i i Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https ;//arch i ve . org/detai I s/b24925275 . THE OUTLINES OF THE VETERINARY ART 3Jn jFour ^arts. THE SECOND EDITION. 1816. O' ^ r. iv / I J, Cuiiiptou, Printer, Middle Street, Cloth Fair, London. THE OUTLINES OF THE VETERINARY ART; OR, THE principles of iWeiilrine, AS APPLIED TO THE STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS, AND CECONOMY, OF THE HORSE, AND TO A MOKE SCIENTIFIC AND SUCCESSFUL MANNER TREATING IIIS VARIOUS DISEASES : Comprehending, also, a concise View of those of Heat Cattle antt ^^eep. THE WHOLE ILLUSTRATED BY ANATOMICAL AND OTHER PLATES. BY DELABERE BLAINE, VETERINARY SURGEON, AND PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL MEDICINE IN GENERAL. 'SDSe ^ecottti Ctiihan, Entirely recomposed, ivith numerous Alterations, important Additions, and new Plates. LONDON; PRINTED FOR T. BOOSEY; T ON OMAN, HURST, REES, 0R:ME, Jt BROWN; J, MAWMAN; AND J. CALLOW. iiyy V • ' 'A « ■ '"v. ( ■. m ' w’i ’/ .• ,s » ..V. TO THE KIJVG'S iMost €]ccellent SIRE, Your gracious Permission, so readily granted, to dedicate my last Work to you, em- boldens me to lay this also at your Majesty’s feet •, and, if that was thought in any measure deserving of Royal Approbation, I hope this will not be esteemed less so, it having for its object the farther extension of a Subject as important as it has become popular. With the utmost deference and respect, I beg to subscribe myself, YOUR MAJESTY’S Most devoted and most faithful Subject and Servant, DELABERE PRITCHETT BLAINE. / w ^ .> ; f..:. . . , , ' ■ ' v:.:.. K / .- :'■:■; ;r '* • ■ /'•'■• ‘ *• ' I V •’ vb, jr‘ 'I . . 1 -r:\ t . ‘ .'j-ii':' . ! ' J. •>' ( rV < f • ' ^ ) ]' ■ ’/ » ii^ ' ■' ^ ■ ■' ’ /■' ' CONTENTS SECTION I. Page History of Veterinary Medicine 1 SECTION II. History of Veterinary Medicine in Great Britain 9 History of the Veterinary College 12 SECTION III. Of the proper Means for the Attainment of the Veteri- nary Art 22 SECTION IV. Exterior Conformation of the Horse 24 Of the Teeth as characterising the Age 2.9 Colour of Horses 46 Varied Form according to the several Uses to which he is applied 4S SECTION V. Paces of the Horse SECTION VI. 49 Condition of Horses 56 Getting a Horse into Condition. 60 vm CONTENTS. SECTION VII. Page Stable Management 62 The Stable 62 Feeding 65 Watering 66 Dressing, or Grooming 66 Management of the Feet 67 Exercise 6S ^art t\)t ^ecottb. THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. SECTION VIII. Osteology, or the Bones of the Horse 72 Bones of t!ie Head 75 of tiie Trunk 82 of the Fore Limbs 87 • of the Hinder Limbs. 94 SECTION IX. Syndesmology, or the Appendages to Bone 100 SECTION X. Myology 102 Muscles of the Head and Neck 104 of the Trunk HI — — of the Extremities 272, 286 SECTION XI. Barsalogy SECTION XII. , Angiplogy H7 Of Arteries, generally H7 Of the Pulse. 120 The Distribution of Arteries 124 The Anterior Aorta 124 CONTENTS. IX Page The Posterior Aorta 128 The Pulmonary Vessels 132 Tlie Veins, generally 133 Of particular Veins 134 The Anterior Cava 134 The Posterior Cava 137 General Remarks on the Vessels. 139 Absorbent System 141 SECTION XIII. Neurology 145 The Cerebrine Nerves 147 The Spinal Nerves 149 SECTION XIV. Adenology 152 SECTION XV. Splanchnology 157 Common Integuments. 157 The Hair 15g The Cuticle, or outer Skin 160 The Cutis, or inner Skin 161 The Adipose Membrane and Fat 162 The Cellular Membrane j63 The Panniculus Carnosus 164 Anatomy of the Head I65 The Brain and its Meninges 166 The Ear 17O The Eye 174 The Nose 1S4 The Cavity of the Mouth and surrounding Parts is6 The Pharynx lp2 Anatomy of the Neck ipg Anatomy of the Thorax 200 The Pleura, Mediastinum, and Diaphragm 203 The Heart 205 The Circulation of the Blood 208 The Lungs 210 Physiology of Respiration 211 Nature and Properties of the Blood 213 Anatomy of the Abdomen 217 The Regions of the Belly 217 The Stomach. 219 Physiology of Digestion 223 The Intestines 227 Economy of the Intestines 231 The Liver 235 X CONTENTS. Page Economy of the Liver 237 The Pancreas. 238 The Spleen 239 The Kidnies 240 Secretion of the Urine 242 The Pelvis 244 The Bladder 244 Male Organs of Generation 246 Female Organs of Generation 255 SECTION XVI. CEstrum, Conception, Pregnancy, and Evolution of the Foetus 258 The Foetal Colt 264 Periods of Gestation of various Animals 268 SECTION XVII. Structure, Functions, and Economy of the Extremities.. . 269 Description of the Fore Limbs 272 Their Muscles 272 The Ligaments of the Fore Limbs 281 Description of the Hinder Limbs 285 Muscles of the Hinder Limbs 287 Ligaments of the Hind Limbs 295 Structure, Functions, and Economy of the Foot 299 The Exterior Parts 300 The Interior Parts 308 SECTiaN XVIII. Hygrology, or Description of the Fluids. 312 ^art tlte Clttrli; OB, DISEASES OF THE HORSE. and inclosed in Crotchets. 317 CLASS I. Diffused or general Inflammation . , CONTENTS. xi Fever Generally. Page Common Fever [jFmr] 323 Epidemic or Catarrhal Fever [Distemper^ 333 Malignant Epidemic Fever [Murrain or Pest] 341 Symptomatic Fever \ 347 CLASS II. Inflammation of Organs essential to Life. Inflammation of tiie Brain [ Mad Staggers, Phrenzy Fever] 34S of the Lungs [I'he Rot, Rising of the Lights] 359 — of the Heart 374 • of the Stomach 375 Specific Inflammation of ditto 353 Inflammation of the Intestines [Red Colic] 375 of ditto, from Superpurgation 379 — — of the Liver 380 — of the Kidnies 382 of the Body of the Bladder 387 • of the Neck of the Bladder 389 — — — — of the Womb 390 CLASS III. Jnflammatioji of Mucous Membranes. Catarrh [Morfoundering, or Common Cold].. 391 Thick Wind .' 392 Broken Wind 393 Chronic Cough. 393 Sore Throat 399 Glanders 399 Farcy 409 Dysentery [Molten Grease, Body Founder] 414 CLASS IV. Diseases of the Brain and Nerves. Inflammation of the Brain — see Class II Epilepsy [Sturdy or Turnsick'] 420 Locked Jaw [•S'fag' £t;27] 420 CLASS V. Diseases of the Alimentary Canal. Inflammation of the Intestines — see Class II of the Stomach — see Class II Spasmodic Colic [Gripes, Fret, or Gullion] 424 Indigestion, Chronic 426 • , Acute [Staggers in Horses, Hoven in Cattle] 427 Xll - CONTENTS. Page Wurms 431 Costiveness 436 Diarrhoea, or Looseness [Scouring'] 437 Cribbiting 441 Stones in the Intestines— see C/ass IX CLASS VI. Diseases of the Glands. Jaundice [yeZ/ows] 442 Bloody Urine 444 Diabetes, or Profuse Staling [PissMJg- •£e?7] 445 Gravel — see Class IX Stone in the Kidnies— sec Class IX CLASS VII. Diseased Collections of Fluid within circumscribed Cavities. Dropsy of the Head 446 ■ of the Chest 446 of the Belly 447 Capsular Dropsy — see Class XV CLASS VIII. Diseased Collections of Fluid within the Cellular Membrane. Dropsy of the Skin [Water Farcy] 448 Swelled Legs 449 CLASS IX. Calcular Concretions. Stone in the Intestines 451 in the Kidnies 451 • in the Bladder 451 CLASS X. Morbid Poisons^ Malignant Epidemic — see Class I Glanders and Farcy— sec Class III Mange— see Class XIX Rabid Madness 452 Venomous Reptile Bite 453 Vegetable Poisons 453 Mineral Poisons. 454 CONTENTS. Kill LOCAL INFLAMMATION. Page Principles and Doctrine of Inflammation 46(> CLASS XL Of Wounds. Wounds of the Head 466 of the Neck 466 of the Chest 468 • — of the Belly 46S of the Joints 469 ■ of the Bursae and the Thecal Cavities 471 of Arteries 472 of Veins 474 Morbid Consequences of Bloodletting 474 Broken Knees 476 Gunshot Wounds 477 CLASS XII. Of Ulcers. Pole Evil 479 Fistulous Withers Ulcers in the Mouth 482 Thrush— see Class XX Strangles 482 CLASS XIII. Of Inflammatory Tumours. Phlegmon 484 Abscess 484 Pole Evil — see Class XII Fistulous Wither— see Class XII Tumefied Neck — see Class XI — ■ Parotids — see Strangles CLASS XIV. Of Indurated Tumours. Rheumatism [^Flying Lamenessesi 485 Anticor ';.... 487 Lampas 48 S Warbles 488 Bruises. 489 XIV CONTENTS. Strains. Page Extension of the Muscles of the Shoulder [Strain] 490 Extension of the Flexor Tendons and their Sheaths [Clap in the Back Sinews] 492 Tumefied Tendon from Overreaching [^Overreach] 493 Rupture of the Suspensory Ligament [Breaking Down] . 494 Rupture of theFlexorTendonof \.he.Pooi[BreakingDown] 49^ Extension of the Ligaments of the Fetlock [Strain in the Fetlock] 494 Extension of the Ligaments of the Pastern and Coffin [Strain in the Coffin] ■ 495 Extension of the Articulations of the Femur with the Pel- vis [Strain in the Whirlbone] 496 Extension of the Femur with the Tibia [Strain of the Sti^«]49fi CLASS XV. Of Encysted Tumours. Varix [Blood Spacin'] 497 Diseased Enlargement of the Bursce Mucosae of the Pas- terns [Windgalls] 498 Ditto of the Inside of the Hock [i?og- Spavin] 499 Ditto of the Posterior Part of the Hock [^rhoroughpin], . 500 Ditto of the Point of the Hock [Capulet] 500 Ditto of the Elbow 500 CLASS XVI. Fractures and Dislocations. * Fracture of the Skull 502 of the Zygomatic Arch 502 of the Jaw Bones. 502 of the Nose. . . 503 ■ of the Ribs 503 ■ of the Extremities 504 Dislocations 505 CLASS XVII. Diseases of the Bones. Caries, or Mortification 506 Exostosis 50fi Spleut . . 508 Bone Spavin 510 Of Curb 512 Of Ringbone 512 Of Anchylosis 513 CONTENTS. XY CLASS XVIII. Diseases of the Eye. Page Ophthalmia Membranarum [Moon Blindness^ 514 Cataract 522 Gutta Serena [Glass Eyes] 523 CLASS XIX. Diseases of the Skin. Grease 523 Mallenders and Sellenders 534 Warts 534 Mange 534 Hidebound 53T CLASS XX. Diseases of the Feet. Founder, Acute 538 Founder, Chronic; or Contracted Feet 542 Pumtniced Feet 5b0 Corns 562 Thrush 565 Sandcrack 5dS Frick 571 Tread 574 Quittor 574 Canker 579 False Quarter 5S2 jSDperattonjf* Shoeing in General. La Fosse’s Shoe 585 Osmer’s ditto 586 Mr. Clark’s ditto 586 Mons. St. Bell’s ditto 586 Mr. Morecroft’s ditto 587 Veterinary College ditto 588 Mr. B. Clark’s Paratrite 59 1 A general Shoe 592 XVI CONTENTS. Page Castration 599 Docking 6oi Nicking 602 Cropping 605 Bleeding 605 Physicking 608 Firing 6ll Blistering 614 ^art tlje ^fourtt). VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA 618 2Dtre«ion0 to tSe Bintietf Plate I. to face page 73 II... 29 III 197 IV 201 V. 226 VI 270 VII 271 VIII ......7 285 IX 299 i^refate TO THE SECOND EDITION. F OURTEEN years have elapsed since the first appearance of this Work ; and as, during the whole of that period, I have been ac- tively employed in the duties of my profession as a veterinary surgeon, so it may be supposed that, whatever might have appeared defective in the practical part of the former edition, may be pretty well made up in this. The anatomy, physiology, and general economy, of the horse, though somewhat condensed, have, never- theless, received some considerable improvements. And, whoever will be at the trouble of comparing them, will find that the present edition has been entirely new modelled ; and that some subjects which entered into the former, and which may be, perhaps, as conveniently gained from other sources, such as a History of Human Medicine, a Treatise on Comparative Anatomy, &c., have given place, in the present, to a more minute examination of the exterior conformation of the horse ; a philosophical and mechanical inquiry into the na- ture, cause, and manner of progression ; a comprehensive treatise on condition, stable management, and the general treatment of the horse, as well in health as in sickness : which alterations, it is presumed, will render the work as interesting and as useful to the amateur as to the practitioner and veterinary student. To this edition has also been added a Veterinary Materia Medica : if, therefore, in its former dress, it received the following honourable testimonies to its merits, it is hoped that, in its present improved appearance, it will be no less favourably received, and prove still more extensively useful. ‘Mr. ’B had previously published the Anatomy of the ‘ Horse, re-published in this Work, in which he professes the ‘ parts treated of have been most of them taken from his own dis- ‘ sections. So far he has a fair claim of originality.’ — ‘ The ‘ drawings appear extremely correct ; are executed in the most B ii PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. , * handsome manner ; and the descriptive part is very correet.’' — London Medical Review. ‘The second division of the WorTc is occupied with the Ana- * lomy of the Horse, including the physiology, or knovvledge of '* functions. This part of the Work is materially illustrated by ‘ engravings, the execution of which has considerable merit.’ — ‘ The third division is allotted to the practical part of the veterinary ‘ art, or a description of the diseases of the horse, ox, sheep, and ‘ dog, with the most approved modes of cure. From the length * of the an.atomical part of the Work, the present part is, perhaps, ‘ more compressed than might be wished. The classification ‘ adopted by the author will materially assist the student in this ‘ branch of medicine, who is too apt to be misled by the barbarous ‘ and unmeaning jargon adoj)tcd, in general, in books of farriery.’ ■ — Medical and Chirurgical Review. * Mr. Blaine, we believe, is the first who has attempted, in the * English language, a systematic view of the whole, founded upon ‘ scientific principles, in conformity with' the modern discoveries ‘ in anatomy and physiology ; and with the modern theories, ‘ concerning the nature and causes of the different morbid changes ‘ which the living frame undergoes.’ — ‘ In treating of each disease, * he gives a clear and accurate description of its symptoms ; points ‘ out its causes, states the degree of danger, and usual modes of * termination ; and subjoins a simple, rational, and scientific ‘ plan of cure. What a pleasing contrast this forms to the miser- ‘ able productions entitled “ Stable Directories,” “ Complete Far- ‘ riery,” &c., every page of which is crammed with farragoes, ‘ called recipes j certainly not inert, but often possessing a potency ‘ of the most dangerous sort 1’ — ‘ It appears to us, that this Work * is the best and most scientific system of the veterinary art that ‘ has hitherto appeared in this country : and we therefore recom- ‘ mend it to all who are desirous of acquiring a competent know- ‘ ledge of the structure and diseases of the horse, and other do- ‘ mestic quadrupeds.’ — British Critic. To the above testimonies it may be added, that this work has been translated into French, German, and Italian, by the order of the Veterinary Colleges of France, Germany, and Italy. The Moniteur, of the 25th July, 1804, contained a very copious review of this work by M. Peuchet, the celebrated French Pro- fessor, and which ended with the following summary : — ‘ Nous ‘ pensons a la maniere claire et simple dont I’auteur a tvait-e chaque. SKETCH OF THE TROFESSIONAL LIFE OF THE AUTHOR. ill ‘ objet, qu’il a rempll son but; que cet ouyrage a le double merile ‘ d’etre a la portee de tous de tons les genres de lectures; que les ‘ personnes dont la profession est de faire la medecine des animaux * se priveraient d’un grand secours en negligeant de le consulter, ‘ et qu’il peut tr^s utilement servir a ceux qui se livrent a la plus ^ importante branche de recononiie rurale, celle de I’education des ^ bestiaux.’ SKETCH OF THE PROFESSIONAL LIFE OF THE AUTHOR. I SHALL conclude this Preface with a sketch of my professional life. The reasons which urge me to this, will, without doubt, be misconceived, and much misrepresented ; and the usual motive of an author for obtruding himself on the public, namely vanity, will, it is more than probable, be attributed to me also ; but,, it should be recollected that, in the following detail, I offer little ground for boast, or produce but little for admiration. In simple and plain truth, my reasons are, that I wish, in the first place, to preserve some character for consistency with the numerous classes of persons who have known me in the various situations hereafter detailed. In the next place, I wish to offer some apology to those relations and friends who have considered that I degraded myself by relinquishing the profession of human, for that of brute, medi- cine : and, further, as some little notoriety has attached to mv name from my professional pursuits, so the following detail may gratify a curiosity that has, I know, been often excited. Lastly, as the present leaders of the Veterinary College, jealous of a reputa- tion that did not immediately emanate from them, and over which they had no controul, have attempted to prove that I am not a regularly graduated veterinarian, because I never would conde- scend to solicit a diploma from that very school in which I was a teacher three years before the present professor was elected, and at a time when he had not even turned his thoughts towards the profession : so I hope that the future members of that body may know truly to whom they are indebted for the only elementary in- structions they can obtain, and in what degree of relationship I stand with them as a veterinarian. At fourteen years of age I was placed with an eminent surgeon and apothecary in Buckinghamshire, with whom I remained the B 2 iv SKETCH OF THE PROFESSIONAL LIFE Of THE AUTHOR. customary period of seven years; and, as his practice was very extensive^ and I was the greater part of the time his only assistant, so I reaped great benefit from being very early brought into a habit of visiting tbe sick. At the expiration of the above period I removed to the Borough Hospitals, where I remained for two years. From the industry I displayed in embracing the various opportuni- ties that presented themselves for the acquisition of medical know- ledge, I was thought a fit person to be recommended to instruct the pupils of the Veterinary College in anatomy and the art of dissect- ing, and also to translate and demonstrate the public lectures of M. St. Bel, who had been appointed professor of the infant con- cern. In this situation I remained about twelve months, when some impolitic attempts of mine to convince M. St. B. that his anatomical ideas were incorrect, made him very wisely conclude that it would not be prudent to retain any one about him who knew more than himself (which, as an anatomist, was little indeed), and I was removed from the situation. Having, during my resi- dence at the college, imbibed a strong attachment to veterinary medicine, I removed to Lewes, in Sussex, where I gave a course of public lectures on the internal structure and the diseases of the horse ; and entered also into practice on the same. Here I com- menced a very extensive course of experiments on the contracted feet of horses, and which has ever continued a very favourite sub- ject with me. This situation was also particularly favourable to a study of the diseases of oxen and sheep, which I did not neglect, and in which I was greatly assisted by the liberality of the Sussex farmers, who furnished, ine with subjects ; and it was here I made the discovery of the celebrated Remedy for the Distemper in Dogs, so long and so justly appreciated. But as the practice of economy was not at that time my fort, my experiments, which were expen- sive, and my expenditure, which was considerable, so far exceeded my income, that I was under the necessity of relinquishing these pursuits, and of accepting an ensigney and assistant-surgeoncy in the East Middlesex Militia, where I remained till General Gwynne, who had been informed of my advancement in the veterinary art, and of my general attachment to horses, offered me a cornetcy in the 1st Fencibles, soon after made the 25th Dragoons. Most unwisely I refused this advantageous offer, but expressed a wish to get a surgeoncy to one of the troops of horse artillery. With that urbanity peculiar to the General, and which I have experienced irv flaany other instances, he obtained it for me ; and in this excellent SKETCH OP THE PROFESSIONAL LIFE OF THE AUTHOR. t corps I remained more than two years, profiting in my experience of human medicine from the judicious management of the Wool- wich Artillery Hospital, under the direction of the late ingenious Dr. Rollo. Nor had I less opportunity also for improvement in the veterinary art, from the circumstance of all the sick horses belonging to the establishment being placed under my inspection. It is probable I might have remained here some years longer, but, my relations becoming urgent with me to settle in life, I left the army practice, and embarked as a surgeon and apothecary in the neighbourhood of Queen Square, London. But fate at that time seemed to have ordained that I was not to remain long in one situa- tion 5 for after a twelvemonth spent in this manner, I came into the possession of a considerable fortune by the death of a relative, which induced me to retire into the country. Unfortunately, I had not yet gained a prudential mode of managing money, and, after living expensively as a country gentleman for a few years, T found myself again under the necessity of entering active life. During this imprudent career, however, as much of my fortune was dissi- pated among horses and dogs, so it very considerably increased my experience, though the purchase was at somewhat too dear a rate. Uncertain what course to adopt, and that I might not remain entirely idle, I accepted a commission in the North Gloucester Regiment of Militia, and passed a campaign in Ireland during the rebellion; but after two years wasted in this manner, prudence dic- tated that it was doing nothing towards a re-establishment ia life ; and on the announcement of the expedition to the Helder, I offered my services to the medical board, which were accepted, and I was appointed surgeon to the second battalion of the 40th regiment of infantry, and immediately embarked with them for Holland. As this regiment particularly distinguished itself, and bore the' brunt of several actions, as a proof of which sixteen officers were killed and wounded from the two battalions in one day, so my experience in the performing of operations, and in the treatment of gunshot wounds, received very considerable additions. The command of the regiment devolving into other hands on our return from Hol- land, rendered my situation much less agreeable than when Lord Graven commanded, by whom I had the honour of being always kindly noticed ; in addition to which, Mr. Keat’s system of fa- vouritism offering some other sources of disgust, I finally quitted the army, and retired, for a twelvemonth, into Northumberland, where my days were occupied in field sports, and my evenings in vi SKETCH OF THE PROFESSIONAL LIFE OF THE AUTHOR. arranging the materials for the first edition of this work. But this plan of life also furnishing no prospect of future advancement, I debated what ultimate course it would be most prudent to pursue, when the practice of human medicine naturally stood foremost to my view ; but it was unpleasant to reflect that I had lost some years in my start, and that my cotemporaries, from the advantage of early residence and locality, had outstripped me in the race j and that, the market being already overstocked with human surgeons, I had numerous difficulties to overcome, and additional time to waste, before I could hope to get even into tolerable practice. While thus irresolute what course to steer, the extensive success of the distem- per remedy before mentioned having drawn me into numerous correspondencies relative to the diseases of dogs, I was, as it were, irresistibly, and almost insensibly, drawn into a popular practice on their diseases, which, joined to a very strong attachment to veteri- nary medicine in general, soon led to an extensive practice on horses also j and, at length, determined me to devote all my future pro- fessional energies to these subjects. In this almost unbeaten track I might hope to reap both fame and emolument j and that though it might not appear so honourable a calling, it was, at least, a very useful one, and, under all the foregoing circumstances, the most prudent one. Actuated by the above motives, I abandoned my wanderings, and maintained a steady perseverance in these pursuits; and from thence has resulted that popular and extensive practice on the diseases of animals in general, so well known in the British metropolis. With those who advocate the cause df humanity I hope I may lay claim to some consideration, my exertions having been arduous and unceasing. Of canine medicine, I believe no one will dispute that I am the absolute father ; and whether, also, of veterinary medicine in general, I may not be considered as one of its earliest and warmest friends, the above account is best calculated to shew. I have steadily pursued my professional duties with industry and integrity, according to the plan I originally proposed to myself ; and to which I have adhered so rigidly, that a tempting offer, some years ago, made me to go to India, and a still more tempting and honourable invitation to go to Russia, of latter date, both in my professional capacity, failed to move me. I remained fixed in my original plan ; and I now reap the fruits of it in a well-earned reputation, and a moderate competence. 3(ntrol)uctton. J F the animals domesticated by man are essentially necessary to his comfort and convenience, no apology need be offered for attempt- ing to reduce into a system the arts of preserving them in health, and of removing their diseases ; both of which must be founded on a knowledge of the structure and functions of the animals in ques- tion : and it is these, therefore, that form the groundwork of what is called the Feterinary Art. The deplorable stale of this art in Great Britain, has been ani- madverted upon by every one who has written on the subject; and though, in other countries, the establishment of seminaries, for the express purpose of teaching it systematically, appeared to lead the way towards a better mode of practising it ; yet in real improve- ments it does not appear that these countries have been much more fortunate than ourselves. The principal hinderance to its advancement has been its total confinement in the hands of persons proverbially Ignorant. Custom reconciles the grossest absurdities ; and hence, though the value of the animals in question, and particularly of the horse, is a theme that has exercised, in every age, the pen of thousands ; yet the know- ledge of the means of preserving them in health, and of curing their diseases, has been regarded as a subject beneath the dignity of a man of education, and the practice as derogatory to the character of a gentleman. Thus every improvement that has been witnessed, made its way by stealth, and as it were crept into notice; usually by the exertions of some enlightened physician or surgeon, as Gibson, Bracken, Bartlet, and Osmer. But, at length, superior to vulgar prejudices, and aware of its great utility and Importance, mankind are content to consider this among the liberal arts, and tO'iegard the profession and practice of it as no longer incompatible with the pretensions of the scholar, or the rank of a gentleman : and it is yet to be hoped, that, from the establishment of a Veterinary College, and the exertions of its eleves, it will not only rise in its dignity, but that its utility will become dally more and more evident. As it is generally believed that this establishment has not yet Tin INTRODUCTION. diffused such beneficial influence upon the art as might have been expected, so other aids appear to be wanting j and even were not this the case, a considerable time must elapse before these im- provements, by means of a college, can be made general ; or before persons properly instructed can be stationed over the remote parts of the country : in the mean time, therefore, any work that teaches this branch of the healing art systematically, must prove highly beneficial to the world at large ; and there are few classes of man- kind but will participate in the advantages to be derived from it. The possessors of horses of every description will be interested therein ; particularly those of rank and fortune, whose leisure may permit them to become acquainted with the fundamental principles of the art, by the acquisition of which, they will be enabled to direct in cases of emergency for themselves. Medical men in ge- neral are interested in such a production, for their opinion is often required on cases in which analogy totally fails, but in which they might be willing to be useful. To farriers, it is needless to say how valuable such a work may prove : the awakened attention of the public to the gross impro- priety of their general practice, has convinced many of them of the necessity of receiving instruction 5 but which, the nature of their situation prevents numbers of them from seeking at the seminary established for that purpose. To diffuse, therefore, generally the benefits of a scientific investi- gation of this subject, and to teach that art among all ranks of persons, which the Veterinary College is attempting among indivi- duals, is the intention of the present work ; and it is evident, that in such an undertaking a very wide field of information must be entered into. The path I propose to pursue is entirely a new one ; to teach the art properly, there must be a groundwork laid down ; the anatomy of the body must be known, together with the law's of the animal economy, its deviations from health, the causes of these deviations, the progress of return towards a healthy state, and the modes of hastening this return. By these means, practitioners will be faught first to think and then to act, and instead of having a system of farriery in their closets only, it will exist in their minds. The former writings on this subject are few of them direction posts to improvement, but are themselves the extent of what they profess to. teach. To compass the end I wish, an arrangement of instruction, gradatory and systematic, will be attempted. It will be proper INTRODUCTION. IX first, by a history of the art, to shew that it is defective, as it has hitherto been praciised among us. When the present stale of the art has been examined, and the neeessity of a more scientific manner of pursuing it pointed out, with the advantages that have already been derived from the awakened attention to the subject; it will lead to our ultimate object, which is to teach the mode in which these benefits and advantages may be brought into general use. The generality of farriers unfortunately are not willing to be pul to the trouble of learning, nor to the mortification of owning they need it; hence they obstinately maintain that nothing is necessary but what is known ; and that theirs is a mechanical art, learned by imitation,, in common with every other handicraft pursuit. But farriers should be aware that there is no mortification in candidly pleading ignorance ; on the contrary, ingenuousness would ennoble them. Nor |hould this useful body of persons hastily conclude, that those who teach the reformed practice are at war with their persons, or wish to lessen their employment ; on the contrary, they combat only the errors received into the art, and point out the means by which the farriers themselves may correct them, and hence, by becoming more successful practitioners, they would accumulate more business, and consequently more emolu- ment. I by no means despair of yet seeing this useful class of men open their eyes on their ow'n defects, and to which I think they should be drawn by every conciliatory means in the power of those veterinarians from whom instruction may be expected to be derived. In the first place, it should be pointed out that there is no honorary distinction between the veterinarian and farrier. The terms should be well explained : farriery is a branch of, veterinary medicine only; veterinarian is not an assumed term simply — it is a definite appellation, to w'hich the farrier has an equal right, if he professes and understands the diseases of animals in general; that though the Veterinary College holds out the means of attaining this art by scientific progression, yet the same means they pursue are in the reach of other persons ; they possess no secret arts : the book of nature is equally open to the meanest farrier, if he pursues investigation upon equally excellent principles, There are farriers who are sensible, intelligent, and unassuming men, conscious of their own defects ; I have met with many in- stances of them ; but there are many of a contrary cast, ignorant, assuming, and obstinate : these pertinaciously hold out against im- provement, and virulently contend, that the system, as at present X INTRODUCTION. practised^ cannot be mended, though their practice itself proves fatal in three out of five acute cases, and ends in permanent un- soundness in four out of seven chronic or local ones. These per- sons look on every attempt at improvement as an unjust innovation on their right, and, on every exposure of error, as an attack upon their persons. How glaring this appears, is evident, when w'e find one of them saying, ‘ Whatever may be written by those * new-fangled farriers, of the advantages resulting from a minute ‘ knowledge of anatomy, nothing in their practice has proved its ‘ utility; and as Gibson has so well demonstrated the anatomical * structure of the horse, nothing further on the subject is neces- ^ sary, and cannot tend to elucidate the practical part of farriery.' Such an apology for ignorance of a subject that all writers in every age have allowed is the groundwork of improvement, would amaze one, was it less common than it is ; but, as this is the language of many of this class, it may be worth while to indulge a few moments in comparing the differences between the old and the new practice. By dissections of morbid subjects, we can accurately ascertain what aflTection the lungs have undergone, and by this very anatomy it is that we are now taught, instead of treating horses with cor- dial balls, and comforting drinks, whereby the inflammation is certainly forced into gangrene, and then ‘ the horse died rotten^ * rotten as a pear, and had long been tmsound instead of such a destructive practice, which has been in common use, we now give no cordials, but we bleed and blister profusely; and if we are luckily employed alone, or in concert with an intelligent and un- assuming farrier, we certainly save our patient. To pursue the matter further ; it is anatomy and physiology conjoined, that have taught us what thick wind and what broken wind are, which, till these noble studies were encouraged, were not even hinted at, ex- cept in terms, or by ideas, too vague to need refuting. Anatomy has taught the principal seat of glanders to La Fosse, beyond the possibility of doubt ; subsequent investigations ^ have thrown great light on this subject, and, as anatomical knowledge has been further extended since his time, so it was to a less advanced state of it, that we must attribute the important error he propagated, when he described the lymphatic glands for the sublingual. Bartlet adopted this error ; and from a defect also in anatomical knowledge, he likewise fell into a still more barbarous one, when he directed that the haws should be cut away from the eyes, considering, as INTRODUCTION. XI spongy excrescences, what we now know to be necessary and im- portant parts. The difl'crent diseases of the bowels are. all, not only illustrated by morbid anatomy, but we have thereby been enabled to make the important distinction between Inflammatory and flatulent cholic; this has also led to the detection of the fatal practice in use among farriers, of giving gin, oil of juniper, &c., when inflammation is the cause. It is by anatomy we know that ntolten grease is no stirring up or melting of the fat of the body, which has been a most gross and dangerous error of long stand- ing; but that it is simply a throwing out of coagulable lymph, or the white parts of the blood, on .the surface of the intestines, in consequence of inflammation ; and hence our treatment is now judicious and beneficial. It has taught us, likewise, that strong physic is always dangerous, because what was mistaken for fat, is only the effect of inflammation. In our amended practice, we do not attribute to an affection of the shoulders, that which we now know to arise from tenderness of the feet. Thousands of suffering victims have been tortured, by ignorant farriers, by ap- plications to these parts for chest-foundering, when the evil ex- isted in contracted feet ; w'hich, by thus standing inactive and heated, became worse for the treatment. Innumerable other in- stances might be adduced, would our limits allow us. The subject-matter of the Work I have divided into four grand divisions. The first of these comprises what may be termed the collateral branches of the art, commencing with a General History of Veterinary Medicine from its origin to the present time; and a concise account of those who have contributed, by their works, to its improvement. To which succeeds a summary of its progress in this country, by which the reader will be enabled to judge how far we stand removed from other nations in this particular, what they may be supposed to have borrowed from us, or we to have learned from them. Next, is presented a short detail of the proper means to be pursued for the attainment of the Veterinary Art. Thirdly, a minute examination of the exterior conformation of the Horse. Fourthly, a philosophical and mechanical inquiry into the nature, causes, and operations of progression. Fifthly, a treatise on con-» dition ; and. Lastly, the principles and practice of stable manage-, ment, with its components, dieting, grooming, and exercise. The second division of the Work presents an anatomical detail of the parts of the body of the horse; and the description is blended with a physiological account of the functions and economy XU IN^l'RODUCTION. of the parts ; and as the knowledge of the extremities forms one of the most essential points in the practice of farriery, I have de- scribed them separately, that the practical remarks on them might come into one point of view. I have illustrated the anatomical part of my work with plates, as I deem them of the greatest possible assistance to the acquirement of a knowledge of anatomy, parti- cularly where recourse cannot be had to the subject itself. As figures, however they may want beauty, yet, as being all drawn by myself from my own disseetions of the dead subject, I can venture to assure my readers they are correct. In the parts repre- sented, I have endeavoured to form such an arrangement as that those most important, either in elucidating the economy of the animal, or as more immediately concerned in the practice of the art, may be particularly brought forward alid represented ; and, in this respect, I hope I have been rather fortunate in my selection. I'he two first grand divisions are formed into sections ; the third is subdivided into classes ; and, the fourth presents itself naturally in one mass. I have made use of the terms that are usual in human anatomical descriptions, but I have in the Index, as well as throughout the description, introduced the synonima of the farriers ; and it will appear, whenever it has fallen to my choice, I have used English terms. The third division of the Work is allotted to the practical part of the veterinary art, or a description of the diseases of the horse, ox, and sheep, and the mode of cure, in two parts. The first, speaking with analogy to the human, comprehends that practice which falls under the cognizance of the physician ; and the second, that which is usually confined to the surgeon. I have likewise at- tempted something like a classification of diseases ; not, I am convinced, so perfect as it may be, but such as I conceive the present state of the science best admits of : had I attempted a more strictly nosological arrangement, I might have bewildered the uninformed, and, perhaps, have lost myself : but some classi- fication of diseases has great advantages, for, as some remote parts of the body follow the same laws in structure and economy, so they are liable to similar diseased affections. . The inflammation of mucous membranes produces similar appearances in many respects, whatever part of the body it takes place in. The inflammation of the cellular membrane producing phlegmon and abscess, is the same, whether it occurs on the cheek or on the buttock ; hence a knowledge of these diseased affections ean be rendered more INTRODUCTION. xli comprehensive by their being classed under one head, than when suffered to remain scattered through all the varieties to which, from the different parts affected, they have hitherto been. This classification forms twenty heads or classes ; ten of which include the medical part of the art, and ten belong to the surgical ; after which, the operations that occur in farriery are introduced. The fourth division comprehends a full account of the articles in use among veterinarians as medicaments. A Veterinary Materia Medica is particularly wanting, that the junior practitioner may not be misled into a belief that a few articles only of trifling ex- pense are requisite in this practice. I have added a very copious Index, that, by this means, those subjects that are otherwise disjointed, may come into one point of view. By this, the whole that has been said on any article throughout the work, appears at once. By this, likewise, the reader will be enabled to find immediately any subject he wishes, and this under any term that is familiar to him, as the subjects are arranged under all the names in common use, as well received, as classical and scientific. Whenever a technical name, or any ar- ticle, is not easily met with in the table of contents by the term in common use among farriers, on a reference to the index it may be found. yhir ■■'■:. 'l l . ■ . . j ^ ^ i;-m' v'I i; - ■- . '•• ■ '' -. 'r-';r. -r'-i t/.i; ; • 1* ,-:, i ' Xiii: r' ;:r . , I ■•;i '. fi1 : , / ' I- i--- . • ,. . 'i, ; ■ ■’ •' ' '• .-.V vu irdt , ,• f,'_n .■•/.■• .’.I ..;a[ . ■ ’ f ^ -'t'- . I •' 1. ' ' -.y ■ • ' ;-i ■ '. -■ ; '1 : . T- ' i' ^ ■ ' isa- 1 ' '.;i .ifij.' *. ' .;i '■■'• - •• i/V.*’ ■ lutii ry '.y ■■'.nh T’ ‘ . ., 'i yy> ■;/ ■ ' '- V ;-4( 3 OUTLINES OF THE VETERINARY ART. I. HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. Man, ever ready to improve surrounding objects to his advantage, would not be long without subjecting to his use such animals as his reason led him to suppose would prove most useful, or his experi- ence had proved were the most tractable. Animals, when domesti- cated and removed from a state of nature, would not long continue in perfect health ; and hence their owners would be led to search for such remedies as their small stock of information pointed out : thus veterinary medicine must, in some degree, have been coeval with the domestication of the animals in question. It is probable, that the practice of that branch of it, called /arrieri/, was of latter date* inasmuch as the subjugation of the horse himself was subsequent to that of other domestic animals. At what exact period this took place, is not necessary to inquire ; yet that it was very early culti- vated, we have sufficient testimonies : these reach to long before the Christian rera. Indeed, reason would convince us, that as man beheld his own diseases removed, or lessened, by the application of certain means, he would be led to make similar attempts upon the complaints of such animals as he had domesticated. Homer, who flourished 900 years before Christ, celebrates the management of the Greeks with regard to their horses, and the pains that were bestowed to train them for their courses; hence, there is no doubt, that at this period the treatment of animals under disease, fell to the charge of a particular set of persons. Xenophon, a Gieek philosopher, poet, and warrior, wrote a treatise on equitation, De lie Equestri, nearly 500 years before the birth of Christ ; in which he quotes several authors who had written on the same subject long be- fore ; hence we may naturally conclude the treatment of the diseases of the horse had been attended to before this. The term, veterinary, appears, also, a very antient one, as may be learned from the relics of literature, saved from the devastations of the barbarous ages ; in which are frequently met with, the terms veterinarius, and veterina- rius viedicus. It appears derived from the Latin appropriate to 2 HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. beasts of burden, veterina ad vectiiram idonea. Hence, veterinary medicine signifies properly the treatment of the diseases of animals used for burden : but has been understood as applying to the dis- eases of animals in general ; and, with us, is more immediately ap- plied to the treatment of horses j though, strictly speaking, farriery is only a branch of veterinary medicine, though the most import- ant. The French use the term vcterbiaire for the science of animal medicine in general, and Hippiatre, for that which treats of horses. ‘ Hijipiatre, medvein du cheval ; d’ippos, cheval, iatros, medecin.’ Diet. d’Hippiatrique. By the investigations of Democritus and Hippocrates, attention was turned, in some degree, towards ana- tomy, or the internal formation of the body ; and as these early re- searches were practised only on brutes, so it naturally led, at times, to an observation of morbid appearances, and which must have paved the way for attempts at counteracting their diseases. That it did so is very evident ; for we are informed it was, at this time, deemed so important, that the great Hippocrates himself wrote^a treatise on the subject. It farther appears, from antient testimony, that it was usual for the most celebrated physicians to make this art a part of their study, and that many of them practised indiscriminately upon man or beast. ‘ On pent aussi remarquer que ces deux medecins des hommes ‘ & des brutes, etoient autrefois exercecs par une meme personne ; ‘ Apsyrtus nomme souvent un medecin de chevaux, & quelquefois ‘ simplement un medecin. Ansi, au commencement du 1 livre, il ‘ y a pour inscription, Apsyrtus a Hippocrates, medecin de chevaux, ‘ salut; & au chap. 22, Apsyrtus a secundus, Medecin de chevaux ‘ salut : au chap. 42, Apsyrtus a Statilius Stephanus, medecin ‘ salut ; & au chap. 69, Apsyrtus Hegesugoras, tres-bon medc- ‘ cin, salut. Tons ces hommes H, pratiquant la medecin sur les ‘ chevaux, consultoient Apsyrtus touchant leurs maladies les plus ‘ importantes.’ — Diet. d’Hippiatrique, tom. ii, p. 411. It will appear from this, that the veterinary art was deemed, at this early time, both important and honourable; and that it was as re- gularly practised as human medecine, not only hy^ physicians in general, but, probably, by persons set apart for the purpose. We have not, however, any written remains on this subject, I believe, till after the Christian aera ; from the beginning of which we have several fragments. Valerius Maximus mentions one Herophilus, a farrier, equarius medicus ; who had written; but his works have not been preserved. It was fifty years only after the birth of Christ, when' Columella wrote his celebrated treatise, in which he mentions an eminent cotemporary author, Pelagonius, but of whose works I believe we have no remains. From this time, till about the third century, we have little transmitted down to us, but the names of some of those who either practised or taught this art. Nevertheless, these testimonies are sufficient to shew that, from the earliest ages, veterinary medicine w’as in the highest estimation. It was about 300 years after the birth of Christ, when the true HISTORY OF veterinary MEDICINE. 2 j fathef of this art appeared ; the veterinary Hippocrates, VegetiiiS, who ! Wrote his Vegetius De Arte Veterinaria, which was the oracle of many succeeding ages, and upon which many of the future im- provements were built. Vegetius likewise gives an account of all the most celebrated authors and practitioners before him, among whom the most worthy of notice are Columella, Apsyrtus, Chiron, and Pelagonius. The art appears to have gained little in addition for several centuries subsequent to this ; though some writings on the subject appeared, of which we have only extracts handed down to us, and for which we are indebted to Constantine Porphyrogenet, who commanded that all the works on this important subject that had appeared should be collated, and the substance of them formed into one body, for the future guidance of practitioners, and the pre- servation of the antient opinions. A copy of this compilation by some means escaped the general devastation that took place, as well as a copy of Vegetius ; and it is to these we are indebted principally for our knowledge of the state of this art in antient times. The irruptions of the barbarous nations destroyed the Greek and Roman learning ; hence on the restoration of it in the fifteenth cen- tury, few remains of this valuable art were left ; and as iron shoes were began to be generally worn by the few horses that were kept at this period, so what little attention was paid to their diseases devolved on their smiths, and that which regarded other animals was practised by the goatherds, shepherds, &c. But in the sixteenth century, when Eurojie became still more enlightened, and the liberal arts encouraged, the necessity of a cultivation of this useful branch appeared -evident. Francis the. First, who has generally been termed the restorer of learning, ordered the collection of Constantine’s to be translated from the original Greek into Latin by Ruelli, a physician; from which it was soon afterwards rendered into Italian, German, and French ; and by this means became dispersed over Europe. Nearly at the same time, likewise, the works of Vegetius became translated into several languages. From this period we may date the improvement of the art; and, during this century, many treatises upon the subject appeared in different parts of Europe: among those to whom the science was indebted, may be reckoned the celebrated historian Gessner, who compiled from Aristotle, Pliny, ,dilian, Oppian, Varron, Columella, Vegetius, and others, an extensive his- tory of animals. The part treating on domestic animals was enriched with some valuable remarks on their diseases. Vincent, an Italian author, published recipes for the cure of all the maladies of horses in the first half of this century ; and soon after the celebrated works of Laurentius Ruffins appeared in Latin. In the latter half of this cen- tury appeared the natural history of ruminant animals, with the phenomena of rumination, by ^miliano, published in Venice. JLibro de marchi decavaUi, Venice 1588 ; Hippol. Bonacossa, tracta-r tus, equorum, Venice 1590 ; L’ Hipposteobgie, par J. Heniard, Paris 1599. It was, I believe, in this century also, that th * cele- brated and learned Leonarda da Vinci, a most eminent Italian C 4 HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. painter, published his anatomy both of the human body and of the horse j which works are extremely scarce : there is a copy of the latter, I believe, in the queen’s library. This illustrious author is not usually mentioned in histories of medicine ; though, at the time his works appeared, they far surpassed all his cotemp>oraries. During the seventeenth century, the art gradually advanced ; and numerous were the publications on the subject that appeared in every country. I shall only notice such as appear to have more materially benefited it. The names I am acquainted with are Csesar Fiarchi, Pasqual Caracciolo, Clementi Corti, Ruini, Dumesnil, Bcaugrand, Delcampi, Epinay, Liberati, Debaurepert, Hobokeni, Peyeri, Blasius, Solleysel, and others. Fiarchi wrote an Italian treatise on horse- manship, in which he introduces a very rational method of shoeing, forbidding the use of calkings as destructive to the feet, and, where absolutely necessary, recommends a small one only on the outside heel. The infermita, suos remedii, del Signor Carlo Ruini, was published in Venice, 1618. It is from this celebrated and elegant work that Snaj:>e, Gibson, and likewise all the French authors, have copied their plates. I have never seen but one copy of it, but I was surprised at the elegance of the plates, and for the time they were published in, their comparative accuracy. In 1654 the Grand Mareschal Francois appeared, a very large and meritorious work, said to be composed by several hands. In 1675, Gerard Blazins, a Dutchman, published, in Amsterdam, a treatise on the anatomy of the horse, with plates, which was highly spoken of. In the latter end of this century, 1698, the art received a very great addition from the elaborate work of Sollysel, which must ever be considered as even a national honour. Nor can we cease regretting that this excellent author had not received a general medical education. Sollysel’s attention was drawn to this subject from his situation as manege or riding master, in whose hands the treatment of the diseases was very generally confined ; we therefore observe, that almost all the treatises on this subject, in this century, are combined with the arts of the the manege, and the modes of riding ; and it is to this that we must principally attribute the slow improvement in the art. For the riding masters being usually men of some science, who, in most instances, professed a knowledge of the diseases of horses, from their habits leading them to be so much about the persons of the animals, it was thought less necessary for medical men to attend to the art. But it was not likely to reap any solid advantages from men of this stamp, for they must, of course, be destitute of the proper means of forming a well grounded practice upon a knowledge of the animal economy, and an acquaintance with the anatomy of the animal. I have, therefore, ever regarded the treatment of the diseases of the horse by the riding masters, and the writers on the manege combin- ing their descriptions, with that of the derangements to which the animal is liable, as the most serious hinderance to the art ; for though at the moment their practice would unquestionably be more judicious than that of either a groom or blacksmith, who were usually the next HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. 5 persons in command on these occasions, yet as it prevented the ne- cessity of a more scientific plan being so evident, the material and future improvements were more retarded than would have happened, had its errors been more conspicuous, by the more striking barbarity of grooms and blacksmiths. Sollysel was the first who objected to burning for the lampas, as dangerous and absurd. He first repro- bated the bleeding in the palate in fever as useless, and pregnant with mischief, from the liability of wounding the palatine artery. He taught the impropriety of introducing feathers with stimulating sub- stances into the nose, as the inflammation occasioned might produce ulceration and the glanders. He likewise pointed out the danger and folly of tying down the testicles, when they were drawn towards the abdomen by pain and irritation, but directs that means should be used for lessening the irritation. The eighteenth century will ever make a distinguished figure in the annals of history, for the great advances that took place in the liberal arts in general ; among which none experienced a greater alteration than Farriery. As commerce drew wealth into countries, and luxury followed riches, so the number of horses increased and their va- lue augmented. The writers of this century were numerous ; I shall notice only the most eminent. In 1734, Mr. Garsault tran- slated Snape into French. In the same year, I. and G. Saunier, two Dutch practitioners, published their celebrated work. In 1742, the Amphitheatrum Zooticum of Valenti appeared. In 1749, Lin- naeus published his Pan Suecus, which is rather an account of the habits and manners of domestic animals, than any treatise on their diseases. It was about the middle of this century, also, that several of the continental countries, opening their eyes more fully on the importance of this branch of science, established seminaries for the purpose of teaching it scientifically. One of the first, as well as the most eminent of these, was established at Lyons, over which was placed the celebrated Monsieur Bourgelat. Monsieur B. was a volu- minous author. In 1750 he published his Elements of Farriery, in 3 vols. In 1765, his Materia Medica, for the use of the veterinary pupils. Soon after, his Elementary Treatise on the Anatomy of the Horse appeared, which is the most complete work of the kind that has ever yet appeared. In 1766 he published his Elementary Bo- tanical Demonstrations, for the use of the pupils of the veterinary college. He likewise gave to the world a treatise on bandages ap- plicable to the horse. About this time, likewise, the King of Swe- den granted some honourable privileges to those who professed this art, which drew some of the best practitioners from France and other countries. In 1752, appeared the celebrated work on Natural History composed by Messrs. Buffon and Daubenton ; which, as it contained many hints on the conformation of animals, and on their economy and diseases, therefore may be ranked as an acquisition to the art. About this time likewise appeared the well known work of Giiereniere, but which had no merit as a veterinary treatise. As a cotemporary with Bourgelat lived the elder La Fosse, a name C 2 6 history of veterinary medicine. that will ever be respected in the annals of veterinary medicine. La Fosse made numerous improvements and discoveries, which he ifsually communicated in the form of memoirs to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Paris. In 1754, he collected these into one volume, which was quickly translated into other languages, a sufficient proof of its merit. The first of these memoirs describes the foot and its diseases. The second is the celebrated communication on the glanders, wherein he shews this to be a local inflammation of the pituitary membrane, and recommends the use of the trepan ; but which, it has been said, was not a new mode of treatment, having been practised in England before. The third of these memoirs described the use of the lycoperdon, or puff-ball, in haemorrhages. The fourth contained his celebrated improvements in shoeing ; and the fifth exposed the error of attributing an epidemic, then prevalent, to the bite of the shrew mouse, which was the generally received cause. Most of these were translated into English by Bartlet, and from them it may be judged how much the art was indebted to him. In 1755 appeared GarsauU’s Parfait Martchal, which Buffon fre- quently quotes ; but it appears not to merit any distinction in this place. In 1756 there was published, in Paris, a translation from the Swedish, of an Essay on the Raising and Perfecting Cattle, which was very highly spoken of, but which I have never met with. Ib was at this time, likewise, that the first grand Dictionary of Arts and Sciences came out, in which M. Bourgelat and Genson were engaged. It appears that the veterinary articles furnished by these gentlemen occasioned some controversy ; for we afterwards find some remarks on them, published by M. Rondon, farrier to the great stables of the king. In 1763, the Maison Rnstique made its appear- ance in Paris; but the author was not generally known. About this period, likewise, some treatises on different parts of the art were written by Brecand, Boutrolle, Le Clerc, Barbaret, a physician ; and Bartlet’s works were translated into French at the same time. In 1766, La Fosse, junior, who occupied the same situation his father had held (that of farrier to the lesser stables of the king), presented his Guide du Mareched, a work well known in this country, though it has never been translated into Etiglish. The anatomical part is concise, and accompanied with some good plates. But his principal production was iht Cours d’ Hippiutrique, which was then, and still remains, the most expensive and superb work that has appeared oiX the subject in any language. It consisted of sixty five folio anato- mical plates, coloured after nature, with corresponding descriptions in letter-press, and first appeared in 1772. After this he published his Dictionaire d' Hippialrique, in 4 vols. This valuable work is but little known in England, but at the time it appeared it was certainly the best practical system of farriery in existence. In 1776, appeared a verv extensive work by M. Vitet, who styles himself doctor and professor in medicine. Had the execution of this been equal to the plan on which it was intended to be formed, it would have been an escelJent one ; but with a very elegant systematic arrangement, which HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. 7 i he borrowed from a foreign author, and a most extensive collection of subject, it is but an indiscriminate compilation of good and bad. Its principal merit consists in an analysis of autliors, to which I am indebted for an acquaintance with the names of many of those who have written on this subject. There was about this time published in Spain a very voluminous work on veterinary medicine, in nine vo- lumes ; but of which I know no particulars. After the death of Bourgelat and La Fosse, we hear of no character of any eminence for some years; but it appears, that since the revo- lution, the subject has again been more diligently studied, and the names of Hartman, Chabert, and Huzard, stand forward. Soon after, or about the time above alluded to, there appeared a consider- able work, called The Rational Dictionary of Medicine, Surgery^ and Farriery, in 6 volumes ; and very soon after a Veterinary Dic- tionary, by Buchoz, but it has no merit superior to that of La Fosse. In 1787, Monsieur Chabert published a Treatise on the Mange of horses ; since which he has likewise published upon the Peripneu- monia of black cattle. There has also appeared an essay on the Grease of horses, which gained the prize medal of the society for the pro- moting the health of animals ; to which is joined a report on thick wind, and on broken wind; but I am not aware who is the author. In 1788 there came out a Treatise on the Haras, with the method of shoeing, cutting, and all the lesser operations, translated from the Spanish of Hartman, by Huzard. Likewise, Instruciions and Ob- servations on Domestic Animals, with remarks on the breeding, rear- ing, buying and selling ; with an analysis of previous authors, by. Chabert, Flandrin, and Huzard. The above authors have also published, conjointly, a Veterinary Almanack, containing the history and progress of animal medicine, since the establishment of the veterinary schools. In 1791, Mon- sieur Lompaigieu Lapole, veterinary surgeon, published Observations on the Health of the Animals of St. Domingo, dedicated to the Veterinary College at Alfort. In 1797, Monsieur Chabert and Monsieur Huzard published, by order of government, a Treatise on ascertaining the Existence of the Glanders, the Means of prevent- ing it, and destroying the Infection. In 1809 appeared Cours Com- plet ; OH, Diet. Universel d’ Agriculture, Pratique d' Economic, Rurale et Domestique, et de Medecin des Anirnaux, par I’Abbe Rozier. The principal veterinary articles were furnished by M. Chabert, professor at the veterinary college at Alfort ; M. Fromage Defeugre, veterinary surgeon in chief to the gens d’armes, and member of the legion of honour ; L. M. Lafosse, veterinary surgeon, associate of the Imperial Institute of France ; M. de Chaumontel, ci-devant pro- fessor of the veterinary school at Alfort, &c. &c. Besides these, there appears a very numerous list of minor vetermary contributors. From a notice published in the Journal de I’Empire, one may be led 'to conclude that this extensive work contained nearly the whole body of the veterinary art as practised in France, The Cours d' Agriculture Pratique appears to have given rise to a, $ HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. veterinary journal commencing April 1810, to be continued monthly; in which the literary. contributions of veterinarians of all countries are solicited. It is edited by M. Fromage Defeugre, and its first number, now before me, presented to me by its learned author, consists of a treatise on the fractures of domestic animals. We must not omit to notice among the latter publications a Manuel d'Hippi- atrique by the youngest La Fosse (grandson of the original writer), which has passed through several editions, and is much esteemed. It was principally written for the use of army veterinary surgeons. If this work was translated into English, it would make a very valu- able addition to our stock. I have thus brought the history of this art on the Continent, in a concise manner, down to the present period ; and though by the numerous aids before mentioned, and by the establishment of vete- rinary seminaries, the art has assumed a more regular and scientific form ; yet I do not think that, in the treatment of internal diseases, our neighbours have to boast any superiority over us : on the con- trary, from a candid and attentive examination of the matter, I think that though we set out much later in the race, we have already out- Stript them in our pathology at least. This appears to arise princi- pally from an adherence, on their parts, to the humoral pathology, by which the treatment of internal and acute diseases has continued inert and unsuccessful. Their prescriptions have been filled with de- coctions of simples, and they appear unacquainted with the medicinal virtues of the more active remedies in use among us. Under an opinion that the blood and humours are the constant seat of disease, they are continually v/ashing them sweet with correctors, entirely unmindful of the derangements of the solids, and of the connexions between living blood and living vessels : but, as the pathology of Cullen is now general, not only in France but throughout the Conti- nent, this will lead to ah adoption of the improvements of John Hunter ; and when by these means the errors of the humoral patho-» logy are banished, improvement will rapidly proceed. During the reign of terror, in the first years of the revolution, the veterinary art, in common with other scientific pursuits, suffered some checks ; but when the republic became established, its im- portance was not overlooked, and it was early decreed that veterinary jnedicine should occupy a place in the first class of the new grand academy : but from this time to the present, none of the leading characters in this branch have produced any great specific work on the subject, but the more important improvements that have been made, have been communicated through the medium of periodical publications, and these principally of the agricultural kind. Indeed it appears to be a favourite mode on the Continent to unite, as much as piay be, these two branches of rural economy into one stem. HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. 