages of inflammation have been
survived. Few persons, when they behold the young donkey
stagger under the weight of its six-foot rider, care to think of
this ; nay, the writer has beheld really worthy gentlemen stand
and enjoy the scene of activity presented at evening time by a
rural gipsy’s encampment. The women were laughing, the
men were shouting, while the more jovial of the gang were
racing on the common. Those poor donkeys, which already
had been goaded to the performance of no ordinary day’s toil,
were carrying terrific loads, and beaten till they galloped,
despite the deep-seated anguish with which they were
afflicted.

The reviser can further testify, that among the scores of
carcasses which he has dissected, he never examined the body
of a donkey, however young it might have been, that he did
not encounter appalling proofs of internal injuries, — injuries

ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

37

which had resulted in change of structure, and which would
have consigned the horse to the knacker’s yard. Yet, the
animals thus maimed were working up to the date of pur-
chase ; the inability to move was attributed to the obstinacy
which is generously supposed to characterize the ill-treated
animal, and the blows fell heavier in proportion as its actual
■condition should have appealed to human forbearance.

The country is not secure, the people are not released, from
barbarism. Who can contemplate without remorse, and, alas !
“ miserabile dicta,” sometimes with a smile, the sufferings of
that much-abused animal, but willing slave, — the donkey ?

38

PHYSIC.

CHAPTEE II.

PHYSIC : THE MODE OF ADMINISTERING IT, AND MINOR OPERATIONS.

TT is among the worst features of modem society that,
while it boasts of several worthy gentlemen who can draw
largely upon their bankers, there are in its ranks so very few
who would willingly submit to the smallest personal exertion
for the fulfilment of that which they confess to be a moral
duty. Would these individuals occasionally lounge towards
the stable, the cost of its maintenance might be decreased,
and, nevertheless, the creatures, for whose welfare the owner
is confessedly responsible, be better treated at a diminished
outlay.

When a dumb slave fails in the service of some affluent
proprietor, all that might be done is not accomplished when
the assistance of a veterinarian is sought. It is not sufficient
that drugs are paid for, and that the doctor is in constant
attendance, or that the building, in its arrangements and
details, attests to the vigilance of his measures. No : a man
is bound to investigate, to judge conscientiously, and to deter-
mine those means to be adopted best calculated to promote the
health and happiness of the inmates of his stable. Had this
duty been discharged, many processes, still sanctioned by
custom, might have fallen into disuse ; some habits, now in-
dulged, might have been discarded ; while a few objectionable
measures might have been altogether forbidden, as useless
formalities, and needless cruelties.

Horse balls — particular forms of veterinary medicine — are

PHYSIC.

39

generally sent to stables by tbe dozen. Pliysic is thus placed
at tbe pleasure or tbe caprice of ignorance to administer.

Tbe aloetic mass is tbe common purgative of tbe stable.
So general was the use of aloes, and so unquestioning appears
to have formerly been tbe confidence lavished upon its opera-
tion, that this medicine always took precedence in every sick-
ness, and ultimately engrossed to itself the significant term
“ physic.” “ Prepare this horse for physic,” signifies, in
stable phraseology, first, give such an animal four or five bran
mashes during 24 hours, and, at the expiration of this time,
administer to the said creature a dose of aloes. The groom
cannot imagine a medicinal compound to be worthy of the
title “ physic ” unless it be capable of producing most violent
drastic effects. Other medicine will move the bowels of the
horse, and bran mashes given three or four times daily will
relax the intestines more gently • but the stableman is never
satisfied without aggravating the result with a dose of aloes.

The horse’s body does not quickly respond to opening
medicine, but the action, once elicited, is not invariably easy
to command. The animal’s life is frequently a prey to a potent
purgative. The veterinarian knows that the different creatures
vary much in their capability of swallowing amounts of aloes ;
that the dose which will not move one quadruped may destroy
the inhabitant of the next stall. One creature will imbibe two
ounces of the drug without marked effect ; another will be
shaken by the action of less than half an ounce of the prepara-
tion. Nevertheless, the stable-man always craves for aloes,
and always experiences an odd delight when watching for its
hydrogogue operation.

In the majority of cases bran mashes, in the place of aloes,
could be advantageously supplied, which are readily made as
follows : — Put a peck of bran into a perfectly clean stable-pail.
One person should stir the bran as briskly as possible, while
another person, with speed, empties a sufficiency of water

40

PHYSIC.

just below boiling point into the pail to render the contents
a pultaceous mass. The vessel is then covered up, and when
it has become cool, the pudding is thrown into the manger.

However, one horse will devour bran mashes with avidity ;
another will not touch them. This animal will not partake
of the potion, unless it be partially warm ; another will not
eat until it is perfectly cold ; while most will partake of the
mess if it be flavoured by the admixture of a little salt, or a
few crushed oats.

So it is, also, with water. Certain horses, when feeding
upon bran mashes, refuse all drink ; others enjoy frequent
draughts of cold fluid, while a third set seem to crave for warm
water ; and .a fourth will neither imbibe freely nor entirely
abstain, being wholly indifferent as to the temperature of the
liquid. Thus, the order which is inserted in most books, to
give to the horse, after the animal has swallowed a dose of
aloes, copious draughts of warm water, is frequently rendered
futile ; for, as the proverb teaches, — “ One man may lead the
horse to the pond, but forty men cannot make the quadruped
drink.”

Bran mashes, however, will act without the aid of repeated
doses of warm fluid. Of themselves they do not debilitate,
though from the length and size of the horse’s intestines,
purgation cannot be long maintained without inducing serious
exhaustion ; and it is never safe to work the animal while any
looseness is observable. A tendency to inflammation is often
announced by repeated and liquid discharges; therefore, never
let the horse be taken out while the bowels are in a state of
excitement, for exercise may increase that action to one of
positive disease. Bran mashes, however, are the safest and
the gentlest of laxatives. Any condition may be induced,
according to the number and frequency of the potions. In
general, they act mildly, without inducing that bodily dis-
comfort or that constitutional weakness which throws the

PHYS.IC.

41

animal out of condition, and renders rest an absolute necessity
dor recovery. Altogether, these mixtures are the best and the
.safest laxative of the stable ; but even these should never be
.administered to the horse -without the special direction of the
proprietor.

On the other hand, aloes, in no form, can be administered
to some horses. Very many cannot receive a full dose of the
drug. Several can only with safety swallow the medicine
when highly spiced, or in solution ; while a few are all but
insensible to the action of the agent. Alarming spasms often
follow the exhibition of a moderate quantity of aloes, which
always renders the quadruped sickly ere the effects are visible.
The drug, in most instances, lies dormant 24 hours, during
which period the appetite is lost, the spirits oppressed, the
coat dull, and the entire system evidently shaken. It is not
•esteemed prudent to work the patient till several days’ rest
have been allowed for its restoration.

It used once to be the custom to trot the animal which was
sickening under a dose of aloes ; but experience has shown the
■danger of the habit. The horse is now left in the stable, has
• an extra rug thrown upon the back, while a pail of warm
water is in most instances placed in the manger. Where safe,
it is obviously unnecessary to ride the quadruped which is
sickening under aloes, since the loss of appetite shows the
medicine has affected the system, and the natural effects of
the physic may, therefore, be anticipated.

Very many animals, when suffering from chronic debility,
may be killed by a moderate dose of aloes, while many never
sufficiently recover from purgation to do a day’s work after
the medicine has ceased to operate. Of all the preparations
the veterinarian has at his command, we do not know one
which exerts so decided an effect upon the constitution ; nor
does the veterinary pharmacopoeia contain an agent which
‘demands more care and caution in its administration. Several

42

PHYSIC.

potent caustics rank among the most common of horse medi-
cines, and should never be given, excepting under the direction
of a duly qualified veterinarian ; for, in the first instance, some-
grooms are unable to administer medicine satisfactorily, either
in the form of ball or otherwise ; and, secondly, even allowing-
that some grooms are moderate manipulators, they cannot
have the experience of the veterinarian or his running doctor,
— persons who are daily giving medicines to animals in their
various forms.

There are some horses of a savage nature, and who are-
constantly prone to bite, but more particularly so during the-
exhibition of a ball. To obviate the accidents likely to result
from this vice, and to assist the operator during his manipula-
tions, an instrument called a “ balling-iron ” has been invented^
A “balling-iron is simply a piece of metal, so shaped that
when thrust violently between the creature’s jaws, it forcibly
holds the mouth open. Therefore it will certainly prevent
biting ; but an irritable or a fearful horse can rear up and
strike with its fore feet. Such an animal is not entirely sub-
dued when the iron is adjusted. The man using a balling-iron
has, therefore to guard himself from blows rapidly dealt with
the fore hoofs of a desperate animal.

He has also to be ready at the slightest intimation of an
intention to rear, so that he may withdraw his arm on the-
instant, otherwise the operator is dragged upward with the
elevated crest, and, hanging by the inserted member, he is
very lucky if a broken limb does not reward his tardiness.
The use of the balling-iron, consequently, is not free from
danger ; and, in practice, it will be found safer to subdue by
kindness than to partially conquer by the employment of me-
chanical restraints.

The most common form of balling-iron is constructed ac-
cording to the model indicated in the following illustration.
The circular piece of metal is inserted into the mouth of the-

FHYjSIC.

43

animal. A straight bar is attached to either side of the me-
tallic ring, the design of these last being to steady the instru-
ment after it has been forced into its proper position. Through
the circle the operator’s arm is thrust, and the iron ring affords
security so far, as it disables the jaws from closing upon the
member. But, though safe in one direction, such a protection
also creates its particular peril ; for, should the horse rear, the

THE COMMONEST FOHM OP PALLING -IRON.

A A. The ring of iron, ■which being forced
into the animal’s mouth, keeps tho jaws
asunder.

BB, BB. That portion of the metal which
steadies the ring by remaining against the jaws.

C. The handle.

the improved poem op the common balling-

IBON, WHICH APFOEDS A PROBABILITY OF
ESCAPE POE THE OPERATOR'S ARM.

A A. The part forced into the mouth.
BB,BB. The part which remains against tho
jaws. C. The handle.

arm, being surrounded by a metallic rim, could not be with-
drawn with the speed requisite to insure the operator’s safety.
The suspension of the man’s body is almost certain to provoke

44

PHYSIO.

.the fracture of his imprisoned limb ; consequently, to remedy
that evil, the improvement, indicated by the right-hand illus-
tration, was introduced.

The circle in the above was left free on one side ; thus the
inexpert had a little more time allowed for their movements.
The arm could be retracted with greater ease, and the former

danger was, in a great mea-
sure, removed. Still, this new
shape was not wholly satis-
factory. The form was fixed :
horses are not all of one height,
one breadth, or of one capacity.
There are small creatures desig-
nated ponies, while horses are not
rarely encountered of enormous
proportions. As the iron had no
power of being adapted, the
form that should prove not large
enough for one, might be alto-
gether disproportioned to ano-
ther quadruped.

The weight of metal neces-
sarily employed to assure the
requisite strength, also rendered
it inconvenient for a veteri-
nary surgeon to carry more than
one of these bulky articles ; and
though small was the amount
of ingenuity which had hitherto
been lavished on the improve-
ment of the thing, for years it
continued of the last character.
Mr. Varnell, assistant professor
at the Royal Veterinary College,

A NEW BALLING-IKON', INVENTED BY

PHOFESSOB VARNELL, OF THE ROYAL

VETERINARY COLLEGE, LONDON.

A A. India-rubber tubing to protect
the mouth from the harshness of the
metal bars.

BBB. Side pieces to keep the iron
in its situation.

C. The handle.

D. The lower bar, attached to the
handle.

E. The side piece, which can be
raised or depressed.

F. The screw, at the extremity of
the side piece.

O. The nut which, fastened to the
handle, acts upon the screw, and Axes
its position.

PHYSIC.

45-

however, appears to have entirely removed all former objec-
tions, and to have invented a balling-iron, which seems to
possess all the qualities that such an instrument is capable of
exhibiting. The restraining bars of this last amendment are-
formed of polished steel, and are covered with a stout piece
of India-rubber tubing ; thus, in some measure protecting-
fche mouth of the creature from injury by what hitherto was
the exposed metal. The lower bar, moreover, is attached
to the handle, and the handle can be readily raised or de-
pressed by turning the nut situated at its base. It can, there-
fore, be quickly adapted to any possible capacity of jaw.

Such a form of immunity is, however, seldom sought, save-
by the very inexperienced in the veterinary practice. A few
years of active employment enables any person to discard this
defence. A sufficient security is in all ordinary cases afforded!

™ USUAL MANNER OE GIVING A BALL.

by the horse's tongue, which, when a ball is about to be ad-

46

PHYbIC.

ministered, is grasped by tbe left band, and withdrawn to the
Tight side of the mouth. The hand thus employed is fixed,
being lightly pressed against the inferior margin of the lower
jaw; for, when retained in such a position, the tongue is
pressed upon the foremost of the huge molar teeth. Of course
the animal, thus held, cannot approximate its jaws so as
■seriously to harm the operator without biting its own flesh ;
by that circumstance is safety supposed to be rendered certain.
But should violence be exerted, animal fear is apt to be
superior to bodily pain ; the tongue and arm may be simul-
taneously bitten through. The practised veterinary surgeon,
however, takes advantage of the first emotion of surprise
which the creature experiences at the liberties taken with, and
the indignities offered to, its person. Having the ball ready
in the right hand, he, standing on the left side, quickly intro-
duces the bolus into the wondering quadruped’s mouth.

The medicine is lodged at the back portion of the tongue,
whence, as the horse does not expectorate, the creature has no
ability of expelling it, save only by coughing. During the
spasm, which accompanies this act, the soft palate is raised,
and the ball is carried outward with the volume of violently-
expired breath. Some horses acquire a habit of thus return-
ing all forms of physic, and will cough up a ball twenty times.
Such a circumstance illustrates the necessity of distracting the
attention of the quadruped, the instant the hand is retracted ;
for, in the confusion of the moment, the most inveterate
“ dodger ” may be surprised into swallowing any abhorrent
morsel.

The hand, during the delivery of the ball, being rapidly
thrust into the mouth, is frequently cut by the sharp edges of
the molar teeth. No knowledge, which has hitherto been
attained by veterinary science, can point out the animal
possessed of grinders of this dangerous description, and the
only protection as yet suggested is to cover the hand with a

PHYSIC.

47

glove. But a glove cannot be washed and dried so readily as
the hand ; it, moreover, is highly objectionable to introduce
the saliva of one animal into the mouth of another, as disease

THE CUSTOMARY MODE OF DISTRACTING* THE HORSE’S ATTENTION, AFTER IT HAS RECEIVED

A HALL.

may be thus conveyed from horse to horse ; also, it being im-
possible to provide a new glove with every fresh patient, the
protection is not universelly adopted.

The medicine being delivered, the hand is quickly with-
drawn, and the jaws of the animal are clapped together. The
nose is then rubbed somewhat roughly, for — the upper lip
being the organ of prehension, as well as the seat of feeling,
in the horse — this part is excited, with the design of prevent-
ing the quadruped from dwelling too intently on the un-
pleasant nature of the substance which has just been forced
into its mouth.

The best mode of holding a ball during administi’ation is
to place the ball between the fore and middle fingers, and
to keep the hand level with them ; in this position it is

48

PHYSIC.

introduced, and, when it has been advanced to the desired
situation, a separation of the fingers allows the morsel to drop
into its place. After the exhibition of the above physic, the
horse's attention may be engaged by applying gentle friction,
to his throat, until the bolus has been swallowed.

MANNER OF DELIVERING A BALL.

The delivery of a ball is, however, rendered difficult in pro-
portion to the number of persons who surround the animal,
and to the noise generally made on such occasions. The
experienced veterinarian goes alone to the head of his patient.

THE QUIET METHOD OF GIVING A BALL.

and plays for a time with the quadruped's face : confidence

PHYSIC.

49

"being thus established, the practitioner gently withdraws the
creature’s tongue. This being accomplished, of course the
jaws are sundered, when, without any sign of flurry, the hand
is introduced into the cavity, and the medicine properly
lodged. After such a manner the practised veterinarian gives
many balls in the course of the day, and is hardly ever known
to fail. Indeed, were the practitioner, when going his rounds,
to wait till four or five assistants could be collected ere he
administered the requisite medicine, the duties of the day
could never be discharged.

The physic being introduced into the mouth, the person
who has undertaken to deliver it should on no account esteem
his business finished, and thereon leave the stable. He should
proceed to the left side of the horse, and watch the neck. In
that position, when the animal swallows, any substance can
be seen to travel down the gullet : this proof having been
witnessed, the building may be quitted with a safe conscience.

BALL rASSING DOWN IIOBSE’s GULLET.

Drinks or draughts constitute another usual mode for ad-
ministering medicines, and are considered by most prac-

4

50

PHYSIC.

titioners to constitute both an easy and effective medium for
exhibition. A drink is usually given through the mouth, but,
in some cases, such as of locked-jaw, i.e., when the mouth
cannot be opened, medicine in solution is caused to find its
way to the stomach through the medium of the nostrils. At all
times administration by this channel is fraught with danger ;

Pig. 1.

DIAGRAM (FIG. 1), EXPLANATORY OF THE COMPOUND ACT OF DRINKING IN THE HORSE.

a a. The water drawn into the mouth, and forced into the fauces by the compression of the
forward part of the tongue, and the enlargement of the backward portion of the organ.
bb. The fluid passing down the oesophagus or gullet.
c . The larynx, lowered to admit the passage of the liquid.
dd. The tongue, dilated at one place and contracted at another.
e. The soft palate, floated upward and effectually closing the nasal passages.

for the liquid, sometimes charged with caustic contents, may
flow to the lungs, and thus produce death from suffocation.
The natural receptacle for food and fluids is the mouth, and
any attempt to administer them through any other channel is

PHYSIC-

51

an unnatural action. To render this subject more intelligible,
the process which enables the horse to imbibe liquids shall be
here detailed.

The mouth of this animal is peculiar for having at its back-
ward extremity a fleshy screen, which hangs pendulous from
the bony roof. This soft palate explains why the quadruped,
under ordinary circumstances breathes only through the nose,
and why, when it vomits, the regurgitated matter is ejected
by the nostrils. That speciality is of service, however, during-
the act of imbibition. The posterior entrance to the nasal
chamber being open, and the head in a pendulous position,
were there no special provision to the contrary, the water,
after having passed the mouth, would, from the mere force of
gravity, have a tendency to return by the nostrils. This
actually occurs whenever cold, strangles, influenza, sore
throat, &c., interferes with the activity or the health of these
parts now under consideration. Disease renders the organ
sensitive, and tenderness makes the animal exert its volition
to prevent the employment of the inflamed structure. In
consequence of this cause, the nasal chambers are imperfectly
closed, and a great portion of the fluid imbibed by the mouth
flows forth again through the nostrils. Such a tendency to
gravitate is, during health, effectually prevented by the soft
palate. Before any substance can pass from the mouth towards
the throat, that appendage must be raised, and its rising closes
the posterior entrance to the nasal chambers.

The tongue is the primary agent employed when the animal
slakes its thirst. The backward portion of the organ is con-
tracted, and the forward part compressed by muscular vo-
lition (d d, fig. 1). A vacuum would thereby be created,
were not the water propelled by atmospheric pressure into the
void thus formed (a, fig. I). The posterior of the tongue is
then relaxed, while the anterior division of the organ is pressed
against the roof of the mouth (d d, fig. 2). The fluid is thereby

4 *

52

PHYSIC.

driven to the backward part of the cavity {a, fig. 2). The
tongue, during the act, continues to alternate the states of
contraction and relaxation, each motion of the lingual agent
serving to pump the water into the fauces ( a , fig. 1). But,

Fio. 2.

DIAGRAM (FIG. 2), EXPLANATORY OF THE COMPOUND ACT OF DRINKING.

a a. The water driven backward by the forward dilatation of the tongue and the upward move-
ment of the larynx.

b b. The full current forced down the gullet.
c. The larynx propelled against the soft palate.
d d. The tongue dilated anteriorly, and compressed posteriorly.
e. The soft palate.

before that can be accomplished, the soft palate must be ele-
vated. The soft palate (e, fig. 2) then closes the nostrils
(e, fig. 1) ; and also in its course to take this position sets in
motion the cartilages of the larynx. The last cover over and
effectually protect the windpipe (c,-fig. 1), and the fluid, forced
onward by the contraction of the tongue, passes into a secure
chamber, the roof and floor of which are but of temporary

PHYSIC.

sa

formation ( a. , fig. 1). Here it remains only during the in-
activity of the larynx. The upward motion of the latter body
(c, fig. 2) propels the fluid into the pharynx, whence invo-
luntary contractility sends it into the gullet, the muscular
action of which tube conveys it onward to the stomach ( a b b}
fig. 2).

From the foregoing explanation, the reader is in a position
to judge whether the nasal chamber is a fit passage for acri-
monious mixtures, since he now understands the evident
pains Nature has bestowed to prevent the temperate fluid, of
which the animal customarily partakes, from intruding upon
the elaborate, delicate, and highly sensitive membrane that
lines the air passages.

The usual mode of giving a drink is, moreover, a complex
business. A twiteh is mostly kept in regularly-appointed
stables, and the string or loop is fixed over the animal’s upper
jaw, prior to other measures being proceeded with. The groom
then grasps the stick, and takes his place by the shoulder of
the horse. At a previously arranged signal, he raises the
pole ; the string, paining the gums, under which it is fixed,
causes the head of the quadruped to be elevated, when the
fluid contained in a bottle (to be afterwards described) is next
carried upward, two fingers of the operator’s left hand being
fastened on to the gums, so as to further expand the jaws, and
enable the veterinary surgeon to steady his body while strain-
ing to administer the medicine.

In administering a drink the operator should stand on the
right side of the animal, whilst the attendant at the twitch
should take his position on the left side. Years ago drenching
horns and tin bottles were used as media for the exhibition
of mixtures ; but of late years they have ceased to be em-
ployed, and their place has been filled by a strong glass bottle
capable of holding the whole of the mixture to be given. In
this case the operator is not compelled, as was the case with

54

PHYSIO

the drenching-horn, to be continually filling the receptacle
when empty, which caused delay, and in great measure frus-
trated the ease of administration. But from the foregoing it
must not be imagined that a drink should be poured down the
animal's throat all at once. It must be given in small quan-
tities at a time ; a quart should be divided into 15 mouthfuls,
and no attempts should be made to administer a second
mouthful before the former one has been swallowed, and for
the simple reason that, should the operator fill the mouth too
full, or the animal cough, the administrator is likely to be

GENERAL METHOD OP ADMINISTERING A DRINK TO A HORSE.

saturated with medicine, as any irritation occurring to the
larynx is invariably productive of this effect : consequently

PHYSIC,

55

any attempt to give drinks otherwise than gradually, is
productive of waste, and necessitates the taking of only a
portion of the intended draught, thereby frustrating the object
in view, namely, the exhibition of the whole of the prescribed
•dose.

To some horses, viz., those of a quiet disposition, drinks
can be administered without the assistance of a twitch, and
doubtless the “ quiet method ” of giving a drink recommends
itself to our notice before any other. It consists in the ope-
rator approaching fearlessly the animal in fondling, and pro-

GIVING A DEINK, ACCORDING TO TILE QUIET METHOD

ceeding to such trivial familiarities as may establish perfect
trustfulness between man and his dependant. So soon as the

56

PHYSIC.

steed’s confidence is gamed, the animal is all submission to
tbe pleasure of its superior. Then let the practitioner uncork
the bottle, and, putting the left hand gently under the quad-
ruped’s jaw, empty with the other the contents, gradually,
through the interspace which divides the incisors from the
molar teeth.

But, when adopting the above plan, the operator must be
alone. No noisy or officious assistant must be near at hand
to excite alarm or to create distrust. No pain must be in-
flicted ; no angry words should be employed ; no violent or
hasty action ought to be used to frighten native susceptibility.
All must be quiet : should the animal be slow to swallow a
nauseous draught, the creature must not be scolded for a
natural dislike, but it should be encouraged by kind and
cheerful accents, spoken as softly as though the words were
addressed to a sick child. So alive is the equine heart to the
seductiveness of benevolence, so unsuspecting is the full con-
fidence of its species, and so happy is its spirit made by the
praises of its superior, that rather than not deserve his com-
mendation, it will gulp down the most distasteful solution.

BLISTERING AND FIRING.

The system of blistering horses (which consists in applying
to some part of the animal’s body, but more particularly the
legs, a compound composed of cantharides — Spanish flies, —
and lard, and its potency is sometimes increased by the addi-
tion of turpentine), has been practised for many years in this
country, and no doubt in certain cases with marked benefit,
provided that only one or two legs at most have been blistered
at one and the same time.

PHYSIC.

57

Horses have perished under the agony attendant upon the
blistering of all four feet. It is, however, still a recognized,
custom for horse doctors to score a leg, or sometimes two legs,
with the red-hot iron, and, over the lines thus created on a,
living frame, to apply a blister. To fully appreciate the
abhorrent barbarity or the inutility of such a custom, the-
reader must recognize that animals suffer awfully from the
wounds occasioned by fire, and understand that the sores are.
newly made when the irritating compound is placed upon the
tender parts. A blister necessitates that the grease, which
contains the extract of the fly, should be thoroughly rubbed
in; therefore the horse, when blistered, after having been,
fired, has to endure the friction of a rough hand, applied with
all the coarse energy of an uneducated man, made upon a
member, smarting under the agony produced by the agent of.
which the creature has an instinctive dread.

Blisters, as at present used, are far too powerful. Were
they diluted with three times their bulk of bland oil, or of
solution of soap, they would be equally effective, and far less,
dangerous ; but, unfortunately, there is a prejudice among the
partially educated, to which class nearly all veterinary surgeons,
belong, in favour of potency in their applications. Such per-
sons seem to reckon the benefit to be produced according to
the strength of the agent employed. By what other reason is
it possible to explain the foolish perversity which still clings
to the abuse of the heated iron ? By what other motive can-
we account for the prejudice which tempts the use of the
fearful blistering oil, as now commonly exhibited ?

The parts of the horse most generally blistered are the legs,
and the explanation commonly given to excuse the folly, is a
desire “to freshen the old animal on the pins,” or “to brighten
up the manner of going.” The legs are parts of the living
frame, and one part can hardly fail without the system sympa-
thizing. The legs may be the means of progression, but it

-’58

PHYSIC.

is the life which puts them in action, and it is the nerves
which transmit energy to the muscles.

There is a maxim, first made known by John Hunter,
and subsequently recognized by the profession of which
he was the ornament. This maxim declares that “ two great
inflammations cannot exist in the same body at the same
time.” Upon the truth of this discovery the practice of
counter-irritation is based. Then to fire and to blister simul-
taneously may increase the torture of the poor existence thus
barbarously treated ; but, according to the doctrine, largely
accepted by the medical profession of this country, the double
process accomplishes nothing surgical or curative, since the
blister must destroy the action of the fire ; and the man who
is greedy to obtain the benefits of both operations, secures the
advantages of neither measure.

To blister, however, is a very antique custom ; so, also, is
the application of fire, which was first performed upon the
human body. Old medicine does not bear a very good cha-
racter, and only exemplifies the much which suffering can
endure, or the little which cruelty can accomplish. The blister
is, according to present veterinary practice, employed more
often to gratify the passing whim of some wayward proprietor,
than with any medical intention, or with the remotest regard
for the quadruped. A man, while lounging through the stable
of an evening^without the slightest pretence to medical know-
ledge, may conceive he will have the entire stable blistered
“ right through,” and few veterinary surgeons will presume
to expostulate with so wild a notion.

The compliance of the professional attendant is often, how-
ever, in strict keeping with opinions implied by the expression
commonly employed by “horsemen.” Thus it is very general
to hear these persons speak of — “ a good horse with battered
legs ” ; “a beautiful animal, but with legs that have done
their work ” ; “ an excellent frame, but not having a leg to

PHYSIC.

59

stand upon/' &c., &c. Such, phrases are sheer nonsense, hut
they serve to countenance the equine superstition which
regards the legs as distinct from the body. The stable-man
cannot conceive a want of liveliness in the motions to be one
of the indications of failing health; yet this symptom pervades
all nature. It is exhibited by beasts, by birds, by fishes, and
by insects; nay, the very vegetables, when disease attacks
them, no longer spread their branches to the breeze, but droop
their heads, and incline their bodies earthward.

To propagate such opinions, however, must destroy much
of the power so dearly loved by the horse-owner, and abolish
much of the pleasure such a person experiences when survey-
ing his long rows of miserable dependants ! It is astonishing
how unfitted human frailty is to possess absolute authority in

LISTEBING A STABLE-FULL OF OMNIBUS HORSES.

any shape ! The men who live and think in stables are never
so happ_y as when exercising their despotic power. The above

60

PHYSIC.

illustration is an example of this fact. An omnibus proprietor
has entered to speak with a veterinary surgeon, who is witness-
ing the man’s orders fulfilled on the forelegs of a wretched
stud. Let the reader contemplate this engraving, and he will
soon perceive the animals stand in need of something far less
costly than any mixture which can proceed from the cheapest
pharmacy.

It will be remarked that the creatures represented above
are separated by “ bales,” or by long poles, suspended by
chains from the ceiling. This kind of arrangement permits
more horses to be packed into a limited apartment, and is,
therefore, adopted whenever the expense of lodging becomes
a primary consideration. It will also have occurred to the
spectator that the roof is depicted as very low, and the gang-
way, or free thoroughfare, behind the animals, is exhibited as
exceedingly narrow.

Now, creatures imprisoned in such a building, are actually
perishing of starvation ! The food, the water, and the medical
attendance, may each of its kind be unexceptionable ; but the
animals housed in such a locality soon droop from positive
inanition. To breathe, is the primary necessity of existence.
There is no living thing that can thrive where air is excluded.
The quadrupeds, represented above, have to pass 22 out of
every 24 hours in a locality barely lofty enough for each to
stand upright in. Let the reader, knowing the duration of
captivity, conjecture how long it will be ere the huge lungs of
a horse have inhaled and contaminated the limited amount of
atmosphere which the place can contain, even where such an
abode contemplated as the dwelling of a single subject.

It is true, such sheds are seldom air-tight. Were all
draughts excluded, the prisoners would speedily be released
from their captivity ; but the wind-holes, though large enough
to prolong misery, are too small to render such places the
abodes of health. The wretched inmates cannot be tortured

PHYSIC.

61

into a show of activity. When will the Legislature, in its
wisdom, notice these hot-beds of contagion ? When will it
empower the police officer to enter any stable, and authorize
him to destroy the animals therein, hopelessly diseased, and
purposely concealed? Who can, viewing the stables where
the hardest worked of the equine race are stowed away,
wonder that glanders is rarely absent from such nurseries for
contamination ?

It is a common, but most mistaken custom, to purge a horse
before blistering his legs. The intention is to remove any
lurking irritability out of the animal's system ; but such irri-
tability will most probably be provoked by their coarse and
potent blistering agents ; therefore, a purgative, by increasing
the debility, is only likely to render the quadruped more sen-
sitive to outward impressions. A nice “ freshener ” is em-
bodied to the eye of reason, in a drastic purgative followed by
an active irritant, applied to a most sensitive part of the body !

Whenever a blister is adopted, the action rather depends on
the amount of friction which accompanies the agent, than on
the quantity of the vesicatory that may be employed. The
friction should be regulated by the condition of the surface on
which the oil has to act, and all adjacent tender places, as the
points of flexion in the joints, — parts where the skin is thin or
is thrown into crevices, should be previously covered with a
layer of simple cerate, after the method exemplified in the
next illustration, wherein the back of the pastern is exhibited
as thus protected.

The part to be blistered must be covered with a small quan-
tity of the ointment just sufficient to adhere firmly to the hair
and skin •, for, if too large a quantity be used, the blistering
agent has a tendency to run, and thus invade adjacent parts,
or those not intended to be subjected to its action.

It is necessary, after applying a blister to the legs of a
horse, to fix his head to the rack for 3G hours, in order to

62

PHYSIC.

prevent him from gnawing his injured legs, after the expira-
tion of which time the blistered surfaces should be well washed,
with soft soap and warm water, and the following day, i.e.,
when the legs have become dry, and encrusted with a solid

THE BACK OF THE PASTERN AND THE HEEL PROTECTED BY BEING COATED WITH A
T#3ICK LAYER OF SIMPLE CERATE.

exudation, it is humane to soften the part with some emol-
lient liquid, viz., lead liniment, which is made by mingling one-
part of Goulard’s lotion with two parts of olive oil, whereby
a thick creamy compound is formed : the grease soothes the
harshness of the exudation, while the lead serves to mitigate
any pain which may reside in the part. This mixture, being
well shaken, is applied to the surface by means of a soft
sponge or brush.

The “ liniment ” usually causes the cc crusts ” to fall off ;
but the hair generally comes off at the same time, testifying
the severe irritation to which the skin has been subjected.

The most pliant medical individual — the pedantic man, who
always acknowledges everything emanating from the schools
to be correct, would, we imagine, be puzzled to discover
any necessary connection between the processes of balling.

PHYSIO.

63'-

blistering, firing, and bleeding ; yet, somehow, the four opera-
tions are associated in veterinary practice. A ball reduces-
the bodily activity ; a bleeding lowers the action of vitality
irritants are thought to stimulate organs to which they are-
applied, but to lessen the general tonicity. An animal,
subjected to the first action, appears fitted to dispense with
the second, while the last two seem somewhat similar to<

horse’s leg after the application of a blister.

the first. But there is no accounting for incongruities when,
men, deserting reason, consent to adopt routine as a guide in
the treatment of so capricious a development as disease.

To lose blood was once deemed a healthful custom .-by the
human race. Then, horses were regularly depleted every rise
ahd-.fall. An old practitioner can remember the period when,
on a Sunday morning, he beheld long sheds full of agricultural
quadrupeds waiting to be bled. The fleam used to be struck
into the first horse, then the entire row were, in succession,
similarly treated. The operator afterwards returned, and,
pinning up the wound which had been made in the neck of

64

PHYSIC.

the first animal, again moved down the line, pinning as he
went. No account was taken of the amount lost by each
patient, nor were any pains thought needful to control the
current that flowed upon the ground ; but the creatures did

1UISING THE JUGULAR VEIN.

not all suffer an equal depletion. The fleam was soon struck ;
to pin up, however, took a comparatively long time for its
performance. The first horse of the group, therefore, lost but
little blood, while the last of the line bled for a considerable
period before its turn to be attended to arrived.

The foregoing anecdote will show how nice our ancestors
were in their operations ; but it is sad when we reflect that all
this carnage was a sacrifice made to a mistaken idea. Human
medicine has abandoned the antiquated custom. Veterinary
physic, however, is not quite so versatile; still many quiet
spots in the country may be found, where old physic is in
force, both with the employers and the practitioners. Dogs,
■even in the metropolis, are sometimes bled, and there still

PHYSIC.

65

exist persons who esteem the use of the lancet upon these
animals to he a laudatory accomplishment.

No matter what may be the age, the condition, or the occu-
pation of the horse, certain practitioners always discover that
the mute drudge requires depletion; thus an unscrupulous
man may at most times earn a ready shilling by performing
an easy operation. The strangest fact is, that most rural pro-
prietors love to see the purple life drained from the necks of
their possessions ; and bitter are the reproaches usually
lavished on the veterinarian, should a horse perish of any
disease without the fatal termination having been hastened by
the favourite measure. Indeed, so fully are several country
practitioners aware of this probability, that it is customary witk
them, when alone, to strike the vein and to pin up the orifice-
immediately. The necessary sign can then be adduced, should
death end the case, and a professional reputation be thereby
saved from the assaults of aggravated stupidity.

To show how necessary the adoption of venesection is
considered to be by many persons, Mr. Mayhew states, that
some years ago, a medical man, then residing in Westbourne-
terrace, kept a well-stocked stable. The family going out of
town during the autumn, some of the animals were allowed
a few weeks' “ run at grass."

When the horses were taken up, none were found to have-
been benefited, but one was discovered to be much worse , for
its period of liberty. It was very weak, and its constitution
evidently was shaken, for nothing seemed capable of in-
vigorating it. If put into harness and driven merely round
to the street-door, the body was sure to be white with perspi-
ration, and the poor quadruped exhibited signs of exhaustion.
If permitted to remain in the stable, the creature would
generally be found with the head depressed, the corn un-
touched, the breathing audible, and the body leaning for sup-
port against the trevise.

5

66

PHYSIC.

The animal was in this state when the family again left
London for a few weeks : the horse was taken with them by
railroad. Before they quitted town, Mr. Mayhew found
occasion to speak with the proprietor, and informed him
that, during the sojourn of the family in the country, it was
probable the urgency of the symptoms would necessitate the
calling in of a local veterinary surgeon; therefore, the pro-
prietor was warned that the ailing quadruped was on no
account to be bled, for, to deplete a life in so exhausted a
condition was positive slaughter.

This event literally happened. The symptoms suddenly
became alarming : the attendance of the nearest veterinarian
was requested. To him the warning given to the proprietor
was repeated. The gentleman replied that his adviser had
not seen the animal in its then serious state, or he could
not have tendered such advice. Medical etiquette forbade
positive injunctions. The operation was performed, and the
family returned to town leaving a carcass behind them !

It is very seldom that the system of a horse, when doing
full work, can endure depletion. The labour is exhausting,
and the toil is sufficiently severe to employ it all, had the
animal twice its normal energy. Many obseiwant stable-men are
of opinion, that, nurture as they may, the provender consumed
cannot be equal to the work. There are, however, too many
persons who study to under-feed, and who, nevertheless, are
morally convinced that every quadruped in their keeping not
only possesses a sufficiency of vigour, but can part with a
gallon or two of blood twice in every year, with positive ad-
vantage.

Here are two opposite convictions, and the cost of horse-
flesh to each party, could we inspect the private accounts,
would certainly best settle the dispute. But as men mostly
object to laying open their books to public investigation, we
must, therefore, endeavour to decide this point by drawing

PHYSIC.

67

inferences, after having submitted the lives of most quadru-
peds to review. None, except the wealthy, keep horses, save
for use. The feelings of men are seldom gratified by feeding
idle animals. Two horses very commonly have to perform
extra duty, while the master is looking about him, and in no
haste to purchase a third labourer. Rarely do we find three
animals are kept where the owner has full employment only
for two of his slaves.

The horse, therefore, is generally worked to the limits of its
strength. That there may be no doubt upon this matter, the
person who has to judge of its capabilities is he who has an
interest in the amount of an animal’s exertions. The fact is,
however, proved by the wonder excited when a quadruped is
recorded to have reached the natural period of its existence.
The great majority of horses in this country perish of exhaus-
tion before their maturity has been attained. The sad reality
that, of the numbers reared in England, the great majority of
humanity’s humble, obedient, and willing slaves are goaded
to early graves before all their second teeth are up, and before
the consolidation of their bones fits them to endure the strain
of fatigue, too fearfully establishes the fate which beauty and
submission receive at the hands of avarice.

There is something wrong in the creature who can thus abuse
all that serve him. Had the horse twenty times its present
strength, it would still be below the point of human require-
ment. It is a very painful occupation to look into a London
street, and, having an understanding which can interpret
equine significances, to observe the lame, the deformed, the
starved, the over-loaded, and the weary animals, staggering
along the thoroughfare, but to perceive none without the goad,
to enforce exertion, flourished by its side. Yet the creatures,
thus used, unconscious of a holiday, and worked through
sickness or through suffering, are thought, by some persons,
to possess such a redundancy of health that they can support

5 *

68

PHYSIC.

or be benefited by tlie life’s blood being drained, at stated
periods, out of tlieir wretched bodies !

Nevertheless, it is possible a timely depletion may, upon

certain occasions, save life, such
as in cases of inflammation of
the serous membranes. Neither
the present reader nor the writer
may witness so rare an occur-
rence ; yet, because of the pos-
sibility, every horseman should
be equal to such an emergency.
F or the performance of so trivial

A BLOOD-CAN, WHICH IS MARKED TO , • , • , i

INDICATE WHEN A QUART OF FLUID OpOratlOU CCTtcim tods are-

has been extracted. imperatively necessary. The first

among these is a blood-can, or a tin pail, which is generally
divided, by indented lines, into eight equal sections. The
receptacle being made to contain two gallons, each compart-
ment, when filled, indicates a quart to have been withdrawn.
Wretched horses have been drained to a greater extent even
than two gallons ; but, should the reader possess a blood-can,
it is hoped that it will be indeed an extreme case in which he
would behold the vessel once filled.

One or two quarts should be the limits of an ordinary vene-
section ; but even that quantity may be of much more service
when aiding the circulation than when withdrawn, and per-
mitted to coagulate apart from the body. Many practitioners,
however, deplete without either excuse or justification. Having
opened a vessel, they will allow the stream to flow until the
poor horse staggers. Some are proud not to possess a blood-
can; but they hold up the stable-pail to catch the vital current,
and are quite content that the most ample drain of the system,
conducted under their supervision, cannot be othenvise than
restorative.

The next instrument requisite is a fleam. This article is

PHYSIC.

69

-much preferable to tbe lancet, though there exists a species of
foppery among veterinary surgeons which tempts them to
•employ human implements. For that reason they flourish a

FLEAMS, OF THE NEWEST FORM, OPEN AN1) SHUT.

lancet as the more scientific indicator. A lancet is, certainly,
necessary to puncture the eye vein, which is visible upon the
cheek of the horse ; but, as regards a vessel which is as large
as a cart-rope, for such is the dimension of the animal's
jugular, this last cannot demand the exhibition of vast
scientific attainment to pierce it, or admit of the display of
nice manipulation in him who operates on such a structure.
For this reason the old-fashioned fleam is very much to be
preferred. Assuredly it does not appear so pretty as the
lancet, but it always cuts with certainty, and leaves a limited
orifice, whereas the more genteel blade has inflicted awkward
gashes upon living flesh when the creature proved restless
under its infliction.

The instrument with which the veterinarian extracts blood
has been represented, having the blade bared, and having it
closed. It is readily admitted not to be of an inviting aspect,
but it is not in reality quite so barbarous as it appears to the
beholder. The point which projects from one side of the blade

70

PHYSIC.

marks the extent of its cutting surface, and indicates the size
of that puncture which the fleam can leave behind. It is more
safe than the lancet, which, though of a more innocent aspect,
has inflicted wounds of awful dimensions. For the last reason,
the employment of the lancet by veterinary surgeons is not to
be commended.

Above the cutting-point of the fleam, and upon the opposite
side of the blade, is seen what is intended to represent a
bulging piece of metal. That indicates the place which the
operator occasionally strikes with the side of his hand ; its
intention is to afford a blunt surface for delivery of the blow.

A BLOOD- STICK, WHICH IS LOADED AT THE LABGEE END.

It is advantageous to possess a fleam of the above form, be-
cause, under rare circumstances, the possibility for which it
provides may be encountered ; but, for general use, a blood-
stick is more instantaneous, and is more certain in its result,
wherefore it is to be preferred to the human hand, as giving
the smarter impetus to the blade.

A blood-stick is merely a hard piece of wood, six or eight
inches long, and turned in a lathe till it has assumed the above
form : the larger end is then hollowed ; the cavity is loaded
with lead. Such a tool, though very diminutive, can be made
to deal a heavy blow, and it is quite powerful enough to send
the point of the fleam through the skin and thin layer of
muscular fibre which externally cover the jugular vein.

However, before any attempt is made to bleed the horse,
the animaFs eyes should be bandaged. Most animals, from

PHYSIO.

71

natural timidity, shrink, if they can discern when the blow is
about to be delivered, and the point of the fleam is thereby
frequently displaced.

The sight should be first obscured, then the vessel raised ;
afterwards, the fleam arranged upon the huge pipe, thus
brought into view, when, a sudden blow being dealt with the
blood-stick, will cause the current to spurt forth. Should any
accident prevent the first attempt from being successful, the
operator should not strike twice in the same place. Repeated
blows upon the same spot are likely to bruise the part, or to
cause a ragged wound, neither of which circumstances is
favourable to the healing process. Leave the slight incision

PHYSIO.

7ii

to nature, for it very rarely requires any treatment, and,
choosing a fresh mark, repeat the process with better success.

Blood being obtained by the operator, the groom approaches,
bearing the blood-can. This the man presses against the

MESSING THE BLOOD-CAN AGAINST THE NECK TO ARREST THE DOWNWARD CURRENT,

AND TO CAUSE THE BLOOD TO FLOW FORTH.

horse's neck, thereby impeding the downward stream within
the vessel, and causing the vital current to gush forth.

Whatever may be the urgency of the business which may
demand your presence elsewhere, never quit at this stage of
the proceeding. However experienced or meritorious the
servant may be, always remain until the operation is con-
cluded. These poor men invariably possess opinions of their
own, that are stronger because of the ignorance upon which

PHYSIO.

73

:sucli notions repose. The groom may have seen a gallon, or
even two gallons, extracted, when in his last situation. Such
people delight in strong measures, and will sneer at the one
or two quarts you may desire should be withdrawn.

When the determined quantity has been extracted, remove
the pressure below the orifice, and the outward stream will
cease : then proceed to pin up. Having rendered the point
-of a pin somewhat angular, by cutting off the tip, the wire will
pierce the integument the more readily. Drive it through each
side of the wound, and, being in this situation, twist, after the
fashion of a figure of co, some tow or thread,
or a hair pulled from the horse’s tail, round
its either extremity. Subsequently, remove
so much of the pin as may protrude, and the
orifice will be closed by what surgeons de-
nominate a twisted suture.

When performing this, a few precautions
are imperative. In the first instance, the sur-
faces should not be brought immediately to-
gether. The wound should be left open until the lips become
sticky, as, when in that condition, they unite the more readily.
Next, when closing the orifice, all hairs should be removed,
which is sometimes difficult, should the integument have been
torn asunder with a blunt fleam. The skin then is twisted
and forced from its integrity, but, if a sharp or proper instru-
ment has been used, the presence of hair is never annoying ;
indeed, it seldom requires attention.

The sides of the incision should be adjusted with all nicety,
because, subsequently to bleeding, healing, by the first inten-
tion, or by the speediest natural process, is desirable. Hairs,
when present, prevent that union from being perfected : they
irritate the part, and act as minute setons, which provoke
suppuration. The advent of the last action is always to be
feared after a vein has been opened. Pus gravitates into the

TWISTED SUTUEE.

74

PHYSIO.

vessel, and- the blood becomes vitiated; when the results are-
always to be lamented; as they sometimes prove fatal.

After bleeding; care should be taken, until after the removal
of the pin, to place the patient in a position so as to prevent,
the possibility of his rubbing his injured neck, but, at the
same time, he must be fed on a digestible and nutritious diet/
until the system has regained its former vigour.

SHOEING.

76-

CHAPTER III.

SHOEING — ITS ORIGIN, USES, AND VARIETIES.

SHOEING- a horse is understood to signify, fastening a piece
of iron to the horn which envelops the foot of the animal.
Such an operation, at first glance, ap-
pears to be so simple an affair as to admit
of few remarks ; but there is' no sub-
ject associated with veterinary science
on which more research has been ex-
pended ; about which more bitter
discussion has been indulged ; or with
regard to which proprietors and prac-
titioners are more at variance. Cer-
tainly no matter can possibly be more

EARLY ARABIAN SHOE.

intimately connected with the suffer-
ings and the comforts of the equine race.

The custom of fixing iron to the hoof of the quadruped
would seem, at the present moment, to be all but universal.
This habit was, probably, derived from the East. In portions
of the Desert of Arabia, a primitive-looking shoe is still
employed, which, like most things in that region, has
possibly remained unaltered during the passage of centuries.
Such articles retain the impress of a bygone era, being
merely pieces of sheet iron stamped, not forged, according
to a particular pattern. The reader may be puzzled to form
an accurate notion of such things; therefore, illustrations

76

SHOEING.

representing present and ancient shoes are appended. Both
partake of the same general characteristics ; but, among a
people so widely scattered as “ the children of the Desert/-’
doubtless numerous variations, as regards particulars, might
be selected.

These shoes look like things pro-
duced during the childhood of civiliza-
tion ; but, to assure the reader that
at one period horse-shoes resembling
the above were almost universal,
below are subjoined sketches of those
adopted, even at a recent date, by the
Moorish, the Persian, and the Portu-
guese nations. These people are widely
distributed ; but they are all charac-
terized by the tenacity with which
aeabian- shoe op a modem.' each has clung to the habits of its

ancestors. The shape pervading the
•examples brought forward is too eccentric ; the generic
likeness is too remarkable, and the peculiarities of feature
impressed on each are too conspicuous to permit of their
united evidence being pushed on one side with any com-
monplace reference to an accidental resemblance.

A MOORISH, A PERSIAN, AND A PORTUGUESE SnOE, COPIED FROM GOODWIN’S SYSTEM

OF SHOEING HORSES.

Succeeding the above engravings, is appended an authentic

SHOEING.

77

sketch, of the old English horse-shoe which was in common
use at the commencement of the last century. When com-
pared with the plate of the Arab, which, doubtless, was the
original, it assuredly exhibits signs of intention. The calkin,
intended to prevent slipping, we here see, as likewise in the-
foregoing examples, is by no means a modern invention. The

OLD ENGLISH SHOE. COPIED FEOM CLAKK’s WOEK ON SHOEING.

position of the nail-holes has been materially altered : they
have been moved from the centre, and have been made to
range around the outer margin and made to pierce the solid
horn of the toe, which previously was scrupulously spared.
The fastenings, likewise, have increased in number, having
grown from eight to fourteen. The central opening has been
enlarged; but the thickness of the iron, and the general figure,
however, demonstrate the source whence the original was.
derived.

Thin plates of iron were once nailed as shoes to the hoofs,
throughout Great Britain. The breadth was not, perhaps,
considered a decided disadvantage, when roads were few, and
much marshy soil had to be crossed in a day’s journey. But
if this peculiar form enabled a steed to walk more securely on
a soft surface, the suction, inseparable from such land, must

78

SHOEING.

also have exposed the animal to the frequent loss of the
appendage. When regarding these unavoidable results, we
can perceive the reasons which have dictated all the subse-
quent alterations. The central opening had been enlarged, in
the expectation of thereby counteracting the sucking effects
attending the movements over a marshy country, while the
nails had been increased in number in the expectation of thus
gaining additional security. The fastenings had, likewise,
been ranged round the rim, so that these might be driven
directly through the hardest part of, and have longer hold
upon the most resistant portion of, the horn.

Such plates were at one time, no doubt, in general use
throughout Great Britain ; and, illustrating whence they were
derived, there may be adduced a well-known fact. The race-
horse is of almost pure Eastern blood. The trainer’s stable is
a very conservative locality, into which changes slowly enter,
and where names are retained long after their applicability
has ceased. A thoroughbred is spoken of, to this day, as
running in “ plates,” although the contest is decided in shoes
resembling those worn by other animals, only of lighter make,
and of the highest possible finish.

The arrangement of the nails near to the outer edge, and
the fixing of them into the hard outer wall of the crust, are
methods still followed, though experience has demonstrated
that such numerous bodies, driven almost perpendicularly into
a thin and brittle substance, were better calculated to break
the hoof, than likely to hold on that which it was their single
office to retain. The modern smith, moreover, does not,
generally, puncture the toe of the foot ; but the situations of
the nail -holes, and the direction of the nails within such a part,
must have been originally regarded as a vast improvement
upon the prevailing customs.

That which was formerly an innovation is, however, now
the custom. No other mode of driving the nails is, at present.

SHOEING.

79

in general practice, though the modern veterinary surgeon
recognizes all the evils which attend the habit; yet these
evils he contentedly classes as
diseases, instead of seeing in
them the natural consequences of
a faulty system.

In the sandy Desert of Arabia,
where a flat and perfectly dry
country rendered suction im-
possible, any degree of tension,
however feeble, might serve to
beep the horse’s shoe in its
situation. On such a soil, eight lateral fastenings — each no
stronger than a stout wire, — might afford all needful security.
The size of the holes assure us of the bulk of the nail-heads,
the projection of which, probably, served to give security to
the tread, as well as to retain the metal : being inserted at
one end, and driven with the hammer to the other extremity
of the opening, they might be an ample provision for such a
purpose, when the desert permitted no vast amount of weaiq
and the nature of the animal assured lightness of motion.

The English reader may feel disposed to sneer at the Asiatic
manner of fastening the shoe upon the horse’s hoof ; but he
will do well to inquire “whether the modern method of attain-
ing the same object is altogether free from objection.” To
enable him to do this, it is necessary that the composition of
the outer wall of the equine hoof should be explained.

The wall of the foot is so much horn as can be seen when
the • hoof rests upon the ground, and when it is viewed
either immediately from the front, or directly from the sides.
This wall is supplied from two sources. The coronet, or the
prominence to be seen immediately above the hoof, secretes
the outer layer of horn, which is the darkest, is very much
the hardest, and is the most brittle of all the constituents

THE PRESENT METHOD OF FASTENING
THE ENGLISH HORSE-SHOE ON TO
THE HORSE’S FOOT.

80

SHOEING.

of the hoof. The laminm, or the highly-sensitive covering
of the internal foot, secrete the inward layer of horn, which
is soft, tough, and devoid of colour.

These two opposite and
distinct secretions are, by
nature, joined together,,
forming one body. Now,,
the intimate union of oppo-
site properties endues the
substance, thus compound-
ed, with the characteristics-
of both. The hard out-
ward horn was needed to
protect the foot against-
those stones and rocks over
which the animal was in-
tended to journey. The
internal, white horn, being
fastened upon this sub-
stance, acted as a corrective to its harsh nature, prevent-
ing it from breaking, from splitting, and from chipping,
which it else must have done under the weight it was destined
to sustain, and when fulfilling the purposes to which the
horse's foot was designed to be subjected.

Pathology has indirectly recognized the intention of this
junction, by acknowledging that condition to be a state of

DIAGRAM, ILLUSTRATIVE OP THE DIF-
FERENT KINDS OF HORN COMPOSING
THR HORSE’S HOOF.

a a. The wall. The outer dark portion
is called the crust of the wall, and the
light - coloured, soft, inner horn is
thrown into the laminae, or thin leaves,
whereby it gains extent of attachment
to its secreting membrane.

b. The light-coloured and yielding horn
of the sole.

c. The tinted, but elastic, horn of the
frog.

FALSE QUARTER, OR A DEFICIENCY OF THE ONLY POSSIBLE RELIEF FOB

THE OUTER WALL. FALSE QUARTER.

disease, wherein the two kinds of horn are separated. Such a
division is known as a seedy toe and as false quarter ; and

SHOEING.

81

the foot is recognized as weakened, when such a want of
union is discovered. The outer, dark-coloured horn, becomes

SECTION OP A horse's FOOT AFFECTED WITH SEEDY TOE. A FOOT WITH SAND CRACK.

more brittle ; the white, internal horn, grows more soft, for
the want of that junction, by means of which each communi-
cated its attributes to the other. So, also, when the two'
descriptions of horn, although united, cease to influence one
another, pathology acknowledges this condition as a morbid
alteration, and, when the wall divides from the coronet to the
ground surface, the disease sandcrack is manifested.

The untutored Arab, however, takes advantage of the united
properties of the horn. In warm countries the horse's hoof
grows strong and thick. The Asiatic allows the wall to de-
scend half an inch below the
sole, and, right through the
entire of this portion of pro-
jecting hoof he drives the nails
which secure the shoe. Pro-
ceeding thus, he does not injure
the foot by the insertion of
foreign bodies through its more
brittle substance, while he se-
cures the united resistance and tough qualities of the complex:
covering of the foot.

TnK MODE OF FASTENING THE ARABIAN
SHOB TO THE HOOF OP THE HORSE.

6

82

SHOEING.

The English smith, on the contrary, by ranging the holes
for the fastenings round the edge of the shoe, drives the nails
only into the harder kind of horn, and transfixes the crust for
a considerable distance. The English shoeing nail is meant to
pierce only the black or outward substance of the wall. This
may, seemingly, afford the better hold ; but it also offers the

more dangerous dependence.
There is, likewise, the peril to
be braved of pricking the sen-
sitive foot, should the nail turn
a little to one side — an accident
which not unfrequently happens.
There is, moreover, another dan-
ger, namely, that which the forge
calls driving a nail “ too fine/*
that is, forcing it near the white
horn, rather than sending it
directly through the centre of
the narrow dark crust. There remains to be enumerated a
third peril. Horses with thin walls present difficulties to
the shoeing smith. He is afraid of either pricking the foot,
or driving the nail “too fine ” : should the last accident ensue,
the nail will, upon the animal being worked, bulge inward,
and provoke acute lameness, often causing pus to be generated.
To avoid these evils, he points his nails outward, and, by so
doing, not unseldom induces the harsh outer crust to crack,
to split up, or to chip off. To such an extent does this some-
times happen, that the smith is occasionally puzzled to find
the place where a nail will hold.

Every horseman knows how vexatious it is for a horse to
throw a shoe ; but the inconvenience to the rider is as nothing
when compared with the evils likely to result from such acci-
dent when a shoe partially parts company from the hoof.
Some portion of the hoof first yields ; this throws greater

FRACTURED CONDITION OE THE HORN, '
CONSEQUENT UPON DRIVING NAILS
THROUGH THE BRITTLE OUTER
CRUST OF THE WALL.

SHOEING.

S3

stress upon the remaining fastenings. The shoe becomes loose,
ancl the nails, perhaps, with the exception of one, loose their
hold, and the shoe, when raised from the ground, hangs pen-
dulous from the foot, and, at every step, swings from side to
side, when the nails remaining in the shoe are prone to impale
the plantar surface of the horse’s foot, and, in so doing, to
puncture the sensitive sole, and sometimes even the coffin-
bone, when a very dangerous wound is inflicted.

Against the Arabian method of
driving the nails, it may be ad-
vanced, that, if the equine hoof is
permitted' to grow, the elongation
of the horn at the toe, and its non-
removal by the knife, would oc-
casion this portion of the foot to
protrude, and ultimately curl up-
ward like a Turkish slipper, sucl
being the result of long- continued
neglect, as is exemplified in the
feet of too many donkeys.

It is not proposed to subject
the horse’s foot to anything like
the usage to which the hoof of

THE SHOE PARTIALLY BREAKS FROM

The insecure fastenings, and

ONE OF THE NAILS, STICKING DP,
PIERCES THE SOLE OF THE FOOT.

THE NEGLECTED AND LONG DNSHOD HOOF OF AN ASS.

the ass is habitually exposed. All the writer contemplates is,
moderating the smith’s employment of the drawing-knife, and

6 *

84

SHOEING.

of the rasp, enforcing some caution in the application of the
red-hot iron, when burning a seat for the shoe. Why need

the wall be always cut away till it
is level with the horny sole ? Why
bring this last portion of the pedal
covering, which is naturally soft
and yielding, on a line with that
part of the crust which is imbued
with a power of resistance ? Nay,
the harder wall is protected by
the shoe on which it rests, while
the softer sole is brought near to the ground, being left
exposed to an injury, which the lesion known as bruise of the
sole, proves not unfrequently to happen.

The sole, being exposed thus close to the earth, is the fruit-
ful source of several “accidents.” The soft horn of this region
being brought so low, is rendered constantly wet : the conse-
quence is a harshness of texture, perfectly opposed to the
evident intent of nature. This harshness is one of the most
common sources of corns. The edge of the sole rests upon
the web of the shoe : the descent of the coffin-bone, being
unable to play upon a yielding sole, squeezes the flesh between
the inferior surface of the bone and the upper surface of the
shoe. This is acknowledged as the principal source of corns.
Stones and other rubbish often become impacted between the
horny sole and the shoe. In this situation the foreign sub-
stances are retained so firmly, and provoke such acute lame-
ness, that it is common for all stable-men to keep by them, as
well as it is general for most horsemen to carry, a curved tool,
denominated “a picker.” Such annoyances, with many others,
might be easily avoided, could the English smith only be pre-
vailed upon not to .pare the sole so thin that blood bedews its
surface, and then to make the level of the diminished part the
point whereto the crust is to be lowered.

ENGLISH MODE OF PARING
THE HORSB’S HOOF.

SHOEING.

85

Another probable consequence, attending the customary
•cutting away of the sole, has not been sufficiently considered.

The shape of this part, its yielding character, and its posi-
tion immediately under the coffin-bone, all should be accepted
as proofs that it is of service in supporting the weight of the
body. It proves nothing to assert that, if the sole is removed,
the pedal bone will not fall down. The burden may repose
upon the numerous lamina), and upon the bulging rim of the
coronet, as well as drag upon the lateral cartilages. Here is
sufficient material to uphold even a greater load ; but can
such a force be arbitrarily imposed by human authority with-
out provoking Nature’s resentment ? The parts, here named,
■are the very regions which are the common seats of foot
disease. Ossified cartilages, — irregular secretion of coronary
horn and laminitis, in the acute or in the chronic form, — are
very common to stables ; so, also, is navicular disease, which
the trimming of the frog is also likely to induce.

Navicular disease, of all other foot maladies, is the one
most to be dreaded, and is, in many cases, produced by bad
shoeing ; consequently, it will be advisable, whilst explaining
(C how to shoe a horse,” to draw attention to the causes in
shoeing which have a tendency to produce it. Before doing so,
it will be necessary to detail the way in which the horse brings
his feet to the ground, i.e., how locomotion is effected ; and
for this reason, for years previously to 1858, persons thought,
and perhaps even now many consider, that, during progres-
sion, the horse brings his toe in contact with the ground before
hiis heels : this was the teaching at the Veterinary College
during 1857, to which, in 1858, the reviser objected in the
following letter : —

“ Physiological Reflections on the Position assumed by the
Root of the Horse in the varied Movements of the Limb. By
J. I. Lupton, Student of Veterinary Medicine, R.V.C., 1858.

1. The foot of a living horse, in a state of rest, remains

8G

SHOEING.

firmly on the ground — that is, the toe and the heel are on the
ground at one and the same time ; but, if during this position
the extensor muscles were to contract, then the toe would he
raised from the ground ; and if, on the other hand, the flexor
muscles were to contract, then the heel would be raised from
the ground. Now, during progression, the first movement
which takes place is the contraction of the flexor muscles, by
which (together with the muscles of the arm) the foot is raised,
the toe being the last part of that organ raised from the
ground. The foot is now in a position to be sent forward,
which is brought about by the contraction of the extensor
muscles ; the foot is then thrown out as far as the flexor

f ♦

muscles will admit, and, when at the greatest allowable point
of tension, the heel is brought in opposition with the ground.
The flexors now in their turn contract, the heel is first raised
from the ground, and lastly the toe, which brings me back to
the point I started from.

“2. Viewing the leg of a horse as a piece of mechanism
(allowing that leg to be even in a state of anchylosis), and
comparing it to the spoke of a wheel, during the revolutions
of which the posterior part of the inferior extremity, oz', in
other words, that part which is attached to the tire, comes in
contact with the ground first ; but if, in the place of the spoke,
the above-mentioned leg of the horse were there placed, the
heel in that case would come in contact with the gi’ound first,
and the toe last.

“ 3. As to the anatomy of the foot. The foot is composed
of the os pedis, os naviculare, and a small portion superiorly
of the os corona. Between the aloe of the os pedis we have
the fi’og, and the fibrous frog; in fact, a beautiful elastic
cushion ; and postero — latei’ally the latei’al cai’tilages, leadily
yielding on the application of pressure. Seeing this arrange-
ment, I natui'ally seek to find the cause of its existence ; and
I suggest that it is there in order, by coming in contact, with

SHOEING.

87

the ground first, to break the concussive effect, likely, if being
hard and unyielding as the formation at the toe, to be pro-
ductive of much cost to the animal frame.

“ 4. The progress of action is from the heel to the toe. For
example, man, during progression, puts his heel to the ground
first ; the ox also places his heels similarly on the ground first,
and dogs bring their heels in contact with the ground first :
does it not, then, seem undeniable, when reasoning by
analogy, that the horse similarly brings his heels to the
ground first ?

“ During progression the body moves forward, during which
movement the toe, as evident to every observer, leaves the
ground last, that is, when the flexors are contracting. If such
be the case, then, for the toe to come in contact with the
ground first, as some affirm, and the heel last, is a retrograde
and impossible movement.

“ Three principal impressions are made on the foot during
progression ; namely : —

“ 1. On the heel, when great expansion and yielding takes
place, owing to the pressure on the frog, which is forced up-
wards, causing the ultimate expansion of the walls of the
hoof, &c.

“ 2 . On the middle part of the foot, when the bones bear the
weight of the body, the flexors and extensors being, for the
instant, in a state of quietude, i.e., neither of them are extend-
ing or contracting.

“ 3. On the toe, when the animal gives a push, by which an
impetus is given to send the body forward.

“ The foot comes on the ground nearly flat, I admit, but
the heel is for an instant on the ground before the toe.

“ I assert, in conclusion, that the progress of action is from
the heel to the toe, and not from the toe to the heel.”

My position of the heel progression was warmly contested
on the one side, and as strongly advocated on the other, by

■88

SHOEING.

several veterinarians, principally "by Mr. Gam gee, senior, on
my side, who, about a year previously to this period, in a
conversation with me, evidently considered the old doctrine
of toe progression to be correct ; but he wrote a year after-
wards: — “Now, my conviction is that, in the solid-hoofed
quadrupeds, the general law is obeyed which guides the
movements of the limbs in all animals, and that in the horse
the contact with the ground, not only with the fore, but also
with the hind feet, occurs, first at the posterior, and last at
the anterior part of the foot.”

Thus it will be seen how deeply rooted had been the im-
pression in the theory of the toe coming in contact with the
ground before the heel, that a certain time was required before
veterinarians old in the profession accepted the new statement
of heel progression as a fact ; but even now some, perhaps, are
to be found who may raise objections to it ; therefore, being
deeply convinced that the question is one of great importance,
both in a physiological and pathological sense, both as to
shoeing horses as a preventive of disease, and in treating feet
when diseased, I cannot occupy the space allotted better than
by answering objections advanced against my paper (above
quoted) by some veterinarians, by A., who commenced his letter
by stating that he did “ not attach any deep importance to
the subject.” Neither did he wish to attempt “ even a con-
cise definition of the progression of an animal,” but stated
“ that the operation of muscular power which effected it, though
regular, was, in his opinion, very indefinite as to consecutive-
ness.” A. therefore considers the position assumed by the
foot of the horse during progression to be a matter of very
small impoi’tance. Does not the mechanic, in forming an in-
strument, take care to have every part well adapted to the
other, and does he not well know the exact point at which
each touches the ground, or any part of the machinery, as the
case may be ? He does, and it is the duty of the physiologist

SHOEING.

89

'to ascertain how the piece of mechanism (the horse) works;
where each attachment meets, and the exact point at which
"the foot meets the ground. Again, although an attempt to
give a description of progression is not ventured, and although
“ muscular power that effects it is regular,” yet it is very in-
definite as to consecutiveness. It must be plain to any reader
that this first sentence above contradicts the second : how can
"the action of one part on the other be indefinite as to con-
.secutiveness, when the movements are regular — they either
are regular or not — TJtrurn liorum mavis accijpe. They are
■regular, doubtless. In progression we notice, first flexion,
•secondly extension, and thirdly approximation; and these
two latter movements could not be performed previously to
the former being put into action.

The reasons assigned for believing that the toe primarily
Teaches the ground, are : — “ The wear of iron in uncalked
shoes, in the majority of cases, is most evident at the toe and
■outer edge rather than at the heels, which assuredly would not
be the case if the heels, even for an instant, came primarily
• on the ground.”

The fact (for such it is) of the shoes wearing away at the
toes more than at the heels, would be exactly the condition of
shoe I should expect to find after three weeks’ wear ; because,
if the heel reaches the ground first, its implantation on the
ground is (to use a word) impressive, not the grinding down
we notice at the toe, where the action is attritive “ when the
animal gives a push, by which the impetus is given to send
the body forward,” and thus a grinding power is continually
occurring during locomotion : this state of shoe is commonly
noticed in horses who are good movers, and who markedly
bring their heels to the ground before the toe. B. con-
siders that it is impossible, in attempting to prove the truth
of this subject, to talk about “ viewing the leg as a piece
of animal mechanism,” when its original movements are de-

90

SHOEING.

stroyed by anchylosis. When comparing, for the sake of
argument, the 'leg to a piece of mechanism, viz. a spoke, I
merely intended to draw the mind to the fact that the pro-
gression of all bodies proceeded from behind forwards. If the
anterior part of the extremity of a spoke came near the ground
before the posterior, a retrograde movement must necessarily
follow; whereas, by the posterior nearing the ground first,
progression must result as a consequence. The foot of the leg
which I suggested might be placed within the tier, was to be
there located, so that the toe and heel should be parallel with
the earth when immediately over it, and then told the fact
that the heel in progression would reach the ground before
the toe, and, moreover, by allowing the existence of anchylosis,
the case was made stronger for my argument, for, by assu-
ming this state of things, all the movements which operate in
bringing the heel to the ground were removed, and a dead leg
as stiff as a spoke was alone left in its place, and with this
allowance, and with the fact before his eyes that the posterior
part of the spoke reaches the ground before the anterior, and
the heel of the foot before the toe, in the leg in which no
movements between joints were permitted, B. is struck forcibly
— “ That the toes of the legs so placed would come first in
contact with the ground during the revolution of so ‘ singular
a wheel.’ ”

Again the anatomical construction of the foot — “ Evidently
as beautifully formed to resist concussion as it is possible to
■conceive any object to be adapted to its purpose.”

It is assumed that the adaptation of the frog to receive the
first effect of concussion does not by any means solve the point,
for “ I contend,” writes B., “ that the horn at the anterior part
of the foot is as capable, if not more so than the frog, of re-
sisting as much concussion as it may be called upon to bear,,
considering that concussion is so instantly and thoroughly
distributed through the mechanism of the horse’s frame.”

SHOEING.

DL

In answer to this assertion I would ask any reasonable-
person whether a hard and almost unyielding substance, like
the formation of the hoof at the toe, is better able to withstand
the repeated effects of concussive shocks than the construction
at the back part of the foot, where an elastic frog exists,,
bounded by yielding sidewalls (lateral cartilages) ; in short, an
adaptation of parts, which any mechanic would with little con-
sideration pronounce to be a surface calculated to ward off
concussion, and to be the best contrivance for preserving from
injury the superimposed structures. Moreover, it has been
said by a philosopher, that when any doubt exists between
two questions in the order of nature (such as the one now in-
dispute), that side is always to be taken where construction
shows greater adaptability to a specific object. As to the
concussion being “ so instantly distributed through the me-
chanism of the horse’s frame,” let me ask, would the con-
cussion be distributed immediately through the frame if the
toe was the first to receive it ? I think not, and for the reason
that the effect of a hard substance striking the ground would
produce a shock, whereas a yielding one would, joint front
joint, facilitate the distribution of it through any mechanism ;
doubtless, therefore, a general law governs and “ guides the
movements of limbs in all animals,” and this law can, as
regards progression, be noticed throughout the entire species
of biped and quadruped animals, and it consists in action from
heel to toe, and not from toe to heel.

The next argument brought against heel action is the
example given of men, during progression, bringing their
heels to the ground before their toes. This B. considers is
“ not fair analogy,” as the foot of man includes the os calcis
(or true hock -bone of the horse) “ as well as the digital ex-
tremities.” “ Though heel and toe is fair walking, yet in rapid
progression the heels of the swiftest runners do not touch the
ground ever so lightly.” This assertion is quite truo, but it is

"92

SHOEING.

moreover equally true that their toes proper do not come to
the ground first, even during very rapid progression ; and if a
•comparison were made between the horse and man when
swiftly running, my opinion is that the former places princi-
pally his heels on the ground, whereas the latter brings the
lower ends of his metatarsal (or canon bones of the horse) first
to the surface over which he moves, or, in other words, if the
horse so progressed, he would always, when racing, be going
on his fetlocks; for evidently man uses these joints when
running; consequently I think my analogy was quite fair,
because man places on the ground that part of the foot most
posteriorly situated, and similarly, and for the same reason,
•does the horse use his heel before his toe ; and if we continue
our observations to other creatures, we find the dog, the ox,
the cat, and numerous other animals, progress from heel to
toe. Is it not therefore very peculiar that the horse alone, of
all quadrupeds, should be singled out as an animal moving on
his toe before his heel, whilst other creatures progress by
bringing to the ground first that part of the foot that is most
"posteriorly situated, the dog and cat those parts corresponding
"to the fetlocks of horses, and to those portions of the foot of
unan, toes, and the ox going on two heels instead of one, like
"the horse; but as regards the anatomical analogy by pro-
gressing similarly as that animal ; i.e., on the heel of the distal
phalange or coffin-bone ?

When horses are going down hill, also, it is readily noticed
"that they place their heels on the ground first : the correct-
ness of this assertion B. disputes. He writes: — “See him also
going down hill, backing in his breechings, and checking the
too rapid descent of his load ; even here he plants his toes,
fore and hind, first on the ground.”

The incorrectness of this view needs no comment ; it is
•only necessary for my readers to carefully watch any horse
going down hill with a heavy weight behind him, when at

SHOEING.

93-

every step lie ■will discover that the heels are markedly and
firmly implanted on the ground before the toes ; again, the-
same thing can be easily noticed in the horse who travels even
on a level road with calkings, when a tip -tap noise from calk-
mg to toe can be heard, in addition to which, ocular demon-
stration will give a verdict of a first place to the heel ; this
part of the subject, therefore, will be left to practical observa-
tion. We are next asked to “mark the fast trotter as he-
skims with airy tread the road beneath, the toes scarcely
touching it.” This I can readily believe ; the toes scarcely do
touch it — they do for an instant, and that instant is at the ■
moment they are springing from the gTOund. As in the fast
trotter movement is very rapid, so the action from heel to toe-
is quick, and requires a very keen eye to detect this first
movement; the last, or toe action, to the passing observer,,
of course, must be seen ; if not, no part of the feet could touch
the ground. The fact of the toes scarcely touching it, proves-
that the heels first arrive there, for, if the toe reached the-
earth first, then the heel would afterwards, and by this action/
tardiness must follow as a consequence, and the rapidity with
winch the toes left the ground would not be considered so
rapid as scarcely to touch it.

The fleet racehorse, also, even “in his most trying mo-
ments,” puts his heels to the ground first; for, if it were other-
wise, what explanation can be given of the mode in which the-
flexor and extensor muscles act ? If the too coaches the ground
first, and leaves it last (which latter action all admit), then one
set of these muscles would have to perform duty twice to
others* once — a state of things totally at variance with the-
simple means Nature always adopts in attaining her wise-
ends.

W e are informed that in disease the heel action is noticed,
particularly in laminitis. This doubtless is the case; but with-
out going into auy description of this affection, I think it cam

94

SHOEING.

be readily understood that even in tins instance the example
given^ in attempting to prove the toe theory; tells the other
way ; for what part does the creature thus afflicted bring to
the ground ? That very part where a protective cushion; sur-
rounded by elastic structures; exists, formations calculated to
ward off concussion from the diseased foot ; in fact, the horse
so affected is careful to keep from the ground that very part
which B. considers to be better adapted to resist concus-
sion than the posterior part of the foot. The fact is, when
the horse is the subject of inflammation of the feet, he goes on
his heels, when at every step he protects from jar the diseased
internal structures ; whereas, if he went on his toes, shock
upon shock would produce great suffering, and intensify the
malady. Doubtless the horse with navicular disease seemingly
goes on his toes, because he is affected with this malady in the
posterior part of his foot ; he therefore does all in his power
to protect the heel from the effect of concussion, which, when
there, produces pain ; but, even this animal goes on his heel,
noticed by the lameness being nearly always apparent.

To insure good shoeing, it is necessary that the farrier fully
understands the mechanism of the parts with which he has
to deal, and the actions they facilitate ; if he does not, he
works in the dark, and often labours to create rather than
prevent disease, which, as before stated, is constantly produced
by bad shoeing. This fact, for so it may be called, was
noticed many years ago by the late Mr. Apperley (Nimrod),
who, when residing in France, was led to observe that lame
horses were very rare in that country, “ especially those lame
in their feet.” This he ascribed to the slow pace at which
they then travelled ; but a friend of his (a good mechanic) ob-
jected to the opinion by stating, “ Depend upon it, the French
system of shoeing contributes much to their soundness,
so far as the feet are concerned, ‘ by the superior method of
nailing/ ”

SHOEING.

93

That the French shoe in nine cases out of ten is superior
to the English one, no good mechanic will deny — in that it is
made to fit the foot, and is supplied with protection where it
is needed, and, moreover, is constructed in a manner so as
to allow the several functions of the foot to be performed
without that unnecessary interference so constantly noticed in
the mechanism of an English shoe. A few years ago, when
on a professional visit to a large job-master, and driving a
horse shod after the French system, my attention was aroused
by the remarks “ So you are a believer in the French shoe.” I
-answered, “ Yes ; are you ? ” He answered, “ IT1 tell you this,
whenever I have occasion to send horses to Paris, those that
have bad feet are sure to go, and as sure to return with good
ones.” This answer will be sufficient now for my readers, as
it was then for me. Again, only a fortnight back, a gentle-
man, a well-known cross-country rider, being one “ quite of
the first flight” with hounds, told me that, by adopting a
system of shoeing similar to the French one, he succeeded in
“ keeping his horses going,” which they failed to do if shod
otherwise. From the above, it will be observed that, for years
past, practical horsemen have considered the French system of
shoeing preferable to the English. Some may ask the reason
why the French shoe is calculated to insure the well-being
of horses’ feet ? Possibly it may be because the French
mechanic always fits the shoe to the foot ; but, in addition to
this, the shoe is so constructed as to prevent any portion of
the iron pressing upon the sole, except the outside crust (it is
well seated out) ; it is, moreover, a stamped shoe, and pi'esents
to the ground a convex surface, which mechanical contrivance
operates most beneficially in warding off' concussion, whereas
a concave and flat surface both equally tend to facilitate it.
The system also persisted in by many of denuding the foot of
its natural protection, by opening the heels, as it is called —
i.e., in reality, by cutting away a portion of the hoof-horn,

96

SHOEING.

without which the foot must, and always does, suffer; by
paring down horn until the sensitive parts are nearly exposed,,
and by removing the larger portion of the horny frog, is most
strongly to be deprecated. It is done doubtless in ignorance,,
and for this reason farriers of the present day ought to gO'
through a course of instruction in the art of farriery, pre-
viously to being allowed to operate upon structures, the ana-
tomy, physiology, and economic uses of which they have never-
studied, and consequently never understood ; such a step
would act most beneficially to the well-being of horseflesh,
and would produce in a few years an intelligent class of shoe-
ing smiths. Emollit mores nec sinit esse feros. But to the
subject. This removal of horn — i.e. this persistent (from
time to time) cutting away of the horn — leads to the absorp-
tion of bone, or, in other words, Nature, ever trying to cure,,
and in this instance, after the sensitive parts of the foot have-
been nearly exposed by the knife, in order to protect the-
coffin-bone from injury, causes it to recede, which she effects
by causing absorption of it. The foot so operated upon by
the knife and by Nature for a second and third time is similarly-
treated, when Nature again keeps pace by seeking her remedy-
in absorption of the bony structures, until the original foot-
formation is destroyed, the door is opened, and the thief'
(disease) rushes in. With a state of foot as described above,,
it is not very difficult to understand how easy it is for na-
vicular disease to arise. The shoeing smith does not know,,
neither does many an intelligent horseman perceive, to how
great an extent his horse’s foot has been injured, until it is too-
late, and sometimes not even then, and in most instances he
never recognizes the cause. The cause of disease is discovered
more over the dissecting-table than in the sick-box. The dis-
covery of this disease proves this assertion to be correct. Mr.
Turner noticed it under the dissecting-knife. Veterinarians
of repute never, in their extensive practices, recognized the

SHOEING.

97

cause of navicular lameness until Turner showed them. After-
wards they dissected, and specimens unon specimens may be
easily seen at our veterinary colleges.

THE SHOB, WHEN SUFFERED TO REMAIN UPON THE FOOT FOE TOO LONG A PEBIOD, IS,

CARRIED FORWARD BY THE GROWTH OF HORN, AND LEAVES THE HEELS UNPROTECTED.

It is well known to physiologists that the constant removal
of any natural growth is calculated to result in one of three
effects. It may stimulate production, causing the wilfully-
excised material to be secreted in unnatural abundance ; or,,
on the other hand, it may interfere with the powers of growth,,
and occasion the material to be withheld altogether, or cause'
the product to be secreted in diminished quantity. In such a,
foot the superabundant growth of horn is owing principally to
the diminution of the pedal structures, which arises in such
case from the absorption of bone, caused by too close paring
of the horn, when Nature, always true to her principles, pro-
duces an inordinate growth of horn, in order to make up for
the deficiency existing in the internal structures ; thus, in
rickets, the bones of the leg frequently curve, vbut Nature-
strives by extra deposition to strengthen the parts which
threaten to break. In the above it has been my endeavour to-
prove, as regards foot-formation, that any deviation from the-
natural state is calculated to produce disease. For instance,
by removing too much of the heel horn, we cause more stress
to be imposed on the tendon of the foot, and consequently
greater pressure on the navicular bone, and, by this, produce
ultimately ulceration of it, or, in other words, “ navicular

7

98

SHOEING.

disease.” In making a mechanical instrument, it is necessary
for the mechanic to understand how all parts are adapted one
to another ; how irregularity or deficiency in it causes the
whole to fail in operation. So with the horse’s foot : he must
recognize, first, how this foot descends upon the ground
during locomotion, and, secondly, how to shoe it so as to
insure its natural action, and protect it from injury when shod.
If the drawing-knife he used sparingly, and with judgment,
benefit may arise ; but if it be allowed to cut away the heels,
an oblique soon becomes converted into a right angle, when
the natural bearing surface of the foot is altered, when it can
be easily understood how soon the foot-formation will suffer,
by the production of disease.

Coleman, in carrying out his favourite theory of frog-pres-*
sure, instructed shoeing smiths to adapt shoes to horses’ feet
in such a manner as to necessitate the frogs being brought
prominently on the ground ; and what was the consequence ?
Why, the production, in many cases so treated, of navicular
lameness.

No doubt, in a state of nature such pressure gave strength

SPECIMENS OF A LOW AND OF A HIGH HEEL.

to the frog, and general health to the pedal structures ; but
Nature did not form these parts to be brought in contact with

•SHOEING.

( ■

99

hard roads, such as we meet with throughout the country, hut
for soft pastures and plains ; in short, Nature arranged a
heautifully-made and elastic foot-organization, and formed
pathways elastic with herbage for it to tread on; i.e., an
elastic cushion, like the frog, was made to meet, when in pro-
gression, with an elastic cushion, like the turf. Thus Nature for
the wild horse doubly provided for his safety, and removed,
by these wise measures, the possibility of injury occurring to
the feet ; but in an artificial state the case is altogether re-
versed; the soft pasture is dug up to make room for hard,
unyielding stones, noticed in our Metropolitan roads, and
around our horses’ feet a hard rim of unyielding iron is
nailed; and curiously, perhaps, to. many, soon after this
mechanical application to the feet, the horse goes lame — not
immediately, always ; not, perhaps, until after repeated visits
have been paid to the shoeing forge. It therefore behoves us
to consider how to obviate the evils accruing from hard roads
and shoeing. The former cannot be altered; without these
hard, unyielding roads, our carriages could not be drawn with
■ease, neither could traffic proceed. Such being the case, all

A 8HOE WITH A CMP AT THE TOE.

THE INCISION, WHICH PHEPABBS THE FOOT
TO BECEITE THE CMP.

-our attention must be directed to the best mode of shoeing
■our horses.

100

SHOEING.

Thick, stubborn hoofs are too common to need comment,
as they are usually produced by lateral nailing ; consequently,
by carrying the fastenings to the toe, where the greater thick-
ness of horn affords good nail-hold, we can prevent the occur-
rence of the ill effects calculated to result from lateral nailing.
The question may be asked. Does the smith respect the in-
tegrity of the foot, and particularly the toe horn, when, to
make a cavity for the reception of the clip on the shoe, he cuts
away the horn at the most forward part of the toe ? No, ho
employs his drawing-knife to cut away horn. Nor is this all :
he sometimes turns up the shoe afterwards to form a calkin,,
and actually throws the bearing of the hoof upon that portion
of the foot which he has just denuded of its natural protection.

Calkins, in nine cases out of ten, are needless, and, as they
are at present made, are abominations. The shoe, in the first
instance, is forged too long for the foot, when the extra length
of iron is bent downwards, so as to form a calkin. Below
is a sketch, made from memory, of a very and injuriously
high calkin. It was encountered in the country, soon after
the breaking up of a severe frost ; and, probably, it was in-
tended to counteract the wear of
metal which invariably accom-
panies a frozen condition of the
highways. It would, however,
with a change of weather, fail in
its intent, for the principal wear
is then endured by the toe of the
shoe, and the heel comparatively
escapes friction. All such things-
operate according to their height.
They fling the entire bearing for-
ward, where, without any such aid, it must strongly press.
Although contraction of the tendons is mostly confined to
cart-horses (and this constrained position of the foot must

a man calkin.

SHOEIN

101

favour sucli an affection), nevertheless, the smith may receive
it as an unjust accusation when he is told that high calkins
are to blame for the spread of such a state of disease.

Enough, perhaps, has been said about the evils attendant
•on the present system of shoeing.

It is argued, and rightly so, that hind shoes require calkings,
in order to prevent horses from sliding on our pitched roads,
which are met with in all our large towns. Such is the case,
but, at the same time, the requirement can be supplied, i.e., a
calkin can be obtained, without interfering with the level of
the upper surface, on which the foot rests. The shoe can be
forged of one thickness from heel to toe, only a portion of
metal being removed under each quarter, leaving the calkin
to maintain the evenness of the bearing. It may possibly be
urged that in thus forming the calkin the quarters become
weakened. Nature has, however, set the example by weaken-
ing the horn at the quarters ; nevertheless, by so doing, she
has not destroyed the strength of the hoof. The quarters of
an old shoe, when removed, after six weeks’ hard wear, in-
variably are not sensibly diminished in substance, showing
that the lessened amount of horn communicates small friction
to the metal ; besides, the toe is supported upon massive iron,
while the heels are upheld by blocks of the same metal. A
law of mechanics instructs us that, if the extremities of any
powerful substance are adequately sustained, the body which
bridges over the space may be without support. The heels
being raised to an equal height with the toe, the metal left at
the quarters, as it is removed from attrition, is imagined to be
fully equal to the necessities of its position.

Most existing shoes are fullered, or have a hollow space,
narrow, but long, near to the outer margin. Into this empty
void or groove the'heads of the nails are received ; but, as the
substance in front is ground down by wear, of course the
duration of the shoe must be shortened in proportion to the

102

SHOEING.

depth of the fullering. That the reader may fully comprehend
the signification of a fullered shoe, appended is a copy, made
from Mr. Godwin's excellent work on Shoeing.

A SHOE, WITH THE NAILS COUNTER-SUNK. A FULLERED SHOE.

(Ground surface.) (Ground surface )

By inspecting the above illustration, which represents the
ground surface, the reader will perceive an indented void near
to the outer margin. Behind this indentation, or fullered
cavity, the iron gradually slopes away, so that the , substance
which is exposed to wear, and on which the horse must travel,,
consists of the narrow strip that extends round the outward
edge of the shoe.

The proposed shoe contemplates iron of an equal thickness
at every point which is usually exposed to wear. The nails
are driven into holes made to fit close around the heads of
those fastenings ; so that, the shoe being fixed, no loss of
substance is to be detected, for the nail-heads fill the spaces
which were counter-sunk for their admission.

The nails pierce the toe of the proposed new shoe. This
part is selected because this portion of hoof is covered with
the thicker horn, therefore is indicated as the region where all
stress should bear. Among smiths there is a strong objection
to driving nails in the centre of the wall. But is not a more
violent outrage inflicted by actually removing a portion of its
substance, so as to make an abiding-place for a clip, than by
piercing obliquely the strongest part of the hoof, subsequent
to tho toe having grown below the true foot ?

SHOEING.

ioa

The thickness of wall there offers several advantages, when,
considering the retention of nails. The solidity of the secre-
tion is a proof that this portion of the hoof is not endowed
with motion ; consequently, when fastening a piece of iron to
it, we are not fearful of interfering with the exercise of a*

DIAGRAMS, SHOWING THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FULLERING AND COUNTER-SINKING, FOR.

RECEIVING THE NAIL-HEAD OF A HORSE’S SHOE.

Fullering, or a free indentation round the Counter-sinking, or only removing so

shoe. This space is indicated by the dark por- much metal as may be filled up by the

tionof the diagram, and within which the heads heads of the nails which are to retain the

of the nails repose. shoe upon the horse’s foot.

healthful function. Such would be the case if the nails were
to fix the quarters where the joint thinness, moisture, and
elasticity of the horn afford the best evidence Nature meant
should reside expansion and contraction.

When the contents of the foot are compressed by the super-
imposed weight of the animal, or when the hoof is resting upon
the ground, the quarters yield to the downward pressure, and
they accordingly expand. When the burthen is removed by
the hoof being raised, the quarters again fly back to their
original situations. The sides, therefore, being in constant
motion, are entirely unsuited for the purposes to which the
smith compels them. No wonder the clenches are loosened,
or the shoes come off, when the nails are driven into parts
hardly ever at rest: this action is important to the circulation,
for the contraction still allows the arterial blood free ingress,
while the expansion permits the full return of the venous
current.

Therefore, because the thickness of horn denies the possi-
bility of movement ; because the amount of inorganic secre-
tion likewise presents a reasonable hope of not injuring other

104

SHOEING.

and more delicate structures; and because the toe affords
those numerous properties, which for the retention of the
fastenings are rendered imperative, the nails, in opposition to
the usage of ages, and the experience of thousands, are fixed
within the anterior of the hoof, seven or five being there
employed to fix the shoe.

Every one knows how much the speed of the racer is de-
pendent upon that elasticity of the foot with which the quarters
are endowed. Who can have failed to notice the play of the
fetlock by which the “blood action” is characterized? Now,
Nature never forms one part an exception to the whole. She
delights in harmony ; consequently, the spring which resides
in the fetlock is positive evidence of the elasticity which
belongs to the unfettered foot. But the bounding property
which the frog, sole, and quarters would naturally provide,
the trainer counteracts, in order to impose a dangerous article,
which is not a horse-shoe, nor even a respectable substitute
for one.

It is so formed, however, as to exercise the worst functions
of the regular shoe. It is a fetter upon the foot, and firmly
impales the quarters, thereby seriously crippling the animal,
and impeding the natural power. If any part of a thorough-
bred’s foot required metallic protection, it could only be the
toe, for this part, alone, is hard and unyielding. The other
portions of the hoof touch the ground first, when aiding to
prevent concussion ; but these are never used with that
amount of energy which necessitates anything approaching
artificial defence. Now, the plate and its nails check expan-
sion ; these also oppose that force of rebound residing in the
hoof and in its various structures. The best horse must feel
the bondage most. The spring, or rebound, is, to it, of
most value; but that function is destroyed. Many a fine
animal has, doubtless, been condemned for having “ no go
in him,” which, could it have exerted all its natural power.

SHOEING.

105

■would have been declared winner of every race for which it
was ever entered.

The late William Percivall, the respected author of Hippo-
pathology, many years ago stated that he had long ridden a
young horse about town with no greater protection to its fore

A TIP, OB HALE-SHOE, NAILED ONLY TO THE TOE, AND LEAVING BOTH THE QUAE TEES EBEE.

feet than tips could afford. He showed the hoofs of the ani-
mal, and more open or better examples of the healthy horse’s
feet need not be desired. Why could not tips be employed
by racers, instead of the present ridiculous pretence at a shoe ?
If any greater protection is imperative, or is thought to be
needed, the shoe proposed above would give all security, while
it left the pedal structures free to exercise their important
uses. There can be no doubt as to the safety of tips; in
which, if Mr. Percivall could for years take his quadruped
through the streets of London, another animal might, surely,
scamper over the well-kept turf of a racecourse, where the
heels merely touch the earth impressively, in order to break
the first shock when descending on the ground, and then only
for an instant.

Were tips more generally employed, this form of shoe would
be more highly valued. They are, however, now thought only
to be of service when the animal is, “ for a season,” thrown
up ; but there can be no reason why the racer — trained,
exercised, and worked always on choice turf — should ever be
■ crippled by any more regular form of shoe. Most horsemen.

106 SHOEING,,

however, like the warriors of old, place their great dependence
on the accumulation of iron. The nearest approach, they ever
make towards a tip, and then only when guarded by a vete-
rinary surgeon's advice, is a three-quarter shoe. The tip is a.
protection to be worn only during the run at grass, and to be
discarded so soon as the stable is entered. Is not the racer
always at grass, since the rail or the van generally carries it
over the roads ? How often do the feet of the thoroughbred
fail, though there must be further cause than the work they
have undergone ? But no one is silly enough to suspect the
shoeing can be at fault !

A THREE -QUARTER SHOE, WHICH ONLY LEAVES ONE QUARTER UNFETTEHBD.

The three-quarter shoe is but an enlarged kind of tip. Host,
horsemen appreciate the unilateral nailing which was revived
some years ago by that excellent veterinary surgeon, Mr.
Turner, of Regent-street. They can understand the advan-
tages of leaving one quarter without nails, so long as the
unfettered part be covered by a regular shoe. They com-
prehend that, by omitting the nails on one side of the hoof,
that side is left free to exercise its natural property of expan-
sion. Therefore they perceive that the unilateral mode of
shoeing is a partial remedy for contraction.

Though always worked on grass, and ever lightly shod, no
animal is so troubled with mule hoofs as is the racer ; yet no>

SHOEING.

107

quadruped is so entirely under the inspection of man. The
mode of shoeing must be at fault. That cannot be right, the
results from which are purely evil. The consequences ex-
perienced from the custom of fettering that portion of the
foot on which the pleasure of motion and the extent of the
rebound both depend, argue strongly in favour of tips, not only
as training, but more especially as running shoes. Men with
fleshy feet, having no protection from leather, fearlessly tread
the racecourse ; yet the owners of blood stock seem afraid of
trusting their animals to perform an act not equally bold,
although Nature sends the horse into the world with ready-
made and stout-made shoes. There can be no just reason why
the steed which never quits the turf need be hampered even
with a unilateral shoe, were the horn only carefully, and not
ruthlessly, cut away.

A SEATED AND A UNILATERAL SHOE.

A seated shoe implies a regular shoe which has only so much
upper surface left as will admit of the crust resting upon it :
the remainder of the web slants away till the posterior or inner-
margin becomes a comparatively fine edge.

108

SHOEING.

Mr. Bracy Clark once brought forward a jointed shoe, which
was intended to admit of expansion, and was offered to the
public as a radical cure for all the evils to which the foot of
the horse was liable. The joint was placed at the toe, the shoe
being forged in two halves, which were united by means of a
rivet. The thing was wrong in principle. The toe, which
Nature intended should be fixed, was obliged to move, before
the heels could expand j then, parts could not yield in dif-

HE. BBACY CDABK’S JOINTED SHOE.

ferent degrees, but all must move at once, according to the
motion of the iron. It was soon discovered to be terribly
injurious when brought into use. The battering speedily fixed
the central rivet, and afterwards wore away the joint, leaving
the two halves disunited. A thing which turns out defective,

both in principle and in practice,
merits that neglect into which the
jointed shoe has now fallen.

Another mechanical ameliorator was
termed the screw shoe. This had two
rivets — one on either side of the toe,
operating on two movable quarter
pieces. The sides, therefore, were
capable of all motion, and, being
nailed to the quarters, were, by turn-
ing the screw, to be forced outward. The screw was situ-

SHOEING.

109'

ated under the frog, and was retained in its position by a
stout bar of iron connected with the toe-piece. Man, how-
ever, cannot treat any portion of an organic frame as if it were-
an inorganic substance. He may tear flesh, but he cannot
stretch or strain living tissues according to his pleasure.
Moreover, all outward secretions are regulated by the parts
which they cover and inclose. Thus, supposing a lad born with
a diminutive head, the cranium cannot be enlarged by any
degree of force ; but, educate the boy, exercise the intellect of
the youth, and, with the greater development of the brain, the'
bones of the head will sensibly expand. So it must be with'
the heels of the horse’s foot. These parts may become rigid
and wired in by the fixing power exercised by the nails of the-
shoe. But remove the nails, allow the hoof that motion which
is needful to its health, and its internal structures may recover
their lost functions : a gradual restoration to the normal shape
may be the consequence of strength regained by the internal
organs.

The veterinary mind was, however, slow to recognize so
plain a rule. Like all Nature’s laws, the truth necessitated
not that show of mystery in which the ignorant especially
delight. The famous screw shoe is everywhere admitted to
have been a decided failure ; nevertheless, the pride of poor
humanity could not relinquish the hope of compelling life,
through the power, to direct mechanical force. Screws and
rivets had proved alike hurtful, but there still remained other
artifices, which were as yet untried. The frog-pressure shoe
was one of these, which ultimately lamed many horses without
having benefited a single one. The wedge-heeled shoe is,
however, sometimes met with at the present day : it consists
of a shoe seated out upon its upper surface, having the heels
much thicker than the iron at the toe, the inventor never
suspecting, that, when he fixed the quarters of the hoof at a
high altitude, and invited the heels to slide down an inclined.

110

SHOEING.

plane, lie was only laying a trap for loosening the clenches,
since the quarters and the heels being continuous, one cannot
move without the other being displaced.

All men having, theoretically, insisted on the necessity of
permitted freedom of motion to the quarters, in order to secure
the health of the foot, the next novelty was a proposition to
confine those parts by establishing a large clip at either side

A WEDGB-HEKLED SHOE.

of the shoe. The clips were forged, but the thin heels were
also retained. The highest portion being at the toe, of course,
the foot, obeying the laws of gravity, had an inclination to
drag towards the lower . level : thus the thin heels had a
tendency to draw the hoof away from the clips, one part coun-
teracting the other. Then the clip shoe has a piece of steel
inserted at the toe ; but, could an everlasting horse-shoe be pro-
duced, it would bring but small gain to the proprietor, since
the natural growth of the horn necessitates that the metal
should be removed, that new nails should be inserted, and
that the foot should be pared out every third week : how-

SHOEING.

Ill

ever, the steel toe and the thin heels were incompatible with
each other, since the thin heels took
the bearing from that part which the
steel presupposes to be alone liable to
attrition.

It would, however, be vain to re-
view all the shoes which have come
before the public. A certain rim of
iron has been pinched up, flattened

r A A CLIP SHOE.

■out, squeezed in, twisted about, has

been lengthened, and has been shortened — subjected to every
species of treatment but the right — and each trivial alteration
has been patented to the public as a final and a wonderful
improvement. After all the many changes, at the present
time a modification of the shoe originally introduced by Clark,
of Edinburgh, is in general use, or, if such an assertion re-
quires any qualification, the hospital shoes, or shoes suited for
particular forms of disease, are the principal exceptions.

The generality of grooms will undertake the relief of those
injuries occasioned during motion, or which are produced by
one leg being hit by the opposite foot.

Of cutting, there are two descriptions. One is spoken of as
“ brushing/-’ and tins kind occurs near to the pastern joint.
The other is called “ speedy-cut,” and it takes place imme-
diately below the knee. Both are equally annoying, but the
last is the most dangerous. “ Speedy-cut ” will destroy the
rider’s security in his horse, for, a blow on the seat of injury
may bring the animal suddenly to earth. Both affections are
likely to occasion exostosis, for the repeated injury may so irri-
tate the bone, as shall cause it to enlarge or tumefy : thus the
renewal of the accident produces a result which must increase
the probability of its recurrence.

Almost all weakly, long-legged, and narrow-chested horses
cut. Many young horses strike in going, but they lose

112

SHOEING.

the habit as age matures the strength. Nearly all animals,
when exhausted, will “ brush/’ and often very severely.
Lately, a ring of india-rubber has been employed as a protec-
tion against this annoyance, but it is a mere fantasy, and one-
not at all calculated to realize any practical expectation. Con-
firmed disappointment engenders a feeling allied to despera-
tion ; but, when nostrums fail, advice should then be sought
from more trusty councillors.

Some horses will only cut, or brush, during the latter por-
tion of a long journey, or when thoroughly exhausted. Other
quadrupeds are afflicted with a chronic description of weak-
ness, and such animals may cut with the first step. These
creatures require less work, or entire rest, with a course of
tonics, both in food and medicine.

THU KIND OP nOBSB NOT LIKELY TO CUT.

However, make and shape certainly have some control over
this affection. The horse which exhibits a wide chest, and
stands with the feet not too close together, very rarely speedy-
cuts. The animal which possesses well-made haunches, with

SHOEING.

113

prominent Lips and swelling thiglis., that appear full, round,
and fleshy, especially when such a creature places the fetlocks
under the hocks, must be driven very far, and pushed very
hard, before the pace shall become injurious.

Several reputed remedies have been sold for the relief of
this defect. Saddlers keep in stock pieces of leather, or small
flaps with straps appended, which last, being buckled round
the leg, hang pendulous, covering the wound. Such applica-
tions, however, rarely are satisfactory. The horse, during the
motion of the feet, repeatedly kicks the leather, and the fre-
quent blows generally remove it from its original situation ;
thus, long before the journey has ended, the remedy hangs
over some sound part of the leg, and the sore is bleeding from
renewed injury.

A better plan is to procure a piece of cloth which matches
the colour of the animal, and to fold this round the leg, ulti-
mately tying it at the top and the bottom. Such a contrivance
cannot be displaced, and is less likely to attract attention than

REMEDIES FOR CUTTING.

the leathern flap recently alluded to. However, it must bo
tightly wrapped round the shin, or it will bag, and appear
unsightly , as it is represented in the previous illustration ;
still, such a resort affords but a partial protection, cloth being

8

114

SHOEING.

unable to stay tlie entire consequences of a blow, nor can it
be regarded as exercising a curative influence.

That which, appears better is a leathern boot, of the colour
of the skin, or made of prepared horse-skin, having the hair
on, and laced upon the member. Over the seat of injury a
concave piece of stout leather is let into the covering, and the
hollow, thus formed, which acts as a protection, can also
receive a portion of lint saturated in the lotion, prepared by
adding one grain of chloride of zinc to an ounce of water.
Thus, while the sore is spared a renewal of the cause, curative
treatment is not stayed.

The chloride of zinc lotion is the only remedy which an
ordinary case of cutting would require ; but aggravated in-
stances of this annoyance will also be benefited by rest and
a course of restoratives to amend the constitutional debility.
Other matters consist in a warm lodging, an ample bed, nu-

A LEATHEBN HOOT.

tritious food, walking exercise, a loose box, and, above all
things, no work. Should the animal be changing its coat,
which is generally a period of weakness, throw it up till Nature’s
work is completed; give extra nourishment and one ounce of
liquor arsenicalis, each day, to assist nature. Two months’

SHOEING.

115

run at grass will also be attended witli marked benefit, i.e.,
place the animal for a short period in a state of nature, where
: succulent food and fresh air can be obtained, and where the
.system will have time to regain strength, the lack of which,
perhaps, has been the cause of cutting.

Gutting is often combined with clicking or forging, for both
words signify the same act, implying the noise made by
striking the toe or quarter of the hind shoe against the metal
nailed to the fore foot. This sound is not generally considered
pleasant by those who hear it, because, besides being of a
monotonous character, it announces something to be the
matter ; either that the horse is not exactly in proper work-
ing condition, or that the journey has been a trifle too long
for the strength of the animal, whilst the repeated blows
.endanger the retention of a fore shoe.

SHOE, DESIGNED WITH THE INTENTION OP ERADICATING CUTTING, AND OP RENDERING

CLICKING AN IMPOSSIBILITY.