9 >ert. II. HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE IN GREAT BRITAIN. THE veterinary art in this, has been similar to that in other countries, buried in the grossest ignorance ; and most of our im- provements we have been content to borrow from our neighbours. I During the seventeenth century, manege riding was very prevalent , in this kingdom, which we likewise copied from our continental friends, and, consequently, we had German and French riding masters in abundance, who took the direction not only of the actions, but of the health of the animal, into their hands ; by which domestic improvement became neglected, and foreign publi- cations alone studied. But as horse-racing and hunting became prevalent, so the manege declined among us. Still the treatment of diseases remained in the hands of those immediately placed about the animals ; and, as grooms and blacksmiths are usually less en- lightened than riding masters, so it was a retrograde step to improve- ment ; and now and then only was there a feeble and individual attempt to rescue this noble art from oblivion : which effort soon ceased to attract attention, and still sooner to excite amendment. Blundeville appears to have been one of the first veterinary writers in this country ; he lived in the reign of Elizabeth. His work ap- pears chiefly a compilation from autient authors, of which he trans- lated several into English. His ideas were fettered with his attach- ment to the manege, and consequently introduced the errors and absurdities with which that system was then prevalent. Subsequent to him appeared Mascal, Martin, Clifford, Burdon, on whom Bracken published notes, and others. Nearly about this time, also, lived the celebrated Gervase Markham, whose Treatise on Farriery, though strictly empirical and grossly absurd, went through nu- merous editions, and became the guide and waypost of almost every practitioner. This wretched publication was translated into French, 1666. During the reign of James the First, there were many other lesser publications, some of them originals, and some translations from the Italian, German, and French. Among the former, De Grey is more generally known. The next in order, appears to have been the superb work on horsemanship, by the Duke of Newcastle, but has little connexion with the veterinary science. Succeeding this appeared The x4natomical Treatise on the Horse, by Snape, far- rier to Charles II. His plates are mostly copies from Ruini, and a few of them from Saunier ; but not so well executed : his descrip- tions are likewise taken from these authors ; and where he has devi- ated from them he has made the human body his guide. In his de- scription of the eye, he mentions nothing of the membrana nictitans, and describes the omentum as reaching to the pelvis, with numer- ous similar instances ; it is said, he projected a larger work on diseases, which he never lived to execute. About this time, an 10 HISTORY OF- VETERINARY MEDICINE epidemic contagion raged among the black cattle of this country, which produced many publications on the subject; one of which was much read, and is still in many persons hands, by Dr. Layard. In the reign of George I, Sollysel’s celebrated work was translated from the French, which had, in some measure, an influence in combating the general errors at that time prevalent ; for at this time it was very customary, in some diseases, to tie or bar the vejns. In the founder, the legs were tied, that the inflammation might not proceed upwards ; which inevitably occasioned mortifica- tion, or loss of the hoofs. In affections of the head, the cervical ligament was bored through with a hot iron, and the pole evil frequently produced. A cough raised a supposition that the horse had swallowed feathers, or hen’s dung, and he was treated as skil- fully as such an ingenious supposition would dictate : this, among grooms, is not yet done away. A stumbling horse had his nose slit. Some diseases were supposed to be occasioned by the bite of shrew mice ; and even to this day, among country people, the fern owl, or eve jar, is supposed to inflict a disease on calves as it flies, by striking them, but which is occasioned by a species of oestrum, or gad fly. The harmless hedgehog long lay under the obloquy of sucking cows. It is therefore evident, that Sir William Hope’s translation of Sollysel must have contributed greatly, among the intelligent, to place these errors in a proper point of view'. About the middle of the last century, the art experienced considerable im- provement by the labours of Mr. Gibson, who w-as originally a surgeon to a regiment of cavalry ; from which situation it is pro- bable he w'as first led to turn his attention to the diseases of the horse ; and by which he was at length enabled to present the best treatise on farriery that had appeared in the English language. It is said, he afterwards lived in Duke Street, Grosvenor Square, w'here he practised with great reputation. He appears to have written several books ; but his principal work is that above alluded to, w'hich was published in quarto with anatomical plates, copied from Snape or Ruini ; and called The Farrier’s Guide. But Mr. Gibson and his cotemporaries, and, indeed, the whole of his predecessors, always began where they should have ended : they gave rules for the treatment of diseases, but they never taught what disease was, by explaining the structure, functions, and economy of the animal body, when in health. What use, therefore, Gibson was to the art, arose only from the meliorated system those would pursue, into whose hands his book fell ; but inquiry was not stirred up, and the improvements he pointed out, there rested : it was a super- structure w'ithout a base, consequently nothing more could be built on it : it was an empirical practice, without a possibility of ratioci- nation ; which, however proper in the darker ages, w'hen there were no data to ground opinions upon, would now be destructive to the best interests of the subject. But, though his anatomy was in- correct, and treated in such a manner as to be useless, yet his treat- ment of diseases was generally very judicious, and his account of IN GREAT BRITAIN. 11 symptoms accurate and interesting : and, as he was guided mostly by his own observation, so he became the best writer and practiti- oner that this country had produced. As a cotemporary with him, lived the celebrated and eccentric Dr. Bracken, who was a physician of great abilities, and extensive knowledge in his profession; a man of considerable erudition, a sportsman, and a wit of a peculiar cast. His works have been as much admired and read for the peculiar style in which they are written, and that peculiar freedom and non-observance of rule or form, as for the real information they contain. Though there is great ingenuity in his writings, and though, in many respects, he improved upon Gibson, yet, as a practical work, his was much inferior : nor was his information given in a way that could benefit the generality of his readers. Independent of his style being too peculiar, and his reasoning too abstruse, for farriers ; his manner of pursuing his subject was so desultory, that few readers, had patience to follow him. Nevertheless his works, which were several, and passed through many editions, have raised him a fame that can only die with the art. Bartlet was a successor to the two former, and was likewise a surgeon, who formed himself on the model of Gibson and Bracken, culling all their excellencies, and giving the sum of their treatment in a much more compendious form, and wholly practical. Bartlet likewise enriched his works, and benefited the art, by trans- lating La Fosse’s improvements and discoveries. But he was simply a copyist and compilator, and attempts no addition of his own, ex- cept a cruel and absurd alteration in the mode of nicking. It is evident, that Bartlet had not, when he wrote the first editions of his work, seen much practice ; and, throughout the whole, it is ap- parent he had paid no attention to the anatomy of the horse ; he even fails in attempting the description of the tail, which should have been his particular study. Besides his Gentleman s Farriery, he published a Veterinary Pharmacopoeia : the former w'ork was translated into French. Bartlet’s principal help to the art, was the introduction of a much better mode of shoeing, or, at least, of managing the feet, by his translation of La Fosse. To him succeeded Osmer, who was likewise bred a surgeon, but practised the veterinary art in Oxford Street. He appears to have been an eccentric but very ingenious man. His Treatise on the Lamenesses of Horses, with an improved mode of shoeing, is most deservedly esteemed. His system of shoeing perhaps receives its greatest compliment, when it is known that it is that adopted bv Mr. Morecroft, with very trilling alterations. He first commented upon La Fosse’s method, pointing out the excellence of his mode of treating the feet, but that the short shoe was inadequate to the support and protection of the foot in the present improved and hard state of our roads. The practical part of this treatise on lamenesses is likewise excellent ; but his reasoning is sometimes defective. I'!? HISTORY OF THE VETERINARY COLLEGE, From the above works there were soon many compilations marie, which were generally below mediocrity ; amongst which, one called the Farrier's Dictionary, though a very wretched composition, met with a very rapid sale. I must except from these a small treatise by a Mr. Blount, surgeon, which is above the common class, and worthy of notice from an ingenious contrivance, depicted on a plate, for securing a fractured limb. Mr. Clarke, of Edinburgh, the king’s farrier for Scotland, soon after this, gave the world his excellent Treatise on Shoeing and Diseases of the Feet ; and which has been since followed by one on the Prevention of the Diseases of the Horse. Nearly at the same time, or very soon after, the public were indebted to Lord Pembroke for his work, which, though professedly written on the management of dragoon horses, contains some excellent observations on shoeing, and the general treatment of the animal. Lord Pembroke derived the principal of his medical hints from Mr. Clarke. Whether it was previous or subsequent to the appearance of these latter publications that Mr. Stubbs published his elegant Plates of the Jnatomy of the Horse, I have not, at this moment, the means of ascertaining; but it was much about this period. Mr. Stubbs was a very eminent horse painter, and, to a high professional excellence in his art, added a very considerable knowledge of the animal frame, particularly of the horse ; but Mr. S. appears to have gone too far as a painter, and not far enough as an anatomist. From these periods, till the esta- blishment of the Veterinary College, the attention of the public was occupied by Mr, Taplin. This gentleman likewise began his career as a surgeon, but turned aside to the then more profitable track of farriery. Mr. T. set out by decrying all that had gone before him, and ali that were in practice with him ; yet his works were compi- lations from those very authors wh6m he abuses, and from whom, after abusing egregiously, he copies literally. Unfortunately for this gentleman, from the late improvements, the public had learned to distinguish in this art, as well as in others, between scientific inves- tigation and verbose quackery ; and poor Taplin lived long enough to find his writings despised and himself neglected. HISTORY OF THE VETERINARY COLLEGE. I NOW come to a period, from which the principal improvements in this art must lie dated, and which will ever remain a memorable epoch to the veterinary amateur : this was the establishment of the Veterinary College. We are informed, in Monsieur St. Bel’s works, he was born at Lyons, in France ; that he became junior professorial assistant to the royal veterinary college, and, after- wards, anatomical professor to the veterinary college at Montpelier; but, that the commencement of revolutionary principles in France induced him to come to this country, where he had before been in 1788, and published proposals for instituting a veterinary school. HISTORY OF THE VETERINARY COLLEGE. 13^ but without success. His second visit, in 1790, was more suc- cessful ; for, on his again renewing his proposals, they were no- ticed by the agricultural society of Odiham, in Hampshire, which had lately entertained the intention of sending two young men into France to study the veterinary art 5 but, on their acquaintance with Monsieur St. Bel, they gave up this idea, and appointed a com- mittee of gentlemen to consult with him on the means of pushing into effect a plan that might tend to establish farriery on a scientific and rational basis. These gentlemen, v/ith several others, who saw the utility of such a measure, uniting, proposed to form an insti- tution, called The Veterinary College of London, and to appoint M. St. Bel to the professorship, with myself as his assistant. From the first appearance of this institution forming itself into a regular establishment, the number of subscribers daily increased, and, at last, a president, vice-presidents, and directors, were chosen from among the nobility, and other distinguished characters, who felt interested in it. Soon after this, a house was taken at Pancras, and pupils were admitted to board ; but, from the difficulty of regulating the con- cerns, and, probably, from some domestic reasons, the professor did not at first push into effect any active or regular system of in- struction. To me, it has ever been a matter of surprise that it was established at all, with M. St. Bel at its head. That he was an ingenious man, and that he probably understood the manege, and was indefatigable in promoting the interests of the college, no one will deny ; but no one of those who most strongly supported him, will believe that he was fitted for his situation. His treatise on shoeing was ingenious, and he, I believe, had made himself well acquainted with the principles and practice of this branch of the art ; but the part which treats on the diseases of the horse is a full proof of what 1 have advanced, and which never, I believe, sold out the first edition. It must have been only from a wish that the college might be established, and from a supposition that no person then in the kingdom was able to undertake its management, that his examination, which took place in 1792, by the most emi- nent medical meri of the day, was passed over as satisfactory. Ne- vertheless, M. St. Bel was possessed of such good natural abilities, he had the welfare of the institution so much at heart, and, I be- lievej when his mind was at ease, had so much application, that I make no doubt his deficiencies, had he lived, might have been in a great measure made up. In March 1792, it was resolved, that a temporary stabling for fifty horses, and a forge for shoeing, should be built near the house taken for the college. But in August 1793, M. St. Bel was attacked with an illness, which proved fatal in ^ibout a fortnight. His remains were interred in the vault of the Savoy chapel, in the Strand, at the expense of the Veterinary College, M. St. Bel’s works were an Essay on the Geometrical Proportions of Eclipse ; Lectures on the Elements of Farriery ; the Art of 14 KISTOB^Y OF THE VETERINARY COLLEGE. Horse Shoeing, and Diseases of the Feet. And a volume of posthu-- mous icorks, collected for the benefit of Mad. St. Bel. The treatise on the Geometrical Proportions of Eclipse appeared soon after M. St. Bel became known, and paved the way for his future promotion, by gaining him many admirers and patrons. It assumed the elegance of its style from the assistance of the accom- plished Mr. Penn, a descendant from the colonial founder of Penn- sylvania : the subject matter itself may be seen with little alteration, in the first volume of Bourgelat’s Elemens d’Hippiatrique, published at Lyons in 1750 ; where the same tables, and nearly the same pro- portions, appear. It has been proved likewise, by the elegant essay of Mr. Wilkinson on the Motive Power of Animals, that his ad- measurement was incorrect, and consequently his whole thesis erro- neous. Mor can his Lectures on the Elements of Farriery claim any greater originality; not only the substance, but frequently a literal translation of La Fosse, appears in them, collected from the Diet. d’Hippiatrique. On the death of M. St. Bel, the public attention was of course engaged in considering on whom the vacant professorship would devolve. 1 was removed to a distance ; my connexion likewise with the college had appeared to have ceased, and, in fact, my experience at that time had been so very small, and my opportunities of acquir- ing veterinary knowledge necessarily so confined, that I could not be considered as eligible for the undertaking : I was, nevertheless, ap- plied to, to propose myself as a candidate. Neither at that time had any of the college pupils had opportunities of distinguishing them- selves sufficiently to attract notice; consequently all eyes were di- rected towards Mr. Morecroft, who was then in private practice as a veterinary surgeon. Mr. M. was originally a student of human me- dicine, but whp had also studied veterinary medicine in the French schools, and was universally considered as possessing extensive infor- mation on the subject. Mr. Coleman was. also a medical pupil of the Borough Hospitals, who had distinguished himself by some phy- siological inquiries, and had lately, by the advice of his friends, en- gaged in some experiments on the diseases of the eyes of the horse : but his designs had never, I believe, reached further than this, nor had his attention at that time ever been engaged beyond that point. Between the eligibility of these two gentlemen there could, therefore, be no comparison. The fitness of Mr. Morecroft was, however, so nicely balanced by the interest of Mr. Coleman, that it was deter-r mined to unite them in the professorship. But most unfortunately for the institution, Mr. M. soon seceded, and Mr. C. was appointed sole professor. The general establishment now received some new modulations ; a handsome theatre for the delivery of lectures, a disf seeling room, and a museum likewise, were erected. A medical com-? mittee of assistance was also appointed, consisting of the most dis- tinguished medical practitioners in London : by these gentlemen the pupils were to be examined, and, if found to hecimen is sufficient; he recommends balls for the inflammatory cholic, ‘ which need no collateral aid, but brisk action * and friction.’ In 1796, appeared a very elegant work in quarto, the production of S. Freeman, Esq., an amateur in the manege, and a gentleman of fortune, learning, and great ingenuity. This publication consisted HiStORY OF THE VETERINARY ART. 19 oF a Description of the Structure and Economy of the Foot ; accotn" panied with a set of plates highly finished, in Skelton’s best style. The subjects were dissected under the inspection of Mr. Home, or an assistant ; and, except some slight errors in the ligaments of the navicular bone, appear very correct. This publication, for the ele- gance of its engravings, and the general spirit of the whole, will be long admired. A Mr. John Lawrence, about this time, published a small volume, containing extracts from M. St. Bel, Osmer, Clarke, and Lord Pembroke. In 1798, this gentleman brought forward a Philosophi- cal and Practical Treatise on Horses, and on the Moral Duties of Man towards the Brute Creation, in two volumes. The part of this work on the general treatment of the horse is humane and interest- ing; but when he attempts to treat on farriery, he maybe said to lose sight of his object. Indeed, so gross and so numerous are his mistakes, that it might be supposed he had laboured to disseminate error. From his being something of a humorist in his manner of writing, more than from any merit in the performance, the work has passed through a second impression. In the former edition of the Veterinary Outlines, I noticed a few of the principal errors with extreme candour and mildness. But this gentleman, who is so acutely alive in his own feelings, and withal so humane to the brute, has little respect for the pain he may inflict on his fellow creatures ; accordingly, in his second edition, his gall is allowed to flow unre- strained, in a manner that does little credit to his head, and less to his heart. I own I paid him at that time much too great a compli- ment, by even noticing these errors. A fly should not be broke on the wheel. In 1800, Mr. Morecroft published a small pamphlet entitled a ^ Cursory Account of the various Methods of Shoeing Horses, icith ^ incidental Observations.’ Any remarks on this production would be unnecessary ; the ingenuity of the author is well known. The mode of shoeing recommended will be noticed in the course of the work. This year likewise produced a vindication of the present practice of farriers, in a pamphlet by a Mr. Lane. 1 shall only remark, that if this gentleman was delegated by the body general, they could not have been more unlucky in their champion. It was one thing to retort the abuse cast on them, but it was another to support and vindicate their absurdities. In 1801, Mr. White, of Exeter, who had been veterinary surgeon to the first regiment of dragoons, gave to the public a small Fade Mecum of Farriery. Such was the beginning of a work that has passed through several editions; and now, in 1816, appears in four octavo volumes. The first, is termed a compendium of the veterinary art. The second, comprehends the veterinary materia medica. The third, is a sort of supplementary volume, containing Mr. W.’s expe- riments and observations on some particular diseases, as glanders, farcy, staggers, &c. The fourth, comprises observations on the dis- D 20 HISTORY OF THE VETERINARY ART. eases of cows, sheep, swine, and dogs ; the mode of performirrg the most important operations in farriery; with additional remarhs on the epidemic catarrh, and diseases of tlie eye. It is greatly to be lamented, that this most valuable work is so totally without order or method, that more than one half of Its excellence is hidden or lost. Subjects, that ought to be brought into one point of view, are scat- tered through the various volumes in detached parts, and only finished in an appendix. Mr. White, however, appears to me, in the law term, to have travelled out of the record, when he enters on the diseases of other animals; it otherwise would not have been necessary for this ingenious writer to have submitted to gather from such authorities as John Lawrence and Mr. Daniel. Mr. White’s first and third volumes will always remain monuments of his indvjstry and observation. His matferia medica would have been more worthy of him’, had it treated more largely and more practically of essential articles, and less of others that might have been, indeed, altogether omitted. I'he detail of operations in the fourth volume entitles him to gratitude from the junior practitioner. In the appen* dix to this volume, he adds some additional account of the hydro- phobia, extracted from the pamphlet of Mr. Gilman. Mr. W., I make no doubt, was totally unaware from what source Mr. G. was enabled to make that minute account with which he favoured the public; but if Mr. White, or any other person, will be at the trouble of comparing it with the account of rabies, published by me in the fourth edition of the ‘ Domestic Treatise on Horses and Dogs,.’ three years before, they will readily detect the source so glaringly and tmcandidly drawn from. The year 1801, likewise, produced a work of considerable elegance from the pen and pencil of Mr. Richard Lawrence, of Birmingham, veterinary surgeon. It is much to be regretted that a gentleman, who appears to possess so much ingenuity, should pass over subjects of such importance in such a light cursory manner. The description and treatment of some diseases occupy fewer lines than (to treat the subject in a manner to prove useful) they would rccpiire pages. The plates are elegant, and extremely well designed, particularly those that regard the proportions and paces of the horse ; those that regard the internal structure and diseases are not so happy. I'he diction its very superior, and, as a cabinet work, it is most certainly elegant and interesting; but, as a useful as-sistant to the art itself, it does not rank so high. It has been since re-edited, and published in an octavo volume, with alterations and improvements. About this time, also, appeared Mr. Downing’s Description and Treatment of the Diseases oj' Cattle. An old writer on the same sub- ject, Topham, appears pretty largely borrowed from by Mr. D. This work is in considerable repute among farmers, graziers, and even some farriers ; and it may be regarded as a pretty faithful, though melancholy, picture of this part of the veterinary art, as prac- - fist'd- among; the gioaLc-r number of farriers and cowlecches. HISTORY OF THE VETERINARY ART. 21 1 In 1803 appeared^ in a large volume quarto, by Mr. John Feron, veterinary surgeon to the 1 3th dragoons, A New System of Farriery, <^c. This new system appears to be, first, a pretty literal copy of M. St. Bel’s proportions of a horse; and, secondly, not a very luminous transcript of the college practice. Since which time, Mr. Feron has appeared also in octavo, extending his medical instructions to the treatment of cattle. I About the same time, likewise, was presented to the public Mr. Ryding’s Veterinary Pathology, m large octavo. This gentleman was also an army veterinarian. It is needless to say more of this production, than that it was usual at this time, with young men from the Veterinary College, to give themselves consequence with their regiment by publishing. But as this was usually done at the commencement, instead of the close, of their practice, so the pro- posed end was seldom attained. 1805. — If size constituted merit, this year would have been a memorable one for bringing forth a voluminous production in the form of a Veterinary Dictionary, from the pen of Mr. Thomas S Boardman, veterinary surgeon to the 3d regiment of dragoons; price ^3. .3s. This expensive and large work is a compilation from I all the modern writers ; and, if our author had made his selection I with as much judgment as industry, it might have been a nieritorious ! production. As it is, it may prove an useful reference on occasion ; I particularly as it gives fac-similes of most of the plates contained in : the various works of merit that have appeared. This year, also, the indefatigable Mr. John Lawrence published a [ General Treatise on Cattle. The various animals it treats on are ! principally considered as articles of domestic economy, with a few i pages dedicated to their diseases atid the treatment. It is altn- ■ gether a very respectable publication, and may prove entertaining to the amateur, and useful to the farmer and grazier. In 1806, Mr. Francis Clater, a chemist and druggist, published ■ an octavo volume, entitled Every Man his own Farrier. It con- sisted of the old jargon, a little leavened with the new ; the usual number of diseases, and nearly a similar number of never-failing recipes from the old school, somewhat meliorated. And since, with equal claims to nierit, has appeared, by the same hand. Every Man his own Cattle Doctor. In 1809, that very ingenious veterinarian, Mr. Bracy Clark, of London, favoured the public with the first part of his Dissertation on the Foot of the Horse, with Experiments on Shoeing ; and the next year he brought forward the second part of the same. The object of this elaborate and elegant work is, by accurately describing the foot of the horse, to enable the reader to comprehend the hurtful effects that the present system of shoeing, even under the best hands, has upon the foot. It is the author’s opinion, that the application of an Iron Shoe by means of nails, as now practised, is the natural cause of the alteration that is found to take place in the feet of all horses after shoeing; and which alteration it has been usual to attri- D 2 22 MEANS OF ATTAINING Tlllj: VETERINAEY ART. bute to other causes. This opinion will be further examined when we treat on shoeing. Mr. Clark’s dissertation is a prelude to a pro- posed alteration in the present mode, by bringing forward an invention called the Paratrite, or shoe that may be applied without nails, having instead an elastic steel band embracing the hoof as its mcansr of attachment. ect. III. OF THE PROPER JIEANS FOR THE ATTAINMENT OF THE VETERINARY ART, THE mode in which any art is attained must be, in a great mea- sure, directed by the future views of the learners. It appears to me, that there are three distinct classes of persons wIto are likely to study this branch of useful knowledge. The first, are persons of fortune, with enlarged minds and extended educations. The second, are surgeons, whose situation in country villages may render their services in this art highly useful, upon occasions when no farrier is at hand, or in cases in which farriers of the common class are unable to judge. The third, are farriers themselves, or persons intending to* profess veterinary medicine. Gentlemen and amateurs, who wish to accumulate information on this curious and interesting subject, within the reach of the Vete- rinary College, will find their aceount in attending a course of Icc- •tures there ; if not, I hope they may gain all they want from the following sheets. A good surgeon has travelled three-fourths of the road towards making a good veterinarian ; but he must diligently travel the re- mainder to arrive at excellence. He must by no means sit dowui contented with the analogy between the human and brute, which might otherwise lead him into very great error ; for though this, analogy is, in some cases, very striking ; yet there are others in which the similarity fails, and he is left to act upon different prin- ciples. Hence in those diseases that are conquered or mitigated by vomiting in the human, in the horse another mode of treatment must be pursued; and in some acute diseases that are beneficially treated in the human by purgatives, a similar plan would not only fail in the horse, from the length of time necessary to produce the relaxation, but would also prove hurtful if brought about : Pneu- monia is one instance of this. It must likewise be remembered, that the operations of medicines are very different in the one and the other, arising principally from the peculiarity in the stomach of the horse. This will evince the necessity for a conversance with such anatomical variations from the human frame, as will naturally lead to variation in the practice also between the one and the other> MEANS OF ATTAINING THR VETERINARY ART. 23 of wliich the feet form a notable Instance. The specific diseases, as glanders, farcy, strangles, grease, &c., must also occupy his parti- cular attention ; as here all analogy would fail. The third class of veterinary pupils are farriers already practising, or such as intend to practise, this art exclusively. To such persons it must be evident, that entering themselves at the Veterinary College, even in its present state, is a matter of importance. Not only will they derive benefit from the course of instruction there carried on, and from the numerous opportunities of observing dis- eases in the iiifirmary of the institution ; but those already practising will become habituated to a different mode of considering the art altogether. In fact, a new field will open to their view. But when, from circumstances, farriers, or persons intending to practise farriery, cannot possibly attend the Veterinary College, still let them not despair; improvement is yet within their reach : and, provided they will be content to enter on a systematic and regular plan of accumulating information, the acquirement of the art may be made both easy and agreeable. In the first instance, recourse should be had to some elementary work on human anatomy, such as Dr. Hooper’s. By reading this attentively, the memory will become habituated to anatomical language, and the mind will be gradually led to wish to form a further acquaintance with the subject. In the next place, the anatomical detail of the present work should be closely studied, and committed to memory ; after which, dissection may be proceeded on : any small animal may be first dissected, to enable the learner to use his Instruments properly. He may then proceed to dissect the horse with some authorities by him, which will assist him to make out parts ; but too scrupulous an attention to numerous descriptions will only bewilder. The necessary instruc- tions for dissection, and the preservation of parts, may be gained by a recourse to Poole’s and Parkinson’s works, professedly written to instruct the pupil in these particulars. When he is well acquainted with the appearances of the animal in health, he should take every opportunity of examining diseased appearances, which are seldom wanting at the tan-yard or the kennel. He should now make him- self acquainted more intimately with physiology^ for which purpose he may begin with the light and ingenious publication of Mr. Sau- marez, and then proceed with Haller, Cuvier, and finish with Richerand. Pathology, or the doctrine of diseases, may be gained, it is hoped, from the following sheets, assisted by Mr. White’s valuable publication. A general acquaintance with human patho- logy will also greatly assist the veterinarian, for which he may study the popular treatises on this subject, as Hooper, Thomas, Cooper, and others ; and his general pursuits may be assisted by a reference to Parkinson’s Pupil’s Guide. 24 EXTERIOR CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE. Trt. IV. EXTERIOR CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE. THE horse, in zoology, and, according to the Linnaean system, is a distinct genus of animals of the order of belluce. The cha- racters of this order are, that the fore-teeth are six in each jaw, the upper, erect and parallel ; the lower, more prominent : the canine or dog-teeth are single, placed at a distance from the others, and but little longer than the incisive j the hoof is formed of one piece*. The natural history of the horse is so interesting, that I might be indulged in the pleasing task of dilating upon it, but that the pages taken up on that subject wopld be wanting for other pur- poses. The veterinarian, and inquisitive reader, is therefore referred to Buffon and later writers on the subject. We must content our- selves with briefly remarking, that this noble animal appears to have been originally a native of what is called the old world, and, by indus- try, to have been planted in the new. It also appfcars the genus ex- ists naturally in greatest perfection in warm climates : nevertheless, care and attention have improved the breed in climes less congenial, to that degree, that the northern horses now greatly surpass, in ex- cellence, the abcirigines ; and it is now not uncommon, to send stallions from England to improve the breed in those very countries from whence the original stock of excellence was drawn. Much alteration is brought about by climate and soil, and much by atten- tion to improving the breed. In the arid plains of India the horse is naturally of a moderate size, beautiful, spirited, and very speedy. As he approaches more temperate climes, he enlarges iri size, but decreases in beauty: this is, however, compensated by his becom- ing more hardy, strong, and patient. In countries where pasturage is luxuriant, and the plains extensive, he is found naturally bulky j and from such sources we have been furnished with our grand breed of coach and cart horses, as Belgium^ Norway, Sweden, &c. &c. * ‘ Animale generosuin, superbum; fortissimum in currendo, portando, tralienda, ' aptissimum equitando, cursu f'urens ; ylvis delecta\ur, posteriora curat, cauda * Canopes Tabanosque abigit; alterum scalpit, pulluiii injurite obnoxium reponit; ‘ hinnitu sociumvocat; dormit post noctem; calcitraiido puguat; sudaiis se volu- ‘ tat; vegetabilja edit j>ove propius, semina disseminat; stercus iiicalescit, cystide ‘ felleit caret; non vorqit ; equuleus Hyppoinane natus, pedibus elongatis; laeditur ‘ globulo auris, litis, Padi herba, Phellandrii, curculione, conope irritante. La* ‘ borat hernia inediastini, polypo cordis, ortopnasa, cestro bovis, nanasali, baemor- ‘ rhoidaii scabic, tartaroque pedum, bubone colli ; Hyppoconna instruitar. Edit * impune aconituin. Utero gerit 290 diebus, placenta non fixa. Laniarios dentes ‘ quinlo anno acquirit.’ — Systema Nature. ‘ Le clieval est .sans contredit le plus utile des animaux soumis il I’empire de ‘ rhomine ; nous avons pour premier garand de ses grandes qualites, I’estime g^nerala ‘ dans laquelle il a toujours ete ; cette estime a ete portee anciennement a un degre ? si liaut, qu’on a accorde a Un Dieu puissant du Paganisme.’ — LeParJait Mareclial. ‘ Fudit equum inagno tellus percussa trideDti.’— Virgil. Georgic. lib. i. EXTERIOR CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE, 25 The horses of the British Islands were originally a small ill-shaped kind, few exceeding fourteen hands and a half in height. In the more mountainous districts, as Wales and Scotland, they were even less ; but they were hardy and very sure footed. Those situated at the most northern points were still smaller, and covered with a great quantity of thick long hair to defend them against the severities of the weather. At what precise time horses were first brought into Britain is uncertain ; but it must have been at a very early one, since history in- forms us they were sufficiently numerous, and their uses well known, when Julius Caesar invaded the island : probably we were origi- nally furnished from Gaul. The first change wrought on them arose, probably, from a melioration of the soil by agriculture ; in which, as their food become more nutritious, they gradually thick- ened and became more bulky, but were still ill shaped. In Henry I the Fourth’s time the public attention appears to have been awaken- I ed to the necessity of improving the breed of horses ; and some public ordonnances were promulgated to that effect. In the reigns of Henry the Seventh and Eighth, it became common to import foreign stallions for this purpose : Barbary and Spain furnished the principal. In the next reigns, others were imported from Belgium, Flanders, and Denmark : and as the former were intended to im- prove the speed, spirit, and beauty, these latter added greatly to the size of the future breeds. As early as the twelfth and thirteenth centuries there were horse- races in England ; but these were pro- bably only ordinary trials of speed between the native animals. In the reign of Henry the Eighth, horses bred from the Barbary breed were trained for the purpose ; and it is from this epoch, that we may date the progressive improvement of the horses of England, till they now not only vie with, but excel, all the horses of the world, both in beauty and qualities. The exterior conformation of the horse is a branch of knowledge that very properly precedes a consideration of his internal structure ; and the animal, considered generally, may be divided into head, neck, trunk, and extremities : the different parts comprising each of which, have various terms of art in general use appropriated to them ; and it has been found, from long experience, that there is a peculiar form for each of these that is best adapted either to the general purposes of the animal, or to the uses we put him to. Ne- vertheless, it is not possible to reduce this state of perfection to a geometric scale; hence reducing the horse into a square, and giving various admeasurements for the separate parts as a standard, is not found by experience to exemplify the art ; on the contrary, it proves fallacious, and leads into erroneous conclusions. Nature will not be limited, and the perfection of her operation is not de- pendant on exterior symmetry only, but on a harmony and ac- cordance of the whole, internal as well as external. In considering a horse exteriorly, his age, his condition, and other circumstances, should be taken into the consideration ; and to determine, with 2(J EXTERIOR CONFORMATION OF THE HoRSE. precision, to what perfection a horse may attain, when he is seen under various imperfections, is, perhaps, the ne plus ultra of a Hippopotamist’s knowledge. A horse of five years’ old, though considered as full grown, yet experiences very considerable altera- tions in his form between this age and seven or eight. At these latter periods be becomes what is termed furnished ; his points all shew themselves. That is, he is in fact more angular, and, in a painter’s eye, would be more picturesque, but less beautiful. A horse, likewise, very low m flesh and condition, is not the same animal as one full of flesh and in condition. And, again, the sleek fatness of full and gross feeding, with little exercise, is utterly unlike the robust form acquired from generous diet with corre- spondent exertion. The head is a very important part, considered w'ith a view’ to the beauty of the animal ; and in no part is an improvement in the breed so soon detected as in this. Can any thing be conceived more dissimilar than the small inexpressive features attached to the enormous head of a cart horse, compared with the bold striking ones that grace the same part in the blood horse ? It is probable, that the heads of the native horses of Britain were all large and heavy till the introduction of the eastern blood. The head, in the improved breed, became small and angular, the eyes prominent, the ears spirited, small, and pointed ; the forehead, wide, straight, and sometimes slightly curved inwards at the lower part, and in them the facial angle is about 25°, whereas, in the heavy breed, it is more generally 23° ; its junction with the neck also is less easy and elegant than in the improved kind. A superficial observer might, perhaps, overlook the extreme beauty in the head of the horse, and particularly the great fire and expression of his countenance, when animated by any leading passion : and this is to be the more admired, when it is considered how few aids this part has in the brute, compared with the human. Man borrow’s much of his facial expression from his eyebrows, and, when to these the varied action of the mouth is added, it amounts to more than a half of the total expression. Upon studying the Greek and Roman models, one is led to form but an unfavour- able opinion of their horses, from the heavy inelegant heads that are presented to us in their studies and pictures. Either they despised the lighter and more animated breeds from Egypt and India, or their artists too often studied imaginary heads, com- pounded from the human and brute countenances ; and this really appears to be the case, from the sunken eyes, overhanging eyebrows, contracted nostrils, and lips thick and generally wide apart, observed in their statues and pictures. The ears are usually supposed criterions of the spirit of the ani- mal, and I have seldom seen a horse who carried one ear forward, and the other backward, during his exercise, especially if on a journey, but what was lasting and good. The reason appears a plainpnej a horse of spirit, strong, and not easily fatigued, is at-^ I EXTERIOR COXFORMATION OF THE IlORSE. 27 t telitlve to every thing around him, and directs one ear forward and ' one ear backward to collect sound from every quarter. I need not ! mention, that the ears are an indication of the temper of the ani- i mal ; and that he is seldom either playful or vicious, but -the ears are laid flat on the neck. It was kind in Providence to give us such a warning in an animal who does not want craft to surprise us, nor . strength to render his resentment terrible. The eyc5 should be very particularly attended to in an exterior ex- amination of a horse : the globe should be full and prominent, with a ? thin surface of eyelid. When the globe is small, or sunk within I an orbit surrounded with much fleshy substance, such eyes are found I more prone to inflammation than the former. It is prudent, how- ever, to guard against too great a convexity of the eye, which now ! and then does actually exist, and renders the horse shortsighted. 'The eyes should always be exarnjned in the shade : no better situa- !i tion can be chosen than that the horse’s head should be pointed outwards, but his eyes remain half a foot within a stable door, i The cornea, or transparent part of the eye, should be perfectly clear throughout its whole extent of surface. Sometimes it appears so on a slight inspection, but, more attentively examined, opaque r milky lines may be traced crossing its surface. In other cases, i nearly the whole may be clear except the extreme limits, which shall be surrounded with a milky opaque line : when such appearances exist, it betokens the remains of former inflammation, and a great ; danger of recurrence; though it may be proper to notice, that an ! accident, such as the stroke of a whip, may leave a milky speck or line, and that such eye may be no more liable to inflame than thoujrh j the injury had not taken place; but then very clear evidence ouaht :| to be obtained that an accident had really occasioned the blemish, j! and which blemish also will seldom be found at the circumference, j Not only must this exterior glassy covering of the eye be examined, j but the attention should be likewise directed to the deeper parts with- i in the sight, the appearance of which, in a moderate light, should I be perfectly transparent. In a strong light it should exhibit a lively blueishness; but if, in a moderate light, it appears turbid or milky, there is latent mischief, and the examination should now be still more minute : the eye should be viewed in every direction, and it ' is more than probal)le that a speck or line of white, more con- I spicuous than the rest, will appear; in which case a cataract has i already begun to form {see Eyes in Splanchnology). In other in- stances, again, though the parts within the sight may not appear [ opaque or milky, yet they may exhibit a glassy greenishness, which I also is a proof of the existence of a most destructive affection, called, by the farriers, glass eyes ; but, properly, giitta serena. The existence of this mav be proved by observing whether the iris, or the curtain forming the pupil, contracts and dilates; that is, when the hand is placed over a sound eye for a little time, the iris W'ill dilate so as to increase the size of the pupil to admit more rays ; but, on the removal of the hand, will again contract and lessen the 28 EXTERIOR conformation OF THE HORsE, pupil, fo exclude them. A blind horse likewise usually carries his ears as though alarmed, in quick changes of direction, and hangs back on his bridle or halter, lifting his legs up very high; in fact, presents every indication that a person blindfolded would do. 'Im- mediate inflammation of the eyes, is known by the appearance of tears running down the face, and an impatience of light. When the iris, or moving curtain that immediately surrounds the pupil or opening into the eye, is of a lighter colour than brown, such horses are said to be icall-eyed; but, however it may detract from beauty, it no farther affects the eye. The general colour of this part should be hazel, or dark brown. In some horses, the transparent cornea is small in its circumference, in which case the opaque cornea must necessarily be large, and shew much of the white of the eye. It is necessary to distinguish such instances from others, in which, though the opaque cornea, or white, shall be of its natural dimen- sions, yet, from the greater contraction and dilatation of the eyelid, more of it is seen. In the former, it is evident that the while of the eye shewing itself in a considerable degree merely from a small superficies of transparent cornea, is the simple form of the organ, and can have nothing to do with the temper ; but, in the latter in- stance, a large appearance of white may be received as an indica- tion of a vicious disposition ; for extraordinary motions of either the eyes or ears, and which are generally synchronous, are conse- quences of the wants and passions of the animal. If a horse is suspicious, he generally looks out for opportunities to revenge former injuries, or to repel new ones; and the retroverted direction of the eye, in which, of course, much of the white is seen, is merely intended to guide the blow he meditates. Thence comprehends the part between and below the eyes ; when there is much white in it, it is considered as a blemish. If the white extends down the face, it is termed a blaze ; and, when continued into the muzzle, it is called blaze and snip. If only a spot of while appears in the forehead, it is called a star, and is esteemed a beauty. If, with a star, white begins below', and is carried down- wards, it is called race; and, as has been beforementioned, if it is continued into the muzzle, it is called snip. Thus, when a stolen horse is described, these distinctions become useful ; and, in regimental accounts of the marks of horses, they are particularly attended to. Such a particular horse is said to have star, race, and snip white, while another has a blaze only. All the lower part of the head, including the nostrils and lips, is called the muzzle. The darker the colour of this part, the more is the horse esteemed. Very dark brown horses are, however, an ex- ception to this, for, in them, the muzzle is generally of a tan co- lopr, which is highly esteemed.. The lips themselves should be thin and well supported ; when hanging loose and pendulous, it bespeaks age, sluggishness, or debility ; and it is of more consequence than is usually supposed, that their commissure, or the opening of the mouth, should be of '//jyi.r. 'f . r v';' 'i,'.' -‘ -0: AGE OF THE HORSE. 29 sufficient extent. If too small, it is unfavourable to beauty ; but ! what is worse, it is inconvenient for the well placing the bridle. The mouth itself is a subject of importance, as upon the various I appearances of the teeth we form a criterion of the age. The bars also are essential to the proper obedience of the horse, and are those ij ridges in the posterior jaw, between the tush on each side and the grinders. Like the beard, the bars should neither be too fleshy, !| nor too lean,- too round, nor too sharp. If by a rude hand they have been scarred, the feeling from the bridle can never be true. OF THE TEETH, AS CHARACTERISING THE AGE ; WITH THE AUXILIARY MARKS. A COLT is usually foaled with six grinders in each jaw, three on ! each side. In ten or twelve days he puts out two nippers in front, above and :i below. In a fortnight after, the two middle ones appear ; and in two or- 1 three months from this, the corner nippers are pushed out. I From this, till he is a year old, no great changes take place, i except that the cavity in the nippers begins slightly to fill up, and appears worn, and the neck of each tooth is particularly distinct. He has likewise now four grinders on each side above and below, three I of the milk set, and one permanent. 1 At a year and a half, the cavity in the nippers is nearly filled up, i and he has now three milk and two permanent grinders in each jaw, above and below. At two years, the mark in the nippers is wholly effaced, and they I appear like the same teeth in an eight year old horse : at this time, likewise, the first milk grinder above and below falls. At about two years and a half old, the two front nippers fall out ; I and as the permanent ones are some little time coming to perfection, ! a colt may experience some difficulty in grazing : it might be proper, , therefore, at those times, to give him some cut food. i Between the third and fourth year, usually about three and a half, [ the two next nippers appear above and below, and the second milk ; grinder disappears about the same time, leaving him now six molar i teeth on each side above and below, one colt’s, and five of the per- ! manent set. About four and a half, the two corner nippers fall out, to give place to the last set. The last milk grinder likewise does the same, and soon after the lushes appear. From this time he is no longer called a colt, but a horse : and if it is a female, on the falling of the corner nippers, she drops the name of Jilly, and assumes that of mcife. It )s about this time a horse is supposed becoming use- ful, arriving at his strength, and being capable of enduring some fatigue; and as, till this period, he is objected to for the purposes of utility, so it becomes a matter of study with dealers possessing colts, to make them appear older than they really are. It is,- there- 30 AGE OF THE HORSE, fore, very common for them in a promising well-grown colt, les^ than four years old, to draw out the corner milk teeth^ on which the horse teeth below' appear soon after ; the reasons for which w'e have before explained : they likewise, at the same time, cut the bars to produce the tushes ; and when such a colt is docked and nicked, it is not easy to detect the deception : but if to an examination of the usual appearances is added an observance of the grinders, the imposition may be discovered ; neither can the animal gain the true appearance of the age they wish, unless the front nippers appear tilling, and the corner ones are nearly equal with the rest. The deception is also rendered conspicuous when this is the case, by the animal not being sufficiently furnished, as it is termed ; that is, by his not having lost his coltish form, or his muscles having become swelled and furnished by exercise. A four year old horse is leggy, his forehand is thick and low, his feet are round and very wide at the bottom, his muzzle is round, and his mouth has no depth. At five and a half, in a natural state, the internal w’all of the corner nippers is on a level with the rest, and the tushes are com- pletely come out, which now present a pointed body curved inward, with the outer surface round and smooth, but the inner surface concave and grooved. (See Plate II.) At six years old, in general cases, the black mark or cavity in the two front low’er nippers, which was before wearing, naw becomes completely effaced. At seven, the same mark or cavity in the two next, or interme- diate teeth of the posterior jaw, likewise is completely worn out, and the tushes appear something blunted. At eight, the cavity in the lower corner teeth is lost, and now a horse is said to be aged, and to have lost his mark. But these cavities in the upper nippers are found to disapjrear more slowly ; and at eight, when the whole of the others have become effaced, it is common to find only the two front upper ones filled. The late professor of the Veterinary College, Monsieur St. Bel, was the first who introduced here the mode of judging of the age after this period by the upper teeth, which he gained from the riding-houses in France, where this mode is much depended on. He taught, that two years elapsed between the disappearance of each of the next' pairs ; that is, that as the front upper nippers were found filled up at eight, the two next were filled at ten, and the two upper corner lost their mark when the animal was twelve. But though the cavity in these teeth disappears, something like the above, they do not do I it with sufficient regularity to be altogether depended upon; nor should a veterinarian ever give a decided opinion from this alone, as he may subject himself to much mortification. At ten years, therefore, in a great number of instances, the two intermediate upper nippers will be found filled up : the tushes become very blunt, and lose their internal concavity, and the fleshy ridges , of the roof of the mouth become leaner. At twelve, where the disappearance of the upper cavities is regular, AGE OF THE HORSE. 31 those in the corner are effaced, and the tushes are now only a rounded button ; the fleshy ridges are still less evident, and the nippers now begin to push forward in an horizontal direction. When a horse lives to fifteen, his incisive teeth become nearly triangular, and still more horizontal, the upper projecting over the lower, and the upper corner tooth frequently becoming sawed, as it were, into two parts. They now appear yellow, and frequently the grinders become irregular : the eyes likewise sink, and the pits over them look deep. As the animal advances in age, all these appear- ances strengthen. The nippers flatten at the sides, separate from each other, become furred, and have furrows on their surface ; grey hair appears over the eyes, the anus projects, while the cellular membrane surrounding it is absorbed; the lips become thin and pendant, the lower being often nearly paralytic. But as horses are evidently, for many years after they have lost the mark, as it is termed, active, hardy, and fitted for every exertion ; so, when a dealer be- comes possessed of a horse whose teeth bear more actual marks of age than either his limbs or spirit, it is an object worthy his atten- tion to give them a more youthful appearance. The principal part of this art consists in the operation called bishopping; which is the making an artificial cavity in the upper surface of the nippers, by means of a sharp hard tool, and then burning the cavity black with a heated pointed instrument : but the strokes of the graver detect the imposition, and the two innet grooves of the tushes cannot be restored by si niilar means ; nor can its blunt point be again made sharp and prominent. The tush, therefore, should always be at- tended to in examining the teeth for a horse’s age. It is, indeed, in many respects, a more certain criterion than the nippers, and ki among judges more attended to than them. The judgment formed from the teeth, though general, is liable to error, as some horses living wholly on grain, and early worked, must necessarily wear theirs more than others feeding principally on succulent matter. In cribbiters, and those who champ much on the bit, this variation may be very considerable, and make not less than two years’ difference between them and others. A too strict adherence to the teeth marks, very frequently leads those who are only moderate judges into very great error, by causing them to reject the most useful and valuable horse without these marks, as being supposed past his work. Nothing is more fallacious than this ; the commonly received marks of the age, grant a criterion of not a third of the natural life of the animal ; nor of one half of the time in which he is perfectly useful, and fully capable of answering all the purposes for which he was intended : and it is only in a country like our own, where these generous animals are so early put to labour, and so unremittingly forced to pursue it, that this mark is so much attended to. A subordinate attention should be paid to the appearance of the teeth, if a horse appears what is termed fresh and sound ; that is, if all his organs are capable of their Several functions, the limbs being firm, and exhibiting no appearance 32 AGE OF THE HORSE. of too early, too great, or long continued exertion. The early ruin of English horses is not only to be attributed to the excellence of the roads, by which persons are induced to ride hard ; but it is principally to be laid to the account of their being too soon worked, before the maturity of the system is complete, or the motive organs completely evolved. By the premature exertion taking place before parts are well capable of bearing it, early weakness is produced, and nature takes artificial means of strengthening the debilitated organs ; hence the cavities between the tendons and their sheaths are de- stroyed ; parts take on a bony structure, whose original formation was cartilaginous, as the lateral cartilages of the feet, and the arti- cular processes of the vertebrae, and a greater quantity of bone is deposited on the surface of some bones than is natural, forming splents, spavins, ring-bones, &c. : and to counteract the unnatural waste, other secretions are likewise preternaturally augmented, pro- ducing, in the mucous capsules, windgalls, blood-spavins, &c. But where horses are suffered to attain their full growth, and the com- plete evolution of their stamina, if they are afterwards put to full exercise, not altogether inordinate, they become competent to the exertions expected of them, and reach old age sound and vigorous. Many good judges will not purchase a horse for hunting earlier than eight years old, and regard him only in his prime at ten or twelve. It is but little considered that the period of a horse’s life, with moderate care and good usage, is protracted to twenty-five, thirty- five, and forty-five years : and an instance lately occurred of a horse dying at fifty. The instances of their being vigorous and strong at thirty, and thirty-five, are very numerous; and nearly as frequent as activity in men of eighty and ninety. A gentleman at Dulwich, near London, has three monuments of three horses, who severally died in his possession at the ages of thirty-five, thirty-seven, and thirty-nine. The oldest, it is to be remarked, was in a carriage the very day he died, strong and vigorous ; but was carried off in a few hours by spasmodic colic, to which he was subject. At Chesham, in Buckinghamshire, there was a horse of thirty-six years old, who exhibited no symptoms of debility, nor any external signs of age, but being nearly covered with warts. It was remarkable, with regard to this four-footed Nestor, that when an unusual hard day’s work was required, he was always chosen, as never failing in what was expected from him. Mr. Gulley, in his Observations on Live Slock, mentions a horse he knew, who lived to forty-seven years, having during that time a ball in his neck, received in the battle of Preston, in the rebellion of 1715 ; and which was extracted at his death, which happened in 1758: and, judging him at four years at the time he received the wound (and it is probable he was more), he must, at his death, have been forty- seven. These, it is true, are not very common instances, but it is not the natural economy of the animal makes them so ; but bis early application to full exertion, and the unremitting continuance of AGE Of cattle. ibis, whereby his race is begun frequently before he is three, in the brake, lunge, or riding-house; before five, his utmost speed is exerted after the hounds in winter, and as a hackney against time in the summer; at seven, blind, foundered, and spavined, he gal- lantly shines in the mail or stage; at eight, be faulters in the fish cart ; and, before ten, worn out with disease and inanition, his reputed old age gains him an honourable exit at the slaughter-house. Hence it must be at once evident how small a proportion of a horse’s natural life is eight years ; and yet this is the period that the majority of persons begin to consider him as aged, and unfit for service. The more I see of horses, the more I am astonished at the want of attention and consideration this evinces : my long ac- quaintance with the animal has induced me to draw the following comparison between the ages of man and the horse ; that is, at these several periods of comparison, the constitution of the man and horse may be considered as in an equal degree of perfection or decay, according as youth or age preponderate. Thus, the first five years of a horse, may be considered as equivalent to the first twenty years of a man ; that is, that a horse of five years, may be compa- ratively considered as old as a man of twenty ; a horse of ten years, as a man of forty ; a horse of fifteen, as a man of fifty ; a horse of twenty, as a man of sixty ; of twenty-five, as a man of seventy ; oT thirty, as a man of eighty ; and of thirty-five, as a man of ninety. Oxen and sheep have their ages observed by their horns, which are more conveniently examined, and more certain in their appear- ances than their teeth. Oxen have a permanent and temporaneous set of horns. Sheep have only the permanent set. In neat cattle, the age is sufficiently indicated by the general appearance till the third year, when the temporaneous horns fall, and are replaced by a permanent pair. These appear with a kind of button at the end ; and as each succeeding year’s growth protrudes this knobbed extremity from the head, a circle or ring round the horn is formed ; consequentlv, in these animals, if three years are reckoned for the button at the extremity, and an additional year for every circle, we shall gain tlie age of the beast; though it is not nnusual to scrape or rasp down these rings, to deceive the unwary. In those kine who have no horns, the general appearances are con- sidered, with the whiteness and equality of the teeth, which in the aged are uneven, yellow, and sometimes black. Neat cattle have incisive teeth only in the posterior jaw : there was no necessity for anterior nippers in them, for they gather long grass principally, w'hich they wrap into a tuft with their tongues, and, applying it to the under or posterior jaw, cut it off with the under teeth. They change their temporaneous set earlier than the horse, beginning at two years to renew the front nippers, and getting a pair every year till they are five years old : thus, having eight nippers at this time, when they are called full mouthed. Sheep have their age indicated by the horns and teeth. The horns in those who have them, are more usually examined : these do not cbaiige, but, as each succeeding year presents a ring, one 34 EXTERIOR CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE. year is counted for the point, and an additional year for every one of these rings. Where they have no horns, the teeth are attended to. At twelve months, a lamb puts out his new front nippers ; and every succeeding year, he gains two more, till he is four years old, when he then has eight in his lower jaw, his upper, like the ox, being deprived of them. The age of goats may be ascertained in the same way ; and in deer it is told by an additional branch appear- ing to the palm in the antlers or horns. EXTERIOR CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE. [Continued I'roin jj. C9*] The channel, among horsemen, is that hollow that -is formed be- tween the two branches of the posterior jaw ; internally it lodges the tongue, more exteriorly are placed glands, vessels, and fat. It should not be too wide, or the head appears ill set ; but, on the contrary, if it is too narrow, it becomes a still greater defect, both in the riding and the carriage horse ; for in this case it will be im- possible for the horse to bend his head inwards, or to reign to the bridle, either in riding or driving. This part should therefore be particularly attended to in the examination of a horse for purchase. The neck should form from the head to the w'ithers an elegant but moderate curve : its under surface should be nearly straight, which, in ill bred horses, is often arched outwards. In point of length, it is of consequence that the neck be duly proportioned : if too long, the head will be too weighty. The long neck, likewise, seldom presents a firm or proper resistance against the pressure of the bit. When, on the contrary, the neck is too short, the head is frequently ill placed, and the lever in the hand of the rider will be also too short. Such necks are often likewise weighty, and over- loaden with flesh. When the upper surface of the neck is thick and heavy, it is a very strong presumption of a sluggish disposition, particularly in geldings and mares. In stallions, it is a distinctive sexual mark, and hence less to be depended on. Now and then, the neck is arched downwards, which is called ewe-necked. When the deformity is considerable, it prevents the head from being carried in its true angle ; instead of which, the nose, from being projected upwards and forwards, has occasioned such horses to be called star- gazers ; to remedy which, it is necessary to draw down the head by a martingale. In the horse, and all the grazing tribes, the bulk of the head is in an inverse proportion to the length of the neck, otherwise the muscles would not be able to lift it; and the length of the neck is such, that, added to the angle resulting from the head, the length of both is equal to the height of the shoulders from the ground. It may not also be amiss to mention, that, in the purchasing a horse, it is prudent to observe whether the upper part of the neck bears any marks of a tight collar having been worn. When such an appearance does exist, it commoulv arises either from a strap worn to prevent the action of cribbitmg, or such a horse is apt to unloose himself, which is almost an equal defect. The mayie is that long hair that crowns the neck tbroughoul its whole