The smith, generally, is consulted to cure this defect. He,
however, who regards the cause, will perceive that the eradi-
cation of the evil more concerns the stable than the forge.
The man of the anvil, nevertheless, will put on a novel kind
■of shoe, which, with all the confidence of ignorance, he shall
assert must stay the annoyance. The remedy totally fails,
:&nd the horse is led to another forge. The new blacksmith
picks up the foot, and, of course, is cunning enough to profit

8 *

116

SHOEING.

by what be there perceives. A different shoe is tried, and
pronounced an absolute remedy ; still, this disappoints : the
quadruped seeks some other shoemaker. The next bit of iron
leads to no new result. The clicking and the cutting only
get worse during these numerous trials, till the proprietor
becomes alarmed, and the horse is thrown up to undergo
regular curative treatment.

The rest, thus obtained, often effects that which no change
of shoe could accomplish. The smiths, however, are only to
be blamed for pretending to perform impossibilities. The best
veterinary surgeons in the kingdom, having no better ap-
pliances, could have laboured to no better result ; the fact
being, that the kind of shoe which shall answer in all such
cases, does not, and cannot exist. That article has the best
chance which is adopted when the owner deems it necessary
to lighten the work of his exhausted servant : thus it is a
matter of uncertainty which shoe will succeed. The first
smith may, or perhaps the last will, prove the very clever
tradesman in his employer^ estimation.

The next engraving is a type of the shoe commonly em-
ployed for the alleviation of this unpleasantness. The number

of altered shapes and adapted pecu-
liarities is infinite ; but one per-
vading model is readily detected
through all such modifications. There-
are, however, several shoes claimed
as inventions by different smiths, and
each is warranted to cure the most
aggravated case of cutting or of
clicking, on the first application.
These shoes frequently fail, while the
ordinary shoe often answers admi-
rably, provided the horse be “ up ” to his work, and not
pushed too far, or too hard.

SHOE, MEANT TO PEEVENT
CLICKING.

SHOEING.

117

The fact being that flesh and bloody if overtasked, will flag,
•and no mechanical contrivance can anticipate the natural con-
sequences of such exhaustion. Clicking and cutting are not
local ailments ; therefore, though they may be mitigated, they
cannot be eradicated by any local application. They, doubt-
less, are both produced by the irregular movement of the
feet ; but the motion of the extremities is regulated by the
condition of the body. If the reader is ever on a journey,
and the horse he is guiding chances to click, the bearing-rein
should be let down, — if the driver ever sits behind harness
disgraced by such an instrument of folly. Should that not
succeed, accept the warning ; pull up at the next tavern, and
have the quadruped taken from the shafts, rubbed down, and
vested.

After a coupie of hours spent by the traveller in the coffee-
room, the journey may be resumed, though, of course, a longer
stay will rather benefit than injure the steed; yet, in either
case, the subsequent pace should be a little slackened, and if,
on reaching home, the work is slightly lightened, the noise
may never after startle the “ ear of propriety.”

These remedies should always anticipate the setting in of
winter, because wet roads necessitate heavier shoes, by which
a severer blow can be inflicted ; nevertheless, the majority of
horse-owners are extremely careless about the necessities of
the seasons. The winters, in this climate, are more generally
characterized by their severity, than remarkable for their
mildness; yet the frost appears always to take horse pro-
prietors by surprise. Gentlemen, to be sure, during this
season, allow their dumb servants to remain within the stable ;
but quadrupeds which have to work for their own and their
master’s sustenance ; creatures which have to labour long and
to labour hard; slaves which toil before the sun has risen, and
never cease till darkness has long set in, are never prepared
for the season which in England seems a certainty.

118

SHOEING.

A horse-shoe is, however, not a perishable commodity, nor
does its store necessitate any sacrifice. Supposing it were-
forged in the summer, and, because of death or change, it
should not suit in the winter, the smith, at such a period,,
would gladly accept its return. Many forges are comparatively
idle during the warmer months, and any amount of winter
shoes would be most thankfully manufactured. Then, no one
will employ the men ; but, scarcely does a severe frost or the-
snow set in, than people throng into the forge, all clamorous
to have their horses’ shoes suited to the weather. They crowd
the building ; they even stop the roadway. The inside is full,
of men and horses — horses and men cluster deep about the
entrance. The smiths have to work fast, and often hang over
the fires for three nights and three days without looking on a
bed. Beer is abundant, but nature cannot labour continuously
on any amount of stimulant, and the men ultimately sink
exhausted, to sleep soundly on a heap of old rusty horse-shoes,
while many voices are shouting, and many anvils are ringing
around them.

Such scenes might be prevented, and the work much better
done, would owners lay in a stock of shoes, properly frosted,
against the coming winter. The labour executed during the
leisure portion of the year, would not be hastily performed by
over-taxed workmen ; the only extra charge such a provision
would necessitate, is the interest on the slight cost of the
articles supplied, though very often even such an increase of
expense would be avoided, since it is by no means uncommon
for the smith’s account to remain longer than six months
before it is liquidated, while the confusion, loss of time, and
those accidents which often occur, would be banished.

Frosting, or roughing, as it is termed, is generally per-
formed in a coarse and careless manner, because of that ex-
cessive press of business amid which it is executed. In the
first place, the shoe is hurriedly torn from the hoof, without

&HOEING.

119*

the nails being properly unclenched, or any trouble being
taken about the process. Should the proprietor expostulate,
he only elicits an uncivil reply, for the journeyman is vexed
with boisterous solicitations from a crowd of impatient custo-
mers, and irritable from inordinate fatigue. The shoe is then
heated, after which, the free extremities are turned down-
ward with the hammer, and the ends are hastily beaten into
a rude, sharp edge. In some particular cases, the toe is like-
wise favoured by having a clip forged, but, occasionally, the
toe is turned downward, forming a third and a front
calkin.

The rudeness of the above process has long been appreciated
by the more reflective portion of the public. To rectify it,
various innovations have been proposed. The meditated im-
provements, however, have all sunk into disuse, because of the
attendant expense, or of the necessitated exertion. A common
man thinks it no trouble to remain through the night in the
blacksmith's forge, waiting for his turn, because other people
do the same. But when his turn arrives, perhaps a new set o£
shoes is spoiled, for the ordinary “ roughing ” is, generally,,
of no service after the third day, the sharp calkins being by
that time ground blunt.

The huge weight of the animal grinds the edges off the iron,,
especially upon London stones, so that in three days they are
no better than ordinary calkins, and cease to enable the quad-
ruped to progress on ice. The constant removal and renewal
of the shoe — the horn each time having to be re-pierced by
fresh nails— seriously injures the hoof, so that, frequently,
animals are forced to remain idle because there remains no
more horn on which to fix a fastening. Those horses which
escape such a fate, nevertheless, carry the scars which com-
memorate the period of frost for months afterwards ; for there
is no horseman, who has the most trivial experience in such
matters, but will bitterly complain of the damage done to the

120

SHOEING.

quadruped’s feet, when it is forced to work through the
winter season.

Some person, many years ago, proposed to use nails with
large steel and sharp-pointed heads, during the prevalence of
frost. This plan was tried, and signally failed. The constant
renewal of the nails was found ruinous to the hoof ; for the
strongest of the projecting heads was unable to resist the
grinding action of a horse’s foot longer than twenty-four
hours. Then, many of the heads broke off while being
driven, and not a few were fixed in a damaged condition,
owing to the blows received from the heavy hammer of the
smith.

Jk SHOE, INTENDED TO ENABLE A HOESE TO WOBK IN FBOST, WHICH IS FIXED ON TO THE
FOOT WITH SHABP-HEADED AND PBOJECTING NAILS.

Mr. White, however, proposed a plan, concerning the
utility of which the reviser is able to bear favourable evi-
dence. Large holes, containing the thread of a female screw,
are made through the heels of the winter shoes, and several
steel points manufactured with a male screw, adapted to the
dimensions of the holes just mentioned. Whenever frost
-coats the roads with ice, all that is requisite a boy might
perform. The hole in the shoe has to be cleared out, and
afterwards, with an instrument known as “ a spanner,” one

SHOEING.

121

■of the points, before alluded to, is screwed into the opening.
When these points are worn down, they are easily renewed ;
thus the terrors of the frost are overcome without exposing
the horse for hours to the chilly air, or yourself submitting to
the incivilities of the forge.

A SHOB WITH POINTS, WHICH SCREW ON AND OFF, DESIGNED TO FIT A HORSE FOR WORK

DURING FROSTY WEATHER.

On the above subject, the- following was written in the
Field during 1861, and explains the measures necessary to be
pursued : —

“ About this time last season we inserted in the Field an
account of the plan of frosting horse-shoes, recommended
more than fifty years ago by Mr. White, veterinary surgeon,
•of Exeter. Since then, nearly one thousand sets of the sharp
•cogs used for this purpose have been sold by the engineer to
whom we intrusted the task of making them, and the plan
appears to give unqualified satisfaction. At the suggestion of
several correspondents who have not seen our former article,
we are induced to repeat the notice, with the addition of an
-engraving representing the tools necessary ; these being, a
drill of the required size, which every smith possesses, and
-with which a hole is drilled in the heel of each shoe, and, if
needed, in the toe also. These holes are then converted into

122

SHOEING.

female screws by means of two taps (figs. 1 and 2), one being;
slightly smaller than the other, so as to make a perfect female
screw, by using first the smaller one, and then the larger-
Besides these, a spanner (fig. 3) is required to fix on the cog
firmly • and the cogs themselves (fig. 4) should be made by a
competent smith. These may all be obtained of S. Morris,
50, Rathbone-place, Oxford-street, London, the price of the
tools being six shillings, and of the cogs, three shillings per

dozen. With this outlay, any shoeing smith can fit a set of'
shoes by drilling the heels (and the toes, if the roads are very
slippery, but for ordinary work the cogs in the heels are quite
sufficient), tapping them with the taps furnished to him, after'
which they are nailed on ; and the horse so shod can in five
minutes be roughed by his groom, by screwing a cog in each
hole, with the aid of the spanner. It often happens that the
roads become frozen after a horse leaves home ; but if the
groom has the spanner and cogs in his pocket, he is in-
dependent of the smith, and neither the delay caused by
‘roughing/ nor the danger from its omission, is incurred.
A specimen shoe, properly fitted, may be seen at the office of
the Field.” — December 20, 1 861 .

SHOEING.

12£

The plan is excellent, but it requires a little forethought,
and a slight expenditure of ready cash. The tools for the
tapping, or making the female screw-holes, and for the points,
are obtained from Birmingham ; the former at a cost of five
shillings, the last for one penny, or three half-pence each.
Tapping a set of shoes is by the smith charged fourpence ;
and for so small an outlay the gentleman, just named, escapes
the unpleasantness and the annoyance which are inseparable
from the old method of “roughing” horses during frosty
weather.

The reviser believes he has now touched upon all the
necessary heads connected with the subject he is at present
considering; still, this article cannot be closed without ap-
prising the reader of a practice, not unusual in some forges,,
but never indulged in by the respectable tradesman. This is,.

A FOOT PBOPBBLY SHOD, AND A FOOT WHICH HAS BEEN CBUELLY BASPED, TO MAKE THE
HOOF SUIT A SHOE THAT WAS TOO SMALL FOB IT.

paring and rasping the horse’s foot till it be small enough to-
fit the shoe, rather than kindle a fire and forge a new set
which shall suit the feet of the animal. It may to some-
readers seem like a jest, to write seriously about the horse’s
shoes being too tight; but it is, indeed, no joke to the quad-
ruped which has to move in such articles. The walk is.

.124

SHOEING.

.strange, as though the poor creature were trying to progress,
but could obtain no bearing for its tread. The legs are all
abroad, and the hoofs no sooner touch the ground than they
are snatched up again. The head is carried high, and the
countenance denotes suffering. It is months before the horn
is restored to its normal condition. The animal must, during
this period, remain idle in the stable; and, that the reader
may be enabled to recognize the foot, under such circum-
stances, the last illustration has been introduced.

The horse is so entirely given into the hands of man, and is
so submissive to his treatment, that the active supervision
■of his master is doubly necessary, both for its protection in
the matter of shoeing, and in every other detail of stable
•economy.

TEETH.

125.

CHAPTER IV.

THE TEETH. — THEIR NATURAL GROWTH, AND THE ABUSES TO WHICH

THEE ARE LIABLE.

mHE horse was sent on this earth provided with every
apparatus necessary to crop, to comminute, and to
digest the green verdure of the earth. Man has seized on
and domesticated the body, which is exquisitely adapted only
for special purposes. He works it while in its infancy, or
forces it to labour until the sight is lost, and the limbs are
crippled. To fit the creature for his uses, he changes the-
character of its food. Artificially-prepared oats and hay, with
various condiments, are used to stimulate the spirit. No one-
inquires whether such a diet is the fitting support of the
animal. But, when the energy lags, beans, beer, &c. &c.,
are resorted to as restoratives for exhaustion. The quadruped,
thus treated, men have agreed shall be aged by the eighth
year ; but the reviser has seen very old horses, which had not
attained the fifth birthday. Opinion seems to be based upon
the circumstance that, by the time recognized as “ aged ” in
the equine species, the indications of the teeth do no more
than tempt a guess. The cessation of dental growth, how-
ever, does not announce maturity to be consummated ; but
man appeals to the teeth as corroborative of his judgment,
without asking himself whether those parts have been doomed
to unnatural wear, and therefore may not have assumed an
unnatural aspect.

We have not lately seen a specimen of bislioped teeth. Iu

126

TEETH.

Ireland, such sights obtrude themselves at every horse fair.
The majority of horses are, in that country, sold cheap, most
of the purchasers being clothed in rags. It is a sad feature
in the practices of imposition, that it is always violently ram-
pant where there is the least certainty of reward.

To fully explain in what “ bishoping ” consists, it is neces-
sary to inform the reader, that on the nipping or cutting sur-
faces of the young horse’s front teeth, there mostly are dark
indentations, or deep hollows. On the next page is an enlarged
engraving of this portion of a tooth, taken from the head of
That which was a three-year-old colt. The dark spot, in the
middle of the diagram represents the situation of the hollow
Into which the food naturally falls, rendering the interior of
the cavity of a deep colour approaching to blackness. Bishop-
ing supposes the cavity always to be present, invariably to be
of one form, and in every instance to sink to the like depth,
which suppositions are contrary to fact ; but, even were such
rules observed by Nature, there are still means by which the
•cheat may be detected. Immediately around the dark-coloured
space is developed a fine line of enamel, which is always white.
The rogues can counterfeit the black mark, but they cannot
imitate the crystalline white bordering, which surrounds the
opening. The presence or absence of this is of more im-
portance, therefore, than the existence of a black indentation.
Again, those who tamper with the teeth, cannot change the
shape of the surface on which they work. The young tooth
is wide from side to side, and narrow from the front to the
backward margin. He who ventures where bishoped horses
are to be found, should familiarize his eye with the shape of
the youthful organ.

In contrast with the natural tooth, the reader is also pre-
sented with an exaggerated sketch taken from an organ which
had been tampered with, and which was extracted from the
head of an animal that had at least attained its twelfth year.

TEETH.

127

The natural size has been consideraDiy enlarged, it is there-
by hoped to render the contrast the more obvious. This
last member, it will be remarked, has parted with its juvenile
width, or is now characterized by depth and angularity. The
central cavity, it will also be observed, bears small resem-
blance to the natural depression which it is meant to imitate.
The colour, moreover, is quite black, and of an even tint
throughout, while the presence of the girding line of enamel
■cannot be detected.

TWELVE YEARS OLD. THREE TEARS OLD.

_Aif ENLARGED VIEW OF THE DIFFERENCE IN FORM AND IN ASPECT, WHICH SEPARATES THE
TABLE OF A TWELVE-YEAR-OLD BISHOPED NIPPER FROM THE SAME PART IN THE THREE-
YEAR-OLD COLT.

The difference, however, is more striking when two full
rows of teeth are placed in contrast one with the other, after
the manner in which they are displayed in the next engraving.
In the young mouth, the incisors are arranged in a gracefully
curved line ; the posterior margins of the organ present little
peculiarity. In the aged teeth, the prominent centre of these
has retracted, while all idea of grace in the order of their dis-
posal has departed. Each member in the old jaw evinces an
inclination to become equally prominent, and the posterior
borders evince an obvious angularity.

Then, if the marks in each are examined, the central cavi-
ties in the “ bishoped ” have jagged edges, while, from these
indentations arise certain excentric lines, which invariably
run towards the circumference. Such lines evidently were
not made with any design. They were caused either by the

128

TEETH.

inaptness of the operator, the coarseness of the tool with which
he worked, or they were provoked by the natural struggles of
the animal that was subjected to a merciless operation. The-
marks, moreover, are of a deep black colour, while the lines
are remarkable for sometimes being of a lighter hue than the-
surface on which they repose.

DIAGRAM, SHOWING THE TABLES OF A NATURAL ROW OF FIVE -TEAR-OLD TEETH.

THE TABLES OF THE BISHOFED TEETH WHICH BELONG TO AN ANIMAL SIXTEEN TEARS OLD-

There are, however, other signs which faithfully denote the
age of the quadruped. The permanent incisors, when first
cut, are almost perpendicular, but, as years accumulate, these
organs assume a more horizontal direction. The tushes, also,
when they first appear in the mouth, point forward. These
members, after a time, become straight; but, as age pro-
gresses, they ultimately lean decidedly outward, and at length
incline backward. Besides these well-marked indications,
from the disposition of the front nippers to arrange them-
selves in a line, only two can be seen in old quadrupeds when
the mouth is viewed from the side ; while the membrane

TEETH.

129

covering the gums altogether loses its fleshy hue, becoming

evidently thick, yellow, loose, and baggy.

Such marked signs may, by many persons, be esteemed
sufficient protection; but there are yet additional charac-
teristics, with which all who venture to purchase horses of
unknown sellers should be acquainted. The general indica-
tions of senility are strongly impressed both upon man and
upon horse. Though the teeth are usually appealed to, the
appearance of the mouth should not be absolutely and solely
regarded. A white horse is rarely young, any more than a
white-haired man is, as a rule, in the possession of youth.

J

THE JAW OP A HOUSE, WHICH WAS THIRTY YEARS OF AGE.

Then, as the juvenile period ceases, absorption begins to
operate. Deposit no longer takes place, but, with senility, a
rapid wasting ensues : both bones and flesh suffer under this
new action.

The branches of the colt’s lower jaw are wide apart, and in
the cavity, thus formed, the tongue reposes. This space is
called the “ channel.” The lower margins, also, of the inferior
maxilla are, in the colt, full, round, and prominent. When
age is present, the edges retract, the channel narrows, while

9

130

TEETH.

the lower margins of the bones appear to the fingers of the
examiner, accustomed to handle young horses, to be positively
sharp.

A YOUNG HORSE. AN OLD HORSE.

COMPARATIVE DIFFERENCE IN THE CHANNELS OR IN THE SPACES, BETWEEN THE BRANCHES

OF THE LOWER JAWS.

When a person, having a horse to sell, talks boastfully of
all “ the marks ” being present in the mouth, avoid him as a
suspicious individual. Honest men know — or at least all
honest men should by this time be aware, — that there is no
dependence to be placed in these so-called ff marks ” ; there-
fore, they do not strive to direct attention towards fallacious
indications. By simply parting the lips of the animal, a judge
can see everything which he cares to behold. The kind of
teeth present are easily recognized; or, when such signs declare
the animal to be aged, the position of the teeth, the condition
of the bones, and the general aspect, enable him to guess as
to a probability. Therefore, when a gentleman requests to
see the mouth, the horse-dealer, unless specially commanded
to do so, no longer endeavours to tug the jaws asunder, — a
proceeding, which, when conducted hastily, is. apt to provoke
resistance — but the groom is ordered to merely separate the
lips, — a measure to which most animals will complacently
submit.

Should the person, to whom the teeth are exhibited, by an
evident lack of recognition declare his ignorance of their
announcement, the honest dealer may slyly quiz his patron’s

TEETH.

131

■want of knowledge ; but assuredly lie win not endeavour to
take advantage of it. Horse-dealers are quite as honest
as — if not more honest, than traders in other commodities.
There are certain blackguards, who profess to be dealers in
horses, but who have no fixed place of abode, or of business.
So, also, there are scamps, who style themselves travelling
jewellers and itinerant booksellers ; but the transactions of
both classes of rogues (he whose stock-in-trade consists of a
whip, or they whose most valuable possession is the mahogany
box, or the -specimen number which is carried from house to
house), cannot be taken as evidence against the more respect-
able members of the calling, to which all will assume to
belong. A gentleman, ignorant of any acquaintance with
jockey-ship, can walk with perfect safety into the yard of any
respectable dealer, look at the animals which are for sale, and
walk out again, without encountering any undue solicitation
to purchase. How many shops are there in London, in which
a person, equally uninformed, could perform the like man-
oeuvre ?

When this is written, it is not meant to imply that a horse-
dealer keeps all his stock open to public inspection. On the
contrary, in most respectable yards, there are certain snug-
geries, which conceal the more choice articles. The pick of
these are not even open to every purchaser who can pay the
price. No ! horse and picture dealers are alike in one charac-
teristic trait : each has a pride in the article he sells. The
first individual will allow his dinner to grow cold, while he
lemains gloating over the points and beauties of some fresh
acquisition. ‘ How it would look carrying Her Majesty ! }}
The image amuses his fancy ! “ What a spanker to hold a

place in the Beaufort hunt ! ” He warms with the idea !

What a charger it would make for Cambridge at a Hydo
Park Review ! ” He is in ecstasies at -the thought ! He
cannot possibly decide what so much perfection is fit for. He

9 *

132

TEETH.

can never consent to treat such, loveliness as a mere chattel, —
a thing to be sold and then to be enveloped in obscurity.
The animal must not be parted with to any unknown indi-
vidual ! The feeling common to his order forbids him to
exhibit the object of his pride to general inspection. But he-
might dispose of it, even at a sacrifice, were he convinced it
would occupy such a position as he esteems it is fitted to
adorn. He then could point to the animal, and vaunt that it
came from his yard. Honour, fame, and profit must accrue-
to him who could refer to such exalted dealings ; therefore,
there is a strong sense of self, lurking under that, which at
first glance appears to be mere Quixotic self-denial.

At the same time, if all respectable dealers are above posi-
tive imposition, it is not every dealer who will prevent a self-
conceited novice from imposing upon himself. Such a person,,
acting upon his own judgment, may be allowed to purchase
the worst screw which some yard contains, at the money that
should procure a first-rate animal. Even then the dealer has
an escape, which every form of worldly honesty will not pro-
vide. The quadruped, if not approved of, can be exchanged
within the fortnight following the transaction. To be sure,
such exchanges generally advantage only one party : but a
tradesman must live ; he cannot be expected to waste hours
showing his stock, and chattering with fools for no business-
purpose !

However, to protect the reader from every chance of im-
position, so far as the age of the horse may be concerned, let
him attentively accompany us through the following pages ;
let him, also, particularly notice the engravings with which
the text is illustrated.

A foal at birth has three molars or grinding teeth, just
through the gums, upon both sides of the upper and of the
lower jaws. The little animal, however, generally displays
no incisors or front teeth, but the gums are inflamed, and.

TEETH.

133

evidently upon tlie eve of bursting. The molars, or grinders,
are, as yet, unflattened, or have not been rendered smooth by
attrition. The lower jaw, moreover, when the inferior margin
is felt, appears to be very thick, blunt, and round.

A fortnight has rarely elapsed, before the membrane rup-
tures, and two pairs of front, very white teeth, begin to
appear in the mouth. At first, these new members look dis-
proportionately large to their tiny abiding place ; and when
contrasting with the reddened gums at their base, they have
that pretty, pearly aspect, which is the common characteristic
of the milk teeth in most animals. They must occasion pain

THE INCISOES, AT TWO WEEKS OLD.

to the foal at this period. The appearance of the little mouth
affords sufficient evidence of that fact; but, it is astonishing,

134

TEETH.

how meekly these beautiful creatures will submit to our
examinations of their teeth, — as though they came into the
world possessed of all confidence in man’s intentions and
with every dependence upon his sympathy. Some of the
diminutive strangers seem, even, to derive pleasure from their
irritable gums being inspected. They behave, almost, as
though they recognized their future master and felt flattered
by his notice. Alas ! that brutality should ever repel the
trustfulness of nature, and that experience should instruct
most of our mute fellow beings to regard mankind as enemies.

It is not until another month has passed, or until the foal is
six weeks old, that more teeth appear. By that time, much of

THE INCISORS AT SIN WEEKS OLD.

the swelling, present on the gums of the newly-born animal,
has softened down, though all trace of it cannot be said to
have entirely departed. The membrane, as time progresses,
will have to resign much of its scarlet hue. In the brief
period, however, which has elapsed since the former teeth
were gazed at, the growth has been such, that the sense of
very disproportionate size no longer remains. The two front
teeth are now fully up, and these appear almost of proportions
suited to the mouth which they adorn. But, when the two
pairs of lateral incisors first make their appearance, it is in
such a shape as can imply no assurance of their future form.
They resemble the corner nippers, and do not suggest the

TEETH.

135

smallest likeness to the lateral incisors, which they will ulti-
mately become

There is now a long pause before more teeth appear in the
mouth. The little one, in the meantime, lives chiefly upon
suction, and runs during the period of perfect happiness free
by its mother’s side. Upon the completion of the first month,
seldom earlier, it may be observed to lower the head and nip
the young blades of the shooting grass. From the third
month, however, the habit becomes more frequent, until, by
the advent of the sixth month, the grinders will be worn quite
flat ; or, having lost their pointed and jagged prominences,
will, by the wear of constant mastication, have been reduced
to the state which is suited to their function.

The corner incisors come into the mouth about the ninth
month; the four pair of nippers, which have been already
traced, being at this time fully devloped. Below is a view of
the foal’s teeth, as these are exhibited at the period named.
The reader will remark, that the corner incisors, which are
depicted as through the gums, do not yet meet, though these
organs point towards each other ; neither has the membrane
of the mouth at this time entirely lost the deepened hue of
infancy.

THE FRONT TEETH AT NINE MONTHS OLD.

From this date, however, the gums gradually become pale,
till, by the completion of the first year, the membrane lias
nearly assumed that complexion which will endure throughout

136

TEETH.

the earlier period of existence. All the incisors are, by the
first birthday, well up. The masticatory agent, although
consolidated, has not, when the quadruped is one year old,
entirely lost the roundness and bluntness of its inferior mar-
gin, for which the jaw at birth was peculiarly remarkable.

, This fulness of the bone is caused by all the grinding teeth
which are in the mouth when the foal first sees the light,
being of a temporary character ; the enlargement is conse-
quent upon the jaw, therefore, having to contain and to
mature the long permanent grinders which, within the sub-
stance of the bone, are growing beneath the temporary molars.
To contain and to allow the large uncut teeth to become de-
veloped, before appearing above the gums, causes the small
jaw of a diminutive foal to be disproportionately thick, es-
pecially when this part is compared with the same structure
in an aged horse ; but the mind is reconciled to its apparent
clumsiness when apprised of the uses to which the organ is
subservient.

At one year and three months old, the first permanent tooth
appears in the head. This is the fourth molar, or that which
is represented as the most backward grinder in the following
woodcut. The reader will not fail to remark the . greater
length which the jaw-bone presents at one year old. The
additional extent, also, in the opposite direction, cannot other-
wise than be observed. This increase of size was necessitated
to cover the increasing size of the recent molar; also, to afford
room for the partial development of two other grinders, which,
as age progresses, will appear behind that which is now the
last tooth.

About this time, frequently at birth, little nodules of bone,
without fangs, merely attached to the gums, appear in front
of each row of grinders. These are vulgarly denominated
“Wolves’ Teeth,” and wei’e once held to be of vast impor-
tance. At present, however, they are recognized as the

TEETH.

137

.simple representatives of those organs, which, in other ani-
mals (as in man) render the teeth a continuous or unbroken

■curve. They are, by experience, found to be harmless. It is

idle to remove these organs, especially as they generally dis-
. appear with the shedding of those members, facing which they
-are located.

The changes in the teeth, after the first year of life has been
■attained, are characterized by the longer periods which divide
them. Nature appears, as it were, resting to draw breath for
a mightier effort than she has hitherto undertaken. Months
have, heretofore, separated the advent of single pairs ; but,
from this date, these appearances are to be reckoned by num-
bers and by years. The foal, to the point of its present ne-
cessities, has been provided for. It has teeth sufficient to
support and to maintain its growth.

Nature has now to render perfect the body, before the
teeth. Accordingly, between the first and the second year,
the alteration in the general aspect is very marked. All the
helplessness and pretty ungainliness of infancy disappears by
the expiration of the time mentioned. The animal’s frame
then suggests something of those beautiful proportions which

138

TEETH.

it is so soon to display. Its body, however, still needs,
maturing ; and no one, less wanting in common sense than a
racing man, would think of subjecting the youthful and tender
form to the hardest of all actual work. The very aspect of
the creature should denote it to be unsuited for such per-
formances. It must, to foreigners, read as strange intelligence,,
that the nobility, who patronize the English course, applaud
the contests between two-year olds ; while the bumpkins, who
breed horses for the general market, allow the quadruped to
enter the third year, before the colt is given over to the-
breaker. Alas for the hardihood, or want of sensibility, dis-
played by the most exalted, when prompted by the greed of
gambling !

When about two years old, a second permanent molar,
making five grinders on both sides of the upper and lower-
jaws, has broken through the gums. Preparation is also
being made for the advent of the sixth grinder, and for-

chano-es in those milk molars which were in the mouth when-.

O # .

the animal was born. At the same time, additional width is
imperative to allow the permanent incisors to appear, wheiii

TEETH.

139

the proper season arrives for these last organs to displace their
temporary representatives.

Should the front teeth of a two -year- old mouth be examined,
there will be perceived a want of that fixedness which, one

THE INCISOR TEETH AT TWO TEARS OLD.

year before, was the characteristic of these organs. The
central nippers appear to have done their duty, or, at all

THE IITCISORS DBXOTE COMIKG THREE TEARS OLD.

events, suggest something approaching to maturity has,
during the brief existence, been attained. At two years and

140

TEETH.

six months old the central temporary Incisors are replaced by
permanent ones, which at three years old are well developed.

The age at this period ought to be absolutely ascertained,
for most horses, when three years old, undergo the greatest
exertion. At this period the animal generally has to suffer the
instruction of a rude and an ignorant — frequently of a brutal
and a savage — man, who is justly denominated “ a breaker
Then, should the “ broken ” be thought worthy of a saddle;

it is given up to the gentle mercies of a rough rider, and has
to be tortured till it is gotten well together, and has thoroughly
learnt its paces. In short, its gentle spirit has to be sub-
dued, or, fear has to master timidity. How little does man
k:now about that life he has been accustomed to coerce ! Tlie
pride of this world prefers the compulsory drudgery of a
spirit-broken slave, to the happy service of a willing friend.
The horse is sent upon earth, prepared to serve and eager to
share the happiness of its lord ; but it is not understood ; it
meets with no sympathy ; it is treated as a wild and ravenous

TEETH.

141'

beast, whose subjugation must be enforced, and whose-
obedience must be compelled.

The bit is put into its mouth when the third year has been
attained. It is driven from the field and from the cool grass y
at a period of change and of debility it is expected to display
the greatest animation, or to learn strange tilings from him
who teaches only with the lash or with the goad. When its gums,
are inflamed ; when the system is excited ; when the strength
is absorbed by an almost simultaneous appearance of twelve
teeth, it is led from the plain, and made, with its bleeding-
jaws, to masticate sharp oats and fibrous hay. At this age,,
when fever prevails in its blood, and the growth of its frame-
naturally weakens the muscles, it is expected to have leisure-
to master new teachings, — animation, to show off strange-
acquirements, — and stamina, to endure weight on its back
for, should the cutting of many teeth inflame the gums and
destroy the appetite, an iron is made red-hot, and violently
forced into the mouth, under the pretence of burning away
the groom’s favourite disease, “ the lampas,” which is purely
an imaginary disorder.

It has been described, that a three-year-old colt cuts twelve
teeth. On the next page is depicted half the lower jaw of an
animal which had seen three summers. In it, the reader will
readily recognize those organs, which are of recent appeai’ance, .
by their darker colour, by their larger size, or by their differ-
ing in shape from the other members. These new teeth are a
central incisor, and the first two grinders. The horse has two
jaws, and two sides to each jaw : therefore, the same number
being present within each side of both jaws, the teeth, already
alluded to, appear during the third year. However, even the
quantity named, rather understates, than over-rates the fact y
for, frequently, the tushes are cut during this period : should
such be the case, the colt acquires no less than sixteen teeth
in twelve months. IAo know what the young beings of our-

142

TEETH.

•own species suffer, when the gums are ruptured, and the hones
absorbed by the organs of mastication ; the danger, then
•encountered, leads to a belief, that the great agony endured is
increased by a rapid growth of the body simultaneously
weakening the system. The teeth are only a part of the
living organism; therefore, as when a part moves, we may
conclude the whole system is in motion, the advent of sixteen

JAV OF A THREE-YEAR OLD.

huge teeth, alone, might reasonably unfit the quadruped for
• commencing its education, or for undergoing the severest
portion of its labours. But how do the customs of humanity
appear, when illumined by a consideration of the sufferings
which Nature is imposing at the time the colt is tasked to its
-greatest exertions ?

Some very low classes of horse proprietors will, however,
make the work of the three-year-old colt as light as possible.
The vulgar, generally, regard the frame at this age, as not
perfectly matured ; and they treat the strength as not equal
to full labour. A nice practical comment is thus published
upon the behaviour of those gentlemen of title and of fortune,
who train, start, and make animals run races at two years

TEETH.

143

•old ! Few members of existing society, however, will accord
any indulgence to a colt during its fourth year. Yet, if the
quadruped once possessed any claim upon consideration,' the
animal, at this period, has positive title to our forbearance.
For the second effort must be more exhausting than the first ;
since the latter has to be accomplished with diminished power.
Thus the four-year-old has to perfect as many teeth as are
known to protrude into the mouth of the tliree-year-old.

The tushes in this view, however, must be disregarded.
The precise time of appearance is uncertain with these ana-
logues of the canine teeth in man, or of the tusks in the
porcine race. They may come up at the third — they often
are delayed to the fourth year, but usually appear when the
horse is four years and six months old. Sometimes these
teeth never pierce the membrane of the gums, it being very
far from uncommon to see horses’ mouths of seven years in
which the tushes are absent.

JAW OP A POUR-YEAR-OLD.

By the completion of the fourth year, the colt has, certainly,
gained twelve teeth ; that is, by this time there should exist,
on each side of both jaws, one new lateral incisor and two

144

TEETH.

fresli molars, being the third and the sixth in position. The-
appearance of the mouth now announces the approach of
maturity ; but the inferior margin of the lower bone still feels
more full and rounded than is altogether consistent with the
perfect consolidation of an osseous structure. We cannot
take cognisance of the swollen and enlarged condition of the
jawj without being assured that some important process is
going forward within its interior. It is among the firmest
physiological truths, that Nature is a strict economist, and
never does anything without intention ; — that every enlarge-
ment or every depression, — however insignificant it may
appear to human eyes, — is a permanent provision for some
appointed purpose, and has its allotted use in the animal
system. Accordingly, it is discovered, the sign we just re-

THREE-YEARS AND-SIX -MONTHS-OLD MOUTH.

marked upon indicates the process of dentition is not finished
by the termination of the fourth year. There are more teeth
to be cut, as well as the fangs of those already in the mouth to be
made perfect. This must be a laborious effort. Nature always
toils slowly in proportion to the density of her work ; when
we regard the compact structure of a horse’s tooth, we may
conjecture the quantity of blood, the amount of inflammation,
and the intensity of suffering, which are necessary for its per-
fection. The creature, at this age, is generally urged to the

TEETH.

extent of his power, and is compelled to undergo severe phy-
sical exertion.

The colt with four incisors in either jaw, all fully grown,
denotes that the fourth year has been reached.

There are still the corner milk nippers to be shed; yet
while the provision necessary for that labour is taking place

FOUR TEARS AN D SIX MONTHS OLD.

OHE UPPER CORNER PERMANENT INCISOR HAS EEEN COT; THE LOWER CORNER MILK INCISOR

IS STILL RETAINED.

within the body, or while Nature is preparing her mute
offspring for the coming struggle, man considers the poor
quadruped as fully developed and as enjoying the prime of
its existence.

10

116

TEETH.

At five years old the corner incisors are well grown, and
consequently all the teeth now permanent have been cut.

THE JAW OP A PIVE-YEAE-OLD.

MOLAR TEETH OR GRINDERS.

The molar teeth are not all of the like size, nor of one
form. The organs occupying the upper jaw are nearly, not
quite, double the width of those which are located in the lower
jaw. The inferior molars are the grinding agents, or the
active organs of mastication. The superior teeth are simply
the passive tables, upon which, or against which, the food
undergoes comminution. The slab is always the lowest of
the two in human mills ; but nature has more to provide for
than the mere pulverization of certain substances. With
mastication, actually commences a very compound process.
With the act of chewing, digestion begins ; it was ordained,
that more than any mechanical invention can accomplish,
should be imperative to the due performance of this function.
The benevolence of the “ All Wise ” instituted, that while his
creatures were promoting the healthy exercise of the appro-
priative necessity, they should likewise excite their enjoyment.
Therefore, when pulp is masticated, the pressure of the teeth

TEETH.

147

•expels the juices, which fall directly on the seat of taste.
When a harder substance has to be comminuted, the bulk is
first shattered into fragments ; the particles descending upon
either side of the teeth have to be gathered up and placed
again between the masticatory organs. The movements of
the tongue and jaw excite the salivary glands; the broken
substance becomes mingled with the secretion of the last-
named bodies. Saliva extracts the savour from the food; and
the tongue also brings these in contact with the seat of taste,
whilst discharging its. office of collecting the broken pieces.

The reader being now fully informed as to facts, may have
patience sufficient to peruse an explanation of the principles
•on which the foregoing statements are founded. Such a
mode of proceeding may, to certain methodical writers, seem
to be transposing the proper arrangement. The author does
not undertake to defend his actions on the score of their pro-
priety ; but he feels that he is addressing human beings, in
whom a desire to know is the best possible foundation on
which knowledge can be established, consequently, principles
become less repulsive when communicated after incidents
have kindled curiosity.

The primary molars cannot boast the length of fang, though

THE CONDITION IN WHICH THE TABLE OF A TEMPORARY MOLAR IS CAST FROM THE MOUTH

OF A HORSE.

The dotted lines merely indicate the extent of tlio tooth previous to absorption.

they exhibit very nearly the same extent of superficial surface,
as characterizes the succeeding teeth. They have rather

10 *

148

TEETH.

shallow roots, which are not composed of those consolidated
materials that are present in their immediate successors. When
the original molar is shed, the temporary tooth is not expelled
entire from its position ; but the pressure of the growing organ
(which comes into the mouth exactly where the milk grinder
stood) causes the root to be absorbed till nothing but a super-
ficial shell has to be ejected.

The horse, in its natural state, exists on fibrous grasses ; it
therefore becomes essential the animal should retain the'
power of masticating such substances. Nature never with-
holds what is necessary to the well-being of her creatures.
The mode in which the Common Parent provides for the
preservation of this ability in the horse, is perfectly distinct
from any provision that He makes for most earthly creatures-

A FIRST PERMANENT MOLAR, AS IT APPEARED IN THE MOUTH, UNCOVERED.

This tooth occupied the fourth situation in the jaw; therefore, the root would require to
be considerably extended by subsequent growth.

The temporary remains of a molar tooth are not shed till an-
other organ is in the mouth at hand to permanently supply its
place. But the permanent tooth does not appear ready flat-
tened and prepared to discharge its office. It is cut with
certain angular prominences upon its masticating surface,
which must render the animal disinclined to employ it on the
instant of its development. This disinclination allows a

TEETH.

149

pause during which, the various structures can be con-
solidated, and, at the end of such brief space, the promi-
nences have become blunted, while the organ, being firmly
planted, is then ready for mastication. Is it not surprising
ihow a plain statement of facts can reasonably account for
that disinclination to feed, which, to the groom’s mind,
announces a state of disease, that shall necessitate the em-
ployment of burning iron to eradicate what the man styles
xc Lampas.”

There remains, however, to account for that width and
•depth of jaw, by which the head of the youthful horse is
distinguished. The reader is requested to attentively inspect
the last illustration. The size and length of fang cannot fail
to awaken his surprise. Nevertheless, if this part be
regarded, it will be seen depicted as of a ragged, incomplete,
and apparently of a hollow condition. So, when the tooth
has displaced the temporary molar, and has taken its station
within the mouth, it has still to grow. The protruded portion
may be consolidated ; but the unfinished extremity is denomi-
nated the cavity of the pulp. That pulp consists of a fine
bladder, on which ramify numerous blood-vessels; but the
interior of which contains simply a clear fluid. This is the
secreting membrane of the tooth. Out of this watery bag,
the wonderful chemistiy of nature can extract the most con-
densed material that resides within the strong body of a horse.

Another feature of the above tooth, because it balks expec-
tation, can hardly fail to attract notice. The dark hue of the
•outward covering, being abhorrent to human notions of youth
or of purity, is generally attributed to dirt. The tooth of the
horse is, however, composed of three substances. A tough
and fibrous material, called crusta petrosa ; a thin layer of
•crystalline deposit, named enamel; and a kind of compact
bone, spoken of as dentine. They occur according to the
order in which they are named. The bone exhibits a yellow

I5C

TEETH.

tinge, and is present in the greatest quantity, for it forms the
inner bulk of the tooth. The crusta petrosa is a comparatively
thick external envelope, being about five times the thickness
of the enamel, to which it is an outward protection. The
components are thrown into various convolutions ; but the

SECTION OF A MOLAR TOOTH.

order alluded to is always preserved. The bone or dentine is-,
invariably the internal substance ; it needs to occupy such a
position, as within it the sensation resides. The crusta pe-
trosa and the enamel may be tampered with without percep-
tion being aroused; but the dentine is capable of communi-
cating the acutest agony ; and it is upon the dentine that
rogues operate, when they “ bishop ” an old horse.

To convince the reader that Nature has not needlessly sacri-
ficed the whiteness of the horse’s tooth, the author will dilate
fully upon the many services afforded by the dark-coloured
crusta petrosa. To render the explanation more intelligible,
reference will be here made to a common tool seen every day
in the hands of an ordinary mechanic. The bricklayer’s
trowel appears to be nothing more than a thick layer of metal
but it is hourly put to uses for which iron would be too soft,,

TEETH.

151

and steel would be too brittle. Therefore, tbe blade is com-
posed of a thin layer of steely inclosed within two compara-
tively thick layers of iron. By the combination of opposite
qualities, pei'fect utility is produced ; and this trowel, it seems
hard to believe, was not suggested by that arrangement which
is conspicuous in the horse’s tooth.

The enamel, hard, brittle, and readily fractured, but pre-
senting a fine or a cutting edge, is developed as a thin layer,
convoluted upon the sides of the dentine, and securely covered
by crusta petrosa. That the incisive substance may fulfil its
office, may sever or comminute the tough and fibrous herbs,
upon which the equine race subsist, it is inclosed between two
elastic bodies, the whole being held together by the vessels,
which pass from the exterior to the interior of the organ,
though these vessels do no more than travel through the
enamel, without nourishing or supporting it ; the latter struc-
ture being of a crystalline nature, or strictly inorganic, there-
fore not fitted to appropriate nutriment.

The crusta petrosa is, however, of further use than has been
already stated. The horse’s grinders are generally supposed
to be gifted with a power of growth, whereby they are enabled
to repair that perpetual loss of substance to which their em-
ployment must subject them. The teeth, certainly, are not
perfected when the crowns first appear in the mouth ; so far
the opinion is capable of being upheld. But, when once com-
pleted, the dentine is not endowed with any innate ability to
renew its loss of substance. The wear consequent upon con-
tinual use, is provided for by the length of fang, which
characterizes the permanent molar of the quadruped. As the
surface gradually decreases, so are the lower parts of the
teeth, by the contraction of the jaw-bones, forced into the
mouth, while the outward investing substance — the crusta
petrosa — being gifted with a limited power of increase, is
enabled thereby to firmly retain the protruded fang in its new

152

TEETH.

position ; although the contraction of the bones, which is
always going forward as age advances, does not necessitate
the power of growth should in early life be largely exhibited.

With almost every form of being, as years accumulate, the
ability to masticate becomes enfeebled. It is with the horse
as it is with other animals. The thin coating of enamel does
not extend to the ultimate root of the fang; so that, in
advanced age, the power of the molars is almost destroyed by
the absence of the cutting agent upon the grinding surface.
The chief component, moreover, or the dentine, diminishes in
quantity as in solidity ; the last portions of the molar, there-
fore, could not fill the socket, only for that ability to increase,
with which the crusta petrosa is gifted. Upon the extreme
roots of the grinders, taken from the jaws of very old horses,
this substance is always found in great abundance. In illus-
tration of this fact, a sketch made from the tooth of an aged
quadruped, is inserted below ; the body has been sawn

SECTION OF AN AGED MOLAB TOOTH.

asunder, to exhibit the proportions and the substances that
entered into its composition. The reader will remark certain
dark lines upon the dentine. These indicate the places where
existed the cavity of the pulp, which once served to nourish
the organ ; but it is lost as vitality lessens with the advance
of senility. Does not the reader, as he inspects the engraving,
perceive the wickedness and the folly of placing harsh and
dried food before a creature which nature, in age, deprives of
ability to comminute such a form of sustenance ?

TEETH.

153

The permanent incisors are not cut after the same manner
■as the molars. The nippers being merely employed to bite
the grass, a wide vacancy does not necessarily incapacitate the
other portions of the excising apparatus. A blade can cut,
even though a large notch exist upon its edge. Whereas the
points which are developed upon the upper surfaces of the
newly-cut molars, must render the grinders entirely useless ;
although the short period of enforced abstinence, which
announces the appearance of a fresh double tooth, may be
Nature’s own medicine to quiet a feverish system, burning
with morbid excitement.

The front milk teeth have fangs when they appear in the
mouth; but no fang exists when the primary members are
shed. The root of the temporary organ, when perfect, how-
ever, resembles that of the permanent incisor. It is only

sufficient to fit the member for its purposes. In the same
canal as was occupied by the milk tooth, the permanent in-
cisor generally appears. Much suffering must attend the
absorption of bone ; yet during the time the huge permanent
nipper is forcing its way through the narrow channel, which
held firmly the diminutive milk tooth • and while the smaller
fang is by pressure being also absorbed, the colt receives no

A MILK AND A PERMANENT INCISOR TOOTH.

154

TEETH.

consideration at the hands of the groom, or of its master..
Both are equally ignorant of the necessity for kindness ; hut
each regards any indication of pain as one of those visitations
of disease, to which young horses are said to be peculiarly
liable.

When the foal has shed the front milk teeth, the entire of'
the serviceable or visible portion of these members is displaced.
They are endowed with no power to supply any diminution of
their substance, neither are they capable of renewal ; whereas
the long permanent incisor may be viewed as all tooth, and
possessing no fang; for, as the upper portion wears, so does-
the lower part protrude or supply its place. The two teeth, .
however, present a strong contrast, when considered as organs,
both occupying one cavity, and both united to fulfil the like •
uses, in the same animal. The illustration, last displayed,,
represented a permanent and a temporary incisor ; the uneven
mark, dividing the milk tooth, indicates the appearance of the-
organ after the absorption of the fang causes it to be cast from
the mouth, while the dotted line shows the shape and the
extent of the fang previous to its absorption by pressure.

The amount of root natural to the permanent incisors, ena-
bles those organs, as years increase, to alter their arrangement,
length, and direction, without being displaced. In youth, the-
united front teeth compose a curve, or almost a semicircle.
In age, the same members incline toward a straight, or at
best, form an irregular line. In the colt, the teeth are flat,
smooth, and filbert-shaped; but in the old animal, they are-
decidedly long and angular. When the permanent teeth first
appear, they are nearly perpendicular; but when they have-
been a long time exposed, they protrude almost in the hori-
zontal direction. Looking from the side at a young mouth,
the spectator can behold half the nippers ; but when inspect-
ing the old teeth from the same point of view, two only will
be visible, though the full number shall be present in the

TEETH.

155-

mouth. In the aged quadruped, moreover, the narrowing of
the incisors allows the spaces between the organs to be vacant.
Within these spaces the food accumulates, which, being there-
retained and becoming black, looks as though the creature had
been chewing tobacco. Such signs are too fixed to be dis-
guised. The accumulation of blackened food, it is true, may

SIX YEAES OLD.

8EVEN YEAES OLD.

be taken away ; but its removal will leave the interspaces, if
possible, still more conspicuous. So, also, the long teeth may
be shortened ; but they will not be elevated to the perpen-

156

TEETH.

dicular, or changed to a filbert form, or restored to the semi-
circular arrangement.

The tushes likewise may be regarded. These teeth are some-
times absent in mares, and, in animals of the female sex, are

THE INCISOBS OE HOEBES OF DIFFERENT PERIODS OF AGE AFTER THE FIFTH TEAR.

seldom developed of the size which they commonly exhibit in
the male. When first cut, the tush is spear-shaped, having
well-defined grooves running down its margins. As age
■advances, all pretension to this form is lost. The tooth either

TEETH,

157"

becomes very flat upon its crown or it may be rendered level
with the gum; else it grows very long, looking more like a
coarse spike, than the organ it really is. Also, when it origi-
nally appears in the young mouth, the tush ranges evenly with
the parts from which it grows, and points forward. As senil-
ity is attained, the member is directed outward ; with extreme
old age, it faces backward. The contraction of the jaw causes
the tongue to protrude from the free spaces between the teeth,
while the consequent shallowness of the canal formed by the

THIRTY YEARS OLD.

THE INCISORS OP HORSES OP DIFFERENT PERIODS OF AGE AFTER THE FIFTH YEAR,

branches of the bone occasions the saliva to dribble forth
when the lips are parted.

158

TEETH.

The indications of extreme age are always present, and
though during a period of senility, the teeth cannot be literally
construed, nevertheless, it should be impossible to look upon
the " venerable steed ” as an animal in its colthood.

No man can, accurately, interpret the signs of the teeth
after the fifth year. A guess, more or less correct, can be
hazarded ; but nothing like confident judgment can be pro-
nounced, subsequent to the period just named. Cases will
frequently occur which shall set our best endeavours to be
•correct at defiance. But for such instances it is not difficult,
to account.

The difference between the times of birth in various animals,
it is true, may cause different aspects in the teeth, and even
induce men, in obedience to the rules of the Jockey Club, to
call a colt four, which truth and the teeth declare to be only
three. Horses may therefore be readily reckoned as older than
they really are; but there is a general belief, that rogues in
Yorkshire can make the teeth say five, when the actual age is
only four ; or in other words, can so successfully tamper with
the mouth, as to induce the teeth to belie the actual age.
Ignorant people have a blind faith in the power of those who
•chance to be more knowing than themselves ; but the reviser
can only regard the general belief in “ Yorkshire fives,” as
illustrating the total unacquaintance of the public with all that
concerns equine economy.

So particular people appear to credit Yorkshire horse-dealers
with an ability to perform f such tricks.” No doubt they have
every wish ; but the reviser questions whether they have yet
attained the power to compel Nature at their bidding. All
they are said to do, as pulling out the milk teeth, firing and
Blistering the gums, are like the arts which were formerly used
to raise the evil one ; and, in the writer’s opinion, about as
likely to be attended with success. Cruelty is more calculated
to retard than to promote development. However, if the

TEETH.

159

mouth exhibit the signs proper to a five-year-old, the animal
may with safety be purchased, as being of that age. Should
it be younger than five, the owner is the gainer; since the
teeth do no more than indicate the development of the body,
and an early maturity is the best evidence that the quadruped,
during the previous years, has been tenderly nurtured.

As age advances the teeth naturally wear down, but the
mode, and kind of food upon which the horse is fed, operate
largely in permitting or controlling inordinate growth. The
stable diet throws the incisors out of use. These teeth, in the
domesticated animal, are employed only to grasp a little hay
and to pull it from the rack. They are of no further service.
One of their popular names, “ nippers/-’ is in general a mis-
nomer, for they are permitted to nip nothing ; much less are
they allowed to exercise their incisive faculty. Therefore,
being thrown out of use, the members have no function to
control their natural growth. They continue to protrude as
age advances, till, by the thirtieth year, or by the time the
quadruped has attained half the period of its natural existence,
the front teeth have become long spikes, and are actual deform-
ities within the mouth they were designed to adorn.

160

FOOD.

CHAPTER Y.

FOOD : THE FITTEST TIME FOR FEEDING, AND THE KTND OF FOOD WHICH-
THE HORSE NATURALLY CONSUMES.

T I ^HE food grows abundantly on tbe surface of the earth;-
every fresh mouthful necessitates an additional step ; for
the animal, when free, walks as it eats, and lowers the head to
collect its sustenance from the ground. Mankind imprisons-
the poor life ; the hay is placed level with the ears, and the-
corn is given even with the chest of the animal. Hay, the
very groom, when he permits water to be imbibed, raises the
pail, resting its edge upon his knee. Nature enabled the horse-
to feed by night, — when the air is cool; when all is quiet;
when the grass is moist, and when the hies are not abroad ;.
then, the emblem of concord pastures in peacefulness.

Ho doubt the natural food consists of the plants and grass:
which grow on the earth's surface. The horse does not graze-
without selection. Certain herbs are scrupulously avoided ;.
others are eagerly sought for. The animal does noteat straight
before it; but the head moves to either side, each mouthful
being carefully collected with the lips, before the juicy tops of
the plants are operated upon by the teeth. The horse feeds
only off the growing ends of the grasses. The varying herbage-
may be supposed to present numerous savours to the keen
scent of the pasturer, and a fresh flavour may be relished with
each new mouthful. Nature lias evidently scattered variety,
where the dull sense of man can perceive only sameness ; and,,

FOOD.

161

to the temperate palate of a liorse, the verdure of the fields
may afford a delicious and au ever- varying banquet.

The instinct, which enables the animal to make a selection
among numberless growing plants, fades and is lost when
moisture has departed with the colour, and the perfume natural
to the herbage has been changed by art. The animal percep-
tions may be puzzled, for art can defeat instinct. Some
quadrupeds, as if much perplexed, will pick the hay, eating
little ; but spoiling more than is consumed. Others appear to
distaste the preparation, and these refuse it altogether. Few
inhabitants of the stable will accept all that may be placed
before them ; though the rejection may depend more upon the
fastidiousness, begotten by captivity, than be generated by
positive dislike. Few animals exhibit either choice or discre-
tion in the selection of certain portions of prepared fodder.
The rejection of particular parts seems to be guided only by
fancy or caprice. That which in the green state would be
abhorred, when “ cut and dried 33 may by preference be de-
voured.

But although such is the case, during the cold months of the
year it would be impossible for us to feed our horses suffi-
ciently unless we dried our grass in summer, in order to store
it up, as hay, for winter consumption.

Few people can tell a good from a bad sample of hay.
Vast quantities of that, which no proprietor should oblige his
imprisoned slaves to consume, are daily sold ; some persons
even prefer particular kinds of produce ; whilst others, urged
by parsimony, will purchase only damaged hay. There should
be, however, in this substance, little room for the exercise of
choice or of discretion. The characteristics of good hay are
very marked, and such only should be purchased by the careful
horse-owner.

It is the intention of the author to offer some remarks upon
this simple, but excessively important topic. The comments

11

162

FOOD.

will be accompanied with tinted wood engravings, which will
help the judgment, though these cannot inform the reader on
every particular. Therefore, he must kindly assist the writer,
as few things are more difficult to describe than taste or smell ;
since these senses are always under the control of individual
predilection.

THE CHAEACTETt AND THE COLOUR OP UPLAND HAT.

Upland Hay should look clean. Every fibre should appear
distinct. The colour should be bright and should convey an
idea of newness. No dust ought to be present ; neither should
the sample, however much it may have been disturbed, lose
its prominent features. The constituents will all point pretty
much in one direction. Of course this order is not so abso-
lute as to appear like arrangement ; but the confusion, which
generally marks the fibres of the after-meath, is never present
in a fair sample of well-carried “ Upland hay.” The scent
is commonly very pleasant — not so strong as — but in other
respects little different from the perfume of new-mown hay :
to most people its odour is highly agreeable. Weeds should
not be abundant ; but the presence of foreign growths is
clearly indicated by their darker hue, by the browner tint, and
the fuller form. The stems should not have shed the seeds,
though grasses vary so much in the period of their ripening,
that it is vain to expect some will not have broken this rule.
When a portion is placed within the mouth and is masticated,
it rather communicates a mild and pleasant flavour, than yields
a strong or pungent taste. In short, cleanness and delicacy

FOOD.

163

are the prominent characteristics of “ Upland hay ; which
some growers imagine is scarcely injured by long keeping.
New hay is certainly objectionable. But the year’s growth is
wholesome feed by November ; and, in the author’s judgment,
it is best when it first comes into use.

THE CHARACTER AND THE COLOUR OP LOWLAND HAT.

Lowland Hay. This kind of preserved grass lacks the
bright colour, being more tawny than the preceding ; indeed,
the absence of the green tint is conspicuous, and can hardly
fail to be remarked. The arrangement of the fibres is not
so well preserved, neither is the crispness or the newness of
aspect, for which “ Upland hay ” is notable, to be remarked
in the " Lowland truss.” The flowering heads to the stems
are all but absent. When felt, it communicates a sense of
softness. If rattled, no brisk sound is elicited. It has a
stronger and a more pungent perfume. The odour is very
far from being so delicate ; neither is the taste characterized
by any pleasantness of flavour. When placed between the
teeth, mastication communicates a sense of softness and
toughness : the taste is coarse, almost disagreeable : at first
it is vapid, though after a short space, a certain amount of
pungency is developed. The woolly texture ; the want of
boldness in the component parts; their comparative smallness;
with the washed-out aspect of the whole, and the confusion
of the mass, should prevent a novice, even, from accepting
“ Lowland ” for “ Upland hay.”

11*

164

FOOD.

Roiven, or After -meath, presents a greater confusion than
even “ Lowland hay.” The softness is more conspicuous y
flowering heads are only occasionally met with; the stems
are few in number, are small in point of size, and form no-
prominent feature of the whole. This species of fodder lacks-
perfume altogether ; but, as regards colour, it may have a
slight greenish tint clinging faintly to it. Still, by its want
of the brisk or the healthy aspect, and by its darker hue, it
is at once recognised for the thing it is, — an unseasonable
produce, reaped late in the year, and got up long after the

A VERY FAIR SAMPLE OF BOWEN OR OF AFTER-MEATH.

freshness of spring had departed. To the mouth it imparts-
a strong and slightly bitter taste. The odour is not objec-
tionable, although it does not approach to a perfume. Horses,
which have been accustomed to the better sort, refuse Rowen,.
or only accept it after actual hunger has been experienced.

Clover Hay is universally mixed with grass and weeds. A
good sample of this produce, a novice might easily reject as
being too foul a specimen for his approval, and the hay of
the second crop (which is not generally remarkable in that
particular) be selected in preference. The stems also appear
to bear a large proportion to the whole, when compared with
the flowers and the leaves. The fact of the stalks being
rarely viewed in the clover-field may render this feature the
more conspicuous. But the stems are hollow, and conse-
quently lose little bulk when dried. The flowers and leaves,.

FOOD.

165

■on the contrary, are juicy ; and no insignificant portion of
their substance is, apparently, lost during evaporation. In
the first cut of clover, however, the stems, though numerous,

are comparatively fine, and the leaves, though dark, have no

i' y < 1

A SPECIMEN- OF THE FIEST CROP OF CLOVER HAT.

tinge of blackness. The flowers are abundant, and faded, of
course ; but they still retain indications of their original
colour. Though compressed, they nevertheless suggest what
has once been their figure. In taste, a marked resemblance
is recognised between the slight flavour of the hay and the
strong aroma of the growing plant.

The Second Crop of Clover is distinguished by the grasses
and weeds of the first cut being all but absent. The stems
are larger, firmer, and bear a greater proportion to the
whole. The flowers are not so numerous, and are more dingy
in appearance, as well as apparently less carefully preserved.

THE SECOND CHOP, OE AFTEB-MEATH OF CLOVEB.

Mastication, also, enables to be recognised a coarser and a
stronger flavour than characterises good hay of the spring’s
harvest. The leaves approach near to a black tint. When a

1G6

FOOD.

truss of the first and one of the second crop of clover are
placed together, the last appears remarkable for depth of
colour.

Heated, or Mow-burnt, Hay is that which has been subjected
to such uncontrolled fermentation as shall scorch the sub-
stance, and, if not checked, would ultimately fire the stack.
A certain amount of fermentation is needful for the develop-
ment of sound hay ; but should the necessary action be suffered
to proceed too far, “ heated, or mow-burnt, hay ” is the result.
Most horses will eat this kind of fodder with appetite when it
is first presented ; but after the novelty of the diet has sub-
sided, there are few animals which do not apparently loathe

A VEEY EXCELLENT SAMPLE OF HEATED HAY.

such produce. The illustration by no means represents the
worst specimen which the author has encountered, but it is
of that medium character which best conveys a just idea of a
general subject. From this sample, however, certain leaves
could be chosen that are perfectly black, and which, when
attempted to be rolled between the fingers, would crumble
into powder. Such a peculiarity, together with the darkened
hue, affords the easiest means of recognising this provender,
which, although some silly people, by preference, employ in.
their stables, is very far from being a wholesome food for
horses. Burnt vegetable matter produces potash ; therefore
there can be no cause to reject, as a groundless prejudice, the
assertion that much “ mow-burnt hay ” will occasion diabetes.

FOOD.

167

It lias a powerful odour, resembling the mixed smell which
pervades a public hay-market ; but the taste has little to
distinguish it, being somewhat vapid.

Weather-beaten Hay is equally devoid of smell or of taste.
It has a ragged, a confused, and a broken aspect. The hue
is deepened, but the colour greatly depends upon the period
of its exposure ; the soil on which it has lain ; the amount of
wet to which it has been subjected; and the condition in
which it has been “ got up.” So delicate a produce as care-
fully prepared hay, of course, cannot be long exposed to the

WEATHER-BEAT-EX HAY.

effects of wind and rain without its more choice qualities
being deteriorated, while to the extent of its deterioration, of
course, the farmer can oppose no check. Therefore, a fair
general specimen, exhibiting the common characteristics of
the majority of samples, is submitted to the reader; but it
cannot be expected that a single illustration should embody
the multiform aspects which are generated by diverse and
powerful influences acting upon a perishable substance.

Musty Hay is readily recognized by its strong and peculiar
smell, resembling the refuse which has been employed to stuff
articles of cheap furniture. This it likewise calls to mind by
its rumpled and confused appearance. It should never be
offered to any animal as a substitute, even, for better food.

“ Upland Hay,” as will be seen by the foregoing remarks,
is a fair general fodder for the horse. To it, however, a por-

168

FOOD.

tion of clover liay should be added ; but this last is best given
in the form of chaff. Ready-cut chaff should never be pur-
chased, because most persons have extraordinary notions as to
the ingredients suited for such a form of provender. Hay,
which the animal refuses to touch when placed in the rack, is
often salted and cut into chaff. Thus seasoned, and, in such
a shape, being mixed with corn, it may be eaten. The horse
is imposed upon by the salt and the oats which were mingled
with the trash ; but the sane proprietor has only to calmly
inquire of himself — whether that savour which disguises the
taste can also change an unwholesome substance into a whole-
some nutriment ?

It is likewise a prevailing custom to cut straws of different
kinds and to throw the rubbish into the chaff-bin. Such a
practice is spoken of as among the improvements of modern
horse-feeding. The quadruped may consume this speeies of
refuse, but it is, in the author's judgment, not a matter for
doubt whether such articles merely distend the stomach or
whether they can nourish the body. People who advocate
cheapness may be favourable to the use of straw ; but these
persons should not deceive themselves, far less ought they to
impose upon others, by asserting so exhausted a material can
possibly prove a supporting constituent of diet.

Within the stem of the ripened wheat plant no sap circu-
lates. All the strength of the growth has gone to the seed.
Were not the sapless stalk cut and preserved by man, it would
shortly topple over, and, by decay, be mingled with the soil.
It is well understood that grass, after it has shed its seed, is
unsuited for making a nutritious hay. Grain-yielding plants
are only cultivated grasses; and the art which has enlarged
the seed and lengthened the stem cannot pretend also to have
mastered the laws of Nature by having endowed a refuse
material with nutritious properties. Persons who desire to
have straw mingled with the manger food of the horse, should

FOOD.

169

-take some pains to procure articles rightfully prepared. The
plants should be mown while green ; be properly treated,
stacked and husbanded with more than the care usually be-
stowed on ordinary stems. The same rule should be observed
with regard to bean-stalks, or whatever else is to be severed
into lengths, and is to be esteemed a fitting food for the horse.

Thus prepared, the wheat stem might prove worthy the
repute which is, at present, bestowed upon its exhausted
representative. When harvested after this plan, the stalk
would retain all that virtue which, at a later season, is ex-
pended upon the seed. It would nourish as well as distend.
Indeed, the popular custom of giving horses that for food
which adds to the bulk of provender, but does not support the
system, cannot be too strongly reprobated ; yet such a practice
is followed in the great majority of existing stables. The
.animals, to satisfy the cravings of appetite, are compelled to
devour more th~u their diminutive stomachs should contain.
Over-gorging is likewise promoted by the habit of subjecting
all kinds of horses to prolonged and unnatural periods of
abstinence. The consequences of such customs are exemplified
in the attenuated stomachs of most old subjects. Often this
viscus, upon the muscular and secretive actions of which the
health and the strength are dependent, when taken from the
body of an animal which has long been subjected to the abuses
practised in the modern stables, is of so stretched a nature, as
to be semi-transparent, and sometimes as thin as brown paper.

When a horse returns home, after a long fast, it is most
unwise to place the famished life before a heaped manger.
First attend to its immediate requirements. These satisfied,
and the harness removed, a pail of gruel should be offered to
the animal. The writer knows it is said by many grooms that
their horses will not drink gruel, and few will the mess that
is usually presented to them, which consists of a little oatmeal
mixed with hot water ; and this, under the name of gruel, is

170

FOOD.

offered to the palate of a horse which long abstinence has
rendered fastidious.

Some horses, however, purge, when brought home after a
long fast. Such animals are generally of a loose and weakly
constitution. For creatures of this description the bran would
prove injurious, and an additional pint of meal had better be
boiled in a quart of water, which, when mixed with the solid
from which the gruel has been strained, will constitute a moist
and highly nutritious diet for a delicate horse. The author
has, for experiment, tried this form of food upon several
quadrupeds, which he was assured abhorred everything like
mash or gruel ; but only in one instance was the preparation
not eagerly consumed. In the exceptional case it was not •
entirely rejected, being partly eaten ; but the writer suspects
the apparently dainty quadruped had been previously supplied
with a more than usual quantity of oats, as the behaviour
rather testified to want of appetite, than denoted any positive ■
dislike of the nourishment which was before the animal.

Besides hay, corn is commonly used in this country as a food
for horses. The corn of the English stable is almost confined
to oats. In foreign lands vai’ious substances are employed.
General, however, as the adoption of oats may be in this
kingdom, few, very few, persons, beyond the limits of the corn-
market, have any distinct notion concerning this kind of grain.
With the vast majority an oat is an oat, and all oats are of one
kind. In exceptional cases, gentlemen are partial to oats of
some particular hue. Certain persons will purchase only a
black oat ; another class prefer a full golden tint, to distinguish
the kind they favour; while a few admire a whiteness of husk.
Such differences, however, do not affect the grain; the colours-
are limited to the chaff, — the kernels of all are of one tint.

The kernel, or the mealy substance of oats, differs in each
variety of corn. One sample shall be thick in the husk, and
possessed of a superabundance of beard ; but the body of such.

FOOD.

171

corn will be narrow, also of contrasting sizes and of various
colours.

The inferior specimens are commonly mixed with other seeds,
with pieces of stick and portions of straw, as well as sometimes
adulterated by the presence of other grain. These oats may

OATS. KERNELS.

KONISBERG OATS.

OATS. KERNELS.

PETERSBURG OATS.

impart a saltish flavour to the taste ; likewise they may have a
faint, smoky, or fusty odour. Such corn seldom weighs more
than twenty-two pounds to the bushel.

Another sample, of a different country, will rattle briskly as
it is poured from the bulk into the palm. Such has a clean
aspect and almost a metallic lustre. It is full or plump, being-
positively beardless, and exhibits no more husk than is needed
to surround the kernel of such grain. When attentively
scrutinized, perhaps, no specimen of oats will be found to be-
all of one size; but no very striking inequalities will catch
the attention, when the better sort are viewed. These are
entirely tasteless ; and do not even suggest the possibility of a
scent appertaining to them. Corn of this quality is too
valuable not to be carefully harvested ; consequently, the
hardest pressure of the thumb nail leaves no indentation ; while
the kernel rather chips than tears asunder, when compressed
between the teeth.

172

FOOD.

The absence of beard, however, is not an invariable sign of
excellence : if the weight per bushel be heavy, this feature
.should not be too strongly insisted upon. Some good corn is
distinguished by a greater length of husk than is requisite
'simply to surround the kernel ; but such atones for this pecu-
liarity by the bulk of the grain. It is true, that a sample of
this kind seldom attains to the highest weight, and the pur-
•chaser loses somewhat by an excess of chaff.

OATS. KERNELS. OATS. KERNELS.

BEST SCOTCH OATS. ENGLISH OATS, FROM CANADIAN SEED.

Yet, in England, which country on the continent is esteemed
to be a land of horses, very few stables are supplied with other

OATS. KERNELS.

OATS. KERNELS.

NEW IRISH FEED OATS.

FIRST-CLASS SWEDES.

-grain than that of an inferior description. The better kind
is bought by the miller and the trainer of racers or hunters.

FOOD.

The inferiority of most corn, however, seems not to disturb*
domestic tranquillity. The majority of proprietors open am
account with some neighbouring chandler, and the groom is
empowered to fetch the provender, which the horses are sup-
posed to consume. Dealers in grain do not enjoy unsullied-
reputations. It is a custom with grooms to exact ten or five
per cent, on all the master’s bills which refer to the stable-
The gentleman, therefore, always purchases his fodder very~
dearly, where such an arrangement exists.

Oats should never be bought by measurement, but should
invariably be purchased by weight. A prime sample will weigh
forty-eight pounds to the bushel ; whereas the author has heard,
of, although he does not pretend to have seen, oats so very-
light, that the same bulk was only equivalent to sixteen*
pounds. However, a grain, which is professed merely to reach*
twenty-two pounds, is to be met with in every market.

The difference of weight should be more than accompanied
by an equivalent diminution of price; because a prime oat o£*
forty-eight pounds will yield thirty-six-pounds of pure grain,.

HEAVY AND LIGHT OATS AS EACH LIES IN THE MEASURE.

after the chaff has been removed. A fair oat gives half its-,
weight of kernel ; but an excellent sample will afford three-
quarters of its entire weight in prime nutritious substance ;
whereas a poor specimen will produce no more than eight
pounds of clean corn to the bushel measure !

Consequently, supposing a choice sample to sell for thirty-
six shillings, the inferior article can be worth only eight slid-

174

FOOD.

lings the quarter ; for no man can esteem the husk as a food
•suitable for any living creature, nor would any person purchase
such utter refuse, even at the fraction of a penny per pound.
Cheapness in such particulars is, therefore, very far from the
truest economy.

The animal is doubly defrauded where poor corn is served
out by measure. The grain, in the first place, contains less
nourishment : in the next place, the solid bulk is not the same;
because the husks not only occupy more space, for, by acting
as props to one another, frequently clear cavities are formed.
Therefore, were the light and the heavy corns required to fill
a given measure, to be counted, probably no vast difference
would be discovered in their number. The reader must, how-
ever, himself determine how far it is possible for a horse to be
cheated, without the master suffering from the fraud in its
effect.

Further injury is inflicted by permitting the quadruped to
consume only an inferior corn. Whoever will carefully
examine the drawings given of oats in the present division of
the book, can hardly fail to remark, that the denuded kernels
appear of a size disproportioned to that represented as the
dimensions of the perfect grain. The microscope makes plain
the source of this apparent disparity. The epidermis, or the
covering of the kernel, is coated with numerous fine hairs,
which are too small to be perceptible to the unaided vision.
These hairs are closely compressed, when surrounded by the
natural envelope ; but when released from the husk the hairs
expand, and thus occasion the naked eye to behold some-
thing far too large for the case from which it has recently
been released.

In the inferior sorts, the hairs are rather longer, and like-
wise more numerous, than in the better kind of corn ; while,
of course, the covering, according to the smallness of the
grain, becomes serious, when regarded as a proportionate

FOOD.

175

-weight of the whole. These diminutive hairs are perfectly
indigestible and entirely indestructible, when taken into the
stomach. The peristaltic action releases them from the surface
of the kernel : being set free, they are frequently felted together
by the moisture and rolling motion of the stomach. How-
ever small the hairs may be separately, nevertheless, by their

A MAGNIFIED ENGLISH OAT.

union .they form masses of immense size; provoking such
serious impactment as often leads to a terrible and a fatal
issue. A further reason, therefore, exists for employing good

ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE OAT HAIR CALCULUS. COPIED PROM THE INTERESTING WORK
ON CONCRETIONS, HT PROFESSOR MORTON.

1. A section of an Oat Hair Calculus. 2. Magnified Hairs, mixed with crystals of the phos-
phates. 3. Hairs, further magnified. 4. Hairs, so enlarged, as to display their bulbous
insertions and curved forms.

grain in the possibility of such accumulations, the true nature
of which was first pointed out by Professor Morton, and, by

176

FOOD.

that learned gentleman, these concretions were appropriately
designated “ Oat Hair Calculi.”

It has long been known that digestion is promoted by-
crushing the corn before placing it in the manger. This-
custom, as a part of the proper process, cannot be too highly
commended. But careless horse-owners sometimes purchase-'
the stable provender in a crushed state, or send to have this
process performed elsewhere than on their own premises. Such
habits are strongly objected to : the horse is surrounded by
so much dishonesty, that a prudent man is not justified in
trusting the animal’s food to the possibility of exchange or of
adulteration.

To convey to the reader a definite notion of the very dif-
ferent characters impressed upon various samples of oats, the
following illustrations of a few of those which were kindly-
supplied by a wholesale firm, transacting business at the CorrL
Exchange, are presented on the following page.

A sound oat should be dry and hard : it should almost chip
asunder, and not be torn or broken into pieces by com-
pression. In the autumn months great care is needed to-
procure sound corn ; the non-professional purchaser is, per-
haps, best protected when he deals for such an article with
responsible tradespeople, who, in their business, have a charac-
ter to sacrifice.

It is a custom to expel the moisture from new grain by
drying it in a kiln. It is thereby, in some degree, improved j
but it cannot be said to be rendered as wholesome as sound
com hardened by the natural process. Moreover, oats, badly
harvested or damaged by wet, are frequently placed in the kiln,
where they are exposed to the sulphur, in order to change or
amend their colour. The husks, however, at the conclusion of
the process, are seldom all of one tint. If closely examined,
indications of the original defect may be discovered on some
grains, while others will be of an unnatural whiteness. Kiln- ,

FOOD

177

dried oats sometimes betray a snrivelled aspect on that part
which is near to the beard ; such puckering being occasioned

OATS.

KEBNELS.

OATS. KEBNELS.

IRISH OATS. BLEACHED.
OATS. KERNELS.

SCOTCH OATS, SECOND QUALITY.
OATS. KEBNELS.

KILN-DBIED DANISH OATS.

FINLAND BLACK OATS.

OATS.

KERNELS.

ENGM8H FEED.

ty the sudden expulsion of much dampness from the interior*
The best test, however, is the rapid rubbing of the sample

12

178

FOOD.

■between the palms of the heated hands ; when, should sulphur
have been employed, its peculiar odour will be developed.

The author has been thus careful in describing the signs
which declare the presence of sulphur, because that mineral,
although much employed by ordinary farriers, can occasion the
most terrible belly-ache, gripes, fret, or spasms. This affection
is one of the most fearful to which the horse is subject, and is
the more to be dreaded, as it too often leads to other compli-
cations. Perhaps a greater number of animals annually perish
through causes resulting from spasms, than die under any
other equine ailment.

Besides oats, beans are used as food for the horse ; but there
is much dispute as to the quantity a horse can with advantage
consume. Beans should not be given as food until they have
"been crushed, and even then they are better if subjected to
the action of steam, which will soften without reducing them
to a watery mass.

Horse beans, as grown in England, however, are very
coarse and astringent substances. Ho wonder if the large
employment of such produce is found to act upon the bowels ;
surprise should be expressed if so harsh a food could be con-
sumed without inducing constipation. The Egyptian bean,
nevertheless, is free from such objectionable properties,
being mild and sweet. A larger quantity of this crushed
and moistened seed might be with benefit presented to the
animal. As at present imported, however, it is very im-
perfectly harvested. Most samples exhibit the shrivelled and
the discoloured skin, which denotes the sickle was resorted to
before the plant was matured ; an error, perfectly inexcusable-
in a climate which is for nine months of the year free from
rain.

Might not some sound Egyptian beans be procured ? From
these, could not a milder and better species of bean be raised
in this country ? The field pea is open to the same condemna-

FOOD.

179

tion ; but field peas are not generally employed in stables.
Those used for horses are small and white, of foreign growth,
and quite unobjectionable. Tares are given only to farm

ENGLISH BEANS — A GOOD SAMPLE.

ENGLISH BEANS — A BAD SAMPLE.

EGYPTIAN BEANS — A JOOD SAMPLE.

EGYPTIAN BEANS— A BAD SAMPLE

teams ; but if this plant possesses only a tithe part of those
virtues for which it is accredited, its employment might be
•advantageously extended. Why should hay be made only of

12 *

180

FOOD.

grass, which, though admirable sustenance for the bovine
tribe, evidently is not equally suited to the equine species ?
The dropsy of the abdomen and legs it induces in nags,,
together with the foulness of coat which it engenders, are,
perhaps, the best evidence of the injury that attends the-
long employment of green grass, or even of hay, as a solitary-
sustenance.

Might not beans, peas, and other leguminous substances, be
sown broadcast, and mown when in flower ? Hay thus pro-
duced would be of all value in the stable, because grass, like
corn, whether exhibited green or dry, simply induces fat;:
whereas leguminous plants all favour the development of
muscular fibre, or support the strength of the body. Such
hay might be charged a little higher ; but then its feeding value-
and its worth as a promoter of condition would far more than
recompense any extra money at which it might be charged.

It may be asked why, if hay produces fat, are the horses of
the poor so lamentably lean, since such quadrupeds receive
little else than hay to sustain them ? The reasons are nu-
merous. The hay such horses obtain is not often of a good
quality ; and it is to be feared the stuff is not, frequently,,
presented in sufficient quantity to promote obesity. Besides,
this substance leaves the muscular power unrefreshed. The-
frame being exhausted by a life passed in exertion, the body^s
weakness effectually counteracts all tendency to fatten.

Beans are not known to be much exposed to deterioration ;
but oats are liable to an affection of the epidermis, or of the-
skin, which causes them to be covered with little granules of
a dark colour, which the microscope discovers to be fungoid
growths resembling a species of very minute toadstools.
Corn, when in this condition, is readily recognized by a very-
powerful musty smell ; and the grain, of course, is not adapted
to nourish any animal. Musty provender is supposed to en-
gender worms and other unpleasantnesses ; but the reviser is-

FOOD.

181

disposed to attribute tlie production of tbe parasites to a want
of resistance in tbe system, which may be inherited, or spring
from a sickly state of the body, or which may be produced by
the consumption of unwholesome diet.

A MAGNIFIED MUSTY OAT.

With regard to quantity in the matter of diet. All animals
•are not of one size, neither have all horses the same capacity
of stomach. It is usual to measure out so much corn as the
allowance proper for a horse, and to toss the quantity into the
manger, without paying any attention to the desires of the
■creature. Such a custom may be extremely convenient ; but
it is very wasteful. Horses differ quite as much as men do iu
their appetites. By the common practice, one animal receives
more than it requires, while another gets less than satisfies its
cravings. Some slight notice of the body’s necessities should
be insisted upon in those who pretend to comprehend the
quadruped ; and a master should instruct the servant that a
creature endowed with life cannot be justly regarded as a
manufacturing machine.

Then, as to the times of feeding. The horse is essentially a
creature of the night. Man may shake up the straw and lock
the stable door ; but he does not, therefore, put the quadruped
to sleep. Long hours of watchfulness are apt to gemmate
habits of mischief, as well as lead to many indulgences which
are no more than the results of want of employment, or the
absence of amusement. The solitary confinement, now popu-

182

FOOD.

lar in prisons, in workhouses, and in some schools, is evidently
wrong in principle ; more especially wrong is it when prac-
tised upon children ; as loneliness, acting upon immaturity of
intelligence, invariably leads to an evil desire, which is, in
penal prisons, spoken of as “ breaking out.”

To talk of the feelings, the instincts, and the inclinations of
the quadruped, is to earn a character for maudlin affectation.
The populace in the public highways hourly stare at, or care-
lessly pass, spectacles, which, were the general mind really
educated to understand what is before it, should awaken the-
keenest commiseration ; but which are now viewed as sights
that enliven the prospect. Whence is derived such hard-
ness of heart ? Whence springs such general and such a
deep-rooted insensibility? No man seems capable of inter-
posing a voice of expostulation, when the streets display
living and feeling flesh creeping towards its early grave >
when he beholds the animal driven slowly to death ; when he
looks upon an animated being, so worn and so dejected, that it
is the last office of humanity to summon the knacker to end a
hopeless misery. The existence of a Society, with two con-
stables, poorly counterbalances a national display of spurs and
of whips. The foremost humanitarian, so the skin be whole,
can afford to gaze upon a lean and spiritless horse, tired
beyond man’s most exaggerated conception of fatigue, slowly
creeping before some over-burdened cart, while the driver,,
whip in hand, adds his weight to the disproportionate load.
Misery in front, — brutality behind, — and hard-heartedness-
around ; while a fellow-inhabitant of earth totters onward to-
ffs death !

EVILS OF MODERN STABLES.

183

CHAPTER VI.

THE EVILS WHICH ARE OCCASIONED BY MODERN STABLES.

TT does not require any vast expenditure of thought to
discover that life is action ; “ to he,” is synonymous with
“ to do : ” therefore, it is a sheer necessity of existence that an
animated being must be doing something. Such is the pri-
mary consequence of existence. Thus, to breathe and to move
imply one act ; since, if the lungs cease to dilate, respiration
immediately terminates, and, with it, animation comes to an
end. Yet, it remained for mortal perversity to rebuke the
first principle of established philosophy, when stables were
built, in which a breathing animal was to be treated as it were
an inanimate chattel.

Nature, like a kind mother, is to this day endeavouring to
teach her wayward children a- plain truth, which they may
hourly behold enforced by visible examples. The wilful brood
appears to be in no hurry to learn. Man still treats the horse
as though he honoured the quadruped by enslaving it ; and
ennobled a life, by conferring upon the animal the title of
his servant. He acts as though, by such conduct, sufficient
reason were exhibited why he should oblige the creature to
resign its instincts and relinquish its desires.

The equine race, when in a wild state, are gregarious, or
congregate in herds. Man captures such a quadruped and
places it in a stable, built to enforce the extreme of solitary
confinement. The plain is the natural abode of the herd; on

184

EVILS OF MODERN STABLES.

their speed depend both their pleasure and their safety.
Man ties the domesticated horse to a manger, and pays a
groom to enforce absolute stagnation upon innate activity.
The “ panting steed ” is the most timid of living beings.
Man insists the charger is possessed of extraordinary courage ;
he declares it delights in the tumult of battle ; and he esteems
it a glorious achievement to brutally coerce the timorous sen-
sibility. The mild-eyed horse is, perhaps, the most simple of
all the breathing beauties which adorn a wondrous world.
Man declares all of the gentle breed have dangerous propen-
sities, and are most inherently vicious.

Before subjugation, the creature fed off the surface of the
earth. Man builds a house specially designed for the captive,
in which the corn is placed on a level with the chest, and the
hay is stationed as high up as the head. The animal is gifted
with affections ; it longs to gratify their promptings ; it yearns
for something upon which its abundant love may gush forth,
— a fellow-prisoner — a goat — a dog — a cat — a fowl; — no
matter what, — so it be some living object, on which may be
lavished that excess of tenderness which, confined to its own
breast, renders being miserable. Man esteems it his primary
duty to clear the stable of all possible companionship ; but the
creature which would rejoice, were it only permitted to worship
its enslaver, he rarely approaches without a loud voice, a
harsh word, or a harsher blow, announcing his presence to
the captive.

The inhabitant of such a prison, a domesticated horse
miserably drags through a shortened life, under human
protection. The nearest approach it can make to freedom
is its period of labour. It always rejoices to quit its con-
finement; but, enfeebled by imprisonment, and subservient
to man’s exactions, it ever gladly returns to the place of its
sorrow. In proportion as its limbs are finely made, and its
actions are graceful, is it prized. It is never esteemed for its

EVILS OF MODERN STABLES.

185

instincts, or credited witli intelligence. It lives in so limited
a space, that, in comparison with the dimensions of its abode,
a man in a sentry-box dwells in a mansion; or a lion in a
cage roams over a domain. A reasonable and an intelligent
being commands his horse should be fastened to such a spot,
and supposes that a living organism is to endure the confine-
ment, which does not permit the body to turn round; that
animated functions are to exist where most ordinary exer-
cises are rendered impossible : nevertheless, he anticipates the
creature will appear bounding with health, in answer to his
requirements.

To be sure the prisoner, although its head be fastened (a
restraint not imposed upon the most savage of carnivorous
beasts), is permitted now to bear upon one leg, and then
to change it for the other. It may perhaps lie down or stand
up, without provoking chastisement. Neither head nor tail
is forbidden a proper degree of motion. But at this point all
indulgence is exhausted. It is tied to a rope two yards in
length ; but it may not go even to the extent of its tether ;
neither may it move close up to the manger ; both acts are
equally unpardonable : a properly behaved animal should stand
quietly in the centre of its compartment, and always remain
there when not lying down.

It is beaten, if its head be raised just to peep over the
paling, to exchange a rub of the nose and to give, as well
as accept, a warm stream of fragrant breath to and from its
nearest fellow-misery. It must taste the full flavour of its
•captivity: no trivial act may distract attention from the
horror of its position. It must lie down where it stands ; and
stand where it laid down. It must not display the grace and
ease of motion with which it has been endowed; nor must it
indulge the kindly feelings Providence has gifted it with. If
the owner of the horse does not recognize the exquisite adap-
tation of sight, so as to infract the minutest particle, and to

186

EVILS OF MODERN STABLES.

view the most distant object, the sensibility of hearing to-
which movements are audible, when to the duller perceptions
of man no sound vibrates on the air ; the keenness of scent,
which can appreciate qualities in substances which to human
sense are devoid of odour ; the fleetness of motion which was
permitted as a protection, the ease of which the most perfect
machinery has failed to rival ; — how can he expect his servant
to inquire whether such attributes were given by Nature, only to-
be fastened by the head or to be confined within a space in which-
absolute stagnation must ultimately induce bodily incapacity.

Such a true “Vis inertias'1'’ can alone be varied by the
hours of labour and the periods of feeding. All pastime is un-
lawful ; the most innocent amusement must be practised silently-
and in secret. Certain animals, however, try to get through
the long hours of enforced idleness by quietly nibbling at the-

NIBBLING THE WOOD-WORK.

topmost rail of the manger. Large portions of tough wood,
are often removed after this fashion; and, to him who can
rightly interpret signs, a thick post bitten away, fibre by fibre,
will present melancholy evidence of that longing for employ-
ment, which. could induce so great a waste of perseverance;
for animals are naturally great economists of labour.

Other prisoners will endeavour to cheat the time by licking-

EVILS OF MODERN STABLES.

187

their mangers, apparently in the hope that some stray grain of
corn may have escaped previous attention. The soft tongue*
of the horse, passed over the hardened surface of the wood,
occasions no noise. Often a few grains will have lodged in-
the corners ; ' then the effort to displace these affords a long-
game. Others, from want of something to do, or from finding-
impure air and inactivity do not, in accordance with the general
doctrine, promote equine digestion, learn “ to crib ;” a few,,
from the operation of the like causes, become perfect as-
“ wind suckers.” All “ speed the weary hours ” as they best
can ; and many heads are turned round to discover if it be*
feeeding-time again ; not that they are hungry, but eating is
an occupation, and they sadly wish for some employment.

Certain quadrupeds, under these circumstances, adopt a
habit, which is the more remarkable, because hours of tedium-
have generated the like indulgence in human beings. Mortals,
when compelled to remain stationary, and forced to preserve-
silence, often strive to kill time by rocking to and fro, or by
“ see-sawing ” their bodies. Such a pitiable excuse for
amusement is very common among the little people whose un-
developed limbs are perched on high forms, and in whose hands
are fixed very uninteresting primers, from which the infant
mind wanders into vacuity during the hours of imprisonment-
which occur in those pleasing places termed “ Preparatory
Schools.” The- horse, also, when forbidden the pleasures in
which Nature formed it to delight, will move its head methodi-
cally from one side of its stall to the other, and will continue
thus engaged for hours together.

So exciting a pastime, most sane people might deem to be
harmless enough ; but by the arbitrary notions of rectitude-
entertained within the stable such custom is punished as a
vice. A horse which “see-saws ”. is said to weave, and weav-
ing is, by grooms, esteemed highly culpable, and is usually
corrected with the lash.

188

EVILS OF MODERN STABLES.

Can human perversity conceive a life without a pastime, and
vexatiously impose this terrible fate upon the creature whose
existence is devoted to man's service ? When in the field, the
horse is never idle. The only amusement of the simple animal
lies in its perpetual occupation. What a despairing sorrow
must therefore afflict such an existence, when dragging
through its time under the fostering care of the enslaver. Yet
how proudly do some intellectual beings boast of their stables
and of the ceaseless attention lavished on their studs. What
is it this assiduity realizes to the creature on which it is
expended ? Stagnation to the active, and solitude to the
gregarious. Movement draws down punishment, as it were a
fault. Any attempt to while away the tedious hours is
•esteemed “ a vice ; ” sensation must be checked, and feeling,
man insists shall be suppressed. But who, among the millions
•of intellectual masters, sufficiently understands the quadruped,
•over which they all usurp authority, to regard the huge bulk
•of that endurance, as the embodiment of the acutest form of
every possible earthly misery ?

Perpetual inaction also occasions waste of food : the horse,
wanting exercise, stares at his provender, but has no appetite ;
the hay piled up before it is nothing more than matter out of
place.

Desire is needed to give value to such abundance; and a
non-reasoning being cannot be expected to prize that which
it does not require. It cannot eat ; but it lacks amusement.
The hay is before it. In sheer idleness, a few stalks are pulled
from the rack. Of these, one may be leisurely masticated ;
hut the remainder, after having been twisted about by the lips,
are allowed to fall upon the litter. The sport is followed up
until the rack is emptied ; and the creature is a little happier,
under a conviction that it has escaped from absolute stag-
nation.

The sin, if there be any, certainly must remain with the

EVILS OF MODERN STABLES.

189-

man who piled up tlie provender before the animal which was
without an appetite.

Simple natures, when entirely disengaged, generally make-
their own employment, and that employment, being intended
for a passing amusement, commonly consists of what thrifty
people designate “ mischief.” The knowledge, that dis-
pleasure will follow upon discovery, may spice the proceeding
which otherwise might want interest. At all events, so it is
with children ; and it may be thus with animals. When a
heaped manger is before a satiated quadruped, the impossi-
bility of feeding makes the creature meditate upon the uses to
which the grain can possibly be applied. None can be dis-
covered. The head of the captive is tied, and the manger is
fixed. At length, in carelessness of spirit, a mouthful is
taken from the heap. The portion cannot be swallowed, so
the lips are moved, and, as they part, the corn falls over them

WASTING COHN.

upon the ground. This may not be a very exciting recreation ; .
but the prisoner is restless with repletion. It cannot sleep ■ .
and the grain passing over the lips, in which equine feeling
concentrates, produces a slight and a novel sensation.

Can any man seriously pronounce that an animal, standing

mo

EVILS OF MODERN STABLES.

in enforced solitude and compulsory idleness, is to blame for
such conduct ? Boys, during their school days, when wanting
appetite, or having unnecessary food before them, will not
they, in satiety, play with needless abundance ? Are men to
demand that prudence from an animal, which we should cer-
tainly not anticipate in the young of our own species ? Yet
the child enjoys a certain amount of confidence ; and its mis-
doing is, therefore, aggravated by a certain abuse of trust.
The horse is confined between boards, and enjoys not the
smallest personal liberty. The severity of captivity argues,
that no reliance reposes upon the captive’s discretion. All
responsibility is lost when all freedom of action is denied.
Yet the poor prisoner is cruelly beaten for playing with food,
although the true fault rested upon him who was too idle to
give the exercise which would have generated appetite ; and
was too lazy to proportion the animal’s sustenance to the
requirements of: its situation.

Another so-named “vice” of the horse is frequently the
■occasion of more serious results than any of the before-men-
tioned accidents. No person has hitherto explained why the
skin should be more irritable by night than during the day.
time. Such, however, is the case with horses, as it is with
men. A quadruped, in the morning, is often found disfigured
by the hair being removed from, comparatively large surfaces.
Itchiness has provoked the animal to rub itself against auy
prominence, or to scratch its body with the toe of its iron
shoe ; this indulgence has caused the blemish.

Itching and scratching are numbered among the worst
“ vices” of the stable. Such faults, however,, are only dis-
covered in their effects ; the groom never estimates, when
flogging an animal for this wickedness, how far the abhorred
sin may have been produced by stimulating diet, by want of
exercise, and by impure atmosphere. No ! he clothes up the
body of the animal ; shuts every window ; stops every cranny ;

EVILS OF MODERN STABLES.

191

and locks the stable door for the night. The last meal being
■consumed, and the quadrupeds not being inclined for sleep,
they one and all begin to itch. Legs are nibbled ; necks are
rubbed ; and tails are lashed. At length one is sensible of an
irritation behind the ear. The head is turned toward the side ;
the body is curved to the full extent ; and the hind leg brought
forward. Then, the groom not being present, the toe of the
hind shoe can touch the part, and the horse luxuriates in a
hearty titillation.

When the head was turned towards the quarters, however,
the collar-rope, being attached to the halter, was also stretched
in that direction. The hind foot having performed its office,
a desire is felt to return it to the natural position. The
attempt is made ; but this is found to be impracticable. The
creature strains against the opposing force, but its struggles
only render its comfortless attitude the more fixed. The
truth is, that while devoted to the act which allays cuticular
irritability, the pastern has slipped over the collar-rope. Such
a mishap not only fixes the leg, but fastens the head. With
the neck bent and one leg disabled, the animal cannot exert
lialf its power ; neither can simplicity comprehend the source
of its unnatural constraint. Long continuance of the position
becomes painful ; alarm seizes upon timidity ; the struggles
grow desperate ; and the poor quadruped, at length, is cast
with terrible violence upon the straw which had been shaken
down for its repose.

The animal is lucky which should be overthrown in a limited
space and escape serious misfortune. It can hardly encounter
such an accident and rise from the ground uninjured. The
slightest consequences are contused wounds or fractures of
small osseous prominences. The worst result, however,
usually follows the body being forcibly contorted throughout
an entire night. Bones have been dislocated, or a limb has
been so sprained as never to have recovered its functions.

192

EVILS OF MODERN STABLES.

Necks have never afterwards been restored to their pristine-
grace of motion ; and, in short, a valuable servant has, by
such a misfortune, been so “ wrenched from its propriety ” as to
be rendered utterly useless. Nevertheless, the groom will
persevere in hailing the fate of an animal which has been cast
in the collar -rope as a just punishment induced by the suf-
ferer’s inveterate “ vice.”

CAST IN THE COLLAE-ROPE.

Carters are open to complaint, because their horses are-
“ cast in the halter ” even to a greater degree than those of
town grooms. In agricultural districts, it is a common prac-
tice to turn the teams out to graze during the night, and to
take them from the field to work in the morning. Some
animals, however, prove troublesome to catch, preferring the
cool grass and partial liberty to exhausting toil upon an arid
roadway. To facilitate the capture of such quadrupeds, many
carters, when freeing the creature, will not remove the halter,
but suffer it to remain, because this affords a ready lipid for
the person who fetches in the horses on the following day.
The result is easily anticipated. The ear itches. The foot.

EVILS OF MODERN STABLES.

193

scratching the part, gets entangled, and that which was
a valuable horse on the previous night, is found, in the dawn-
ing light, to be a disabled cripple, or a worthless carcass.

The sane mind will, however, behold in this misfortune
only a startling proof of the folly which ties the head to a
manner, and leaves the animal to the hazard of a fearful
accident.

It may be urged that the size of the horse’s body neces-
sarily limits the dimensions of its abiding-pVice. This is a
strange reason ; but it is one commonly used among architects.
We, however, do not apply the principle to our own race.
Because the Horse Guards are tall men, we do not insist they
should sleep in infants’ cots, or wear the clothes of children.
Giants are not forced to inhabit the houses fit only for dwarfs.
Neither do we carry out the maxim with other creatures.
Large rabbits, boys put into large hutches. Were smaller
horses desired, ponies, even no higher than full-sized dogs,
are not scarce. But greater weight and strength enable the
quadrupeds to perform larger services. Does it not seem like
meanness to select size for our own purposes, yet, where the
creature is concerned, to make size a motive for stinting the
necessities ? The horse is useful to man in proportion to its
magnitude; and the poor slave, therefore, ought not to feel
the bulk to be its misfortune !

Other evils remain to be narrated, which are consequent
upon the use of the halter rope. The horse may, when in the
act of rolling, biting at flies, or other substances such as dried
perspiration, which have caused irritability of skin, get his
fore leg or hind leg entangled in the halter rope ; if the latter
occurs, he becomes what is called cast, and the repeated efforts
to rise usually draw the rope more tightly around the hind
leg, which occasions a severe wound. Should nothing but
a bruise or abrasion be present, the groom undertakes the
immediate relief.

13

194

EVILS OF MODERN STABLES.

Having disengaged the rope from the injured limb by
nntying the knot below the sinker, the head is released from
the manger. But it is not usual for quadrupeds, after such a
misfortune, to rise immediately ; it is a good plan, conse-

A HORSE CAST BY ROLLING IN THE MANGER. A HORSE BEING RELEASED FROM THE PREVIOUS

SITUATION.

quently, for the groom to obtain an assistant, and, with this
combined aid, to drag the body and hind legs away from the
stall posts and stall partitions, and thus place him in a position
to rise without difficulty.

The remedies applied to all injuries (excepting fractures)
which occur in the stable are equally simple, and few in num-
ber. These consist of a lotion, composed of two ounces of
tincture of arnica, which is put into a pint bottle, to be sub-
sequently filled up with water. This is used till all symptoms
of bruise or swelling have disappeared, after which another
lotion is to replace the first. This last is formed by adding
one grain of chloride of zinc to every ounce of water, or one
scruple to each measured pint of fluid. These lotions are to

EVILS OF MODERN STABLES.

195

"be applied frequently., not directly, to tlie injury itself, but a
sponge, saturated witli eacli liquid, is to be squeezed dry
above the sore, the moisture being allowed to trickle over
the wound.

The strongest testimony, however, against stables, as such
buildings are at present erected, is perhaps borne by the
animals which inhabit those places. The horse is a delicate
test, which man would do well to attentively observe when he
is desirous of ascertaining the healthfulness of any locality.
Naturally it is all animation and gaiety of spirit. But, how-
ever much these qualities may be esteemed, such equine' re-
commendations will soon fade before the joint influence of
impure air and close confinement, although you may groom
and feed at discretion. The natural period of life is diminished
one half, while much more than half of the remaining years is
rendered useless by age, prematurely brought on by inappro-
priate treatment.

A FORE LEG OVER THE COLLAR-ROPE.

13 *

196

FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES.

CHAPTER VII.

FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES.

"1VT 0 gentleman regards Ms country seat as finished until
' to it ample stabling is appended. A small space,
judiciously employed, can be made to house a great number
of horses.

The architect, being informed of the wishes of his employer,
unhesitatingly asserts that 5 feet, or 5 feet 6, or, in extreme-
cases, 6 feet, are considered ample width for stalls. The pro-
prietor agrees to grant the last-named space for the abiding-
place by day of a living horse, and the spot on which rest must
be enjoyed during night by the same huge quadruped.

This decided, the gentleman rubs his hands, and, warmed
by the contemplation of his own liberality, applauds “ the
nice arrangements/'’ which he has sanctioned “ regardless
of expense.” But the carriage-house, he is positive, shall
be built quite large enough. He cannot forget that those
rascals grazed his last new vehicle on the very day it came
home from Long Acre. The accident happened while putting
it into a narrow building. Ho ! Let what will be cramped,
the carriage-house must be spacious.

Thus men take much care of that species of property which,
being damaged, can be repaired for money ; but they treat with
neglect, aud thrust into unwholesome corners, that life which,
when injured, not all the wealth accumulated upon this globe
could restore to soundness. With the inanimate there is

FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES.

197

nothing to remove the fall force of blame, which man must
accept as his fault alone. The deterioration of such articles,
when it occurs, cannot be laid to the charge of any other
living being. This renders man. more careful of such things.
With life, there is always something which can be made to
take the weight of culpability from the master’s shoulders.
The horse was obstinate ; it had a bad temper ; it possessed a
vile mouth; it bolted; it refused; it shied; it reared; it
jibbed ; it kicked, or, in some way, it resolved not to do its
duty. The dumb creature can make no answer to the accusa-
tion ; and human nature is readily convinced of its impartiality
when its errors have been meanly cast upon another life.

The builder is, of course, governed by the architect ; the
architect is anxious to exhibit plans which shall elicit the
approval of the proprietor. So, in the end, those arrange-
ments, upon which the well-being and the health of many
lives must depend, rest upon the caprice of an elderly gentle-
man, who now, for the first time in his life, may give serious
thought to such a subject. However, this is the rule, whether
a house is intended for a family residence, or is erected as a
speculation. The stables almost invariably occupy the space
which is left after every other want is satisfied, consequently
■economy of space is carried into all the detail relating to the
stable construction. The doors need not be wider than 4 or 5
feet; and certainly a doorway 5 feet wide affords somewhat
ample space for a horse’s body to pass through, i. e. if he be
quietly disposed ; but even so vast a limit will not allow a
groom to dispense with every care. An animal may, reason-
ably, be delighted when it sniffs the fresh air, and it may be
permitted to perform a few pranks, as it quits positive stag-
nation, to make the nearest approach to freedom which its
enslaved condition can sanction. Schoolboys do not observe
any severity of order when they cast aside their tasks to
throng into the playground ; yet the youths are confined to

198

FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES.

study only for a comparatively short period. But what must
be the feelings of the steed when leaving the heated stable
and narrow stall, where it has probably been imprisoned for
twenty -two consecutive hours ?

Who among us, if he had the power, would check the
graceful prancings and elegant curvettings by which a simple
nature announces its sense of happiness ? To human feeling,
an idea of having to carry another’s weight, in the direction
and at the pace the rider pleases to command ; to have a sharp
bit pulled against the tender angles of the mouth, conjures up

“DOWN IN THE hip;’’ OB A HOUSE WITH THE BONE OP ONE HIP PBACTUBED.

an image calculated to awaken no special delight. But long
imprisonment may induce that eagerness to breathe the air of
heaven, which may possibly render the prospect of labour,
beyond the confines of its jail, welcome to the captive.