extent; that part of it iminediaiely in front of the head is EXTERIOR COXFORMATION OF THE HORSE, - 35 called the foretop. Nature appears to have designed this part sim- ply for beauty to the animal : had it been for a guard to the neck, it would have grown on both sides; whereas, when not .altered by art, as in dragoon horses, it hangs naturally to one side only. In stallions, the mane is generally very thick and long: a white one, exhibited some years ago, had it some yards in length, and which was carried in a bag. It is usual to thin the mane and tail by wrapping a tuft of the hair around the fingers, and pulling it out by the roots: but this mode prevents its laying well, and disposes some horses to resist. In my own stable, I have found that the frequent use of a three-pronged angular iron was the best means of keeping the hair thin, and assisting it to lay well. The trunk comprises various parts. The withers are formed from the long transverse processes of the dorsal vertebrje ; and as their use is to serve as levers to muscles, so their length must be of great advantage ; hence, horses with high withers usually go much above the ground ; that is, the muscles of the back acting to greater ad- vantage, the fore parts are more elevated during progression; and this may serve to shew riding masters, that a horse, going above liis ground, does not depend altogether upon the motion of the shoulders, nor on the height to which he lifts his legs ; but likewise upon the extent to which his general forehand is carried by the action of the dorsal muscles. When that is well up, as it is termed, St gives greater room and play for the other parts to be moved through a larger space ; for a horse, it is evident, can describe a greater portion of a circle in the time of a considerable elevation than in that of a small one ; and as his fore legs describe a segment of a small circle, while his withers describe a portion of a larger, and as these may be considered as proportional, so it follows, the higher the withers are carried, the greater extent there wili be for the legs to act in, and a longer time for a higher elevation. But it is evident this only applies to such horses as are wanted for particular purposes : in the cart horse, whose weighty forehand is of great service, as he draws by an effort to preserv’e himself from the tendency to the centre of gravity ; so the more he is loaden before, and the neai’er he approximates this centre, the more advantageously he applies his powers. Nor is it supposed essential to the race-horse; indeed, most animals designed for speed in the gallop, which is but a succession of leaps, have their foreparts low. There are horses, particularly ,of the Dutch kind, who arc remarkable for going with their foreparts up, though their withers are not high ; but this is done in them, from the great strength of the muscles of the haunches and croup, and the inclination of the hinder extremities to approach the common centre of gravity of the whole body ; and hence the tendency of the fore extremities is relieved : horses, therefore, who are weighty before, might be made useful, and pre- vented from stumbling, by a good rider. In such, the tendency towards the ground should be obviated by 'the rider’s placing his E EXTERIOR CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE. weight backward ; hence, in race-horses, where the reverse of thi* is wished, the saddle is placed forwards. But th& above remarks must not be supposed to detract from the importance of the functions of the shoulders ; on the- contrary, oil their just proportion and proper situation, in a great measure, depend the perfection of the animal progression. The shoulders are those parts that extend from the withers on each side, obliquely to the point, in front of the counter or chest, and which is called the point of the arm or shoulder, but is wholly formed of the bone of the arm. In horses designed for extensive action, either in trotting, galloping, or walking, they should be muscu- lar, but not overloaden with flesh. If too lean, they want strength ; if too heavy, they impede the motion. But it is too frequent, that persons mistake a muscular for an overloaden shoulder : if the shoulders and withers have not sufficient extent of muscle, the horse can have but little extent of power before. The shoulders are not connected, as with us, by means of an intermediate joint ; but as animals have no collar-bone, so the connexion is wholly muscular, and by this means is rendered elastic, which it would not otherwise be ; hence riding on the croup of a horse, where the union is bony throughout, is very unpleasant and uneasy. When the body is pro- pelled forward, its tendency to the centre of gravity is counteracted by the fore extremities, which then receive the mass : had the shoulders, therefore, possessed a bony connexion, the machine at this time would have experienced a shock ; but'as it is, the strong muscles of these parts receive and sustain what the hind quarters- have thrown on them, till the angles of the hind legs have beeri alternately contracted and extended, to repropel the mass, while th# dorsal muscles suspend the foreparts. The centre of action in the Shoulder is within its own middle, and the motion it enjoys is con- fined to the perpendicular backwards, and to as great an elevation the muscles will admit of forwards. Thus> it is evident, the more oblique its situation, the greater number of degrees it can run through, and hence be more extensive in its motions. It is the custom with some persons to put horses early to plough, to throw their shoulders backwards ; but whether the obliquity is increased by this means is questionable. And when they are too much loadcn, i.t is the practice, with others, to sweat them, by keeping them warmly clothed across the shoulders, whereby it is supposed they become finer. It appears probable, that the hind and foreparts do not bear an equal proportion of the propelling force in all horses alike ; hence we now and then find speedy and good movers where the shoulders are not well placed : but in such cases the formation is always per- fect behind. In blood horses, the shoulders are generally deepj though the withers are not always high ; and in them the fore limbg are often short in proportion to the hinder : for as speed appears to be a principal end iii their formation, so, as the gallop is but a succes*- EXTERIOR CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE. 37 sion of leaps, comparative anatomy shews us that this action is prin- cipally brought about by the flexion and extension of the angles resulting from the hinder extremities ; the fore limbs receiving the superincumbent mass, while the muscles of the hinder parts are pre- paring for a fresh spring. Nevertheless, the shoulders still operate materially, and perhaps in a greater degree, in the slower paces of the short gallop, the trot, and the walk. The extent of a moving part is, in the first place, produced from its length ; hence a long and deep shoulder is ever preferable to a short one. In the second place, the extent of motive power is also dependant on its direction ; thus it is that an oblique shoulder is notoriously favourable to power of support, and to speed in progres- sion. In a still more eminent degree, it favours that proper eleva- tion of the united fore limb, that constitutes safety in action. For, as the angles formed between the shoulder, the arm, and the Tore arm, are consentaneous, and make a kind of bony arch when in action ; so an oblique and deep shoulder is generally accompanied with a full bending of the knee. The converse of this form is common with mares, who, from a decreased obliquity in the shoulders, have the angle regulated by an increased obliquity in the whole limb down- ward ; or, as is familiarly expressed, they stand with their legs tinder them. The immediate reason of this apparent defect is, that, by such a position of their fore extremities, the pelvis is raised higher ; by which additional height of the hind parts, the foal becomes more conveniently placed, and less likely to be ejected. Few rules can be laid down for observance in the exterior conformation of the horse, that are of so general application, as that a short and upright shoulder, particularly if united, as it usually is, with an inclined direction of the whole limb backward, is a sure mark of an unsafe goer, and com- monly, though not so universally, of a slow one also. The part between the points of the arms, or shoulders, is called tht breast or counter. It should be wide and extended ; when narrow, the horse is seldom powerful or durable, though he may be speedy ; the lungs have not sufficient room for expansion, nor the muscles suf- ficient extent of attachment : such horses have usually weak shoulders, and the fore extremities being too near each other, render them less firm than they should be. The breast may, however, be too wide; and par- ticularly when the parts in front are very prominent, from whence arises too great a weight in the foreparts, which though desirable in a draught horse, would be very little to be wished in a hackney. The part opposed to the point of the shoulder or arm, is termed the elbow. The width of this part, and its forming a considerable angle with the arm, is a matter of the utmost consequenee ; for, as it is a lever for the extensor muscles of the fore arm, so its lenglh must make all the difference in power between a long and a short purchase : any one the least acquainted with mechanics must be aware how great this is. The elbow should stand on a level with the arm, laterally ; when it is turned inward, it confines the action considerably ; when it is too much turned outwards, the toes are E2 3S EX'l'ERIOR CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE. often turned inward. The space lietween the point of the shoulder and the elbow, is, properly, the arm ; though it is not usually, among horsemen, considered as such j originating from a want of consideration of the internal structure. It should be placed in the line backwards, as the shoulder is forwards, and the more acute the angle between these parts the better; for the greater will be the extent and strength of the motion described by the opening of this angle. The fore arm, which is usually called the arm, should be large, particularly in its width, shewing strong marked powerful muscles ; for in every instance a small fore arm is a certain indication of weakness. All animals intended for quick motion have this part long ; the knee in the greyhound is hut three or four inches from the ground ; but though this part should be long for quick progres- sion, it is not equally eligible for the cadences of the manege, and hence horses of this description are chosen with a short fore arm. The joint immediately below this, which in the human forms the wrist, is, in the horse, termed the knee. All the joints of a horse ought to be broad and extended, whereby the surface of contact is increased, and the stability, in proportion, augmented ; they present likewise, by this means, a bro.ader surface for the attachment of muscles, and remove their insertion farther from the centre of motion, thereby increasing their power. The knee should be examined to see whether the skin has been broken by falls, and great caution is necessary in this, for it sometimes grows so well up as hardly to be discernible ; frequently, also, the dealers use some colouring matter, whereby the part is rendered black : but it does not follow that a mark or scar always indicates a stumbler; and persons are too apt to forget, that the best horse may have an acci- dent and fall, which will never influence his future manner of going, unless the cicatrix should be of such extent as to interfere with th* motion of the joint : if, therefore, the arm and fore arm are strong^ the forehand high, and the horse shews good action, he should not be rejected wholly for an accidental blemish. The canon or shank is the part below the knee, and it is highly re- quisite this part should be well formed, that is, thin and broad ; for as it is purely bony and tendinous, so any increase in size laterally naust only arise from cellular substance, or some swelling, which will interfere with the motion without adding to the strength. There is within the knee, and at the superior part of the canon, a bone of the carpus purposely set out at a distance from the rest, for the insertion of a muscle; and likewise for the supporting of ligaments that bind down the tendons or back sinews : when this is set wide out, the muscles bending the parts below are situated more advantageously for action, and the back sinews are likewise not bound too closely, but are removed considerably from the centre of their motion, whereby their powers are much increased : and this is so certain, that a horse tied in under the knee, as it is called, is never found to be able to bear exertion long ;• he soon becomes, strained, and the legs get bowed or arched,' and totter on tlic slightest exertion. Dealers, EXTERIOR CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE. .39 frequently assert that such a horse was foaled so : it is true the colt was born badly formed, but the effects come on afterwards. This also may be considered as a rule admitting of few exceptions; that hardly one horse in fifty reaches eight years old with straight legs and sound pasterns, who is tied in, as it is termed, under the knee. The large powerful tendons supporting and moving the parts below the knee, are called, by horsemen, the back sinews. It is necessary, for the above reasons, that they should be set out wide from the bone, not only at the knee, but continued down, making a broad wide surface laterally. They should also be large and firm, In blood horses this form is particularly observed ; on the contrary, in the cart horse these tendons are seldom proportionally large, and as seldom so well placed. These tendons should be distinct and clear from the knee to the fetlock ; when any thickening is observed, some injury has been received. If the swelling appears nearer to the bone than the tendon, particularly if on the inner side, it betokens a splent. If this is situated not far from the knee, and is evidently distinct from the tendons, it frequently occasions no future inconvenience ; but when a splent appears to extend Itself inwards and backwards among the back sinews, it irritates these parts, occasions inflammation, and ends in an enlarged callous swelling. When the whole tendon or back sinew is swelled, and rounded, as it were, into one mass with the bone, leaving no distinctive marks between the bone and sinew, still greater mischief, probably, has at some time happened. Either some of the ligaments have become ruptured ; or such a relaxation has taken place from strain, as will always keep the limb weak. To detect lesser enlargements of the tendons and ligaments, the eve alone should not be trusted, particularly in hairy-legged horses ; but the hand should be deliberately passed down the shank before and behind. The inner and under surface of the knee should also be examined in purchasing a horse. If an enlargement or a scar appears, it arises from the speedy cut, so called from its being a blow given to the part by the foot of the opposite side when the horse is trotting fast. A sore scabby eruption within the bend of the knee some- times exists, particularly in cart, or low bred fleshy horses. These eruptive appearances are called mallenders, and render the horse very objectionable, as they prove frequently obstinate against healing, and always bespeak a bad habit. The next part below the canon or shank is ihe. pastern or fetlock. General usage, however, applies the term fetlock to the joint itself^ and pastern to the plalange or part proceeding from the fetlock to the foot : properly speaking, the fetlock is only the posterior part of the joint of the pastern, from which grows the footlock of hair. It is of great consequence in the exterior conformation, that this part should be duly proportioned. When the pastern is very short and upright, the limb is deprived of much of its elasticity, and such horses prove uneasy goers : they are also unsafe ; for the pas- tern being so nearly in an upright position, requires but a small resistance, or slight shock, to bring it forwards beyond the perpendi- 40 EXTERIOR CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE. cular, in which case the weight of the machine increases the prone tendency, and the animal falls. Nor are these the only evils occa- sioned : this formation tends also to an early wearing out of the legs ; for the ends of the bones being opposed to each other in nearly a straight line, receive such ajar or shock at each progressive move- ment, as gradually deranges the part, producing an overshot joint, and thickening of the ligaments. When, on the contrary, the pas- terns are too long, they are frequently too oblique, and must then be also proportionally weak ; though, from the increased elasticity Cccasioned by this formation, such horses are commonly pleasant and easy goers. These joints, both before and behind, are subject to w'hat are very erroneously termed windgalls ; but which are nothing more than a diseased enlargement of the mucous bags placed tov;ards the bot- tom of the shank, between the bone and back sinew, for the purpose of lubricating the joint. Their existence is detected by the appear- ance in this part of a puffy elastic swelling of greater or less size, and commonly existing, one on the inner, and one on the outer side of the joint. The swelling itself is not detrimental, unless it be very large ; but its existence shews that the limb has suffered an extraor- dinary degree of exertion, the inflammation brought on by which, has so increased, these otherwise natural and necessary parts. The inner part of the fore and hind fetlock is also subject to the accident called cutting, which is nothing more than a blow given either by the hoof or the shoe, when, in its elevation, it passes the opposite fetlock. A cutting horse, who lifts his legs very high, docs not touch the fetlock ; but, as we have before noticed, he strikes the canon immediately under the knee. Cutting in the fetlocks is often a defect in the form of the limbs, as when they stand too near together, or when the feet turn either inwards or outwards. It is also frequently brought on by weakness ; hence lean, jaded, and tired horses, will do it at times, who, under other circumstances, •will go free and not interfere. For the same reasons, many horses cut before they become strong and furnish, that never cut after- wards. The feet are next to he considered, and, in the conformation of a horse, too mueh attention cannot be paid to them. We shall here point what is immediately necessary to our present purpose: much more may be seen relative to their structure, when treating on the ana- tomy of the part. The feet are more liable to be found too small than too large ; though, in horses bred in low marshy situations, as Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire, the feet are often naturally of a larger size than ordinary ; and, however convenient this may prove to the animal while moving on the quaggy surface of these marshy districts, they prove very unfit for speedy and light movements in more dry situations. Such horses go heavily, and stumble; and as the horn, of which these enormous feet are formed, is always weak, so, by use on hard roads, the anterior or front part falls in, and the sol^ or under part projects outward, reducing this part, at last,^ EXTERIOR CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE. 41 from a concave to a convex surface : such feet are then called pumiced. Horses are, in general, born vnth their feet perfect; but some breeds are more liable to the grand and frequent evil of contraction than others : it is peculiarly the case with blood horses. Colour also seems to have some influence in contracting the feet ; hence I have observed dark chesnuts particularly prone to it. A good foot should exhibit a proper line of obliquity; when the horn is very upright, however wide and open the heels, such feet soon become defective. This is but seldom attended to, even among those who esteem them- selves judges : but no rule admits of fewer exceptions, than that such a foot soon becomes faulty. There should also be a proper height of horn ; when too high, it disposes to contraction ; when too low, the heels, quarters, and soles, are all weak, and a tenderness in going must be experienced. But, above all, the heels should be attended to ; they should be wide, and the frog healthy, firm, yet pliable and elastic. There is a peculiar state of disease, not men- tioned in authors, or rather it is the beginning of a disease, in which there is a dinnnished secretion of horn. It shews itself not by any contraction of the heels ; on the contrary, these are in general fuller than natural, are rounded upwards, and particularly soft to the feel and shining to the eye : in such cases the frog also is large and softer than natural. Contraction of the feet is their most general evil, and it begins generally at the heels ; when therefore the heels are narrower than the quarters, particularly if the quarters are indented under the coronet, all is not right. Such a foot will probably feel hotter than natural ; the frog also will be compressed and small, and very likely thrushy. Thrushes are always strong objections to a horse ; for when they exist in an open foot, that foot will not long remain so, if they are not stopped ; and as some horses have a strong natural tendency to thrushes, so their existence is always suspicious, and deteriorates much from the value of a horse. Nevertheless, when it can be ascertained with certainty that they are not of long standing; when the matter only exudes from the middle cleft of the frog, and not from any lateral sinuses, the form or firmness of the frog neither being altered ; and also when circumstances can be learned that prove the horse has been placed in such situations as favour the approach of thrushes, as moist litter, or long confinement ; then such a horse need not be rejected, for these thrushes may be permanently healed. But when the complaint accompanies a foot already smaller than natural, when the heels are, as it is termed, wired and drawn in, the frog rotten and pinched, and the whole cir- cumference of the hoof perhaps encircled with rings ; reject such a horse, let him go as he will, for he cannot long remain sound. When a horse’s foot is held up, the sole should present a concave surface ; if it is less concave than natural, that sole is weak, and will not bear much pressure ; and it is more than probable it will con- tinue lessening in concavity till it becomes a plane, when every sub- sequent shoeing will endanger the laming of the animal. White feet are very objectionable on this account, for they are particularly liable 42 tXTERIOR CONFORMATION OF THE HORsE. to become flat in the sole; their quarters also are commonly weak,- and fall in ; and when neither of these evils take place, they yet have seldom strength enough to resist contraction : and it may be determined on, that when there are three dark, and one white foot, in nineteen instances out of twenty, the while foot becomes defective sooner than the dark ones. Corns are another evil to which horses feet are very liable ; and unless the shoes are removed during the examination, it is not easy to detect them ; though when the foot is well picked out, if a cojrn has been of long standing, some marks of former cuttings out will appear under the heel of the shoe. Another very serious complaint is a brittleness of hoof ; but which may be generally detected by the marks of the fragile parts detaching themselves from every old nail hole, This kind of foot, particularly in hot weather, breaks away, till there is no room for the nails to hold j when the horse, of course, becomes useless. In an examination of the foot, the eye should also be directed to the wearing of the shoe ; if it is unequally worn, particularly if the toe is worn down, such a horse is probably a slumbler, and cannot step true, either from defective feet, or natural gait. In the circum- ference of the walls of the hoof, sometimes cracks are observed : when these are longitudinal and deep, they are called sand cradis. Any such crack should be rvell examined, and if it occurs in a hoof apparently contracted, it ought more closely to occupy the attention. In fact, unless very strong reasons operate to the contrary, any crack at all resembling a sand crack should cause such horse to be peremptorily rejected. This evil having once occurred, is very liable again to return. On a review of the conformation of the fore extremities, it may be remarked, that though the hinder ones appear to be more particularly concerned in the quickness of the progression ; yet, that upon a proper form and a true direction of the various component parts of the fore limbs must depend the stability, the truth, and the safety of the movements. Viewed anteriorly, the legs should stand rather widest at the upper part, inclining a little inwards as they proceed downwards. When the breast is too large, and the shoulders are overloaded with flesh, the fore legs may stand much too wide ; in which case the horse will feel heavy on the hand, commonly go un- safe, and seldom prove fast in any of his paces. But on the con- trary, when the legs are too near, particularly if the shoulders are thin and weak, he cannot prove very strong or durable. Viewed la- terally, it is of the utmost importance that the fore legs should stand in a direct line downw'ards, neither forwards nor backwards; the toe should naturally place itself under the point of the shoulder. If the foot should stand beyond this, which is seldom the case, the action will be confined, as the limb w'ill have already passed over a part of its ground. Such a horse, however, generally treads flat, even, and safe. When the foot stands behind the direct line, the defect is more considerable; for inasmuch as it removes the centre of gravity too much forward, so it inclines the animal to fall ; and as it is, in ge- EXTERIOR CONFORMATION OF THE HOUSE. 4^ neral, the consequence of a want of extent and obliquity in the shoulder, so it lessens the speed ; unless, as has been before said, the hinder extremities should be particularly strong, in which case, though the speed may not be materially affected, yet still the safety of the action may. Some of the best runners this country ever pro- duced, have been very defective in the formation of their fore limbs. Eclipse was a strong instance; but in him, as well as in all the others, there existed a very particular degree of perfection in the hinder ones. To be speedy, therefore, it would appear to be abso- lutely necessary that the hind quarters should be strong and well placed. To have truth, ease, and safety, in progression, it is also as absolutely necessary that the fore quarters should have strength and perfection of form. Having finished the fore extremities, we shall now proceed with the body, and first, with that part usually called the carcase, which consists of the ribs, the belly, and flank. Anteriorly, the should be wide upwards, and as much deepened below as possible, affording what is technically termed great depth in the girth. This form is of great consequence, as it increases the surface of attachment of mus- cles, and very materially assists respiration. Posteriorly, the ribs should form the body as much as possible into a circular figure, that being of all others the most extended, and the best surface for ab- sorption ; thus barrelled horses are greatly preferred. When the chest is too straight and flat, the belly is also small; hence neither can the blood absorb its vital principle from the air, nor the lacteals the chyliferous juice from the intestines in sufficient quantities ; therefore these horses are weak and seldom durable. As less nutri- ment is taken up by the constitution, so less is eaten ; thus also they seldom are good feeders ; and as the pressure on the intestines must be considerable from the small containing surface, so are they usually what is termed washy, that is, easily purged, whereby an additional cause of weakness exists, from the too early passing off of the food. Nevertheless, it must be remarked, that these sort of horses some- times prove better workers than one would expect, and are com- monly spirited and lively. A knowledge of the advantages gained by size in the belly, is what constituted Mr. Bakewell’s grand secret in the breeding of cattle ; he always bred from such as would be most likely to produce this form, well knowing no other would fatten so advantageously. The hack. Where the withers end, the back begins. It should not be too long, for a cylinder of a certain length will not be so strong as one of a less length, nor can it bear so much ; hence long backed horses are easy, because the action and re-action are consider- able, and thus resemble a spring; but what they gain in ease they lose in strength ; the ligaments are longer, and the muscles are longer, and hence act to greater disadvantage. When the back is too short, such horses, by having their extremities too much approxi- mated, usually overreach. The back may be curved inwards or out- wards ; when inwards, it is termed hollow, or saddle backed, and 4-1 EXTl£RIOR' CONlfORMATION OF THE I-IOllSE. which formation is not favourable to strength ; but as the counter- poise is kept up by other curves, so the crest is generally good, they ride pleasantly, and commonly carry considerable carcase; sometime^' indeed too much. But when the curve is outwards, the horse is said to be roach-backed, which, if considerable, produces the following objections : He will have no liberty in his action, will be uneasy in his paces, and, from the approximation of his hinder extremities, he will commonly overreach. To counteract also the curve of the back, in these cases, not only are the hinder extremities drawn under the animal, but the head, for the same reason, is also carried low. A short backed horse is in considerable request with many persons ; but when the back is too short, there is seldom great speed, for the hind legs cannot be brought sufficiently under the body to propel the mass forwards : the points likewise between the ilium and the lower angle of the femur approximate too much, and in their flexion press too much on the abdominal viscera to allow free motion. The loins occupy the attention oT all good judges in their consi- deration of a horse ; the back extends to the posterior part of a common sized saddle, and where the back ends the loins begin. Sometimes, from a defect in the sacral processes of the vertebras, this junction of back and loins presents an indentation, as though the union was incomplete. This may be considered in some degree as a defect, inasmuch as it deprives the part of muscular attachment, and such horses are said to be badly loined. The strength of the loins depends on the extent of the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae, which should be long, that there may be an extensive surface for the attachment of the muscles of the back ; and these muscles should also be large and prominent on each side, making the loins wide, and seeming to swallow the back bone. When the protuberances of the ilium are very prominent, the horse is called ragged hipped, which operates to the disadvantage only in appear- ance. 'From the loins to the setting on of the tail, the line should be long and very sligh-tly rounded ; by which means also, the distance between the hip and the point of the buttock will be con- siderable. This formation is peculiar to the improved or blood breed, and in every point of view appears the most perfect ; for it affords , a very increased surface for the attachment of the powerful muscles of these parts. And though the large buttocks of the cart horse would at first sight bespeak superior strength ; yet, when he comes to be viewed attentively, it will be found that the early rounding of the sacral line or croup, the low setting on of thp tail, and the small space between the hip and buttock, produce a de- creased extent of surface, compared with the broad croup, wide haunches, and deep spread thighs of the blood horse. That the hinder extremities are very principally concerned in pro- gression, at least as far as regards speed, is again evident from the attention that nature pays to make them particularly strong, and well formed, in the most perfect of the specimens she has favoured Exterior conformation of the horse. 45 us with ; for let an animal destined for speed be ever so lightlv framed in other respects, yet great power will be always displayed in the hind parts. Thus, in blood horses, which are derived from the eastern or most perfect breed we are acquainted with, not only are the loins wide, and the croup long ; but, viewed from behind, these horses will be found wider in the thighs than even in the hips : and of all the distinctive marks between the high bred and the low bred horse, this is the most striking and characteristic. A good judge, under every disadvantage, immediately discovers a portion of breeding by this appearance of extent and power in the muscles of the thigh alone. The flank is the space between the ribs and the haunches ; this part should not be too extensive, or it indicates weakness in the loins, and too great length in the back. If it is hollow, it shews shortness in the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae, and hence a want of room for the large muscles of the loins. When the flank rises and falls in respiration quicker than ordinary, parti- cularly if the horse is at rest, it betokens either present fever, or defective lungs. When it arises from present fever, other symp- toms will also be present, as heat, dulness, and disinclination to feed : but when the horse appears otherwise in health, yet heaves at the flanks more than natural, particularly if the weather is mo- derate, and the stable not hot ; it is probable that such a horse is thick winded. If the inspiration of the air appears to be performed readily, but the expiration with difficulty, and the flank, in expelling it, falls with double quickness, and as it were at two efforts, such a horse is broken winded ; and his cough, which shoidd then be tried, will be hollow and sonorous. If no quickness in respiration appears, but on trotting or galloping a w'heezing noise is heard, this is called roaring; and though it constitutes no present disease, yet it is the remains of a former affection, and even now interferes with speedy action, and, in law, renders a horse unsound. The whirl bone, among jockies, is the articulation of the thigh bone with the pelvis, and is a very strong joint rarely dislocated, but its ligaments are frequently extended ; when the horse is said to be lame in the whirl bone or hip joint : and as the powers of reno- vation are small in these parts, so the lameness is usually long, and the muscles waste. The stifle is the part that approaches the flanks in action, and corresponds to the knee of the human ; consequently the part below it ought to be called the leg, but it is usually known by the name of the thigh or gascoin. For the reasons before mentioned, it should be strong and muscular: it should likewise make a considerable angle with the femur or thigh, forming a direct line under the hip or haunch. Its length, as is seen in all animals destined for much speed, should be considerable’; and all that part below the stifle to the hock, which is called improperly the thigh, should be very large and strong ; whenever it is thin, and poorly furnished with muscles, that horse is weak. The hock forms the joint between the thigh, commonly so called. 4S EXTERIOR CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE. and the canon ; and is the most complex and important joint of the body : it should be broad and wide ; for in proportion as the calcaneum, which is the bone that forms the real heel, and is called the point of the hock, extends further from the other bones, thereby increasing the breadth of the joint; so the tendons inserted into it act with a longer lever, and thus with a great increase of power. This joint is subject to several diseases; all of them very hurtful to the animal, and hence carefully to be guarded against. When, on inspecting the hock, a soft puffy swelling is discovered within the ply- or bend, it is termed a blood spavin; but is, in fact, nothing more than a w'indgall, or enlargement of the mucous capsules of the joint, which lie under the vein of this part. What w'as said of windgalls in the fore legs applies also to these. The mucous cap- sules on each side of the hock also, at times, become enlarged, and are then called thoroughpin. At the back part likewise of the joint, the ligaments become sometimes strained and inflamed ; and the shank, instead of a straight line from the point of the hock down- wards, presents in this case a curved surface, with heat and tender- ness, which is then called a curb, and produces lameness. The inner part of the joint at the bend is subject also to a similar scabby eruption to that of the fore legs ; and which in the hinder ones is called sellenders. But the most serious disease to which the hock is liable, arises from an inflammation of the ligaments of the tarsal bones, and at last of the bones themselves, generally of the inner side, which receives the name of spavin, or bone spavin. To detect the existence of this affection, the hocks should be attentively viewed from behind, when any enlargement in the spavin place may be easily detected : and, in fact, the importance of this joint renders a very minute examination of it essential in every point of view in the purchase of a horse. In the consideration of the parts below', what has been said of the fore extremities applies equally to the hinder. COLOUR OF HORSES. The colour of horses does not depend on their real skin, as with us, but upon an exterior beautiful covering which nature has kindly given them, called hair. Nevertheless, the hair is, in some mea- sure, influenced by the skin, as light skinned horses have light hair, and where there is white hair there are usually light eyes. As this hair presents very considerable varieties in its tints, so horses are said to be of .various colours. Buffon has classed these into simple colours extending all over the body ; into compound, being those mixed with others; and into strange and extraordinary colours. The simple colours are the white, the dun, the sorrel, the bay and the black. The compound are the grey, the mouse, the roan, and red roan. The extraordinai'y are the tiger, the piebald, the straw- berry, and the flea-bitten. Buffon seems to think that bay is the natural colour of European horses, and that, in a complete state of nature, all w'ould be bay; but this has been supposed rather fan- ciful, though it is probable much might be urged in its favour. COLOUR OF HORSES. 47 The bay has different shades ; and hence forms the bright bay, the dark bay, the dappled bay, and the light and dark chesnut. The brown bay is a large mixture of black, and is usually esteemed excellent. The dark bays have commonly black manes and tails, and likewise black legs and hoofs, and are very justly preferred. 7'he light . chesnuts are thought to be, on the average number, rather weak ; many of them are, however, very excellent : the Suffolk punches, a most valuable set of draught horses, are of this colour. The dark chesnuts are fiery in their dispositions, and, I think, particularly subject to contracted feet. The black, which is not an esteemed colour among us, admits of different shades. Black horses present all the eharacters, from the most fiery and impatient to the most sluggish and dull. Many persons affirm that there are more bad black horses than of any other colour, and I am very much of the same opinion. . The dun is a colour that has several varieties ; it is sometimes ■ accompanied with a white tail and mane, at others with one darker than the rest of the hair ; in some there is a list extending down the back, which is sometimes seen in the bay also. The sorrel is a species of the chesnut of a lighter red ; and this, likewise, admits of varieties. Of the compound Colours. The roan is a mixture of red and white ; and gives the common roan, the red roan, and the dark roan. Grey horses admit of several shades, or different proportions of white and black, as dappled grey, silver grey, and iron grey. These horses are much valued on account of their beauty; some- times a slight tint of bay mixed with the white and black, forms a variety in the grey. Grey horses, like the black, admit of no set- tled character, but have all the extremes within their range ; never- theless the darker greys are preferred. Pied horses form the most frequent among those called extra- ordinary : they consist usually of white and some other colour, placed in different parts distinct from each other, as white and bay, white and chesnut, and white and black. The flea-bitten is a grey or white horse with ^small bay spots intermixed ; when these are very large and have a lighter ground around them, they have been called tiger coloured. It is found from experience, that the varieties in colour Influence, in some degree, the real qualities of the animal ; and it may be regarded as a general rule, that dark horses are the best : yet this, like other general rules, admits of exceptions. White haired horses, like white haired persons, are irritable and weak ; the hair after a wound is white, because the part is in a state of debility : this pre- ference is more to be observed in the compound colours ; and it is particularly remarked, that the extremities, when not of a dark colour, are more disposed to disease than others ; hence, white legs are considered as a blemish. 48 EXTERIOR CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE. OF THE VARIED FORM OF THE HORSE, ACCORDING TO THE SEVERAL USES TO WHICH HE IS APPLIED. Having thus described the exterior conformation, and considered the various, external parts of this noble animal, we will next glance an eye very cursorily towards his separate uses ; for according to the purposes to which we apply his powers, so some variations in his form are convenient. The slender beauty of the race horse would make him ill calculated for heavy draft. And the grand lofty carriage horse would make but a poor figure as a light hackney. For racing, we require that the greatest possible quantity of bone, muscle, and sinew, should be got into the smallest possible bulk. Every part in such a horse should be, as it were, condensed, and each organ bear evident marks of capability for quick and continued progression. In addition to great flexibility, and some length, the limbs must be strongly united, and systematically placed ; the chest must be deep and capacious, and the hinder extremities particularly, furnished with large muscles, operating on extended open angles. The hunter must have more bulk and greater extent of form, to enable him to carry more weight, and to support it a longer time. In other respects, as almost the same qualities are requisite, so nearly a similar form, hut more extended, is necessary. , For if it requires that the racer should be very powerfully formed behind, to propel him forward in the gallop ; so it is equally necessary that the hunter should be well formed in his loins, and well let down in his thighs ; that he may have not only speed in his gallop, but that he' may have strength to cover his leaps, particularly when they are extensive and numerous. But in the hackney we look., with as much anxiety to his fore parts, as we do to the hinder parts of the racer and hunter ; and as in them the fore parts are rather subordinate to the hinder ; so in the hackney, on the contrary, the hind parts may be regarded as of less consequence than the fore ; for though speed is desirable, yet it is subordinate to safety. The head must be small, well placed, and well carried on a neck of due length; the withers high, the shoulders muscular, but not heavy ; and, above all, they should be deep and obliquely placed. The fore legs must be perfect through- out, and stand straight and well from under the horse ; and what in the hunter and racer is of less consequence, is here indispensible, that the elbows should be turned well from ttie body. The feet, also, it is requisite should be perfect, and the whole limbs free from stiffness. The height is not so essential in the hackney as in the two former ; indeed, the best size of the hackney is from 14-3 to 15-1 ; he should also be square set, without being in the least clumsy ; and with this form the more breeding he shews, short of full blood, the better. Coach horses should be nothing more than very large hackneys ; and whoever is at the pains to consider the matter attentively will FACES OF THE HORSE. 49 agree with me ; though it is not usual to regard the matter exactly •as I have stated it. Horses for two-wheeled carriages should be the same, but something smaller. The former are perfect between 15-3 and lb-1 ; the latter between 15-1 and 15-2. _ No horse is so adapted for quick draft as a powerful hackney : why otherwise do we take such pains to lunge and rein up our carriage horses, but to lighten them before ? When we again go back to old times, and read advertisements holding out safe and expeditious travelling from London to York in six days, then we may safely resume the old Flanders breed. In cart horses, or those for heavy draft, a similar improvement has been attempted by lightening them materially; but though w'hen very bulky, they are certainly objectionable, yet I think for this kind of horse, some bulk and weight are essential ; for it is certain that these animals draw by this weight as well as by their strength. The cart horse should therefore be collectively, though in different pro- portions according to his various uses, bulky, square, and muscu- lar ; and it is peculiarly desirable that hig fore parts should be equal in weight and substance to his hinder. V. THE PACES OF THE HORSE. HAVING considered the horse in a state of rest, we will novi' consider him as an animal of motion ; which leads to an examina- tion of his natural paces : these consist of the icalk, trot, and gallop. There are other artificial paces ; but which, as they are now wholly in disuse, we shall waste no time in describing. The progressive motion of an animal body is produced by a definite portion of velocity, communicated to the centre of gravity of the moving machine ; and which is effected by the extension of the various articulations of the limbs previously in a state of flexion. It bas been said, that when the body of an animal attempts a change of position, it may be compared to a spring divided into two ^ branches, one of which rests upon a resisting body. If these * branches, after being brought together by external force, are again * set free, their elasticity will tend to make them recede equally, ‘ until they form the same angle with each other which they form- * ed before their compression. But the branch which bears against * the fi.xed body not being able to overcome its resistance, the move- ^ ment will wholly take place in the opposite direction, and the ‘ spring’s centre of gravity will be forced from the resisting body ' with more or less velocity.’ This appears a simple and correct idea of progressive motion. The flexors of the limb represent the external ii?rcc that compresseg the spring ; the extensors correspond to the 50 TH^ PACES OF THE HORSE. elasticity which tends to make the branches fly asunder ; and the resistance of the ground represents the obstructing body. The walk. — In walking, one of the hinder legs is first elevated and carried forward. The centre of gravity is by this means displaced, the chest thrown forward, and the fore legs become inclined back- ward; to relieve which the animal moves the diagonal foreleg. la the next action, the other hind leg follows; the trunk is again thrown forwards over the fore legs ; and again, to relieve it, the fore leg that has hitherto been at rest moves forward. This is the most simple account of the walk that can he given ; but the simplicity of this pace is by no means so great as may be at first supposed. It is not only completely altered as the animal conducts it slowly or quickly, in which cases it will be either successively or simultane- ously conducted ; but, like the trot, and the amble or pace, it may be performed cither laterally or diagonally. Mr. Richard Lawrence speaks of the walk as a pace wherein one foot only is elevated at a time ; but this is correct only when describing a walk of the slowest kind ; and even this is at times conducted two different ways. In the one, the legs are laterally and successively in motion ; for the near hind leg being first elevated, is set down short of the near fore leg, which is then elevated, and as soon as set down the off hind leg is raised and set down short of the off fore, which then is become raised ; and this finishes the round of action. On the contrary, in what may be termed the diagonal slow walk, and which is infinitely the most common, the legs move in the simple manner in which we began the subject. But when the walk is more rapid, its move- ments are attended with much more complexity. I have laboured to catch the cadences for whole hours, but have seldom satisfied myself. Mr. Freeman, in his elegant and elaborate work on horse- manship, thus describes this walk ; and as his ideas on the subject of this pace are perfectly in unison with my own observations, I will use his comprehensive account of the matter. He supposes D to be the near hind and C the near foreleg; B to be the off hind leg, and A to be the off fore; consequently they will stand evenly; thus. This being premised, he proceeds, ‘ I found that, sup,- ‘ posing A the off fore leg to begin, it was immediately succeeded ‘ by D, the near hind ; but B, the off hind leg, seemed not to follow ‘ the fore leg at the same time as before (i. e. that was in the walk ‘ of the pace), but this was nothing more than the alteration of the ‘ poise of the body, when either the one walk or the other took ‘ place. For when B the ofi’ hind leg began, it was succeeded by A ‘ being lifted up ; and when B was set down, D was lifted up. But ‘ A and B seemed in this walk so connected together by the poise ‘ being on the same side, that B appeared to begin. The poise ‘ being altered by the will of the horse, A seemed to begin, and not to be succeeded by B, being set down at the same time after it as ‘ in the walk of the pace. D is in both cases taken up after B is THE PACES OF THE HORSE. 51 ‘ set down ; and when A is set down, C is taken up, to make room ‘ for D to be set down.’ In this walk A and D appear to move nearly together ; and so in fact they do, when the motion becomes too quick for a walk, although they succeed one another immediately in the walk : for by the poise of the body being across, the trot is immediately produced when required. In most horses, the change of the poise of the body, so as to produce either the walk of the trot or the walk of the pace, can be easily felt after a few steps ; although it is too difficult to be caught by the eye at the time of the change. The Trot. — This pace, when true, is always performed diagonally, but the limbs are very differently occupied, according as the pace is conducted slower or faster. In the slow trot, the diagonal legs are elevated and replaced simultaneously ; while the other diagonal legs remain on the ground, sustaining the weight of the machine, though evidently making ready to take the place of the moving ones ; which is exemplified in the above Fig. This mode has been given as the true detail of the trot under all its degrees of celerity : but this is very erroneous ; for when it is conducted in any degree beyond the slowest, there is a period in every spring of the body, when all the feet are in the air at once fsee Figure, p. 53). To exemplify this, we will suppose a horse trotting at the rate of nine miles an hour, and we will say that the off fore and the near hind leg have been ele- vated in the air, and that before they meet the ground, the near fore leg and the off hind leg are prepared to elevate themselves, and actually do so before the other's are set down : consequently the feet at this precise time must be all in air, as in the 2d Figure. In the above, the near fore and off hind legs are seen preparing to be elevated, while the off fore and near hind legs are yet in action. Now in the slow trot, these raised legs are first set down, before the F 52 THE PACES OF THE HORSE. near fore and off hind feet are actually elevated. But in the quicker trot they are actually elevated, while the off fore and the near hind are in full progress. At which moment, it is clear the horse is all in air j and this, in fact, forms the essential difference between the slow and the quick trot. The horse having sprung off, and gained a new impulse by the near fore and the off hind legs leaving the ground, they are carried forwards ; and while in the air, the off fore and near hind legs meet the ground, and immediately prepare to rebound from it, and to give a fresh impetus to the motion before the near fore and off hind legs again come down ; which then forms the second period, when the horse is all in air. Thus it is evident that, after every impetus or bound, the horse is totally elevated and without support ; having no feet at that moment in contact with the ground : on the contrary he is as detached from it as a bird when flying; or, as is more familiar to general comprehension, he is as detached from the ground as when leaping over a space too wide to make what is called a standing leap. If it should not be readily comprehended how the horse should be without support at any time during the trot, let it be considered how running is performed in a man. In v/alking, one foot meets the ground before the other is totally elevated ; and this makes the precise difference between running and walking : for let walking be conducted ever so fast, and running ever so slow, sa that the speed shall be greatly in favour of walking ; yet these two paces will still remain as different as can be. The precise difference is, that in running, both feet are in the air at one period ; for with one leg a bound is made, by which the body is thrown forward, and takes that leg with it ; while at the same instant, and while the body is gaining ground, the other leg passes by to meet the ground, as soon as the impetus of the bound from the leg is lost; which having met, it rebounds again, propels the body forwards, and the contrary leg again passes the latter to be ready to receive the weight of the body, and by a new spring again to begin the action. Now exactly the same happens with the horse as with the man ; for when trotting, by using his legs diagonally at the same moment, so he, in fact, forms these two into one support ; that is, each diagonal support, though formed of two legs, yet as these meet the ground at the same moment, and are simultaneous in their action ; so they, in plain truth, become one, and thus make the action correspond with the running of a biped. Though the trot has not been generally understood, among horse amateurs, as being a pace wherein the feet were all in air at any one period ; yet there are many other familiar proofs that put it beyond a doubt, and make it clear to the meanest capacity : one may suf- fice. It will not be questioned that it is the two contrary or diagonal - legs that are in motion at the same time ; this is universally known. In any trot beyond the slowest, the near fore leg gives place to the near hind leg; that is, in action, the near hind leg sets itself THE PACES OF THE HORSE. 53- down, not behind the fore leg, but though it moves in the same line, yet the hinder foot will be found to be set down considerably beyond the spot occupied by the fore foot. Now this could not be done unless both were in the air at the same time ; that is, unless the near fore foot had been elevated before the near hind foot had been set down. It is unnecessary to carry this further, for it is already understood that the near hind foot being in action, the off fore foot must necessarily be so. [See the figure.^ This may, however, be rendered still plainer by considering the action of overreaching or clicking, which occurs in heavy, awkward, or unbroke horses ; but particularly where the hind quarters are high, the back short, and the fore quarters low and heavy. In these instances, the balance of power being with the hinder parts, they act quicker ; and hence the hind toe is brought to the fore foot before that is altogether ready for it j that is, removed out of its reach : but in the worst cases, it never so far surpasses the fore foot in quickness, as for the hind toe to hit the fore heel ; but it always meets the middle of the fore foot at its bottom part, being at the precise time that the foot has commenced its elevation ; but which in case the action was perfect it would not do, for the fore foot would then have been completely elevated. The Gallop. — This pace appears to me properly to divide itself into three kinds, in which, though the radical may be the same, yet the mode of performing them is very different. 7'here are the fleet, racing, or gallop of full speed ; the slow, or hand gallop, and the canter. It is not usual to consider the canter as otherwise than a slower gallop ; but whoever will pay sufficient attention to the subject, will perceive that there are some very essential differences between the two. But I am not disposed to agree with foreign manege masters, who consider all the gallops as distinct paces ; on the contrary, I think them all constructed of one and the same action : one proof only may be sufficient ; which is, that the horse can f 2 54 THE PACES OF THE HOEsE. change from either of the gallops into the other without art, an^ particularly without alteration of his centre of gravity ; but merely by an increased or diminished elfort of the same action. The gallop of full speed is the most simple of all the paces ; for k is nothing more than a succession of leaps. It is with difficulty commenced with its full celerity at once, the cause of which is evident ; for it must require a very great effort to raise the foreparts at once from a state of rest by means of the loins, and to throw them forwards, at the first action, to a distance by means of the haunches and thighs : but the foreparts being raised, the impetus is gradually acquired, till it arrives at its full momentum ; in which the foreparts are raised and thrown forward by the flexion and extension of the angles of the hinder parts ; and as both of the fore, and both of the hind legs in full speed become opposed to the ground successively at the same moment, that is, the two fore legs at once beat the ground together, and then the two hinder ; so it is evident that the gallop of speed is nothing more than a succession of leaps. The Hand-gallop, when acted true, and with the right shoulder forward, may be described thus — At the instant the horse elevates his fore quarters and brings up his fore feet, his off hind leg is thrown a little forward to correspond with the increased forwardness that he gives the right shoulder. I conceive that at this first moment of starting, the horse has three legs only in the air at once, the near leg not moving. The off hind leg only moves enough to gain a . true centre, corresponding with the advanced position the animal gives to the right shoulder or leading leg. After this first prepara- tion, the forehand becomes elevated by the muscles of the loins and those of the withers ; and as the forehand is raised, the near fore leg comes to the ground first, and the off fore leg doubles over it, and is set down somewhat beyond it. 7Te slower is the gallop, the more considerable I conceive will be the distance between placing the fore legs. As soon as the near fore leg has met the ground, and I believe before the off fore leg has yet been placed, the hinder legs are moved in the following manner : the near hind leg touches the ground first, and as it is reaching the ground, the off hind leg doubles over it and becomes placed also. It is now that the horse begins to he all in air ; for on the next spring that the hind quarters make, the fore quarters being already elevated from the last impulse,, the animal is therefore completely detached from the ground. The Tiext period when he is likewise so, is when the fore quarters meeting the ground gain an impulse by their rebound, and the haunches are again thrown in to take their share, and likewise to give their impulse. The Canter. — Whereas, in the gallop of speed, the legs are simul- taneous, in the canter they are directly the reverse ; and whereas in the slow gallop there is still a period in which the legs are all in air, so in the canter it is ‘the reverse also; for, I believe, at no period in this pace is the horse all in air, but has always a point of contact THB FACES OF THE HORSE. 55 with the ground ; and this I conceive to be the grand and essential difference between the canter and gallop. The canter appears to be conducted thus : When it is performed on the right, the horse commences by first placing his oflf hind leg a little beyond the other; at nearly the same instant he elevates the forehand, and places first the near fore leg on the ground ; the off doubling over and beyond, is placed in an instant after it. In the next movement, the hind legs are thrown in, and while elevated, the off fore leg becomes raised from the ground ; but the near fore leg is not elevated till the hinder ones are replaced, and this, as remarked above, constitutes the grand difference between the canter and gallop. I believe this explanation of all the gallops, but particularly of the canter, is novel ; but it is the result'of close and continued examination of the subject. That there is a very considerable difference between these two latter paces, no one who is in the habit of riding, or who has any sensibility on a horse, can doubt. The sensation to the rider is as different as pos- sible ; and so is the action to the eye also. If this is established, it will call to mind that the whole centre of gravity must at one time rest completely on the near fore leg ; and that this does take place in the canter is, I conceive, evident from the effects observed : for it is a remarkable fact, though not sufficiently noticed, that all cantering horses have the near fore leg with more of the effects of work appa- rent on it than the off; and certain it is, that three out of four can- tering or ladies’ horses, become first lame on the near in preference to the off fore foot and leg. This difference in the wear takes place only in a slight degree in horses who canter but little, but who trot and gallop occasionally ; yet even in such cases if the gallop is often made use of, there is generally a superior tendency to wear discover- able in the near or left fore leg ; because in leading, as is usual, with the right shoulder forward, in the moderate gallop, the near fore leg meets the ground first ; and though as the impulse gained by the rebound elevates the near fore leg along with the off, yet it is not pre- cisely, I conceive, at the same moment that they are elevated ; but that the near fore dwells a longer period on the ground, takes an increased portion of weight, and acts as a centre of gravity longer than the off or right fore leg. Judicious horsemen, sensible of this, do not therefore permit their horses always to lead on the same leg, but frequently change, and gallop, canter and trot, sometimes with the right, and sometimes with the left, shoulder forward : for with- out this precaution, where horses are much accustomed to gallop and canter, the left or near fore leg will inevitably suffer before the right or off fore leg. Leaping is performed by a sudden extension of all the inferior ar- ticulations, immediately after they have undergone an unusual degree of flexion. This extension gives to the bones that compose these articulations, a violent motion, which communicating its impulse to the centre of gravity of the body, it is projected with a determined velocity, which is more or less in opposition to its weight. The projectile force, and consequently the extent of the leap, depends on 56 CfONDITlON OF HORSES. the proportional length of the bones and the strength of the muscles s hence becomes apparent, what has been before so strenuously insisted on, which is the necessity that hunters as well as racers should be powerfully formed behind, both with regard to length and strength. Nevertheless, it does not necessarily follow, that a large horse only can take considerable leaps ; for, ccBteris paribus, small animals leap proportionally further than large : for the projectile force impressed on tW'O bodies being in proportion to their different magnitudes, their velocities will be equal, and the extent of the space through which they pass will depend upon their respective velocities. Thus a small horse with a small weight will frequently leap very consider- able distances, and to a very considerable height ; but from the greater extent of the angles, and the increased force obtained from larger muscles ; it is obvious that a certain size is necessary to the hunter, and peremptorily so, if much weight is to be carried. The direction of a leap depends on the situation of the centre of gravity, with respect to the limbs by which the impulse is given. Man and birds having the trunk situated immediately over the im- pelling limbs, are the only animals that leap vertically. Hence, when a horse attempts a standing leap of considerable height, as a wall, high gate, &c. he raises himself almost perpendicularly, and the elevation of his body will always be found correspondent to the height of the object. g)fct. VI. CONDITION OF HORSES. CONDITION is, properly speaking, nothing more than the ap- pearances that denote perfect or imperfect health. When a horse is in perfect health, he is in perfect condition ; and, on the contrary, when a horse is in any respect out of health, he is, to speak correctly, out of condition; that is, in a condition that neither fits him for per- fect service to his owner, nor for perfect comfort to himself. But condition is used with a latitude of expression exceeding this ; and when technically applied, as it usually is, it is more comprehensive but less correct in its signification. Thus a farmer rides a horse to market in full vigour; but, perhaps, frorn constant exercise, he is not full of flesh, and probably, from being exposed to the air, he may have a very rough coat. This horse, in the general acceptation of the word, would not be said to be in condition : and though he may be in a state to do every thing a rider might require, yet, if he passes in this stale into the hands of a dealer, he must make some material alterations in the horse before he pronounces him in con- dition, or expects to sell him as such. It would be, therefore, best always to consider condition under tw’o distinct views. First, as when it applies to the alteration of the condition of a horse who labours CONDITION OF HORSES. 