Quadrupeds have been injured while passing through the
widest of modern entrances. The pleasure of escaping from

FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES.

199

the tedium and from the faintness of actual stagnation gene-
rates a joy which banishes the sense of prudence. All feeling
and every caution appear to be engulfed in the exultation of
the moment. The horse dances as it walks ; the tail is gaily
whisked ; the neck is arched ; the mane is shaken and the
body is twisted by those numberless undulations which have
often excited the admiration of enthusiastic spectators. If,
during one of these expressive movements, the trunk should
be inflected more than the seven inches which the five feet
allows, or the animal, influenced by the impetuosity of excite-
ment, should come in contact with the door-post, the conse-
quence may be fearful. The possibility of check* ■ certainly,
does not enter the thought of the joyous creature. The blow
is proportioned to the heedlessness which induced it. A bone
can be fractured on such an occasion ; nor is it an unusual
accident. Most horses, which are beheld with one “ hip
down,” have had the deformity produced by striking against
the post of the stable- door.

“ Down in the hip ” is a groom’s phrase, and merely sig-
nifies that one of the prominences of the haunch-bone, or,
employing anatomical language, that one of the inferior
spinous processes of the ileum has been broken off. This
osseous projection is of great importance to the value of the
quadruped ; it gives origin to numerous muscles, but more
particularly to the powerful extensors of the hind limb.
That ease, grace, and rapidity with which the member should
be moved are by this misfortune destroyed, and the animal
is thereby unfitted for the more highly-esteemed half of its
future services. By the accident it loses caste, and moves
downward in the scale of equine employments.

This terrible affliction to. the life principally concerned, may
also be occasioned in another manner. Grooms, when leading
a horse from the stable, commonly walk by the side of the
animal. Such persons are usually fully dressed to attend

200

FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES.

their masters, when called upon to perform this duty. Should
the creature in its joy, when passing through the doorway,
touch the coat of the domestic, such familiarity elicits the
utmost indignation. A loud word, a kick, or a blow instantly
resents the insult. The animal, in terror, skips about to avoid
further punishment. The door-post is struck ; the haunch is
fractured, or the pain is inflicted which renders the creature,
with its retentive memory, ever after fearful when passing
through an entrance.

The ordinary life of a domesticated horse is so monotonous,
that recollection of events cannot otherwise than be retained.
The animal, subsequent to such a calamity, even though no
bone should be fractured, cannot gaze upon a door with calm-
ness. In future, alarm is exhibited whenever an entrance
has to be approached. It cannot enter or quit its abiding-
place without displaying those symptoms of terror which, to
the groom, are the representatives only of inveterate “ vice.”
The most violent or the blandest of tones cannot restore pla-
cidity to the brain, which is troubled by fearful recollections.
It is useless to coax, to threaten, or to punish : the animal has
no ability to assume its former quietude, when passing through
the terrible opening. But it strives to brace up its nerves for
the performance of the necessary act. All its resolution is
summoned till, maddened by excitement, it . wildly dashes
through the entrance, dragging after it the boy to whose
custody the more dangerous quadrupeds are, usually, entrusted
by the prudent sagacity of stable-men.

With regard to the subject, on which recent comments have
been based, horsemen should order their servants never to
walk through a doorway by the side of the quadruped, which
general belief supposes to be led through such openiugs.

A boy should not be employed in such an office. Prior to
leaving the building, the groom should place himself directly
in front of his charge. A short hold of either rein should

201

faults inseparable from stables.

then he taken in each hand. When there located, he can with
ease and certainty guide the head of the horse. The motions
of the head regulate the movements of the body, and having
the controlling power entirely at his command, the servant
should commence to back slowly out of the stable.

LEADING A IIORSE THROUGH THE STABLE DOORWAY.

Supposing this obvious recommendation to be adopted,
■should any symptom of alarm or any disposition to display
vestiveness chance to be exhibited, progress must be imme-
diately stopped ; nor ought it to be again resumed, until the
animal has thoroughly recovered its composure. No matter

202

faults inseparable from stables.

liow long a period may be required to restore tranquillity,,
tlie groom should, contentedly, continue stationary till every
sign of timidity is banished or dispelled. In this manner-
man and horse should leave the building, nor ought the groom
to quit his post until the doorway has been cleared.

If solitude and confinement generate disease in man, why
should not similar causes produce similar results upon the-
horse ? They do, and evils, too, of a local nature, result from
causes which, if properly understood, could be easily removed.
The fore legs of the stabled horse are always the first to yield,,
and sometimes the hinder limbs are involved in disease.
Should one of these last be injured, the animal evidently pines-
in torture, and wastes in condition; but with the forelegs,
affected the horse seldom loses flesh, and in many instances,
he has been known to grow fat. Physiologists account for this
peculiarity in various ways. Some appeal to the greater
proximity of the anterior extremities to the heart, or to the
centre of circulation. That, perhaps, is the generally received
doctrine ; but as the free circulation of the blood is essential
to the healthy functions of the nerves, it is difficult to compre-
hend why nearness to the heart should deprive a nerve of its.
ability to communicate sensation. The head is supposed to-
be rendered conspicuously sensitive, because of the great pro-
portionate quantity of blood which circulates in that region.
The pretended rule, therefore, will not bear the test of general
application ■ it must be discarded as an assertion boldly nut
forward to cover ignorance.

The fore feet of the horse are those portions of the frame
which have to endure the utmost limits of mortal perversity.
The flooring of the stall invariably inclines from the manger-
to the gangway. The hind hoofs may, should the animal
hang back the full length of its collar-rope, rest in the open
drain with the toes downward ; or the hind hoofs may, in
some cases, stand upon the gangway, the width of which the

FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES.

203

gutter defines. The front limbs, however, can scarcely change
their position. The hoofs must rest upon the slanting bricks,
which incline the anterior of the foot in the upward direction.
The fore-legs must sustain, and continue subject to the un-
natural stress of their enforced position. This silly and
arbitrary arrangement in some measure accounts for the fact
that the front limbs of the horse are the first parts of the
body to fail, for these parts never, in the stable, are capable
of rest, nor can they be sensible to ease.

It has, of late years, become the general practice to bleed
the horse from the sole of the fore foot. When such a custom
is adopted, the first portion of blood extracted is commonly
cold as spring- water, or from thirty to forty degrees below
the standard recognized as “ blood-heat.” Now a certain
warmth is imperative to the existence of vitality, which is
arrested so soon as the natural heat of the body is sensibly
diminished. The functions are stayed when any region has
parted with its caloric. Dentists take advantage of this fact
when, after having employed the chilling process, they extract
a tooth without pain. Cold, therefore, which can destroy
sensation in the human jaw, likewise renders the foot of the
horse insensible to agony.

But why is the fore leg subject to a degree of cold which
does not also affect the hind extremity of the animal ? Because-
the stable permits the hind limbs to enjoy the greater freedom
of action. These may be in perpetual motion ; for the pos-
terior members are situated at the boundary of a circle, of
which the ring of the manger represents the centre or fixed
point. Has the reader ever beheld a column of soldiers move-
in obedience to the officer’s command to “Wheel”? The-
man at one end of the line can hardly run quickly enough,
while he who is placed at 'the opposite extremity is troubled,
to be sufficiently slow in his movements. Now the hind legs
of the horse represent the man who has to scamper, and are

204

FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES.

sensibly exerted whenever the quadruped “ corues over ” : the
anterior extremities are types of the soldier who scarcely
moves, for very seldom are these members necessitated to
•change their position. Their stable office is to uphold the
body, and to remain fixed while the toes are inclined upwards !
Were the motion permitted to both extremities equalized, the
fore limbs would naturally be the warmest, since the great
distance from the heart and the greater angularity of form
must render circulation of caloric within the quarters much
more tardy.

VALVES OF THE VEINS IN THE LEG.

1. The valves of the vein laid against the side of the vessel by the upward current of the
Dlood.

2. The valves projected from the side of the vessel by tho attempted retrogression of the
-vital stream.

But why do not other parts become as cold as the fore
limbs, when all belong to the same body, and all derive their
lieat from one common medium, or from the same circula-
tion ? The veins in the legs have valves. Then, if these
vessels are so provided, and the distribution of warmth is
one of the purposes of the circulation, why do not the valves
favour the return of blood from the foot, and thus generate
heat within the member ? When answering the foregoing

FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES.

205

inquiries, the reader’s patience is entreated, since the reply, to
be intelligible, cannot also be concise.

Anatomy affords the best explanation of the peculiarity.
On removing the horny case from the hoof of a dead horse,
a secretive membrane is exposed ; this membrane constantly-
renews the horn. Beneath the secreting surface a complex
mesh-work of large veins is discovered, which, by their size,,,
inform us they serve as receptacles or sinuses quite as muck
as vessels. These veins have no valves, though such are com-
monly present in other tubes of the same class. The absence-
of this provision is in them remarkable, because the blood has
to move against gravity : valves are a means instituted to
favour the current under circumstances of this nature. Valves
are composed of duplicatures of the lining membrane of veins;.,
when the venous current flows towards the heart, these valves,,
by the impetus of the stream, are forced upward, and remain'
close against the sides of the vessels ; but, should the slightest
retrogression of the current be endangered, the backward
motion of the blood carries the numerous valves outward or
downward, and effectually locks the interior of the veins.

The anatomy of the foot, however, proves the horse un-
suited to confinement. The animal was created to dwell upon
the plain. The foot, for its health, requires perpetual motion.
When free, or before man subjected it to his convenience,
every bite the creature took necessitated a fresh step. Tlie-
mesh-work of veins was large, the vessels freely communicated
with each other, and were devoid of valves, that the blood might
readily flow into, while it might as readily be expelled from the-
tubes ; and because, in the habits of her creature. Nature had
established a force which rendered the development of valves .
unnecessary. The horse, as it progressed, alternately lifted
the foot from the earth and rested it upon the ground. When
the hoof was raised, the blood rushed into and filled the mesh-
work of veins. When the foot was again placed upon tl

■206

FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES.

.soil, the superimposed weight squeezed the vessels between
the bones and the horn, thus pumping out the blood, or forcing
■it towards the heart.

Blood, which has become cold, has lost the first of its living
properties. Blood, deprived of heat, cannot support health,
or supply secretion. Hence the feet of stabled horses, not-
withstanding the care of science, the numerous applications,
and the endless variety of shoes, all of which are designed to
benefit, the hoofs generally become diseased. The quadruped
■of the agriculturist, although it be neglected and badly shod,
yet, because of its slow or constant work, and habitual freedom
in the field, usually exhibits feet which are sound and open.
The donkey, though much abused and shamefully treated,
rarely inhabits a stable, and more seldom enters a stall. Its
feet become misshapen ; but the curse of the gentleman’s
steed, foot lameness, and especially navicular disease, are all
but unknown among this tribe of the equine race.

The foregoing statement also affords an explanation, why
■the most valuable or the stabled horse is so frequently afflicted
with contracted hoof, with brittle hoof, with an unhealthy secre-
tion of horn, and with the various other ailments which may
be classed under the diseases of the foot. It likewise supplies
the most clear reason for the beginning of that disorder which
has been denominated “ the curse of good horse-flesh,” —
Navicularthritis, or ulceration of the navicular bone. Bone
is slow to take on morbid action, and ulceration is the accom-
paniment of low vitality. When the circulation is retarded,
the animal powers are enfeebled. Ulceration, affecting a lowly
organized structure, is that which a pathologist would anti-
cipate as the consequence of prolonged inaction. It is impos-
sible to say what evils the continuance of such a condition
may not induce ; but sand-crack, seedy-toe, and various
painful affections, can be clearly traced to have thus originated.

The effect of the stable, also, accounts for the farmer riding

FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES.

207

Ins nag for many years, while few gentlemen approve of a
lorse for saddle purposes after it has passed the sixth summer,
notwithstanding their animals are better groomed and more

THE VEINS OI THE HOESE’S FOOT.

The mesh-work of veins, without valves, whieli are situated immediately under the secretive

membrane of the hoof.

carefully fed. In the country, farmers’ quadrupeds are gene-
rally turned into the field, and have to walk for their living.
Grass is a poor food; but the constant exercise keeps the
creatures in sounder health than can be maintained by better
sustenance combined with perpetual confinement.

An absolute necessity for the constant movement of the feet
is to be deduced from the arrangement of the vessels. The
arterial blood falls almost perpendicularly down the fore limb,
while the venous blood has likewise to ascend against gravity.
This arrangement rendered imperative some propelling force
to return the effete fluid; hence the necessity for the perpetual
employment of the squeezing or pumping action of the hoof.
The habits of the animal to graze only from choice portions of
the herbage occasion a vast distance to be traversed ; but such
leisurely sauntering was by Nature kindly intended to keep
sound that portion of the frame on the integrity of which the
safety, the welfare, and the pleasure of her creation was
dependent.

“ Certainly,” the reader may exclaim ; but if the warmth
of the body is dependent upon arterial blood, the coldness of a
part cannot be accounted for by stating the facility afforded

208

FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES.

for the oxygenating current reaching that which is chilled.”
Very true. But before any substance can fall down, the space
through which it has to pass in its descent must be made-
clear. The quickness with which the arterial blood reaches
the foot is, consequently, regulated by the speed with which
the venous current is expelled. The hoof of the stabled horse
is constantly congested, or the effete blood accumulates within
the horn ; because motion in the venous stream is impossible.
The current hardly stirs, and the fluid, by stagnation, becomes
cold. Did the possibility of action allow the pumping-force
fair play, then the fore foot would, doubtless, be as warm as
other parts of the animal's* system.

Anatomy demonstrates these facts ; but the habits of the
quadruped have never been attentively noted. Had the in-
stinctive promptings of its desires been studied with a wish to
profit by such instruction, stables had been erected for some
better purpose than to closely confine an active animal, and to
illustrate the earliest principles of surface-drainage. As it is,
a building has been raised totally inadequate to its pretended
uses, and one in the arrangement of which the convenience of
man has alone been consulted. In such a place a horse has
for ages been imprisoned. It is true the captive did not
thrive ; yet this consequence was rather excused than in-
quired into. Humanity has endured loss, disappointment,
and vexation ; but pride found it more agreeable to accuse
the works of heaven with the results of its own culpability
than to suspect the adequacy of its own institutions. Nature
has in vain laboured to instruct the waywardness of conceit.
Mankind could endure all evils before it could afford to
question the perfectibility of mortal invention.

Horses, when disposed to remain stationary, always select
ground where the fore feet can occupy a position lower than
the hind legs. In stables this inclination is reversed, the
hinder limbs invariably resting on an inferior level to what

margin of the gangway. Science, evidently, lias not been
consulted in an arrangement which sacrifices the health and
the comfort of an inhabitant of the stall to obtain so obvious,
gross, and poor an advantage.

A creature standing on a slanting floor, with the head
pointing to the most elevated part of the incline, occupies the
same relative situation which the body would possess were the
quadruped journeying up the side of a hill. By the sloping
nature of the ground, the weight of the frame is partially

14

FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 209

the fore feet range upon. The motive upon which the
dictates of nature are outraged is the facility which a. floor
slanting in the backward direction affords for surface moisture
to flow into the open gutter that runs along the extreme

HORSES, WHEN FREE TO CHOOSE, ALWAYS STAND WITH THE FORE HOOFS ON A LOWER LEVEL THAN"
THAT OCCUPIED BY THE HIND FEET.

210

FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES.

removed from tlie insensitive bones ; and to sucb an extent as
the osseous structures are relieved, is the burden thrown upon
the flexor tendons, or upon the back sinews. It is imperative
for the health of bone that it should endure almost continuous
pressure. On the other hand, tendon or sinew feels no pain
from occasional tension ; but pressure, if long sustained, pro-
duces the acutest agony. When one structure is denied to
fulfil the uses for which it was created, and another structure
is condemned to discharge services for which it never was

■WHEN CONFINED TO THE STALL HOUSES GENERALLY STAND WITH THE HIND FEET tirOX A LOWER
LEVEL THAN THE FORE HOOFS OCCUPY.

designed, the first soon degenerates from not having suffi-
cient employment, while the second speedily becomes dis-
organized from the necessity to perform too much labour.

Bone, tendon, and cellular tissue almost compose the shin
and the foot of the animal. Horsemen know how difficult it
is to make and keep the legs of a stabled quadruped hard and
fine. It is, however, folly to rub and to bandage while inac-
tivity is permitted to generate congestion. No application can
possibly destroy the effect while that cause is allowed to be in

FAULTS INSEPAKABLE FftOM STABLES.

211

■operation. Nor can the foot secrete sound horn while the
exercise, which is imperative for health, is withheld. No shoe
■can give that which is dependent upon motion. There are
many more pieces of iron curved, hollowed, raised, and in-
dented than the author has cared to enumerate. All, how-
ever, have failed to restore health to the hoof. Some, by
■enforcing a change of position, may for a time appear to
mitigate the evil ; but none can, in the long run, cure the
disorder under which the horn evidently suffers.

Anointing the hoof, or using various stoppings, is equally
fruitless. Both leg and foot, after a day of hard labour, only
return to the stable to undergo more excessive, because more
■continuous, fatigue. The sloping pavement renders ease an

No. 1.

No. 2.

THE STRESS ENDURED BY THE DIFFERENT STRUCTURES WHICH COMPOSB THE LEG OF THE HORSE'
IS DEPENDENT UPON THE POSITION OP THE FOOT.

impossibility. The exhaustion cannot be banished from limbs
foiced to occupy such ground. Longer rest but induces
additional enervation.

The reader will observe that, in the sketch No. 1 the bones
rest one upon the other. That arrangement ensues when the
animal descends an incline. There can exist no man butimust
have enjoyed the ease which is imparted by walking down a

14*

212

FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES.

slope. Every person must also be acquainted with the fatigue-
consequent upon ascending an acclivity. The effect is generally
explained by stating that, in one case, progression is favoured
by, while, in the other, it is made in opposition to, gravitation..
Such a cause, certainly, is in operation; but the different
structures -on which the strain reposes, when moving in oppo-
site directions, to the author’s mind supply a better illustration
of the fact.

Do not muscles, and does not tendon participate in the
burden which is upheld by bone ? Assuredly they do ; but in
various degrees. No limb can move unless some muscle con-
tracts. Every muscle in the body arises from bone, and is-
inserted into bone by the interposition of ligamentous fibre.
Before a member can be elevated or depressed, some muscle-
must drag from some bone, that it may move some other bone-
more distantly situated. Then, tendon cannot escape strain,,
since in no possible attitude is every portion of the frame in.
absolute rest. Motor muscles, however, generally exist in
pairs. They are spoken of as elevators and as depressors, or,
as flexors and as extensors. Their uses are opposite, but not-
opposed. When one set works, the other is inactive.

The bones in the sketch, indicated by No. 2, evidently press
against the backward tendons. Such a position, if long main-
tained, leads to fatigue, and ultimately induces pain. Man
cannot enjoy rest under such a condition of parts ; though
both tendon and muscle are benefitted by brief tension, con-
tinuous strain soon exhausts either structure. The reader
must have beheld two travellers meet upon a mountain’s side.
One shall be descending from the heights, the other is ascend-
ing from the valley. But while the men converse, they do not
hold their relative positions one to the other. Each, without
thought or reflection, exchanges it for the horizontal situation ;
while their dialogue lasts, both present tlieir sides to the
spectator.

FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES

213

This is precisely what many horses learn to do. Much
■indignation is always excited in the groom's bosom because an
animal, prompted by its instinct, has discovered a method of
•easing its limbs and of saving the master's property from
injury. Standing for hours upon an acclivity, however gradual,
throws stress upon the back sinews, and must pain the tired
limbs. To counteract that effect, the animal turns the head

from the manger, and stands across the flooring of the stall,
after the same plan as actuated the two travellers when they
paused upon the mountain-side. But the conduct which, in
man, draws forth no remark, when exhibited by the horse is
abominated by a virtuous groom as the declaration of inveterate

214

FAULTS INSEPARABLE. FROM STABLES.

Pitiable vice ! It is melancholy to behold a man cruelly
punish an animal for a reasonable act. But heavy castigation
does every horse receive that is guilty of exercising the instinct'
with which Heaven has endowed it. The groom, being excited
to resentment, grasps a stick, and deals well-aimed blows,,
while his voice shouts forth harsh words, which pain and
terrify the patient creature, whose only faults were too much
sense and too great feeling.

When a horse is terrified, danger is likely to ensue in exact
proportion to the smallness of that space which can be com-
manded for the display of its alarm. The timidity being
excessive, of course, the contortions of the body are equally
demonstrative. The animal dashes about, regardless of its-
own safety, and heedless of those around it. It sees nothing
it can remember nothing, save only that some horrid torture
is imminent. Its struggles are wild efforts to escape. In the
momentary panic, it may break, or it may damage anything.
It may kill any person who shall stand in its way, or, in the
furore of its agony, it may, through misadventure, do serious
mischief to its own body.

Such consequences are always to be expected when a horse
is beaten within the stable, while the head is fastened to the
manger. By the latter circumstance the probability of an
injury is increased. Harm, however, to his employer’s pro-
perty, danger to his own person, and peril to the safety of his
charge, the groom despises, or willingly hazards, rather than
allow an odious “vice” to escape correction! No severity,
however, can teach a quadruped not to seek the ease which it
has discovered the means of realizing. When the groom is
absent, or during the night, the act of “wickedness” is always
renewed, although, in the presence of its attendant, the indul-
gence may be suppressed.

Slanting pavements, likewise, instruct horses in the practice
of other habits, which the groom, in his peculiar sphere of.

FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES.

215

mental elevation, cannot otherwise than recognize as “Vices.”
As such, he punishes their exhibition without mercy. Some
public-house companion may visit the stable-man, while he is
dozing through the afternoon upon the locker. Most servants
notoriously have no choice between stubborn duty and the
relaxation of “pipe and pot.” The groom is always the
ready victim of temptation, and, upon the slightest persuasion.

THE HIND FEET ARE EASED IN THE GUTTEE.

quits the stable for the parlour “over the road.” Some sad
and patient animal may have been silently watching’, longing
for the man’s absence, during a considerable period; no sooner
does the creature hear the door slam, than it begins to take
small steps backward. The horse thus feels its way, till the
sudden fall in the pavement announces that the posterior hoofs

216

FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES.

have readied the gutter, within the hollow of which the toes
are immediately depressed.

Such an attitude being attained, all stress upon the flexor
tendons is removed from the backward legs. The bones,
while the toes can be depressed, sustain the weight of the
haunches. Partial ease is thereby secured, and with the new
sensation a numbing torpor creeps over the animal. Its feel-
ings are soothed by present pleasure, and the senses, thrown
off their guard, grow dead to all outward impressions. The
victim of former ages, when taken from the rack, must still
have endured agony ; but the lull occasioned by the cessation
of acute torture threw the sufferer into a lethargy, which is
reported to have resembled the luxury of sleep. So is it with
the horse. The fore feet are still undergoing torment ; but,
under partial relief, the animal seems to doze, or becomes un-
conscious to the facts around it.

The horse is tranquilly luxuriating, and cozily revelling in
the moments of forbidden ease, when the groom quietly returns
to the stable. His eyes rest upon the animal who dared to
indulge in a little ease ; the position infuriates him, and with
harsh words and whip he commences to lash the culprit, for
such he considers him to be.

The stabled horse, however, has not only to stand upon a
slanting pavement through the day : it must throughout the
night lie upon a similar incline, rendered slippery by a cover-
ing of dry and polished straw. Did the reader ever attempt
to repose upon a bed slightly out of the horizontal ? The body
cannot rest on such a couch. The sensation communicated is,
an incessant fear of slipping off. The sleeper 'is constantly
wakened up, with a vivid impression that he is falling, or has
fallen, on to the floor. The night is passed in discomfort.
But, what is the excitability of a human being, when compared
with the excessive fear which haunts the most timid of all
created lives.

FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES.

217

Man, when in a bed of the above description, naturally
jgrows restless; the bedclothes are disturbed, and the body
laid in an opposite direction. All will not allay anxiety ; at
last, the would-be sleeper is obliged to remain contented with
occasionally nudging himself higher on to the pillow. Like
man is the horse in many things, even as though the animal
studied and mimicked its master. Yet, the inflation of pride
hails the resemblance as an insult, and regards animals as
things created for use, and doomed to be subservient to the
'Caprice of mortal pleasure.

Precisely as man would behave, did he chance to get upon a
slanting bed, the animal conducts itself, only with such differ-
ence as the circumstances enforce. The human being reclines
his head upon a pillow ; but the horse sinks the head while it
slumbers. Man, therefore, nearly touches the board, situated
at the topmost part of his resting-place. Three feet, or even a
larger space, may divide the quadruped from the stable wall,
which forms the extremity of its couch. The floor, on which
the creature lies, is strewn with straw. That condition, how-
ever, rather aggravates the inclination of the resting-place, for
dried and glossy stems of a circular figure accelerate, more
than they retard, the backward gravitation of the body.

The creature, therefore (unable to reason, acting under the
impression that its body is continually sliding backward), en-
deavours to recover its original position by nudging itself
repeatedly forward. The horse has neither light to see, hands
to feel, nor sense to measure the distance. Imagination is tlie
only dependence which it can boast of. The advances become
energetic in proportion as the supposition which provokes them
is annoying. The annoyance is regulated by the irritability of
the quadruped. Some stable inhabitants grow more morbidly
nervous ; with these, the advances are proporbionably fre-
quent ; so that the head of the captive, guided by the collar-
rope, is speedily brought into violent contact with the further
■end wall of its compartment.

218

FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES.

Not comprehending the meaning of the blow, but suffering-
from pain and fright, the animal attempts to rise. The com-
mencement of this movement, always, is the elevation of the
head, which, after being raised, is strained backward. This
action is a necessity of its existence; and, dreaming of no
danger, the quadruped essays to fulfil the natural law. The
head, however, which has struck the wall of the stable, must
at the time be immediately under the manger. Imagining no
impediment, the animal exalts its crest with that impetuosity

OAST TJNDEB THE MAHGEB.

which characterizes all the motions of the horse. It stnxes
against the manger, and a heavy concussion sends the member
into its original abiding-place.

The stricken creature cannot comprehend the reason of those
blows it has received. But it is often chastised for nothing,
so beating is to it almost a matter of course. It crouches in
terror for some moments, no doubt hoping its tormentor may
move onward. Then, as the strained senses can detect no

FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES.

219

sound, it ventures once more to raise its head. The result is-
the same as it was before. The horse, after repeated efforts,,
becomes alarmed. Mad with fear, and wild with desperation,
it now exerts its utmost strength. The contention may con-
tinue until the groom enters the stable in the morning, when,
bruised and panting, its head swollen and bleeding, its strength
exhausted and almost its life expended, the wretched animal is
discovered prostrated upon the pavement.

This consequence of confining an animal in darkness is the-
serious and, probably, the permanent deterioration of pro-
perty. At the best, its services are lost for many days. In
any case, time must be allowed for the necessary recovery.-
Few, very few people have the generosity to recognize, and
even fewer still are educated to perceive, that a life has been
for many hours breathing in agony, and that the existence-
may hereafter, notwithstanding all the present state of art can
accomplish, probably drag its wretchedness about the world in
a crippled condition. No person living possibly will, when
inspecting the maimed and disabled horse, reflect upon the
fate which dooms the animal to years of sorrow, labouring
through the lowest species of earthly trial ; no one will heave
a sigh that such a fate overtook a placid, gentle, and obedient
creature, which was dangerously and cruelly confined during
the time of serving a being who was bound to study the
necessities and administer to the happiness of the life over
which he had assumed absolute authority.

Other evils, also, spring from obliging the horse to sleep
on a surface which is not level. The head of the animal being-
fastened to the manger, it has no choice but to couch where
it stands, or to remain erect and endeavour to sleep in that
position. There are quadrupeds which adopt and which main-
tain the last alternative ; their bodies never repose on earth
until their injuries and their wrong are engulfed in the common
doom.

220

FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES.

It is not every animal, however, which can hold to such a
resolution, in spite of the aches and agonies by which it must
be enforced. Certain creatures, feeling their bodies glide back-
ward, rather facilitate than endeavour to counteract the mo-
tion, hoping to soon rest upon the gangway, which experience
has taught them terminates the stall. Others sleep so soundly
-as to be unconscious of the movement ; while a third class.

having attained philosophy through a life of misfortune, pay
but little regard to the circumstances around them. In all
instances the frame descends the slope till the quarters pass
"the gutter, and repose upon the gangway.

Yet, before the body can move such a distance from the
manger, the neck and the collar-rope must both be strained.
However, finding its body, at length, to be comfortably located.

FAULTS INSEPARABLE. FROM STABLES.

221

the animal meditates composing itself to sleep, which is not to-
be done while the neck is outstretched, and the chin is raised
far above its natural position. To accomplish this, the muzzle-
must be considerably lowered, and the ncek be retracted ; but,
before either can be done, the collar-rope must be loosened.
It is obviously impossible to change the attitude while that
fastening remains in a state of tension ; the position in which
the horse invariably sleeps cannot, therefore, be assumed.

In this dilemma, the intelligent quadruped determines to
rise and to return to the manger. But a natural law has
ordained, that before the horse gets up from the ground the-
head shall be thrown backward; thus lightening the weight
upon the fore quarters, which parts are always first raised.
The straightening of the front limbs is thereby facilitated.
But this movement cannot now be put in practice because of
the rope which retains the neck outstretched. Struggles are
useless ; the position is fixed, and the creature is powerless to
alter it. The limbs are free, but these can only be used to-
kick and to aggravate the pain of the situation. The animal
is a prisoner, and so it must remain, vainly contending with
its doom, and exhausting its energies in fruitless efforts to-
escape.

Assuredly he should have possessed an enlarged capacity for
evil who first conceived the notion of making a living creature,
which was conspicuous for its strength, its activity, and its
timidity exist in a niche ; to have its head tied up by day and
by night, and subsequently doomed it to rest upon a floor-
which sloped in a painful and an unnatural direction. No
surer means could have been invented of shortening the life,
of deforming the body, or of injuring the limbs of the creature
in whose prosperity man conceived he had “ a property.”
Arms of all kinds, and of every description, the quadruped
might have been safely trusted with; but to require of activity
that it should be fettered and forego all motion ; to demand of

222

FAULTS INSEPARABLE FJROM STABLES.

timidity that it should be bound or imprisoned, and not dis-
play sensibility ; to ask that strength should endure, and not
attempt to struggle, was surely expecting too much from an
inhabitant of a world in which fear, as the natural instructor
■of organized beings, is universally prevalent.

The horse, thus located, was only presented with the ready
means of doing injury to itself. It was provided with the only
weapons which Nature had empowered it to employ. A more
unwholesome, a more unnatural, or a more dangerous abode
for any of the equine race than the stall of a modern stable, -
it would be impossible for the utmost stretch of the most
excited malignity to imagine. Still, daily accidents, which
must have occurred for centuries, seem to be incapable of
instructing mankind, where the welfare -of another and of an
inferior being is concerned !

Animals have been lamed ; have lost the power of vision ;
have bred terrible disorders, and have been found stretched to
•death upon the straw bed, in consequence of the folly which
lias persisted in building modern stables. Such accidents
must, as a necessity, continue so long as these edifices are
-erected. They are totally unsuited for the creature which
they torture, cripple, and confine. Yet, because such abomi-
nations are sanctioned by custom and approved by ignorance,
it is far more than probable that the author’s exposure of
their unfitness will be read with amusement, and admitted to
lie just ; but the scourge which is recommended by its exist-
ence and patronized for its convenience, will still be per-
petuated. It may continue to disgrace this country for more
than another century ; although the judicious outlay of a few
shillings would greatly amend even modern stables. Banish
the stalls, and divide the interior into loose boxes. Lower
the mangers and the hay-racks to the floor, and abolish the
loft, now placed over where the animals repose. Allow the
■entire space, from the ground to the roof, for the huge lungs

FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES.

223

"to breathe in. Improve the drainage. Warm the building,
by means of a slow combustion, and by water-pipes. To
effect all this should not cost very much ; and, as his reward,
man would gain the longer service of his slave, together with
an inward approval, springing from a consciousness of having
•done his duty towards the meekness which has been entrusted
to his careful keeping.

224

THE SO-CALLED INCAPACITATING “VICES."

CHAPTER VIII.

THE SO-CALLED “ INCAPACITATING VICES ” WHICH ARE THE RESULTS OF
INJURY OR OF DISEASE.

*1% T ANY injuries occur to liorses which incapacitate them
from performing physical exertion, and notably among-
these is rick or chink of the back, which is among the most
common and the least understood of equine affections. Its
symptoms are confounded, one and the same name being
employed to indicate every stage of the disorder ; thus con-
fusing inquiry. Those effects which result from organic
change, are regarded as the promptings of that “ viciousness
of spirit ” with which it has pleased mankind to credit the
horse. The liberality of mortal imagination is extreme,
especially where causes have to be assumed. Grant man the
right to conjecture, and there is no mystery in Nature for
which he cannot account. Thus, the sharp pangs of agony
which induced the contortions of a dumb creature were con-
jectured to be the gratification of an innately “ vicious
disposition.” This pretended explanation has remained
unquestioned for ages, abusing the intellect of mankind, and
hardening the hearts of those whom it was thought to en-
lighten. No doubt many very worthy people will feel much,
inclined to quarrel with the book which presumes to question
the interpretation that generations have approved, and time
has sanctified.

However, to expose the manner in which the personation of

THE SO-CALLED INCAPACITATING “VICES.”

225

meekness lias been abused by tlie arrogance of ignorance —
certain animals are supposed to indulge a morbid habit, or
“ vicious ” propensity, which is, by the lower orders, spoken
of as “ kidney dropping.” Creatures thus viciously disposed
are generally aged, and are devoted either to heavy draught or
to harness purposes. They are sometimes met in those stables
where horses are let out by the “ hour, day, or job.” One
thus afflicted will be drawing a gig along some pleasant
country road when “ the vice ” shall be suddenly displayed.

“A kidney dkoppek.”

The attacks may appear in rapid succession, when they render
the life worthless ; or they may only come on at distant
intervals, being separated by long periods of apparent sound-
ness. No jockey, however knowing he may be in his vocation,
or however boastful he may be about “ my ■’sperience •’mnng
orses, can, by any visible sign, announce the day, or foretell
the hour, when a particular quadruped will be afflicted with an
attack of “ kidney dropping.”

15

226

THE SO-CALLED INCAPACITATING “ VICES;

The horse shall be harnessed to some light vehicle, within
which may be seated some tradesman. The animal is not
overloaded, and seems to be journeying pleasantly at his own
pace, when suddenly the gig is brought sharply up, and the
pony is discovered squatting upon its haunches like a dog.

This is an unnatural position with the horse. It is perfectly
true animals are made to assume it in the circus of most amphi-
theatres ; but if the reader remembers, he also beheld men in
the same place put their arms and legs in positions which
were quite as unnatural to humanity in general as sitting on
their haunches possibly could be to the community of the
equine race. What, therefore, may have been exhibited at a
circus signifies nothing when regarded in its fitness for uni-
versal application ; in all other spheres, sitting on the haunches,
when exemplified by the horse, must be accepted as proof of
bodily derangement.

If the attitude of the animal be observed, the hind limbs
■will be seen to have fallen in such positions as suggests no
notion of comfort or of design. They may cross one another,
or they may be sprawled out on either side of the body; they
are never arranged with that grace and care which indicate
the attitude to have been deliberately assumed. Moreover,
should the skin be pricked with the point of a pin, no sign of
sensibility is usually elicited from the hind quarters. Strike
the prostrated members, and no evidence of pain follows the
blow. The posterior portions of the body obviously are dead
to this world and to its malice.

However, do not fuss about the horse ; allow the sufferer to
remain undisturbed where it has fallen. Have patience with
the distress which no cruelty can quicken. Loosen the har-
ness ; remove the shafts ; procure some water, and permit
sensibility to allay its parching thirst. After a short space,
the quadruped may get up of its own accord. Some time has
been lost ; but disease has not been aggravated by needless

THE SO-CaLLED INCAPACITATING “VICES.”

227

torture. When the creature rises, the fit has passed ; but the
author doubts if the recovery can then be pronounced com-
plete. He would certainly brave “ an accident ” who should
essay to drive a horse but recently recovered from an attack
of “ kidney dropping/* though this hazardr may be frequently
incurred with apparent impunity.

Allow the injured quadruped to remain in the stable undis-
turbed for the night. The following morning will be time
enough for its examination; for the disease under which the
Tiorse languishes is of a nature that cannot be affected by the
lapse of a few hours.

The next day, having selected a piece of clear ground, cover
The spot thickly with straw, and have the horse led on to it.
The services of a veterinary surgeon are not imperative. The
proprietor may himself conduct the investigation ; or, should
he feel distrustful of his own ability, any person possessed of
the necessary amount of confidence may undertake the active
duty. All idle spectators should be first requested to retire.
Then the investigator takes his position as close to the quad-
ruped as possible. He runs the forefinger and thumb gently
over the superior spinous processes of the vertebral chain, or
down the centre of the back. This action is repeated several
dimes, additional force being brought to bear with each suc-
ceeding trial, until the whole strength of the operator is
exerted. While he is doing this, the person who undertakes
the investigation fixes his attention on the head of the horse.
If, upon pressure being made on any particular spot, the ears
are laid upon the neck, or the crest is suddenly elevated, the
iact must be mentally noted. The trial should be renewed,
and if the like symptoms be elicited, the conclusion naturally
is that the seat of injury lies immediately under or very near
do the place indicated.

This point being ascertained, the operator puts a hand on
either side of the tender part, and casts his full weight sud-

15*

pared for every eccentricity ; and, while regretting the neces-
sity which obliges agony to be inflicted on a gentle and timid
creature, he should also be far above the coarse and brutal
punishments which are too frequently indulged to check the
writhings of the potent suffering.

The affair is thus decided. The spine has been injured, and
the spinal cord which it sheaths is also involved in the lesion.
Horses in such a condition are commonly, with an utter

228 THE SO-CALLED INCAPACITATING “ VICES.”

denly upon the spine. Such a proceeding, to be demon-
strative, must be rapid and energetic. Horses under the
sudden pang thus produced have shrieked in agony. Gene-
rally animals crouch under the torture, and burst forth into
copious perspirations. The author knows of no instance
where a desire to employ the teeth has been exhibited ; al-
though there is no predicating in what manner a creature
may behave under the powerful wrench of actual torment.
He, however, who undertakes such an inquiry must be pre-

TEST FOB BICK OF THE BACK.

THE SO-CALLED INCAPACITATING “VICES.

'229

want of morality, cast upon the market, or publicly disposed
of by auction. The animal sold is soon found to be worthless ;
it speedily passes from owner to owner, until it becomes the pro-
perty of the lower class of horse-copers, to whom that which
they call a “ kidney dropper ” becomes a prize : it is sold at a
large figure, and is purchased at a small one again and again,
until worn out with its sufferings death terminates the scene.

There -is, however, another form of chink in the back, where
the spinal marrow is in no vast degree involved, and in which
the animal exhibiting the affection is not generally devoted to
harness purposes. The horse is commonly showy in appear-
ance, and is usually disposed of exclusively for saddle uses ;
but the existence of a disease is not denoted by any outward
sign, therefore its presence is sneered at as a positive impos-
sibility. Quadrupeds thus disordered are by the generality of
horsemen condemned as “ irreclaimably vicious/’

One of the bones of the spine has been rendered loose in
consequence of the ligaments being over-strained ; the animal
has been abused in some manner. The ligaments, when in
this condition, are acutely painful ; though no visual disorder
may be observable to the post-mortem examiner, nevertheless,
the slightest weakness in such a structure may, during life,
occasion the severest agony. The bone is not fractured ; but
one of the vertebrae, through the leverage of its superior
spinous process, may have been wrenched slightly to one side.
This may not affect the appearance of the quadruped ; neither
may it elicit signs of pain when the weight is evenly seated
upon the back ; therefore only during the act of mounting,
the drag then being entirely to one side occasions the most
poignant anguish.

The horse, being dumb, of course cannot explain its sensa-
tions ; nor can it appeal to the forbearance of its master. Its
ailments are entirely subjected to the merciful consideration
of man. The animal’s actions, therefore, are always liable to

230

THE SO-CALLED INCAPACITATING “VICES.’

be misconstrued ; the promptings of torture are frequently-
confounded with the exhibitions of the worst forms of “ vice
Thus a creature with the ligaments of the back strained is.
always condemned as an inveterate kicker ; because the drag,
produced by the weight of the rider resting on one stirrup,
occasions so sharp an agony as alarms the quadruped, and
naturally excites a determination to repel some imaginary
enemy. The creature, consequently, commences to “ lash
out” with its utmost energy. This violence is repeated sa
often as the owner has occasion to remount. The action is
always sudden, and not to be inferred from the previous
aspect or behaviour of the nag. It is, therefore, attended
with the greater danger, not only to the proprietor, but also
to those who may be collected about the horse.

Violent, however, as may be the resistance provoked while
the foot is in the stirrup, the seat of the saddle is no sooner
attained than composure is restored. When the rider is once
fairly on the back, the steed assumes its natural timidity, its
docility, and its obedience. It is then transformed into all the
most fastidious proprietor could desire. That circumstance
has induced some horsemen, who were more thoughtful than
the generality of the race, to change the habits usual in this
country. Such persons have tried the effect of mounting upon
the wrong side ; this has usually, for a certain time, been
attended with perfect success ; but the custom, after a space,
has seemed to involve the sound ligaments, when the kicking
has been renewed with more than double vehemence. A horse
which kicks in the way described should always be transferred
to harness-work, when, no vast weight being upon the back,
the quadruped generally behaves admirably.

Rick, or chink in the back, is, however, the common pro-
perty of creatures ef heavy draught, and, with such a descrip-
tion of horse, the consequences are usually more marked and
much more severe.

THE SO-CALLED INCAPACITATING “VICES.”

231

The reader will readily imagine that a “ kidney dropper,”
falling suddenly while pulling a weighty load, can hardly
escape “accident.” Therefore, quadrupeds of the coarser
breed, and thus afflicted, rapidly come into the possession of
those who do not scruple to trade with misery ; and as this
form of disease enables the sufferer to appear with a blooming
coat, as' well as a carcass carrying a quantity of fat, the copers
often reap a rich harvest by their unscrupulous dishonesty.

Upon the earliest indication being perceived of the spine
having been badly injured, the horse should be instantly
thrown up for at least six months. The animal ought not to
have a layer of pitch, rosin, &c., smeared thickly over the
back, and be turned out to take its chance upon a green diet ;
but it should be placed in a roomy, loose box ; it should have
the hair cut off close over the seat of injury, and the place
should be constantly moistened by means of cloths dipped in a
lotion, composed of tincture of arnica two ounces, and water
one pint. This remedy, with softened food of the most sup-
porting kind, should constitute the treatment for the first
month of recovery.

At the end of that period we may assume that inflammation
has been subdued ; thereupon, the measures adopted may be
changed. Some compound soap liniment should be rubbed on
the surface every morning. Should the application blister the
skin, the liniment must be withheld for a time ; but so soon as
friction can be quietly endured, the stimulant must be renewed.
All this while the quadruped should be well fed ; but medicine
should be strictly withheld, grass and bran mashes being solely
employed to regulate the bowels if their action be sluggish.

When morbid sensibility no longer exists in the spine, and
moderate pressure with the fingers can be borne upon the
back, the liniment may be discontinued ; but the restoration is
to finish with the repeated use of liquid blisters. One side of
the spine, near to the seat of injury, is first to be acted upon;

232

THE SO-CALLED INCAPACITATING “ VICES.”

when the action of the vesicatory appears to be subsiding, the
other half of the back should be attacked. This plan must be
pursued till the fifth month has expired, the horse being sus-
tained upon the best and most nutritive food. After this
period has elapsed, a handful of ground oak bark should be
mingled with each allowance of provender. The animal, dur-
ing all this time, never being flurried, or allowed to leave its
ample stable.

Upon recovery, the quadruped ought never to be employed
for that same kind of service in which the injury was received.
No weight should subsequently be placed upon the back; for
the spine, which has been once injured, can never by human
art be restored to its pristine soundness. However greatly
the animal may have been prized, even as a hunter, it is safer
and much more profitable to doom the steed to the collar, in
which last employment old hunters particularly delight in
exhibiting their highly-prized excellences of action. Many a
horse that appears in the London streets running before some
brougham, and which, by the gaiety of its spirit, excites the
admiration of the foot passengers, will, after death, be found
to have one or more bones of the spine joined by osseous
deposit, proving that the back, during life, must have suffered
serious injury.

Horse-owners, however, should be very careful not know-
ingly to risk chink or rick of the back; for such an “acci-
dent,” according to its intensity, may reduce the animal of
fabulous price to an article which shall literally be almost
valueless. It brings down the steed, which excited universal
envy, to the cripple, which no honest man would sell, and
which no prudent man would keep. The mischief, once estab-
lished, too often sets science at defiance; for the rick, when
bad, is terribly apt to terminate in fearful fracture of the spino.

Some horses, though not absolutely “ ricked,” are, neverthe-
less, stiff in the back. Such quadrupeds are unpleasant to

TEE SO-CALLED' INCAPACITATING “ VICES/’ 233

the rider, and are unable to turn in the stall; but whenever
their removal becomes imperative, they are backed out on to
the gangway, and then turned towards the door. A stiffened
spine can be no recommendation, but it may fairly be accepted
as evidence, that the animal has either been over-weighted or
has, in its time, done some hard work. It is invariably detri-
mental to the value : for the vertebrae being the base of the
anatomical body, their healthy condition is of the greatest
possible importance towards even an approach to soundness.

A POPULAR CURE FOR THE IMAGINARY VICE OF “ JIBBING.”

A horse which, upon hearing the command to proceed, will
commence throwing up its head, and, in spite of the whip,
shall back, is supposed to have learned the vice of jibbing.
On such occasions, however, various cruelties are commonly
perpetrated ; but severity has then lost its power to quicken
timidity, because in five cases out of ten jibbing is the result
of a kind of equine epilepsy. Therefore, to resort to harsh

234

THE SO-CALLED INCAPACITATING “VICES.”

measures under such circumstances is only increasing the paiit
already inflicted by acute disease. Severity can only lend
violence to the impulse, which is almost certain to succeed the-
attack. It may endanger the life of the driver, hut it cannot,
shorten the duration of the fit. Every kind of brutality has
been speculated in without effect. Such treatment, most .pro-
bably, has prolonged insensibility; for noise, confusion, or-
agony is not likely to be sedative to the nervous system,
which a word has morbidly excited. Yet, such practices are-
generally adopted. Nay, the author has heard of a profes-
sional man who, residing near London, possessed a fine animal
which was thus afflicted. This person actually had some straw
kindled under his quadruped’s body, and, to quicken what he
called “an obstinate vice,” partially roasted the breathing-
flesh of his living property ! So monstrous an artifice was
successful on the first occasion ; but, upon repetition, it ceased
to operate. Such a custom is not unusual among the un-
educated boors of distant villages; but the writer had hoped
that no vexation could have induced an individual, possessing
the most distant claim upon the name of gentleman, to adopt-
so inhuman and useless a resort.

The horse is a gentle creature ; it has no courage ; it can
display no resolution. Its impulses always incline it to flee
from danger. It is made up of alarms, and a child’s puny
hand may guide its huge strength. But the history of the-
animal supplies too many instances where the perversity of
mankind has mistaken the prompting of disease for the display
of malice. It is disgraceful to the boasted civilization of the
present age that, while knowledge has much benefitted every
sphere of human legislation, the errors, the practices, and the
brutalities of the last century should be in full operation
where the scant necessities of the most gentle, the most sub-
missive, and the most valuable of man’s earthly helpmates are
concerned.

STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE.

235

CHAPTER IX.

STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE.

PERSONS about to build stables should, before they begin
to plan, thoroughly comprehend the purposes which the
new edifice is to serve ; and in the matter before us, it is ne-
cessary that it be investigated on sound principles, scientific
research, and well-weighed practical observation. This con-
sideration, therefore, involves the necessity of the reasoner
being acquainted with the habits of horses, whether placed in
a natural or artificial state, and of his being versed in a know-
ledge of physiology and chemistry, to enable him efficiently to
secure the adoption of hygienic measures in the construction
of his stables.

In the first place, a site must be selected, which, if possible,
should always be on rising ground, in order to insure the
downward flow of drainage ; and, secondly, the internal
arrangements of the stable demand careful consideration,
since stables, as they now exist, are tainted with the evils of
antiquity. Loose boxes must supplant the place of the stall.
Each box is to be 18 feet square ; of these there are to be six,,
ranged in pairs, three upon either side of the interior. Every
box shall be rendered dry and sweet by six deep gutters, three
on either side, and all emptying into a central branch drain,
which discharges its contents into a main dram, running'
through the length of the entire building.

The gutters commence eighteen inches from the side divi-

230

STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE.

pavement, at either end of the box, begin at the elevation of
three inches, and sink to the level of the lowest surface as they
.approach the gutter. Thus, every portion of the pavement
will incline one in twelve, a fall of fully sufficient magnitude to
allow of the speedy disappearance of fluid, which is always
ejected with force and in quantity. The gutters all terminate
in “ stink traps,” which give admission into the branch drains,
these last, as well as the main drain, consisting of circular
■earthen pipes.

MODES OF STANDING AFFORDED BY AN UNDULATED PAVEMENT.

sions of the boxes : the first is situated three feet from the
external wall. Six feet divides the first from the second
gutter >the same space separates the second from the third
gutter, which is removed only three from the central par-
tition.

The flooring or pavement between the gutters is arranged in
■gentle undulations, like the walks in a gentleman’s garden. It
is raised three inches higher in the centre of each division, than
where its borders terminate in the gutter. The two pieces of

STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE.

237

The undulations of the pavement not only facilitate the
speedy removal of fluid, and thus tend to keep in a state of
purity the atmosphere within the building, but the surface
presents every variety of standing-ground to the choice of the
quadruped. The animal, by this arrangement, can select an
upward slope, a downward incline, or a level plane, whereon,
to rest the feet : an ability of appropriation which intelligence-
will not be slow to comprehend or tardy to appreciate.

Each gutter should be two inches wide and two inches deep.
They ought to commence at the depth of a Dutch clinker from

DIAGRAMMATIC SECTION OF A SUPERFICIAL GUTTER, SEVERAL OF WHICH KEEP DRY THE

L&OSE BOXES.

1 1 The Dutch clinkers.

2 2 The prepared ground on which the gutters and the pavement repose.

3 The semicircular earthenware gutter along which the fluid flows, covered by the-
loose iron grating.

the surface, and be covered by a perforated loose iron grating,
the holes in which are a quarter of an inch wide, one inch,
long, and the last distance asunder. Thus, should the horse,,
when down, lie over one of these gutters, the body cannot then
repose on a good conductor of heat.

The gratings are not flat, but incline on every side towards-
the openings. This pattern was selected, because the author
has beheld flat bars eaten into by the acridity of the fluid, and
retaining liquid that yielded an abominable stench. Neither
are these coverings fixed into their situations. They are
merely laid upon the sides of the earthen gutters, which are-

238

STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE.

three inches wide at the openings ; the iron can afford to
dispense with other fastening than its own weight supplies.
Should the channel, which the grating guards, ever become
clogged, then the easy lift of the metal-work will allow the
gutter to be cleansed.

PATTERN OF THE LOOSE IRON GRATING WHICH COVERS THE GUTTERS.

The openings, which are ample to permit the escape of all
liquid, are purposely made small, because rats and other
vermin too frequently enter stables by the drains. It is by
no means unusual for such pests, where they are numerous,
to attack and gnaw the hoofs of living animals. The horn is
without sensation, therefore it can be gradually removed
without the horse being at all inconvenienced ; but, assuredly,
the proprietor will be vexed at a destruction which necessi-
tates the quadruped should be idle until Nature has repaired
the loss of substance.