57 Wider any malady ; or when it relates merely to that alteration in ap- pearance (supposing a horse in perfect health both before and after the alteration) which makes the animal come up to the standard, or to be pronounced technically in condition. Condition, in this sense, consists of a sleek coat, a plumpness and fulness of muscle, without much adipose membrane intervening. A horse to be in perfect con- dition must be lusty, that is, he must have his muscles large ; but a horse is never in condition that is loaden with fat. To produce con- dition in a horse labouring under malady, we must first remove his disease, and which can only be done when we have discovered what the disease is. Various are the affections that will deprive a horse of condition without producing active illness. Affections of the sto- mach and bowels are among the most frequent causes. There exists a very common stomach affection which shews itself in the following manner. An increased circulation and determination of blood takes place throughout the stomach, and to the whole of the parts connected with its cuticular portion. When this is the case, it produces an increased pulse, some sluggishness of manner, and a mouth either hot and dry, or affected with a viscid mucus : the horse also easily sweats on any exertion. But the most prominent feature in the complaint, or at least the one usually detected, is the enlargement of the rugae at the roof of the mouth ; under which circumstances the horse is said to have the lampas ; in which case it is an usual custom to neglect the stomachic affection, and to burn or scarify the mouth to rernov'e the complaint, which is, in fact, attending to the effect instead of the cause. This is a very common state in which horses out of condition will be found ; but it has seldom been looked into sufficiently, and never has, I believe, been attended to in the above light. Various are the causes that operate in producing this affection. Young horses are peculiarly liable to it. A plethoric habit, a sudden removal from a low to a full diet, as from grass at once to a full quantity of corn. I have known great and sudden fatigue occasion it. According as one or the other of these causes have produced the defect in the condition, so must the treatment be regulated. But in all cases, when the horse is fat, and of a full habit, bleed moderately, and feed rather sparingly, and every night give the following powder in a mash : — Tartar Emetic, one drachm Calomel, . : ten grains Nitre, three drachms. Or the following may be tried. Crude antimony, Cream of tartar, > Of each two or three drachms. Nitre, J according to the size of the horse. Upon these, the animal may be exercised, or gently worked, avoid- ing, however, over-exertion ; and if it is found necessary, the mouth itself may be attended to as directed under the head Lampas. 58 CONDITION OF HORSES. In some cases, physic proves, useful ; and, in others, green meat alone will remove the complaint, particularly when it has been brought on, as is very frequently the case, by little exercise, and overfeeding with oats and beans. When a similar affection exists in an old horse, not fat nor overfed, let him be fed moderately, but whatever corn he gets, let it be mashed, and every morning give him the tonic No. 1, in the Materia Medico. A horse may also lose his flesh, and become out of condition, from not being able to masticate his food properly, occasioned by carious or ragged teeth. When, therefore, no apparent cause exists for a defective condition, and the mouth is looked into for lampas, the teeth should be at the same time carefully inspected. This cause is more likely to occur in an old than a young horse. Cribbiting. — It is certain that some cribbiters will not fatten, and their want of condition has been attributed to the action itself ; but I am disposed to think this is erroneous ; for I have not observed, that when the action of cribbing has been stopped by means of a strap, that such a horse accumulated flesh. In such cases, it is more prudent to treat it as a stomach affection. — See Cribbiting. Weak bowels. — The lightness of some horses carcase, prevents them retaining their food sufficiently long for perfect digestion ; and others have, though differently formed, constitutionally weak bowels, which, upon any exercise beyond the most moderate, become re- laxed, and part with their contents. Such horses seldom carry flesh, or bear continued fatigue, and hence cannot be said to be in condition. They are best fed on dry food ; and their corn, which should be oats and beans mixed, had better be previously bruised. On a journey it will be found advantageous to give such horses gruel or oatmeal mixed in their water ; or even oatmeal and ale, if they wholly refuse their food. The Stomachic, No. 3, may be also occasionally given to strengthen the stomach and bowels. — See Materia Medico. Worms in the stomach and bowels are a very usual cause of want of condition ; and the removal of the worms must be attempted before any hopes can be entertained of restoring the condition per- fectly.— See the disease, Worms. — In such cases, their existence is detected by the white matter under the tail, a staring coat, a dis- position to sweat, and a foul or irregular appetite. Hidebound. — Under this popular term are comprehended nu- merous of the chronic diseases of the horse ; and I must likewise, in compliance with long established custom, here describe as a disease that which is, in fact, only a symptom of a disease : for being hidebound, is common to many complaints. However, that which I would immediately designate here, may perhaps be considered in some measure as a primary disease, existing principally in the ex- treme ends of the blood vessels of the skin. If a horse, in a state of perspiration, has it suddenly checked, particularly under circum- stances, some of them unknown to us, some more evident ; a com- JPQD one arises, from the horse being in a state of either absolute CONDITION OF HORSES. 5D or relative debility. Such a horse so circumstanced, and so ex- posed, is liable to become suddenly out of condition : his coat will stare, and feel' harsh and dry; being, from the diseased state of the secreting vessels, deprived of its unctuous moistening matter. The interstitial matter also of the cellular membrane of the skin becomes defective ; and the hide adheres to the muscular expansion so inti- mately, that it appears to have wholly lost its usual elasticity. In addition to the simple adherence of the hide, there will also, in some instances, be pustular eruption ; or sometimes a mere scurfy appearance, with a falling off of the hair in patches. This has re- ceived the name of surfeit, and appears the effect also of obstructed perspiration, under particular circumstances. Other causes, how- ever, beside obstructed perspiration, will produce hidebound ; but, in such case, other symptoms also will, in general, be present. A slow inflammation of the liver, or of the kidneys, may do it ; but in these instances, superadded to the hidebound, there will be a yellowness of the skin. Worms also, as w'e have before noticed, wdll produce it, when the appearances then mentioned will readily detect them. Injudicious feeding, and e.ven bad water, may also produce hidebound. But when nothing occurs to mark any known disease, but the simple state of the hair and hide are the predo- minating appearances ; hidebound is then, I believe, a disease of the extreme ends of the vessels, the secreting orifices of which become affected, perhaps by the lymph coagulating within them. I'he cure of this state of ill condition must be conducted accord- ing as the subject of the disease is either in a full or emaciated state. If full, bleed moderately, and repeat it at intervals of ten days: give two doses of mercurial physic, and on the intermediate days give the General Alterative directed among alteratives in the Materia Medica. To this I have sometimes added corrosive subli- mate, six grains ; in other instances, a scruple of calomel. In cases where the coat has been very unthrifty, harsh, dry, and scurfy, particularly if it falls off in patches, I have received great benefit from dressing the skin universally with flowers of sulphur and oil. As much flower of brimstone may be mixed with oil as will make a mass of the consistence of treacle: with this rub the whole skin well with a brush against the hair. In full fed horses, the quantity of corn should be lowered ; indeed, overfeeding, par- ticularly with beans or barley, is a very common cause of the com- plaint. Spearing the corn proves often singularly useful in these cases. (See Mashes, in Materia Medica.) This should, in fact, be always done in such instances, when green meat cannot be got. When hidebound is, on the contrary, accompanied with ema- ciation, give green meat and the speared corn; but if in winter, substitute carrots for the green meat, avoid bleeding and physic, but give the alterative; and if the complaint proves obstinate, use the sulphur dressing. In the hidebound, both of the full and the emaciated kind, I have sometimes seen the best effects result from 60 CONDITION OF HORSES. the use of sea water given internally, to the amount of a quart, night and morning. Moulting also forms one of the most frequent causes of the want of condition. During the spring and autumn, all horses change their coats; at which times the vessels of the skin are in a state of increased action, for the purpose of forming a new growth of hair ; and, as such, all the effects of slight fever are present. Horses are then weak, easily sweat, are chilly, suffer from thirst, and are irri- table and low. Moulting therefore, more or less, puts every horse out of condition; and in the early part of the hunting season, the inconvenience of this is severely felt. At such times, it is prudent not to dress horses much, particularly with the currycomb, that the old coat may not be too quickly forced off, before the other is grown. Warmth, both in the clothing and in the temperature of the air, is salutary. Plenty of chilled water should also be given ; the exercise should be moderate, and the food liberal, but not too heating. Injudicious feeding is another frequent cause of bad condition in horses. When a horse comes from grass, and is at once put on dry food and a full allowance of corn, without any precaution of mashing, &c. &c. he very frequently becomes hidebound, and out of condition; particularly if he is stinted in his water to get up his belly. Musty hay or oats, or oats highly kiln dried, will also often throw' horses out of condition ; mineral water also will do the same : and I have frequently observed, that horses going to the sea-coast, have returned in an unfavourable state of condition. The hay and corn are often bad near the coast, and the sea air is unfavourable to the coat. Numerous other diseases also, it is evident, deprive a horse of his condition : but these will be treated on under the medical department of the work. What has been described, more imme- diately relates to the popular term of condition. Getting a Horse into Condition. When a horse returns from grass, or straw-yard, both his ex- ternal appearance, and the internal state of his body, in general, require considerable alteration before he can be said to be in such a stale, as to make him fit for a horseman’s use. These alterations are popularly called, getting a horse into condition. It should be first impressed on the recollection, that nothing is more imprudent than at once to take a horse from so moist a food as grass, and place before him hay and corn, without caution or limitation. When he returns from a straw-yard, this caution is not so immediately ne- cessary ; yet even in this case, corn should be given at first rather sparingly : but in the removal from grass, both corn and hay should be given with restrictions. The hay, for the first two or three days, should be moistened, by sprinkling it with water : the corn should also be given in very small proportions, mixed with bran, and mashed. Great caution is also necessary with regard to the variation CONDITION OF HORSES. 61 of temperature. It is highly improper to remove a horse from grass or straw-yard at once into a warm stable ; on the contrary, put him at first into a loose box, barn, or other cool open place. If any green meat can be procured, for the first three or four days give him some. If this is not at hand, carrots may be possibly obtained ; and, in default of both, let the hay be moistened, as directed, and plenty of water allowed to drink. Sound hay and plenty of chopped carrots, without any corn, make a most admirable food for a horse, who removes from either grass or the straw-yard, for the first fort- night, particularly if he is low in flesh. Bran mashes may also be given alone, so as to keep the body gently open : a moderately re- laxed state of bowels, under these circumstances, greatly promotes condition, and prevents the coat setting, or the skin from becoming hidebound. No fear need be entertained, that, by this mode, his flesh will not harden, or his belly be got up. A week or ten days more time may be required by this means, than that usually prac- tised ; but the future state of the condition will amply recompense it. It is the hasty change from one state to the other, that pro- duces so many failures in getting a horse into condition, and brings on so many diseases, as hidebound, surfeit, chronic cough, &c. &c. After ten days or a fortnight have elapsed under the prescribed plan, having removed the horse to his usual stable, but keeping it cool, give a mild dose of physic. A very mild one will operate suffi- ciently, if the bowels have been kept properly open ; and in any case, it must be recollected, that very strong purging medicines protract the condition materially. When this first dose of physic has set, give dry corn daily, and a bran mash every other night only ; increase the exercise, which, before this, ought to be but moderate ; and now begin to dress the skin with a currycomb, which before has only been whisped and brushed. And as the coat will now probably begin to fall, increase tlie warmth of the stable but to a moderate temperature only. In a week or ten days from the setting of the first dose of physic, give a second rather stronger; after which, the feeding and exercise may be increased to the full quantity : dressing and trimming may be pursued to the desired end ; and, if it is thought necessary, or the horse is intended for hunting or racing, a third dose of physic will finish the process. To the technical groom, and to the professors of the quackery of training, this plan of promoting condition will appear infinitely too simple : but as I wish to leach from principles, so I will venture to affirm, that in a due observance of these simple rules consists all the mystery of training and getting into con- dition : whatever is added to this, outsteps nature, and generally defeats its own purpose. 62 STABLE MANAGEMENT. CCt. VII. STABLE MANAGEMENT. The Stable. STABLING of horses, as it is wholly a deviation from nature, so it surely paves the way to the attack of many diseases ; and we really find that the higher this artificial system is carried, so much the more are the horses, who are the subjects of it, obnoxious to disease. As, therefore, our comforts and convenience have made a life of art necessary to these animals, and thereby rendered them liable to disease, so should our endeavours be turned towards the prevention of those maladies, which a little attention will, in most cases, in a great measure effect. A stable should be airy : in nothing are the horsemen of this country more erroneous. However congenial warmth may be to the constitution of horses, particularly of the blood kind, as being originally natives of a warm climate, it is self-evident that breathing and re-breathing the same air, as is the case in all close stables, must be pernicious; and as being completely removed from what in a state of nature they enjoy, it must be highly productive of disease. The very great difference of the temperature without doors and that within, subjects horses kept so warm to that vast chain of diseases arising from what is termed catching cold. A stable should be only moderately warm, and it should be always ventilated ; the ventilation should likewise be as near the top as possible, for the foul air is always uppermost. Where the ceiling is low, and there is no large window, there should be a tube or funnel passing up through the stable ceiling, and through that of the loft above ; and this is the most effectual way of ventilating possible ; the tube should be funnel- shaped towards the stable, giving, by its bell mouth, a greater freedom to the foul air to pass off. The heat of stables should be regulated by a thermometer, constantly kept in them : 50 or 55 degrees of Fahrenheit is a very good winter heat, and it would be desirable never to have it higher than 65 in summer. A stable should likewise be very light ; when it is otherwise, the newly re- ceived light the horse gains when he goes out, is a painful stimulus to the eyes, and his imperfect vision makes him start ; and, however horses may fatten in dark stables, it must be the fat of a pig, and not the lusty and cheerful gain of a horse, open to the cheering influence of the sun. Stables should be well ceiled, and that very closely: when this is not the case, not only does the dust from the hayloft come down on the horse, and frequently enter his eyes ; but, what is as bad and much less thought of^ the foul air which is always uppermost, lodges in the hay, which becomes its recep- tacle, and the hayloft, by this means, proves a source of conta- gion. In fact, no hayloft, properly, should ever be over a stable j stable management. 63 neither should corn be kept over it: they both imbibe salt acrid particles by this means, and this more particularly if it is not ceiled. Neither is it a wholesome practice for servants to sleep over a stable. As little hay or corn should be kept, likewise, in the stable as pos- sible ; but as it is wanted it should be brought to the horses. Narrow stalls are very prejudicial to horses ; strains in the back are often occasioned by them ; atfd whenever a stall is less than six feet, the groom should have peremptory orders never to turn a horse in that stall. Bars or bails are also objectionable, from the case with which horses may play with each other over them : they may like- wise kick one another by this means. It is seldom that horses eat alike in point of quickness : when they are separated by bars only, the slowest eater gets robbed of his food. The acclivity of the generality of stalls is also a very serious ob- jection to them, for they occasion a horse to have a false bearing ; the greater weight is thrown on the heels, and the back sinews are put on the stretch ; and there is little reason to doubt that many of the lamenesses of horses are attributable to this cause. The ground should be made even, or nearly so, with only a very slight slope. To remedy the inconvenience of the urine not flowing freely off", in many good stables, in the centre of each stall, is a small grating, covering a little well immediately under the horse’s belly, to receive the urine, and which is a very good practice ; but it has its dis- advantages, the principal of which is, that it is not so well adapted to mares ; and, as such, a slight slope in the stall, with a grating at its bottom, or a gutter, is the preferable and most convenient plan. Whenever these gratings communicate with one common cesspool, it should be very frequently emptied, and it should like- wise be covered up, or it encourages a draught of cold air under the horses. There is much contrariety of opinion relative to the propriety of permitting horses to stand during the clay on litter. There are cogent arguments for and against it. Litter entices horses to lie clown during the day, which, if they are in constant severe work, is certainly desirable. Litter, likewise, when the stable is paved rough- ly, prevents the unevenness of the stones pressing on the feet. On the other hand, horses are very apt to eat the litter, and which proves unwholesome. It is likewise apt to retain the urine, whose acrid salts, ascending, impregnate the air, and stimulate the eyes. The constantly standing on the litter makes many horses’ legs swell, which is proved by removing it, when they immediately return to their proper size. Horses standing constantly on the litter appear to feel the difference of the road, and hence are more liable to be tender footed : the warmth and moisture retained, likewise, are very apt to occasion cracks and swelled legs. Those who are advocates for litter under horses during the day, should be very careful to have it changed as often as it is either soiled or wet, for wet litter is one of the strongest causes of blindness. But whoever attends minutely to the subject on an enlarged scale, will be at no loss to determine 64 STABLE MANAGEMENT. on the propriety or impropriety of suffering horses to stand con- stantly on litter. It is my opinion that this custom alone ruins more horses than all the mails and stage coaches put together. It is the fruitful source of contracted feet, and brings on this ruinous affection much more certainly than the hardest work. Horn has a natural tendency to contract inwards, and towards the heat. The feet, it must be evident, are more hotly placed in litter than on the bare and moist ground, consequently the horn gains this additional stimulus to contraction. The litter keeps them dry as well as hot, and thus one of the best preventives of contraction, which is moisture, is not suffered to come near them. In my own stables no litter is ever suffered to remain under the fore feet during the day. The horses stand on the bare bricks, and which in summer arc watered to make them more cool : by which means, I have expe- rienced astonishing benefit. Behind, a little litter is strewed, be- cause they are apt to kick and break the bricks with their hinder feet, and because the litter thus placed sucks up the moisture of the urine, which would be detrimental to the hinder feet, which are more liable to thrushes than contraction. A horse should always be brought into a stable with his skin nearly of the temperature of the stable. It is not generally known, though certainly the case, that passing from a cold atmosphere into a warm one will give cold, with almost as much certainty as from a warm into a cold situation. But if a horse is brought home very hot, he must not be hung by the bridle at the door till he gets cold ; he should be walked till he is cool, but not cold. The feet and legs, in dirty weather, may be washed, and carefully picked ; but after which, unless they are rubbed dry, it is better not to wash them at all ; and when the time can be spared, it is a safer plan to rub ofl'the loose dirt with a very soft broom, and then to wisp till dry, after which curry or rub off the dust completely. A cool stable, with a proper proportion of clothing, is a great desideratum in stable management, and, if more attended to, would lessen the maladies these valuable animals are liable to. It is a most conve- nient appendage to a stable, to have a box, or large loose place ; or, should the box be distinct from the stable, it will be so much the better. It should be so formed as to be capable of being cooled to nearly the temperature of the external air, or made as warm as u)ay be requisite for some cases of sickness. No projections should be allowed in the walls to hurt the hips in cases of falling from weak- ness, staggers. See. It should have a grate and well in the. centre, with a general bearing of the flooring to that part. The conveniences resulting from a loose box are innumerable. To a horse fresh from grass, to a sick horse, to a lame one, or to a fatigued onej in either, or all of them, it is of the greatest importance. Stable Management. — This is a subject of considerable import- ance ; but it is evident that the great variety of matter entering into our work will not admit of all the detail that may be wished. The duties of a groom consist 'w feeding, dressing, exercising, and at- STABLE MANAGEMENT. 65 iending to the j^eit of his horses; in addition to which, he has the care of the appointments, as harness, saddles, bridles, ^c.; and in this order I shall just touch on these subjects. Feeding forms the most essential part in the care of horses, and more error is committed on this head, from a want of knowledge of the internal economy of the horse, than is at first imagined. The horse, as an animal intended for speed, is furnished with a very small stomach, but capacious intestines ; he therefore should be fed but a little at a time ; and as we know that whenever the stomach is empty a great debility pervades the whole frame, and as a small stomach must be frequently empty, so we should frequently feed our horses, giving them but a little at a time. The general food of horses is herbage green or dry, and grain, which is always dry. Green herbage comprises all the various grasses ; the dry is commonly of clover and meadow hay ; and, among saddle horses, meadow hay is used by far the most frequent. Any kind of grain nourishes a horse, but barley and oats are the most in use, and in South Britain oats are almost exclusively used. To horses under common labour, from sixteen to twenty pounds of sound meadow hay, with from half a peck to three quarters of a peck of old full oats daily, will be fully sufficient : should frost or other circumstances prevent or lessen their exercise to a very small degree of exertion ; then even the above quantity may be lessened, and a srpall proportion of bran substituted for some of the corn : on the other hand, when the exercise is very severe, it may be increased. But when corn and hay became so extravagantly dear, many other substances were then substituted as food for saddle horses, which were before but little used, or confined to draught horses, as straw, ehaff, carrots, potatoes, &c. Some persons, when hay is dear and corn cheap, substitute wheaten straw for hay ; others mix straw with their hay. But by far the most economical mode for the owner, and the most nutritious for the horse, is the use of chaff, which, when mixed with corn, is called manger feeding : and when- ever corn is cheap and hay dear, this manger feeding will be found a most excellent mode of horse keeping. The proportions of this manger food I find most convenient are, one part of hay, two parts of straw, and one part of oats. Of this mixture three, four, five, or six pecks may be given daily, according to the size of the horse and extent of his exertion. It will add very much to the nutriment this mixture affords, if the oats are previously bruised ; and, in fact, it is much to be wished that this practice was completely established. It will likewise be peculiarly grateful to the horse, if half the quantity of hay should be of the clover kind, of which horses are very fond. On this food, three horses may be supported at as little expense as two horses can in the usual manner ; and for common purposes they are full as well nourished. In the country, potatoes and corn may be mixed ; or bran, with potatoes boiled and mashed, forms an eco- nomical and nutritious food ; and it will agree with all constitutions if a little bean meal is mixed with it. In this manger feeding, a few pounds of hay put into the rack night and morning are sufficient, 66 STABLE MANAGEMENT. and even this is more to satisfy the prejudices of the groom than any necessity of the horses. Carrots form an excellent food for horses, particularly for pursive and thick-winded ones. On carrots, hay, and a small quantity of bean meal, horses may be advantageously kept in times when corn is dear and hay cheap. It is not here meant to insinuate that this mode of feeding will do for hunters, or even for those horses whose riders or drivers are never contented without their animals are going at speed. For these horses, old oats in liberal quantities, with a moderate allowance of hay, is best. Changing the food of horses is found very beneficial to some ; others, again, do not thrive well on a change, any change being very apt to scour. In the spring, when horses cannot be turned to grass, it is peculiarly beneficial to soil them ; that is, to allow them green food in the stable ; but great care is necessary to give it fresh every day, or at farthest each other day. It should never likewise be put together in large quantities, which gives it a disposition to ferment, and turn sour. Watering of horses is a part of their dieting that is not of trifling import. All horses prefer soft water, and it is infinitely more whole- some. So partial are they to it, that a muddy chalky pond is an irresistible stimulus to every horse. It is not a good custom to warm water generally for horses j but it is a much worse custom to give them water just from a pump or well ; and this becomes more pernicious in summer, when well water is, comparatively, colder than in winter, and likew'ise when a horse is heated by exercise. As some horses drink quicker than others, it is more proper to give them their water in the stable than at a pond, where they often drink immoderately. The quantity given should be regulated by the exercise and other circumstances. In summer, and when the exercise has been severe, more is necessary. In common cases, a large horse requires rather more than half a pail full, and that three times a day : at night a full pail should be allowed. It is erroneous to suppose that abstinence from water increases the wind or vigour. Horses should never be galloped after drinking ; it is the frequent cause of broken wind ; nor should horses have much water given before eating ; but on a journey, when the animal is very dry, give two quarts ; then feed 5 and when that is done, give the remainder of the quantity intended. Dressing, or grooming. — There are three intentions answered by dressing horses : it cleans them from dust and dirt ; it counteracts the artificial state of long continued rest and inactivity they are under by their confinement, which it does by exciting the circula- tion ; and, lastly, it gives a beauty and sleekness to the coat. Grooms usually consider only the latter intention; and, as dressing requires much labour, they naturally resort to such means as produce a sleek smooth coat without the exertion ; and this, experience tells them, is best effected by hot stables. It is idleness, in fact, which has been the origin of this deviation from nature ; but which, to give it a hold on the good opinion of their masters, grooms assert is in- tended to add to the health and useful qualities of a horse. stable management. 07 But nothing is so absurd, nothing is so unnatural, and nothing is productive of so many evils to this valuable class of animals, as hot Stables. Let the advocates for them live for a month (confined as many hours out of the twenty-four as horses are) in the dressing- room of a warm bath ; they may become fine and delicate, but their vigour and durability will be lost. Whenever, therefore, a fine coat is wanted, let it be gained by proper dressing. I shall not here de- scribe the mode used in dressing a horse; it is sufficiently known : but I must make collateral remarks. The dressing in the stable should, if possible, be avoided, otherwise the dust gets among the hay and corn, and falls on the other horses, as well as spoils the apiaointments. The currycomb should not be too sharp ; some horses become vicious by the use of one too harsh : in autumn, when the coat is thin, avoid currying altogether. No violent correc- tion should be suffered, nor any unnecessary tickling. The legs should be rubbed by the groom on his knees, having a wisp of straw in both hands, and the leg between the two. The Feet. — The feet are always an object of particular attention with every prudent horseman, and every careful groom. Every morning the feet should be carefully picked and examined. Observe whether the shoes are fast, what state they are in ; whether the clenches are not raised, so as to cut the horse, and that the heels do not press on the foot. Where the feet grow fast, the shoes ought to be removed once in three weeks, whether the shoes are worn or not. A want of attention to this particular is the ruin of many horses ; ignorant grooms supposing, that because the shoes are not worn out, the hoof wants no alteration. As well might the plough- man, who puts on a heavy pair of tipped shoes, never cut his toe nails till his shoes want renewing. The moment a foot becomes too high, so soon it begins to contract ; in hot weather, particularly if the feet are naturally of a dry hard kind, they should be stopped every niglit ; clay stopping, by getting dry, is not good ; cow dung, or even horse dung, is a much better, and is rendered par- ticularly useful if a small quantity of tar is put into it. If the hoofs become brittle, not only stop them, but dress them wholly with the softening mixture directed among stoppings in the Materia Medico. Let all the Utter be moved from under the fore feet the first thing in the morning ; and if the feet should be naturally hard and dry, or tending to contract, then wet the stall ; or, what is better, wrap some thick pieces of cloth around the hoof dipped in water. Care- fully pick the feet after exercise. Inquire of the smith the conve- nient rime for a horse to be shod : horses sometimes remain many hours in a cold shoj), exposed to the tricks or brutality of persons around ; but by suiting this operation to the convenience of the smith, it must be attended to immediately. After a long journey, it is a very good plan to pull off the shoes, and turn the horse into a loose place with plenty of litter under him. It recovers the feet very fast ; for they suffer, like ourselves, from tender heated feet in sum- mer, or after long exercise, without any real disease existing in them. G 68 EXERCISE OF THE HORSE. The ^Appointments of the Horse. In attending to these, some things are essential to the health of the horse, others only so to the appointments themselves. Of the former kind, is the airing of every thing belonging to him thoroughly, and which is more important than may be at first imagined. When a horse comes in hot from a journey, his saddle must have absorbed a large quantity of moisture : without care, this must remain dampj and if put on in this state the next day, will very frequently give cold : the same often happens from the body-clothes, and even from the girths. It is a very proper mode to wear a cloth under the saddle : this can be more easily dried, and never can get hard, with a little care. Horse cloths are certainly necessary, as they keep the animals from draughts of air, and from the access of dust to their coats ; but in this, as in the stables, grooms err in point of heat, for their horses are almost always too much clothed. In summer a single sheet is fully sufficient ; and in winter, one woollen cloth alone is all that is requisite. Neither hacks nor hunters should have head clothes ; and breast clothes, though ornamental, are something more than useless, for they keep a part, while at rest, warm; which, as soon as the horse goes out, is the part that* most meets the air, and is most exposed. EXERCISE. Nothing Is so convincing a proof of the necessity of exercise to animals as their love of play in a state of nature ; from which natural act we likewise infer, that it is much more necessary to the young and to the robust than to the old and w'eakly : this remark should influence our domestic management of horses, and of dogs likewise. Horses and dogs live a life of art when they become domesticated ; some of them more so than others : a racer and a lady’s lap dog are as remote from a natural state as art can make them. Now, as luxury has introduced these refinements, nature, in order to keep pace with them, has introduced numerous diseases, unknown in a state of nature; and as animals thus artificially treated have a con- stant tendency to fall into disease, it is our duty to counteract it as much as lies in our power. We confine horses and dogs not only to have them at our im- mediate call, but to bring them into particular states, which are artificial. The wind, durability, and emulation of the race-horse are increased by artificial means : the same art is requisite to form the manege horse’s cadences, which could not be retained was he permitted constantly to run at grass. The speed, docility, and even scent, of the sporting dog are, in a great measure, acquired by his education and constant practice. Nature is always equal to her wants, but is never lavish of her gifts. Horses in a state of nature are strong and active 5 they can EXERCISE OF THE HORSE. 69 fight when necessary, or they can fly swiftly from their enemies ; hut the profoundest philosopher, and the strongest advocate for nature, would confess that no Arabian, browzlng on the simple herbage of the field, would be equal to the continued exertions of Eclipse : therefore, if we expect peculiar and unnatural exertions, we must also give unnatural powers ; and this we do by our grooming and high feeding ; but as this is a deviation from Nature, so she always punishes it with a tendency to disease, which we again counteract by art. Horses under strong exercise require full feeding ; and so long as the exercise is proportioned to their feeding, they seldom hurt ; but there are times when we do not want to exert them, and yet we wish to keep them in a state to be able to do it when we do want their exertions ; and it is at this time they frequently suflTer ; for the necessity of exercise proportioned to their keep is not sufficiently considered, or the time cannot be spared, or servants neglect them ; and thus the horse becomes pursive, accumulates fat, his legs swell, and his heels crack, and at length become greasy ; and which must necessarily be the case : for the receipts of the constitution being great by the high feeding, so the outgoings, by perspiration, &c. &c. ought to be large likewise ; and if the secretions do not find their natural vents, they will find themselves artificial ones. The muscles are composed of fibres, having a contractile power, by which all the motions of the body are performed. These fibres act best when they are in a right line to each other ; but it is not always that they are so placed. Every one has seen beef, where the fleshy fibres (which form the muscles of the ox) were interspersed with fat : it is the same sometimes with horses ; and these muscles, therefore, having their fibres separated from each other by the fat, cannot act to advantage. The absorbents of the body, or the vessels that are continually taking up both solids and fluids, are stimulated to act in various ways. Exercise is one of the strongest of these ; it is by these means, therefore, that fat horses are made lean ; for this fat is taken up from the interstices of the muscles, and placed where there is less pressure ; so that the horse, if well fed, still continues lusty, but the fat becomes more advantageously disposed. Exercise enlarges the muscles, for Nature endeavours to become equal to her wants ; therefore, when horses or dogs are trained for hunting or racing, they should have regular and long continued exercise. Exercise improves the wind, by taking up the surrounding fat from the heart and chest, and thus allowing the lungs to expand: it also enlarges the air cells of the lungs ; and hence, by imbibing more air, the animal can remain longer between his inspirations. To give rules as to what quantity of exertion is necessary, we should know exactly what is the age, constitution, and feeding of the horse. A young horse requires more than an old one ; but, if very young, it must then be neither very fatiguing nor very long continued. Some colts are observed to come out of the hands of G 2 70 EXERCISE OF THE HORSE. the breaker with windgalls or splents. A full-fed horse should have his exercise continued for some time : if once a day only, not less than an hour and a half, or two hours ; if twice a day, which is most proper, an hour each time. Horses exercising should be always walked a considerable way ; they then may be gently trotted, and, if intended for hunting or racing, may be moderately galloped. I am not here giving directions as to the training for either; I am only speaking of exercise as necessary for health. Many valuable horses are spoiled by servants exercising them. Grooms have most of them a very heavy hand on a horse, and conceive the principal use of the bridle is either to hold on by, or to stop the horse ; whereas a good rider considers the bridle as having various other im- portant uses, and as such he wishes his horse’s mouth to remain susceptible and tender. Servants should, therefore, always ride to exercise on a slavering bit made very thick, and never be allowed a thin snaffle. It is usual with them, when exercising, to gallop their horses against each other ; and a horse frequently gets more severe exercise in one hour’s work with the servant, than in a week’s riding of the master’s : to prevent this, horses should either be exercised within sight of the house, or on some road where they may be now and then seen by some one interested in the management. Another injury horses sometimes sustain in being exercised, is in their temper j for, if they commit the most trivial fault, they are punished by the groom without mercy, which, in the end, makes them resist, and they become restiff : not to mention their heating their horses, and then stopping with them at a public house to drink. All these evils should be guarded against by circumspection and watchfulness. However a horse is exercised, he should never be brought home hot, otherwise he frequently contracts serious indisposition ; this is more particularly hurtful, if, as is frequently the case, he is washed with cold water, and permitted to dry at leisure ; which is always a bad custom, for the heat and moisture encourage a determination of blood to the legs, and occasion swelling, and often grease. A horse, therefore, should be brought home after his exercise as cool as possi- ble, and, if washed, he should be carefully rubbed dry. Friction may be considered as a species of artificial exercise, and as the best substitute ; and whenever, therefore, circumstances prevent exercise, a greater share of hand-rubbing should be made use of. PART THE SECOND THE ^natomj? of tijo ^orse; OR, A DESCRIPTION OF THE STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS, AND ECONOMY, OF ALL THE PARTS OF HIS BODY. 72 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. ect. VIII. THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE, teaches the structure, functions, and economy of the various parts of the animal frame. It appears best taught by con- sidering it under the several heads of In the following detail, I have, throughout, blended the functions of parts with their formation ; the one illustrating the other, and both being essential to the art it is proposed to teach. Bones are hard, white, insensible bodies, upon which the soft parts are laid ; thereby sustaining, and forming the base of the whole animal machine. They are formed of earth, deposited within a membrane. The deposit of their earthy part appears to arise from the vessels of the periosteum, or outer covering of the bones : hence, if by any means this membrane is destroyed, the bone in contact with it becomes carious and dies. This deposit appears to be hastened by any thing that permanently quickens the circulation, by occasioning a more speedy separation of the earthy parts from the vessels ; and hence nature probably gives to young animals their playful disposition, which increasing the flow of blood, occasions a more free deposit of the earthy particles, and an earlier evolution of all their parts : hence, likewise, the inhabitants of warm climates come to perfection sooner than those of the northern regions. By preternaturally hastening the earthy deposit before the membranous part of the bone becomes fully evolved, it is evident that though the bones may be consolidated more early, yet they do not attain their natural size ; that is, that by this means the growth becomes checked. Thus we learn the reason why horses early and hard worked, never arrive at their full size. Pressure likewise appears to assist ossifica- tion ; thus, parts long exposed to it, as the cartilaginous ends of the spinous processes of the vertebra, ossify from the pressure of the Osteology Myology Bursalogy Angiology Neurology Syndesmology or the doctrine/ ' of the Ligaments Muscles Mucous Capsules Andenology , Splanchnology Hygrology ^ \ Vessels Nerves Glands Viscera (^Fluids. OSTEOI.OGY. O.JGrtlaM DESCRIPTION OF PLATE I. 73 saddle. From this pressure, also, it is that horses early worked put out splents and spavins. The earth of bones is continually changing, and fresh is deposited in its room : this change is effected by their absorbing vessels. The cavernous part of a bone is lined by a membrane, called the internal periosteum, which appears intended to retain the medulla or marrow!, which is an oily fluid poured into the cells of this membrane, and is secreted from the large blood vessels that are seen entering the bones. Bones themselves, though furnished with nerves, are not endowed with much feeling, except under inflammation ; and as being but little vascular, their living power is small : hence they, with difficulty, take on disease; but when they do, they are less readily restored than more vascular parts. But a disposition to ossific inflammation, and a throwing out of bony matter, is more frequent in the horse than in any other animal we are acquainted with. Bones, to increase the surface of attachment of tendons, and to remove the axes of the tendons farther from the centre of motion, have frequently bony appendages, termed epij)hyses ; most of which, in the adult subject, become processes, and receive va- rious names, according to their form. The depressions and cavities in bones receive also appropriate terms. The deep are called cotylse, and the superficial glenae. The connexion of bones is termed articulation, of which there are three classes ; diarthrosis, synarthrosis, and symphysis. SDejicnptiott of plate I. Head, a, h, c, d, os fronds. Only one can be seen, the suture dividing them, which is the sagittal, is exactly in front of the head; a, the coronal suture; between a and b, the orbitar apophysis, with the superciliary foramen on it ; b, die portion of the frontal forming the orbit; d, the portion uniting it with the malar and pa- latine bones; e, f, parietal bone; e, its junction with the occipital by the lainb- doidal suture; g, h, i, k, occipital bone; g, occipital protuberance; h, its cunei- form process ; i, the condyloid process received into atlas ; k, the pteregoid pro- cess which is peculiar to the horse. I, m, Temporal bone, the squamous portion is seen just above the zygomatic arch; joined .to the parietal by the squamous suture; /, the petrous portion forming the internal ear; m, the zygomatic process forming the zygomatic arch, seen uniting with the orbitary process of the frontal, and the zygomatic process of the malar by two sutures; n, malar, jugal, or cheek bones; the dark line immediately under,- is the spine, which is continued into the maxillary; o, os unguis; p, p, nasal bones; g, r, f, superior maxillary; q, the portion uniting with the malar and palatine bones; r, that uniting with the malar and angular ; the triangular space shews a portion of bone that is sometimes formed between, called os triquetra; J\ the inferior portion uniting the inferior maxillary ; between r and f, is seen the superior maxillary canal, t, the inferior maxillary bone ; «, », /, w, maxilla posterior, or lower jaw; m, the branches; posterior maxillary canal ; m, above this and below ; f, the coronoid process passing under the zygomatic arcli. 74 OSTEOLOGY. ' Vertebra. 0, h, the seven cervical verlebrje; u, the atlas; d, e, f, dentata or second ; d, its single transverse process; e, its upper oblique process; /", its ridge answering fov a spinous process; g,h,i,k, I, m, n, third cervical vertebra; g, its body ; above the letter is the hole for the transmission of the vertebral arteries and, veins; i, k, anterior and posterior transverse processes; between h and i, is a hole through which the cervical nerves pass; t, anterior protuberance in the body; »/, the spinous process; /i, the upper oblique processes; n, the lower oblique processes; 1, 18 marks, the 18 dorsal vertebrse; a, the body; the space between each is filled by a cartilago ligamentous substance; b, the transverse processes articu- lating with the head of each rib; c, their upper oblique processes; d, their lower ditto. 1, 5, the five dorsal vertebra, their transverse processes are very long, but by the fore shortening in the perspective, are not very evident in the plate; x, x, the sacrum composed of five pieces; the spinous processes are the only parts distinct; the transverse are united into one unequal rough part; 1, 13, the coc- cygis or bones of the tail; the spinous and transverse processes are distinct only on the first four or five. Sternum, Ribs, Shoulder, and anterior Extremities. a,h, 1, 9, the true ribs; 10,18, the false ribs; a, the bead articulating with the transverse process of first dorsal vertebra; under is, seen the lower branch of the head that unites with the seventh cervical and first dorsal vertebra; c, the end that unites with the sternum; d, the sternum; e,J\ g, h, i, I, m, the scapula, e, its neck, below which is seen its glenoid cavity; /", antca spinatus fossa; h, its spine, which in the human ends in the processus acromion, but as there is no clavicle in the horse it ends by a tuberosity; i, coracoid process; between m, and 1, the anterior costa; I, between this and e, posterior costa; between m and I, is its base, and the line above it, marks the extent and .situation of the cartilage of the scapula; n, o, p, q, humerus or arm, n, its cervix, above which is seen its head; o, its anterior head, forming the point of the shoulder, as it is usually called, in the horse; p, its tuberosity; q, its lower iiead, behind is seen the cavity for the reception of the olecranon; r, r, ulna; the upper part forms the olecranon or elbow; the lower part is united by ligamentous fibres to the radius; f, f, the radius; 1, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, the carpus or knee; 1, 1, pisiform; 2, 2, scaphoid; 3, 3, lunare; 4, unciform; 5, magnum; 6, cuneiform; 7, trape- zoid; t, V, metacarpus; t, canon; n, two small metacarpals ; v, w, x, y, z, pha- langes; V, first phalange or pastern; w, sessamoids; x, coronet bone, or little pastern; colfiii; z, navicular or nut bone,. Pelvis and posterior Limbs. a, h, c, d, c, f, g, the two ossa innominata; a, b, c, ilium; a, tuberosity of ilium, forming the hauneh or hip; c, the union with ischium; e, f, ischium; g, g, pubis; and between the letters, the symphysis; d, foramen thyroideum; h, i, k, I, m, femur or thigh bone; h, the cervix, above which is the head received into the acetabulum of the pelvis; i, great trochanter ; k, the outer trochanter ; /, /, the inner trochanter; m,m, the anterior condyles ; n, v, the posterior ditto ; p, p, semilunar cartilages; o, o, patella; q^ tibia or leg, commonly called the thigh; r, fibula; the tibia is seen terminating in itsmaleoli, to articulate with the tarsus; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, tarsus or hock, 1, 2, 1, 2 calcis, forming the point of hock, in man the' heel; 3, 4, astragalus; 5, 5, cuneiform magnum; 6, cuboides ; 7, cuneiform medium ; 8, cuneiform parvum. f,fi, t, t, metatarsus; /, /i canon or shank; t, t, two small metatarsals; u, pastern; v, sessamoids; w, coronet bone or lesser pastern; x, x, coffin ; y, nut or navicular. BONES OF THE HEAD. 75 The Cranium, or Skull. The bones of the head are divided, into those of the skull, face, and posterior jaw. The junction of most of these bones is etfected by sutures. The cranium, or skull, is a vaulted cavity for the reception and preservation of the brain, and is composed of several pairs, and three single bones. The frontal hones, as they unite by age, are frequently, but erro- neously, described as a single bone. They are situated in the front of the head (a, b, c, d, Plate 1), and receive and lodge the anterior and inferior portion of the brain. The two tables of which they are composed separate to form two cavities, called the frontal si- nuses*, which are lined by the pituitary membrane. The frontals are united together by a continuation of the sagittal sidure ; laterally they are connected to the malar bones, by the orbitary process, forming the zygomatic suture; inferiorly to the nasal bones, and interiorly to the ethmoid and sphenoid, by the sutures of that name. The orbitar process forms the greater orbitar jossa, or cavity over the eye : in this process {see plcde of skeleton between a and b, bones of head) there is a nilch or hole, called the superciliary fora- men, giving passage to a branch of the fifth pair of nerves and blood vessels, furnishing the supercilia, and parts adjacent. The parietal bones, which are square-like, are placed between the temporal, frontal, and occipital bones ; and unite together by the sagittal suture, and to the frontal by the coronal, and laterally to the temporal by the squamous suture. The temporal bones are divided into two portions, a squamous and a petrous, which in the horse remain always distinct. Consi- dered as they are usually as one pair of bones, each has a single ca- vity, and is very irregular in figure, uniting with all the bones of the skull but the ethmoid. The squamous portion is united to the parietal by the squamous suture, and has a large peculiar process, called the zygomatic, which contributes with a lesser one of the malar bone, to form the zygoma, or arch of the cheek : nearly at the root of this process is a pi'otuberant cartilaginous cavity, arti- culating with, and receiving the condyloid process of the lower jaw. Within the petrous portion, which is situated at the root of the outer car, is a distinct cavity to each, forming the internal ear. The sphenoid is a very irregular bone, and connected with all those we have described, to which it is, as it were, a key. It pre- sents several processes, as its ate or wings; \xs orbitar apophyses ; and likewise its cuneiform, occipital, and temporal processes. It has within its body a cavity, called sphenoidal sinus, which communi- cates with the ethmoidal cells. It is connected to the cuneiform process of the occipital, superiorly and posteriorly to the ethmoid * These cavities La Fosse directs to be opened, in bis treatment of glanders, by the trepan. They are sometimes found filled with worms, particularly in oxen and sheep, ccstrus sinus frontis ruminantium. 76 OSTEOLOGY. and the vomer ; infcriorly and posteriorly to the squamous portions of the temporal, and to part of the palatine bone. The ethmoid of the horse forms a very considerable bone ; which, from ail intermediate plate or septum, called christa galli, has been described as two : it is situated under the superior part of the nasal fossa, between the frontal and sphenoidal bones. It is made up of numerous cells of very irregular figures and direction, which are all lined with the pituitary membrane, and communicate with the frontal sinuses, terminating in the anterior turbinated bones. The sella tuTsica, a cavity lodging the pituitary gland, which in the human is in the sphenoid, in the horse forms a part of this bone ; its orbitary process likewise forms the superior optic foramen, which in the human subject is formed by the sphenoid. The occipital, called by farriers the knoll bone, is situated at the summit of the head (vide g, h, i, k, Plate I), and is the largest of the bones of the skull, articulating with the parietals by the lamb- doidal suture, to the temporals by their petrous portion, and by its cuneiform process to the sphenoid. It is in the foetal state com- posed of several parts. It rises superiorly into a ridge, or perpen- dicular process, to which the cervical ligament of the neck is at- tached. Its inferior surface has several processes and eminences, two of which arising from the posterior part of the bone, are pecu- liar to the horse, or at least do not exist in the human : they have been called styloid, but are more properly the pteregoid processes {vide k, Plate I). The condyloid apophyses articulate with the atlas : but the principal process is the cuneiform, which is very large (vide h, Plate I), and received as a wedge among the bones of the skull. Its principal cavities are the foramen magnum, giving passage to the spinal marrow, and the condyloid foramina, pene- trating the condyloid apophyses. Bones of the Face. The bones forming the face, including the posterior jaw, may be considered as ten pairs, and two single ones. The nasal bones (vide p, Plate I) are united together throughout their whole length; which union internally forms a groove, receiv- ing the cartilaginous septum narium. They are connected interiorly with the anterior turbinated bones ; superiorly with the frontals ; superiorly and laterally with the angulars ; and inferiorly with the lower maxillary. The nasal fossae are formed of these bones in. conjunction with the maxillaries laterally; superiorly of the posterior table of the frontals, forming the frontal sinuses, with which they communicate ; and posteriorly of the palatine bones, and which fossae are the principal seat of glanders. The angulars, or ossa unguis, are in the horse wholly ossified, and situated at the inner angle of the eyes (video, Plate I), forming a considerable portion of the orbits. Each is nearly square, and joined to the nasal, malar, frontal, and superior maxillary ; and is so formed as to present an inner, outer, and orbitary surface ; between BOXES OF THE FACE. 77 the outer and orbitary surfaces, is the orbitary ridge : the latter of these surfaces is perforated by a canal, just within the inner angle of the eye, forming the lachrymal duct, or ductus ad nasum, carrying off the superfluous tears into the nose. Thisvduct passes bony be- tween the turbinated bones, and then becomes membranous under the inferior or posterior of them. The malar, jugal, or cheek bones, occupy the posterior part of the orbits {viden, Plate 1), between the angular, superior maxillary, and temporal bones ; to the last of which, each is united by its temporal process, which forms part of the zygomatic arch. 7'he superior maxillary bones are the largest of those strictly forming the face, and are connected anteriorly to the nasal ; infe- riorly to the inferior maxillary; and internally to each other, and to the palatine by their palatine processes : they are connected also to the vomer, and within the orbit to the zygomatic process of tem- porals. The exterior surface is convex, and has upon it the max- illary spine continued from the malar : midway between this and its junction with the nasal bone, there is a foramen continued through each of them, transmitting the second branch of the fifth pair of nerves with some vessels ; all which go to supply the molar teeth : this is called the anterior maxillary canal. Its inferior edge is pierced by the molares. By their junction with each other poste- riorly, they fortn the inferior portion of the palatine arch, or roof of the mouth ; the superior part of which arch is formed by the pala- tine bones themselves, to which the maxillary are united. At the inferior portion of this arch, these bones recede as it were to give place to a pair of bony plates, which, as they appear in a great measure distinct, should be called, I think, inferior palatines. The cavity formed by the internal surface of each of the maxdlary bones lodges the turbinated, with which the cavity is nearly filled : there- fore, what has been described by authors as maxillary sinuses, and so often mentioned as such by La Fo^se, are in fact turbinated sinuses. {Fide q, r, s, Plate I.) The inferior maxillary bones have been by the French authors overlooked, being constantly considered as part of the anterior, though the division is as evident, as that between the frontals and parietals. Mr. Stubbs likewise falls into the same error. These bones are wanting in the human, and are peculiar to animals with long jaws ; they unite together by symphysis, and to the inferior maxillary and nasals by the suture, called harmony. They concur in forming part of the nasal fossre, and at their inferior edge have six alveoli, lodging the anterior incisive teeth. 7'he tush is sometimes lodged in the posterior edge of this, and sometimes in that of the superior maxillary. At the symphysis is a foramen giving passage to vessels and a nerve. {Vide t, Skel) The .sMpmorpaZafhies are situated at the upper part of the bony palate, beyond the superior maxillary, to which they unite, and jointly form the arch of the palate : superiorly they unite to the wings of the sphenoid, and leave an oval opening between them and 78 OSTEOLOGY. its body, which forms the entrance of the nasal fossa into the pha- rynx. The inferior palatine bones. I believe I am singular in consider- ing these as distinct from the superior maxillaries, with which they are usually described, and considered as portions of. But I think they merit this distinction, and as such I have introduced it: they are small frangible plates ; their greatest portion being received be- tween two receding portions of the superior maxillaries, but now and then their inferior part is received between sirnilar portions of the inferior maxillaries. The pteregoid are two small crooked bones, about which likewise authors differ. Bourgelat considers them as portions of the palatine bones ; by others they are described as their styloid processes : but they may be regarded as detached distinct bony portions, situated between the vomer and palatines, forming a cartilaginous ring, through which passes the tendon of a muscle of the palate. The anterior turbinated bones are thin, bony lamellae, that occupy part of the space formed by the cavity within each superior maxillary bone. They are connected with the nasal bones, and receive the continuation of the ethmoidal cells, and are seen, on opening the nostrils, forming a species of tortuous cavity. The posterior turbinated bones occupy the remainder of the cavity of the maxillary bones, and by their mutual tortuosities in these, have been called by the French the inferior cornets of the nose, as the anterior are called the superior cornets. The turbinated bones are very spongy, and slight in their texture, being sieve-like, and have sometimes in glanders become absorbed : they increase the surface of the pituitary membrane, w'hich is the reason they are so consider- able in brutes, and so trivial in man. Theuotiter, or ploughshare, extends from the inferior part of the nasal fossae, so as to divide, in conjunction with the cartilaginous septum, the nostrils into two equal cavities ; superiorly it joins the sphenoid, and inferiorly is received into a groove of the palatine pro- cess of the maxillary bone : it is likewise connected with the eth- moid. The posterior maxillary bone, or lower jaw ^ is composed of two pieces, intimately united by symphysis at the chin. The anterior edge, by a separation of its tables, forms the alveoli for the reception of the molares or grinders, the tushes, and incisive teeth. The inner surface presents a foramen, called the posterior' maxillary canal, which gives a passage to the third branch of the fifth pair of nerves, and to an artery and vein, which furnish the teeth w-ith nourishment. The inferior part of the anterior edge forms the bars on which the bit rests. At the superior portion, this bone on each side turns up into two considerable branches ; the external angle of each of which is the thickest of the whole, and is called the tuberosity ; the branches end in two processes with an intermediate groove. The first and most superior of these, is called the condyloid process, and forms a flat head tipped with cartilage articulating with a cartilaginous depression of the THE TEETH. 7^ zygomatic process of the temporal {see Skel.), between which arti- culations is placed, as in the human, a moveable cartilage, accommo- dating itself by its figure to the motions of the jaw. The second is the coronoid process, and is flat, passing under the zygomatic arch {vide f and m, Skel.), and having the crotaphite muscle inserted into it. From this, the use of this arch becomes evident ; for was it not for this guard, every accidental pressure, and every slight in- jury, would impede the motion of the jaw, and starve the animal. The whole likewise of this bone shews the most admirable mecha- nism : the molar teeth, on whom most is dependant, and whose exertions are greatest, are placed nearest the centre of motion r and as the upper jaw in most animals is nearly fixed, so it was necessary the lower should have considerable extent of moving power for the purpose of grinding, and it is accordingly so formed as to admit of motion in every direction. The condyloid process is attached to the temporal bone by a ligament, which inserts itself behind the zygomatic process, and by a large capsular ligament. On the con- trary, the coronoid process is attached by means of the crotaphite tendon : had this been a ligament as well as the former, the mouth could not have been opened sufficiently, as in the act of gaping ; and without this additional attachment, the CQndyloid articulation would not have been sufficiently strong. The os hyoides is composed of five bony pieces, which are so dis- tinct, that it has been by some described as five bones. It is situated at the root of the tongue, and articulates with the skull by means of the temporal bone ; by which it is rendered very useful as an attachment to the muscles of the tongue, and of the larynx and pharynx. {Fide i, i, Plate III, fig. 2.) It is divided into a body, two larger, and two lesser branches. The body forms a species of cross, that articulates with the first cartilage of the larynx, and then gives an appendix pointing towards the teeth, to which the tongue is attached. On each side of this are the little branches uniting with the body by a moveable articulation, and to these the larger branches unite by an acute angle, and enlarging, extend up into the head, within the membranous cavity of the eustachiau tube. {Fide d, fig. 1, Plate III.) Description of the Teeth. The teeth are the hardest and compactest bones of the body, and are situated in cavities between the tables of the jaw-bones, which are called alveoli: they are usually forty in number in the horse (and thirty-six in the mare), the latter commonly wanting the tushes. They are divided into incisores, cuspidati, and molares, or, as they are called by farriers and horsemen, nippers, tushes, and grinders. Each tooth is formed of a crown, neck, and root. The crown is the upper part, composed of a shining compact portion, called enamel, and one less so, of the nature of common bone ; the neck, is not very evident in the adult horse, but is more distinct iu so OSTEOLOGY. the colt. The roots are received into the alveoli, and are not spread out into distinct fangs as in the human, but are more cone- like. Most quadrupeds have during life two sets of teeth, a temporaries ous, or milk set, and a permanent, or adult set. The first usually appears at, or soon after birth ; the other about the adult period. This change, by which the milk are displaced for the permanent set, is very gradually performed, some years elapsing between the appear- ance of the first and the last ; by which means the animal suffers no inconvenience : were they all, or even several of them, to remove at the same time, the animal w’otild probably starve. It is a curious fact, that though the two sets of teeth appear, with an interval of some years between them, yet that the rudiments of both are formed nearly at the same period ; at least we know, that as soon as the temporaneous are evident, the traces of the other can be distinguished immediately under them, and only are prevented from making their appearance by the pressure occasioned by the first ; thus, when one of the first set is drawm, its place is soon filled up by one of the second set ; and this appears the reason of their early formation, that they may be always ready to fill -up any accidental displacement that may occur before the usual period. Dealers know this early appearance of the second set when the others are removed, which they frequently effect by artificial means, to make young horses appear older than they are. It was essentially necessary there should be two sets of teeth, for as they grow but slowly in proportion to the jaws, so, had there been but one set, the disproportion in growth betu?een the teeth mid jaws must have separated, and made them wide apart as the jaws in- creased ; hence there is given at first a small and less numerous set, adapted to the size of the jaws; but as the rudiments of the second are larger and more numerous, though early formed, so they take up more room, and are actually at this early period situated within the branches of the posterior jaw ; so that they necessarily' evolve only, as the jaw lengthens out. The removal of the first set is occasioned by an absorption of their fangs or roots ; which absorption is brought about by the stimulus of pressure, from the teeth under- neath. The living powers in the teeth are, kept up, as in bones in general, by nerves and blood vessels, which may be traced entering the. hollows in the roots. The nerves enter by means of the ante- rior and posterior maxillary canals, as we have described ; nor have we any reason to doubt their having absorbents ; but, on the con- trar\q vve see that their growth is increased till the adult period, and the roots of the temporaneous are removed by absorption. The teeth of quadrupeds are not so liable to a diseased decay as the human, yet now and then it does happen. The enamel is a particular deposit, not following altogether the nature of bone, and is placed differently in different animals. In the human and carnivorous brutes, it is all placed exteriorly as a co- vering to the teeth, giving them firmness. In granivorous animals. THE TEETH. Si on tlie contrary, it is placed in perpendicular plates within the body of the teeth, where, by its great hardness, it always keeps up a rough grinding surface ; for, as there is by this means alternately a perpen- dicular layer of common bone, and-a plate of enamel, so as the bony part wears more readily than this, there remains always 'a number of inequalities on their surface, admirably adapting them for the pur- poses intended and by this formation they remain perfect to the last period of the animal’s existence. The teeth are the only bones that are without the investment of the periosteum, being in their crown and neck uncovered, but their roots are surrounded by the proper membrane of the gums. The incisive teeth are six to each jaw, and in older books of far- riery are called, the two front ones, nippers ; the next, gatherers, or separators; and the outer, corner teeth. The French name them pinces, mitoyenne, and coins, but it would be better to say the first, second, and third incisives, beginning at the corner. These teeth are curved, which is favourable for the pressure they undergo, the upper are more so than the lower ; they have two surfaces, an inner and outer, the inner is rounded, but the outer has a groove up the middle. Their upper surface presents a hollow, which, as it wears away in some degree at certain periods, is regarded as a criterion of the age, and, in fact, forms the best mode of judging of the number of years the animal has lived, particularly of the early periods of his life. The incisive teeth differ from each other slightly in appear- ance ; the corner ones are nearly triangular (see Plate II) ; these have likewise a species of artificial side, or internal wall, which does not grow to a level with the rest for some time after it appears. The cuspidati, canine, or tushes, are usually wanting in mares, and are four in number, one on each side of the upper and lower jaw, in the space between the incisive and molars. Those of the anterior jaw are usually nearer the nippers than the posterior. There are but one set of these, which appear at the adult period growing slowly, and when completely evolved they present a curved appearance, turned inwards, with an outer plain surface, and an inner one that has two perpendicular grooves, with an intermediate rising : the end is pointed, which by age wears away along with the internal grooves, leaving the tush blunted, and the internal surface smooth and equal with the outer ; this, therefore, may be a guide, when a horse has been suspected to have been bishopped. The molares or grinders are twelve to each jaw. The upper are larger and stronger than the under, as they form the fixed point upon which mastication is performed. Their upper surface presents nearly a long square, the first not so complete as the rest, being nearly triangular in many instances : this surface is very uneveii from the alternation of the enamel and bony portions ; and as the anterior teeth hang over the posterior, so the ridges of the one set, are received into the depressions of the other, by this means permit- ting the mouth to shut completely in a state of rest. 82 OSTEOLOGY. The Bony Trunk. The trunk of the horse consists of spine, pelvis, and thorax, or chest. The spine is formed of seven cervical, eighteen dorsal, six lumbar, and five sacral vertebrae, with the addition of an indefinite number of small bones of the coccygis, or tail, usually amounting to about thirteen. The spinal bones are thus divided, on account of the varieties they present ; but they have some characteristics in com- mon. Each is composed of a spongy considerable substance, called its body, and parts protruded from this, called processes. These processes unite to form a hollow, through which the spinal marrow is transmitted, and by some of these processes, the vertebrae are arti- culated with each other, as well as by their bodies anteriorly and posteriorly ; by which means their surface of attachment is much increased, and the strength of the spinal column is rendered very great. Though but little motion is allowed between any two ver- tebrae, yet the flexibility of the whole spine is considerable ; by which wise contrivance the spinal marrow, nerves, and blood vessels, are not liable to compression. The cervical vertebree are by far the largest of the whole, and are those situated within the neck, called by farriers and butchers the rack bones. They have but a very indistinct spinous process. By a common base on each side, arises a very considerable prominence, which branches out into two transverse processes, and at the base of this prominence is a foramen for the passage of the vertebral arteries and veins. Each vertebra likewise forms a groove posteriorly, which, united to one m the opposed vertebra, produces a hole communicat- ing with the great spinal canal passing through them, by which holes the cervical nerves pass. {See description of Skel.) "J'hey are connected together by a round head in each, received into a corre- sponding cavity at the posterior part of every one but the first; and which union has articular cartilages, and strong capsular ligaments. It will be evident, that from the strong means of articulation they have with each other, not only by the round head and corresponding cavitv, but more particularly by their oblique processes, that no dis- location can take place between any of them but the first and second ; in which case the animal must die, from the compression of the spinal marrow ; and this is what is usually called breaking the neck. The first cervical vertebra {vide a vertebree, Skel.) branches out late- rally into, lvvo transverse portions, and anteriorly articulates with the occipital, receiving into its fossae the two condyles of that bone, between which is situated the spinal canal ; on each side are two foramina, one of which transmits the vertebral vessels, and the other a pair of nerves. Posteriorly it articulates with the second, by receiving its odontoid process into its great cavity. This vertebra is the only one that has not the cervical ligament attached to it, which would have interfered with its freedom of motion. The second cervical vertebra is named dentata {^vide d, e,f, plate BONES OF THE TRUNK. of Skel. veytebrce), from a considerable tooth-Ilke process instead of a head, which is received into the great cavity of the atlas ; it has a considerable dorsal ridge instead of a spinous process (videf); its anterior oblique processes are blended together, and appear a mere extension of its body ; its posterior oblique processes articulate with the upper oblique processes of the third vertebra (vide h), and the posterior part of the body has a cavity for the reception of the head of that vertebra. Its transverse protuberance has only its posterior point (vide d), so that this bone presents a single transverse process on each side; the foramina are the same as in the former. Between this and the atlas, is a space where the spinal marrow is left unprotected but by the cervical ligament (it is readily seen in the plate of Skel.) : and it is at this part butchers sometimes plunge a knife into what they call the pith of the neck, when they want to kill without effusion of blood ; from whence it is called pithing. The third, fourth, fifth, and sixth cervical vertebrte have, instead of an odontoid process, a round head, articulating with the cavity of the one that goes before them. Their upper oblique pro- cesses (vide h) are distinct, and articulate with the lower of the one preceding them, and their lower (vide n) with the upper of the one imme'diately behind. Their transverse processes are two on each side (vide i, k) ; their dorsal ridge small, and their bodies altogether less than the second. At the base of their transverse processes they have a similar foramen for the transmission of the vertebral vessels, and the hole through which the cervical nerves pass out may be seen in the plate. * The seventh cervical vertebra is smaller than the others, and has no foramina for the transmission of the vertebral vessels, and but a small single transverse process on each side, but its spinous is larger than the others ; its posterior oblique processes articulate with the first ribs, and it has a concave articular surface in its body for the head of the same rib : it will be found altogether, to blend its cha- racter with the dorsal vertebrae. The dorsal vertebree are eighteen (vide 18 vertebrae, Plate I), and do not essentially differ from each other, but in the length of their spinous processes, which in the first seven or eight is considerable, for the purpose of giving a long lever to the dorsal muscles. It is these processes that give height to the withers; and as they are covered with muscles that act on them strongly, so their length is of great consequence to progression. Their oblique processes are four to each, but are small, as well as the two transverse. They articu- late w'ith each other by their anterior and posterior surfaces, and by their oblique processes ; and each articulates with two ribs on each side. As they advance in number they increase in size ; and are pierced by the spinal canal, and transmit by their lateral holes the spinal nerves ; but they have no foramina at the base of the transverse processes. Between each is interposed a substance of the mixed nature of cartilage and ligament, which is most compressible at its li OSTEOLOGY. S4 sides, permitting the motion of the spine, and' forming by the solf- dity of its centre, a fulcrum or pivot for the bones to move on. The six lumbar vertebrce differ but little from the dorsal ; their bodies are rather larger, and their spinous processes consequently rather broader ; but their transverse processes bear no comparison to the others : for as there are now no ribs to protect the contents of the abdomen, nor to support the dorsal muscles, consequently these ate much lengthened out ; and they have hence no articular surfaces but those by which they unite with each other. The last of them joins with the sacrum. {Vide 1, 5, vertebrae, Plate I.) ^ It will appear evident from the foregoing description, that these bones enjoy different powers of motion ; the head is enabled to rotate and move extensively upon the first ; and the first moves freely on the second. The remaining cervical vertebrae have like- wise much motion from the form of their articulation,, and the smallness of their spinous ridge. The dorsal can have little freedom on account of the straigjrtness of their union, and the situation of the ribs ; while the lumbar have rather more, though from the length of their transverse processes it cannot he much. The vertebrae of the spine in the horse very seldom take on sponta- neous ulceration : but are liable to malconformation, being some- times curved upwards, and sometimes downwards more than natural. They are also liable to have bony matter thrown over their cartilages } so much so sometimes as to anchylose nearly the whole dorsal and lumbar joints. It is this that in old horses makes them so stiff, and so unwilling to lie down ; or when down, to fise up again. The peZyis is composed of the sac?7ere, and describe them with the extremities. ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. Of the Head generally. The parts forming the head are considered as external and internal. The external parts are the hair, the common integuments, the mus- cles, the glands, the periosteum, pericranium, and the bones them- selves. The internal parts are the integuments of the brain, the brain itself, and its appendages, with its arteries and veins. We must con- sider likewise the ears and cavities of the ears, the eyes and their ap- pendages, the uos? and its cavities, and the ppening of the mo.uih 166 AN ATOM y OB' Tim HEAD. with its contents. Some of these parts have been already considered in their proper places, such as have not we shall proceed to describe. The Brain and its Meninges. The hrain is contained within the hollow of the skull formed by the bones of this part {vide Osteology), and is invested by certain membranes called its meninges or matres. The dura mater is the most external of these, and lines all the cavity of the skull, adhering to the bones by filaments, which are most numerous about the sutures, and perform the office of blood vessels. In its texture it is very strong and inelastic, and composed of two laminae ; its internal surface is smooth, but its outer is formed into filamentary processes by which it adheres to the cranium. By a folding and prolongation of its laminae it also forms several other considerable processes. The falx is the principal of these, which, insinuating itself between the lobes of the brain like a mediastinum, is connected below to the frontal spine, to the spine of the ethmoid, to the sphenoid bone, anteriorly to the sagittal suture, and superiorly to the falci- form process of the occipital bone; by this extension it forms pos- teriorly a loose ])ortion received between the two lobes of the brain, which is thus called the falx, or the falciform process of the dura ma- ter, from its supposed resemblance to a scythe : by means of which, the brain is kept firm, and the effects of concussion prevented : su- periorly it is broader than inferiorly, and ends by expanding itself into the transverse septa. The cavernous or sphenoidal sinuses are of a very particular kind, containing their Iplood in a cavernous sub- stance ; and are composed of those processes of the dura mater that form the pituitary fossae : they also pour their blood into the jugulars. Besides these principal ones, there are lesser folds con- taining blood, all communicating with each other ; by which means the passage of this fluid through the brain has every advantage of situation. The dura mater is furnished with some nervous-filaments from the fifth pair, and has some bodies within its substance that are supposed to be its glands. The membrana arachnoidea appears a very fine external lamen of the pia mater; so thin as to be com- pared to a spider’s web, from whence it takes its name. It is spread uniformly over the surface of the brain, without entering into any of its convolutions, and is connected to the pia mater by a cel- lular substance. The pia mater appears that fine membrane that invests the brain and enters its convolutions, as well as those of the, cerebellum and medulla oblongata. It is very vascular, and adheres to the dura mater by the veins passing from it into the sinuses; its principal use appears to be to carry the blood vessels to the brain. Cerebrum. — The brain is divided into four difl'erent portions, which are the cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and spinal marrow. The cerebrum is an oval body filling up the cavity below the tentorium, and is situated under the cerebellum or little brain. Jt is anteriorly convex and oval, and posteriorly nearly flat : through its, whole circumference it has depressions or windings, called THE BRAIN. 167 tonvollUions, into which the pia mater insinuates. It is divided longitudinally into two lobes or lateral hemispheres, between which, the falciform process of the dura mater extends ; but it has not, as in the human, other subdivisions into lesser lobules. It is made up of two substances, called its cortical and meclnllarij portions. The first of these is exterior, and of a greyish colour ; the other, forming the interior and larger portion, is firmer than the pre- ceding, and of a whiter hue, and its tenacity even greater in the horse than the human. When the falx is removed, on separating the hemispheres, the corpus callosum appears, as a whitish me- dullary mass, internally striated, and represents a detached portion of the medulla. The corpus callosum terminates in a species of medullary arch formed in common with the medullary substance, in such a manner as to appear as it were a nucleus to the cerebrum, thus called centrum ovale. The tentorium cerebelli, forms the trans- verse septum dividing the cerebrum from the cerebellum, extending from the great internal ridge of the occipital bone. The situation of this part is very different in the horse from that of the human, and its extent is much less, as in ourselves it forms a kind of floor to the brain ; it is united, as we have mentioned, with the falx, by which means both these expansions are kept tense. By this septum, thecranium is separated into two portions, a larger anterior and inferior, .containing the two lobes of the cerebrum ; and a smaller, which is superior and posterior in the usual position of the head. There are likewise two smaller portions that form a fossa for the reception of the pituitary gland. The elongations of the dura mater, are those parts of it which it sends out of the cavity of the skull to line the orbits, and unite with the periosteum ; it gives also a vagina to the optic nerves, and lines the eustachian tubes ; the vessels are likewise covered by it, as well as the spinal marrow ; but which it leaves on its exit from the skull to be reflected on the bones. The sinuses : The dura mater is formed, as we have mentioned, of two laminre, which, separating from each other, form triangular cavities filled with venous blood, and are called sinuses. The arteries of the dura mater are formed from ramifications of the vertebrals and carotids, which, after having traversed that membrane, are returned as well as the whole blood of the brain into these receptacles. The longitudU nal sinus extends along the grand curvature of the dura mater, im- mediately under the sagittal suture to the transverse septa, where it bifurcates and forms the great lateral sinuses. It is narrow at the beginning, but becomes larger as it ends in the lateral, and has several ligamentary fraena, by which it is strengthened : the veins of the dura mater and brain open into it. The lateral sinuses appear continuations of the longitudinal, going one to the right and the other to the left, along and between the folds of the transverse septum its whole course, and pass out of the skull to end in the jugular veins. On making a longitudinal section of the two hemi- spheres on a level with the corpus callosum, two oblong cavities •appear, which are the anterior or lateral ventricles, situated one 163 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. ivithin each lobe, throughout Its whole length, the inferior extre- mity being larger than the other, and both being divided by the septum liicidutn. The ventricles contain, in a natural state, thirty or forty drops of fluid, but, under disease, frequently much more. ’Thejdmix is a medullary arch, and appears a portion of the corpus callosum, which divides the ventricle, and produces three bodies, ca.]\ed Its three pillars ; an inferior and two superior. Behind the fornix there is a hole by which the two great ventricles communi- cate with each other. The superior pillars being continued down within the ventricles in a curved form, as they pass, unite with two medullary bodies called pedes hippocampi, and between which are situated the little lines called the lyre or psalterium. On removing the fornix and laying the ventricles open, we see the plexus choroides, which is a vascular web, made up of vessels, and extremely subject to disease. When a horse has died of an inflam- mation of the brain, this body is generally found very much en- larged ! a diseased appearance of it is particularly frequent in sheep also. It appears to answer the same purposes as the pia mater, that of distributing blood to the internal part of the brain by a cir- cuitous course. There are besides in this view four other emi- nences ; which are the two corpora striata and the thalami nervorum opticoruni. The corpora striata are situated at the inferior part of the anterior ventricles, and at^c oblong curved eminences. The tha- lami, and nervorum opticoruni are the beginning of the optic nerves, and are considerable eminences close together, situated between the ■■ superior extremity of the corpora striata, and appear composed of a cortical and medullary portion. The third ventricle is an opening or cavity close to the origin of the thalami, which communicates with the lateral ventricles, and the olfactory nerves or fourtli ventricle. The pituitary gland is a spongy and apparently glandular body of very considerable comparative magnitude in the horse; lodged be- tween tlie sphenoidal folds of the dura mater in the centre of the cavernous sinus, and surrounded by the numerous convolutions of the vessels and the sphenoidal sinuses. The pineal gland is a small eminence at the back of the corpora striata above the thalami, and is found sometimes to contain a gravelly substance in both the human and brute. The luhercula quadragemini, or nates and testes, are four distinct small processes at the base of the skull ; the first pair are situated above the pineal gland ; the second are almost close to the first. The cerebellum is contained within the occipital bone, and rests upon the tentorium or transverse septum of the dura mater ; and is, in the horse, placed superiorly and a little posteriorly to the cerebrum, •with which it unites by its inferior part. It is not so large as the cere- brum, and is divided into four lobes ; w'hich are an inferior, two lateral, and a superior. It is composed like the cerebrum of two substances, which are not disposed exactly in a similar manner, but give to a longitudinal section of this substance, the appearance of a tree, the medullary white part branching out from a body ; whence iTHE BUAtN. m it is called triicc. Externally it is formed into numerous sulci, but it has no circumvolutions. The fourth ventricle, which in the Jiorse is very considerable, is situated within this body, having its posterior surface upon the medulla oblongata, and its anterior being formed of the cerebellum. The medulla oblongata is a continuation of the cerebrum and cerebellum, ■ formed by the reciprocal continuity of their medullary substances, through the great notch in the transverse septum of the dura mater. On inverting the brain, the medulla presents four eminences, which are the superior and inferior crura: besides which there is another transverse and smaller, connected with them, termed processus annularis, or pons varolii, and two still lesser ones called the mammillary processes. The medulla oblongata, formed in this manner, is continued upwards and backwards to the edge of the foramen magnum of the os occipitis, when it terminates in the epinal marrow. The spinal marrow is the continuation of the medulla oblongata, ‘having passed the great occipital foramen, and being invested by a production or elongation of the dura mater. It is composed like the cerebrum and cerebellum, of which it appears a true continua- tion, of two portions, a cortical and medullary ; but its consistence is firmer than the substances it proceeds from. It is continued down within the spinal canal, w'hich is formed in the bodies of all the vertebrae, by which means it is wisely protected from injury. In its passage it gives betw’een each vertebra a branch on either side, called the spinal nerve, which have been noticed. The blood vessels of the brain and medulla spinalis we have before described in the Angiology, where it will be found that this organ is supplied by the carotids and the vertebrals, which carry a large proportion of blood to the head. These arteries enter the skull in a very convoluted and winding manner ; when anastomosing very freely, and giving some branches to the dura mater, they are continued on the pia mater, their capillary branches enterins: the substance of the brain. The medulla spinalis is furnished by two branches called arteriae spinales, given from the vertebrals. The blood is returned by the veins of the pia mater, which accompany all the circumvolutions of the brain, and, at length, pour the blood into the sinuses. Upon an inspection of the vessels of an injected brain, we shall easily ob- serve. that nature has taken a wonderful degree of care to prevent the effects of too rapid a circulation of the great quantity of blood sent to it : and, from the great length of the carotids, an apoplectic tendency is counteracted. Nature, it is likewise worthy of remark, has kindly guarded the brain by a bony case, and as the vessels enter this case, they become also equally guarded ; and that there might be no danger of the blood being stopped before it arrives here, there are two sets of arteries ; one of which passes up in such a manner as to be freed from even the chance of pressure ; being en- cased as it were by the cervical vertebrae, and hence called vertebrals. When arrived within the cavity of the cranium, these vessels J;tave 170 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. frequent inosculations, which are such as to preserve a very free communication throughout ; and not only the manner of distribu- ' tion of the arteries of the brain is favourable to a tardy circulation, but even their structure is in some measure so. In the veins, like^ wise, there is a contrary speciality, because in them it was essen- tially necessary that they should be able to carry off the blood freely and regularly, seeing so great a quantity is sent to the head, and that the effects either of obstruction or rupture would be so serious : hence these veins have no valves, nor do they accompany the arteries ; but are large, and formed of the strong firm coat of the dura mater, of a triangular figure, with sides still farther strength- ened by transverse cords : these veins likewise have frequent inoscu- lation, and like the arteries have two returning trunks to each side, one of which, the vertebral, is effectually guarded from pressure by its situation ; and though the quantity usually returned by this vessel is small, yet, by their frequent communication, they can, when there is a necessity, receive a large proportion of blood. Uses of the brain, — From the great derangement that takes place in the mind, when the brain is compressed or injured, we are led to conclude, that this part forms the seat of consciousness ; but what real connexion exists between its functions, and that of the nerves, is much disputed. By some it has been said, that the brain is the organ of consciousness,^ hut not the source of sensation, which re- sides in the nerves ; but whatever may be the actual difference be- tween sensation and consciousness, they probably are both dependent on the brain, or have the strongest connexion with it. That con- sciousness is dependent on the brain we are certain ; since all intel- lectual power is lost when this is injured materially. This organ is not, however, essential to mere animal life ; since we know some of the species who are without it, as the polypus ; the foetus in utero, likewise, in some instances lives and grows without it : but, in the human, and in all quadrupeds, who attain their growth, it is a ne- cessary part of the machine ; and is essential to the functions of those animals, who have to make intelligent exertions for the gratifi- cation of their various appetites. It is likewise found, that it exists in a greater proportion when the intellectual principle is strong; and hence it is larger in the higher order of animals than in the lower, and largest of all proportionally in man. (See Neurology.) The Ear. The number and situation of the ears, are well known to every one, and are formed of an inner and outer part. The internal parts do not very materially differ in different quadrupeds, nor from the hu- man ; but the form of the outer ear, is very wisely adapted to the various habits and manners of the animal on whom it is placed ; and in almost all it differs much from the same part in man, who having a rational soul to direct him in his pursuits, and being en- dowed with foresight, can avoid those dangers which brutes must escape from, by means of the organs of sense, with which they are THE EAR. 171 endowed ; hence we find In them, the ears are so formed as to take in a vast number of sonorous waves or rays of sound, and capable of being easily directed towards the quarter from whence the sound proceeds. In the predacious tribes they are directed forward ; in the graminivorous, and timid, they are directed backwards : and in whatever way we regard the external ear, we shall find it admi- rably adapted to the habits of the animal of which it is a portion. The external parts of the ear are the hair, skin, glands, muscles, cartilages, meatus auditorius externus, and membrana tympani-*. The hair and skin of the ears do not materially differ from those of othar parts ; the hair is internally long and fine, and thereby guards the organ from the attack of insects ; hence the clipping of this close may be prejudicial. The skin within the external ear is soft, and furnished with the general sebaceous glands, and with another kind called ceruminous, peculiar to it, which secrete a bitter whitish substance, intended probably to prove noxious to insects. The muscles of the ear in the horse are numerous and powerful, and arc described in the Myology. The cartilages of the ear are three 5 the concha, or grand, the internal, and the anterior. The concha, or principal cartilage, is that conical body that gives figure and form to the ear ; it is externally convex, and internally concave, covered by the skin and muscles externally, and internally by the skin, which is thrown into folds, forming longitudinal eminences and depressions, throughout the extent of the ear. The grand fossa appears like a cone, cut, not parallel to its base, but in a slanting direction from above downwards, leaving the ear elegantly pointed above, forming a circular cavity below, and an irregular oval opening outwards. This cartilage is fixed to the petrous process of the temporal bone, by means of two appendicles, and is maintained in this situation by liga- mentous attachment. Within this, and attached likewise to the auditif canal, is the internal cartilage, which is nothing more than a small moveable portion, whereby the external cavity is rendered more tortuous : but the tortuosities of this cavity in the horse are not so numerous as in the ear of some animals ; as in those of the dog, in whom they are extremely complex as well as numerous. The ante- rior cartilage is situated at the anterior part of the base of the grand cartilage : it is irregularly triangular, and has a lieamentary expansion inserted into the parietal bone, upon which it moves freely. The meatus auditorius externus, is in part bony, and in part cartilaginous ; and very tortuous, whereby its surface is much increased, the cartilaginous forming the least portion : it enters the bony canal in the petrous part of the os temporis, whose extremity is furnished with a cartilaginous appendage. The membrana tijmpani, is the covering of a cavity, called the drum of the ear, formed of a fine membrane, fixed into a circular edge of * Tlie description of tlie ear would be simplified b}' considering the parts of which it is formed, as external, intermediate, and internal. The juvenile stddent finds it hard to reconcile to his ideas, or to consider the meatus auditorius and membrana tympani as external portions. 172 A>’ATOMY OF THE HEADr- the meatus externus, and. which separates the inner frortl the outet* cavity. The tympanum is resembled to a drum, and this mem- brane to the drum head ; and it is supposed that it has little mus- cles, giving it by their contractions different degrees of tensity, and thereby fitting it to receive the impressions of the air. The internal parts of the ear, are the cavity of the tympanum, with its contents and appendages. This cavity is irregularly spheri- cal, and presents several prominences and subordinate cavities. It contains likewise four small bones, which are named according to their supposed resemblance, incus, malleus, stapes, and orbicular. By these little bones, it is conjectured the impressions received by the membrana tympani are conducted, receiving modifications from the cochlea, and more interior parts. They are said to be all moved by three muscles, which belong, two of them to the malleus, and one to the stapes. (See Myology.) The tympanum presents several openings, which are those of tbtf mastoid cells, the eustachian tube, the cavity lodging one of the muscles of the malleus, and the communication between this cavity and the labyrinth, called the fenestra oval is. The mastoid cells are small irregular cavities in the substance of the mastoid processes, which are lined by a fine membrane, and communicate with each other. Their common entrance is near the eustachian tube. The eustachian tube, is an opening at the upper and anterior edge of the hollow of the tympanum, forming a duct that is in part bony, and in part cartila- ginous ; extending from the tympanum to a great cavity at the pos- terior part of the nasal fossa. It is at its commencement an excavation of the petrous apophysis of the temporal bone, and extended by a portion of the sphenoid. From this to the termination in its mem- branous cavity, it is cartilaginous 5 but before it terminates, it be- comes considerably enlarged to what it was when it arose, and ter- minates, as was said, in a membranous opening. The eustachian cavity, is this large membranous vault, whose nse is not known* ; but it is probable, it has some connexion with the sense of hearing. It has no resemblance to the part of the same name in the human, which in him is nothing more than the carti- laginous enlargement of the eustachian tube : nor is it likewise so considerable in other animals, hence its use appears doubtful. It lorms in the horse a very considerable cavity, one proper to each side of the head, the two being opposed to each other, but with some intermediate space between : in a natural state, it is situated with the posterior part towards the occipital bone, the superior towards part of • It has been suggested, that this hollow i.s probably intended as an assistant to the action of neighing in horses, and braying in asses; but as each has a mem- brane by which it is shut out from immediate connexion with the larynx and pha-' rynx, it does not appear easy to conceive, how it can influence these sounds, un- less by the oscillations of the membrane itself. Bourgclat speaks of it, as a cavity open with the pharynx; but I have always found it, as I have said, separated by a fine membrane ; perhaps, in the usual mode of examining it, this membrane hsS been torn through. THE EAR. 173 tlie pharynx ; anteriorly towards the great nasal fossa, and infcriorly towards the inferior part of the pharynx : both are situated between the two long branches of the os hyoides, or rather each long branch of (bat bone extends up within their cavity. When therefore a section of the head is made, each appears as a membranous oval space, formed in the lateral part of the pharynx, and closed by a fine septum. Upon removing the membrane which separates it from the pharynx, the cavity appears ; in each of which is seen the branch of the os hyoides, a lingual branch of nerves, the trunk of the carotid, and the continuation of the jugular, passing up its outer surface. The next opening of the tympanum is the Jenestra ovalis, but which is only a hole of communication between the tympanum and the laby- rinth. The fenestra rotunda is situated infcriorly to this, and is the opening to a particular duct in the labyrinth. The vestibule is the cavity in the petrous portion of the temporal bone, immediately be- yond the tympanum ; the fenestra ovalis being the common opening to them. The semicircular ca7ials are described as three bony open- ings of nearly a semicircular form, within the substance of the bone ; having five openings into the vestibule, in such a manner that there are two above, two below, and one in the middle. The cochlea is a double spiral canal, within the pars petrosa, having its opening in the vestibule. These spiral windings make two or three turns like the windings of a snail’s shell, and which are divided from each other by a lamen of fine membrane. The whole internal cavity of the labyrinth is filled with a thin fluid, secreted probably from the vessels of the periosteum ; by which, perhaps, the vibrations received by the membrane from the tympanum, are' modulated and trans- mitted to the expansion of the nerves, in which the sense of hearing immediately resides ; the modulation is, perhaps, farther carried on by the canals of the cochlea. The nei-ves of the inner and outer car, are from the seventh pair, each of which soon separates into two portions; one passes by several small holes into the cavities we have described, as the vestibule, cochlea, and semicircular canals ; and is spread on their surface in a soft pulpy form ; from whence it has gained the name of portio mollis. I'he portio dura is the other part of this nerve, which passing out by the stylo-mastoid hole, gives a small branch, that passes through the tympanum, called chorda tym^ pani, and then goes on to the base of the tongue. The arteries of the internal- ear arise from the external and internaf carotids, and from the vertebrals. Its blood is returned by two veins, which pour it into the jugular. The outer ear receives its arteries from the external carotid, by a branch, called the auricular, arising immediately from eitlier the tenij)oral or maxillary branches of this artery ; and which branch is ramified throughout all the outer ear, and returned by similar veins into the jugulars. Sense of Hearing. Hearing, as a sense, is involved in some degree of obscurity; nevertheless, philosophers have agreed pretty nearly in their mode of 174 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. explaining the phenomena arising from it. The expansion of the soft portion of the auditory nerve, renders it evident, that this inner por- tion of the ear must be very acute ; and we observe the same wise provision for an increase of surface here as in the nose, by a tortuous direction of its cavities. The sonorous waves of the air, appear to be collected by any body whose surface is opposed to them ; hence we may see how wisely the external ear of the animal is formed, being admirably adapted to receive a great number of these sonorous waves : and how much the mobility of this part must augment the effect, by being enabled to be exactly applied to meet the full direc- tion of their course. 'Sounds, therefore, entering the cavity of the outer ear, are alternately reflected from the cartilaginous sides of the concha, till they arrive at the bottom ; when, striking on the membrana tympani, they force it into similar oscillations, which are communicated to the inner' cavities by means of the connexions we described, and there act upon the acutely sensible expansion of the auditory nerve. TJie Eye. The organ of vision, with its phenomena, have engaged the atten- tion of the curious in every age. As a subject of curiosity, it is highly worthy of our attention; and as a subject of inrportance to the well being of the animal, it is even more so. It becomes more immediately a matter that ought to command a great portion, of the research of the veterinarian, since it is an organ very liable to disease in the horse ; and which diseases are of such a nature as have hi- therto baffled all attempts to relieve them. We cannot contemplate the wonderful organization of the different senses, and the effects brought about by them, without being filled with admiration. It is a subject worthy of -remark, that the same substance, the brain, should produce parts, or organs, sensible and open to such different impressions. The most attentive examination made between the optic and auditory nerves, shews little variation in structure; but yet how vast the difference between the senses of hearing and seeing ! In the human and brute subject, the number of the eyes are the same; but their situation is in some measure different. They are placed in the human in the front of the face, while in the brute they are situaied more to each side, that his field of view might be very extensive; since the arts of his enemies are such as counterbalance his own : but in man, who is intended by nature to meet with such enemies only, whose art is infinitely inferior to his own ; so he is supposed not to need such a placing of his organs. In birds the lateral situation of the eye is such, that they can see objects in almost every direction ; at least they can take cognizance of a large field ; but again, it is such, that they cannot distinguish small ob- jects with both eyes at the same time ; hence the reason of the rapid motions of their heads. The organ of vision may be divided into the appendages of the eye, and the eye itself. The globe is situated within a cavity, called^ THE EYE. 175 ;^Vie orbit, which Is formed by the concurrence of several bones (see Osteology), and which is penetrated at its bottom by its orbitary fissures, giving passage to nerves and blood vessels. It is lined by a periosteum formed from the dura mater coming also through the fissures. The globe of the eye may be considered as made up of parts investing, and parts invested. The parts investing are the muscles, the true tunics, or coats, and the simple expansions. The parts inv'ested are the more internal expansions, the humours, and their capsules. , As tunics, may be reckoned the conjunctiva, the sclerotica, and the cornea transparens. The internal expansions are. the iris, the choroides, tapetum, and retina. d'he humours are three. The aqueous, which is a thin fluid, con- tained in the anterior part of the eye. The vitreous, which is of the consistence of the white of an egg, and occupies the posterior portion. The third is the crystalline, of a more solid texture, and lenticular form, situated within the vitreous, and surrounded by its proper cap- sule. The coats of the eye. — The conjunctiva is a fine delicate and trans- parent membrane lining the internal superfices of each eyelid, and reflected from thence over the anterior part of the globe of the eye ; being thus reflected, a most admirable structure is brought about, affording every possible freedom of motion, yet the eye is amply se- cured within the orbit 5 but more particularly its use is displayed in preventing the entrance of any foreign substance. It is transparent, by which the white underneath shines through, and it presents dif- ferent degrees of vascularity in different parts ; that portion lining the eyelids is very vascular, and carries red blood in considerable quantities : this part also secretes a mucus that defends the surface of the eye from the irritation of the tears. That portion which is re- flected on the opaque cornea is less vascular, but carries some red blood ; but that reflected ove way, it unites with the cartilaginous septum; which is con- tinued down in the same manner as the vomer, that is, it is received anteriorly by the nasal bones, and posteriorly by the maxillary, till it arrives near the end of the nose, when k bifurcates into two portions. The frontal sinuses are formed by the separation of the two tables of the frontal bones. (See Osteology.) There is usually a bony partition which forms them into two equal portions, and frequently other bony prolongations supporting the parieties. These sinuses communicate superiorly with the nasal cavities, and are lined by the same membrane linino; those hollows: in ruminant animals they are infested with a species of fly. The sphenoidal sinus is formed from a vault in the middle of the substance of the bone of that name, and is likewise lined by the pituitary membrane, and communicates superiorly with the nasal cavities. The ethmoidal (ells likewise communicate with the nasal fossae superiorly, and are formed from the numerous cavities in the ethmoid bone, which are likewise lined by the pituitary membrane. The maxillary cavities: These can hardly be called sinuses ; because though the maxillary bone forms an immense cavity, yet it is shut and nearly filled up by the turbinated hones, which have been described in the Osteology ; it is only necessary to remark here, that both of them, by their tortuous direction within the nasal cavities, and their cellular and spongy texture, very considerably increase the surface of this mucous membrane, which seems their principal use. The pituitai'y mem- brane lines the whole nasal fossae throughout all their compartments^ It was first correctly described by Schneider, from whence it is frequently called Schneiderian membrane : it appears continued to the pharynx and larynx : and this accounts, perhaps, for the dis- position in long continued glanders to affect the lungs ; the con- nexion of the membrane of the larynx, and that of the nose, continuing the specific inflammation to the membrane of the bron- chia. It appears exquisitely fine and vascular in all its parts, and is furnished with a mucus throughout its whole extent, whereby the surface is always kept pliant, soft, and susceptible; by this mucus likewise insects are prevented from penetrating the nose. 7'he evident use of the pituitary membrane appears to be a medium for the expansion of the olfactory nerves ; whereby the impressions from the effluvia of different substances are received. Ductus ad nasum: The puncta lachrymalia, which we described in the eye, are the openings to a canal within the angular bone (see Osteology), called the nasal duct, which is continued membranous between the turbinated bones, and terminates by an opening within the nostril near the bottom, where it may be easily seen. This duct carries off the superfluous saline fluid, secreted by the lachrymal gland. Being lined with the pituitary membrane, in glanders it becomes obstructed, whereby the tears flow over the face ; and at length the matter itself flows out at the puncta lachrymalia : in inflam- 186 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. mations of the eye, the puncta likewise become so inflamed as to be impervious for ‘a time; hence a horse in this affection is always weeping. The common integuments of the other parts are spread over the ' nose, except that there appears but little adipose membrane ; it is likewise furnished with hair to the edges of the nostrils, and is internally lined throughout with the pituitary membrane, except the inner edge, which is furnished by the skin; but blended, as it were, with the mucous covering. By a fold of the commoni integu- i inents, the false nostrils are formed, appearing as a cavjty on each side, running some way up the nose, and then terminating; form- ^ ' ing below, the appearance sufficiently known to every one acquainted “ with horses : within which fold is situated a cartilage, by whose i means the surface is kept dilated. The nose is influenced in its 3 motions by means of three pair of muscles and a single one. (See | Myology.) Its vessels are numerous, as its membrane is very | vascular and extensive : it gains a large branch from the maxillary, a the ocular, and the palatine arteries. Its venal blood is returned \ by the maxillary and palatine veins into the jugular. (See 'Angi- ; ology.) The nerves are furnished from the first and fourth pairs : j the olfactory we have described as very lar^e hollow branches, ’ which are expanded into a pulpy mass over the whole pituitary sur- ; face, rendering it highly sensible to impressions received from the i effluvia of bodies. The external parts are furnished by a branch I of the fifth pair. (See Nerves.) | Sense of Smelling, ' | Smelling is that faculty by which animals take cognizance of bo- I dies by means of the volatile parts flying off from them, and which ’ diffused every where around, some of them strike the olfactory ^ organs, and, by means of the nervous fibrillse expanded over the pituitary membrane, communicate a sensation to the brain that 1 produces the idea of smell. j Cavity of the Mouth, with its Parts. 1 This cavity in the horse, forms all that extensive opening, from \ the first cervical vertebra to the incisive teeth ; bounded above by i the palatine arch, and below by the tongue : and is divided into the mouth, properly so called, and the large posterior cavity uniting and partly forming the pharynx. The mouth is composed-of exter- nal and internal parts : the external are the lips, cheeks, and beard : • the internal are the gums, the bars, the. teeth, the alveolary edges, the palate, the septum palati, and the tongue. The lips form the inferior and external parts of the mouth, and are two in number ; an upper and lower, or anterior and posterior: and both are com- posed of fleshy masses fixed in different directions around them, but principally a circular one, forming the orbicular muscle, or sphincter oris : the rest are composed of the numerous muscular plans that perform the various motions of the mouth and lips. (See CAVITY OF THE MOUTH. 187 Myology.) They have^, besides these muscular strata, a species of peculiar cellular substance interposed. The outer covering of the lips is not exactly like that of the other parts, being nearly devoid of hair, much thinner and finer ; and, by this means, possessing a greater sensibility, which is of great use to an animal that makes use of the lips as the organs of touch : as this membrane turns to line the inner side of the lip, it becomes of still more vascular and villous a texture, and combines with the glandulous or mucous membrane of the mouth. The muscles of the lips are so numerous, and their motions so various, that the animal is thereby enabled to collect his food, and to form and place it between his teeth by their assistance : by these means likewise the young ani- mal sucks its milk ; and, in fact, so various are the dispositions of the muscular plans around the mouth, that, like the tongue, there is no direction in which they cannot ' place themselves. In some brutes they supply the place of .fingers in most cases, and seem to he the organ of feeling principally resorted to. The blood vessels of -the lips are furnished from the labial artery and veins. (See Angi- ology.) The nerves arise from the fifth pair, which come out at the foraminae of the two maxilla. The gums are that substance that appears on the alveolary edges of each jaw on either side, insinuating between the teeth, and surrounding each of their necks, so that the inner and outer gums unite ; by which means they support the teeth in their situation. The substance of the gums is very clastic and compact, adhering to the bones by means of the periosteum, and externally eovered by the same strong polished membrane that covers the internal parts of the lips, and which appears formed from a union of the proper membrane of the mouth and of the cuticle : thus it participates in the colour of the general skin, being some- times light, and at others dark : this membrane, continued from the posterior part of the alveolary edges, blends with the membrane of the mouth, and at the lower part of the channel forms a kind of fold, which the French call harhillions, and the English harhs*f * It is surprising, that so excellent an anatomist as Bourgelat should regard this duplication of the skin as a defect, ‘ Les excroissances contre nature que I’on ‘ nomine barbes ou barbillions.’ It may be remarked, nature, in the usual course of her proceedings, forms nothing useless or originally defective. With regard to these, they are of evident and great utility in confining the motions of the tongue^ and assisting the ligamentary connexion. In old books of farriery, we always meet with the terms paps and barbs under the diseases of the mouth. These, by time, became confounded, so that one term was used for the other. But it should appear that barhs originally expressed this duplicature of the membranes of these parts, and which, in inflammation of the mouth, becoming enlarged, were regarded as the cause of the disease, and hence extirpated. The paps were originally in- tended to express the little mammillary terminations of the' salivary ducts, which are situated near the barbs. These the ignorance of the times regarded as excre- scences also, and directed them to be cut close away. In the first instance, the excising of the barbs, or of that duplicature of the skin I have described, might not be attended with any danger; but the removal of thfe paps would very proba- bly obstruct the salivary. duct; this must produce inflammation in the gland, which, if it proceeded to suppuration, would form a very troublesome wound, and finally 188 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. which folds appear to connect the tongue, and to confine its mo- tions. The substance of the gums, though very plentifully sup- plied with blood vessels from the maxillary branches, is but sparingly supplied with nerves from the fifth pair; by which means they are very vascular, but not very sensible, except under inflammation. Were they as sensible as some other parts, the hard substances taken into the mouth, as corn, hay. See., would hurt them by its pressure ; particularly where they are much exposed, as over the bars. See. The ba?s are, anatomically considered, only spaces left by nature between the teeth, from the great length of the jaws ; for incisive teeth continued up so high would have been useless, and never brought into action, whereby their wear would not have been equal to the others ; and thus they would in the end have starved the owner ; nor was it necessary that the molar teeth should reach thus far ; for being so distant from the centre of motion, the animal would have found their strength very disproportionate to those higher up. But nature delights not in cavities or vacuums, but follows throughout her works a similitude, and blends her cha- racters into each other; therefore she has given a canine tooth in this place, and which appears designed to break the vacancy, as well as to keep up this connexion between the carnivorous and granivorous tribes. Man, ever alert to take advantage of what na- ture puts into his reach, turns this space to the utmost use ; and that which to the anatomist forms a part but little worthy of atten- tion, is, with the riding-master, a subject of the greatest importance. The bars form those parts upon which the bit of the bridle rests^ whereby we insure the obedience of the animal ; they are continu- ations of the alveolary edges, more or less rounded in difl'erent sub- jects, and furnished with the gums, which are likewise more or Jess thick in some than others. Though, as we have said, the gums are not very sensible, yet they are sufficiently so to feel very forcibly the strong pressure of the bit of the bridle upon this part ; and, inde- pendent of which, the skin of the branches of the jaw above the chin is very sensible, which being pressed by the curb against the sharp edges of the jaw bone, farther insures the obedience of the animal ; injure and blemisli the auimak From an ignorance of the anatomy of the horse, these errors not only arose but were disseminated. Bracken, falling into the same, speaks of these excrescences under the tongue, and recommends their re- moval. Bartlet, who was still less acquainted with the structure of this animal, copied him ; and from these sources these gross errors have continued to be handed down in all the treatises on this subject to the present day. Persons who profess to instruct in any art, should be doubly careful how tliey receive the errors of others, and propagate them blindly. Not only is much mischief done to the vete- rinary practice by promulgating these erroneous principles, but neighbouring na- tions (who have no other means of judging of our improvements but by our public works) form a very disadvantageous opinion of the state of the art among us. In a late voluminous but wretched publication, we see ‘ harbs or pops are small ex- ‘ crescences under the tongue ; when pretcrnaturally enlarged, cut them dose.’— - J, Laicrence, vol, ii, p. 490. CAVITY OF THE MOUTH. 189 ! but horsemen pay less regard to this part (though it is the most sensible) than to the bars, because the pressure on the chin by the curb, produces but one action, that of stopping progression ; whereas, by means of the sensibility of the bars, various actions are brought about, and the horse directed to either sidcj as, therefore, this is more or less sensible, so is the horse said to have a better or a worse mouth. When the alveolary edges of the posterior jaw are very sharp, the pressure of the gums upon them, by means of the bit, must be painful, and this must be much increased in those gums naturally very sensible ; and, in this case, a horse may have too tender a' mouth. On the contrary, when the bony part of the bars is round and smooth, the gums must suffer less from pressure; and this in a still greater degree, if there is superadded a natural insensibility of the gums, which then constitutes a hard mouth. It is supposed, that putting a horse on a champing bit in- creases the sensibility of the mouth, for, by masticating upon the bit, the bars are rendered more sensible; but if this custom is too long continued, in the end, the continued friction and pressure will harden the gums from the cuticular increase ; it will likewise wear the teeth. To keep the bars sensible, there should never be, during action, but a momentary pressure upon them ; and a kind of play between the month and the hand of the rider, and an oscillatory motion of the bridle; by which slight pressure the obedience of the horse will be obtained; his mind will be occupied upon its proper subject; that is, his attention will be engaged on a progression sub- jected to the w'ill of his rider, and his mouth, as it is termed, will be kept alive, and always sensible. Hence, it is evident, that the custom of riding hacknies so much with snaffles, in which there is no aid derived from the chin, but the whole stress laid upon the bars, is founded on wrong principles. Whenever these bridles are used, they should be large ; nor should a servant be allowed to w’ater or exercise a horse with a less snaffle than one, whose dia- meter is three quarters of an inch in the part that presses upon the bars. I have entered into this subject more widely than perhaps may be deemed necessary, and it may be thought foreign to my text ; but it is so important, and so practically connected with the description of the part concerned, that I have ventured on this digression. The teeth are parts within the mouth, contained within the alve- olary edges of the superior, inferior, and posterior maxillary bones, and which have been particularly described in the Osteology. The palate is divided into its arch and its septum. Thearc/tis bony and membranous ; the membranous structure adheres by its inner sur- face to the bony palatine arch, formed of the palatine portions of the superior maxillary bones : its outer surface is thrown into very considerable rug®, or folds, which are more distant from each other, and larger in the inferior part of the arch tow'ards the incisive teeth, than in the superior and farther part of the mouth. The palatine arch appears formed of the common integuments with a 190 AKATOMY OF THE HEAD. dense cellular substance, and is laterally connected with the mem- brane of the gums. In colts and young horses, this part is natu- rally thicker than in old ones : sometimes it is so much so as to reverse the palatine arch, making it convex instead of concave; in these cases it is usual, with the generality of farriers, to say such a horse has the lampas ; and the part is either cauterized or scarified, putting the horse tojiiuch pain, and frequently producing a caries of the bone. The membrane itself^ however, may now and then become to a great degree preternaturally enlarged ; but it seldom can require such strong means as burning iron ; it will generally give way to astringent applications. (See Lampas.) The use of these rugae is to prevent the falling out of the food from the mouth in the inclined situation of the head : in the human, as the head is held in a different position, they are but little evident, as being but little necessary. The velum palati forms the posterior portion of this arch, and is attached to the palatine edges, and to the maxillary bones ; late- rally, it appears formed from a continuation of the membranes of the palate and muscular fasciculi. This septum presents an inferior or posterior opening, by which means it divides the mouth from the pharynx, having its superior or anterior portions fixed to the pala- tine bone, where the arch of the palate ceases ; its sides having a lateral attachment, and its centre floating loose within the cavity, like a curtain of division between these parts, but presenting a central opening similar to the arch of a bridge. In the middle of this arch, there is, in the human, a glandular pendulous body termed the uvula, but in the horse there is no such part; but, in- stead of it, the velum palati is much more extensive, and extends lower down, in such manner that only this slight opening we have mentioned appears ; and which also is exactly closed up by a car- tilage proper to the larjmx : so that except when the horse is swal- lowing, there is no immediate communication between the mouth and the pharynx. The cavities of the nose open into the pharynx; and the larynx opens likewise into the same hollow: as, therefore, the communication between the mouth and pharynx is shut out, it is evident, that the horse cannot breathe by his mouth ; and when any air comes by this way, as in coughing, it is only by a convul- sive displacement of the velum palati. The oesophagus likewise opens into the pharynx, consequently there is no passage for the food either were it to return ; thus, if a horse’s stomach was so formed that he could vomit, he would be suffocated ; for the mat- ter would be forced into the nose, unless the same convulsive effort before noticed should force it into the mouth. But in those animals who can vomit, the velum palati is not so extensive, and they like- wise can breathe through the mouth. Though the curtain of the palate cannot be carried forward, but by a very convulsive effort, it is so situated as very easily to be car-* ried back ; at least, it can be very considerably elevated by means of its muscles, which are very numerous, and their size and direc- CAVITY OF THE MOUTH. m tion such, that they have never been all named (see Myology). By. means of these muscular fibres, the velum palati becomes elevated, and the masticated bolus passing over the epiglottis presses it down, whereby the opening becomes at once increased, and the cavity of the larynx shut, so that nothing is permitted by this formation to pass from the pharynx to the mouth ; but every thing easily from the mouth to the pharynx,^ There are on each side fleshy pillars, or half arches, formed of muscular fibres, within a duplicature of the common membrane, terminating by one part in the velum palati and pharynx, and by the other in the base of the tongue ; by means of which the motions of the velum palati are assisted. Ifi appears probable, that these are particularly useful in bringing about that concordance of action between these parts ; for at the same time that the palatine septum is carried back, the larynx is raised, and, with it, the cesophagus ; the pharynx is at the same time depressed, the tongue usually contracted, and its base elevated. The tongue is that large fleshy mass that fills up the channel, or space between the branches of the posterior jaw, surrounded by the alveolary border, and extending upwards, so as to adapt itself to the arch of the palate. (See Plate III.) It is a most moveable part, per- haps the most so of any, being almost wholly composed of muscu- lar fibres. It is divided into basis or root, apex or point, anterior and posterior sides, and its edges. The base is the upper part, and is much the thickest, but it has no line of division on its surface, as in the human. The surface of the tongue appears composed of coverings nearly similar to the common integuments of the body, with the addition of an arrangement of numerous papillae, and a thick reticular structure of rete mucosum : this papillary texture pierces the rete mucosum, with a portion of the cuticle over it ; the posterior surface appears nearly cnticular, and presents notie of these eminences. On examination these papillae appear of different forms, and are in some animals very large, as in the ox, bear, and some others. The muscular fibres composing the tongue are placed in every direction, with a whitish substance interposed in a transverse direction between ; which substance is much more con- siderable near the base. The fibres in the central parts of the organ are placed in various ways, that the motion may be per- forrned on all sides : besides which, there appears a perpendicular plane immediately under the surface, whereby its mass is short- ened. The tongue is connected by means of muscles to the os hyoides, and by a duplicature of the membrane of the mouth on each side. Its proper muscles are those betw'een it and the os hyoides, and those between the os hyoides and other parts (see Myo- ^Sy)- The blood vessels of this organ are the raninae and palatine, {see ^ngiology). The nerves are the ninth, or gustatory; and a branch of the fifth pair {see Neurology) , For an exemplification of these parts, see Plate III. The tongue is a very principal organ in mastication ; by its great 192 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. mobility it carries the food into every direction the most favourable for it to be chewed in ; and, finally, passes it to the pharynx. Sense of Tasting. The tongue is the principal organ of this sense, though taste is not entirely confined to it, as the palate and fauces participate. Only the anterior surface and lateral edge of the human tongue are fitted to exercise this function, and from analogy we are led to sup- pose it the same with brutes. Taste is, perhaps, a higher degree of touch, or a modification of it, since we can feel, with astonishing- precision, any object by the tongue : its being always moist, also greatly increases its exquisite sensibility. Taste was given to brutes to regulate their other senses, and thus there are few plants or sub- stances whose application to the tongue produces an agreeable effect, but such as are proper for food. Nature, therefore, stimulates her creatures to take food by a double motive ; the pleasure of taste, and the pain of hunger : and for this reason it is, that we find animals will not thrive on some food that is capable of forming nutriment, for they are not stimulated by taste; and a less quantity will damp the calls of hunger than is necessary to fatten. It must, however, be confessed, that the discriminating quality in brutes, with regard to food, is greatly assisted by their sense of smelling. The Pharynx, I shall consider and describe as pharynx, all that considerable cavity, superior and posterior to the mouth, properly so called ; and divided from it by the velum palati. It is usual to consider the ca- vity generally as the posterior part of the mouth, or hinder mouth ; and then to consider the pharynx as a portion of this, whose line of division is imaginary ; but as it is evidently one hollow, having ther openings of several other cavities and canals within it, I shall con- sider the whole as pharynx, and which will much expedite and faci- litate a just knowledge of it, which is the only true intent of ana- tomy. Within the pharynx, so considered, are seen, the communi- cation with the mouth, the opening of the nasal fossae by means of the fauces (which are only the upper and anterior portions of this cavity), the membrane covering the eustachian vault, the cavity of the larynx, and that of the oesophagus. The manner in which the nasal fossae open into it, is best learned by a reference to Plate III, where the true situation is at Once seen. The eustachian cavity is shut from immediate communication with the pharynx, by means of its membranous covering : this cavity is placed on each side of the pharynx, immediately behind the base of the skull. {Fide Plate III.) The larynx is the opening, or commencement of the trachea, and is placed in the posterior part of the pharynx, and forms a kind of cartilaginous box, composed principally of five yrieces, which are so situated between the branches of the os hyoides, and so connected THE PHARYNX. 