The branch drains, which commence at»twenty inches from
the surface, can only be entered through a stink-trap ; that
article also opposes an obstacle to the free passage of vermin.
All these branches terminate in the main drain, which, where
the tube begins, is ' situated thirty-four inches within the soil,
and, as it proceeds, has a fall of about one foot in fifteen
feet.

stables as they should be.

239

Neither the pipes, the gutter, or the clinkers are placed
-within, or rest upon, unprepared soil. Such may be the usual
-plan after which most stables are now built ; for the drainage
of these places does not generally extend beneath the surface.
The pavement of the contemplated stable, however, is to be
raised two feet above the level of the ground on which it is
erected. For the entire space which the structure will occupy
the soil is, in the first instance, to be removed to the depth of
one foot. After the foundations have been properly laid, the
walls are then to be raised till they are built up two feet above
-the natural level of the surrounding surface.

A layer of large flints, or of coarse brick rubbish, is then
~to be thrown in ; this layer is to be two feet six inches in
-thickness. Within this the main and the branch drains arc
-to be arranged, though the principal drain will also have,
towards its termination, to be sunk into the earth. The
remaining six inches is to be filled in with coarse sand ; upon
this the gutters are to commence.

The gutters are two inches deep. They all originate at five
inches from the upper surface of the clinkers. The shallowest
has a fall of fifteen inches, but others have a much greater
inclination ; as all empty into the branch drains, which com-
municate with the main drain. This last, sinking deeper as it
proceeds, quits the building at a depth of six feet six inches
from the exterior of the sand within the walls of the stable.

The contemplated structure will be thus thrice drained.
First, there will be the deep tubular main and branch drains ;
next, there is the sand and brick rubbish ; while, lastly, there
is the surface drainage, effected by the grated gutters. So
much pains have been consciously bestowed upon the dryness
of the building, because nothing will, in the end, prove more
detrimental to the horse than confinement in a damp abode.
Not only does perfect drainage conserve the health of the
equine inhabitants, but it likewise tends to preserve the

240

STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE.

bricks, the mortar, and the expensive fittings that should,
adorn every stable.

According to the supposed view, which forms the frontis-
piece to the present volume, there is a free but covered space,
twelve feet wide, extending all round the building. The soil
of this free space, covered ride or ambulatory, should also have-
been removed, and subsequently have been filled up, after the-
plan already described, as necessary for the interior of the-
stables. It need not, however, be paved with clinkers, as sand
forms a better ground for a horse to exercise upon, than can
possibly be made with the hardest of known bricks.

The roof, having sheltered the ride, terminates immediately
over a metal gutter. This gutter communicates with five pipes-
upon the western and upon the eastern sides, with two pipes
upon the southern, and with three upon the northern aspects
of the building.

The roofing of the ambulatory is upheld by thirty-one posts,
each twelve feet high, and the same distance apart. Between
every two of these posts, on all sides of the stable save' the
front, are placed smaller uprights, which reach only to six feet.
By these smaller posts are supported one end of three move-
able bales on either side, the opposite extremities of the bales
resting against the larger posts ; each bale being six feet long,
and reaching from the small uprights to the main supports.
The first bale is one foot from the ground ; while the others
are at equal distances, and so placed as to leave four inches of
clear pole to project upon the highest rail.

The pipes leading from the highest gutter are fastened to
the pillars and empty into a drain, which encircles the build-
ing and receives the water from the roof ; it also conveys away
that which is used in washing the carriages, or for general
purposes. This is carried to any convenient pond, while the
liquid manure of the stable is, by the tubular pipes, conveyed
into a tank at least twenty yards from the principal building-

STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE.

241

The bars forming the upper portion of the divisions are not
so close nor so bulky, but the interspaces will allow the
horses, after the Australian mode of cementing friendships,
“ to rub noses/’ or to exchange large draughts of fragrant
breath with their fellow captives. Such innocent familiarities
will often lead to lasting friendships, from the establishment
of which the proprietor will reap an advantage. Quadrupeds
perform much more gaily when harnessed with a companion
that they love ; and should the owner be at any time pressed
for room, one or two additional spare boxes can always be
commanded by allowing equine friends to enjoy the same
compartment.

There is, however, running throughout society, a strange
prejudice against permitting any communication between the
inhabitants of the stable. Such a dislike cannot be justified
by appealing to nature, as horses, when free to exercise a
choice, always congregate in herds. Neither is it warranted
by universal custom. In cavalry stables the quadrupeds are
merely separated by bales, or by poles suspended at either
extremity by chains, and hanging between the animals. The
habit, also, does not gain any support from consistency of
conduct : since the gentleman who will shudder at the possi-
bility of any communion in his stable, will, nevertheless, allow
numerous equine creatures to assemble together, and leave
them without check, when he turns his stud into the field to
be “ freshened up ” by a “run at grass.”

The boxes have each a distinct entrance. The doors are
in the wall, and open upon an ambulatory. Each entrance is
nine feet high, and six feet six inches wide ; all sharp edges
and projecting iron-work, as hinges, latches, locks, &c., being
strictly forbidden. Such things often injure animals, while in
the act -of passing through these openings, and should never be
permitted to project in any well-managed establishment.

llie folding doors are divided into two parts, though not

16

242

STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE.

absolutely in the centre, since the lower portion extends onlv
four feet from the ground. The upper part can be thrown
wide, without releasing the quadruped. The ventilation is
thereby rendered far purer, while the captive is indulged with
a more animated view than the walls of the interior can afford.
The quadrupeds will protrude their heads through such spaces,
and remain in that position for successive hours, looking the
pictures of mild contentment, and contemplating liberty, which
a generous nature appears to have relinquished almost without

A. HORSE LOOKING THROUGH THB HALF-OPBNID STABLE BOOB.

regret. A simple creature may here in shade enjoy the sum-
mer breeze, as it blows aside the forelock ; for if man is, by
his position, forced to confine the steed, he is not compelled to
aggravate the sufferings which necessarily attend the condition
of captivity.

The doorway, being of those dimensions which have been

STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE.

243

already described, should afford all necessary security, espe-
cially when the groom adopts the proper method of conducting
an animal through the ample space.

No possible accident should impress the memory of the
•captive with the notion that doors and anguish are associated
one with the other. The habit of the animal, being accus-
tomed to advance the head through the upper space, would,
moreover, be of some service in dispelling all idea of pain,
should the impression have been received prior to the horse
•coming into the possession of its present owner. The sight,
also, of the man, to whom the affectionate creature may be
attached, would, moreover, attract the notice, and inspire the
confidence of timidity.

The lower division of the door should, on fine nights, after
dusk, be opened ; that the prisoner may stretch its limbs, and
bathe its hoof in the evening dew. So the grass is kept suffi-
ciently short, not to afford more than a nibble, no harm, but
much good, will arise from sanctioning so innocent a luxury as
a stroll in the free air. The eye of the horse fits the creature
to roam by night ; and man should, by this time, have suffered
enough to cause a doubt as to the wisdom of crossing Nature
in her many wonderful provisions for the welfare of her
•children.

( (

Such a suggestion may startle the prejudices which are in-
herent in the proprietors of most training stables. These
places are, however, chiefly situated on the open downs, where
ground is cheap, and the herbage scarcely affords a bite for
the close-feeding sheep. Half an acre of such land could,
without much expense, be attached to each box. On to this
the flock might be turned by day ; but so much liberty could
be afforded the equine captive during the night. The racer
being reared for speed, it is surely wrong to cramp its limbs
by too stringent a confinement !

Within the loose box there is no rack for hay to strain the

1 G *

244

STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE.

horses* necks, and shake seeds into their eyes, which must ho
open to direct the teeth. The ordinary manger is also absent.
The horse does not sit to eat, nor can it lift the food to the
mouth ; but, naturally, it lowers the head to its gratification,
and thus has no need to be accommodated with exalted fix-
tures. As it can with ease feed off* the ground, why should
man, in the nineteenth century, persist in forcing the animal,
which he domesticates, to forego the habits which Nature has
engrafted on its existence ?

No rope fastens an animal directly under the opening to a
dirty hay-loft. No puffs of cold wind, therefore, can blow
upon the quadruped through such an aperture ; which is not a
loss, for horses are very susceptible to colds, which modern
stables are ingeniously arranged to encourage. Like all life,,
when hotly and impurely enclosed, the steeds become morbidly
delicate : the pampered daughters of the wealthy cannot pos-
sibly be more vulnerable to evil influences than are those
equine slaves, whose service demands a body vigorous with
health, strong, and able to encounter all the seasons in their
vicissitudes.

As to the supply of liquid, some arrangement is also needed :
the bottom of the water-trough is level with the surrounding
pavement. The supply-pipe is commanded by a tap, and all
the receptacles can be simultaneously filled by means of the-
tube that rises above the superior margin of the trough.
Below the earth is a conduit, which conveys away the super-
abundant liquid. Into this tube or drain two smaller pipes
empty, both of which arise from the interior of the receptacle.
The smallest pipe reaches almost to the topmost edge of the
compartment, and is simply intended to prevent the possibility
of an overflow. The other and the larger tube is inserted into
the bottom of the trough, and the removal of a plug, which
commands the entrance, permits the contents of the trough to-
flow through this pipe into the larger conduit below, which

STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE.

245

empties its contents into the main tubular drain. By turning
•on the supply, which is derived from a cistern to be hereafter
mentioned, and by- also opening the waste-pipes, all the troughs
•can at any time be quickly cleansed.

The cistern is situated in the boiler-house, and is elevated
■several feet above the level of the stable. The boiler-house
adjoins the boxes, and from the raised cistern springs the
supply-pipe, which is carried underground through the stables.
Water, however, will always rise to its own level ; this pro-
perty convinces us that the troughs will be speedily filled
whenever the taps are turned. The taps, by which the flow is
commanded, are both placed in the first box; and, by this
arrangement, the animal can receive fresh water four times daily,
without fluid being carried to the horse. The contents of the
■customary pails are too frequently spilt by careless grooms.
The horse naturally thrives best in a dry abode. Besides, the
drink, as in Nature, is always before the creature ; for, if pre-
sented only at stated periods, the draught may be offered
when desire does not require liquids ; or it may be withheld
when thirst is so powerful as to engender a disinclination for
solid nourishment. Moreover, servants are not always atten-
tive to their monotonous duties ; and the animal, in conse-
quence, may be denied a necessary supply of fluid.

The water-troughs are, moreover, recommended by further
reasons. Horses are blest with acute senses ; and everybody
must have observed the animal blow upon, or rather smell,
fluid before it partakes, of the refreshment which it needs.
The stable pails, generally, stand about; such things are
exceedingly handy ; and we need not be surprised if they are
-occasionally used for other than for cleanly purposes. The
troughs, being fixed, are secured to one service; the pipes,
emptying into the receptacles, prevent the purity of the supply
from being tampered with. The above advantages are also
associated with the ascertained fact, that the horse, with water

246

STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE.

constantly before it, drinks less than the animal to which the
pail is brought only after hours of enforced abstinence have
generated a raging thirst.

The roofs of stables in large towns must necessarily be
composed of slates ; but this material by no means forms the
best protection to the inmates of the stable against the heat
of the summer’s sun or the winter’s frost. Between the
slates and the rafters of such roofs, some non-conductor of
heat should be interposed, such as felt. This simple expedient
would, to a great extent, protect those living within the stable
from rapid changes of temperature.

In country districts, fortunately, stable-builders can be
choosers, and a cheap material for the formation of the roof is
always ready to hand. This consists of straw; there is no
better roof than a thatched one, either for a house, stable, or
any other location where animals are compelled to live. This
simple covering forms a perfect protection against storm, heat,
and cold, and consequently is the one above all others to be
desired as a stable construction. But of whatever material the
roof consists, it is necessary that openings be made in it, in
order to insure ventilation — i.e. the egress of impure or spent
gases, and the ingress of pure or atmospheric air. Many sys-
tems of ventilation have been tried, but none have succeeded
so well as Muir’s Four Courts Ventilator, which consists of
one or more chimneys placed on the highest elevation of the
roof. Each chimney should be a cylindrical tube, divided inte
two parts by a mid-partition or diaphragm, so arranged as to
allow the escape of impure air on one side, and the ingress of
pure on the other. By this means a continuous stream of fresh
air is supplied, replacing the spent gases, or those unfit for
respiration, and consequently injurious to health.

Having secured good drainage and effective ventilation, our
task is only partly accomplished, since we must now select
atable-fittings ; and in doing so, let us give way to a little-

STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE.

247,

physiological reflection. The horse, in a state of nature, eats off
the ground, and drinks with his mouth on a level with his feet.
Such being the case, then, it must be antagonistic to the
provision of nature to compel him to eat hay from a rack
situated above his head, and corn from a manger placed oppo-
site his chest.

In many modern stables, the inmate of the stable is so
compelled to feed and drink ; but this evil is easily obviated
by lowering the rack, manger, and water-trough to the level
of the horse’s knees, at the same time causing the bottom of
the manger, rack, &c., to descend to the ground level. By
the adoption of this arrangement, the horse would eat and
drink in the way Nature intended he should. The manger or
mash-tub should possess a foot-guard, which will effectually
prevent the horse throwing out his oats or mash whilst feed-
ing ; the water-pot also should be made, without a plug, to
turn upon a pivot, by which means the unused water may be
discharged, and the water-trough itself kept as clean as a china
bowl, and the water always fresh. If oats happen to be in a
trough with a plug in the bottom, they are retained, while the
water passes off. Any one who has used the common water-
pot with brass chain and plug, which frets the horse and
soils the water, will see in this, although so simple, a wise
arrangement.

By due attention to the wise laws which Nature indicates,
and which in the above chapter an attempt has been made to
explain, “ Life may be prolonged, although death cannot ulti-
mately be defeated.”

i i i i:

M ,

»,'• ij •

248

GROOMS.

CHAPTER X.

A FEW HINTS TO GROOMS.

/ CLEANLINESS, quietude, and regularity should prevail
in every stable. Where one horse alone is kept, the
groom should be placed over a lad ; for a stable cannot be well
managed by one pair of hands. The door of the building should
be unlocked punctually at six o’clock. The horse should be
inspected, to see that no mishap has occurred during the night;
after which, the animal at present receives the earliest feed of
corn, mixed with two pounds of clover hay, cut into chaff.
While this is being consumed, the night-clothes should be
removed ; the unsoiled straw divided from the soiled bedding;
the clothes should be spread out to become perfectly dry;
the exposed body of the animal should be again thoroughly
inspected ; stopping (when used) taken from the feet ; the
water renewed ; the feet looked to ; the clinches of the nails,
which fasten on the shoes, should be felt ; the unsoiled bed
heaped into one corner of the box ; the day-clothes put on ;
and those things generally attended to which are required to
give the place a smart appearance.

Seven o'clock. The day-clothes are either allowed to remain,
are changed for lighter sheets, or are entirely removed, accord-
ing to the weather ; the horse is bridled, and the animal is led
forth to one hour’s exercise; the helper or the stable-boy
throws every outlet open ; puts the bedding out to dry, if
requisite ; washes the pavement ; sluices the drains ; cleans
the manger ; allows a full stream of water to flow through the

GROOMS.

249

troughs — getting the building sweet and ready by the expira-
tion of the hour.

This morning exercise is, in London, often neglected ; but
it should always be strictly insisted on. Perhaps it were better
were the animals at once conducted from the place in which
they slept, and led through the air upon the first opening of the
doors ; after which they could return to sweetened apartments,
xvith bodies refreshed and appetites stimulated by the morning
hreeze. Moreover, it is better to divide the exercise and the
work by as long a period as possible ; and the food must be
more nutritive and wholesome when eaten in a clean apart-
ment, than when devoured in a chamber reeking with the
fumes of twelve hours’ imprisonment. ISTo fear need be felt
concerning the delay, as the exercise is no more to the horse
than is the early walk before breakfast, in which so many
gentlemen indulge with advantage to their constitutions.
During winter, however, the morning exercise is often de-
layed ; and then is seldom given. The only legitimate excuse
for the absence of such a necessity to health is the presence
of a severe frost. Otherwise, winter and summer, the early
walk should never be neglected.

Eight o’cloclc. The horse is brought in, and being stripped,
the grooming commences before the body cools. This is per-
formed outside in very warm weather, but within the stable
when the day is either cold or wet/' Hair-cloth, dandy and
water -brush; hay whisp, sponge and comb, are only employed
In this operation. -- The hair-cloth is used, save in cases of
absolute necessity, instead of a currycomb ; the other things
are employed after the manner in which grooms are accus-
tomed to use them.

The groom should always cleanse the body in the line of the
hair. To ruffle this causes annoyance to the animal, and inter-
feres with the beauty of its appearance. The daily renovation
ought to commence with the head. On this part more time

250

GROOMS.

and patience should he lavished than are usually bestowed.
The groom is not perfect in his duty until his office affords
pleasure to the creature on which he operates. The ears
are smoothed and made glossy with the hand. Then the
fqre-quarters are dressed; afterwards, the animal is turned
round, and the other parts are attended to; but one agent
is always fully used before the next is introduced. The
openings having been sponged and the long hair combed, the
toilet is then finished. This being done, the groom sees about
his harness, &c., till nine o’clock.

To ascertain whether an animal has been properly groomed,
inspect the roots of the mane. Should scurf appear, set the
servant to remove it. Also, finger the body, which should
communicate no thick and greasy soil to the hand. Grooms
will assert it is impossible to prevent these effects ; but if their
labour cannot clear the coat, they must be either very ignorant
or very idle. It is useless to dispute with an inferior. Tell
him you insist upon your desires being accomplished, and you
will only retain the man who can effect it.

Nine o'clock. The horse receives another feed, consisting of
two and a half pounds of soaked peas or of soaked tares, one
quart of soaked and crushed barley, with three pounds of clover
hay cut into chaff, and also steeped. All soil is removed from
the boxes; the groom then returns to finish his harness. Every
piece is unbuckled and cleaned separately, and all metal articles
polished, after the leather has been overlooked and renovated.

Ten o’clock. The man goes to the house for the day’s orders;
these obtained, he returns to the stable; he finishes the har-
ness, and he cleans the carriage. The cushions should be re-
moved and daily aired ; in hot weather, in the sun ; in wet, or
during cold seasons, at the fire. This is done before the vehicle
itself is attended to.

Twelve o’clock. The horse has another feed of oats, with two
pounds of properly prepared chaff.

GEOOMS.

2513

Tivo o’clock. The horse, when not required by the master-
or mistress, is led out for two hours’ exercise. When its
services are needed, the eyes, nostrils, &c., are sponged over;,
the mane and tail combed out ; the coat is dried and smoothed;,
the exterior of the hoofs slightly glycerined; the feet and
shoes specially noticed; then the saddle or harness is put on,,
and the animal is walked, not hurried, round to the front door.
If the quadruped’s services are not required, the last directions
are unheeded.

Four or Five o’clock. When the horse returns, either from’
abroad or from exercise, the bed should have been littered
down, and the body should be slightly dressed; the night-
clothes should be ready; the animal be fed. When the horse
is out late, the groom and the stable-boy should be up to>
receive it. Further instructions will hereafter be given con-
cerning the treatment of the animal’s possible condition whem
it is brought home at unseasonable hours.

At dusk a small light is ignited, and placed in a lantern.

At Ten o’clock the horse receives the last meal, which con-
sists of the same ingredients as the twelve o’clock feed.

In the foregoing directions, only those things have been;
mentioned which require to be executed with regularity. Many
small acts are, of course, not named. These are done betweeni
the more important duties. But, as a general division of the-
labour, a good groom should always make the horse the pri-
mary consideration. Thus, the fore part of the day is entirely
spent upon the quadruped, upon the harness, and upon the-
vehicle; while the afternoon (where such an arrangement is.
possible) is devoted to the employer or to the stable, and to-
those small matters which always demand attention.

Horses, when in the field, will invariably be seen either-
resting or sleeping during the hot hours of the afternoon.
The cool of the evening, consequently, would be a better time-
for enforcing exercise than the period when, according to.

.252

GROOMS.

■existing customs, it is generally administered. In private
■establishments, however, many of the latter proposals
would be attended with inconvenience ; but there is no house-
hold in which the ten o'clock feed and the evening exercise
might not be undertaken, and, in several public com-
panies, everything here suggested could be accomplished.
The morning's exercise should likewise be given before the
■day becomes hot or the light is fully confirmed. Then, the
quadruped is braced by the spirit of the hour, not rendered
miserable by the heat and annoyed by the stings of innumer-
able insects.

The only peculiarity in the above regulations consists in
the length of time over which the feeding and the exercising
are distributed. In the first place, the horse is, by Nature,
■formed to enjoy the night much more than it is made capable
•of roaming during the day. In the second place, the author
never dissected the carcass of an aged animal without finding
the capacity of the stomach morbidly enlarged, and the walls
-of the viscus rendered dangerously thin by repeated disten-
sion. The manner in which the small digestive bag of the
■quadruped must be overloaded, by the usual plan of cram-
ming five full meals into twelve hours, accounts for the latter
characteristic, and also explains why indigestion should rank
among the most fearful and the commonest maladies which
attend upon domestication.

The currycomb should be seldom used ; but the generality
of grooms .require to be cautioned concerning the use of the
whisp and the brush. The first article is generally brought
■down upon the sides with a succession of heavy blows. Now
beating is not cleaning ; neither is one act necessary to the
proper performance of the other. The brush is often applied
so quickly and sharply as to cause the animal to shrink. The
groom would not admire being himself dressed according to
such a method. The hair-cloth should be used to remove

GROOMS.

253

impurities ; the brush is employed to expel loose particles,,
and to smooth any hair which the previous process may have
disturbed, or roughened ; the whisp is intended to polish the
coat. Any violence over and above that requisite to fulfil
such intentions is needless cruelty, and should, when detected,
be immediately checked.

The more important portion of a groonTs duty, however,
concerns the treatment necessary for a wet, a tired, a dirty, or
a heated horse. Most servants are successful in dressing an
animal when the stable is entered in the morning, but few
comprehend how to groom a steed in any of the conditions
which have just been named ; and of that number fewer still
care to stay out of their beds to cleanse the soiled coats of
the creatures entrusted to their custody.

Clipping and singeing are processes which all stable-men
greatly admire. However, before the grounds of their ad-
miration are criticised, it may be as well to reason a little
upon what appears to be a growing custom. British horses
are deprived of the thick, warm covering which Nature
bestows only in the winter. It certainly does sound somewhat
paradoxical, when it is stated that the English allow their
quadrupeds to run about in full costume during the summer's
heat, but take off every protection as wet, snow, and frost
approach. Certainly, if extra covering is requisite at any
period, man, by great coats, cloaks, mantles, overshoes,
respirators, boas, and comforters, has declared that Christmas
is the time for additional warm clothing. But the groom
protests it is impossible to keep a wintry equine garment dry :
he says, that when the creature has been made comfortable
the previous evening, the coat is often found to be quite wet
on the following morning.

Still, in some very cold climates, it is not unusual to wet
the garments, for the purpose of confining the animal heat, or
of preventing cuticular evaporation ; therefore, the moisture-

254

GROOMS.

■of the skin may be ordained with a benevolent design. But
granting all the groom can object to wintry perspirations, the
body which perspires is confined in a stable, and an impure
atmosphere can occasion a faintness which shall provoke a
copious cuticular emission. At all events, man has, in his
treatment of the horse, made such egregious blunders, that
he ought to be careful how he presumes, in future, to differ
from the ordinances of Mature.

To illustrate the effects produced by a thick, wet covering,
and by a thin, wet envelope, let the author narrate the result
of a very simple experiment, which the reader may without
much trouble institute for himself. Obtain two bottles. Wrap
one closely in several layers of calico ; around the other fix
only a single, tightly-fitting covering of the same fabric.
Saturate the cloths of both bottles with water ; also fill the
interior of each with the same liquid. Benew the moisture to
the two coverings as either becomes dry. After twelve hours,
test the temperatures of the contents poured from either
bottle. That from the thickly-covered (which may remain
wet) vessel will be unchanged, or warmer for. its confinement.
That contained within the thinly-protected enclosure (which
possibly shall be quite dry) will be cold, very cold, — so cold,
that in warm climates water is thus rendered a refreshing
draught. May, the hotter the medium to which the bottles
have been exposed, the colder will be the temperature of the
thinly-coated liquid.

Now, the stable is always a heated medium. The animal
with a thick coat is represented by the vessel with a thick
encasement, the contents of which are not chilled by the
moisture which saturates its envelope. The clipped steed is
represented by the bottle thinly enfolded, the liquid within
which became cold. But, it may be urged, the clipped horse
is never moist. Then perspiration must be checked, and fever
must be present ; for, during health, the pores of the skin are

GROOMS.

255

■never inactive. Where the coat is removed, superficial per-
spiration, accompanied with constant evaporation, must always
be taking place. Where the hair is thick, moisture natu-
rally accumulates, because the covering prevents superficial
evaporation, and thereby checks the operating cause of internal
frigidity.

For the reasons explained by the above experiment, horses
which have been clipped or singed are thereby rendered more
susceptible to many terrible disorders. Any internal organ
may be acutely attacked, because the perspiration has, by
exposure of the skin, been thrown back upon the system.
Numerous hunters (which animals are always clipped) fail at
the beginning of the season from this cause. Nor can the
author comprehend the purpose served by the prevailing
custom, excepting the propitiation of a servant’s humour. It
is said the animal moves so much more nimbly after the long
coat has been removed. This may be the fact, though the
author has hitherto seen no such marked change follow the
operation as will allow him to deliberately corroborate the
general assertion.

Moreover, let the servant, when he notices the animal for
the first time in the morning, observe the breathing of the
quadrupeds. The building has been closely shut for the
entire night, and the impure atmosphere will necessarily
excite the respiration. Now, it may not be exactly in accord-
ance with the groom’s notions, but scientific men have long
known the skin and the lungs to be joined in one and the
same function. Then what right has ignorance to expect one
to be idle when the other is oppressed ?

Perspiration only implies cuticular activity. It is a healthy
action ; the emission of the horse is only an effort of Nature
to cast off those impurities which man obliges his prisoner to
inhale. The clipped animal must also perspire, if it also in-
habit the building, and remain free from disease. Its skin

25G

GROOMS.

must equally exhale, as a law of its existence ; but the hair-
being short, and the surface of the body exposed, the heated
medium in which the creature stands may cause the moisture-
to evaporate as rapidly as it is emitted. Still, all this will not.
satisfy the stable-man. It is not only the wetness of the coat,
which he dreads, but it is the presence of dirt that he abo-
minates. Long hair attracts and protects mud, which, how-
ever, is easily removed from any substance, after it has been,
allowed to yield up its component moisture.

Viewing the insensible perspiration as an established fact,
the prevailing customs are not unattended with danger. The
advent of the summer’s covering is delayed, and the system
seems to suffer greatly during the subsequent period of changing
t*he coat. The pace flags ; the spirits fail ; and the quadruped
becomes more susceptible to disease at a time of year when
equine disorders are commonly more general and more virulent.

Yet it may be urged that in the winter season the roads are-
far dirtier, and the long coat is so much more retentive and
more difficult to cleanse. Here again the argument returns to
the groom. It is true, a long-haired heel should not be made
clean after the usual fashion. The man should not take the
horse outside into the night air, and should not tie its head to
the stable walls. He should not dash a pail or two of cold
water over the soiled and heated members, and should not
lead the horse back to its stall, retiring to bed with a com-
fortable conviction that he has done his duty.

Whether it meets with equal favour from the life whose-
heels have to sustain the deluge, no one has hitherto been weak
enough to inquire. That Nature intentionally clothed the
horse’s heels with long hair, to keep lowly-organized parts,
warm and free from dust, is a fact neither thought of nor cared
about. The man, specially retained to look after the quadru-
peds, cuts away the provision which was instituted by the-
Source of all mercy ; then applies cold water to the organs

GROOMS.

257

which Wisdom saw reason to shelter, leaving the members to
chill and chap, while he retires to his repose.

The animal, with its dripping heels, is hastily fastened in a
stall. The clipped legs of a horse are admirably adapted to
exemplify the effects of evaporation. That portion of the
body where the circulation is most feeble has to endure tha

THE USUAL METHOD OF CLEANSING A HOBSB’S HEELS.

effects of the process which can generate cold, even during the
extremity of the summer's heat. Cracked heels, grease, &c.,
&c. (see “ Illustrated Horse Doctor"), are the immediate re-
sults; and the master who makes the welfare of his steed
subservient to the idle prejudices of his groom, is fitly punished
in tjhe lengthened period of his animal's compulsory idleness,
appropriately finished by the payment of a long bill to the

17

258

GROOMS.

veterinary surgeon. It is thought by many horsemen that all
horses' legs should be permitted to retain the adornments
which were sent by the bounty of Nature for the comfort of
her creatures. The clipped or singed horse is a deformity ;
the colour is unnatural ; the coat is dull and stubborn, looking
most unlike that polished surface which is native to the beauti-
ful quadruped. Moreover, those who live in a temperate cli-
mate should be content to forego certain elegancies which are
natural to warmer regions ; or, if they will have tropical love-
liness, they should encourage it by those means which enable
oranges to ripen in England, and not descend to meanness,
which may expose their desires, but can deceive no one — not
•even the most ignorant in horse-flesh.

Supposing a horse to be brought home with unclipped, but
with soiled heels ; with the lower part of the abdomen covered
by dirt, and the coat drenched with rain : — the animal is led
into the stable; the bridle and saddle are removed; the body is
first quickly scraped ; then it is rubbed over with a few dry
wliisps ; afterwards, it is lightly hooded and covered with an
ample sheet. The master, who has hastily taken off his boots,
and changed so much of his clothing as was wet, now returns,
bringing a quart of warm beer in a pudding-dish, and he re-
mains to see the quadruped drain the draught.

Horses soon learn to drink and enjoy malt liquor. Were
such stimulants equally at their command, certainly the ani-
mals would excel their superiors in habits of intoxication. The
majority of quadrupeds may, with the first few draughts,
require a little coaxing; but the primary disinclination over-
come, the craving for such an indulgence seems to be immode-
rate. An occasional stimulant is, however, very useful in the
stable ; it revives exhaustion, and restores vigour to the circu-
lation. The timely administration of a quart of fermented
liquor to a jaded steed has often prevented those evils which
usually attend upon bodily prostration.

GROOMS.

259

"but which add greatly to the comfort of a tired animal. Other
portions of this matter will be treated of in another part of the
present article — such portions being the food proper subsequent
to fatigue, and the right method of cleaning the heels. How-
ever, it may be necessary to observe in this place, that before
the quadruped is left for the night, the sheet should be re-
moved and the usual night-rug put on the body.

When a horse is brought in covered with perspiration, it is

17*

The drink being swallowed, the sheet is taken off, and the
body made thoroughly dry with whisps and cloths. The lad
again employs the scraper; the man, with a cloth, dries the
•eyes, channel between the thighs, chest, and abdomen, always
performing his duties with gentleness, and discarding the cloth
for a hay whisp where the hair is thick, or wherever the water
appears to have lodged. While this is doing, the proprietor
should comb out the tail, the forelock, and the mane; he should
also discharge those many little offices which are not laborious,

CLEANSING AN EXHAUSTED HORSE.

I*

over the body. So fast as the youth rubs the soap iuto the-
hair, the grooru washes it off, by pouring warm water over the
place. The warm water carries away the soap, and with it are
also removed all the impurities natural to the soiled condition
of the skin.

After the groom comes the master, who pours upon the-

260 GROOMS.

led at once into the stable; master, man, and boy should join
in its purification. The lad takes the scraper, and, beginning
at the quarters, hastily presses out the excess of moisture,
while the groom procures a pail of cold and a pail of warm
water. All being ready, the master not having left the stable,,
the lad brings forth a dish of diluted soap (half a pound of'
soap whisked about till it has dissolved in one quart of water)
and, dipoing his right hand into this preparation, smears it all

CLEANSING- AND COOLING A TIKED HOESB.

GROOMS.

261

body, already washed with warm fluid, a stream of cold water,
from the rose of a watering-pot. The intention of the process
maybe thus explained: — The dissolved soap and the warm water
are simply used to cleanse the body; having done this, the
cold water is applied merely to close the pores of the skin, and
to invigorate the system which exertion had debilitated.

This accomplished, all hands present, after the manner
already directed, should set to work scraping, rubbing, comb-
ing, and using their utmost endeavours to dry the animal as
quickly as possible. The horse is then lightly hooded and
clothed.

DRYING THE HEELS.

: f * '

With regard to the legs and feet of the animal, these parts
are so much exposed that to them the same danger does not
attend the presence of damp, as is commonly dreaded in the
human subject. The water, with which the body has been
drenched will naturally flow down the legs, and remove from
th6m no inconsiderable quantity of soil. All, however, having
been performed as directed, the groom takes up each hoof and

262

GROOMS.

cleans it thoroughly out with a picker and a hard brush. Then
he goes upon his knees, and with several straw whisps he re-
moves as much dirt and moisture as will yield to friction. This
done, he brushes over the outer wall of the horn with glycerine,
and rolls bandages round the legs.

In the foregoing illustration, the size of the horse-cloth can-
not otherwise than have appeared strange to the reader. But
things as large, if not of a greater magnitude, should be in
every stable — not for general use, but for special occasions. The
ordinary rug merely covers the spine, not doing so much towards
keeping warm the carcass of the horse as would be effected by
a Guernsey jacket upon the body of a man. Yet, who would
think of employing the last article as a sole envelope for a cold
and fatigued traveller ? This, however, is all modern custom
sanctions for the comfort of a tired and exhausted steed ! The
folly of so inadequate a provision is apparent, and the neces-
sity of the innovation suggested by the last engraving must
be obvious to all who will condescend to think seriously on the
subject.

While the legs are being attended to, the supper may also
be before the horse. The meal, however, should not be of the
full quantity, or of a heavy nature. The stomach sympathises
with the general exhaustion of the body ; the digestion is too
much weakened to appropriate its ordinary nutriment. For a
steed whose feeding capabilities are not hearty, a little bread
and salt, offered from the hand of its human favourite, will
frequently be eaten. Half of a half-quartern loaf, lightly sea-
soned, commonly will be gratefully accepted, if given in the
manner directed. Often, however, the craving is limited to-
liquids, all solid provender being refused.

The animal should not' be annoyed by any well-intentioned
coaxing to eat, when Nature .commands it to abstain. The
inclination of the quadruped should at this time always be-
respected ; for a tired steed stands upon the borders of inflam-

GROOMS.

263

If the gruel is rejected, take it away ; place it in a cool
situation, and it may be swallowed with avidity on the follow-
ing morning. If allowed to remain, the animal will breathe
upon it, and grow to distaste the nourishment. Suffer the
horse to take the rest, which a disinclination to feed will have
informed you is nature’s primary requirement. Only, order
the groom once or twice to peep at tho nag through the

mation, and in proportion to the value of the quadruped inva-
riably is the danger of an attack. Hard- worked horses often
want the stamina which enables nature to resist the effects of
exhaustion. The bread, if not accepted, should be immediately
withdrawn, and a pail of well- and smoothly-made gruel, with
which the meal was to have concluded, be alone presented.
All other food should be removed, and the animal left supper-
less to its repose.

GET CP !

264

GROOMS.

window which overlooks the stable. Should the creature
have lain down, the man may retire to his bed, convinced that
all is well ; but should the animal, upon second inspection, be
beheld standing up, no time must be lost. The servant ought
to dre^s himself, to apprise his master, and to descend to the
stable ; for this attitude, being long maintained, is among the
earliest and surest indications that disease has commenced.

A good feeder may simply require an allowance of bruised
beans and corn, to be well boiled in a sufficiency of water,
and before being presented as two meals, quite cold. No hay,
but a little bran or chaff should accompany the mess ; as the
desire is to nourish the system, without overloading the
stomach. Should, however, this potion be refused, it is soon
converted into gruel, by stirring to it a sufficiency of water,
and placing it on the fire ; afterwards by pouring the liquid
through a strainer, the husks are readily separated. It is
but seldom that full feeders are thus far exhausted. A vora-
cious appetite is, commonly, united to so much slothfulness of
body, as saves the horse from the aggravated effects of abso-
lute muscular and nervous prostration.

On the following morning (supposing no mishap to have
occurred), when the time arrives to groom the horse, the
bandages should be taken off, and, as each wrapper is re-
moved, the leg ought to be dressed. Firstly, the member
should be well rubbed with several whisps of straw. The
more apparent dirt being removed, the part should be further
cleansed, by application of the hand. After this the hair should
be combed ; then again ruffled with the hand ; — these pro-
cesses being terminated by a thorough application of the dry
water-brush. This operation should be repeated upon each
leg, no hurry being indulged in the performance of this opera-
tion ; but water should not be applied to the heels, without
the special leave of the proprietor having been obtained.
The case should be very marked before such permission is

GKOOMS.

265

plicated structure. The horn being porous, insensible perspi-
ration should escape through its minute openings. To prove
this, let the gentleman accompany his nag to the farrier’s the,
next time the animal is shod. When the sole is pared, let a

accorded, for a wet heel gives rise to many troublesome
affections.

All grooms are much disposed to treat the foot of the horse
as a mysterious organ, which none but a person reared in a
stable possibly can comprehend. The foot is not generally
understood; because people, in their folly, will insist on re-
. garding a very simple member as an uncommon and a com-

THE GBOOM, ON HIS KNEES, TAKING OFF THF. BANDAGES AND EUBBING T1IE DIET OUT

of Tna horse’s lugs.

266

GROOMS.

wine-glass be held over the part, and the surface of the vessel
will speedily be bedewed with the exuding moisture.

Now, grooms understand nothing, and care less about the
perspiratory property of the horn. They cannot understand
how the stoppage of perspiration may induce serious sickness.
Therefore, most of the secret nostrums employed to embellish
and to keep healthy the horn of the horse’s foot, contain
tallow, wax, lampblack, and various solids, which must clog
the pores of the hoof, and, by arresting one of its functions,
provoke disease. The best application to adorn this part is a
little of the glycerine mixture, directions for preparing which
have already been given. This moistens and renders pliable
the hoof, which, be it black or white, will present a polished
surface, without the pores being clogged up by the tenacious
property of its substance.

Let grooms who wish to understand their duties, and who
are not above taking a few hints, avoid those stablemen who
(according to their own thinking) possess a knowledge which
masters impossibilities ; which can make any lame horse go
sound ; can induce prime condition in less than a week ; can cure
glanders ; can render the most savage horse as tame as a lap-
dog ; which knows how to plan a stable ; how to make harness
look well and last long; which understands carriages; and, in
short, everything within and outside the stable. Such men lead
the uneducated into error, and error which sometimes proves
very injurious to the horse, and often ends in the dismissal of the
servant. Let the groom, from his earliest moment of service,
make up his mind to serve his master with truth and honesty,
and to avoid the company of the reckless and ignorant, and
to seek advice of those who are competent to give it ; to treat
with kindness and consideration the lives of the horses com-
mitted to his charge ; to use kind words instead of harsh
expressions ; to educate^ the animals ter fondle rather than to -
fear; and, in the long run, and short too, you will discover,

GROOMS.

267

O, groom ! that, with three weapons, — truth, decision, and
kindness, — you will be able to direct horses almost with your
hand, and to conquer any man who may chance to be your
enemy.

"KIM ovabe."

268

POINTS.

CHAPTEK XI.

"POINTS. — THEIR RELATIVE IMPORTANCE AND WHERE TO LOOK FOR THEIR

DEVELOPMENT.

mHE skeleton is the bony framework of the horse, and the
vertebrae are the base to which all other bones concen-
trate; and we notice that at one end of the vertebral column
the skull is placed, and at the other the tail.

When the reader has been riding in any vehicle and looking
down upon the spine of the horse, he can hardly have failed
to remark, that the widest portion of the body was the pro-
minence of the hip bones. The posterior parts, or those

THE BACK OF THE HORSE, AS SEEN FROAI ABOVE.

behind the projections, are not continuous of size ; but they,
nevertheless, are far more bulky and altogether more fleshy,
than any of the forward surfaces of the body. Flesh is only
another term for muscle ; consequently, where flesh is most
conspicuous, strength most resides. The muscles of the hind
limbs spring from a large bone, variously named in common
parlance, as the haunch bone or the pelvic bone. It is also
spoken of by anatomists as the os innominatum. This large
bone joins the spine at the hips, and thus lends support to the
posterior region. But the vertebrae, immediately before the

POINTS.

269>

hips, are aided by no such accessory. The loins stand alone,
or are placed entirely without support. This part of the body
merely consists of certain bones, over which and under which
run thick layers, or solid masses of muscular fibre.

A thorough comprehension of the osseous weakness apparent
in the skeleton of the loins, must convince the reader of the
absolute necessity which exists for some compensating agency,
so as to fit the back for its burthen. The loins, therefore,
should be bulky or muscular. They cannot be too large, but
may easily be the reverse. Small loins or weakly loins admit
of no compensation. The reviser does not remember an in-

THE BACK BONE OF THE HORSE.

stance where such a formation was not associated with mean
quarters ; whereas, he does not recollect a case where size, in
this region, was not evidence of general strength and of re-
markable vigour. The position of the part is peculiar. It is
intermediate, and lies between the haunches, which are the
propelling powers, and the thorax, which region is formed to
endure, to support, or to uphold what the back carries. All
intermediate structures demand strength ; because such a
position exposes the part to the full impulse of adjacent force,
its office being simply to transmit that impetus which it
directly receives. Accordingly, the development of the loins.

270

POINTS.

both in man and in horse, may be cited as the best proof of
the vital power which resides within the frame.

The loins, to evidence the transmitting office peculiar to this
region, receive and convey onward the propelling force of the
quarters. So, when the body is suddenly checked, the loins
have to master the first energy of the onward impetus, or
have to endure the full violence of the sudden arrestation of
the forward motion in both the animal and its burthen. In
the brief, but dangerous, feats of leaping, galloping, &c., the
position of the region and the duties involved by it are so
obvious, that the author cannot presume to dilate upon what
appears to be self-evident.

Muscular loins are imperative in racers and in hunters.
They should, also, characterize all saddle-horses ; for it is
impossible the rider should be safely carried, unless the back
be strong. The animal designed for light harness purposes
can, perhaps, best dispense with such an essential ; although,
even in that case, the deficiency is very far from a recommen-
dation ; for weak loins are usually associated with a narrow
chest, a lanky frame, and a total lack of every property which
characterizes endurance.

In fact, every purchaser should first glance at this part ; for
here reside those proofs which the scientific mind and the
practical judgment unite in esteeming. No matter what
quality may be desired, be it strength or appearance, be it
speed or endurance, breadth of loins is always important.
Lumbar development is essential in all cases. In short, there
is no property for the possession of which the quadruped can
be valued, that is not more or less, and generally much more
than in any degree less, dependent upon this portion of the
frame for its exhibition.

The backbone of the horse — lumbar bones and all — are often
remarkable for very opposite developments which pervade its
■entire length. These are sinking down or curving inwards;

POINTS.

271

.and rising up or arching outwards. When the line declines
more than usual, the form is denominated a “ hollow hack ”
or “a, saddle back,” and is generally, supposed to be indi-
cative of dorsal debility. Animals, of such a formation, how-
ever, commonly are possessed of high crests, of full loins, as
well as lofty haunches, and they generally exhibit very proud
action.

A HOLLOW-BACKET) HORSE.

Animals with hollow backs are usually conspicuous, even
among the equine race, for many estimable qualities. They
are generally very docile, and uncommonly good-tempered.
Putting the undue sinking of the spine out of the question,
they display numerous excellent points ; and, even admitting
all that may be said about weakness, they exhibit such pro-
minent good qualities as in many occupations may be justly
esteemed more than an equivalent for their bodily deficiency,
— especially when employed to carry a lady’s saddle.

The very reverse of all that has been recorded above usually
characterizes the “ roach back.” The author has, hitherto,
found creatures thus made distinguished for the absence of

272

POINTS.

that power with wmch prejudice is inclined to invest them.
Such animals are to be seen feeding upon the commons about-
Essex, being the pictures of checked development, and the
representatives of heartless neglect. The offsprings of aged
dams, or colts that have been forced to submit to early labour,
every feature testifies to the abuse which they have undergone.
Quadrupeds, equally misshapen and equally neglected, may-
frequently be seen dragging agricultural carts through th&
streets of London.

A ROACH-BACKED HORSE.

Such deformities are usually vicious and spiteful. They are
capable of little exertion, and offer a seat of torture to the
individual who is so unfortunate as to be mounted upon a
roach back. Some years ago, the author chanced to dissect
the body of a quadruped of this description. Death had not
affected the upper protrusion of the spine, which retained its
peculiar curve. The loins were very poor, and several of the
lumbar bones were joined together by abnormal, osseous de-
posit. The quarters were mean, the belly large, the withers

POINTS.

27S

low, the neck ewe-shaped, the head big, and the legs long.
In short, such horses are equally misshapen and mischievous.
Any gentleman had better endure fatigue than accept such a.
creature for the companion of his journey.

Neither a long nor a short-backed horse is, necessarily, de-
sirable. All depends upon the strength of those muscles,
which support the spine ; though, all other points being equal,
length generally provides a springy seat for the saddle ;
whereas, a short back commonly possesses the greater en-
durance. A long back, having bulging loins, is, however,
infinitely to be preferred to a short back, with deficient
lumbar muscles. The mere extent of a part can be no abso-
lute proof in either direction ; though, should a choice lie
between two carcasses, supposing each to be equally deficient,
or both to be equally favoured, then the short back should be
preferred, because all increase of length necessitates a greater
strain upon the organs of support.

But the spine cannot be too long, supposing length to be
accompanied by a proportionate excess of muscle ; for length
and strength, of course, increase speed. The practice, common
among the vulgar, of placing the open hand upon the upper
part of the abdomen to ascertain the distance of the last rib
from the hip bone, is a silly custom, and can prove nothing
but the ignorance of those by whom it is exhibited. A living
body should be judged as a whole. One part should be viewed
in its relation to another development. No opinion on such a.
subject ought to be formed upon any solitary test or inde-
pendent development.

The movements of the horse’s body are greatly governed by
the position of the head ; it is therefore imperative, for the ease
and safety of the rider or the driver, that the head should be
well set on, and should be carried without sensible restriction.
Should the rein be held too tight and a false step be made, or
should the foot be placed upon a rolling stone, the quadruped

18

274

POINTS.

is almost certain to fall ; for the rapid motion of the head
being impossible; it cannot be used to restore the disturbed
balance. The nimbleness which could avoid sudden danger is
destroyed by the fashionable want of feeling. It is a matter
for surprise that the presence of the bearing-rein is never
alluded to, when gentlemen seek redress, because their vehicles
have been damaged. Most horsemen, however, esteem the
neck for its appearance, and few comprehend its utility.

Many judges would object to a bulky neck ; but this form
indicates the presence of muscle, and a neck, if properly
shaped, cannot be too thick. But some horses possess a bull
neck ; this is almost confined to the heavier breed of cart-

A BULL NECK.

horses. It is, however, falsely denoted to be an evidence of
excessive strength. So far as thickness is concerned, muscle
or adipose tissue must be present ; but the length of neck is
deficient, which will limit the amount of motive power . in
fact, such malformed horses are known to be incapable of
severe exertion. On the other hand, a narrow and small neck,
although sometimes associated with low condition, is often

POINTS.

2/5

met with among well-bred horses: a horse with this form is
said to be ewe-necked. Such a form may possess length, but
it is wanting in depth and substance. Animals of this form-
ation are generally active, but weakly other parts are too
often characterized by a narrowness of build which materially
detracts from a capability for endurance. The appearance is.

THE EWE NECK.

moreover, mean ; this is usually rendered more conspicuous by
a thinness and a shortness of mane. The shape of the neck is
not, however, to be considered only as governing other organs,
but is also to be regarded as a consequence of a prevailing
absence of development. So may the frequent accompani-
ment of a vicious disposition be viewed as the result of that
feebleness which converts the easiest task into a mighty
labour ; and of that absence of beauty, which can neither
kindle the pride nor awaken the fondness of the owner.

Certain supposed judges are greatly prejudiced in favour of
a short neck. The characteristic is in some minds associated
with the presence of bodily strength ; but it cannot be remark-
able for denoting the existence of such a quality, because an
absence of length must abbreviate the amount of muscular

18*

276

POINTS.

although, to do so may cause a constant strain upon their
limbs, thus counteracting one of those effects which the run
is invariably supposed to realize. The above illustration is.
inserted to show the artifice adopted by animals of this de-
scription.

Having noticed those portions of the spinal column in which
the vertebras are not associated with other bones, or do not
enter into the formation of compound parts, it may assist the
judgment of the reader if the relative importance of those
regions be more particularly descanted upon.

fibre. Shortness of neck, besides suggesting the presence of
fat, and interfering with activity, unfits the animal for certain
situations. A bull neck, although its possessor inhabited the
most luxuriant pasture, would compel the creature to subsist,
on short commons. Nags , however long may be their legs,
or short their necks, generally manage to crop the grassy

THE MANNER IN WHICH A SHORT-NECKED HORSE MANAGES TO FEED OFF THE GROUND.

POINTS.

277

However desirable an arched and lofty crest may be, it is
mot, when separately considered, any absolute proof of esti-
mable properties. Conjoined with other points, it renders
-excellence more excellent ; but, alone, no deduction should be
drawn from it. In many parts of Germany the horses exhibit
beautifully-formed necks, bearing luxuriant manes ; but in
other respects the quadrupeds are lanky, weak, and washy
•creatures. The dock deserves attention, although it can war-
Tant no more than an inference. If it suggests that which
•other developments equally support, it constitutes a valuable
accessory towards a sound opinion ; but by itself it is of no
Importance. On the contrary, the loins are absolute proof ;
"their swelling testimony may be trusted, should both neck
and tail oppose their evidence. This portion of the body
never deceives. It is worthy of all reliance ; what it declares
must be implicitly received. And, to many minds, it may
appear the more deserving of estimation, because full loins
are commonly accompanied by a stout dock.

Attached to the neck is the head, which in the horse
always bespeaks those changes produced by varieties of treat-
ment and difference of climate. The favourite and the com-
. panion of the semi-civilized Arab is, by its association with
;its master, elevated in intelligence as in beauty. The agri-
cultural teamster of this country exhibits in its expression
.the apathy with which it is regarded by its rustic attendant.
These are, probably, the extremes of the race. That the
Teader may recognize the distinction between them, front
views of both heads are annexed.

In the Arab, the spectator can hardly fail to remark the
distance by which the eyes are divided. The brow is equally
characterized by its length as by its breadth ; and constitutes
no mean portion of the entire head. In the lowly-bred face
the region of the brain is comparatively small ; its width pre-
senting no obvious contrast to the other features. The nostrils

27.8

POINTS.

are not only compressed, but their margins are thick ; while
the upper lip is adorned by a pair of abundant mustaches.
Some animals the author has beheld with embellishments of
this order which would not have disgraced the most hirsute
of guardsmen.

A LOW-EKED HOESB. A WELL-EEED HOESE.

The head of a well-bred horse has been frequently described
as forming a straight line in its forward margin, when it is
contemplated from the side. Such an assertion is generally
true ; but it must not be received as absolutely correct.
Horses have been imported from Arabia with the craniums
and the frontal sinuses considerably enlarged. Such a pecu-
liarity is not esteemed a defect by the natives of the East.
This fact is established by animals, thus characterized, having
been sent to this country as presents for personages of exalted
rank. Such developments may not strictly accord with
English notions of equine beauty ; but the size of the case, in
some measure, denotes the magnitude of that which it con-
tains. A large brain can be no detriment to any animal which
is partly prized for its intelligence.

Another peculiarity exhibited by a few English thorough-
breds, is the Roman nose, or a prominence of the nasal bones.

POINTS.

279

The trait is, however, less cdmmon in the pure Arabian blood,
than is the previous development. There is a breed of blood

BULGING FRONTAL SINUSES.

horses which exhibit a prominence of the nasal bones, or, in
other words, present what is designated as the “Roman nose.”