193 with this bone, as to have very small lateral motion ; but an exten- sive one above, downwards, forwards, and backwards, as the situa- tion of the parts may vary. These cartilages are, the thyroid, the cricoid, the two arytenoid, and the epiglottis, {Vide Plate 1\\.) The thyroid cartilage is the most considerable, and forms a kind of half circle, having a longitudinal convexity on the anterior part, and being concave within 3 it is united to the lateral and middle parts of the cricoid cartilage ; superiorly it is received between the branches of the os hyoides, to which it is attached by a ligament within it : the epiglottis is situated as it were at its anterior part. The cricoid cartilage approaches in figure to a thick ring, and is received, in some measure, wnthin the thyroid, and united to it by a ligament : it arti- culates above with the arytenoid, and below with the thyroid, as we have described, and its base unites with the beginning of the trachea. The arytenoid are two small similar cartilages, situated posteriorly above the cricoid, and rather within the cavity of the larynx, uniting together at the beginning of the glottis ; their concave inferior surface receives the superior convex surface of the cricoid cartilage, and the superior extremity forms a kind of point curved backwards. The epiglottis (vide Plate III), is a very elastic tongue-like body, situ- ated and attached to the anterior portioir of the thyroid by a strong ligament. Its internal surface is concave ; its external is slightly convex, and attached to the base of the tongue by some muscular fibres 3 it ends in a point, which is curved forward. This cartilage is of the utmost importance to the animal ; it exactly fills up the float- ing arch of the velum palati, thereby shutting the cavity of the mouth,, and making the animal breathe through his nose. As the bolus passes forwards, this cartilage is forced down, and then exactly fits^ the opening of the glottis, and by this means the entrance of any thing within the trachea is prevented. As soon as the bolus has pass- ed, the epiglottis by its elasticity, and, perhaps, assisted by muscular fibres, returns to its situation. And here we miist, in a particular manner, admire the wisdom of its formation : had it been ligamen- tary, and influenced in its actions only^by muscles, it would con- tinually endanger the animal ; for numerous diseases might affect the muscular energy : but the cartilaginous elasticity is never lost till the body falls into a state of decomposition and decay. The glottis is nothing more than the oval opening into the box, formed by means of the cartilages, and their numerous connecting mem- bjanes and ligaments. The larynx gives insertion to a great number of muscles, and its rnotions are consequently very much varied ; some of these operate on the whole of it as a body, and have their attachments in other parts 5 some operate only on particular cartilages, but are wholly inserted in the larynx : the sterno thyroidaei draw's the opening down- wards after it has been raised in deglutition 5 it is elevated in this action by the hyo thyroidaei. The crico thyroidsei, crico arytenoidaei lateralis and posterioris, thyro arytenoidaei, hyo epiglottici, are all Wi^scles' that act upon the different cartilages 3 by which means the 194 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. cavity of the larynx is altered in its figure and dimensions, and the sounds of the voice thus variously modulated. The membrane lining this part appears a continuation of that of the pharynx, and is very vascular and sensible, being continually kept moist by its mucous secretion. The thyroid glands are situated one on each side of the cricoid cartilage (in the human, the thyroid gland is one body, situated at the anterior convex side of the larynx) ; here it forms two oval glandular bodies, but whose use in either subject is unknown. The vessels of the larynx are the laryngeal, arising from the carotids and jugulars, and its nerves the recurrents, w'hich originate from the eighth pair. (See Neurology.) Uses of the larynx. — This part answers two very principal pur- poses in the economy : it is the organ by which air is received into the lungs ; it is likewise the organ of the voice, and by which sound is produced; hence, if the recurrent nerves, going to this part, are divided, the voice is entirely lost. The cartilages of the larynx are moveable one upon the other; and this motion is effected by means of the various movements which influence the voice, whose intona- tions are formed by an expiration producing a vibration in the cavity, which, acting upon the air, is transmitted to the ear; and hence vve become sensible to what is cal’ d the voice. The cartilages, being acted upon by the muscles, produce different degrees of tensity, and different degrees of constriction in the larynx, w'hich occasions the voice to be variously disposed. In the ass, the principal sounds are those of braying, and perhaps he differs in no respect so much from the horse- as in the sounds he produces ; and this is another very strong proof, that an ass is not a horse degenerated, as has been by some supposed. Braying appears produced through the mouth, by a convulsive forcing of the velum palati> as in coughing, and is effected by alternate inspirations and expirations ; the inspirations forming half tones, and the lengtliened notes being formed of expi- rations. The action of neighing, on the contrary, is produced wholly of expirations, as, indeed, are most of the tones of the horse’s voice ; and it is likewise produced wholly through the nose, as is proved by slitting the nasal cartilage, which prevents it : this, therefore, makes a very essential distinction between these two animals. Kniickering, as it is termed, is only a lesser neigh, with shorter, deeper, and less forcible tones, and expresses affection and joy. The horse has one acute sound, produced by the act of inspiration, which usually ex- presses either play or lust : but in most other instances, sound in the horse is produced from expirations : nor does it appear that the tongue or teeth are much concerned in the modulations of his voice; but in dogs they are very much concerned. The lowing of oxen is likewise performed through the mouth ; and the bleating of sheep also : hence it would appear, that the mouth is better adapted to convey sound than the nose ; or at least it produces more variety in tones, though the passage is not so direct. Barking is formed of short- continued expirations, with the jaws very slightly separated. Succeeded by a quick and forcible expiration,, the mouth being alter- THE PHARYNX. 195 Hately opened and shut. A dog produces more tones than most quadrupeds ; his howl consists of a great variety of notes, but are all formed with the mouth open. Snarling is effected by a tremor of the velum palati, and can be brought about equally by expiration or inspiration. The mewing of a cat is produced by expiration, both through the nose and mouth ; beginning with the consonant m, and continued by passing the air through the nose, and then follovving it with a more steady expiration through the open mouth, the shut- ting of which produces the final expression. The grunting of hogs appears generally composed of expirations, and can be effected either through the mouth or nose, and consists in a convulsive tremor of the curtain of the palate during the expiration : their cry of distress is effected through the mouth by expirations : thus persons, when killing pigs, usually tie the mouth, to drown or lessen the noise. Deglutition, or the uses of the mouth and pharynx. — Animals have organs wisely adapted to their wants. The reception of food into the stomach is a process of great importance, and managed with con- siderable art. The food of the horse is grain or herbage, in a state of nature, usually collected near the ground. When a horse grazes, he crops the grass with his incisive teeth, first placing by his lips a tuft between them, when, elevating his chin, the sharp edges of the under ones become applied to the grass, and cut it through ; were it not cut, instead of torn, the horse would be under the necessity of taking up roots and all : therefore, it will be found, the prominent edges of these teeth are all wisely adapted to this process. In the ox and sheep, who have no upper nippers, they wrap a tuft of grass round with their tongue, and then apply it to the under incisive, by which it is cut off ; llierefore, they are obliged always to carry the chin forward in collecting their grass. When a quantity of grass, or herbage, is thus gained, it is carried by the tongue and molar muscles to the upper part of the mouth, to encounter the action of the grind- ^ ers, and to be mixed with saliva during the process ; for which the broad flat surfaces of their teeth are admirably adapted. The matter is carried from side to side, so as to be placed in the most favourable direction, for perfect mastication, by means of the tongue and molar muscles. During this process, it continues to be mixed with the salivary fluid, from the parotid, maxillary, and sublingual glands, which pour out their secretion by the pressure of the surrounding’ muscles, in greater quantity than usual; and for which reason, that is, to be subjected to this pressure, these glands are so placed as to be near the motion of the muscles used in mastication : but this is not the only stimulus to them ; they arc acted upon by the mind likewise; for we find if victuals is placed before a hungry dog, just without his reach, his jaws will pour out saliva in great plenty. The mass having thus been completely masticated, is, by the tongue, carried backwards, and upwards into the pharynx, and, during its passage, the epiglottis becomes pressed down, so as exactly to cover the glottis, or opening of the larynx, and the velum palati jl5 at the same time carried backwards so as tq close the nasal fostsse. P 19G Anatoliy of the mead. The mouth is kept shut during this action, that the muscles may find a fixed point ; the pharynx then first sinks to receive the bolus pushed into it by the contraction of the tongue, whereby its base becomes elevated and enlarged, and completely stops up the opening towards the mouth, it also keeps the larynx closed ; the pharynx then receiving it, first sinks, as we have said, to permit its entry, and then rises, with the funnel- like extremity of the oesophagus dpen, into which the bolus is forced, and, by its muscular powers, moulded into a proper shape. The action after this becomes invo- luntary, the mass being pushed forward through the oesophagus by means of its muscular structure, as will be explained hereafter. The gullet has this power independent of the gravity of the substance ; for grazing animals always swallow against the gravity of the aliment. But until it has entered the common banal of the oesophagus, without the assistanceof thetongue, deglutition cannot be performed. Awoman, who had lost this organ, was forced always to place the food, by means of a spoon, or fork, quite into the pharynx, or she could not swallow : so animals, who have been deprived of the tongue, elevate the head to let the substance gravitate : hence becomes evident the folly of those farriers, who attempt to give a ball, yet the whole time confine the tongue till they suppose it is swallowed ; for, by pre- venting this body from being raised at its base, the ball cannot her carried back, but either remains or gets into some of the interstices of the mouth. The glands of the head are folliculose, mucous, and salivary, with the sebaceous ones of the ears. The folliculose and mucous have been already described ; we need only add, that the whole of the membrane of the nose, mouth, pharynx, and larynx, are secreting surfaces, and constantly form a mucus, which defends these parts from the external atmosphere, and keeps up the sensibility of their sur- faces. When this membrane becomes inflamed, it forms catarrh, in which case, the secretion is at first increased and thinner, but at last degenerates into a thicker and more purulent state. The salivary glands secrete the fluid we call the saliva, whose use appears to be that of diluting the food, and fitting it for its maceration. The principal of these are the parotid, the maxillary, and the sublingual, which have already been diescribed fully. (See Adenology.) Sig^cnpttoii of plate III. Tills Plate represents a section of the head, as far as the, second cervical ver- tebra, carefully made. The section was not carried exactly through the centre, hut inclined more to the right side, consequently leaving the left portion rather the largest, by which means the septa dividing the parts are preserved. Figure the First Presents the left portion of the section, in which the* cartilaginous par- tition of the two nasal cavities is entire, with part of the falx or septum dividin;* the two lobes of the brain likewise. The oesophagus, as inclining naturally rather %• if i w iv DESCRIPTION OF PLATE III. 197 to the left side, appears, therefore, whole in this section, and this influenced the making the division with the larger half or portion to the left, a, The cerebrum; &, the cerebellum, with its arborescent appearance; c c, the medulla oblongata. The anterior c, shews its origin at the base of the cerebrum and cerebellum ; the posterior c, depicts the spinal marrow, which is the continua- tion of the medulla, passing out at the great foramen in the occipital bone; d, the eustachian cavity, being the termination of the eustachian tube : it was covered by a membranous septum, which is removed to shew the cavity more completely ; the letter d, is immediately upon a part of the os hyoides: the two vessels that run under and across it, are the carotid artery and jugular vein : posterior to it, is a muscle of. the os hyoides; next to it, the lingual nerve; and behind these, are branches of the external carotid. The edges of this cavity form part of the pharynx, and are attached to the posterior portion of the occipital : to its lower edge the muscular fibres of the oesophagus are attached ; and to its upper and pos- terior part, the muscles of tlie pharynx ; e, the frontal sinuses divided by the parti- tion, part of which is broken off, to shew the left of these cavities; the eth- moidal sinuses; g, the sphenoidal sinus; A, the cartilaginous partition of the nose; i, the vomer implanted below, into the groove of the palatine bones, and above, fixed into the septum of the nose ; A, the cartilaginous substance imme- diately over the palatine bones, assisting in the division of these cavities and their fi.nnation; /, the palate, or roof of the mouth, with its folds or rugss; m, shews the section of the posterior jaw, at the symphysis of the chin ; above and below the muscular substance of the lips is seen, with the skin as a line over it; n, the section of the tongue, with its fibrous appearance, or the intermixture of tendinous fibres towards the root ; o, its outer covering formed of epidermis, or skin, ex- pressed by a white line around its edge : it is seen rough, and its roughness in- creases as it advances towards its base; p, is Intended to shew the velum palati, or curtain of the palati, attached to tlie edge of the palate bone, and extending down ill front of tlie epiglottis, forming a true valve to these parts, and demon- strating the reason why a horse breathes through his nose; q, the epiglottis, or cartilage, that covers the cavity of the larynx in deglutition; r, the larynx, or cavity, from whence the trachea commences ; 1 1, the trachea, or windpipe, cut down the middle, composed of cartilaginous portions, being nearly, but not per- fectly annular ; u u, the pharyn.x, which is the cavity of the hinder mouth, di- vided by the curtain of the palate : the pharynx receives the left nostril at the anterior letter u ; v, the internal coat of the ossophagus thrown into folds, which is a continuation of the cuticle, lining the tongue and mouth, and the farther con- tinuation of which forms the cuticular, or insensibre portion of the stomach ; x, the muscular coat of the oesophagus, which arises from the edges of the mem- branous cavity ; p, the cervical ligament, attached to the occipital bone, escaping the first vertebra, and attached strongly to all the rest; x, the cavity for the en- largement of the ossophagus in swallowing. Figure the Second Represents the right half of the head, the velum palati, and the membran- ous pharynx removed, as well as the brain and spinal marrow ; a, the cavitv for the lodgement of the cerebrum, with its risings and depressions marked ; the cavity within the occipital, for the lodgement of the cerebellum ; r, marks the passage through the occipital foramen and atlas; d, the frontal sinuses exposed, the bony septum dividing the right from the left remaining with the right portion, but within are seen bony pillars supporting these sinuses; e, the superior tur- binated bone forming the upper cornet of the nose ; f, the inferior tiirhinated bone forming the under, or posterior cornet of the nose; g, the ethmoidal sinuses, which in their natural state are covered with a thick brownish substance, firmer than mucus, and adhering closely to the bone; h, the sphenoidal sinuses ; i i, the os hyoides; the superior letter expresses its larger branches, as the lower does its lesser: the bottom portion is its fork, and embraces the larynx; k, a branch of the carotid going to the base of the skull : next to it is seen part of the jugular returning the blood from the sinuses ; the substance seen crossing these is the lingual nerve ; I, the carotid artery forming its divisions ; m m m, the digastric ' P 2 19S AXATOMY OF THE NECK, muscle, with its two fleshy attachments and intermediate tendon; nnn, the right maxillary gland : the posterior letter shews its body which lies within, and under the parotid, as seen in Plate IV : the middle n, shews its duct passing at the pos- terior, and under part of the tongue; and the anterior letter shews the termination of this duct in the mouth under tlie tongue, a little distance from the front teeth : each duct terminates by a little mammillary process, which the farriers call the paps; o, the branch of the carotid artery, that passes over the jaw, and forms the most convenient part for feeling the pulse ; the fingers being applied exactly where the letter is placed; p, the left half of the tongue; q, its root dissected from its attachment to the- os hyoides ; r, a probe shewing the passage of some of the ves- sels of the brain ; s, the optic foramen of the sphenoid bone ; t, another foramen permitting the passage of the cerebral vessels; vv, the most anterior of these, shews the exit of the olfactory nerves, and the posterior the transverse septum, dividing the cerebrum from the cerebellum ; w, is intended to shew the retraction of the skill of the ear, with the concha, or cartilage of that organ underneath, as it appears in the operation of cropping; x x, the eustachian cavity removed, and the edges composing it, with the pharynx likewise, and extended as far as the velum palati, and the end of the palatine bones; y, the two tables of the skull, -with th« iutermediate cancclli, or diploe; z, the pericranium lining the skull. Of the Neck in general. The neck of the horse is a very considerable part^ assisting him iii progression, by forming a counterpoise to the great weight and extent of his hinder parts ; it is likewise useful in enabling him to reach his food from the ground. This part may be divided into ex- ternal and internal parts ; the first of which are, the mane, the ge- neral hair, the common integuments, the cervical ligaments, the muscles, the jugular veins, with the cutaneous vessels and nerves. The more internal parts may be considered to be the cervical ver- tebrre, the spinal marrow and nerves, the vertebral vessels, the carotid arteries, the glands and proper nerves, with the trachea and oesophagus. The neck extends from the upper part of the head between the cars above ; and below from the termination of the channel, and the implanting of the lower jaw; and terminates su- periorly at the withers, and below at the breast : speaking anato- mically, it comprehends all that space between the occipital bone above, and the angle of the posterior jaw below, to the spinous pro- cesses of the first dorsal vertebrae above, and to near the articulation of the humerus with the scapula below. The common integuments of the neck are similar to those of the other parts of the body. Parts of the Neck. The cervical ligament is a very strong substance, placed between, the head and the body, as a support to the head. The muscles of the neck are very strong ; but muscles, if constantly kept in action, fire ; nature has, therefore, given a substance that has great strength, without being liable to fatigue, by which the head is constantly kept Supported. This substance differs from ligament, in some respects, as it is elastic, by which the motions of the head are much accele- Yated. It is strongly attached, by its anterior extremity^ to the pos- THE NECK. 199 Iciior part of the occipital bone ; passing over the first cervical ver- tebra, without attaching itself to it, but is intimately connected with the spinous processes uf the second, third, and fourth ; the stronger portion ot it here passes forwards to reach the spinous processes of the dorsal, but it sends down a kind of double lamen ot ligament, to unite with the rest of the cervical bones. {Vide Plate III.) The muscles of the neck are all described in the Myology, to which we refer the reader ; it is sufficient to say, they are numerous and extensive, and most of them have some attachment to the cervical ligament. In surgical operations upovi this part, it becomes neces- sary to keep in mind, that the fibres of these muscles run almost all of them nearly longitudinally. The jugxdar veins run one on each side of the neck superficially, on the outside of the trachea, towards the lower parts of the throat ; a few inches before they reach the angle of the posterior jaw, each divides into two principal branches, (Vide Plate III and IV.) The cutaneous vessels and nerves are branches given off from the carotid and vertebral arteries, returning their blood by the jugular and vertebral veins. The nerves are from the cervical branches and thaintercostals. The internal parts of the neck are, first, the seven cervical verte- brae, which have been fully described in the Osteology ; they run down this part imbedded in muscles : the first three are situated towards the superior part of it, the remainder gradually gain the middle portion ; and the space between is filled up by the cervical ligament and muscles. The spinal marrow descends along the great cavity within the substance of these vertebrae, and the cervical nerves are given out between the notches formed by the junction of each of their bodies. The vertebral vessels pass through a foramen in their transverse processes, except of the last, in which one, the vessel passes under the process. The carotid arteries extend up under the jugular, just above the trachea, very near the oesophagus, and near to it run up the par vagum and recurvent nerves. The intercostal nerve likewise passes down within the neck. (Vide Plate 111, b» Fig. 2.) The internal cavity : There is Internally above, where the oesophagus lies, a cavity formed, that has seldom been noticed ; but which is nothing more than a species of interval left for the pur- pose of allowing the oesophagus to distend itself in the act of deglu- tition. (Vide z. Fig, 1, Plate III.) The trachea, aspera arteria, or windpipe, is a large canal arising from the cricoid cartilage of the larynx, and which extends down the anterior part of the neck super- ficially for some distance; from whence it passes into the thorax, between the duplicatures of the mediastinum : it is composed of cartilages, which form segments of circles, leaving a space that is filled up by a membrane : these segments are placed one above another, and connected by their edges to the edges of those below, by strong ligaments. By means of this structure the trachea is per- fectly flexible, and yet it is always kept open : externally it is united to the surrounding parts by cellular substances, and on the inside it is lined by a very vascular mucous membrane, the secretion of which 200 SPLANCHNOLOGY. defends it against the effects of the cold air. It is furnished with vessels from the carotids and jugulars, and with nerves from the eighth pair. Being continued down into the chest, to about the third or fourth dorsal vertebra, it divides into two branches, which are called bronchia : the first branches of which usually form seg- ments of circles similar to the trachea, but they soon become com- pletely circular; and, as they proceed, they become less and less in diameter, so that they can, in the collapse of the lungs, easily pass one within the other. They will be more fully treated of hereafter. {Vide 1 1. Fig. 1, Plate III.) The oesophagus. — The pharynx, which we have lately described, is a funnel-like cavity, ending in a tube, partly membranous and partly muscular, called the oesophagus. Its course from the pharynx is before the cervical vertebrae, and behind the trachea, between the carotid arteries ; inclining a little to the left side, it penetrates the chest between the layers of the mediastinum, and continues in a similar direction along the dorsal vertebrae, passing through an opening in the diaphragm, and at length terminates in the stomach. Its coats are, first, a slight and cellular one, which it retains while in the neck ; but which in the chest gives place to a covering from the duplicature of the mediastinum. Its second coat is muscular, and made up of several strata of external, longitudinal, and internal fibres, which have a spiral direction, 'fhe inner coat is cuticular, and but loosely connected with the muscular: for as the elastic powers of this coat are but small, and the distention of the muscular coat considerable in the act of swallowing ; so this inner tunic is wrinkled into folds in a state of rest ; whereby, when the muscular fibres expand, this part can open, so as to allow the passage of the food, and yet prevent the too great expansion of the tube ; this skin- like coat is continued into the stomach, over one half of which it is expanded. The want of elasticity in this cuticular portion, and its looseness of connexion, are well shewn by a transverse section of the tube when the muscular recedes from the cuticular coat. {Vide sc, x,y. Fig. I, Plate III.) The Thorax in General. The second great cavity of the body is termed thorax or chest. It is bounded anteriorly by the vessels filling up the opening between the two first ribs ; posteriorly by the diaphragm ; and laterally by the ribs; above by the vertebrae, and below by the sternum. Its parts are reckoned external and internal. The external parts are, the integuments, muscles, and bones. The internal arc, the pleurae and mediastinum, the thymus gland, lungs, heart, vessels, and nerves, with the diaphragm. The integuments are common to those of other parts. The muscles we have treated of in the Myology ; pnd the bones are formed of the vertebrae, ribs, and sternum, which Jtavp been likewise explained. I DESCRIPTION OF PLATE lY. 201 S^pjfcctpnon of plate IV. lleprcsents the viscera of the chest and belly of a horse, and such other parts CIS Come readily into view, when the subject is laid on its back; and elevated before, to meet the sight. The skin is raised and thrown back; the cutaneous muscle is removed from the neck, and the cutaneous muscles of the face also, by which the jugular vein, the vessels of the face, and the parotid duct, are brought into sight. The attach- ment of part of the masseter muscle is removed likewise, to shew the course of the temporal artery and vein, which has been done to demonstrate the error that has arisen in the practice of some veterinarians, who, mistaking this branch a§ the source from whence the eye is furnished, have directed its division in inflam- mations of that organ: when from this view it will appear that such practice is useless, as this ramus, called temporal, is wholly given to the masseter muscle. In the chest the sternum has been removed, with the pericardium, mediastinum, and pleura; by which means, the lungs, heart, and principal vessels, are brought into view, as well as the course of the thoracic duct. In the abdomen, a sectiop is made through its whole length, and the symphysis pubis divided to shew the contents of the pelvis. It is needless to remark, it is a male subject, and of that kind termed a whole horse; that is, it is an uncut animal, with the testicles per- fect. A male subject was chosen for this view, and the parts of the horse, pur- posely selected in preference to those of the mare, as being of more consequence to the practice of the veterinarian. The intestines have been removed, dividing them below the entrance of the biliary and pancreatic ducts; and about afoot before the termination of the rectum. These intestines appear in another view ; and which are the only parts removed, the remaining viscera appearing in their natural situation; the stomach only is slightly distended to give an accurate idea of its form, but not to its full extent, that the neighbouring parts might not be liid. As the parts described are extensive, and the references numerous, so it is necessary to premise, that they will be referred to in the following order, and to which the letters will correspond : Parts of the head, neck, and chest — Con- tents of the abdomen — Organs of generation. Parts of the Head, Neck, and Chest. a, the masseter muscle, upon the upper part of which is seen spread a branch of the fifth pair of nerves; above, its attachment to the spine of the molar and maxillary bones, has been raised to bring b, the temporal artery and vein, into view, which are seen above the nerve, and are distributed wholly to the masseter, but contribute nothing to the support of the eye; c, the anterior cartilage of the ear; d, the maxillary artery, the maxillary vein, and the duct of the parotid gland. The most anterior, or vessel nearest the mouth, is the external maxillary artery, which is that branch of the carotid seen passing over the jaw at o. Fig. 2, Plate III, and which forms the most convenient part for feeling the pulse of the horse. The middle vessel is the parotid duct, piercing the molar muscles, and entering the mouth above the second molar tooth, or second upper grinder. The inner- most of these vessels crossing the last, is the external maxillary vein, which re- ceives by one branch the blood of another artery of the masseter; by a second, the blood of the temporal artery; and by a third, that of the nasal arteries; e, e, the upper and lower portions of the parotid gland; its duct is pointed to by the letter, and always proceeds in front of the gland over the inferior part of the lower jaw, to terminate in the mouth; f, the superior division of the jugular; g, the inferior division of it, which forms the external maxillary vein. The junction of these two principal branches of this vein forms the trunk of the right jugular, which unites with the left, to enter the anterior cava; h, the anterior vena cava formed of these, with the axillaries; k, the aorta with its division intq anterior and posterior; the anterior goes upwards and forwards, and the posterior becomes lost in the view, behind the heart; I, I, the axillary arteries; in, the united trunk of the carotids arising from the right axillary artery, and dividing into the right and left carotids; n, the entrance of the thoracic duct into the left jugular; o, 0, c, the lobes of the lungs; on the right side is seen a small lobe with a larger 202 SPLANCHNOLOGY. one; the lesser lobules do not appear; p, the right or anterior ventricle ; q, the left or posterior ventricle, the portion between is the fat bisecting it; r, the right auricle, from which the two vena cavas arise; J\ the left auricle; t, the pulmo- nary artery, dividing into a right and left; the left is seen to pass under the posterior divi^on of the aorta; at this part is situated the membranous eanal or communication between these vessels, called canalis arteriosus, which is open in the feetus, but shut in the adult; w, the posterior cava ; v, the posterior aorta; between these are seen, to the riglit, the vena azygos, and, to the left, the thoracic dnet. Viscera of the Abdomen. a, a, the diaphragm. The middle and lighter portion, to which the ligament of the liver is attached, is the tendinous part; and the light portions round the circumference are likewise tendinous intersections; h, b, the lobes of the liver'; c, the biliary duct arising at once from the liver, without any gall bladder as in other animals; d, the stomach with the omentum attached, and the vessels rami- fying on it; e, its pyloric orifice ending in the duodenum, into which are seen the biliary and pancreatic ducts entering ;y, the pancreas, the remaining portion lies under the omentum, g. From this view it will be seen that tlie omeatura in the horse is small to what it is in the dog and many other animals; it is attached to the stomach along its inferior and posterior curvature, and a portion is kept up by a pin stuck into the spleen to shew that viscus; A, the spleen with its granu- lated appearance;- i, the posterior cava forming the emulgent veins; k, the posterior aorta giving off the anterior mesenteric trunk, to which the united trunk of the lacteals is attached to gain the receptaculum chyli ; but neither does the anterior mesenteric always present itself in this situation, nor do the united trunksi of the lacteals always accompany it. Immediately beyond are seen the smalt emulgent arterial trunks given off: the emulgent artery and vein furnish the renal vessels; I, I, the right and left kidney with the emulgent artery and vein, rami- fying into each. The left is seen lower than the right, being pressed down by the spleen; m, m, the glandulse renales receiving their vessels from the emulgents; 71, 71, the ureters seen passing out from the pelvis of the kidneys, and in their course crossing the vasa deferentia ; o, o, the spermatic vessels formed of an artery and vein each : the left spermatic vein is seen arising from the emulgent vein of that side, by which means it avoids the distance it would otherwise be forced to travel by arising from the cava, which is situated to the right of the spine; p, p, the lymphatic vessels bringing the lymph from the lower extremities ;o pour it into the receptaculum chyli ; on the left side they proceed up from the pelvis in company with the iliac vessels and the aorta; g, part of the rectum lying immediately behind the bladder; r, r, the division of the aorta into external and internal iliacs, wiUi the like division of the cava. The Organs of Generation. «, the bladder cut open to shew the termination of the ureters vvithin it at h. These ureters are seen proceeding from the testicles and crossing the spermatic rope; c, c, the enlargement of the vasa deferentia before their termination into the urethra alongside of the opening of the vesiculse seminales; d, d, the vesiculas seminales; the right is cut open to shew its termination within the urethra along- side of the vasa deferentia; but in such a manner do the ducts of these two parts run alongside, and terminate parallel to each other, that there is no communi- cation between the testicles and them ; nor can they ever be intended as a reser- voir to tlie semen, as has been asserted ; e, marks the termination of the vasa deferentia, and the vesiculse seminales opening into the same part of the urethra by two little orifices. Immediately behind these, lying along the neck of the bladder, about the size of a goose quill, and about two or three inches long, is what the French call a middle vesicle. It terminates usually by one of the open- ings common to one or the other lateral vesicle ; f, f, two glandular bodies that correspond in situation, but not in structure, to the human prostates; g, g, the two antiprostatre or Cowper’s glands covered with the accelerator muscles: the right is cut open to shew its cavity. The little ducts of these glands, called lacuna*. VISCERA OF THE CHEST. 203 are seen within the urethra; A, A, the left testicle, with its rope coining through the ring of the oblique muscle, and covered with its vaginal coat and the cremaster muscle, which descends along its inner side, and is expanded over its upper part ; i, the right testicle removed from its passage through the abdominal ring, and its vaginal coat laid open; the body is seen with its vessels ramifying on it, being alternately straight and waved upon its albugineous coat; k, that part of the testicle called its appendix or epididymis, communicating with the main body by the tubuli semeniferi, and passing up to form the vas deferens ; /, the convolu- tions of the spermatic vessels before they enter the testicles; m, m, the corpora cavernosa of the penis, with its muscular fibres intermixed : between the two, lies the urethra, the muscular fibres of which are seen running in the direction of that canal; o, tlie body of the penis divested of its outer coverings; p, the glans: the dark part shews a portion of the sheath immediately investing it, and thrown into folds to admit of the increase of the dimensions of the penis; y, the termination of the urethra by a loose floating extremity, which is fixed in a cavity peculiar to the horse; the outer part of the glans is laid open to shew this more distinct, as well as the internal structure of the glans itself. Viscera of the Chest. The pleurcB and mediastinum. — When the chest is opened, a smooth polished membrane is seen, covering its whole surface, and likewise investing its contents. Each side of the chest has its par- ticular pleura, which is distinct from that of the other by the in- tervention of the cellular membrane. The two lamen are attached to the sternum ; when uniting by cellular substance, they form what is termed the inferior mediastinum : they then separate to pass over the heart and pericardium, from whence they are reflected over the lungs ; when on their return, again uniting, they form the su- perior mediastinum. Near the vertebrae they again separate, one portion passing over the spine on one side; the other passes over the spine on the other side, to line the whole cavity of the chest. By this division a tubular opening is formed, in which is situated the thymus gland, aorta, vena cava, vena azygos, ductus thoracicus, and oesophagus. There are therefore two reflections of the pleura on each side ; one connected to the surface of the chest, the other to the surface of the lungs, forming by this means a distinct cavity for each lung, in which is contained a small quantity of fluid, termed liquor pleura. It is the diseased increase of this fluid, that forms hydro- thorax, or dropsy of the chest, which is so common a termination of inflammation of the lungs. If by accident the bag in which the lung is contained is cut into, the lobes on that side usually col- lapse, and are rendered useless by the entrance of the external air j this appears, however, not to be the constant effect. The mediastinum is nothing more than the duplicature of the two pleurae, which divide the chest into two nearly equal portions : the right being rather the largest, in consequence of the situation of the heart, but the difference is not so great as in the human. 3’his natural division is of the utmost importance to the animal, for by accidents in which the chest becomes penetrated, if the total collapse 204 SPI^ANCHNOLOGY. of the lungs was to take place, death must ensue; but life can be carried on by one lung, when an injury to the other has rendered it useless. By this wise provision, ulceration sometimes confines its effects to one side of the chest only, and the animal becomes supported finally by the other. These parts are supplied with vessels, and with nerves from the intercostals ; but the branches of the fatter are but small, consequently its sensibility is small likewise, except under inflammation. It does not appear that this membrane is dis- posed to take on inflammation independent of the lungs, in the horse. The thymus is a spongy and apparently glandular body, placed anteriorly between the duplicatures of the mediastinum, contiguous to the sternum, aorta, and vena cava, at their division. The shape is irregular, sometimes appearing formed of two lobes, at others seem- ing one mass : its substance in the young subject is cellular, and its size considerable, and at this time it is said to contain a small por- tion of whitish fluid. As the animal advances in age, its colour changes, it becomes less, and at last it is scarcely discernible. No excretory duct has ever been discovered, and neither in the horse nor human is its use known*. It is this substance that forms the sweetbread of veal. La Fosse says, it is sometimes diseased in calves, and occasions a tumour that proves fatal to them. It has a small artery and vein, given off usually from the internal pectoral. The diaphragm or midriff is a most important muscle f, and, like the heart, is in constant action during life. It is a broad, thin, tendinous, and fleshy expansion, and is so situated as to form a complete septum or division between the thorax and abdomen, not completely elliptical, for its upper part, opposed to the back, extends considerably farther towards the lumbar vertebrae ; while the anterior part is attached to the sternum, consequently its situation is rather oblique. In a state of rest, it is anteriorly convex, and posteriorly concave ; that surface opposed to the thorax being covered by the pleura, and that towards the abdomen by the peritoneum. From some peculiarities in the disposition of its fibres, it is sometimes described as two muscles; the great and little diaphragm. The anterior or larger portion arises by distinct tendinous fleshy fibres from the ensiform cartilage, from the posterior extremity of the sternum, from the internal surface of the cartilages of the true ribs, by portions which admit of small tendinous digitations between them ; passing upwards, and posteriorly attaching itself to the false ribs, its fleshy portions terminate near the spine. From all these origins, the fibres are directed like radii from the circumference of a circle to a tendinous centre. This tendinous middle portion is perforated by a triangular hole towards the right side, a little infe- riorly to the spine, for the passage of the vepa cava. * As the thymus gland in dogs is large, and the thyroid small ; and as it usually happens, that when one is considerable, the other is the reverse ; so we may rea* sonably suppose that ttieir use is the same. t Nobilissimus post cor rausculus,— THE HEART. 205 The superior, posterior, and lesser portion of the diaphragm, fills up the space left by the larger ; arising by different portions from the first, second, and third lumbar vertebrae, of which the two cen- tral ones are called its crura or pillars ; between which an interval is left for the passage of the aorta, called its hiatus, and for the vena azygos, and thoracic duct. A little to the left is situated the third opening of the diaphragm, formed from the decussation of the fibres, and giving a passage to the oesophagus and par vagum. Vessels and nerves of the diaphragm. — The aorta, in its passage between the crura, usually gives a branch or two to this muscle; besides which, it receives other rami from the arteries of the chest. (See Jrteries.) Its veins are infinitely larger than its arteries, that the blood might not feel the effects of pressure in its motions ; they finally pour their contents into the vena cava. The phrenic nerves arise from filaments given from the fourth, fifth, and sixth cervicals ; there are, besides, other small branches given from the great sym- pathetic, but whose office seems to be rather to preserve the general sympathy between the whole organs, that exists in so wonderful a degree by means of this nerve, than for the motive powers of the diaphratcm ; for if the spinal marrow is wounded above the origin of the phrenic nerves, the animal dies from suffocation, the diaphragm losing its power, though the sympathetic branches remain entire. This muscle is the principal agent in respiration, which we shall more fully shew when treating of the lungs : the act of sighing also is principally brought about by its means ; and in those animals who vomit, it is a considerable help. It is more subject to inflam- mation in the horse, than in the human ; for when any of the ab- dominal viscera are inflamed, this usually partakes. 'The Heart. The pericardium is a membranous sac surrounding the heart, similar in structure to the pleura. Its outer surface is attached to the mediastinum, between the duplicatures of which it is situated ; and its inner surface is contiguous, but not continuous to the heart ; for there is a fine fluid interposed. It appears composed of two laminae, and is attached above to the v'^essels, over which it is re- flected, giving them a covering; and below to the sternum; but not, as in the human, to the diaphragm ; for the horizontal position of the animal alters in some measure the position of the heart. Its inner surface secretes a very fine fluid, called liquor pericardii, which thus preserves a freedom of motion between the heart and sac : in health this is about an ounce in quantity ; but should it become much increased beyond this, it constitutes dropsy of the pericardium; which is, however, not a frequent disease in the horse. The heart. — This important organ appears a composition of mus- cular fibres combined with membranous matter, to form a conoidal body with four principal cavities, and several openings, common and proper. It is situated within its sac, between the lamen of the me- diastinum; with its base in a line with the dorsal vertebrae, and its 206 SPLANCHNOLOGY. apex, which is slightly curved, directed to the left of the sternum between the eighth and ninth ribs : so that it is situated rather more to the left than to the right. Its sides, which are rather flat- tened, are right and left, and its edges by this means form an an- terior and a posterior. Two of the cavities we have mentioned, are situated immediately within the muscular body, and are its ven- tricles; the two others are rather appendages, and form its auricles. It has a smooth exterior covering, which arises from a fine mem- brane, appearing as a reflection of the pericardium ; and its base is surrounded by a variable quantity of fat. Around its base, and be- tween its ventricles, are seen the coronary vessels running in their various courses ; and from the same part issue its vessels also, by which it is principally retained in its situation. The ventricles. — Each ventricle opens by two orifices, one of which communicates with the auricles, the other forms the mouth of a large artery. The right ventricle opens into the right auricle and into the pulmonary artery, the left into the auricle and into the aorta; at the edges of these orifices there are valves. These two ventricles are separated by a septum, which lies neither directly across the chest, nor is its direction truly anterior and posterior, but is oblique ; so as to form the cavities as properly into an an- terior and posterior ventricle, as into a right and left. The light or anterior ventricle is larger than the left in the adult horse; in the new-born colt it appears to be smaller; but many impediments to the circulation tend to stretch and increase it through life : it like- wise does not extend quite so far to the apex as the other. This ventricle is strengthened by fleshy pillars, called cornea columniy and also by tendinous cords that attach to the valves of the auricle and ventricle, and by which the mechanism of these parts is much strengthened. The left or posterior ventricle is much thicker and stronger than the right, and its capacity less : it however is some- thing longer than the right, occupying the apex ; whereas the right ends before it arrives there. The inner surface of both these ven- tricles, but in unequal proportions, are very uneven ; being formed into stringy productions from the fleshy and tendinous part, and into cavities dipping in between these : but these productions and ine- qualities are not so varied nor so considerable in the horse as in the human, though even here they are sufficiently diversified to afford an admirable proof of the importance of this organ, and the great pains nature has bestowed to give it mechanical strength. 7'he valves. — We have already noticed, that each ventricle has two orifices, an arterial and an auricular ; and that their openings are furnished with a structure, whereby the blood is prevented from passing but one way ; which structure is called their valves. Those of the arterial openings are called semilunar; and those of the au- ricular, tricuspid. The auricular valve of the left ventricle is called mitral likewise. Their structure appears to arise from a duplicature of the inner coat of the part, forming a kind of fold, or several folds, with some fleshy fibres, which are differently disposed, according as THE HEART. 207 they permit the entry of the blood or its exit. The membranes which form these valves in each cavity, are attached so as to project forward, and both of them are connected by the tendinous strings from the sides of the ventricles : as either ventricle contracts, the blood is driven into the artery, which communicates with that ven- tricle ; and the tendinous cords being relaxed, the sides of the cavity are brought nearer to each other, the valves close the opening into the auricle, and the passage that is alone left, which is the artery, receives the blood. The heart after this contraction becomes again relaxed, by which means these tendinous cords are again stretched out ; and the valves of the auricle being drawn downwards, the blood is poured by the veins into the cavities. Vessels of the ventricles. — The left or posterior ventricle sends ou6 a large' artery, which is termed the aorta; it proceeds but a little way when it divides into two, which in the horse are very justly termed anterior and posterior. The first is distributed to the head and anterior extremities ; the other furnishes the trunk and posterior extremities. The right or anterior ventricle gives out the pulmonary artery, which runs upwards and forwards by the side of the aorta, and then dividing into two trunks is distributed to the lungs. (See Arteries.) Auricles. — The auricles are muscular and membranous appendages situated at the base of the heart, corresponding to the two ventri- cles, and having a septum between, so that there is, correspondent with these, a right and left. The left or pulmonary auricle is placed above, and opens into the left or posterior ventricle ; and the right in the same manner communicates and is situated upon the right or anterior ventricle : externally, they appear but one cavity, and are. unequally divided ; by which the right is much larger than the left, and are so placed, that there is little seen on the left side. They are within, very uneven, but smoother on the outside, with indented edges like a cock’s comb, and hanging down like a dog’s ear. The right and larger auricle is irregularly rounded, and has two openings ; an anterior and posterior, which receive the anterior and posterior vena cava. The left auricle is considerably more muscular than the right, though its size is less : it is irregularly square, and has a small appendix similar to the right. Into its angle the pul- monary veins pass ; and it has a common opening with the ventricle, as has been described. The substance of the auricles is both mem- branous and muscular, and they are also furnished with a few ten- dinous and fleshy cords to strengthen them. ■ The heart, in commoiy with other organs, is furnished with blood vessels that supply its substance with blood ; these are termed co- ronary. The coronary arteries are two branches which are given off from the aorta, immediately after its origin, and are distributed around the base of the heart, and between the line of separation of its ventricles, in principal trunks and lesser divisions to every part of it. The blood is returned in part by the coronary veins, and part, appears to penetrate the substance of the heart, and to be 208 CIRCULATION OT THE BLOOD. poured into its cavities. The cardiac plexus, which is formed from the par vagum and intercostal, furnishes the heart and its vessels with nerves. Circulation of the Blood, The heart is the principal organ by which the passage of the blood is effected through the body, whereby all its parts are formed and nourished. 7'hough the antients knew the use of the blood, and though they were well acquainted with the organs concerned, they had a very imperfect idea of its motion ; and it was left to the im- mortal Hervey to demonstrate to the world that wonderful and complex route which this fluid takes through the animated machine, to the accomplishment of its various purposes. The course the blood takes in the unborn colt, and in the adult or grown horse, is very different ; the first forms the foetal circulation, and which we shall describe w'hen we treat of the parts of generation. The adult circulation has been divided into the lesser, or pulmonary j and the greater, or general. I'he lesser, or pulmonary circulation. — The blood of the two cavas, being poured into the right auricle, and being assisted by its gravity, irritates that sac to contract, so that the valves of the right ventricle are forced close to the sides, and then this sac becomes filled. The moment it is thus received, the sensible cavity of the ventricle is stimulated to contract on it, which shuts up the tricuspid valves that permitted its entry, and which cannot now be forced open, being held firm by the tendinous cords from the sides of the ven- tricle. The contained blood, therefore, now seeks another course, and the very action of the valves proceeding from the sides to the axis of the heart to shut the ventricle, opens the pulmonary artery, by pressing the loose sail-like edges of its valves towards its sides, and leaving its cavity extended, into which the blood, by the con- traction of the ventricle, is forced. The blood then received into the pulmonary artery proceeds to be circulated through the lungs, around the air cells, and is taken up and returned by the pulmonary veins ; nor can the blood once received by the pulmonary artery return again to the heart; for the semilunar valves, as soon as the ventricle becomes relaxed, are drawn down and prevent it. The pulmonary veins, therefore, receiving the blood from the right, or anterior side of the heart, by means of the pulmonary artery, carry it into the. left, or posterior auricle; which, having received it, be- comes stimulated to contract; when, by this means, it is forced into the left ventricle; and thus much of the motion of the blood is termed the pulmonary, or minor circulation, and which was know'n to many of the antients. The greater, or general circulation. — The blood is prevented re- turning into the left auricle for the same reasons that were urged with regard to the right, the action of the mitral valves. The left ventriale having received the fluid, and being impelled to motion by its irritating quality, or some other cause, does in like manner with CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 209 the right contract, and drive its contained blood in the direction of I its axis, which determines it towards its basis, where the valves of i the aorta lie; which, by this means, being pressed upon, and the i contents then finding a passage, rush from this left ventricle into the ij aorta. ij It appears, that the contraction of the two ventricles happens at the same moment : therefore, that at the same time, that the blood is driven from the left ventricle into the aorta, the right ven- tricle Impels it into the pulmonary artery ; consequently the relaxa- tions, likewise, seem to be alike in point of time; the period of the left auricle’s receiving the pulmonary blood, being that in which the right auricle receives the blood of the cavas. These alternate con- ! tractions and dilatations are called its systole and diastole. The con- traction of .the part forming its systole, presses the blood into the : arteries ; which receiving it, become distended, and by the joint i force of the heart, and their own power, propel it through all their various ramifications. Therefore, when the heart is in a state of contraction, or systole, the arteries are in a slate of distention, or diastole : and it is in this state we feel that motion in them we term pulse. It is the contraction of the ventricles that gives the pulse to the heart; but it is the opposite state that gives the pulse to the arteries ; for the elasticity of the external coat, having dilated the artery after the action of the muscular coat has ceased to con- tract, or its having overcome the contractile power of this muscular tunic, gives that bounding feel, or stroke, under the fingers, called their pulsation. The heart is stimulated into different degrees of action ; or its contractions and dilatations are more frequent in some animals than in others. The smaller the animal, usually the more numerous are the pulsations : the irritability being greater, the heart is forced to make up in frequency what it wants in strength. From all that has been said, it will be evident, that the two circu- lations, as they are called ; form but one general circulatory course of the blood, sent to all parts of the body by the arterial distributions originating from the left side of the heart, and returned from thence by the veins into the right side of that viscus ; from whence it is again sent to the lungs, and, circulating through them to absorb its vital principle, it is returned to the left side of the heart ; from whence again it departs, by means of the aorta, to be distributed throughout the body : and this course does the whole blood take : and these laws influence it in every part, except in some few in- stances, in which the economy requires. a speciality or deviation; as in its passage through the liver ; the corpora cavernosa of the penis ; and the cavernous finuses of the dura mater. The exciting cause of circulation, or the means by which the heart is influenced to contract, has been a subject of inquiry among the most ingenious physiologists of every age : and whether this organ has an inherent power of contraction within itself, or whether tt gains it by any other means from without, as from the stimulus of its contents, has been a matter of almost endless dispute. But it 210 SPLANCHNOLOGY. would seem from all that is known, that it both possesses an inhe- rent contractile power, and is farther stimulated by its contents. The Lungs. Within the chest, on each side of the heart, are seen some spongy masses, which, when taken out of this cavity, and placed with the posterior portion in front, are by no means unlike the cloven foot of an ox in form. These masses are called the lungs, and are divided into a right and left ; each of which has other lesser divisions, called its lobes ; but which are not always the same in every subject; sometimes there is a larger and a smaller to the right side, and two smaller to the left side ; at others the left side has only one consider- able lobe, at its anterior part : the right lung, however, is usually rather more considerable than the left. Within the chest, the lungs exactly fill the cavities they are contained in, and are adapted by their figures to them : they are convex next the ribs, and concave towards the heart (w'hich is received between their principal lobes) ; and flat towards the diaphragm. The pleura first lines the cavity they are contained in, then is reflected over them 3 and, finally, by its duplicature, it forms a septum, called the mediastinum, which shuts out all communication between one lung and the other, except by their blood vessels. Their colour varies according to the age of the animal : in the colt they are of a light lively hue ; by age they become greyish ; and in old horses they are of a granulated blue* Their outer covering is gained from the pleura, as we have noticed j their inner structure is cellular, and appears a composition of nume- rous vessels, united together by membranous substances. These vessels, of which their substance is made up, are principally air, blood, and lymphatic vessels. The bronchia. — We have described the larynx, as being a cartila- ginous box, situated in the back part of the mouth, behind the open- ing of the nose, receiving the air : the trachea is a continuation of the larynx, and divides into the bronchia, which appear at first as two great branches ; but which gradually divide into all parts of the lungs, in the form of conical tubes, composed of cartilaginous por- tions, connected together into a circle : these tubes are internally lined by a vascular membrane w'hich secretes the mucus of the bron- chia; which in diseases of the lungs, as inflammation, becomes in- creased, and is then coughed up. As the ramifications of the air vessels become very minute, they change their cartilaginous struc- ture, and are continued membranous ; which membranous continua- tions terminate into little cavities, having a cellular substance between, supporting their structure. The pulmonary artery distributes its blood throughout the lungs ; the trunks of which are formed to cor- respond in direction and manner of distribution with the air vessels, and finally end in a fine reticular texture, which surrounds these air cells. By venal ramifications the blood is conveyed back in the course of the arterial and air canals, till it is finally deposited in the l^ft auricle, by the pulmonary venal trunk. There are lymphatic RESPIRATIOIfi 211 vessels on the surface of these organs, and probably throughout their whole structure ; but they are not very plentifully supplied with nerves, and their sensibility, excepting under inflammation, is not considerable. The pulmonary plexus furnishing them, is derived from the union of some branches of the eighth pair, with the great intercostal. From the great vascularity of the lungs, they are very liable to inflammations ; which inflammations run towards their ter- minations much quicker in the horse than in the human, apparently from the greater strength of the arterial system in the horse^ Respiration. A fcetus subsists by its communication with the mother, and re- ceives the principles of its nutriment and growth from her, by means of the placenta ; but as soon as born, the connexion with the mo- ther is cut off, and it has to trust to its own organs for its further evolution and support. These are furnished by the lungs and chy- lopoetic viscera, which, while unnecessary to the animal, and un- I fitted to act on account of the media in which they were placed, re- mained passive. What first gives the lungs their stimulus to action ; whether it originates from any species of nervous irritation, or from the stimulus arising from necessity, or from what other cause, is not to our present purpose to inquire : but that respiration, or an act like it, is necessary to life, we know from the effects that arise from the stoppage of it ; and from the universality of this act in every being we are acquainted with ; for in those animals in whom the organs are not demonstrable, we have reason, from analogy, to sup- pose their existence. The air is an elastic fluid, that has a tendency to fill up every vacuum, by the superincumbent weight of its parts. The mass of I air pressing upon the animal body is very great ; and by whatever cause it is, that the muscles of the chest are first roused to act, they enlarge the cavity, and the air by this principle rushes in ; and when it has once entered the lungs, they are never completely emptied from it again; and hence when they have made only one inspira- tion, they will swim in water, as being specifically lighter, in conse- quence of the air they contain, than those that have never received any air. The lungs themselves are passive organs, and have no power to act ; but the enlargement of their cavity is brought about by the enlargement of the capacity of the chest ; by which, they being cellular and cavernous, and communicating with the open cavity of the mouth and nose, become filled with the external air. The chest is enlarged in its circumference by the elevations of the ribs, and it is enlarged in length by the contraction of the dia- phragm. The first rib being fixed, becomes a lever to the rest, which enjoy some motion by means of their articulation with the spine, and by the flexibility of their cartilages ; this takes place in a much greater degree in the posterior rips, from the increase of their circular form, and the peculiar attachment of their cartilages. The intercostal muscles being placed between, by their contrac- O •-W 212 RESFIRAriON. tions, enable the middle of the arches of the ribs to ascend, turning the cartilaginous angle outwards : thus, the chest becomes materially enlarged : but this motion is less in quadrupeds than in the human, from this part forming a more imperfect cylinder to admit the application of the anterior extremities, and from the fixed position of the sternum. The greater capacity of the thorax is gained by the diaphragm ; this muscle in a state of rest is convex towards the breast, and concave towards the abdomen ; but when its muscu- lar filrres contract, it becomes plane-like, which forces backwards the abdominal viscera, and by this means greatly enlarges the capacity of the chest. Hence it is that in brutes we judge of the state of respi- ration by the flanks. As the diaphragm is inserted into the ribs, so in very strong action its force might overcome that of the intercostals, and by depressing the ribs, produce an effect opposite to the real intention ; but its actions in ordinary inspirations are not sufficient for this, and such inspirations are sufficient for the purposes of an animal at rest : but when more than usual exertion is necessary, other auxiliary muscles are called into action, by which the tendency^ of the diaphragm to pull down the ribs is counteracted : these aids are the muscles situ- ated on the chest, and inserted into other parts, as those of the sca- pula, neck, or humerus ; but which assistant muscles appear called into action only upon particular occasions. The air thus received into the lungs expands their cells throughout, by which means the blood in the right side of the heart finds a ready passage through them by means of the pulmonary artery, and hence the opening be- tween the two sides of the heart in the foetus closes up. As soon as the lungs arc nearly filled, an uneasy sensation is felt, which obliges the thorax to contract ; the diaphragm relaxes, and the abdominal muscles shorten, by which the contents of the abdomen are forced against the passive diaphragm ; the intercostals cease their action, and the chest is rendered smaller ; by which the air is expired, or forced out of it. After a momentary pause, the blood becomes col- lected in the right side of the heart, owing to the resistance it met with in the pulmonary artery, from the collapsed state of the lungs ; and this causes a plethora in every other part of the body ; hence we can account for the fulness of the vessels of the head, the starting of the eyes, and flushing of the face in persons who meet with any tem- porary stoppage to respiration : should the obstruction remain per- manent, some of these vessels frequently rupture. From this accu- mulation it becomes necessary for Iresh air to be drawn into the lungs, forming a new inspiration : and thus the routine of respira- tion is carried on. There is a certain consent, or proportion, betw’een the action of the heart and that of respiration, in the ordinary state of the animal; but this proportion is not always the same. If more blood is sent to the heart by the pressure of exercise, the respiration is likewise accelerated : thus, in quick motion, or great exertion, there is a panting and quick breathing ; the air rs suddenly expelled, and nature and properties of the blood. 213 quickly returned, that no obstacle might remain to the passage of the I blood : this becomes also necessary on another account, as the force I of the respiratory muscles must be diminished when other muscles are I in strong action ; therefore, what is wanting in strength is made up in celerity; the auxiliary muscles in these cases can act but little, as their fixed points must be the chest, and their moveable ones the extremities. j The Nature and Properties of the Blood. The nature and properties of this fluid belong to hygrology ; but as it is so intimately connected with the parts just described, we shall consider it in this place. The blood was in the earliest ages [ accounted as of the greatest consequence in the machine: perhaps, ■ 1 the great stress laid upon it in the Bible, might not a little con- tribute to this, when men were strictly commanded to refrain from i blood, because it was the life.” But it is remarkable, that though I the very great importance of this fluid was known to the antients, and to an alteration of its properties was attributed most of their ma- ladies ; yet they had no just conception of its motion through the body. That it had motion they were aware; but they in general 1 conceived it to be like the ebbing and flowing of the sea, and that J during sleep this was reversed. A century, before Hervey lived, the valves of the heart were accurately described. Favetus, likewise, who lived eighty years prior to him, noticed the disproportion of the pulmonary artery in the foetus. Another antient author, who was a great theologist, and wrote on the Trinity, for which he was burnt, speaks, in his work, of the use of the pulmonary artery to the lungs, j and of their absorbing from the air a subtle fluid, j Dr. William Hervey, an Englishman, who lived in the year 1628, I published, at Frankfort, his grand discovery of the blood returning to the heart by the veins, which was before supposed to flow from the heart by them : and having once began his researches, he did not leave them till he gave us the true route and course of this fluid I through the body ; and he not only pointed out the motion of the i blood, but he also first conjectured it had life*. An acquaintance with I the secretions continued to increase our knowledge of the import- j ance of this fluid ; but its real nature and properties have been much i further illustrated by that great anatomist and physiologist, Mr. I John Hunter. He revived the idea of the life of the blood, and by the ardour with which he pursued the subject, .made it bis own ; and if, by some, he has been supposed to have carried it too far, and attributed too much power to this fluid, and too little to tlie solids ; it is to be remembered, that few pursue a subject without following it to the utmost limits ; and that a favourite child is seldom viewed but on the bright side : to which it must be added, that he con- Ilutic quoque apparet saiifruinis principalitas, quod pulsus ex c6 ortura ducat. Kec saii(;uis solum pars primigeui.a et principalis decendus cst quod ab eo mmus pulsus que priucipiuui orietur ; sed ctiarn quia in eo priinum f«/ru- iniias- oitur s^nritus vitatis iageucratur, et anirna ipsa consistit. — Harv. E.cer, 51. Q2 214 NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF THE BLOOD. stantly applied the whole of his theory to practice, and founded most of his ideas on experiment. The blood forms a principal part of most animal bodies, and is of various colours ; but in quadrupeds always red ; circulating through every part of the body, by means of the veins, arteries, and heart. It does not appear to differ essentially in the various brute tribes, having in all, the same properties of preserving life generally ; that is, the blood of one quadruped will support, under all its f unctions, another quadruped, as we learn by transfusion. In the horse there appears but little difference between his blood and that of other brutes, nor be- tween it and that of man j except that the proportion of serum seems rather smaller; but even this is not invariable. The quantity that an animal contains, in proportion to his bulk, has been endea- voured to be ascertained ; but the results have been various ; nor can the truth be easily gained ; in some instances the quantity ap- peared equal to one tenth of -the whole ; and in others again, not more than one twentieth of the whole. The quantities that have been lost in the human subject are immense. Haller relates a case where 75 lbs. were lost in ten days ; and another, where 29 lbs. were parted with in four hours, which almost exceeds belief, and in which there is probably some mistake : a horse has lost 44 lbs. without aj>pa- rent injury. The blood is, with regard to each individual, a variable fluid, appearing in different proportions at different times, and like- wise varying in different parts of the body. It putrifies hy a gentle heat, and, under some circumstances, effervesces. Blood is separa- ble into a nearly colourless, and a red part, which separation is spon- taneous out of the body. The cruor, crassamentum, or coagulum^ is composed of globular particles, which swim in the serum, like particles of oil in water, but when suffered to rest out of the body, unite together into a mass with most of the coagulable lymph. The coloured part of the blood contains much iron, and the colour is said to depend on the ferruginous particles it contains, as the change of colour it experi- ences during its passage through the lungs is supposed to arise from the oxidation of this metal. From observing that the red globules do not exist in every animal, it has been supposed, that this was the least essential part, and this the more so, as some parts that have much life, yet want red blood. Mr. Hunter, however, thought it connected with strength, as it is found in greatest plenty in those who are strong; thus muscles have a great deal of it, and as they become pale, They become weak. Butchers bleed their calves, to deprive then* of their red colour, and make the veal white; and hence it would appear, the red globules are longer in forming than the other parts. The other portion of the coagulum is what is termed the lymph. The coagulable lymph, which forms the other portion, is thought to be the most essential part of the blood, having undergone the most complete animalizatiou, and which, by the action of the ves- sels, becomes framed into all the solid parts of the body ; it appears NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF THE BLOOD. 215 Tto be that part termed cheese In milk; and the white of eggs is found to be principally composed of it. It forms the callus of bones, and can become organized whenever extravasated, either by its own spe- cific action, or by the action of the solids upon it. It readily coa- gulates, is soluble in alkalies, but insoluble in water, oils, or ardent spirits. The coagulation of this part appears in direct proportion to the weak action of the vessels : therefore, whenever they act strongfy, whatever may be the general state of the system, the coagulable part coagulates more slowly ; and by this means the red particles, which at other times it holds suspended, fall to the bottom : but the lymph being now' separated from them, forms on the top of the crassamen- tum, and is that which is termed the buff. Now, as the flowing of the blood from a small orifice, and slowly, assists its coagulation; we are in such cases deprived of this appearance, by which it is that we are enabled to judge of the strength of action in the vessels, and the consequent inflammation. This, therefore, is one principal reason that medical writers are so strenuous in recommending in pleuritic, or other strong inflammatory cases, that the l^lood should be drawn by a full stream from a large orifice, that it may not present a false indication. The serum is slightly saline, less putrefactive than the red part, or than the coagulable lymph, and is yellowish, or sometimes of a cloudy colour. On suffering a quantity of blood to remain at rest, it spontaneously separates into a firm mass, and a fluid part. The firm mass is principally composed of the coagulable lymph, and red globules ; the fluid is the serum. Its fluidity exists in every degree of heat, between 30 and 160 degrees Fahren. ther.; with a less heat it freezes, in a greater it coagulates. It appears chemically com- posed of albumen, gelatin, saline mbtter, and a considerable quan- tity of water. The serum is in smaller proportion in the blood of the horse than in that of man : its principal use is supposed to be to dilute the red parts of the fluid; and hence, when we say th« blood is diluted, it has a larger proportion of serum, and is not refer- able to attenuation, or a thin state of it, which is a part of the old humoral pathology. This distinction should particularly be kept in mind by the student. The blood, therefore, is this compounded fluid made up of these se- veral parts ; and which, considered as an aggregate, is a most essential component of the animal. All parts of the body are formed of it ; and all parts of the boc]^ can be resolved again into it, by means of the absorbents ; hence we must conclude that there is a very inti- mate connexion between the solids and the fluids, and this led Mr. Hunter to consider both as governed by the same laws. The reasons that induced him to form this opinion, and the facts whereon it was founded, are detailed at large in his work on the blood ; and as his admired writings have produced almost an entire change in our ideas of the relations subsisting between the solids and fluids ; so it is essentially necessary, that the veterinary student should possess him- self of this work; and the more so, as all the actions of disease are very 216 NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF THE BLOOD. generally referred to the laws he has laid down, but which we have not room *to detail here. The universal adoption of these doctrines has made it also very generally supposed, that inflammation is the only disease to which blood is liable. Among the antients, an affection of the fluids of the body, but particidarly of the blood, was supposed a principal cause of most diseases ; but the overthrow of the humoral pathology, began by Boerhaavc, continued by Cullen, and completed by Hunter, occasioned the different diseased affections to be ascribed to a vitiated action or dcransrement in the solids. Nevertheless, it appears that this system has been carried too far; and from many known facts it is evident the fluids are not exempted from disease any more than the solids ; and that the blood under some circumstances is also specifically affected. It is through the medium of poisoned blood that animals become rabid ; and from the same source horses become glandere^, as we know from the readiness with which this disease may be produced by transfusing the blood of . a glandered animal into the vessels of a healthy one : numerous other proofs might also be adduced. The Action of the Air on the Blood. We have every reason to suppose, that the blood is constantly wasting; for it tends to the support and growth of parts. Admit- ting this, it becomes necessary it should have sources of renovation and restoration, which appear to be derived from the lungs and the chylopoetic viscera. By the first it is altered and meliorated, and by the latter it is renovated in point of quantity. The blood seems to acquire from the air a certain part, or possesses itself of certain properties, whereby its qualities are brought back from a venal to an arterial state; which is the only one that seems fit for the purposes of support. When venal blood is exposed to the action of the air, it soon loses its dark hue, and becomes florid and bright in the part exposed to the atmosphere; and, as the other portions are successively exposed, they become in the same manner brilliant. If venal Idood also is placed in a bladder, those parts in contact with the bladder become brightened. If blood in the pulmonary artery is examined, it will be found dark, impure, and venous; when, on the contrary, examined in the pulmonary vein,, it will be found bright, florid, and arterial. We likewise observe, that the same changes, as far as re- gards colour, take place on the blood in its passage through the lungs, by means of its exposure to the action of the air in tht bron- chial cells. That this arises from the air we know ; for if we hang or strangle any animal, and then open each side of the heart, we shall find the blood in both equally black and venous. It is also cer- tain that the change of colour is not the only alteration that the blood receives ; otherwise it would be a change only on the least useful part of the blood (i. e. the red globules): but it is more pro- bable that it is an effect wrought on the blood in general ; or peihaps pn the coagulable lymph in particular: and this appears the more likely,, as this change is found as necessary in animals whose blood ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. 217 is not reel, as in those in which it is. Innumerable proofs may be biouglU forward to prove, that some important alteration is effected in this Huid in its passage through the lungs; every experiment, almost every phenomenon of animal life, shews it. The difference between the blood in the arteries and veins, and which blood we know is all derived from the same source, is a most strong and convincing proof. If a large artery is taken up, the l)lood in it, which was before florid, soon becomes dark : the veins likewise have the blood in them ren- dered still darker, if its course is retarded or stopped ; thus on tying up the neck to bleed, the fluid that first issues, particularly if the liga- ture has been tight or remained long, is very black ; and which occa- sions farriers to say, the blood is very bad ; hut as it continues to flow, it becomes more bright, as having been less under this suspen- sion, which the same gentry then allege, arises from the horse having parted with his bad blood. It is likewise usual, when it trickles down, to see a florid and dark stream ; the florid part arising from some of the Capillary branches which have not yet been deprived of their oxygen. That the blood becomes altered and changed in its passage through the lungs, it is, therefore, presumed is sufficiently proved ; and we have shewn, that it is generally believed that this change is not only an alteration of its colour, but an absorption of a vital principle. This vital principle is supposed to be oxygen, or the base of atmo- spheric air ; and that the decomposition of caloric, by means of carbon from this oxygen base, is the source of animal heal. Our limits will not allow of our entering into the various argu- ments for and against this popular theory. It is, however, a most imptortant branch of physiology, and the student should make himself acquainted with the principal authorities on the subject. ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. Of the Abdomen generally. The abdomen, or cavity of the belly, is much the largest of the three great cavities of the body ; forming, when its contents are removed, an extensive oval vault, bounded anteriorly by the dia- phragm, posteriorly by the bones of the pelvis, superiorly by the ver- tebrse, laterally by the ribs, and inferiorly by the abdominal muscles. The superior part is called the back, the lateral parts are the sides, the posterior the loins, and the inferior portions throughout, the belly. Tliese divisions being indeterminate and more proper to the exterior parts ; others have been formed, in which the cavity is divided into what are termed regions, which it is necessary to beware of, as they are become arbitrary, and made use of in almost every description of these parts ; and, as such, the veterinary surgeon should not only be well acquainted with every region, but with the particular viscera contained in each, which knowledge is very essential in his practice; as, in the event of a wound into the cavity, he can judge what viscus. 218 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. or viscera, is likely to be injured, and can give a rhore certain prog- nostic of the event, and more effectually combat the danger. The regions are three to the inferior part of this cavity, and one superior. The epigastric region extends from the cartilage ensiformis, or that part of the chest where rowels are usually placed, behind the elbow ; to within four or five inches of the umbilicus, or navel ; the lateral parts of this region are termed the hypochondria. The umbilical region extends from four or five inches anteriorly, to the navel ; and so much posteriorly to it ; taking in the portion that two transverse Tines in this direction would form : the two lateral parts of this are termed the ilia, or flanks. The hypogastric region extends from the posterior limit of the umbilical region, and forms laterally the groins; the middle part is called the pubis. The lumbar region takes in all the portion that is between the false ribs, and the bones of the pelvis ; what viscera are contained in these regions will appear in the description. The external parts of the abdomen are the common integuments, which do not differ from those of the rest of the body ; the abdo- minal muscles, which we have described, the penis and testicles in the horse, and the bag and dugs in the mare. The internal parts may be reckoned the general covering, and the viscera, which are the chylopoietic, the urinary, and the spermatic, or organs of generation, with all their several appendages. The first class is by far the most extensive and numerous, comprehending the stomach, intestines, mesentery, liver, pancreas, spleen, thoracic duct, and omentum. The second takes in the kidneys, renal capsules, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The third comprises, in the male, the vasa deferentia, vesiculae seminales, testicles, and penis. In the female, the vulva, vagina, uterus, and ovaria. The peritoneum. — When the integuments and muscles of the abdomen are removed, then the general situation of the viscera ap- pears : properly speaking, there are no viscera within the cavity of the peritoneum, but interstitial fluid only. The peritoneum is like a large membranous bag, or bladder shut up, the different viscera being pushed into its outer surface, encircled by it, and then fastened around; by which means they protrude v;ithin the bag like cavity, but do not enter it. When all the viscera are thus protruded, it will be evident, there will be no cavity left ; but room only for the inter- stitial fluid to flow between each viscus, giving facility to their various motions. This bag, then so filled, would represent the peri- toiieum, which is firm, and of a pretty close texture, formed of a membranous larnen, with a considerable quantity of cellular tissue, placed on the outside of the bag, by which means the viscera have this adapted to their surfaces ; while the inner cavity is left smooth and polished, and constantly moistened with a serous fluid secreted from its vessels. It is connected with the whole surface of the ab- domen ; it is likewise prolonged beyond the membranes in some places : there is, posteriorly, a prolongation that passes within the abdominal rings, investing the testes, and giving them their vaginal THE OMENTUM. 219 coat. The peritoneum, at its posterior part, ends at the middle of I the pelvis : that is, it does not proceed to its very bottom, being passed over on the anterior portion of the bladder, so that this organ cannot be said to be truly situated within the cavity of the abdomen. As the peritoneum passes over, it sends prolongations of the cellular portion to the posterior part of the pelvis ; it likewise produces some few smaller elongations, forming sustaining ligaments to parts, as we j shall describe ; from all which, it is not difficult to understand the uses of this membranous expansion, which are to line the abdo- ■ minal cavity, and to invest and sustain the viscera, and yet giving them a freedom of motion one over another. It derives its vessels and nerves from the surrounding parts, by which it has considerable vascularity, and is subject to partake in the inflammations of the neighbouring organs; but distinct inflammation of it I have never seen. It is wisely formed very elastic, which is evinced by the effects of pregnancy, of increased fat, and from dropsy : in all which I cases it accommodates itself to the distention, and, on the removal ■ of the distending cause, soon gains its original size. Hie Omentum. The omentum, or cawl, is a double membrane, interspersed within, with little kernels of fat laying between two folds. ' This fat is not in such considerable quantities in the horse as in some animals ; in whom the first thing that presents itself, on opening the body, is this membrane, spread over the whole intestines down to the pelvis ; but, in the horse, the omentum is, as it were, folded round the stomach and anterior part of the intestines. {Fide d, g, Plate IV.) Thus the horse is not subject to the species of hernia, or rupture, termed epii>locele, which dogs and some other animals are liable to. The uses of this fatty membrane are not yet certainly known ; it is most generally supposed to be for tbe purpose of lubricating the intestines, and to serve as a medium to prevent the effects of motion; and this opinion is much favoured by its appearance in many animals : but when viewed in the horse, and some other of the brute creation, whose quick movements would seem to require such an oily medium, it must be allowed that this cannot be its principal use; nor can it be intended altogether as a depot for animal oil ; for were it so, it would probably be as large in the horse as in the dog, who is equally an animal of speed. The Stomach. The stomach is so important an organ, that by the antients it was regarded as the seat of the soul, and its presence was considered by that great physiologist, Mr. Hunter, as the grand distinctive mark between animal and vegetable life; though we now know, that the existence of a stomach is not an invariable mark of the animal, nor does its absence incontrovertibly prove a vegetable origin. In the horse there is but one stomach, which is very small, proportional to his general bulk ; and is partly membranous, partly cuticular, and 220 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. partly muscular ; with a figure, that, when distended, has some re- semblance to a bag-pipe. {Vide d, Plate IV.) It is situated imme- diately behind the diaphragm, in the left hypochondrium, and in part of -the epigastrium, with its expellent orifice, extending across the spine to the right. It has two surfaces, which may l)e called its sides, though one is posterior, and the other anterior ; and two ex- tremities, a large and a small : the superior surface of which latter receives the oesophagus, and is called its cardiac orifice ; while the former ends in the duodenum, and is termed its pyloric orifice: this extremity, when the stomach is distended, is the most posterior of the two. The hollow part situated superiorly, and rather anteriorly, forms its lesser curvature, as the lower and more posterior portion forms its great curvature. Thus, when the stomach is moderately distended, it lies in an obliquely transverse direction, with its great extremity a little for- wards, and its two orifices superior, but the cardiac the most so ; having the lesser extremity rather posterior to the other, and the great curvature inferior, and perhaps a little posterior. It is evident, that its situation must vary much according to its distention : the foregoing description answers to it when moderately filled only ; but when it is very much so, the left extremity will press upon the diaphragm, and the right will be carried more posteriorly. In oxen and sheep, where the first stomach is large, it is found, when much, distended, to have its left extrentity carried quite into the left iliac region, in which part it is usually punctured when they are hoved ; but such an idea of the stomach of the horse would prove very erro- neous; for this animal has a very small one, and therefore its situa- tion can never be such. In dogs, though the stomach is not very large, yet it is in them also situated, when distended, more longi- tudinally, to accommodate itself to the contracted form of the abdo- men. From a distended stomach’s pressing upon the diaphragm, we are at no loss to understand why breathing is impeded after a full meal ; or why a horse, in such cases, appears to Jabour for breath if quickly moved ; for he is forced to use the intercostal muscles, the muscles of the shoulder, and those of the fore extremities, to open the chest ; its distention backward being prevented by the pressure of the stomach upon the diaphragm : hence we see the great impro- priety of galloping horses after w'atering, to warm it in their bellies, as it is foolishly termed ; and also how hurtful it is to ride hard im- mediately after a horse has been full fed. The stomach has externally a covering from the peritoneum, which adheres closely to it, by means of its cellular portion; and which appears to dip in between the muscular fibres. Its middle part is made up of muscular fibres, which are more numerous in this animal than in the ruminant ; forming this kind into a medium between the membranous stomach of some animals, and the true muscular one of others. The direction of these fibres is various; but they may-prin- cipally be referred to a longitudinal and a transverse order, though neither of them are regularly so, and are intermixed with others. THE STOMACH. 221 whose direction is very oblique. The longitudinal plan is the most external {vide c c, Plate V), and appears a continuation of the outer one of the oesophagus, with some original fibres, which spread over the lesser curvature, carry themselves obliquelv around, and likewise over the great extremity, forming themselves into a kind of vortex, whose centre is in the middle of that extremity. The inner plan is by much the largest, and is not quite circular, but slightly oblique, crossing the obliquity of the longitudinal plan : the circular is very thick and strong around the cardia, or that extremity into which the cesophagns terminates ; being here so very massive, as to form a true sphincter ; and to this cause in a great measure may be ascribed the incapability of the horse to vomit: for should the circu- lar and longitudinal fibres act from the pylorus to the cardia by any irritation that might produce an effort to vomit, the circular and lon- gitudinal fibres of the cardia being infinitely stronger and more nu- merous, would shut this orifice: for as muscular fibres exist through- out the organ, by which the motions are effected ; so it cannot arise simply from the existence of the cuticnlar covering to the first por- tion of his stomach, that he cannot vomit ; as it is but reasonable to suppose the fibres act throughout the whole by the common con- sent of parts ; nor do they of actual necessity want an immediate stimulus to their surfaces : for were such the case, the fibres of the oesophagus would not, by the presence of the masticated bolus, be stimulated to contract through the cuticnlar coat, which equally here lies over the fibres : nevertheless, the cuticnlar coat of the stomach is probably an assistant in this difficulty t-o regurgitate, by lessening the liability to nausea, which seldom takes place in the horse ; and as vomiting is only an effort to remove nausea, or its cause; so nature not having given the disease, has not provided the means for its re- moval : for though, as we have often before hinted, she will be always found naturally equal to her wants, yet she will never be found to be superfluous, or to exceed them. As likewise vomiting appears to arise from an inversion of the peristaltic motion of the stomach, which motion, in its natural state, begins from the cardia, and ends at the pylorus ; so, in this reversed state, it commences at the pvlorus, and ends at the cardia, thus regurgitating ifs contents. Therefore it is very probable, that the cuticnlar covering may lessen this inverted peristaltic motion in the upper portion, though it can- not wholly destroy it ; and hence this cannot be the only, or even the principal reason of the impossibility, or rather of the difficulty, with which this animal vomits ; for instances have occurred where it has taken place. A horse in Sussex was seen to regurgitate a large quantity of grains, and I have heard of one or two other instances ; but which must be regarded as very rare occurrences. It is not, therefore, that the stomach of the horse cannot be irri- tated to make an attempt to vomit, that no such effect generally takes place ; for though it is but v^ery seldom that nausea occurs, and perhaps in a state of nature never; yet it may be excited by means of aconitum, hellebore, and some other substances, which 2i2 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. have caused fruitless efforts to bring up. But the true and principal reason that a horse may be said, naturally, not to be able to vomit, exists in nature herself, who has wisely so constructed the parts, that the very effort to it increases the resistance, by the very strong fepbiiieter placed at the njouth of the cardia. How much thicker and stronger these are than the fibres composing the other parts of the stomach, may be gained on a reference to Plate V, which, as it was taken from the real subject, njay serve to convey a just idea of their strength. The inner covering of the stomach is composed of two portions, a cuticular and a villous. This species of cuticular covering to nearly one half of the stomadh, is peculiar to such animals as appear destined to live on grain, as horses, asses, rats, and mice; and this forms a third species of stomach, between the true membranous one of graminivorous animals, and the muscular of the carnivorous tribes. It may also be considered in a slight measure as a species of gizzard, resembling in this degree the digestive organ of those ani- mals, as fowls, who have a speciality to make up for the want of teeth. For a horse has not the means of remastication, as in oxen or sheep, nor does he usually masticate his food at first sufficiently to comminute it : the wants of the constitution requiring in him a quick renovation, he devours his food greedily and hastily : if, therefore, he had not some other structure, than the one com- mon to stomachs in general, his food would not be sufficiently digest- ed ; particularly as much of his nutriment is solid, and the stomach small ; and this cuticular coat, it would appear, is formed for this purpose, as its insensibility allows it to press in a small degree upon the food, and perform a slight trituration on it. This insensible tunic is spread over the first portion of the stomach, taking in all the great extremity, and forming between a third, and a half of its extent. It is formed into folds at the cardia in the same manner as at the internal part of the oesophagus ; but as soon as it has passed this orifice, these folds take an irregular direction, but are less than those formed on the villous surface. The cuticular coat ends abruptly in a kind of fringed edge, very distinct from the vil- lous {vide d, Plate V) ; and upon which are frequently found many of the worms, termed bots, piercing it by their forked tails. The villous or sensible portion, though it occupies more of the length of the stomach, yet, perhaps, in real extent extends oyer little more than half of its surfaee ; it unites with, or is connected to the cuticular coat. Its external surface is firm, and appears, as it were, a distinct portion, but is nothing more than the general cellular membrane, here rather more dense, which has given rise to the description of four tunics to the stomach. The tunica villosa is so called from its resemblance to the pile of velvet; its fine villi are probably the extreme fine ends of vessels. secreting the gastric juice: this coat being much larger in extent than the muscular, is thrown into folds, which are more considerable than those of the cuticular coat. {Vide e, Plate V.) These are largest at the portipa DIGESTION. 223 i towards the great extremity, and are irregularly waving : towards the duodenum they become less ; and at the pylorus, they form a fold I that makes a kind of valve, to prevent the return of the food, as well as its too early exit. These folds not only hinder the too { speedy passage of the food, and by which means the gastric juice is : more certainly applied to all the parts ; but the principal end appears to be to increase the secreting surface, which is here essentially 1 necessary, seeing the horse’s stomach is but the one half of it a ■ secreting organ ; and hence these folds are in him more extensive I than those of the human. We here likewise see the utility of the ' saliva j for were the food to pass into the stomach dry, or nearly so, ^ the gastric juice, being but a mucus, would not pervade all its parts, but would be lost upon some. The vessels of the stomach are three very considerable branches, the two gastrics, and one from the pancreatic, which are ramified over its different portions, forming two considerable arches, one over the small, the other over the great extremity. (See Arteries.) The blood is returned by similar veins into the vena porta. (See Veins.) The nerves are derived from the par vagum, which are the eighth pair that arise from the brain, and, passing out of the skull, are continued on the outside of the carotids to gain the oesophagus, and proceed with it, uniting with the intercostal to furnish some branches to the thoracic viscera, and are then spent upon the sto- mach. It is probable some particular end is brought about by this peculiar origin of the nerves of the stomach; and it is more than probable that it is by this means, that it proves so greatly an organ of sympathy. Digestion. Digestion Is one of the most important processes that goes on in the body ; and is that wonderful power whereby substances received into it lose their own properties, and become endowed with those belonging to the constitution in which the assimilation is carried on : that this takes place within the stomach was always allowed, but in what manner, was till lately a matter of much debate. Heat, putrefaction, friction, and fermentation, have successively been con- sidered as the principal agents in digestion. But Mr. Hunter first accurately described the process of solution, by the agency of the gastric fluid ; and which theory the experiments of the Abbe SpaU lanzani and Reaumur have contributed to strengthen. It is now, therefore, universally considered that digestion is a process of solu- tion, and is effected by means of a fluid secreted within the sto- mach, called the gastric juice. The various actions of an animal body produce a waste of the fluids, and even of the solids, and something like a want of tone in the moving powers : these are indicated by the sensations of fatigue and hunger. To restore the tone of parts, rest is required ; and to repair the waste, food becomes necessary. As an excitement to the taking in food at proper intervals, the horse is subjected to a sen- 224 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. satlon, called hunger. Hunger docs not arise from the attrition of the sides of the stomach against each other ; nor does it arise from the action of the gastric juice upon the stomach ; but appears to be brought on by the stomach sympathizing with the wants of the constitution : and hence it is, that food taken in invigorates, before it can be digested; and hence the propriety of giving but little food, and that frequently, when we travel quick, that we may not over- rate the power of the stomach ; and which caution is more parti- cularly requisite in weak constitutioned horses. That this sympathy between the stomach and the body is great, we know, by the prostration of strength that is felt on an empty stomach ; and which cannot arise from inanition only, but from sympathy also ; for let a tired horse hear the hounds, and he will go on through a long chate with alacrity ; but when the melody of the dogs is over, the atten- tion is no longer engaged, and the sympathy returns. It is not improbable, that a sufficient degree of tension in the stomach is necessary to give it its proper energy, and without which it becomes painful; hence water, in which there is little nutriment, will give’ tone by distention, and prevent, fora time, the sensation of hunger. Stimulated, therefore, bv this sensation, animals are induced to take in such particular food as their organs are fitted to the assimi- lation of; and to which they are directed both by instinct and by taste. The carnivorous tribes are prone to take in flesh, by their love of it, and they have organs capable for the assimilation of it. The horse has a disposition to take in grain, for he has a mechanism calculated thereto : the ass, the rat, and the mouse likewdse. The gastric juice is the powerful solvent, by which this assimilation is effected, but it appears not to possess any sensible chemical qua- lities : no acid or alkali has yet been discovered in it: it acts solely by a living power; and so far from its fermenting substances, it stops that process in some instances ; and as it proves in others a powerful antiseptic, consequently it cannot produce its effects by putrefaction either. An acid, it is true, is found in the human stomach sometimes, but this is a diseased alteration of the gastric fluid, from a particular 'action of the vessels. It has a disposition to coagulate milk; but this does not arise from its acid, but is a peculiar property : the rennet used in making cheese is the di- gesting stomach of a calf. We have therefore every reason to sup- pose, that no chemical agency effects this process, but that it is truly a living one. Though the powers of this juice are great, yet life has a particalar power to resist its action ; hence bots, and other worms, are not, while living within the stomach, digested, but when dead, they become dissolved like other matter: it is in this way, that this juice has been found to operate upon even the sto- mach itself. The food, therefore, acted upon by the gastric juice, is reduced to pultaceous mass, called chyme, and which is found streaked with a v.hite fluid, which is the true chyle. In this state it passes into the intestines, but more quickly than in most other animals, that it may be hereafter acted upon. For the digestive DIGESTION. 225 : economy of the horse is different from that of most animals; and [the process we have described in him is imperfectly carried on within the stomach, but matured and completed within the intestines. A , horse, as an animal destined for great exertions, needs great sup- t' port ; hence he eats very largely: and as he likewise is designed for li great speed, so the bulky viscera of the ox would have but ill ac- I corded with his celerity in progression ; hence he has but one sto- mach, and that a very small one. As, therefore, his exertions I require that he should eat largely, and yet as his speed renders it I necessary that his viscera should be compact ; so some peculiarity, j either in form or economy, might be expected ; and which speciality i consists in having the food taken in, but very slightly digested in ( the stomach : but this process begun here, is further carried on, i and completed in the intestines. As, likewise, much food is ne- ! cessary to be taken in, and yet the stomach is small ; so it is evident, 1 it can remain in it but a very small time: a horse will eat two or i three pecks of corn, but his stomach will not hold half of this ; and ij he will frequently drink two, or even three pails of water, but his stomach will hold not one. As vegetable matter, of a given bulk, I affords less nutrition to animals, than so much animal matter; and as we have shewn, that the exertions of the horse require that he should have great support; and as the effect of vegetable food is not lasting on the constitution ; so a horse not only eats largely, but he j eats frequently. A dog fed once a-day will thrive; but a horse so fed would starve: even oxen and sheep can bear fasting, without I prejudice, much longer than a horse. The stomach is an organ of strong sympathy : we have shewn that it produces the sensation, termed hunger, by sympathizing with the wants of the constitution ; and as the economy of the animal dem.ands that food should remain in his stomach but a little time, so it requires that it should be frequently replenished. We have likewise shewn, that it is probable some degree of distention is necessary to the well-being of this organ, and that not only the stomach sympathizes with the wants of the constitution, but likewise the constitution sometimes sym- pathizes with the stomach ; that is, that when entirely empty, it produces a peculiar prostration of strength, independent, in some measure, of the want of nutrition to the constitution ; but depen- dent, in a degree, on the absence of its own tension : this is ex- emplified by a draught of water invigorating, in which there can be but little comparative nutriment. From all this, therefore, it is evident, that the process of digestion in this animal is in some de- gree a peculiar one; and whereas, in most other animals, it is prin- cipally carried on in the stomach, in the horse it appears equally promoted in the intestines, having previously absorbed into the pultaceous mass, the gastric juice; which is here also, as in all other animals, an active age'nt in solution. The stomach partakes of the peristaltic motion, not equally throughout its whole length, but most in that part below the cuticular portion : it acts in being gently constringed, and it appears also to have another action, by 226 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. means of its longitudinal fibres, by which it becomes shortened, and must throw out that portion of the chyme that is next the pylorus, which must also be the most acted upon : it is probable, likewise, that the left portion may aet by gentle constriction, pro- ducing a slight species of trituration in that part upon the contained grain, which may produce a further maceration, or at least more intimately blend, and fit it for the action of the gastric juice. In the horse, the stomach is not such a general organ of sym- pathy as in man and some other animals ; in the human, on the contrary, it sympathizes largely with the constitution. In illness it seldom feels hunger in us ; and in most diseases it is nauseated. The mind influences it likewise : the eflfects of bad news, unpleasant sights, &c., on the stomach, are universally known, and every day met with. In the horse this is by no* means so evident: never- theless, there are some sympathetic effects observed between this organ and the constitution : it has the sympathy of hunger in common with other animals : in illness, the appetite is lost, though usually not in so great a degree as in the human. Under fatigue, cordials, as strong beer, invigorate, which can only be by the sym- pathy produced. Tonic medicines probably act by sympathy, for we are not aware that several of these substances enter the blood vessels. Another instance of sympathy exists in mares when under the effects of oestrum, that is, when they are horsing, they will seldom eat well. The stomach has sometimes also a diseased sym- path}’, for sick horses will often eat, and die with the food in their mouths. From the horse not being subject to nausea, we thereby lose many effects that w'e can produce on the constitution of man, and other animals, by exciting it. It is by raising nausea, that we act pow- erfully on the absorbents : by it, we can likewise relieve the intes- tines, but in a horse nothing appears to nauseate, unless it inflames the stomach ; and, in consequence of its large portion of cuticular coat, it will bear very considerable quantities of many substances, that prove poisonous to other animals : in short, it would appear, from various experiments, that those medicines that produce their effects, by raising the sympathizing properties of the stomach in other cases, in the horse prove nearly inert ; for very little of such an effect takes place, which may be attributed not only to its large portion of cuticular part, but likewise to a particular want of irri- tability, even in the vascular part. SDe^tciption of pTate V. This plate represents the stomach and intestines taken out of the body, and laid without any particular order. The stomach is cut open to shew its iiiiicr surface, and the cuticular coat. a, the card ia, or recipient orifice, with the oesophagus cutoff; b h, the circular plan of fibres, whiph at thi§ part are very much increased, to give great force to < / ^4;, • Avf-» k ■■ « iJi ■K ’ , v^-. ' i ' ^ ^ ■ V*; ^ ^ ■ vi* : ^ ■' • w.-. V 'li ''t . A- V ',1. ■.■I' THE INTESTINES. 227 iJje cardia, and prevent the possibility of vomiting. This plan is seen lessening in force as it approaches the large extremity of the stomach; therefore, it must have a peculiar office at this part; which, as it cannot be to prevent any thing entering, so it must be to prevent any thing escaping; c c, the longitudinal plan; d, the inner part of the great extremity of the stomach, covered internally with the cuticle; hence this is called its insensible part : its rugae, or folds, which are small, are shewn on this surface; c, the membranous portion of the stomach, which is its vascular and sensible part : its folds are seen larger than those of the other portion ; f, the external part of the great extremity ; g, the pylorus; or pyloric extremity of the stomach, with a species of duplication of its membrane, forming a kind of valve to prevent the too hasty passage of food through it; h, the duodenum, or first small gut continued from the stomach, with the biliary and pancreatic ducts entering it; i, the mesentery ; k, the small intestines ending in the crecum ; Z, the caecum, with its blind end shewn; ?n, the commencement of the colon by a con- tracted portion; n n, the continuation of the colon, with its membranous bands, and its sides thrown into cells; o, the termination of the colon into the rectuoii The Intestines. The remainder of the alimentary canal Is continued from the cxpellent orifice of the stomach, to the anus, or end of the passage ; forming a long canal of different dimensions, called intestines, which are usually divided into small and large. In some animals, and in the human, they hardly merit this distinction, there being but little difference in point of size; but in the horse, the disproportion is very considerable ; the small intestines being not much larger than the human, but the large of an immense bulk. This canal is con- nected through its whole extent to membranous productions of the peritoneum, but principally to those called mesentery and meso- colon ; it varies in point of length in different subjects, but is seldom less than twenty-four yards, and often more. The intestines are contained within a prolongation of the peritoneum, the two lamen of which membrane separate and surround their bodies ; and this forms their external coat. The next is muscular, and formed of two plans of fibres, a longitudinal and a circular ; by the contraction of which, the vermicular motion, called peristaltic, is performed, the longitudinal slightly shortening them, and the circular diminish- ing their size. Within this muscular tunic there is a quantity of dense cellular tissue, which was formerly considered as the nervous coat, but which is known now to be only a layer of cellular mem- brane. The inner tunic of the intestinal track is the villous, which is a very vascular and sensible one, but is furnished with no valvulae conniventes ; at least there are no considerable folds of this inner coat as jn the human : they were in this animal rendered unnecessary by the great length of these organs, and the consequent slow p;rssage of the aliments through them by this length and by their position. The division of the intestines into large and small in the horse is self-evident; and each of these gain other separations, but which are not so well marked. The small are divided in duo- denum, jejunum, and ilium ; the large into ctecum, colon, and rectum. {Fide Plate Y.) R 22S anatomy of the abdomen. The duodenum, is attached to the stomach, whose pyloric ori- fice ends in it j its course in the horse is rather different from its- track in tlie human ; and by which it gains rather a more complete covering from the peritoneum. It hangs loose and pendulous, be- ing attached to the concave surface of the liver ; here making a turn, it becomes fixed to the vertebrae, and then takes the name of jejunum ; but as in this course its length is nearer twenty inches than twelve, it is evident that duodenum is an improper term for it, in the horse. It appears rather larger in circumference than the other small intestines, and is remarkable for having the pancreatic and biliary ducts obliquely penetrating it j sometimes entering it close together, at others at some distance from each ether. {Vide h, Plate V.) The gains its name from being commonlv found empty, and is attached to the mesentery, which follows its circumvolutions ; the line of division between it and the ilium is only imaginary : it is usual to consider rather more than a third of the joint length to belong to this Intestine, and something less than, two-thirds to the next. The ilium occupies the portion w'e have described -within the iliac region, from whence it derives its rtame j it presents no peculiari- ties of structure ; but, equally with the former, its circumvolutions are all connected by the windings of the folds of the mesentery. The extremity that penetrates the caecum by a protrusion of its inner surface forms an incomplete valve, which in some measure pre- vents the return of the fceces into the smaller intestines. The large intestines have but little resemblance to those of the human, and may, with propriety, be termed large in this animal. The ccecum : The ilium ends in the posterior part of the abdomen in a very large canal, which it enters abruptly ; the anterior por- tion of the canal projects forward two or three feet into a kind of bagof the size of the colon (see I, Plate V), which terminates in a blind end ; and this forms the ccecum : the posterior portion beyond the insertion of the caecum, forms a smaller blind end (see Plate) ; therefore the ilium may be regarded as entering the ccecum only. This gut usually occupies the right side of the abdomen, and ap- pears immediately on opening the peritoneum ; commencing from the colon and ilium in the right iliac region, it extends forwards to the right side, with its pocket-like part applied towards the diaphragm and liver near the xiphoid cartilage. This termination is not fur- nished, as in some animals and the human, with an appendix ver- miformis ; but terminates, as w'e have said, by a simple blind end. Through the peritoneal covering, we observe four muscular longi- tudinal bands, extending from the extremity along the muscular tunic ; and which divide the gut into four portions. One or tw'o of these are usually covered with fat, and are not so regularly lon- gitudinal as the others (see Plate). The internal membrane is plaited up, as it were, between these fraena, and by these-intersections are formed numerous cavities called the cells. THE INTESTINES. 229 Upon the slightest inspection there appears a very great peculi- arity in the formation of the ctecum in the horse ; and, on a more attentive view, we are struck with its evident importance in this animal; and are led to consider it as little less than a second sto- mach, and which in fact is the case : for the food, or, more pro- perly, the macerated mass of the small intestines mixed with the biliary and pancreatic juices, here undergoes some further change ; and, for this purpose, the ctecum has clearly a structure, favour- able to its detention within it, and to the circulation of this mass throughout all its parts. It has two blind ends, one of which forms its basis, and near to which enters the ilium; the other forms its apex, and extends up towards the diaphragm. From one part of the base the colon commences, but it commences by a very contracted portion {vide m, Plate V), and this contraction, it is evident, is for the purpose of preventing the entrance of the con- tents of the ilium into it until they have passed through the caecum. In many animals the cscum is a very inconsiderable part ; in some it has one or more appendicles, in others it is almost entirely want- ing ; and, in all but the horse, its use is obscure, and apparently not very important; but in him, as before noticed, it is certainly little less than a second stomach, for its whole structure evinces that it is purposely designed that all the food taken in must be poured into its basis, by the contraction of which it shall be forced towards the apex ; and either in its passage or return be detained in the cells to be in some way farther acted upon, and to sustain some change necessary to the system. Having undergone this change, whatever it is; by the farther contraction of the caecum, it is forced into the colon. The colon commences small, but as it originates from the side of the base of the caecum, and as the ilium cannot be said to jointly -enter it with the caecum, as in some other subjects, so there is here no such part as the valve of the colon properly: but, instead, the ilium presents a kind of protrusion of its inner membrane, by which it may in some measure prevent the return of the matter of the caecum within it. The colon is small at its origin, and, as it passes, it experiences a still further contraction; it then enlarges into a very capacious and long canal, which, having made nearly the circumference of the abdomen, again forms a second but slighter contraction : after which it once more enlarges, and again passes around the abdomen; when lessening a third time it ends in the rectum. Upon these circumvolutions, as well as upon the ctEcum, the small intestines lay. In its turns it has some mem- branous connexions by which its too great displacement is prevented ; it is likewise furnished with four ligamentous bands in its large portion, but which are reduced to two only in the smaller parts ; these form longitudinal freena, which being intersected again by in- ternal plaits, produce the cells of this gut. ft is connected and sustained in its situation by that portion of the mesentery termed- K 2 230 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. mesocolon. The colon and cascum are the principal sulFerers in those inflammations that arise from violent purging medicines. The rectum is the continuation of the colon, and passes backwards from the lumbar vertebrae to the anus. Its muscular coat is thicker than that of the other intestines, and it is thrown internally into cavi- ties by the inner membrane, in some manner similar to the cells of the colon, though less : were it not for this interruption, the intestines might be too frequently stimulated to expel their contents. The rectum is attached to the spine and sacrum by a detachment of the peritoneum, which is here, therefore, called mesorectum : but the true lamen of peritoneum does not invest its whole portion, but leaves it as it approaches the gut, which is at this part only co- * vered with the cellular portion of it. The ligamentary bands of this intestine are very strong, and end at the anus in an expansion attached to the coccygis. The anus is the termination of the intes- ; tinal canal, and is opened by the force of the peristaltic motion, ' and the consent of parts, and is shut by a muscular band around the extremity of the gut, called the* sphincter. It is likewise ele- .' vated and retracted by two pair of muscles. The mesentery {vide Plate V). — This great folded membrane is a prolongation of the peritoneum in which the intestines are, as it were, laid, and pushed inwards into the great bag of its extent, as we have before described ; and as it passes round them, and meets at their superior part, the lamen unite and form a single membrane, which is called the mesentery; and is of different lengths, as the intestines are protruded farther or less within the great bag. These peritoneal prolongations are very useful, for they not only invest the intestines, and give them their outer covering ; but they attach them likewise within their situations ; and they are, further, the medium through which they receive their blood vessels and nerve?,: and, moreover, they are the vehicle for the conveyance of the chy'le P by means of the lacteals, which are situated and sustained within j these membranous folds. The origin of the mesentery from the * spine is of small extent, but it is so framed, that as it proceeds it ; is enabled to follow the whole of the intestines through their course, j branching out like a fan, from its beginning at the duodenum to its f termination at the rectum. All that portion of it that sustains the small intestines, is called the ; that which is attached to f the colon, and whose extent is longer, has the name of mesocolon; and mesorectum is the term given to that more inconsiderable portion tSrhich attaches the rectum. Within its laminae is contained in some Instances a considerable quantity of adeps, which is greater or less, according as the animal is more or less fat in general. The anterior mesenteric artery arises from the aorta near the emul- gents, in a considerable trunk, and soon divides into a number of branches, which pass between these laminae of the mesentery, form- ing communications with each other, and then are distributed in a beautiful network around the small intestines principally. The USES OF THE INTESTINES. 231 pGst'crior mesenteric artery arises behind, in a very considerable trunk, and is principally distributed to the great intestines, which I however receive some large branches from the anterior. There is ! likewise a small branch by which the duodenum is supplied before it becomes attached by the mesentery, which is called duodenalis. The nerves of the iniestines are principally from the anterior mesen- teric plexus which furnishes the small bowels ; and the posterior mesenteric plexus gives branches to the large ; with some filaments furnished to the duodenum from the stomachic plexus, and to the rec- ' turn from a plexus within the pelvis. Mesenteric glands ; These are the conglobate bodies we have described in treating of the lymphatic , system; situated between the lamen of the mesentery, and with whose structure we arc not , much acquainted, but whose use we know is connected with the lacteals ; for we always find those j vessels run through them ; and when they are schirrous the same vessels become obstructed. These glands now and then, though but seldom, become affected in the horse. I have found them fre- quently so in virulent glanders : in monkies, diseased mesenteries are a very common cause of death; and infants of the human spe- cies are very obnoxious to the same complaint. I'he lacteals are the vessels we have already treated of in the lym- phatic system, differing from the lymphatics only by the fluid they carry, and arising from the villi of the inner coat of the intestines throughout their whole extent, in the horse, as well from the large as the small intestines ; and from whence they take up the chyle from their surfaces, and carry it in small trunks towards the conglo- bate mesenteric glands : these vessels, in this first space, are called vence lacteac primi generis ; and from which glands they come out on the opposite side, in larger and fewer trunks, when they are called vencE lactece secundi generis, proceeding to penetrate other glands in the same way, till they at last reach the receptaculum chyli, and deposit their chyle, as has been described. (See Lymphatics.) Uses of the Intestines. The long tract of canal we have described, appears to be in- tended to receive the pulpy mass of the chyme, after it has under- gone some alteration, and some solution of its nutritious part, but the whole continues to be carried w'ith the general mass that passes out of the stomach by its gentle propelling motion : as the chyme enters the duodenum, it becomes mixed with two fluids, the pancreatic and the biliary, by which some fresh changes probably take place in it; here the chyle appears to be rendered complete and fitted for absorption. The intestines throughout continue the creeping action we have noticed, called the peristaltic motion, and which is brought about by the two orders of muscular fibres ; the longitudinal straightening the convolutions, and steadying them ; while the circular, in its progressive contraction, presses the contents onwards, not by continued but by gentle efforts, renewed after the 232 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. lapse of a short time. Nature has provided against the too great effects of this motion in the most careful manner, and has in every instance given such a formation as to encourage the stay of the chyme within the intestines, till the whole of its nutritive parts may be taken up. Hence, in animals who feed upon vegetables, she has given an immensely long alimentary track ; because, as in this kind of food there exists but a sn)all quantity of nutritious matter in a large bulk, so it is necessary, that much should be taken in, and retained for a long time to be fully acted upon. Thus in the ox, though his colon is not so capacious as that of the horse, yet his caecum is much larger 3 therefore, the detention is equally brought about, and this demonstrates the principal use of this gut, about which anatomists differ so much : add to which, that the in- testines generally, in the ox, are much larger than in the horse 5 for common herbage, containing less nutritious moleculae than grain, "so it was requisite he should have organs fitted for a more minute comminution of it, and which is done in four Stomachs; in him, there- fore, the foeces are expelled in a state of perfect solution, and having fe\Y nutritious parts remaining, from w'hich arises the known infe- riority of ox and cow dung for agricultural purposes. In the horse, as grain affords, though more than grass, yet much fewer nutritious particles (or perhaps possesses the aptitude to be acted upon in a less degree) than flesh ; so he is furnished with a longer and larger alimentary track than carniv.orous animals, that the quantity taken jn might be considerable, but more particularly, that the chyme might be long within it. Thus, therefore, the chymous mass mixed with the pancreatic juice and the bile, and having undergone certain changes by the commixture, is gently propelled along the intestines, where it applies itself to the surfaces of the villi, which are the orifices of the lacteals, when the chyle becomes separated, and, by a particular stimulus or sympathy, is received within them, and carried forw-ard to the chylous receptacle, to be passed, through the means of the thoracic duct, into either the jugular or axillary vein ; whereby it becomes mixed with, and converted into blood, producing that in- crease to the quantity we have mentioned ; as the alteration from the air received by the lungs, is that melioration of its quality, which we, at the same time, shewed was necessary. The process of digestion is so important, that the veterinarian cannot pay too much attention to it ; w'hether considered in an anatomical, physiological, or in a practical point of view. I shall not, therefore, be considered as trespassing too much on my limits, by the following recapitulation and summary. In treating of di- gestion within the stomach, we shewed that the process as carried •on there, was not conducted altogether in a similar manner in the horse as in the human, but that the pulpy mass was in the former more hastily passed through it; consequently it became necessary that more should be done to complete it in the intestines, than was supposed to be done by the human intestines : and, accordingly, we trsES OF THE INTESTINES. 