A CART-HORSE, WITH THE ROMAN NOSE.

This particular shape, however, is with the coarser breeds far
from unusual; although, in animals of slow work, it cannot
be esteemed a beauty, it also should not be condemned as a
huge defect. The depression of the nasal point may allow less

280

POINTS.

freedom to the nostril; but in a creature, whose kind of labour
permits slow respiration to be' employed, this constitutes no
absolute objection; while many quadrupeds of this formation
are conspicuous for their high courage and their lively dispo-
sitions.

The leading or distinguishing characteristic of the thorough-
bred horse is its superior intelligence. The stranger hardly
has spoken to the creature, before it begins to investigate his
personal appearance. It appears to appreciate the words
addressed to it, and it responds to any act of kindness which
may be lavished upon it. Added to this, is the evident neat-
ness of its formation; the clearness of its various features;
the grace, as well as the lightness, of its construction, united
with speaking evidences of strength and of energy. The
quadruped appears fit to be the associate of man, and almost
seems upon an intellectual level with its master. As we con-
template the lustrous eye, and feel the rush of inquisitive
breath, it is impossible not to credit the tales narrated of the
creature’s affection and of its generosity. We can, then,
sympathize with the love of the Arab for his steed, and sen-
sibly feel that life in the desert would be rendered less deso-
late by the presence of such a companion.

Yet, this elegant quadruped is cast in no arbitrary mould.
Its beauty admits of the same variety which is conspicuous in
other animated bodies. The ears usually are small, and ap-
proximate towards their tips ; but they may also be large, and
the points may be even wider apart than the roots of the
organs. Yet, in every shape, a thinness or a delicacy of the
outer walls, a nice arrangement of the internal protecting
hairs, together with a fineness in the investing coat, attest to
the purity of the parental stock.

A tribe of lop-eared thoroughbreds are known to exist upon
the English course : this peculiarity, however, is not a dis-
tinguishing mark of purity of blood, or a characteristic

POINTS.

•281

Tunning throughout the race. The fall of the ear exposes the
interior of the organ to the eye of the spectator : that circum-
stance., no doubt, suggested the removal of the hairs, which
Nature placed as guards before the opening. It is now a
■common practice, with almost every groom, to singe off these
hairs with the flame of a candle. Such an agent cannot be
safely entrusted to vulgar hands; probably, to this foolish
•custom is owing the deafness which by horses is so frequently
exhibited. Any protruding hair the scissors might excise ;
but as regards the interior of the ear, grooms, had they even
a slight acquaintance with physiology, would know that these
hairs have their appointed uses.

COOD AND ACTIVE BABS. LABGE EARS. EABS WIDE APART. LOW-BRED EARS.

With the ears no corporal excellence is connected, but
with the health of this organ the general safety is associated ;
for the acuteness of the animal’s hearing affords no mean pro-
tection to the rider. The absolute quietude of the ears indi-
cates that sounds are powerless to excite the organ. Excessive
restlessness of these parts suggests, that, by straiuing of one
sense, the animal is endeavouring to recompense the obscurity
of another : that the vision is either lost or imperfect. A lively
carriage of the ears expresses a sprightly temper, and generally
denotes a kind disposition : whereas, one member constantly
directed forward and the other backward, is a frequent sign
■of “ vice ” or of timidity in its watchfulness.

Near the ear is the seat of another special sense. Many

282

POINTS.

people will pretend to discover the disposition of a horse by
the character of the eyes. A restlessness of the globe, the
display of any unusual quantity of white, and a perpetual
tension on the upper lid, are imagined to signify a “ vicious ”
inclination ; but, in reality, these traits express only the
watchfulness of fear. Such indications are evidences of that
suffering which has been experienced ; and these traits are
consonant with an anxiety to escape the future assaults of
brutality. Despair may not be desirable as a companion ; but
it is not, therefore, to be falsely stigmatized.

A prominent eye, expressive of repose, and not exhibiting
an abundance of white, has been pronounced to be declarative
of honesty ; though certain parties have condemned it, as.

A WATCHFUL AND AN HONEST EYE. A LOW-BRED EYE. A DISEASED OB

TIMID EYE. PIG-EYE.

indicative of slothfulness. A quickness or activity, as contra-
distinguished from a restlessness in the visual organ, is, how-
ever, to be desired. The small eye, usual with the coarser-
breed of animals, should be avoided, because, it is generally
accompanied by a heaviness of movement. The retracted or-
deep set eye, which displays the organ only partially, which
is somewhat angular in figure, and which is commonly spoken
of as a “ pig- eye,” denotes either weakness of the part, or to-
the majority of horsemen will suggest a previous attack of
specific ophthalmia. The disease, however, is not, in the
author’s opinion, hereditary ; but is generated by that close-
ness of abode, and that absence of ventilation, to which all
grooms strongly incline. The present writer has, most fre-
quently, beheld ophthalmia in full and in perfect organs.

POINTS.

283

Before quitting the consideration of the face, it is imperative
that the mouth and nostrils should be alluded to. In the well-
bred horse these are both large, when compared with the same
developments in the animal of a coarser origin. The lips should
be smooth, soft, compressed, and suggestive of energy ; but
they should be without the smallest aspect of ill-temper.
About them numerous isolated and long hairs may be located ;
but there should be no accumulation resembling a mustache,
or bearing even a distant likeness to a beard. Such growths
are commonly removed by the scissors of the groom ; but the
palm of the hand, if placed against the muzzle, is certain to
ascertain the truth if those things ever have been in existence.

LARGE MOUTH AND NOSTRIL SMALL MOUTH AND NOSTRIL THE MOUTH AND NOSTRIL OF AN
OF A WELL-BRED HORSE. OF A LOW-BRED HORSE. OLD, DEJECTED, WELL-BRED HORSE.

The lowly-bred animal, being chiefly employed for slow
uses, has not the need for those ample draughts of air which
the faster speed necessitates should be rapidly respired ; nor
is the mouth declarative of the same determination which
marks the lips of the purer blood. The bit is scarcely ever
present upon the carter’s harness, nor are the mouths of his
charges formed to retain this invention. The characteristics
of low birth cannot be effaced from the countenance of a quad-
ruped. Age or privation cannot confound the two breeds.
The thorough-bred in ruin is not to be mistaken for the
teamster. No want, no suffering, no length of years, can
obliterate the evidence of nobility from the animal of pure
descent.

284

POINTS.

When purchasing a horse, it is always well to examine the
angles of the lips. If any sign of induration is remarked, it
signifies that the animal has suffered from abuse of the bit. If
on any limited space, however small, a patch of white skin is
observed located upon a dark ground, it denotes that “ once
upon a time ” the true skin has been removed from that place,
while cicatrix now exists to apprise future purchasers of the
fact. If anything like a hardened lump should be felt in this
situation, it demonstrates that the quadruped has a hard mouth,
and is an obstinate puller, or that it has passed through the
kands of an unfeeling master.

In either case, the creature is not a desirable possession.
Harshness is not a kindly educator, nor does it beget docility
of spirit in the being which is subjected to its exactions. A
hard mouth necessitates one of the. severest -trials, which can be
inflicted on a horse proprietor. It is painful, every time a
change of direction is desired, for the rider to tug at the
reins; such a necessity soon destroys every pleasure of the
exercise. But a regular puller is always a dangerous servant.
Generally, it turns out to be a “ bolter,” and before running
away will seize the bit between its teeth, when the driver or
the rider alike is helpless. Our entreaty to the reader is to
turn his back upon the offer, should he ever be solicited to buy
a horse having a damaged mouth.

At this point, it is requisite the author should review the
various organs which together constitute the head. An ac-
tivity equally removed from stillness and from restlessness
denotes health to be present in all the seats of special sense.
These things are of more importance than at first glance is
apparent ; because such united testimony is the best security as
regards the general system. It equally testifies to the soundness
of the brain, and to the healthiness of the body. When the
animal suffers, the perceptions mostly are inactive; when the
brain is oppressed, the loss of sense first announces the disorder.

POINTS.

285.

These organs also deserve attention for their own sates-
Man is not gifted with remarkable faculties either in seeingr
in hearing, or in smelling. He .therefore desires such assist-
ance as the companion of his journey may afford. The value,
consequently, of an animal is materially deteriorated by the
loss of any of its protective powers. These, when all enjoyed
in perfection, assist one another. When any organ is excited,
the rest are seldom dormant. Thus, when the quadruped
perceives in the distance some obscure object, the ears are
advanced, and the nostrils are inflated. The same general!
movement is remarked whenever the hearing catches a distant-
sound, or whenever the scent detects a novel odour. All are-
conjoined to produce one result ; therefore, the loss of one-
cannot be without effect upon the uniformity of action.

As regards the formation of the countenance, an enlarged]
cranium is no detriment; but the Roman nose sometimes
interferes with the capacity of the nostril. When it produces-
such a result, the peculiarity warrants either a reduction of
price, or an absolute rejection of the offered sale. In other
respects, this make is regarded of no importance ; but it cer-
tainly does not add to the appearance of the animal. Horses-
are generally prized in proportion to their beauty ; nor can
the author quarrel with such a foundation of judgment, as in
most animals harmony of figure justifies a belief that excellence
of spirit also exists.

The nostrils, however, are associated with the important
function of respiration ; therefore these organs demand con-
sideration, when regarded apart from the other senses. They
admit the air, which is inhaled by the expansion of the chest;:
consequently, the dimensions of the nostrils allow an inference-
to be drawn as to the capacity of the lungs. This opinion,.:
however, should be only advanced after the alteration has been,
noted between their size when at rest, and their enlargement,
when excited. Should no marked variation be produced by

286

POINTS.

the opposite states, then the value of the animal is only to be
considered in connexion with slow work, as the speed must
be regnlated by the capability of receiving a quantity of vital
air, proportioned to the power exerted.

After the capacity has been observed, the nature of the
movements of the nasal openings should be noticed. Sub-
sequently to exertion, ease of motion is not to be anticipated ;
but nothing approaching to spasmodic action should be re-
marked. The nostrils ought to be regularly expanded ; not to
fly open with a jerk, or to suddenly enlarge their form, as under
the influence of a gasp. A capability of dilatation, attended
with an evenness of motion, however fast the movement may
"be, are the points which should be looked for in the nostrils of
a horse, because the characteristic changes attending inhala-
tion best expose any defect in the respiratory apparatus ; for
by such a test the remotest disposition to become a roarer, or
to exhibit diseased wind, is easy of detection.

WIDE AND NABBOW CHANNELS.

Connected with the head, every horseman comprehends how
much width of channel, or of space between the branches of
the lower jaw, is to be desired. The reason why such a form
is highly prized in an animal of fleetness or of exertion is
because such an opening allows room for the varied move-
ments necessary for the offices of respiration or for the change
of position imperative in the larynx, which is located near to
or within the hollow thus, provided. Clear space is, of course,
mperative wherever rapidity of movement has to be executed.

POINTS.

287

There is also another thing equally desirable. That addition
is a full development of the motor power which affects the
larynx.

Wherever this last point has been noticed, the writer has
always with confidence been able to pronounce the high
character of the quadruped ; he has not, in a single in-
stance, been mistaken in his conclusion. The muscles,
which are attached to the spur process of os hyoides, or
to the bone which regulates the movement of the larynx,
when well developed, are discernible in the living animal.

PBOMINENT DEVELOPMENT OF THE HYOIDEAL MUSCLES.

They form a kind of indication, as though Nature was half
disposed to invest the animal with a miniature dew-lap. They
lead the muscles of the neck perceptibly more forward than
these agents run in the majority of horses, and in some speci-
mens they may, with a little manipulation, be traced almost
to the point of their insertion.

The muscles last alluded to all originate from the trunk,
the more forward cavity of which is known as the chest.

288

POINTS.

There is much dispute concerning the best form of the-
horse's thorax ; but such a question can only be decided
by the uses to which the animal is to be subservient. For
instance, below is inserted the illustration of a cart-horse
with an almost circular chest. Such a form permits the
presence of a huge pair of lungs, and favours the increase
of weight.

Sufficient oxygen is always present to convert the starch or
the sugar of the food into fat : during slow work, enough of
atmosphere to vitalize the blood must be inhaled, nor is ex-
cessive exertion calculated to materially increase the amount.
Where weight is more desired than activity, where propulsion.

A CART-HORSE.

is to be chiefly accomplished by bringing the heavy carcass to
bear against the collar, such a make is admirable. All crea-
tures, in which speed is not required, should possess circular
chests ; for by such a shape, the quadrupeds are adapted for
the accumulation of fat, and for the performance of slow, of
continuous, or of laborious work.

There are, however, numerous animals which are required

POINTS.

289

to possess capability for a “ burst ” ; for tlie acme of which,
phrase is embodied in the rush or the closing struggle of the
racecourse. The creature of speedy therefore, should exhibit
rather the deep, than the round thorax : for fat is not desired
on such an animal. The deep cavity, moreover, admits of an
expansibility, which is imperative, during the extremity of
muscular exertion. It is, however, sad to see well-bred

DIAGRAMS, ILLUSTRATING THE DIFFERENT CAPACITIES OF THE
OPPOSITE FORMATIONS OF THORAX.

THE THORAX OF A CART-HORSE.

THE THORAX OF A HLOOD HORS l?.

A A,
B B, B B.

c c, c c.
d dy d d.

TJ?e capacities of the two chests in the quiet condition.
Ine limits of expansibility in each, when excited.

1 he outside of the coat in the quiet, condition,
ihe surface of the body in the excited state.

animals in and about the metropolis forced to pull carts, for
which employment Nature has unfitted them. They possess
no weight of body with which to move the load. The burthen
must be propelled by the almost unaided power of the muscles.
The limbs, strained by the constant necessity of the posi-

19

290

POINTS.

tion, soon become crippled, while excessive labour causes
the flesh to waste ; hence, the miserable objects which are
sometimes witnessed toiling along the thoroughfares of the
metropolis.

To render the above facts comprehensible to the generality
of readers, let it be granted that the lungs of the cart and of
the blood horse, when expanded to the uttermost, would
occupy the like space. When not excited, or both being of
the normal size, the respiratory apparatus of the coarser breed
is by far the larger of the two. In the passive condition, the
heavy quadruped inhales much more oxygen than is needed to
vivify the blood. The excess is, therefore, appropriated by
the food and nourishes the frame : hence, dray-horses have a
tendency to become fat. On the contrary, in the ordinary
mood, the lungs of the thoroughbred receive scarcely more
air than is required to uphold vitality ; therefore, this kind of
quadruped exhibits, as a general rule, no vast disposition
towards excessive obesity.

During all quickened movements, howevei', the action of
the lungs and the speed of the circulation are much increased.
The impetus, given by motion to the vital fluid, causes the
detention in the lungs to be of a comparatively brief duration.
The period of change is shortened ; at the same time a larger
absorption of the vivifying agent becomes absolutely impera-
tive. The greater depth of chest in the racer admits of a
greater change of dimension : then air is inhaled, equal to the
rapidity of movement. The pace, therefore, can be maintained
with comparative ease. But the round form of thorax allows
of little enlargement : the demands made by exertion cannot
be complied with, and the heavy horse, when hurried, is con-
sequently soon exhausted.

It is not, therefore, the size, or dimension of its thorax
which fits the steed to the purposes of fleetness. That quality
depends on the adaptability of the cavity to the exigencies of

POINTS.

291

excitement ; for sucli purposes, the quadruped with a round
chest is not to he preferred. At present, there is no instru-
ment by which the motions of the horse’s ribs can be accu-
rately ascertained : thus, the reader is forced to guess at an
alteration, which cannot, under existing circumstances, be
regarded with that confidence which is inspired by the know-
ledge of a fact. A quarter of an inch between the enlarge-
ment of the ribs in different animals (supposing the other
points equal), should more than determine the winner of a
race ; since the change which takes place in the blood regu-
lates the other properties of vitality.

The belly and the chest are distinct cavities ; although there
is communication between the organs of each. Thus the great
artery, which originates at the heart, travels into the abdo-
men : while the veins, which traverse the larger division, also
penetrate the thorax. Nevertheless, the contents and the uses
of each space are generally distinct. The principal agents of
the more forward cavity are the heart and the lungs ; the
thorax being chiefly sacred to the purposes of respiration and
of circulation. The liver, the stomach, the spleen, and the
intestines, are enclosed within the abdomen : the function of
this region being engrossed by the offices of appropriation or
by those of nutrition.

Most judges admire the horse which presents a belly ap-
parently well filled by its contents. Certainly this appears to
be the soundest of the many prejudices which appertain to
horse-flesh. The shape of the thorax must, in no unimportant
degree, regulate that of the abdomen : the two cavities being
only parted by a fleshy screen, denominated the diaphragm.
The herring-gutted quadruped is, commonly, as deficient in
the respiratory as it is wanting in the nutritive functions. Of
course, this rule is not absolute ; but a capacious thorax is
required to counteract any absence in the process of nuti’ition.
The animal which rapidly narrows towards the flank generally

19*

292

POINTS.

purges upon work, is commonly of a wasliy constitution, and
usually possesses a bad appetite, frequently spoiling more
fodder than it consumes.

HERRING-GUTTED HORSE.

Horses of the above conformation are soon found wanting
in other respects. Narrowing towards the flank being ac-
companied with deficient quarters, enables them to slip
through their body clothes, and renders it difficult to retain a
saddle in its proper situation. The groom may in vain give
extra attention to the fastenings, the dwindling form em-
powers little motion to displace the tightest of girths. The
saddle always has an inclination to glide backward ; and the
rider, when such an occurrence happens, must be placed in no
enviable position.

Objection even to a greater extent is engendered by the
opposite kind of abdomen, or by one which is known as “ a
cow-belly,” or “ a pot-belly.” Animals of this make always
seem immatured; as though they had been brought into the
world before the proper period, or had been forced to perform
hard labour at too early au age; their legs are long, their

POINTS.

293

•withers are low, their muscles are mean, their chests are
.narrow, and their countenances are distorted by a querulous
expression. These unhappy creatures possess but little
strength for work ; if made to travel fast, they are speedily
blown. In the stable, they are greedy ; when out of it, they
are vicious. Many of their faults are to be attributed to
disease, the digestive functions being invariably disordered.
They are worthless, or are “ all too feeble ” for harness ;
while the enlarged belly, when favoured by the motion of the
limbs, renders retention of a saddle an utter impossibility.

COW-BELLIED HOUSE.

The lege vf a horse, — these can hardly prove too short ; for
brevity of limb is always an accompaniment to depth of chest
and proportionably powerful quarters. The long leg always
attests to the light carcass ; hence, the motor agency of the
limbs is deficient, while the cavities of respiration and of nu-
trition are necessarily diminished. A narrow thorax almost
enforces low withers and an upright shoulder. The bone of
the arm, or the humeras, is pushed into an undue slant by the
forward position of the blade-bone or of the scapula. This
•compels the front leg to stand too far under the body. Such
an arrangement favours neither beauty, speed, nor safety j in

294

POINTS.

fact, it is one of the worst forms which the components of the
frame are capable of assuming.

The action of the shoulder-blade during progression is
upward and backward, or it is drawn toward the highest
processes of the withers. Low withers are, of course, opposed
to extended motion in such a line. The lessened action of
the bone necessarily limits the movement of the structures
which depend from it, or the action of the humerus is governed
by that of the shoulder-blade. The trivial motion permitted.

A STRAIGHT SHOULDER, SHOWING THE POSITION OE THE BONES.

by low withers, therefore, limits the advance of the fore arm,,
the parts being, as it were, tied together. The natural car-
riage of such a malformation is with the head and neck pro-
truded, so as to favour progression by strain upon the cervical
muscles. At the same time the body inclines forward, which
throws the limbs backward, or out of their proper situations ;
and this circumstance accounts for animals of this particular
make so frequently encountering “ accidents.”

The gait, characteristic of an upright shoulder, is very pecu=
liar. A bad fore hand is the most common defect witnessed
in London thoroughfares. In the metropolis of the world it
is, indeed, a rare sight to behold a carriage drawn by a pair
of really good animals. The quadrupeds in general use for
such purposes are mostly faulty about the shoulders. The
fore hand is placed upon the trunk in too upright a position.

POINTS.

295

The job-master is conscious of this defect. He always endea-
vours to convince his patrons that such a make is advan-
tageous where a creature is designed for harness. Possibly
the tradesman might succeed in persuading his customers
into a false belief, were not prejudice opposed to his sug-
gestions. Ladies admire high action in the steeds attached to
their vehicles ; this is the kind of step which most of the
horses just described are incapable of long exhibiting.

Art or cruelty, however, can partially amend the faulty
motion of the limbs. Force the head into an unnatural atti-
tude by the unscrupulous employment of the bit or of the

11 ^ 'Ail .SrI! ° ^ ' iATn E NATDEAL ACTION- APPERTAINING- TO A STRAIGHT SHOULDER, AND ALSO

__ -rini Tixm IIE CHANGE SOMETIMES OCCASIONED BY THE UNSCRUPULOUS EMPLOYMENT
OF THE BIT OR OF THE BEARING-REIN.

bearing-rein; retain the neck erect, without regard to the
cramp induced, or heed of the strain cast upon the muscles,
and the torture, although the life be shortened, and the safety
of the owner endangered, nevertheless, may occasion the feet
to be raised during progression. This fact is illustrated in the

296

POINTS'.

previous engraving. The natural mode of going is indicated
by the letters A A ; the possible change of form is to be seen
in the parts distinguished as B B, although the action there
depicted certainly displays a most unusual degree of amend'
rnent, to induce which must shorten the existence.

Any such improvement is always procured at a vast personal
risk ; for the head being raised partially throws the eyes out
of use. It also impedes the circulation, ruins the mouth, dis-
torts the body, and deranges the breathing. All these evils
are inflicted to obtain the kind of pace which is never natural,
but which closely resembles the sort of step that is charac-
teristic of blindness in the horse. Few of the animals thus
treated live to descend very low in the scale of equine existence.
They mostly perish young ; but the reader may recognize them
drawiug the broughams of gentility, and too often presenting
one of the cramped, forced, and uneasy paces which are de-
picted below ; for into such kinds cf action all upon service
ultimately subside.

VERY FAULTY ACTIONS.

On the other hand, the animal with a deep chest and with
high withers, almost as a necessary adjunct, possesses a slanting
shoulder ; or, at all events, this probability is favoured by
that particular formation. Such an arrangement of parts
must be accompanied by an upright position of the humerus,
and the advanced location of the fore limb. This conforma-

POINTS.

297

tion is bettei’ed materially by an arched crest, and a head
“ well set on.” Unfortunately these latter points are seldom
•encountered ; the proper disposition of the fore-quarter being
rarely attended with the last-named grace.

A SLANTING SHOULDEB, SHOWING THE POSITION OF THE BONES.

Such horses, however, Stubbs, the animal painter, used to
delineate. Either the artist was particularly fortunate in his

models, or beauty has been sacrificed in the anxiety to breed
other properties. Such horses appear to have been common

A SLANTING SHOULDER IN ACTION.

298

POINTS.

in England, when the racer was compelled to possess en-
durance; and if report be true, the last animals exhibited a
greater speed than their descendants can display. Hunters
were formerly something better than the rejected of the
course; they could show a beauty equal to their strength.
Creatures with the fore hand such as has been described, are
not only more pleasant to contemplate, but they are also
capable of working with far less exhaustion to the system.

With a front limb of this nature, the movements of the
leg are regulated by that of the shoulder. When the blade-
bone is drawn upward, the humerus leaves its almost erect
position, and assumes a forward inclination. This causes the
arm to be advanced, and propels the leg and foot. Thus, the
movement of a part governs the motion of the whole : a grace,
or harmony of action is the result. The various components
of the member change their relative positions to one another
without effort, but with evident intention ; all parts of the
limb are simultaneously advanced. The work is not cast upon
one- set of muscles to the injury of another region. A well-
made animal is one perfect whole, and formerly was common
throughout the land. People may sigh that such quadrupeds
are now lost to the nation : this regret, however, does not
accord with the folly that upholds the racing mania, which
has engulfed the once-prized native breed of English horses.

The articulated skeletons, which are exhibited in museums,
present but poor resemblances of the living framework, as it
is arranged by the hand of Nature. In these artificial prepa-
rations, the fore limbs are always straight, as are the supports
of a kitchen table. But, contemplate the living example. The
positive perpendicular is never observed. The member
abounds in gracefully swelling prominences, and admirably
poised inclines. The chest may be wide ; but the hoofs are
placed close together. Such a necessity renders an erect line
an impossibility. Try the same rule in another direction. Let'

POINTS.

299

a plummet be dropped from the point of the shoulder of a
living and well-made animal ; it will mark the limit to which
the toe is extended, when the healthy horse is resting the
limb. Such a fact proves the sheer upright form of the
member to be an unnatural distortion, and a positive impossi-
bility.

DIAGRAMS OF BONES WITHIN THE HORSE’S FORE LEG.

The importance of the shoulder and of the arm bone having
been enlarged upon, there remains to direct the reader’s atten-
tion towards that which in general acceptance constitutes the
forearm, as well as the knee, the leg or the shin, the pastern,
and the foot. Where the limb quits the trunk, it should be
characterized by muscular developments ; since, at this place,
resides the chief of that power, by which the lower portions
of the member are directed. The flesh should bulge forth,
and cannot be too abundant ; for a thin fore arm is incom-
patible with goodness in a horse.

1300

POINTS.

The point of the elbow should be prominently emphasized,
as this bone affords a leverage, whence many influential
muscles originate, and which some of the principal flexor
agents directly operate upon. Towards the knee the swelling
should gradually subside, leaving upon the surface of the joint
a broad, clean, and firm appearance. At the back of the knee,
there should stand forth, or rather should stick out, an osseous
point, the size of which is of every value. Its aspect may not
please the inexperienced fancies of the boy ; but the uses of
this development are, in no little degree, governed by its
magnitude. It affords a point of insertion to the short flexors
of the limb, as well as gives shelter to the perforans and per-
foratus tendons in their passage towards the pastern and the
foot. Its magnitude, therefore, not only favours muscular
action, but also indicates the dimension of those important
structures which this bone protects.

The fore arm should be long ; the shin ought to be com-
paratively short. The reach depends on the first, the length
■of which secures an extra amount of motor activity. No
muscles of importance are located upon the shin : bone and
tendon are the principal components of this region. The part
should not be absolutely straight ; for such a form is incom-
patible with all idea of living beauty ; but, at the same time,
it ought to present no obvious inequalities or sudden enlarge-
ments. The bone should be compact, giving to this portion
of the limb, when viewed from the front, almost the appear-
ance of being deficient in bulk ; but when regarded from the
side, the lower part of the leg cannot be too broad; for
breadth and strength are here synonymous.

The above rule applies with equal stringency to both legs,
— to the hind limb below the hock, as well as to the more
forward member from the knee downwards. Each should be
thin, when viewed from the front. Neither can well be too
•deep, when seen from the side. Both should appear solid, and

POINTS.

30 11

each should feel almost of metallic hardness. The pastern
joint should not present a level surface, when viewed laterally :
and as it proceeds downward to join the foot, a graduated
enlargement should exist.

Much comment is usually indulged upon the horse’s pastern.
The degree, in which this part may or may not slope, has been
authoritatively defined. The reader will best judge of these

A LONG AND SLANTING PASTEEN.

INCLINATIONS OF

A NATURAL PASTEEN.

AN OVERSHOT PASTERN.
THE PASTERNS.

opinions, by considering the purposes for which the pastern
was created. Its intention is to endow the tread with elas-
ticity. I he fetlock of a racer, when the animal trots, may be
seen to touch the earth, every time the weight rests upon the
foot : nevertheless, the thoroughbred has, during the conten-

302

POINTS.

tion, to endure the very excess of action. There must, there-
fore, be something erroneous in the popular judgment which
connects weakness with the motion of this part, or no racer
could ever reach the goal ; and if a quadruped does occasion-
ally break down* the likelihood of such a misfortune is not
regulated, or to be foretold by the pliability of the pastern
joint. However, that the reader may estimate the value of
the prejudice, various pasterns, designated according to the
general phraseology have been submitted to his inspection.

To enable the purchaser to arrive at a sound decision, it is
necessary to state, that the inclination of this region is

governed by the major flexor tendons, which are situated
underneath or behind them. Their slanting, therefore, is
regulated by no peculiarity in the forms of the bones them-
selves ; but is controlled by, and dependent upon the con-
dition of another structure. A short, upright pastern, if it
can bear any evidence at all, testifies to a stubborn and un-
yielding state of the great flexor muscles, the weight being
then thrown upon the osseous supports. The play of the pas-
tern denotes nothing more than the healthy elasticity of the
flesh upon the tendon, proper to which, the osseous structures
repose. The bones have no motor power belonging to them-
selves. The upright and the overshot pastern suggest no
change in the more solid1 frame; but such alterations prove

POINTS.

303

that excessive work has strained the great flexors of the limb,
and destroyed the inherent property of elasticity, with which
every muscle is endowed by Nature. The burthen being then
supported by an osseous pillar, instead of an elastic band, of
course jar or concussion ensues upon the abnormal change.

Thus, alteration in the natural position of an oblique bone is
of great importance to a purchaser, and to judge properly of
the pastern joint, the substance, swelling forth beneath the
elbow, must be regarded. Should this portion of the body
be mean, or wanting in development, hard work will probably
induce it to become rigid, or labour may, ultimately, cause the
pastern joint to shoot forward and out of its proper situation.

The flexor tendon likewise influences another part. The
perforans is inserted into the sole of the coffin-bone, or into
the bone of the foot. The direction in which the toes point
is, therefore, regulated by a substance, so far distant, that the
attempt to connect the two organs may, to the uninformed
mind, seem somewhat ridiculous. Yet, the statement being
correct, the fact renders the position of the elbow of more
importance ; for, according to the situation of that bone, the
hoofs will be directed. Thus, an ulna or an elbow, which is
drawn towards the trunk, will be attended with a toe inclined
outward. When the bone turns from the body, the forward
portion of the hoof is directed inward. When the framework
is properly constructed, the hoofs point forward ; for horses*
hoofs are liable to those derangements which the human foot
exhibits, and generally with like results. Only, in man,
striking one leg against the other during progression is not
attended with the unfortunate consequences which such an
occurrence often will induce when this accident occurs to the
quadruped.

By the pasterns, recently exhibited, it will have been ob-
served, that the inclination of the bones influences the slant of
the hoof. The two structures are so connected one with the

304

POINTS.

other, that neither can be independent ; for the direction of
the pastern, of course, determines the nature of the weight
imposed upon the foot. Thus, should the foot receive more
than a normal pressure, this circumstance, by throwing the-
weight upon the bones, occasions the muscles to contract, and
produces upright or overshot fetlock joint.. Nevertheless, the
hoof is operated upon by other agency. Diseased action will
also interfere with the growth of its outward covering. The
member may, under such injurious excitement, when long-
continued, eventually become deformed.

HOOFS POINTING FORWARD. HOOFS POINTING OUTWARD. HOOFS POINTING INWARD.

INCLINATIONS AND DEFECTS OF THE FEET, AS WELL AS SAMPLES OF ODD HOOFS.

The place of birth also influences the horn. Thus, a quad-
ruped brought up on the fens of Lincolnshire generally dis-
plays a flat sole, a weak, a low, and a slanting crust. The
horse, whose native land is dry or sandy, mostly exhibits the
hoof high in the quarter and thick in its encasement. The
creature with feet of the intermediate sort, which a few years
ago were esteemed the model form, is generally the inhabitant
of a moist, but not of a wet district. The horn, therefore, is
indirect evidence of the rearing ; and the author has now to
consider how far its condition can, by itself, be regarded as a
positive proof of any other fact.

There is one defect, not generally observed, but which
should always be studied in every examination of the feet. It
may surprise the reader, when the author declares it to be
very far from an uncommon cii'cumstance to encounter a
horse with odd hoofs, or with feet of different sizes. Such a
peculiarity is totally independent of the defective inclination

POIJSTS.

305

of the toes, and may be seen in horn of any possible condition,
or in feet of any variety of form.

An animal becomes lame in the foot. If the lameness is
removed in reasonable time, the affection disappears, and
leaves no trace behind it. But let it continue for months, and
during such a period, the sufferer will throw little or no weight
upon the diseased member. The part will be rested. The
purpose or function of the organ will be counteracted by the
will of the animal. The consequence of long disuse will be a
proportionate decrease in size. Upon recovery, the loss of
bulk is seldom restored ; for if the foot is then employed, so
also is the sound one ; and the action being equal, of course,
it does not particularly affect one extremity, but operates on
both alike.

The difference in the feet may not be so startling as to
enforce attention to the deformity. It is seldom of this
nature. Most probably it will require some discrimination to
detect it. In the last engraving, the author endeavoured to
depict the defect as it was generally exhibited. None of the
hoofs, there delineated, positively match : though, very pro-
bably the reader had not remarked their differences. How-
ever, the slightest disagreement is an accepted proof, that
disease has been present, — at what time, — whether recently or
long ago, — of what nature, whether structural or functional, —
the examiner cannot tell : he however, assumes lameness has
existed, — has endured for some period, — and he fears that the
organ, which has been afflicted, may retain a liability to re-
peated visitations of a similar misfortune.

The so-called model foot is very liable to change, and not
less likely to exhibit disease. It is very pretty to look at ; but
it does not, as a rule, undergo much work without alteration.
This opinion, however, must be regarded only as announcing
a general law ; for though the intelligent Mr. Bracy Clarke
puts- forth engravings, illustrative of the effects which work

20

306

POINTS.

produces upon the model foot,, nevertheless, the writer of the
present volume has seen hoofs of this description, which have,
without apparent injury, endured constant shoeing, as well as
perpetual battering upon the dreaded London pavement.

The slanting crust, weak heels, and low soles are, however,
not to be commended. These are among the worst points
which the equine form can present, and they are, too com-
monly, the forerunners of sad internal disease; as ossified
cartilages, sand-crack, pumice-foot, &c.

After long reflection, the author must express a preference
for the high or the stubborn hoof. When doing this, he is
consciously opposing his unsupported opinion against the
firmly and repeatedly expressed judgment of his professional
brethren. He, therefore, can ask no man to agree with his
decision ; but he humbly requests the reader to peruse the
grounds of his conviction, before hastily condemning its
declaration.

The horse is a native of a dry and an arid soil. Such a
region induces that which the inhabitants of this country
stigmatize as an excess of horn or an abnormally high sole.
This kind of hoof, therefore, would appear to be natural to
the animal : at all events, such a foot must have been general
before the invention of iron shoes. Moreover, when the im-
mense weight of the creature’s carcass is considered, and the
manner in which bearing is increased by speed, is also properly
regarded, a necessity for the stoutest hoof must be fully ap-
parent.

In addition to the above inferences, the reviser may advance
his own observation, carefully made through a number of
years, that all animals exhibiting strong crusts are not,
necessarily, cripples ; but that the creature with such a de-
velopment of horn is in consequence less, infinitely less, liable
to pedal derangements. The contrary conclusion lias been
upheld, because most men thought the excess of horn must

POINTS.

307

■check expansion, and also severely pinch the internal struc-
tures. With regard to the last deduction, all outward de-
velopments are produced by, and are governed by the inward
organs, which these shelter. The secreting member may be
soft, and the secreted substance may be hard : still, by a wise
provision of Nature, the tender structure rules the insensitive
material, which it produces. Therefore, the horn cannot press
upon or pinch the internal portions of the foot, any more than
the skull can compress the healthy brain, which it protects.

Then as to the supposed want of expansibility. The hoof
may appear stubborn, when between the human fingers ; but
while supporting the body of a horse, it is exposed to the
operation of a force altogether greater than any which man is
able to exert. The question, therefore, is not whether the
hoof is very yielding ; but whether it is so obdurate as to
resist the huge weight of the animal, when aiding the me-
chanical force of speed, and the vital action of muscular
power.

The author, however, while making the above declaration,
supposes form to be united with stoutness. Where the heels
have become “ wired in,” and the crust has assumed the up-
right figure, the internal structures must be in an altered con-
dition, and the points of bearing for the different portions of
the limb must be entirely changed. The quarters in the last
kind of foot are, frequently, remarkably stubborn. They are
rather inclined to crack than to expand. Such parts will not,
by their innate elasticity, fly inward, on the leg being raised
from the ground, and thus regulate the amount of blood,
which shall be poured into the hoof: neither will they expand,
when the weight is cast upon the foot, and thus allow free
egress to the current, which is violently expelled in conse-
quence of the superimposed burthen driving the fluid upward.

The upright hoof and narrow heels are, generally, all but
unyielding. They have lost their natural function, and the

20 *

30b

POINTS.

harmony of the whole is destroyed. In consequence, the
blood, inste'ad of being expelled from the hoof, cannot escape
from the pressure of the bony structures. The vessels, within
which the fluid circulates, are not formed to sustain uninjured
so vast a burthen. They rupture under the weight ; hence,
this peculiar form of foot is commonly accompanied with
corns. Therefore, because corns are a disease, and because
disease, being once generated, is not in its course or duration
to be prognosticated with certainty, an upright hoof and
wired-in quarters are decided unsoundness; although, stout-
ness, simply considered, is rather a recommendation than a
defect.

The author may not dwell at greater length on this portion
of his subject ; but those who desire further information, may
with advantage consult Miles’s works upon the horse’s foot;
which are the best, the cheapest, and the most lucid books
upon this topic in the English language. They are written in
a style which the most unlettered may comprehend ; but when
recommending them, the author, in his own justification, may
state, that the views therein expressed frequently differ from
those opinions which are contained in the present volume.

Looking back upon such portions of the frame as have
formed the subject of the late remarks, there are certain
points which are invariably present in every well-made animal.
A very broad, full chest is advantageous for slow work ; but
for slow work only. Where speed or activity is desired, depth
of thorax is indispensable; yet the cavity should not be
narrow, or the sides flat ; while the exterior of the ribs should
apparently encircle sufficient space. The general contour
should, moreover, excite no idea of fixedness : the part should
convey a notion of its capability for easy and for rapid altera-
tion of magnitude.

The abdomen should neither be large nor small. The exhi-
bition of either failing announces a radical defect. The belly

POIJSTS.

309

ought rather to gracefully continue the line of the chest, than
by its protuberance or the' reverse, to enforce its existence
specially upon the notice of the spectator. All may be con-
sidered right when the form elicits no remark; but when it
■challenges observation, the fact does not indicate that every-
thing is as the purchaser could desire.

The position and the muscularity of the shoulder are the
main points in the fore-hand. With respect to the limbs,
these should leave the body as though they were parts of its
.substance. They can hardly be too large where they emerge
from the trunk ; and the fore-arm can scarcely be too long.
The knee-joint should be broad and flat; while the bone which
projects forth posteriorly should be well pronounced and
•evenly situated. The shin should be hard to the touch, and
broad, when viewed laterally. The leg should seem straight
and strong; the feet standing close together, and the toes
pointing in a forward direction, rather than inclining to the
outward or to the inward direction.

Such is a general view of organs, all of which are of equal
importance. Breathing and digestion are such vital functions,
it would be supererogation, did the author pretend to point
■out their importance. It may be otherwise with the fore limbs.
Their use is not popularly comprehended ; those members are
■exposed to numerous accidents and liable to many diseases.
This predisposition is generally explained, by saying they are
nearer to the heart than the hind legs are ; and the straighter
form is more favourable to a descent of the arterial current
than is the angularity of the posterior extremities ; therefore,
this portion of the frame is more open to acute affections.

The facts stated are certainly correct. So is the less free-
dom allowed to the fore-legs, by confinement in, and fastening
■the head to a manger in a stall. Such, however, is not the
whole truth. There are other causes in operation. The pro-
vince of the fore limb is to uphold the trunk. Thus, at all

310

POINTS.

times, the member has to support no inconsiderable burthen -
but when that load is increased by the weight of a rider, or
is augmented by the drag of the collar, the tug of the shafts,
and the generally pendent position of the head, the reader
may conjecture the force with which the limb must be driven
to the earth, especially during any rapid increase of motion.

The continued battering to which the leg is subjected
naturally exposes it to much suffering, which the comparative-
fixedness in the stable greatly aggravates. As the uses are
severe, so are its afflictions painful ; and it hazards nothing to
assert, that very much of the sorrow which visits the animal
is dependent upon the diseases or the accidents which are in-
separable from these forward supports of the body and of the
load.

When, however, the person called upon to exercise a judg-
ment in the purchase of a nag is so new to the subject as to
be incapable of forming an opinion, there is one primary test,
which seldom deceives ; and upon the evidence thus evolved
the merest tyro is fully qualified to pronounce. Let such a
man mount the animal, and when seated in the saddle, he can
surely decide whether he appears to be close upon the neck or
placed far behind upon the back. A well-made animal, by the
inclination of the shoulder and by the amplitude of the withers,
forbids the forward location of its rider ; whereas a worthless
quadruped, by the lowness of the first dorsal spines and the
upright position of the blade-bones, allows the rider almost to
rest upon its neck ; thereby, because of the greater weight to-
be supported by the front limbs, increasing the natural liability
of the forward members to exhibit disease.

The reason why such a formation should be specially
noticed, is, upon reflection, made apparent. The hind legs,
by their greater motor power, always have a disposition to
throw the weight upon the forward member. "When this
tendency is augmented by the burthen on the back, the con-

POINTS.

311

sequence must be a destruction of any approach to an equi-
librium.

The horse’s body is, by Nature, given four props — one at
each corner of the trunk. But when a human load is lodged
almost over the fore limb ; when the front leg is placed far
behind the chest ; and when the head swings in advance, — all
approach to a proportionate amount of burthen is destroyed.
The forward extremities then take a position almost in the
middle of the substance, a proportionate encumbrance being
removed from the posterior extremities. The hind members
have less to do, and excessive duty is imposed upon the
weaker organs, the motor machine being deprived of safety
during progression.

While on the back, the rider should ascertain the shoulders
are of equal bulk, or have not suffered injury ; and that the
trunk is sufficiently developed to secure a grip for the thighs
of the rider.

The haunch is that portion of the frame upon which a capa-
bility for work is chiefly dependent. This region, therefore,
should appear to be the embodiment of strength. It should
not seem soft, or invite those pats which inexperienced horse-
men are fond of administering to this portion of the body ;
but the aspect ought rather to suggest firmness and power ;
for here resides the force which must propel the load or direct
the bound. Always chdose an animal with good haunches,
and invariably regard the position of the tail ; as the situation
of the dock, when on a line with the backbone, denotes the
greatest possible length, and therefore the largest amount of
muscular activity to be present.

Never purchase a horse which is recommended as fully
equal to carry your weight; for the dealer who asserts this is,
by his interest in the sale, incapacitated from forming a just
opinion. But ostensibly appear to seek a horse for a friend —
never for yourself and state the nominal owner to ride at

312

POINTS.

least four, if not six, stone heavier than the would-be pur-
chaser. There is a saying that an animal will run away with
. too light a load ; but that assertion is mere nonsense. Most
vicious quadrupeds are weakly creatures. The powerful frame
is generally united to an even temper. Strength does not
endanger the female equestrian; although laches, generally,
are mounted upon the best-made, the strongest, and the most
valuable steeds. Indeed, this argument is never urged, save
when a gentleman hesitates to accept a weakly quadruped, or
desires to obtain the one which the dealer is not very anxious
should be purchased.

In illustration of this subject an engraving is inserted, which
represents better-made quarters than are commonly beheld on

A COARSE-BRED HAUNCH.

a native or coarsely-bred animal. But the reader can hardly
fail to remark that though the developments are not deficient
in width, yet the general aspect rather denotes softness than
expresses strength or suggests determination. The tail is well
set on for this kind of quadruped ; still, the point of the rump
bone is not even indicated. The spectator must guess at its
precise location, as he cannot, by the unaided vision, detect
its exact situation. Bulk is not absent; yet, that which should

POINTS.

313

fee its attendant is not prominent. ' The bones of the leg seem
lono\ but the hocks are not remarkable for size or conspicuous
for form. The limbs are not moved with that independence
of action which gives to the step of the horse its air of resolu-
tion; but they are advanced, as though one was timid of
proceeding too far without the other.

Yet, the inquirer may journey long and travel far before he
will meet the equal of the quarters here depicted. The gene-
rality of these parts, on the animals of the coarser breed, are
much narrower; the tail is seldom encountered springing
from a position so near to the level of the spine ; while, short
as the extent of the posterior muscles may appear in the
previous illustration, these are frequently to be seen of more
•circumscribed dimensions.

In contrast to the foregoing, the next engraving depicts the
■quarters of a blood horse. In this illustration, symmetry and

A THOROUGH-BRED HAUNCH.

beauty are equally preserved ; but, with these qualities, also,
are blended other attributes, which ennoble and elevate the
object. Strength, power, and determination are impressed
upon the image. Every muscle goes direct to the part on
which it operates. The posterior line, on being traced from
the dock to the leg, does < not seem to hesitate between the

314

POINTS.

bone of the member and the stifle-joint. The leg itself is;
thicker, but its greater substance depends upon the presence
of muscle. The hock is cleaner, and uses of the part are
better characterized. The os calcis, or point of the hock, as
the backward projection is technically termed, stands forth
prominently and affords the greater leverage for the motor
agents to act upon.

When the quarters of the two breeds are contrasted, the
difference is found to be extreme ; the pervading attributes of
each characterize the innate qualities of the animal to which
the part belonged. The distinctions which divide the two are
by these members well indicated. There was, some time
back, a loud discussion as to what kind of horse was best
fitted for ordinary purposes. The old staging days should
have settled such a question ; for, then, fast coaches found the
employment of the nobler quadrupeds to their interest. Where
slow and heavy propulsion is desired, the coarser animal is
infinitely to be preferred. For all the gentler purposes of
society, the thoroughbred is, in the author’s opinion, to be
recommended. Only, these fine creatures should be properly
reared ; they ought not, as now, to be produced with all the
haste of greed, and cast upon the general public when found
unsuited to the purposes for which they were generated.

It is offensive, if not painful, to hear persons speak of cer-
tain horses as though particular quadrupeds were created only
for special uses. A good horse is fit for nearly every purpose ;
but such an animal is generally employed for the saddle. A
thoroughbred, with lofty and well-developed quarters, is too ■
valuable not to be appropriated by the racecourse. A blood,
with so much bulk and stoutness as to indicate the qualities of
endurance rather than of speed, is always destined to become
a hunter. Horses of the purer breed are supposed not well
suited for gentlemen’s hacks. Good animals of this descrip-
tion are only too valuable for common purposes \ but no

POINTS.

315-

creature is, by its intelligence, its activity, its gracefulness, or
its beauty, so admirably qualified for tbe companionship of
man as the noblest type of the equine race.

The manner in which the racer trots is asserted to express
the action which is natural to all of the thorough breed.
Before the reader agrees to that assertion, he should remem-
ber the trot is not a natural pace, nor one which the racer is
broken to exhibit. Seen upon the course, the foot evidently
moves too near the earth to clear the ruts of most English
highways. Yet, as there shown, the motion is not to be
despised. During it, at each step, the limbs are extended;
the reach is admirable, and affords a far better foundation for
excellence in a hack than the high action which is so highly
esteemed by many. Great speed without great exertion is se-
cured by the thoroughbred trot : much ground is covered, whilst
the pace is easy, and pleasant to the rider. It is very opposite
to that which medical gentlemen occasionally recommend as a
“ hard-trotting horse.” A child might sit upon the back of a
well-bred steed. The author recollects to have only seen one
animal of this description employed as the riding companion
of a gentleman. The master (a northern nobleman) was
evidently proud of his possession ; for the hack abounded in
energy and with fire. The life never appeared fresher in a
colt ; but, on inspecting the teeth, the writer was pleasantly
surprised to behold indications which denoted that, at least,
twelve years had been passed. The foregoing illustration will
suggest to the inexperienced reader the more striking pecu-
liarities which characterize the well-bred action.

Any quadruped is supposed suited for the collar when it
displays points which unfit it for the saddle. A prime saddle-
horse, however, always makes the best harness animal ; only,
it is considered too valuable for such a purpose. There is
but one law, which is absolute with draught horses. In them,
the fore legs are pardoned a few faults ; but the hind quarters

316

POINTS.

should always be powerful. That is ...desirable in all quadru-
peds ; for draught of every kind it is essential : it should never
be overlooked, or the want of such a property ever be pardoned.

There is another point of importance. Any gentleman
purchasing a draught horse — no matter whether for cart; for
•carriage; or for phaeton — be it for any kind of vehicle, he
should be certain, before the transfer is concluded, that the
new possession stands high enough. Nothing looks worse
than small horses before a tall carriage. The living power
may be in excess — it can hardly appear too mighty — but an
inch below the requisite size gives to the most elegant and the
newest of “ turn outs ” a shabby and a mean appearance. The
draught may be light ; the horses may not be overweighted ;
— still, no fact or knowledge can reconcile the eye to the
general effect, where animals are too small for the machine to
which they are harnessed.

Of recent years there has been displayed a desire to infuse
the Eastern blood into the heavier breed which is native to
this country. The desire was commendable ; but its gratifica-
tion has led only to evil. It has enabled the dregs of the
racecourse to be palmed off upon the public. A thin and
lanky offshoot of thoroughbred stock can be of no value.
These things should not be bought by gentlemen for any kind
of service. The time has come, when it is simple prudence
that the public should refuse longer to absorb the cast-offs of
the stud farm. No doubt, before the breeding of blood stock
became a general practice, the infusion of Eastern fire and
activity was a national boon ; for, a reference to engravings of
a few years back exhibits the animal, suited only for a plough,
used as ladies’ palfries. The following copy from a figure,
presented in the famous folio work by a former Duke of New-
castle, will give the reader some notion of the kind cf horse
.once chosen to carry the fairest portion of creation in the
British isles.

POINTS.

317

From the following illustration, which may be well supposed
to embody the height of fashion and the cream of style shortly
after the accession of Charles the Second, the reader can
imagine the practical knowledge possessed by those winters
who speak of James the First as having greatly improved the
native breed of horses, and quote the benefits conferred
upon the national race by the more temperate but equally
determined enthusiasm of Cromwell operating in the same
direction.

LADY, HAWKIIfC.

At this place, the reader must have patience while the method'
of judging the limbs is pointed out. When the dealer exhibits,
an animal, the customer's eye always should endeavour to
ascertain the bulk or substance of the creature which he is
expected to purchase. To do this, let the eye be directed

■318

POINTS.

"towards the chest, to ascertain if the fore legs are separated
by any breadth of thorax, or whether they spring from the
body almost from the same point. This decided, a glance
may be given to the line of the fore legs ; these parts, also,
can be viewed a3 the gentleman passes backward. Having
reached the last situation, he observes if the thighs are large
and fleshy, keeping the legs well asunder ; also, whether the
hocks are rightly placed, are huge, and are cleanly shaped.

Such remarks are important, since the disposition to cut is
generally decided by the width of the horse’s trunk. Any
deficiency in this respect indicates weakness, as well as de-
clares a general unfitness for severe labour. This circum-
stance being observed, it is usual for the horse to be run up
and down the ride. While the limbs are in motion, the spec-
tator should notice the peculiarities of their carriage. A
flexion of the front shin to the outer side warrants a belief in
the existence of a splint. When the hind limb is not properly
flexed, but the toe is allowed to graze the ground, it is a
positive proof that the hock is disabled by the presence of a
spavin.

A worse evil, however, is, when the fore legs, during pro-
gression, crossing each other, the trot becomes a sort of
“ hand over hand ” pace. This kind of action is accompanied
by “ speedy cut,” or by a wound made upon one leg, imme-
diately below the knee, with the shoe on the opposite foot.
That defect justifies an instant rejection; for such a liability
is incompatible with safety, as the blow too often brings the
animal and its rider to the earth. The legs being close is the
cause of “ brushing ” or of “ cutting,” — a most troublesome
defect, which inflicts a wound considerably nearer to the
ground than “ speedy cut.”

Before purchase, the hair on the inner side of the legs
should be carefully examined. If a cicatrix or a bare spot is
discovered near to the seat of cutting ; if any paint or colouring

POINTS.

319

matter can be detected on the part ; or if the hair does not lie
perfectly smooth upon the place of injury, have nothing to do
with the animal. It is quite true that most fresh and nearly
all young horses will cut — others strike only towards the end
of a long journey ; but it is also true that particular horses,
however fresh, or however tired they may be, never strike or

an exaggerated view of a weak animal, witii dangerous action.

cut. The quadruped which a gentleman desires is one that
does not contain evidences of a liability to accident or to
disease. He wishes for a sound animal ; and one disposed to
strike cannot be so esteemed. Every man wants a horse for
service ; but the creature which may at any moment receive a

320

POINTS.

wound that shall incapacitate, assuredly cannot be esteemed a •
serviceable possession, in any meaning of the word.

While examining the legs, the gentleman should also notice-
the shoes upon the different feet. If these are rusty,' the fact
demonstrates that the horse has been wearing wet swabs, and
has been long stationary in the stable. The circumstance is-
suspicious. In horse-dealing a justifiable suspicion is always
acted upon as an established fact. If the shoes are of rude
make and much worn, it looks badly ; and though it is no
recommendation, it justifies no inference. But if the shoes
be thicker at one part than at another ; if the horse, being a
nag, should wear very high calkins ; if the toe be shortened,
or one side of the metal is obviously narrowed, it denotes pre-
cautions against clicking and against over-reaching ; the first
being a most audible annoyance, which may lead to the forcible
tearing away of a fore shoe, and the last causing a fearful, a
terrible, and an incapacitating wound upon the heel of the
fore leg. Also, should the toe of the hind shoe be ground
down, while the heel exhibits no obvious wear, the fact de-
monstrates the existence of a spavin. The reader is therefore
advised not. to purchase a horse on which any of the above-
enumerated defects are noticed, as such defects constantly
cause unsoundness.

BREEDING.

321

CHAPTER XII.

i

BREEDING. — ITS INCONSISTENCIES AND DISAPPOINTMENTS.

THE greatest mistake that a man about to commence breed-
ing horses can make is to select for such purpose old
mares. This one fault has produced weak and badly-formed
animals, who in their turn, perhaps, have propagated worse
offspring. The bodies of most old mares have been weakened
by hard work, or crippled by too early labour : consequently
the foals of such creatures are before birth injuriously impressed
either in shape or constitution ; and for this reason a breeding
mare, by the majority of farmers, is considered a bad specula-
tion. The same remark relative to early labour applies to the
growers of blood stock ; both sire and dam are, before the
second year of babyhood has been completed, placed in the
trainer’s hands in order to undergo preparation for the race-
course. Certainly, where an amusement is pursued with a,
reckless defiance of economy, a little longer grace might be'
accorded to the animals employed to promote it ; or where the-
topmost prize is estimated, not by tens but by thousands, it
might be prudent to speculate with a little forbearance for
such a reward.

Has it never occurred to a nobleman, or to any gentleman,,
that it might, probably, be as profitable to keep the most
promising foals sacred to breeding purposes ; that, simply as
a paying speculation, it might answer to do for the course
what agriculturists have done for the land, only with this

21

322

BREEDING.

difference, — that whereas one desires hulk, the other should
aim at courage, strength, and speed. Animals, if well cared
for, and never placed in the trainer's hands, would in all pro-
bability bring forth finer specimens of horseflesh than either
their parents or their progenitors. These foals, being selected
and kept apart until the sixth year, might generate young
which would sweep the land ; and a stud of “ clippers ” would,
assuredly, prove a pretty private property.

How far a youth passed in running improves the reputation
of some quadrupeds is well known ; but how far it is a good
preparation for the offices of paternity is exemplified by most
blood mares and stallions becoming famous through their
progeny only after years of repose have mitigated the chronic
evils of their early life. Prejudice, however, takes no heed of
such teaching, but maintains the absolute necessity of proving
both before sire or dam are allowed to perpetuate their kind.
The consequence of this system is shown in the deformed and
misshapen dwarfs which are now ruining the once-prized native
breed of English horses.

What are results of such a system ? Distances have to be
shortened. Many start ; but few return, contesting the race.
Ages have to be altered ; while boys have to assume the cap
and the whip. Useless weights are sought to suit the failing
strength ; but more animals break down in the training than
come to the post.

Yet, racing is maintained, not for the amusement of a few,
but to improve the national breed of horses ! How far does it
answer its purposes ? Let the public markets testify. A stout
hack is a rarity. Such an animal was once all but universal.
A brougham horse — one looking fit to pull a house — was for-
merly to be found in every yard. Now, London shall be
searched through before the shadow of the original can be

encountered ; when discovered, the price demanded will be

»

far too heavy for the generality of purchasers. The horse-

BREEDING.

323

flesh of England is becoming weedy under a forced system.
Poor “ bloods ” are everywhere present. In the sphere to
which this breed should be confined, a few foals are retained ;
but the majority are discarded. Many are born that do not
return the first expense which called them into existence.
Those rejected are to be seen drawing cabs, carrying riders,
pulling carts, and performing every office, which is at once a
proof of their utter want of value and the hollowness of the
pretence which perpetuates such degradation.

The glut of worthless “ bloods ” serves to check the raising
of the other and the better kind of animals. The refuse of
the stud farm being disposed of to the highest bidder, so far
keeps down the price of common horses, that, what are termed
serviceable quadrupeds have become scarce throughout the
land, which once produced them in abundance. Thus blood
stock is contaminating the native breed of the country. Even
with particular breeds — as with the Cleveland bays — the
horses which dragged the cumbrous vehicles of our ancestors
are lost to the present generation. Carriages are built lighter;
but the animals, being nearly pure blood, lack strength and
want substance.

All animals, which are intended to perpetuate their race,
should be comparatively young, and only subjected to such
■easy toil as will repay the difference between the stable and
the field. The quadrupeds should be daily groomed, and
ought to be supported by fodder of an extra nutritious
character. Gentle labour and a warm loose box will only
keep the body in good health. When not required to work,
the animal should be left at liberty to roam about a piece of
bare pasture ; especially during the night, when the flies are
not abroad, and when the vision of the horse enables it to
move with perfect safety.

This treatment should be continued almost to the time
of foaling : when the period is very near — three weeks

21 *

or a

324

BREEDING.

month, of perfect rest may be accorded ; duration being regu-
lated by the condition of the animal. Rest, however, does-
not imply that the expected mother is to be turned into a.
straw-yard, or is to be exposed to the inclemency of the season.
One month subsequent to birth, the work may be gradually
resumed ; but the mare and her foal should not yet be made
to travel on the high roads. The little life may, in the fields,
safely gambol by its parent's side. The exercise will benefit.

BLOOD MAKE AND FOAL.

the youngster, while its eye will become accustomed to the
toil with which it will have to be associated hereafter. But
the tender hoof of the newly-born is not, at the expiration of
the fourth week, so formed or so hardened as to endure the
grate of the common highways, although the feet may sustain
the wear consequent upon moving over meadow land.

The foal, before it saw the light, would be sustained by the

BREEDING.

325

good food consumed by its mother ; the mare would not, by
gentle work, be so lowered, as to unfit the quadruped for the
•offices of maternity. By selecting the jobs to be executed,
these need not require greater exertion than would be ne-
cessitated by healthful exercise. Thus, a suggestion, which
to many minds may appear a heartless exaction, being ex-
plained, becomes no more than a conservative recreation.
Something of the kind is needed, because gestation and lac-
tation naturally dispose to sloth, and half the danger of par-
turition springs from the debility which idleness engenders.

To render this subject more easily understood, let the
reader ask the family medical attendant, who is blest with
the strongest child, — the wealthy lady, who can afford to
repose throughout the day upon a sofa, or the tradesman's
wife, who is necessitated to bustle about, and to assist in the
.lighter portions of the household duties ? Or, if a more direct
illustration be needed, it is afforded by the contrast presented
between the swarming cabin of an Irish labourer and the
often heirless mansion of the English aristocrat.

Were such a custom, as has been indicated, only prevalent,
those “ stud-farms," where mares are taken in and confined
in the straw-yard, with newly-born foals by their sides, would
be thrown out of use. The animal, being daily harnessed,
would be constantly inspected. There is always plenty of
light employment for one horse, if a farm be kept in order.
These odd jobs are now either neglected altogether, or are
suffered to accumulate, until a waggon-load of rubbish en-
cumbers the soil. To remove such heaps and obstractions
from time to time, the mare and a boy might be profitably
engaged, doing quite work enough to pay for corn and to
recompense for grooming. The necessary handling would
prevent that condition of semi-wildness, into which too many
mares degenerate ; while the nature of the labour would not
render it profitable for a proprietor of land to keep more than

326

BREEDING.

one quadruped for breeding, which is the number that most
farmers could find leisure to attend to without neglecting
otht things.

THE BROOD MARE.

During the months of gestation, the animal should be-
fondled and caressed. Any kindness which may be now
lavished upon the submissive slave will be certainly repaid
hereafter. The hour is approaching when a familiarity with
man may soften restraint, and render less perilous the time-
of danger. The mare being more intelligent than the cow,
feels more acutely, and does not suffer so apathetically. It is-
more demonstrative in its behaviour ; but the generous quad-
ruped will, in the utmost wrench of agony, recognize the step
or the voice of one who has been kind, and will even be sus-
tained by the presence of him who has earned its confidence-
The animal is by gentleness wooed, as it were, to submission..
It learns to associate happiness with the person of its superior,,
and willingly subjects itself to his assistance.

As before suggested, let the most promising filly be destined
from its birth for the function of breeding : she should never
be placed in the hands of a “ breaker,” or have her back
strained by being mounted. The creature should be rather-
coaxed to toil, than coerced to labour ; it is astonishing how
much more can be accomplished by such means, than will be-
effected by the harsher methods. Subsequently to the fourth
year, the quadruped may earn its keep ; but it should never
be urged beyond that point, and where a difference must exist,
the balance should stand in the animal's favour. Only the
lightest jobs should be chosen, — the mare being treated more
like a favourite slave, than regarded 'as the servile drudge,
whose exhaustion will tend to the profit of a harsh proprietor.

In this manner the first six years should be passed, when
the mare, being matured sufficiently, and uninjured by work.

^REEDING.

327

may be put to the destined purpose ; similarity — not same-
ness, but more decidedly not difference — regulating the choice
of a sire. In the selection, allow one to amend the faults of
the other ; but in seeking this, avoid absolute contrast, as the
union of opposites is too apt to produce deformity.

When choosing a mare for breeding, endeavour to discard
much which has been printed on this subject. Let compact-
ness of form, strength, and an aptitude for exertion decide
the choice. The legs should be stout and short, — declaring
bone and tendon to be present. The upper portions of these
members cannot be too bulging, thick, long, or muscular. The
crest should be highly arched, and characterized by substance;
for the movements of the body are much controlled by the
muscles of the neck. The shoulder cannot be too fleshy, so it
shall slant properly, is firm to the touch, and is situated
below withers sufficiently lofty. For hunting or for ordinary
purposes, high withers are imperative. For racing they are
no recommendation, as lofty action delays speed, and lessens
the length of stride. The back should be short, save only in
the racer. The loins ought to be broad. The hips cannot
appear too ragged or be too wide apart, while the quarters
must seem large in every direction ; nor is it to be considered
a fault, should these last parts stand higher than, and appear
disproportioned to, the other regions. Above all, see that the
channel is wide, the mouth large, and the nostrils ample.

Do not, according to the prevailing notion, search after a
long or roomy trunk. Most people like such a shape because
the carcass which they seek after is wanted to contain, with
a foal, the enormous quantity of grass which the animal is
forced to consume before life can be sustained. The mare
just described is not supposed to live in the field, but to be as
carefully tended and as liberally nurtured as the best horse in
the stable. It is, during gestation, desirable that nourishment
should occupy as little compass as possible, while it should not

328

BREEDING.

corrupt the body’s natural juices. This last effect is conse-
quent on the consumption of dry fodder. The moisture of
the mother’s body is abstracted from the foetus, to soften the
harsh and hard food which oppresses the stomach. But when
grass is eaten, an excess of water renders that which should
support the growth of the future foal weak and devoid of
nurture, while it engenders dropsy in the dam, and also com-
presses the dawning life in its primary home.

When the period arrives, the time occupied by the mare in
<c foaling ” will be short. The cow is usually slow in these
matters. The mare is always speedy, and far less patient
under pain. Therefore when the signs, which are well under-
stood, declare the time to be rapidly approaching, send imme-
diately for the nearest veterinary surgeon. However, previ-
ously ascertain that he is apt in this kind of business ; and,
above all things, be sure he is a feeling man. A coarse and
noisy practitioner is of no service about horses. The words
may not be understood, but the manners are quickly inter-
preted. The quadruped at this period wants support, encou-
ragement, and kindness. A harsh command or a threatening
gesture may so alarm timidity in its hour of excitement as
shall retard the event they are intended to facilitate. Severity,
however, does not always lead to any immediate result ; but it
may so flutter the mother or disturb its system as will assuredly
be fruitful in after-disorder.

Should the animal be properly formed, and have been well
selected, but little aid will probably be required ; yet it is
always prudent to have assistance at hand, as the mare on
such occasions admits of no delay. Do not, however, allow
the animal to give birth in a field or in the open air. Such
may be the prevailing custom ; but custom is always a bad
leader for a prudent man to follow. Numerous children are
born under hedges or in gipsy tents ; but, nevertheless, such
places are not to be preferred for ladies ; and the horse now

BREEDING.

329

The proprietor, however, must not he regulated in his mea-
sures by any rigid attention to dates. These afford nothing
like an absolute rule, worthy of being implicitly obeyed.
Neither need he be thrown into a fluster because the mare
heaves at the flanks. Such a symptom, when unaccompanied
by other signs, merely denotes a passing spasm, which may
generally be removed by the following drink. Should the pain
not yield, the dose may be repeated in half an hour ; for, at
this critical period, no bodily disturbance can bo without
importance. These attacks are said to be produced by drink-
ing largely of cold water, by unexpected excitement, &c. &c.

Tinder consideration has not been reared upon a common, nor is
it one that knows only comfort during the presence of sunshine.
Lead the quadruped gently into a thickly-littered, loose box,
having trusses of straw carefully poised against the inner walls
of the building.

PREPARING THE LYING-IN CHAMBER.

330

BREEDING.

Drink for heaving of the flanks.

Sulphuric ether .... One ounce.

Cold water . . < . . Three-quarters of a pint.

Mix : Stir till the ingredients are blended ; then give as gently
as possible.

THE NEWLY-BORN FOAL.

When the foal is born, let it be received in the arms of the
groom, and with care laid upon the straw. This done, all present
had better retire, for the mother and its offspring may with con-
fidence be left to Nature. There should be no peeping through
crevices, for the eye of maternity is cunning at detection. Nei-
ther should the slightest noise be permitted around or near to
the building, as the nerves are always morbidly excited during
this particular period. Silence is a good medicine to quiet a
disturbed system. The creature will do well if left to itself.
The cleansing of the foal may be confidently trusted to the-
parenCs affection. All she immediately requires is a pail of

BREEDING.

331

milk -warm gruel; three hours afterwards she may accept a
meal of prepared food.

Should the after-birth not be immediately ejected, resort
to no purging ; neither adopt any mechanical contrivance to
expedite its expulsion. These old methods are altogether
wrong. The retention is caused by the weakly condition of
the mare, which allows the uterus to remain relaxed. The
fittest physic in such a case is a quart of strong and sound
ale. Give three doses of this medicine, each administered
after a lapse of three hours. Should no effect have resulted
subsequently to another pause of the like duration, inject into
the part a full stream of cold water, permitting the fluid to
return unchecked. Continue to do this till a spasm appears ;
then leave off, for your object is accomplished : the pain
announced the viscus has contracted.

Dry the mare ; give another pail of gruel ; place a feed
of softened food in the manger, and leave the creature to
luxuriate in that rest which will now be enjoyed.

Animals soon get over such affairs. The foal requires
nothing beyond a sheltered abode and its mother’s attention.
Should, however, the source of the young one’s nourishment
prove unprolific for more than twenty-four hours, a little
skimmed cow’s milk, first boiled and then slightly sweetened,
being afterwards diluted with its amount of warm water, may,
if sufficiently cool, be presented. The human hand is inserted
into the fluid, and two fingers only allowed to protrude above
the surface ; these are generally seized upon, the nourishment
being easily imbibed by the hungry foal. More than a single
feed is seldom needed; even that had better be withheld, until
evident weakness necessitates its administration.

Do not bother the mare or be tempted to thwart the course
of nature at such a time with the impertinence of ball or drink.
All physic should be withheld. The common Parent is very
indulgent at such seasons ; unless opposed by mortal igno-

332

BREEDING.

ranee, her kindness generally proves the best restorative.
However, should the bowels continue decidedly costive, some
abdominal irregularity may be suspected, and then a bran
mash, into which some softened corn should be thrown, will
commonly afford all requisite relief. With regard to the
newly-born, it is better not to interfere. So the parent be
kept in health, the offspring, usually, has all the medicine it
requires. Liberal, not too stimulating diet, — a sheltered
abode, a dry ground, and a kind proprietor, embrace the
chief, if not all, the wants of an animal in this condition.

The mother, after her title is confirmed, should always re-
ceive her food out of some vessel, which a man should hold,
during the time it is consumed. Much good is thus effected
by allaying the fear natural to maternity ; the person, so
occupied, should carefully abstain from any act which might
alarm the anxiety of a newly-made parent. The same indi-
vidual should not always present the meal, but different
people should assume this office : so the animal may be thus
trained to regard men as friends, and taught to depend upon
the generosity of its superiors. By degrees, the foal should
be coaxed to accept morsels from the hand of its attendant ;
advantage should then be taken to pat and to fondle the timid
youngster. The purport of such lessons is quickly understood;
for the horse appears, naturally, to value any act of conde-
scension for its master.

It is usual to re-introduce the male a few days, generally
three, subsequently to delivery. But such a custom is far too
saving to be profitable. How does man imagine that one
poor body is, besides extracting sustenance from grass, to
yield milk to the living and to sustain the growth of the
future offspring at the same time ? It has been well declared,
that no organ is equally fitted to perform two offices ; but
surely either of the functions alluded to is a sufficient drag.
Moreover, to demonstrate how these functions are opposed.

BREEDING

33T

a fact of common occurrence, among the lower order, may
be mentioned. When failing wages render an increase of.
family undesirable, it is usual for the married women to-
suckle the last child, even for years; thereby delaying tlie-
advent of the next intruder.

To afford the nutriment which shall maintain two growing
lives and to support itself, is obviously too great a tax to be-
readily sustained by one body. The drain must be the greater
because each will demand the more as time progresses ; thus.

BREEDING, SUCKLING, AND LIVING ON GRASS.

the unborn has a portion of its sustenance diverted, while the
milk on which the living foal should be matured is im-
poverished by the necessities of the maternal system.

Therefore, when entering upon the speculation of breeding
horses, it should be remembered, that though a foal is a foal0,
nevertheless, a good and a bad foal are very different beings
when tested by figures in an account-book. One good foal

334

BREEDING.

every two years will pay far better than four bad foals every
year, as the eight indifferent creatures may be well sold at
£20 ; whereas a promising produce may be purchased at a
very reasonable price, if it should be parted with for no more
than £50.

There is a silly method commonly adopted by horse-
breeders, viz., that they, whether the foal be healthy or
weakly, only permit it to run by its mother’s side for an
arbitrary period. Should the young one be strong and well
developed, and six months old, then, and then only, can the
maternal attentions be dispensed with, as, often, the too early

weanmg retards the growth of the youngster, and, in so doing,
checks for ever perfect development.

There is another absurd custom in which the farmer de-
lights. Having hacked and hunted a mare until her nervous

BREEDING.

335

system is impaired, and her body worn, he reflects thus : —
“ That ould mare has proved a downright good bit of stuff.
I should like to have a foal out of her before she is knocked
on the head.” So he procures the service of some led horse,
and turns the aged animal out to grass, “to rest herself,”
as he asserts. This conduct would seem to be the climax
of possible folly ! Nevertheless, the farmer acknowledges
nothing wrong in his behaviour • for he is as bold and as loud
in his lamentations as other people, when a weakly ioai results
from his want ©f consideration.

336

BKEaIyLNG AND TIIAINING.

CHAPTER XIII.

breaking and training. — THEIR errors and their results.

FIST language, manners, costume, or in any of the many-
things which mark a -people’s advance, fixedness has not
keen allowed to check invention ; but, where improvement
was most needed, not only to ameliorate the condition of the
slave, but to confirm the progression of man, by rendering
impossible those sights which degrade and which debase
the reasoning faculty, it has, apparently, been absent. The
creature, during these years, has altered in form, and has
become milder in character. The spurs and bits of former
times are no longer in general use; because these are no
longer required. They, assuredly, were not cast aside from
any consideration for the life, to coerce which they were
employed ; although, a simple regard for property may have
banished such ready instruments of torture and of injury.

The lunging of the existing horse-breaker is obviously
nothing beyond that circular practice which constituted the
chief portion of equine education with our forefathers. In an
old book entitled A General System of Horsemanship, by a late
Duke of Newcastle, it is depicted over and over again, until
the image, from repetition, grows tedious. It seems very
difficult to understand the useful or rational purpose which
this peculiar lesson is now intended to support. Some persons
assert, it is of much service in taming, as it assuredly must
tire the colt. Others declare, it teaches the animal to bear
properly on particular limbs. A third party assures us it is

BREAKING AND TRAINING.

337

of infinite service, because it instructs the young horse in
leaning towards the rein, and, by not permitting the eyes
to be wholly engaged in directing the feet, it obliges the
quadruped to employ “ high action.”

The use of the limbs is governed by the natural formation
of the body ; this last no Breaker will undertake to improve.
It, certainly, is assuming too much for any art, to pretend it
can alter that which Nature has decreed. A well-formed
creature, although it should never have experienced the
Breaker’s instruction, will, of necessity, exhibit grace in its
movements. The action of a badly-made quadruped may be
temporarily disguised, but it will permanently retain only the
mode of progression it is fitted to exemplify. By forcing a
faulty horse to trot in a shallow stream, or by obliging the
animal to move briskly with sand-bags attached round the
fore fetlocks, a badly-made colt often will, for a space, adopt
a higher action ; but it is always certain, that this step, which
has been acquired at personal inconvenience, will not be long
maintained when the inducement no longer operates.

But, to take a practical view of the good likely to result
from lunging : — Horses sometimes are obliged to move in
circles. Mill-horses pass their lives in such educational
employment ; the only effect produced by this long course of
instruction is that the poor victims become sightless. Tra-
velling round and round soon causes giddiness, or induces a
determination of blood to the brain. Young animals often
stagger when relieved from their monotonous course of
lunging duties. Old quadrupeds, we are told, grow used to
the motion; but such familiarity is purchased with the
deprivation of one “ precious sense.” This termination is
hastened with the rapidity of the movements. Mill-horses
walk their monotonous rounds; but the Breaker, dreading
no results, makes the colt trot when describing this, his
favourite figure.

22

338

BREAKING AND TRAINING.

Blood, therefore, rapidly loads and oppresses the brain of
the young animal thus abused; and this consequence is the
quicker as the pace is more excited, because the circulation
is not only faster, but it is also more under subjection to
external influences in the young than in the matured. The
optic nerves originate from the sensorium, being a direct con-
tinuation of the substance of the brain itself : whenever the
nervous centre is congested, sight is the first sense that suffers,
or the first that tells the condition of the organ. Frequent
repetition of this result upon the delicate structures of growing

LUNGING.

life appears to be an antiquated custom, which modern civi-
lization should immediately abolish. It is not prudent in
man to hazard the injury of his most valuable possession, when
he simply intends to render the animal better suited for his
service.

The tuition of a colt should commence within three months

BREAKING and training.

339

Wlien the weaning has been accomplished, the colt should
be well nourished in a loose box — not turned out and neglected
until the determined time of breaking comes round, — and it»

22*

of its birth, at which time a small bridle and surcingle may be
used. Such things could at first be made of calico, the inten-
tion being merely to indicate those trappings which hereafter
have to be assumed.

After a time, the above-mentioned trappings should be
replaced by a small saddle and bridle, when the youngster can
be led about a meadow. Kindness in breaking is all essential
when confidence has to be won and timidity overcome. The
hand of the master should be frequently passed over the body,
and carried down the limbs ; and although regular grooming
is not as yet necessary, yet the mane and tail can be combed,
the ears pulled, the attendant taking care to praise the foal
when he seems to submit with pleasure to such operations.

THE FIRST HARNESS PUT ON A FOAL.

340

BREAKING AND TRAINING

previous lessons must be enforced with greater emphasis as
age progresses, and should be continued until the colt has
passed his second year, when a dumb jockey can be mounted
on his back, upon the extended points of which an old hat and
cloth may be affixed. These objects will at first excite terror*
but fear not being justified, confidence will return.

RECEIVING THE FIRST LESSON.

A sack stuffed with straw, and moulded somewhat into the-
shape of a man, should then be placed over the dumb jockey.
Little stirrups and a pair of representative legs should hang
on either side, while, to complete the whole, reins may be fas-
tened to the bit ; a portion of these last being formed of india-
rubber, for not a few mouths are permanently destroyed by
the unyielding tug of the heavy-fisted Breaker.

All these liberties being permitted, if the instruction has
been properly communicated, the pupil will have been rather

BREAKING AND TRAINING.

S4I

pleasurably excited tlian permanently alarmed by the varied
progress of its tuition. Such lessons, however, should be daily
given until the colt has attained its third year.

At three years and a half old a very diminutive lad may be
put into the colt’s saddle ; but as boys are too apt to spoil the
mouth by hanging back and holding on by the reins, the india-
rubber had better be continued, and the jockey instructed not
to interfere with the bridle, save when lhs so doing is neces-
sary to guide the animal. Then the teaching of different paces
may begin, the quadruped being always instructed in company
with a perfectly trained old horse. All feeble intellects are
apt at imitation, and a colt will readily learn from, example
what coercion will fail to impart.

By the fourth year the animal may be placed between the
shafts of a very light gig, should its form indicate the creature
not to be adapted for the saddle : at first it must be walked
about a meadow. When the sound of the wheels is not listened
for with evidence of fear, the pace may 'be quickened. Sub-
sequently, a boy may get into the veMcle, while the man
remains at the colt’s head. Succeeding tliis, the course should
be directed by the driver ; ultimately, after a man has for
some weeks assumed the office of director, the vehicle may be
taken upon the road.

Most harness horses are very imperfectly broken. The edu-
cation is too hurried, and seems to be considered as perfected
whenever the animal will merely take to the collar. The con-
sequence is, there are more bad harness horses to be met with
in London than creatures of any other description. Some
have all spirit lashed or jaded out of them ; these have become
" slugs/' or the poor wretches are almost dead to command,'
and insensible to the goad. Others are rendered incurable
kickers by the treatment tt> which they have been subjected.
A third class are ruined by the unscrupulous use of the reins ;
and some of these will take long journeys, all the time holding

342

BREAKING AND TRAINING.

the bit between the teeth. A fourth set are rendered cripples
by the unfeeling employment of the bearing-rein, which dis-
ables the organs of respiration, and renders the lightest draught
a terrible burden, by throwing the work upon the muscles of
the limbs, while it compels these agents to contract at a fearful
disadvantage.

Those who delight in a lofty crest may accomplish more by
attention to the health and diet than by the absence of humanity.
The strongest bearing-rein and the sharpest bit cannot exalt
the head of a spiritless horse. Clover, tares, beans, and peas,
by promoting the strength and lending tone to the muscular
system, will do more to raise the neck and promote gaiety of
spirit than the harness-maker can accomplish. Bearing-reins
are disgraceful cruelties, and do no more than expose the
moral condition or the pecuniary meanness of those parties
who employ them.

In corroboration of the importance of the neck as an aid
to motion, the reader must pardon the writer if he refers to a
well-marked circumstance, which has hitherto escaped obser-
vation. A horse with a thin or narrow neck, measuring from
the crest to the windpipe, should always be avoided. It
denotes bodily weakness, and testifies to an absence of spirit.
The cervical region always first exhibits the token of ap-
proaching emaciation. If the reader will, hereafter, test the
remark by observation, he will find all poor, exhausted
animals, which carry the head as though its weight was
oppressive, invariably have the neck much impoverished
and altogether attenuated.

In short, a mere catalogue of the evils engendered by the
injudicious breaking of draught horses would occupy more
space than we can command. For this reason, the di’iver
of a young animal should never be entrusted with reins
made entirely of leather j a part of the length should be
composed of india-rubber. Neither should he be permitted

BREAKING AND TRAINING.

343

to flourish a whip. All severity is but an indulgence of the
controller’s temper ; it is unnecessary with a life which is
eager to learn and is anxious to obey. The sound of the
voice, or the gentlest indication, should be sufficient to excite
the ability of such a pupil. No one can doubt this, who has
beheld its activity of ear, whenever the borse is addressed.

After the foregoing fashion, the education may be perfected,
without allowing any professing brute, under the name of a
“ horse-breaker,” to spoil the temper and to lay the seeds of
future disease, by ill-treatment of a few weeks’ duration.
Some years ago, we remember meeting a man, who must
have weighed more than fourteen stone, seated on a side-
saddle, and having a horse-rug dangling about his heels. He
was supposed to be “ breaking in ” a colt, rising three, for a
lady equestrian. His employer must have been excessively
developed, or, her representative could only spoil the creature,
which was, ostensibly, preparing to receive a lighter burden
and a more delicate hand. An accident was, thus, almost
rendered certain, whenever the oppressed quadruped should
be relinquished to its future mistress.

The matters which have already been pointed out being
attended to, and the force having been increased with the
growing strength of the colt, the creature, after its fifth year
(if intended for the higher purposes of the saddle), should be
taught to leap. To place a rider on an animal’s back, and
then to expect a bar to be cleared, is very like loading a
young lady with a sack of flour, as preparatory to a dancing
lesson being received. This folly is, however, universally
practised; so is that of teaching the paces, when the quad-
ruped’s attention is probably engrossed by the burden which
the spine has to sustain.

Leaping is best taught by turning the horse into a small
paddock, having a low hedge or hurdle fence across its centre.
A rider should, in sight of the animal, take an old horse over

344

BREAKING AND TRAINING.

Instruction, thus imparted, neither strains the structures
nor tries the temper. The habit is acquired without those
risks which necessarily attend a novel performance, while a
burden oppresses the strength, and a whip or spur distracts
the attention. The body is not disabled by the imposition of
a heavy load, before its powers are taxed to the uttermost.
The quadruped has all its capabilities unfettered, and, in such

this several times. The groom, who brings the corn at the
meal hour, then goes to that side where the animal is not, and
calls, shaking up the provender all the time his voice sounds.
The boundary will soon be cleared. When half the quantity
is eaten, the man should proceed to the opposite compartment
and call again. If this is done every time the young horse is
fed, the fence may be gradually heightened ; after six months
of such tuition, a light rider may be safely placed upon the
back.

BISING TO THE LEAP.

breaking and training.

345

Irish horses, all being excellent jumpers, are much esteemed
in England. In Ireland, however, the fields are of small
dimensions, and gates leading to them are uncommon. It is
not unusual for a quadruped to be obliged to clear numerous
walls, before a certain pasture can be gained. Thus, to leap
is rendered a prominent necessity of equine existence : for the
steed must either jump or starve. By such a condition of
their residence is the Irish breed made conspicuous for that
activity which especially excites the admiration of English-
men. Hunting, moreover, is a favourite pastime with the
natives of the sister isle ; therefore, while most Irish horses
become admirable English hunters, the best of the English
breed would be sadly thrown out by a short run in the

* state, leaping speedily becomes as easy of performance as
any other motion.

CLEARING THE FENCE.

.346

BREAKING AND TRAINING.

adjacent kingdom. There can he., however, no reason, why
an English colt, if properly trained, should not become as fine-
a performer as the most expert or celebrated of those animals
which are generally supposed to be born “fencers.-”

The seventh year should witness the horse taken into the
active service of its master. Too early work, certainly,
cripples the majority of animals ; but there is not a circum-
stance of the many, rebuked in these pages, which does not
aid, powerfully, in producing that miserable effect. All the-
customs about the equine race seem to be antiquated and
injurious. An animal is taken up, is cast, is operated upon,
is shod, is broken, and is sold, often in the course of a few
weeks. What a change has to be submitted to ! Every in-
cident of life is altered : the creature is suddenly called upon
to endure a new existence. Is it a matter for surprise, that •
nature occasionally rebels against so wholesale an innova-
tion ? Is it not a proof of the sweetness of the disposition
which graces the equine race, that the majority can yield
themselves up to the barbarity of such a terrible mutation ?

The animal being educated, according to the foregoing
description ; not being forced to strain its thews and to dis-
tort its limbs, before the frame has fairly been perfected, — but
being gradually brought to the mark of its requirements, and
also permitted time to comprehend, before it is lashed to per-
form,— being allowed the benefits of practice prior to being
expected to exhibit its accomplishments, — being simply treated
after a manner that every grade of reason must recognize as
just, — would come forth in the full possession of all its natural
powers, and would distance the swarm of equine babies, which
now disgrace the thoroughfares, encumber the field, and ruin
the racecourse. It would be fitted to carry a man in any
manly sport ; and it would be able, not being distorted by
bodily pains, to sympathize in the pleasures of its rider, and
to share the amusement in which he delighted.

BREAKING AND TRAINING.

347

One peculiarity, illustrative of the present mode of pre-
paring quadrupeds for exertion, is to be witnessed in most
hunting-fields. The young gentleman who pays hundreds,
perhaps, for his “ mount,” and whose horse has been long
under the trainer’s care, is usually “ nowhere ” at the death,
although he is at liberty to choose his way and to regulate his
pace according to his pleasure. Whereas, the huntsman, on
a screw, is generally foremost in the chase.

This seeming inconsistency evidently favours those notions
which have been promulgated. The wealthy scion of aris-
tocracy usually sits upon the young beauty, while the hunts-
man generally bestrides the aged animal. The older steed
may be of little worth, and its blemishes may be numerous ;
but it has not been exhausted under a pretence of fitting it to
endure ; it has been hacked or ridden through the months
when the younger quadruped was imprisoned in absolute
idleness. The cheaper horse has been in constant requisition
to exercise the dogs, &c., and therefore its health has been
better preserved than is that of the gentleman’s steed, which
is either new to the sport, or has recently been taken from the
supposed enjoyment of a summer’s rest.

Training of hunters and of racers, as at present conducted,
is neither a strengthening nor a refreshing process. Tbe ani-
mal that has recently been relinquished by the trainer, instead
of being able to endure extra exertion, is generally debilitated
by those measures which were designed to produce a contrary
effect. In the first place, three doses of physic, which are
given under a belief of their tonic efficacy, are quite sufficient
to disable any creature that, like the horse, is possessed of a
very large and a very long digestive track, or which Nature,
as a protection, had rendered almost safe from the purgative
operation of medicinal agents. Before the bowels of the horse
can be loosened, the primary effects of poisoning must be
established. Aloes is the favourite purgative of the stable ;

348'

BREAKING AND TRAINING.

lout so nearly related are tlie quantity whi ch relaxes and the
amount which kills, that, probably, aloes have poisoned more
horses than all other drugs in the Pharmacopoeia..

The reader to whom such a subject is a novelty may
inquire, what the intestines have to do with the muscular
action ? Supposing such a question possible, we reply, that
Although the animal body is, made up of numerous parts,
and composed of various organs, nevertheless, the whole is
so united that no part or structure can be diseased, but
the whole is affected. The intestinal track is lined with mu-
•cous membrane. When this surface is involved, prostration
or debility ensues. Cold and sore throat are ready instances
of this result; for both are consequent upon small portions
•of inflamed mucous membrane. Imagine, then, the utter
prostration which must ensue upon the morbid excitement
of so large a mucous surface as that which covers the
digestive canal of a horse. Yet, the trainer thrice induces
this consequence, under an ignorant conviction that, by
so doing, he confers upon the sufferer extraordinary nervous
•energy !

Purging is, however, only slightly more weakening than
sweating. Perspiration acts differently on different specimens
•of the same species. One person is nearly always bathed in
moisture ; another invariably presents a dry skin. This shall
hardly be moved without the surface of his body being loaded
with copious drops of fluid exudation ; that will endure the
utmost exertion, grow heated at any employment, but will not
sensibly lose a particle by transmission. The trainer, never-
theless, treats all animals alike. He gallops every quadruped
submitted to his care, as though the consequence was in-
variably beneficial. In vain does one horse break down ;
another refuse its corn, and a third exhibit swollen legs or
•crippled feet, while a fourth shall be only rendered more lively
by the process which disabled its fellows. To sweat is a part

BREAKING AND TRAINING.

C4&-

of the trainer’s system, and all the creatures which he is to-
train must therefore be violently sweated.

With racers, to these modes of debilitating is united a third,
— excessive labour. The horse is tried at its topmost speed.
These trials are frequent. Although it is a common saying that
a horse may be trained until it cannot move, still the practice
is continued. The pace is quite as severe as it is in a public
race ; the weight is usually pretty much the same. It is well
known that these trials are often run in less time than the-
contest for which they are thought to be only a preparation.
Notwithstanding the repeated disappointment and the frequent
injury induced, such prejudicial experiments are continued,
though not in every sphere of training. Men train as prize
fighters ; but they do not, before entering the ring, engage
in numerous pitched battles. There is, assuredly, something
wrong when the same law is stringent in one case, but is
inoperative in another, although both instances are supposed
to be governed by the similar regulations. Some trainers are-
guilty of the foolish practice of starving horses just before a
race, i. e. when they are most in need of support.

When extra energy is imperative, the trainer, by his con-
duct, pursues the measure best calculated to destroy all incli-
nation for exertion. The plea urged in defence of such folly
is, that a loaded stomach oppresses the breathing. This is-
true enough ; but the evils which result from gluttony do not
establish that good only can ensue upon starvation. Let the
trainer experiment upon himself, and decide whether a light
meal or no meal at all is the better preparation for an extra-
ordinary performance. Many trainers assert that a full stomach
rests upon the diaphragm, and thereby is detrimental to the
respiration. This is a mistake. The digestive sac is pendent
beneath the respiratory agent ; a fact which an inspection of
the annexed engraving will amply illustrate.

On the course weakness has lost many a race- Why should

•350

BREAKING AND TRAINING.

such a system be pursued longer ? Why are famishing animals,
when prostrated by the want of food, enervated by hunger

DIAGRAM, TO ILLUSTRATE THE DIFFERENT POSITIONS OF THE STOMACH AND OF THE DIAPHRAGM.

1. The lungs. 2. The stomach. 3. The intestines. 4. The diaphragm. 5. The bladder.

and thirst, only considered qualified to exhibit fleetness ? Is
not the idea, when plainly stated, a self-evident fallacy ?

Again, wherefore should the hunter, when the season is
over, be shut up in a loose box, be doomed to a six months'
life of inactivity ? It would thrive better were it gently
hacked by a considerate proprietor. Taken out occasionally,
and quietly ridden down the shady green lanes of the neigh-
bourhood. Never bustled, but sometimes breathed over an
even piece of turf. Ridden always for pleasure, but never
saddled when business is to be transacted. Such a life might
not allow the groom so much leisure ; but it would materially
lessen his labours when the hunting season approached. The
animal would need but little “ conditioning.” Improper
sustenance would not have induced dropsy ; nor would the
joints have stiffened by a long period of enforced inactivity.

A better system than that of keeping hunters in loose boxes
during the summer months is to turn them out to grass during

BREAKING AND TRAINING.

351

■such period ; not in a too luxuriant pasture, but in grass suffi-
cient, together with two feeds of corn each daily, to keep them
in “good case.” At grass the horse is able to roam at large,
to take exercise at pleasure, to breathe the fresh air, and to
■enjoy an entire change of scene. These produce an invigorat-
ing effect on the whole system, and the cool grass exercises
a sedative influence on inflamed and injured feet.

In concluding, let us warn all horse-keepers against the
•employment of incompetent persons as physicians for their
horses, who pretend to cure all diseases; and for the same
reason, never permit grooms to administer medicines unless
under the advice of a duly qualified veterinary surgeon.

Aloes and nitre are the chief perils of the stable. More
horses have diseases of the kidneys through the abuse of nitre
than would be affected if left entirely to Nature. As to aloes,
the poisonous and perilous nature of that drug has already
been dwelt upon ; the pitiable infatuation with which grooms
regard it constitutes one of the heaviest and needless extrava-
gances of every hunting establishment.

The reader, as he reviews the topics submitted to his judg-
ment, is probably surprised to perceive how little mystery
legitimately appertains to the horse, but how much its require-
ments accord with dictates of common sense.

Yet, is it not surprising that society at large regards “horse
knowledge” as a mysterious attainment, to be gained only by
a long course of actual experience ? Such a prejudice is with-
out the slightest foundation. Antiquated customs and exploded
notions are common enough in every mews. Filth is, in such
places, supposed to be endowed with strange medicinal attri-
butes ; and cruelty is patronized, as though the perfection of
wisdom lay in the total absence of humanity. The horse, as
at present treated, is the victim of ignorance, and is exposed
to every abuse. Nature and her dictates are disregarded. The
animal is tortured, till it submits to abhorrent brutalities. Its

352

BREAKING AND TRAINING.

instincts, as a created being, are not respected; neither are-
its necessities, as a living creature, ever considered. Its wel-
fare is secondary to the convenience of the master, and its
custody is transferred by him to his groom.

“ Common sense,” however, demands these things should be
amended. And the main purpose with which the foregoing
pages have been indited was with a hope, through a plain
statement of facts and an appeal to the reason of the public,
of awakening those entrusted with authority over the equine
species to the errors attendant upon the present system of
stable management.

INDEX.

PAGE

Action of shoulder-blade daring
progression .... 294

, high, admired by ladies . 295

Aftermeath, or rowen . . . 164

Age, an important consideration 2
Air-passages can alter their di-
mensions . . . .10

Aloes, their effect on horses 39, 41

, the purgative of the stable 34V

Ambulatory .... 240
Anatomical considerations . . 1

Arabian mode of fastening horse’s
shoe . . . . .81

Aretenoids . . . . .13

Ass belongs to the equine race . 34

, cruelties practised on . 34

B

Backbone of the horse

. 25

Balling-irons, common form of . 42

, improved form of

. 44

, Professor Varnell’s inven-

tion ....

. 44

Balls, mode of administering

. 45

Beans, different kinds of

178, 180

Bearing-reins, cruelty of

295, 342

Bishoped teeth .

. 125

Bishoping described .

. 126

Bleeding ....

63—74

, mode of

. 70

Blistering and firing .

56—63

Blisters, how applied .

. 61

Blood, effect on, of exposure to

atmosphere

. 9

Blood-can, form of

. 68

Blood-stick, form of .

. 70

Body, the, anatomically

con-

sidered ....

. 24

Boiler-house, situation of

. 245

Bolter ....

. 284

Bones of fore limb not self-sus-

taining . . ... .29

of spine . . . .24

Bran mashes, how prepared . 39

Breaker .... 140, 326

PAGE

Breaking and training, their

errors and their results . . 336

Breeding, its inconsistencies and
its disappointments . . 321

Brood mare .... 326

, on choosing . . . 327

, treatment of while foaling 328

Brushing. ..... Ill

Bull-necked horse . . . 274

*

C

Calkins 100

Camel, eye of . . .16

Cart horse ..... 288
Cartilago nictitans . . .22

Caustics, dangerous as internal

medicines . . . .48

Channel, narrows with age . . 129

, desired width of . . 286

Chink of the back . . . 230

, treatment for . . . 231

, Cistern, situation of . . . 245

Cleansing horses . . . 256

Clicking ..... 115

, shoe meant to prevent . 116

Clip-shoe ..... 110
Clipping and singeing . . 253

Clover hay, first crop of . . 164

; second crop of . . 165

Conjunctiva . . . .21

Corpora nigra present in the horse
and camel . . . .17

Cow-bellied, or pot-bellied horse 292
Cribbing, induced by confinement
and indigestion . . . 187

Cutting HI

, remedies for . . 113

D

Deglutition . . . .14

Dentine 149

Down on the hip . . . 199

Draught horses, hints on pur-
chasing 316

23

354

INDEX.

Drinks, or draughts, as horse

physio 49

, danger of administering . 50

, for heaving at the flanks . 330

, process enabling horse to

drink detailed . . . .51

, modes of administering . ( 53

Dumb jockey .... 340

B

Ear of horse
Enamel
Epiglottis .
Ewe-necked horse
Eye of horse

. 281

. 149

. 13

. 275

. 282

-, darkness does not incapaci-
tate 18

, endowed with telescopic

power 24

, evidence of original habitat 20

, operation of muscles on . 19

, pupil of never circular . 17

F

Field pea 178

Fleam, form of . . . .69

Foaling 328

Food 160

, arrangement of course of . 13

Foot, wall of . . .79

, paring and rasping . .123

Fore-limb, how united to trunk . 28

, bones of not self-sustaining 30

Frog-pressure shoe . . . 109

Frosting, or roughing . . 118

Fullered shoe .... 102

G

21

Gland, lachrymal
Grass suggests the food of the

horse 3

Grooms, hints to 248

Gruel is proper for an exhausted

horse 169

Gutters in stables . . . 235

H

Hand over hand pace is bad . 318
Haunch, capability for work
chiefly dependent upon . . 311

Hay, aftermeath. . . . 164

, clover, first crop . . 164

, clover, second crop . . 165

Hay, heated, or mowbumt

, from legumens .

, lowland

, musty

, new, is objectionable

, promotes fat

, upland

, weather-beaten .

Head

-, position of when feeding

Heated or mowburnt hay
Herring-gutted horse
Hollow-backed horse .

Hoof, high or stubborn

, hom of described

, upright

, odd .

Horse balls

beans .

dealers

Horses, age of, an important con-
sideration ....

, backbone of

, body of, anatomically con-
sidered .....

, bull-necked

, cart .....

, cleansing ....

, cow -bellied

, draught, hints on purchas-
ing

, ewe-necked

, fondness for malt liquor .

, frosting or roughing .

, herring-gutted .

, hollow-backed .

, Irish, good fencers

naturally gregarious .

, neck of, an aid to motion .

origin of

PAGE
. 166
. 180
. 163
. 167
. 163
. 180
. 162
. 167
. 12
4,6,7
. 166
. 292
. 271
. 306
. 79
. 307
. 303
. 38
. 178
. 131

, paring and rasping foot of

Horses, precautions to observe
on purchasing

, progression of .

, roach -backed

, stomach, capacity of

, teeth of

, well-bred .

Humerus ....
Hunter, muscular loins impera
tive in ...

2
25

1

274
288
256
292

316

275
25S
118
292

271
345
345
342

16

123

284

85

272
3

125

27S

29

270

Incapacitating vices, the results
of injury or disease . . 224

INDEX.

355

PAGE

Incisors at different periods of
horse’s existence . . 133 — 146

Intestines, extent of . . .3

Irish horses good fencers . . 345

Itching and scratching . . 190

J

Jaw of horse
Jibbing
Jointed shoe

. 129—130
. 233
. 108

K

Kidney dropping

, treatment of

Kiln-dried oat
Konigsberg oat .

. 225
. 227
. 176
. 171

L

Lachrymal gland . . 21

Laminae . . . . .80

Lampas ..... 149
Laryngeal affections, annoyances
of stables .... 5

Larynx, composition of .10

Leaping, instructing young horse

in 343

Legumens used as hay . . 180

Legs of horse can hardly prove
too short .... 293
Liniment to be used after blis-
tering 62

for rick of back . . . 231

Loins cannot be too large . . 269

, spines of, and of the sacrum

point different ways . . 32

Loose boxes are preferable to

stalls 235

Lowland hay .... 163
Lumbar . . . . .25

Lunging ..... 337

Lungs, capacity of, illustrated . 2

M

Malt liquor, horses grow fond of 258
Molar teeth or grinders . . 146

Motor agents . . . .20

Mouths of horses . . . 283

Mowbumt hay .... 166
Muscles, operation of, on the eye 19
Musty hay 167

1ST

PAGE

Navicular disease . 85, 94, 206’

Neck, an aid to motion . . 342

Nibbling woodwork, induced by
enforced idleness . . . 186-

Nippers, a misnomer . . . 159*

Nitrogen ..... 8-

Nostrils .... 283, 285-

, false ..... 9

, size of . • .9

O

Oat, characteristics of sound . 1 76

, different species of . 170, 178

, hair calculi . . . 176--

, sulphur in ... 176

Odd hoofs ..... 303
Os hyoides .... 287

innominatum . . . 268

Ox, his mode of feeding . . 4

Oxygen 8

P

Paring and rasping horse’s foot . 123
Pastern bones, where they re-
pose . . . . .31

are intended to endow the

tread with elasticity . . 301

are regulated by the flexor

tendons .... 302
Pendulous palate . . . 14-

Perspiration implies cuticular
activity ..... 255-

, insensible, is attended with

danger 256

Petersburg oat .... 171

Pharynx 13

Physic, administration of . . 38

Points, their relative importance,
and where to look for their de-
velopment .... 268
Progression of the horse . . 85

Pupil of horse’s eye never circular 17

Q

Quarters, hind, the seat of pro-
pulsion 32'

R

Racer, muscular loins imperative

in 270

Rasping horse’s foot . . . 123

Respiration .... 2*

356

INDEX.

PAGE

Ribs of horse

. 27

Rick or chink in the back .

. 230

, treatment for

. 231

Roach-backed horse .

. 272

Roman nose

. 278

Roughing ....

. 118

Rowen hay

. 164

S

Sacral bones, how fixed

. 33

Sacrum, osseous junction of

. 25

Sand in the eye, how protected

against ....

. 20

Scapula ....

. 29

Screw shoe

. 108

Seated shoe

. 107

See-sawing, or weaving

. 187

Shoe, Arabian .

. 75

, clip ....

. 110

, French

. 95

, fullered

. 102

, jointed

. 108

, Moorish

. 76

, Persian

. 76

, Portuguese

. 76

, Old English

. 77

, screw

. 108

, seated

. 107

, stamped

. 95

— , three-quarter

. 106

, tip .

. 103

to prevent cutting and click-

ing ....

115, 116

to enable horses to work on

slippery roads .

120, 121

, wedge-heeled

. 109

■Shoeing, its origin, uses, and va-

rieties ....

. 75

, English mode of

. 82

Skeleton ....

. 268

Sloping floors

. 209

Soft palate ....

13, 14

Spavin, signs of

318, 320

Speedy cut warrants instant

re-

jection

. 318

Spine, how the hones of are united 25
Splint, injuries to, how detected 227

, signs of ... 318

Stables, evils of ... 183
as they should be . . 235

Stomach, capacity of .

PAGE

. 3

Sulphur in oats

•

176

T

Tapidum lucidum

18

Teeth, their natural growth, and

abuses to which they

are sub-

ject

.

125

at advanced periods . 154—

-159

, bishoping .

. .

126

, front milk .

. ,

153

, molar or grinders

.

146

, wolves’

, .

136

Thorax, best form of .

. .

288

, framework of

, .

27

, narrow

.

293

, depth of indispensable for

speed and activity .

.

308

Thorough-bred horse, character-

istics of .

. .

280

Three-quarter shoe

.

106

Tips ....

•

105

Tip shoe

• .

103

Tushes

, .

156

Twisted suture .

. .

73

Twitch

•

53

U.

Undulating pavements

. .

237

Upland hay

•

162

V.

Valves in veins of leg

.

204

Veins, arrangement of

. •

6

, uses of

.

8

Ventilation of stables

. ,

246

Vertebrm .

• 24,

26S

Vices, incapacitating, so

oalled .

224

W.

Wall of foot

79

Water-troughs preferable to pails 245

Weather-beaten hay .

.

167

W eaving, or see-sawing

.

187

Wedge- heeled shoe

.

109

Windpipe, form of

.

11

Wind-sucking* induced by stables

187

Wolves’ teeth

.

136

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