233 have po’u'ilecl out that tlie continuation of the horse’s alimentary track presents varieties in structure evidently for the purpose of com- pleting this but half-finished process. We have also already given our sentiments on the cause of the peculiarity of the horse’s sto- mach ; it is only necessary now to repeat, that whether nature in- tended, or framed the horse for our immediate use, or for his own, or both ; she has so formed him, as to make him possess at once the united properties of great bulk, great strength, and great speed. To support his great speed, he must have great strength ; and, at the same time, to give him this, and yet not to render him heavy and clumsy, he must have peculiar food, and peculiar powers of assimilation. The first he derives from grain, which there is little reason to doubt was intended by nature to be the food of the ani- mal j and the seeond, he draws from the varieties in his structure. In the human, and many quadrupeds, the process of digestion is completed in the stomach and first intestines ; hence in these there are valvulse conniventes, to prevent the too hasty passage of the food through them •, and it is in these only, that the principal ab- sorption of chyle takes place ; the remaining intestines being but little larger than the former, with the disposition to detention in them not so well marked. But in the horse, though in the small intestines the mass receives the bile and pancreatic juices ; and though it here probably receives additional moisture from some secretion from the intestines themselves ; which we gain by consi- dering their great vascularity, which is infinitely more than sufficient to their simple support: and, likewise, that though some of the chyle may be absorbed here, yet, in these, there exists evidently no apparatus purposely to detain the mass, as in some animals ; for here are no valvulae conniventes, but the chyme is permitted to pass speedily and without interruption into the large intestines, where the process of digestion and separation is still farther carried on and completed. The large intestines we have shewn are in the horse very capacious; they are likewise very vascular; by which some secretion must be carried on within, and which is proiiably an essential, or an auxiliary to digestion. These larger bowels are likewise so constructed as to be enabled to detain the food a Ions; tnne vvithin them, by means of their frenae, which are a species of valvulae conniventes; and by which they form themselves into cells evidently intended to keep the mass within them, till it can be completely acted upon by its stay. Not only does this speciality of structure evince the use of these intestines ; but their being pecu- liarly supplied with numerous lacteals, which, in the human, and carnivorous quadrupeds, are found principally in the small intes- tines, is a further proof. It only remains to add, that the mass having all its nutritious particles separated from it, becomes now truly faecal, or is properly dung ; and as it becomes moulded and dried in the cells of the large intestines, by the great absorption going on from them, it is propelled into the rectum, and from whence it passes out at the anus. 234 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. When therefore we consider the length of the intestinal track, its peculiar structure, together with the horizontal position of the ani- mal, we are at no loss to account for the difficulty with which we produce purging in the horse. It is not only difficult to produce it in point of time, but even in effect also ; and hence it is a process of great exertion to the animal, and as such, occasions great ex- haustion ; and as these parts are very vascular and irritable, so im- proper, doses of physic very frequently prove fatal. Nor is the irri- tability of the intestines the same at all times, which is the reason that the same medicine. that will purge at one time, at another proves inert. It appears likewise, that the irritability of the horse’s intes- tines differs from that of the human ; at least, substances that stimulate the one have no effect on the other : thus, a pound of jalap will not purge a horse, though twenty grains are a brisk cathar- tic to a man or a dog. Purging, it may also be learned, is nothing more than an increase of that natural action of the intestines, by which they expel their contents, called the peristaltic motion ; and which appears brought on, and kept up, by the irritability of the organs : this irritability is such, as to remain in them for some time after they are out of the body. The intestines have various stimuli ; air proves a strong one to them, as we know by its effects: the food is a stimulus to them, but not a sufficient one probably ; hence nature has given another, which she pours out when wanted, which is the bile : when this natural purge is wanting, obstinate costiveness ensues ; and, also, when it becomes increased in quantity, or vitiated in quality, diar- rhoea takes place. The internal surface of these organs may be stimulated, as we have mentioned, to an inordinate degree of con- traction by purges, in which case they expel their contents without absorbing the more liquid parts : thus, horses who easily purge, seldom fatten ; and, hence we see the propriety of permitting the intestines to empty themselves by mashes before we give physic ; for, otherwise, the smaller ones may be stimulated to contract too speedily for those behind to remove the mass, and hence distention and inflammation may arise ; and this the more easily in the horse,, from his prone situation. Pressure is also an intestinal stimulus, as we find by the action of the abdominal, and other muscles, in exercise, which causes a speedy evacuation of their contents ; and, for the same reason, horses with small carcases are easily purged on exercise. We learn also from these considerations, that it is proper to let digestion proceed some length when baiting on a journey be- fore we move the horse, or his chyme wdll be propelled before the chyle can be taken up; and thus he will reap only the benefit of a cordial, which, as it acts by sympathy, is merely temporary ; but the permanent benefit resulting from an increase of blood, will be want- ing ; and hence it is, that horses flag under injudicious manage- ment, v;ho, under a different treatment, would continue strong and equal to what is required of them. THE LIVER. 235 The Liver. The liver is a large mass, situated in the right, with a smaller portion, in the left hypochondrium, and in the epigastrium (see bb, Plate IV) ; with its convex surface adapted to the convexity of the diaphragm, and its concave applied to other abdominal viscera. It is of a dark red colour, and two feet, or two feet and a half in cir- cumference, being thick towards the middle, but thin at the edges ; in the horse divided into several portions, seldom less than seven or eight, forming two large lobes, and several smaller ones j the same is observed to be the case in all animals destined for quick motion. These lobes produce inequalities on its concave surface, and notches in its edges likewise, some of which are deeper than others, and which are called its scissures. It has several considerable depres- sions on the concave side ; one is formed by the right kidney, the anterior part of which is received into a depression of a small divi- sion or lobule of the great right lobe : another considerable depres- sion, called its great scissure, divides the two larger lobes from each other : a third appears near the termination of this greater one, in the middle of the concave surface, and is called the porta of the liver, into which the sinus of the vena portae enters. The remains of the umbilical vein likewise form a considerable cavity with- in the great scissiire : the vena cava and oesophagus also form de- pressions in their passage at its superior part. The liver is attached at its convex surface to the diaphragm, by productions of the peri- toneum (see Plate IV), and likewise by means of cellular mem- brane ; the vena cava serves also to attach it : by all of which it is sufficiently retained in its situation, and is farther assisted by the pressure of the viscera. It is exteriorly covered by the peritoneum, and internally within this there is a considerable layer of cellular tissue that penetrates its substance, and which is furnished with nu- merous lymphatic vessels accompanying its several portions. The substance of this organ is composed of an immense number of gra- nulated corpuscles, apparently formed from the several vessels enter- ing it, and which are in some way connected with the secretion of the bile. The vascular rami entering the portae of the liver, have a cellular investment discovered by Glisson, and henee called Glisson’s capsule : it enters with the trunks, and serves as a con- necting substance to the internal structure. The blood vessels are the venae portae, vena hepatica, and the arteria hepatica. Vena portce hepaticce. — We have before described the veins of the abdominal viscera, as returning their blood into the sinus of the vena portae, which may be regarded as the termination of that por- tion, called vena portce ventredis, and the beginning of that termed vena portce hepalicce; from wherree it is branched off in every direc- tion to be ramified throughout the substance of the liver : there- fore, at this origin in the sinus, the vena portae hepaticae takes up the office of an artery. Hepatic veins : When the blood carried into the substance of this viscus, and dispersed throughout these cor- 236 anatomy of the abdomen. puscles, has been acted upon, and the bile formed from it ; it iy collected from the ramifications of the hepatic veins, which are the true venal trunks of the liver : these unite into several rami, and pour their blood into the cava by very numerous branches. The hepatic artery is a branch arising from the aorta, which, though it furnishes so great a viscus, is yet much smaller than either of the emulgents : it is, therefore, evident, that it can take no part in the secretory office of this gland : but as its own life must be kept up equally with that of other parts, and which life is entirely distinct from its specific action ; so it must have arterial ramifications, and which are furnished throughout its substance by this means. Fori bitiarii, and hepatic diitt. — In the glandular corpuscles some great change goes on, by which a fluid substance is separated from the venal blood. These biliary pores appear to end in small tubes, which gradually form others, following the course and the divi- sions of the vena portae, till they all unite to form one duct, which is the ductus hepaticus. In the human, and all other animals that we are acquainted with, except the horse, ass, and deer, there is another trunk, or duct, called ductus cysticus, which arises from the hepatic, and terminates in a considerable membranous bag, called the gall bladder, by which some of the bile regurgitates from the hepatic canal to be lodged in the gall bladder, where it becomes thicker, more acrid, and bitter : but, in the horse, the hepatic duct is continued from its origin at the centre of the concave por- tion of the liver, to its termination within the duodenum, a few inches from the pylorus, in company with, or not far distant from, the pancreatic duct. The nerves of the liver originate from a plexus formed of some filaments of the par vagum and the sympa- thetic ; and as these are but few in proportion to its bulk, so it is a viscus of little sensibility, and even under inflammation the pain experienced is rather dull than acute; from its more simple structure also with regard to its ducts, it is in the horse but little subject to disease. But though, in this animal, it seldom becomes primarily affected, yet it is not unfrequent that it partakes of the affections of the neighbouring viscera, and in these cases is found after death in a gangrenous' state. In some instances also, a more slow inflam- mation or obstruction of its ducts takes place, when the horse becomes universally yellow throughout his skin. Uses of the Liver. In most animals the liver is found more evolved at birth than any other organ ; the reason of which appears to be, that it re- ceives more blood than other parts ; for not only does all the blood of the chylopoietic viscera pass through it, but that from the umbilical vein likewise. In man, and in every other animal with which we are acquainted, there is an apparatus purposely to prevent the meliorated and vivified blood of the umbilical vein from passing through the liver, which is brought about by a communication be- tween this venous trunk apd one of the hepatic branches of the USES OP THE LIVEK. 237 tava, anti which communication is called canalis venosus ; but in the horse and his counterpart, the ass, no such communication exists, but the whole blood of the umbilical vein passes through the liver. It is impossible not to admire the wisdom displayed in the struc- ture of these various parts, and the contrivances to produce these certain ends. In the foetal state, the glands and other organs have no specific action to perform, or, at least, but little more than evo- lution or growth ; hence there is no necessity for blood more pure than is merely wanted for the support, and for this evolution : were the blood more pure, the specific action might commence; and therefore nature exhibits some admirable contrivances purposely to deteriorate it, and to render it less pure, that the various organs might be held only in a state of capacity. The placenta forms the true foetal lungs, and the blood circulating through the umbilical arteries, is dark and venous, but becomes altered by the action of the maternal portion of the placenta, so that, as it returns by the umbilical .vein, it has become vivified and oxygenated; but it is evident, it can only be so in a subordinate degree, seeing it receives its principles through a secondary medium ; therefore the whole blood that the foetus receives is less pure than that of an adult, and thus the organs are not stimulated to their specific action ; but em- ploy all the oxygen -or vivifying principle, contained in this but half pure blood, for the purposes of evolution. But as the liver is an organ that secretes its fluid, the bile, from venous blood ; so, un- less there were some speciality in its structure in the foetal state, the specific action might take place ; and accordingly we do find that a peculiar contrivance is formed for this purpose, for, in the foetal colt the liver receives purer blood than any other pa''t, by means of the umbilical vein carrying its contents into it ; in the horse wholly, and in all other animals sufficiently, to prevent the spe- cific action. What may be the immediate reason that the whole of the blood circulates through the liver in the horse, and that he is destitute of a canalis venosus, we are not aware of; but it is proba- bly in some manner connected with the peculiarity in the structure of this organ, as being deprived of a gall bladder. The liver therefore, like the other organs, displavs a wonderful contrivance, that the regulation of the economy shall be complete, and the whole system in the foetal state evolved; but though evolv- ed not active : on the contraiy, the organs exist in a state of capacity only. When, after birth, there is no longer any necessity for these contrivances, but, instead, a necessity even exists for their removal, it is effected by the common consent of parts : and now the liver receives venal blood only, and from w'hich, by the living pbwer of the part, it is enabled to secrete a fluid, that proves of the utmost importance to the system, being the stimulus whereby the intestines are impelled into motion; and perhaps it may like ■ wise perform some chemical change on the chyle with which it mixes in its passage through the duodenum. 23S A^fATOMY OF THE ABDOMEX. The bile appears composed of mucilage, resinous substance, and mineral alkali; and is between a yellow and green in its colour, and of a bitter pungent taste. In the horse it is probably constantly flowing, except at the slight intervals when the peristaltic motion presses the sides of the duct ; hence it is that these animals are less liable to obstructions of this fluid from calcular concretions than most others. This regularity in its distribution was necessary in the horse, who is so frequently eating ; for being an anirhal designed for speed and great exertions, he could not conveniently be made bulky and with equally capacious digestive organs, as the ox : but to compensate, he takes food frequently, which must be as frequently digested and expelled ; hence the reason of this formation becomes evident, for in him the same kind of purge being at all times required, it is constantly and regularly poured in, seeing he is al- most always eating ; but in the human, as the bile is uniformly secreting, but not constantly wanted, so there is a reservoir contain- ing one kind, very acrid and stimulating, and another, mild and more slightly purgative. The bile is not alw'ays secreted in equal proportions, but more at some times than at others, though perhaps the quantity is more ge- nerally equal in the horse, than in any other animal. The secretion is less when at rest than during exertion ; hence the reason that horses long confined in the stable without exercise, have sometimes biliary concretion, and often costiveness : for the bile hardly flowing out, at last concretes ; the lymphatics taking up its watery part. In jaundice the bile is supposed to get into the blood vessels both by the absorption of the lymphatics, and by regurgitation through the biliary duct into the hepatic veins. The liver in many animals is the peculiar seat of worms ; out of eighteen rats that were examined, sixteen were found with taenia within its substance. The disease termed the rot in sheep appears to arise from a species of worm within the gall duct, and Monsieur Chalette has often found them in horses also. The Pamreas. The pancreas is a conglomerate long glandular body situated be- hind the liver, to the Ifeft region of the epigastrium, between the sto- mach and left kidney, with a portion extending across the spine, and w'hich is the only part that can be seen on opening the abdomen, while the stomach is in its natural situation. {Videf, Plate IV.) Its superior surface is applied to the abdomen, and its inferior to the great curvature of the stomach ; it is also connected to the omen- tum, liver, duodenum, and spleen, and to the vena cava ; it has a small portion like an appendix, which is connected to the duodenum, and called the little pancreas ; this sometimes furnishes a small sepa- rate duct penetrating that intestine. Its substance is formed of small glandular bodies, within which, the ducts collect into several branches, till they form the principal pancreatic duct, that pene- trates the duodenum usually with the biliary (vide f, Plate IV), ' THE PANCREAS AND SPi-EEN. 239 l)y one common opening; but which, if cut into a little way, pre- sents within it another distinct orifice. Use of the Pancreas. This gland secretes a fluid very much like saliva, whose quantity, if we compare its size with the salivary glands, must be consider- able. Its use has been supposed to be the melioration and attenu- ation of the gall and the chyme in the alimentary canal : but from the experiments of Mr. A. Cooper, he supposes it co-operates with the bile in decomposing the chylous from the faeculent parts of the chyme or digested mass. Till its duct was discovered in 1642, by Vertsungi, it was said to act as a bolster for the stomach to rest upon. It is not very liable to disease in the horse, though now and then calculi have 'been found in it. This part in calves is simi- lar both in structure, appearance, and taste, to the thymus gland, and is used as such by the butchers. ’ The Spleen. The spleen, or milt, is a viscus of an a|)parently glandular struc- j ture, but without an excretory duct, of a rusty brown colour in- clining to blue, but which varies according to age and circum- ! stances : it is situated in the left hypochondrium, between the ! great extremity of the stomach and the left kidney (vide p, Plate I IV). Its figure has been resembled to a scythe, but neither this, nor its size, are by any means always alike : it is frequently more of a pyramidal or triangular form. By its upper convex surface it is attached to the ribs, and by its inferior it rests on the ab- dominal viscera. The inner or concave part presents a kind of groove which divides it into two portions, an anterior and a poste- rior; within which groove are the openings admitting the splenic vessels. It is connected by cellular substance to the left kidney; by the vasa brevia to the stomach, and to the pancreas by other vessels ; as well as by membranous productions to other parts. The splenic vessels: Both the artery and vein of this viscus are large; and as the latter arises in its minute ramifications from the cells of the in- ternal part, so it must be evident the circulation performed is slowly carried on; for when a vein originates from the capillary branch of an artery, there must be some force to propel it onward, and hence the circulation will be increased. The splenic artery is likewise a considerable one, but it does not originate, as in the h,uman, from the coeliac, to which there is no correspondent artery- in the horse; but it is given off at once from the aorta, and enters it at its groove. It receives a moderate proportion of nerves, and is plentifully supplied with lymphatics. Uses of the Spleen. From the cellular texture of the spleen, its large blood-furnishing trunks, and the systematic detention of the blood within it, it is evident, it must have some particular office in the economy to per- 240 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. form ; but what this is, has been a subject of much conjecture. From some accidents, and experiments, it appears not essential to life. It has been often removed in dogs without any apparent ill effects : but though its removal may not occasion fatal con- sequences, yet it does not follow, that it has not some great use in the system. It has been considered as an assislairt in the formation of bile, by retaining the blood to render it more venal, and more" easily acted upon. Dr. Haighton’s experiments tend to shew that it is a grand auxiliary in digestion, by sending the blood it receives when the stomach is inactive, to that organ, when it is distended and in full secreting action. The stomach thus receiving more blood than usual, can secrete more than usual. But the origin of the splenic artery is not the same in the horse as in the human, which has been given as a reason against this use of the spleen : though not perhaps with much force ; seeing that in the horse some speciality might be expected, as his stomach is so little a digestive organ, compared with that of the human and some- animals. The Renal Capsules. The superrenal glands are two bodies, situated at the anterior part of the kidneys, to which they are usually connected. Their size is by no means always the same; but, in most animals, they are more considerable in the young than the old subject ; and in the human foetus, they are as large as the kidneys themselves, but which difference is not observable in an equal degree in the colt. Their figure is irregular, and may be judged of by a reference to Plate IV, m, m; their colour is a bluish tint, with an appa- rently granulated structure. They receive their vessels from the emulgents usually, and are retained in their situation by them, and by their attachment to the kidneys, as well as by the peritoneum, which covers their inferior but not their superior surface. Their use is wholly unknown. The Kidneys. The kidneys are two glandular bodies (see c c, Plate IV), situated in the superior and posterior part of the abdomen ; the right being generally the most anterior, and attached to the hinder edge of the liver, laying under the sixteenth or seventeenth rib ; while the ■ left is the more posterior of the two, being pressed backwards by the spleen, and is usually situated under the last false rib. The kidney bean, so named after these parts, serves to give a pretty exact idea -of their shajie, both in the horse and in the human : but they are by no means c>f a similar form in every animal, and often even vary in animals of the same kind. The right is usually rather triangular ; and both, as being but partially covered with the peritoneum, may be said to be without its sac, as v\ell as their excretory duct. In many brutes, as the hog^ oxen, and sheep, they are imbedded in fat ; but in the horse, dog, and most fleet animals, there is less adeps THE KIDNEYS. 241 around them ; yet in all cases they are surrounded by a quantity of cellular or adipose membrane; and when this is removed^ their ex- ternal coat appears, which is very smooth and compact. They are sustained in their situation by the peritoneum passing over their in- ferior surface, and by their vessels, as well as by the cellular sub- stance we have noticed. In the young subject of the horse, and many other animals, as well as in the human infant, they are formed of distinct lobes ; in some of these they remain llrus through life : the bear at all ages has a lobulated kidney. The internal structure of the kidney is not the same throughout, but appears, when cut into, composed of an external reddish part, called the cortical ; an internal whitish part, termed the tubular ; and a cavity called the pelvis. The cortical part is of a reddish brown colour, and granu- lated structure, surrounding the tubular, and very vascular, from the emulgent artery ramifying throughout it. The tubular portion is striated, and appears composed of numerous minute tubes, which receive the urine from the grains of the cortical portion, in which it is secreted by the minute ramifications of the emulgent artery. These minute tubes carry the urine to others, which increase in size, and at length pour the contents by tubular openings into the cavity we mentioned. The pelvis is this cavity within the substance of the kidney, which in the horse is uniform, but in man divided into three portions, and lined by a white strong membrane. From this cavitv passes out the urinary duct called ureter, which appears formed from a continuation of its inner membrane mixed with muscular fibres. The vessels of the kidneys are termed emulgent. The arteries are very considerable, and are supposed to carry not less than a sixth of the whole blood of the body to these parts. Sometimes there is more than one to each; but it is more usual for there to be one only, which generally goes off at a right angle with the aorta, be- hind the origin of the anterior mesenteric artery ; by which means the motion of the blood is rendered slower. The left emulgent ar- tery is very short compared to the right, from the aorta laying to that side; it likewise arises usually a little more anteriorly than the other : each proceeds to within a small distance of its respective kidney, when it divides into two or three branches, which penetrate the sinus of the kidney, and ramify throughout the cortical por- tion, probably, by three terminations ; the venal, the supporting, and the secreting. The emulgent veins arise from the venal termi- nations before noticed, and unite into two or three trunks, which, passing out b)^ the same sinus in each kidney, immediately unite and follow the direction of the arteries ; the right being much shorter than the left, on account of the situation of the cava being towards the right side, and both terminate in the vena cava, the left rather posterior to the other. The right and left emulgent artery and vein give each a branch to the capsulse renales ; and the left emulgent vein frequently receives the left spermatic vein. The nerves of the kidney arise from the splenic and hepatic plexi, which form a species of nervous network around each kidney, called the renal 242 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. plexus, from which the kidrleys are furnished. The lymphatics are considerable, and accompany the emulgent veins, terminating at length in the receptaculum chyli. Use of the Kidneys. From the quantity of blood the kidneys receive, we are led to suppose them very important organs, whose use we now know to be to separate from that fluid some parts whose stay would be de- leterious. It is remarkable that many substances taken into the stomach, and absorbed by the lacteals, have their properties or sen- sible qualities rendered latent so long as they remain in the stomach, or in the lacteals, and even in the blood : but as soon as any sepa- ration takes place within the kidneys, these substances recover their qualities ; hence cantharides received through this medium, or by the surface of the skin, produce no sensible effect on the blood vessels, but, as soon as they have been separated from it by these organs, they then produce the most sensible effects ; inflaming the kidneys, ure- ters, and more particularly the neck of the bladder, producing stran- gury. Nitre thus produces its diuretic' effect, and resin likewise; neither being active while existing within the blood vessels; but as soon as circulated through the kidneys, they produce a high degree of stimulus to those organs, whereby they separate much more of the watery parts of the blood than usual. If blood is examined in the emulgent artery, and the emulgent vein, that in the vein will be found to have the least serum ; there- fore, we have reason to suppose, that the serum or watery parts df the blood are those taken up ; but these are not the only parts se- parated, for there arc other faecal ones, whose stay would be hurt- ful ; hence the urine is found to be a very compounded fluid : this is further proved by the decomposition that sometimes takes place within the kidneys and bladder, whereby calculi are formed within them ; hence, therefore, we may reasonably suppose, that these or- gans form a grand emunctoryfor the separating and passing off some unnecessary and probably noxious parts of the blood, in a more substantial form; while the skin and the lungs do the same with regard to some parts that exist in a more rarefied form. The kid- neys, like other glands, have their particular stimuli ; and these parts in the horse are very irritable. Many of the urinary stimuli are unknown to us; others arise from substances taken in through the skin, or by means of the stomach, which, after having gone the round of circulation, enter the kidneys with the rest of the blood, and stimulate these organs ; by which means they not only become more vascular, and, as such, can separate a greater quantity of urine from the iqcreased quantity of blood; but, probably, the vessels themselves, by this stimulus, have a power of separating more watery parts from the same quantity of blood. In man, and in many animals, we have but little power over the kidneys ; that is, they are lyss irritable than many other parts, and hence we find if difficult in some instances to increase their action USES OF THE KIDNEYS. 243 or secretion : hnt in this subject, the kidneys are more easily acted upon, and no substances are luore certain in their operation than tjiosc, which are termed diuretics. When a horse has been debarred from \Vater for two or three days, and then allowed to drink freely, the wafer alone has proved a most active diuretic : perhaps this is connected in some measure with the natural tendency the blood has in him to possess but little serum : thus, when the horse has so fasted, and thus so drank, still a larger quantity of serum, on examination, has not been detected in his blood ; from whence we learn, that the kidneys are on the watch, as it were, to separate any superfluous part, and that very quickly. There is a great connexion between the kidneys and skin : in summer, when much foecal matter is evacuated by sweat, but little urine is formed ; but in winter, when there is but little perspiration, then much is secreted. That the urine is separated from the blood, is evident; for, in those animals who do not drink, as the rabbit, hare, &c., it is nevertheless formed : and if a horse is kept without drink, he still secretes this fluid, though in a diminished quantity ; and that It is intended, not only to carry off some of the watery parts of' the blood, but likewise other matters, is evident from fowls, who have kidneys, but no urinary bladder; therefore in them the urine is deposited in the in- testines, in a white saline mass, and which forms that white portion at the end of their dung. From the great vascularity of the kidneys, they are subject to in- flammation, to calculous concretions, and to diabetes ; and as their office is important, so under inflammation the effects produced are as serious and destructive as would occur in other parts of twenty times their magnitude. The most frequent ailment, however, to which they are exposed, is that of being bruised by the action of the lumbar muscles in violent exercise, w'hich bruises produce a Itesion of their fine vessels ; and hence it is so common for horses who have been hard ridden, to make bloody urine afterwards. The ureters. — The urine having been separated from the blood, and passed into the pelvis of each kidney, is then carried off by means of two muscular tubes, one to each, called the ureter. {Vide n n, Plate IV.) These canals pass out at the posterior part of each sinus, and are continued backwards, not altogether in a straight direction ; being continued towards the bladder, they gradually approach each other, and are crossed upon by the spermatic rope, and finally in- serted at some distance from each other within the bladder, not far from its neck, piercing the coats obliquely, and running between them ; by which mode of insertion the tunics of the bladder perform the office of a valve, permitting the entry of the urine, but pre- venting its return. The ureters are composed of three coats, or portions ; an external, membranous ; a middle, muscular ; and a third, internal or mucous : their muscularity is, however, denied by some; but in the horse it is evident, from his position, that the urine cannot gravitate ; and therefore must be propelled by some S ‘244 ANATOMY OF THB ABDOMEN. agency, which can only be iDuscular : both at their origin and in- sertion, they are uncovered by the peritoneum. Their use is evi- dently to conduct the urine into the bladder. The Pelvis. That part of the abdomen, which is included within the ossa' Innominata and saeruni, is called the cavity of the pelvis. The posterior portion of this does not come within what is called the cavity of (he abdomen, seeing the peritoneum does not reach to the bottom of the hollow, but only extends to its anterior part ; so that all the viscera of the pelvis are not wholly within the peritoneal i investment. j The Bladder. This is a membranous and muscular sac of a pyriform shape, or in some measure- like a double cone, situated partly within the peritoneal cavity, and wholly within the hollow of the pelvis when not distended. It rests on the pubis, and has the rectum imme- diately over it in the horse, and the uterus in the mare ; but when distended, it extends beyond the pubis, and may be felt in the belly. Those who are in the habits of visiting sick horses, should accustom i themselves to the kirowledge of an empty or distended bladder, from I external examination only ; as retention of urine is a very fatal, 3 thousjh fortunately an unfrequent disease. The bladder has a base, 3 which is the middle portion, with an anterior and posterior apex ; 1 and, contrary to the human, is smaller in the female than in the I male. It will contain, when distended, several pints'-; but the acrimony of the urine, or the stimulus of distention, or, perhaps, both these causes conjoined, seldom permit it to remain till the full quantity is collected. The peritoneum covers only its anterior por- , tion, by a prolongation extending over part of the inferior surface only ; from the superior portion it passes on, and is reflected over the womb in the mare, and on the rectum in the horse ; but it does not reach to the posterior part, but leaves thus much of the rec- J turn, and the upper surface of the bladder, uncovered by the perito- i nemn, so as to wholly exclude this viscus from the peritoneal ca- vity, except its anterior part. It becomes necessary to be aware pf this, as it would be a matter of great Import, when making an opening in the bladder, to do it without the peritoneal cavity ; which therefore, it is evident, may be done by means of a puncture through the rectum ; but we shall have occasion to mention a still better ' mode, though it is not improper to be aware of this also. The , bladder is composed of three coats, or portions ; one forms a dense cellular portion, and appears a continuation of the same part of | the peritoneum ; the true lamen covering, as we have explained, ; only its anterior part: the next coat is its muscular, the fibres of which are compacted together by cellular substance, and appear laid in every direction; but principally it has an external plan, which USES OK THjfe BLADDia. 245 IS placed longitudinally, with an Internal transverse ; intermixed like- wise with others whose course is oblique, and of no determinate direction. I JBy the action of these fibres, the bladder can contract itself so completely, as to throw out the last drops of urine, which could not 60 readily be effected, had there been only the longitudi- nal and transverse plans. In dissections of the human subject, and of animals who die violent deaths, the bladder has been found in some instances so contracted as almost to form a solid mass ; so great is the force with which these fibres can act; The natural con- traction of the urinary sac is a gentle perpetual motion without inter- vening relaxation, except when it is nearly empty, and then there are some violent contractions, with alternate relaxations. The mus- cular structure composing the bladder, like all other muscular parts, may be brought into a state of paralysis by over-distention : hence, if by any means the bladder is long kept from evacuating its con- tents, it becomes so distended as to lose its power of contracting, and the horse, without relief, dies from its rupturing. Its sphincter is a circular set of muscular cords around its neck, whose contrac- tions completely shut the opening into the urethra. The inner coaE of the bladder is the mucous, or villous, which appears very vascular, and secretes a thick mucus for the defence of the surface against the irritating effects of the urine; and when, by any means, as by |! Inflammation, this becomes defective, this organ is in the most irritable state. The bladder is connected in its situation by portions of the peritoneum, which are called its ligaments ; and by the urachus, which is a ligamentary rope that extends from this vlscus between the peritoneum and linea alba to the navel, and which in the foetus is pervious, and carries urine from the bladder. The remains of the umbilical arteries are within this ligamentary rope likewise, and pass with the urachus to the cyst, to be continued up to their origin in the iliac arteries. At its posterior part the bladder is pierced by three openings ; two of which are situated near each other, and at a small distance from the superior part of its neck ; these arc the openings of the ureters, by which the urine flows into this sac. The other forms the outlet, and is termed the neck, ending in the beginning of the urethra, which is the conti- ;j nuation of this outlet. The arteries of the bladder arise from dif- 1 ferent branches of the internal iliacs ; the venal trunks return their I blood into the internal iliac veins ; and the nerves are given from the sacral and abdominal plexi. Uses of the Bladder. It would have been inconvenient to the animal had the urine been constantly passing away, as must have been the case without this reservoir; but which collects and contains it, till by its distention ! the muscular fibres are stimulated to contract upon it; the sphincter is then forced to give way, and the urine flows out. Calcareous concretions, in the form of either gravel or stone, are now and S 2 246 ANATfOMV OF THt ABjboMEN. then, though but seldom, apt to form within this sac : it is like- wise liable to inflammation, and to collections of inspissated mu- cus; and, at times, to a palsied state of the sphincter; all which will be treated of hereafter. The bladder in the horse is not much an organ of sympathy; but in some animals, as the dog, it is very much so ; fear stimulates it strongly ; and certain smells have a wonderful eflcct on it in the canine tribe; and which is not de- pendent on lust, for it is observed in bitches, without the eestrum on them, and in cut dogs also. In the human, this viscus is an organ of surprising sympathy. The sound of music is an irresistible impulse to some persons to evacuate their urine ; plunging the hands in cold water proves imperatively so to many ; and other j circumstances, apparently equally remote from any connexion with it, | excite its contractions in others. « THE MALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. f That the creatures which Providence has formed may not become j extinct, they are endued with a creative faculty of their own ; and that they may be excited to call ibis power into action, they have certain impulses, w'hereby the generative act becomes necessary to their hap- piness. In man, whose passions are under the influence of reason, and whose intellectual pursuits check the natural appetites, carnal love is controlled ; but in brutes, who have only the gratification of their appetites in view, lust is an irresistible impulse. The sluggish, j and otherwise insensible ass, will swim wide rivers, leap hedges, and even go through fire, to prosecute his asinine amours ; and such is the ardour of a frog, while under the act of copulation, though with him there is no immediate union of sexual organs, that he will suffer his head to be cut off, and yet not be deterred from attempting the completion of the act, which in this animal requires many days. The means whereby the great work of propagation is effected, is different in the higher and lower orders of animals ; being much more simple in the latter, and consequently more complete. In quadrupeds it is brought about by the intervention and union of particular organs, in an act termed copulation ; and the organs themselves are hence called organs of generation. These are distributed between the two sexes, so as to oblige each of them to take a part in this duty ; and, from their mutual efforts, a new creature is formed, similar to its parents. ; The genital parts in the horse are most of them external : on the contrary, in the mare, they are mostly internal ; and both in the one and the other, they have an intimate connexion with the organs con-» 1 cerned in the formation of urine ; whereby one set is made to answer a double purpose. The scrotum is the envelopement of the testicles, formed from the | integuments of the abdomen, elongated into a pocket, or bag-like form, and extended likewise to the large tubular covering of the yard, called the sheath. Outwardly it is smooth, and deprived of hairs ; internally, it is lined by a cellular substance, w’hich unites itself by Cae surface to the exterior cutaneous covering; and by the other to i MALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. ■247 G muscular expansion called the dartos, which forms a capsule for each testicle, being divided into two cavities, by means of a septum ; I leaving no communication between the tw’O, whereby disease is i prevented from communicating so readily from one to the other. The Testicles. ; Within these two sacs are the two testicles. Nature appears to have given two, that if one becomes injured or diseased, another yet I remains ; for the propagation of the species is nature’s grandest work, and the resources she gives to animals for this purpose are very great. ' The testes are two glandular bodies, w'hich in all animals are first formed within the abdomen ; and in some, as in birds, always re- main there. In the foetal colt they are lodged within the belly, im- mediately behind the kidneys, and are retained there till some time after birth, when they begin gradually to appear within the scrotum. What influenced this peculiar passage of the testicles into the scro- j turn, was long a matter of dispute : in man it was supposed to be occasioned by their gravity ; but this could not be the case in the j brute ; nor can it be effected by respiration, as we find them already i| in the scrotum of some animals before, they have breathed ; and in others, as the hedgehog, they remain within the belly, though respi- ration is aUvays carried on. But by Mr. Hunter some interesting discoveries w'cre made on this subject; he found that the testes, I when situated within the cavity of the abdomen, were enveloped by a ! prolongation of the peritoneum, in the same manner with the other ! viscera; and were attached likewise each of them to a ligamentous ji substance of a pyramidal shape, whose base, or broad part, adhered I to the testicle, and its other portion continued through the ring formed from the separation of the fibres of the external oblique muscle ; and that it became attached finally to the bottom of the scrotum : this ligament he termed guhernaculum testis. It attains i its full growth before birth ; after which period, it begins to contract and shorten itself ; by which means, as it cannot draw the scrotum within the ring, nor free itself from the testicle ; it therefore draws i the testis itself from its situation under the psoas muscles, and which carries with it the covering of peritoneum it had around it, and this it is that forms its tunica albuginea. {Tide i, Plate IV.) This progress is carried on gradually ; and when the testicles by this contraction have been drawn to the ring, it is evident they must I there meet wdth some obstruction ; for the peritoneum surrounds the whole abdominal cavity, as we have described, and only permits the passage of this ligament; consequently in yielding to the pressure, it must either open, or be forced down : it appears that it does the latter ; and that the testicles, before invested by the peritoneal cover- ing they had in the abdomen, from their tunica albuginea, now force along with them this fold that was opposed to the ring, and which they carry with them, but which does not become united to them, but remains loose, and forms the tunica vaginalis to each {tnde h, Plate IV) ; which is finally carried into the scrotum with the testi- 24S ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. cles by the complete contraction of the gnbernaculum testis, which becomes afterwards wholly absorbed. In the human, after the testes have passed the abdominal rings, a complete union takes place between the vaginal, or outer reflection of the peritoneum and the surrounded rope ; by which means all com- munication with the scrotum and abdomen is shut out : this is a wise and kind provision to man j for, from his erect position, were it otherwise, there would be a continual descent of some of the intes- tines ; and, probably, a continual collection of the interstitial fluid of the abdomen : and in the few instances that do occur where this is left open, these effects ensue ; that is, some of the contents of the abdomen make their way into the scrotum ; which forms what Haller ’ has called hernia congenita. But quadrupeds, from their horizontal position, not being subjected to this descent, have not this opening closed : therefore, in the horse, a communication between the scrotum .. and abdomen remains ; this prone situation rendering quadrupeds in general but little subject to scrotal hernia. We must, however, ' except dogs, who, from this abdominal opening, and the great length pf their omentum, are not unfrequently troubled with epipilocele. The coats of the testicles are commonly reckoned as three ; the expansion of the cremaster, the tunica vaginalis, and tunica albu- ginea. The cremaster is a muscle that arises from joint fibres of the obliquus abdominis and transversalis abdominis muscles, with some fibres from the fascia lata ; forming a slight muscle, that is continued | with the spermatic cord down to the testicles, when it becomes an apo- i neurotic expansion that inserts itself into the tunica vaginalis {vide /t, | Plate IV) : this, therefore, cannot properly be considered as a tunic | of the testicle. The tunica vaginalis is the second portion of the ‘I peritoneum w'e have described as descending by the pressure of these glands, which loosely surrounds them, and forms a firm sheath to k each ; in Plate IV, this is seen open from the right testicle. The | tunica albuginea immediately invests the body of each, being the I portion of the peritoneum that surrounded the testicle in its first * situation within the abdomen. This coat is white, externally | smooth, very firm, and united very intimately by its internal surface to the substance of the testicle : on its outer surface are seen vessels alternately in a direct and wavy course. {See the right Testicle^ plate IV.) Having these coverings and appendages, the testes may be considered each as a glandular body approaching to the figure of a ' kidney, having the great curvature and great extremity directed ^ before, and the. lesser curvature and small extremity directed backr wards, and towards the abdomen : to the posterior portion is attached the appendix, or epididymis. Its internal surface appears formed of an infinite number of very minute tubes, which appear the secreting ramifications of the spermatic artery, so minutely divided, that Dr. Monro has calculated that their length, when united in a humaii- testicle, would be not less than 30,000 feet. After this numerous and minute division, the semen having been formed from the arterial blood, these firm tubes gradually form several ducts, which inoscu- MALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 249 I ! late together, and increase in size, but diminish in number, to , form what are termed the vasa efferentia. The epididyims is formed from the united mass of these vasa efferentia, and is situated at the i posterior external surface of the testicle, having a bulbous head, within which these tubes take a very convoluted direction, as may be I evidently seen on tbe outside {vide k, Plate IV, right Testicle) : as j it proceeds upwards it lessens, and finally forms one canal, termed s the vas deferens. 1 7'he vessels of the testicles, — The spermatic arteries are a principal one to each testis, which arise from the inferior part of the aorta (see Plate IV), a little behind the emulgents : soon uniting with the spermatic veins, both proceed backwards enveloped with cellular membrane, passing obliquely over the psoas muscles, diverging gra- dually from each other as they cross the ureters, when they pass downwards and outwards to gain the abdominal ring. In their : passage, they give a branch to the adeps of the kidneys, peritoneum, and other parts, w'ithout apparently diminishing their size ; and when arrived at the abdominal ring, they are continued with the vas deferens, which is invested in the same sheath, and are ramified throughout the body of the testicle in the manner described. The spermatic veins receive within the testicles the blood that is not taken up by the secretory power of the organs : passing out of the testicles, they form several trunks, whose convolutions are numerous, and their communications very free with each other, so as to make a varied plexus of venal branches, which pass upwards, and terminate, the left usually in the left emulgent, and the right in the vena cava. (See Plate IV.) The nerves of the testicles are usually a branch to each, received from an abdominal plexus j and its lymphatics may be seen spread over the surface of each. Each spermatic cord is, there- fore, composed of the spermatic vessels, the nerve, the vas deferens, with the lymphatics, and the cremaster muscle, united into one rope, by a cellular substance, which passes from the abdomen to the testi- cles through the abdominal ring, not as in the human, in an oblique direction, but in a right line. The vasa deferentia are the united trunks of the secretory vessels of the testicle, continued one from the upper extremity of each epididymis. The internal cavity of each vas deferens is small, but its substance is strong and white, running up with the spermatic artery and vein, and entering the ring within the general sheath of tbe rope, when it separates from the blood vessels, and proceeds upwards and backwards to the superior and anterior part of the urachus, crossing the ureter in a particular manner (see Plate IV) : each is then continued over the lateral and superior part of the bladder, to gain the posterior portion ; when it enlarges into a long oval cavity, which is cellular in its structure. This cavity is about the same size with the vesiculse seminales, and each is laid immediately before, and alongside the seminal vesicle ; this cavity diminishes at the neck, of the bladder, its canal running parallel with that of the vesiculaj seminales, and terminates alongside of, though dis- 250 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. tinct from, them ; one on each side of tlu urethra; in such a man- ner, that though these two canals are contiguous, and their openings contiguous, yet it is impossible that the semen should enter the ve- siculae seminales. Their orifices are within the urethra, at the part surrounded by the prostate ; the vesicula, and the vas deferens of the right side, opening into the right side of the urethra, and those of the other on the left. (See these parts in Plate IV.) .The vesiculce seminales, as they are improperly termed, are two oblong receptacles, situated one on each side of the neck of the blad- der, behind the dilatation of the vasa deferentia. They are not, as in the human, of an externally knotted appearance, and internally formed into a number of convoluted cells ; but are externally equal, and internally each forms a single cavity : they are covered by the general cellular substance, and by it are connected to the bladder. In form, appearance, and size, they are very similar to the enlarge- ments of the vasa deferentia, ending at one extremity by a round end ; and, at the other, are each diminished into a small canal, that lays contiguous to the canal of the vas deferens, and opens just without the opening of that ; the form and appearance of which may be seen, by referring to Plate IV. They contain a fluid very similar to that of the vesiculae seminales, and which is undoubtedly intended to mix with it : but they cannot be the receivers of the semen ; for the openings are distinct, and water, passed by the vasa deferentia, never enters the vesicles. In the human, the mechanism is in some measure different, and water, passed in thus, will in some in- stances enter them. Mr. Hunter was first induced, from his ob- servance of brutes, to conclude, that, even in the human, these se- creted a fluid, sui generis, that was to mix with and dilute the semen ; and he proved that they could not be seminal receptacles ; for they appear to be as full in the cut as the uncut horse. There is a small canal, at the superior part of the neck of the bladder, that opens sometimes into one, sometimes into the other of the canals of these seminal adjuncts. Bourgelat says, it bifurcates, and has a distinct opening on each side : but this I have not observed in the subjects I have examined. It appears only an appendage to the ve- siculae, and probably answers the same purposes. The prostate glands. — These are glandular bodies, whose appear- ance is by no means similar to the human prostate ; for instead of one, there are in the horse evidently tw'o irregular bodies, placed one on each side of the membranous part of the urethra, near to the neck of the bladder, surrounding the posterior part of the vasa differentia, and vesiculae seminales, and being situated superior to them, over the urethra, so that they lay Immediately under the rectum, where they may be readily felt, by introducing the hand within that gut. Their internal substance is spongy and cellular, and each has several little ducts which open on one side of a rising line in the urethra, termed verumontanum ; by which ducts a thick cream-like fluid passes into the urethra. Cotoper's glands form tw’o lesser glandular bodies, which, in the human, are frequently wanting ; but in the MALE OR€ANS OF GENERATION. 251 horse are always distinct, and of the shape and size of a chesnut, situated just beyond the prostate, one to each side. {Vide g g, Plate IV.) The structure of these differs from that of the large prostates, inasmuch as their cavity is more regular and definite, and their substance less spongy : they are covered by the transversalis j perenei muscles, so as to give them a regular muscular strata, that i probably impels their contained fluid, which is not unlike that of the prostates, and is poured out near them by similar openings, rather below and beyond. The Penis, or Yard. The penis, or yard (vide Plate IV), is a long firm body, nearly two feet in length, with one part almost prismatic, but towards the anterior extremity cylindrical : in its natural situation, it is covered externally by the sheath, which is a continuation of the general in- teguments of the belly, continued from the scrotum. The sheath of the horse is very different from the skin of the human penis ; for, as in the horse this part is a real prolongation of the cutis of the ab- i domen, so it is connected to it throughout, in some animals more I closely than in others. In the usual state, the penis is entirely hid I within the sheath, which is of considerable extent, being continued from the scrotum to near the navel, where it appears to terminate, but it only turns in : at this part it is much thicker, owing to firm ligamentous substance within, that forms a kind of ring, and which is useful in keeping this part open and firm : from this, the inte- guments become thinner and more vascular, and, running within, encircle the whole glans, but not exactly in the same manner as in the human. This is the situation of the parts when the penis is re- tracted ; but when erect, it appears a large long body distended out beyond its covering; and it will then be found, that the ring, forming the end of the natural sheath, now forms an enlargement around the distended penis, and that the integuments are stretched from it in a true continuation over the whole extent of that part which appears without its vulva, being firmly attached to the extremitjr, or head, but loosely only to the rest of the parts*: when the penis again contracts, it enters the sheath, and draws this portion with it, which is called the prepuce ; within which is seen a moist secretion that keeps these parts from adhering. The body of the yard is composed of two cavernous flatted portions closely connected, and a spongy canal admitted within an inferior groove. The urethra is this spongy membranous canal continued through the body of the penis from the neck of the bladder, of which it ap-"^ pears the continuation. Its first portion is simply membranous, and lays within the depressions formed by the two prostates ; the next is made up of that which lies between the two Cowper’s glands : thus * In die plate, the prepuce is distinctly seen laying in folds, as it does when the yard is not distended; the ring around is the enlarged part of the sheath where it turns in, to form all the inner portion, which is distinguished by the name of pre- puce : the portion beyond this is the ligamentary coat. 252 anatomy 0F the ABlioMEN. far it is within the pelvis ; but as it passes around the pubis, coming from behind forward in the great angle, formed by the posterior junction of these bones, it loses its membranous structure, and be- comes at once considerably enlarged, by gaining an acquisition of muscular fibre. It therefore is evident it must, in this course, make an acute angle ; for while within the pelvis, and proceeding from the bladder, it is continued backwards, laying upon the uterus in the mare, and upon the pubis in the horse. Continued in this direc- tion (see Plate IV), it passes at once around the posterior junction of the bones of the pubis out of the pelvis, and then proceeds on the outer side of this bone, directly forward. In the human subject, though the urethra makes an equally sharp turn arotmd the inferior part of the pubis ; yet as in him the penis is unconfined, so a sound, or catheter, can be introduced into'the bladder: but, in the horse, the angle being rendered so very acute by the attachment of the penis to the belly, we can only introduce any instrument as far as the perinaeum ; and if we wish to introduce it farther, we must make ' an external opening in that part on the introduced instrument, and | repass the same instrument, or another, within the canal, just as it i describes this angle, it being here surrounded neither with spongy ' substance, nor with the prostates. At this part, therefore, it is very | thin, and forms the proper point at which to open it; and fortunately j this described point is exactly the portion that presents itself in the . perineum on passing a sound. As the penis turns the angle of the pubis, it receives a species of - ligamentary expansion from these bones, and after it has turned them, and gained the under side, it receives the cellular envelope- ments described, and which are continued around it through its whole length, to the ’ extremity of the penis. This sponge-like j portion of the urethra communicates with the cavernous substance, J and is retained between two membranous portions ; one of which is i the inner mucous membrane of the urethra, and the other a true ? membranous covering to the spongy part. This internal mucous i coat of the urethra is very vascular and sensible, and is pierced by the 4 several openings of the vasa deferentia, the vesiculae seminales, the 1 prostates, and Cowper’s glands ; besides which it presents, through ,j its whole length, the orifices of small mucous ducts, termed lacunae : j the canal at length terminates in a fossa in the middle of the « head, or extremity of the glans penis, by a projection of its inner membrane. {Vide g, Penis, Plate IV.) The corpora cavernosa are two cavernous bodies attached to the ' bones of the ischium and posterior part of the pubis : they soon ap- proach each other, and join just before the symphysis ; not in the manner of the human, like two tubes applied to each other, but like two flattened half tubes ; these unite so intimately as to appear but one body, which is no.t circular, but prismatic. They are externally covered by a very strong membrane; internally, they are cavernous, with strong transverse muscular fibres that intersect each other, and mixed with a compact cellular substance (see Plate IV). These MALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 253 ' cells are always filled, more or less, with blood, but when the penis is erect they are fully distended ; those of the cavernous communicate with the cells of the spongy portion. The cavernous bodies terminate i some inches before the extremity of the penis in a rounded end, I which is received into a corresponding depression in the glans ; and j throughout the whole extent are grooved underneath, receiving the I greater portion of the urethra. The glans penis of the horse appears a distinct part, and not j formed, as in the human, of an expansion of the spongy portion of i the urethra ; it is also unlike that of man, in being cylindrical, and ,| extending some inches up the yard ; connected to the corpora caver- i nosa, and spongiosa, by a strong cellular connexion, and by a conti- : nuation of the ligamentary integuments of the yard, receiving the I rounded end of the corpus cavernosa into an appropriate depression. ; It is larger than the body of the penis, is cylindrical, and covered j with the general ligamentary expansion, and with the prepuce. Its internal substance is very spongy and cellular, so as to admit of equal j expansion with the other parts of this body, and ends in a kind of I ring around its verge, which is larger and more prominent above than 1 below. This anterior surface of the glans presents a considerable fl depression, or fossa, with an eminence in the middle, which is the ! termination of the inner membrane of the urethra ; this forms the j fossa into an anterior and posterior division, within which there is I usually a quantity of sebaceous matter. The whole surface of the ! prepuce is furnished wdth glandulse odoriferae, secreting a seba- ceous matter, which sometimes becomes so acrimonious as to irri- j] tate and inflame the yard, and produce a running, or gonorrhoea. ' The muscles of the petiis are three pairs ; the erectors, the accele- rators, and triangulars. The erectors arise from the tuberosity of the ischium, embrace the two roots of the cavernous body, and are i inserted into its lateral parts; by their contraction they apply the ■ penis to the belly, consequently are of great use in coum;?^ ; their action must be very strong to counteract the weight of the yard, which, by acting on the principle of along lever, must be immense. The accelerators are two fleshy expansions extending over the bulb, and nearly the whole length of the urethra, by which means the urine and semen are ejected from the urethra, and the canal kept closed when it is not passing one or other of these fluids. The triangulars are similar expansions spread farther back, influencing the prostate and Gowper’s glands, and assisting the last. (See Myology.) These described portions of the penis are immediately invested by a very dense, firm, but equally elastic ligamentary lamen, and which has been improperly termed its nervous coat. It covers the corpora cavernosa and spongiosa, and inserts itself into the symphysis pubis. Over this is expanded another membranous investment which forms the sheath and prepuce. The arteries of the penis , are furnished from the pudendals ; but the veins are larger beyond all comparison : the ramifications diffuse the blood through the cavernous cells, and from iliese it distends the spongy portion. This takes place in a greater 254 4Nv!ltomy of the abdomen. degree ; that is, the artery injects more blood than usual, when the influence of the mind extends to the yard, impelled by lust. The veins of the penis are likewise branches of the pudendals : in the human there are three or four only on the dorsum penis ; but in the horse they are very large and numerous, and form a complete network over the back of it; and which are easily raised altogether in taking off the cellular tissue. By this formation the blood can, in usual cases, be readily circulated, for the artery is but small, and the veins infinitely numerous ; but when the artery acts more than usual, then the blood cannot pass off, and distention must be the consequence. The nerves originate from the lumbar and sacral. Uses of these Organs. Evacuation of urine. — From what has been said it will appear, that the organs we have described are subservient to two important purposes ; some of which arc concerned in both, others of them only in one of these purposes, which are the evacuation of the urine, and the formation and ejection of the semen. The penis divides its use between these processes ; and this forms an instance of one part performing two distinct functions. We have already traced the urine into the bladder, and we have described the means by which it is passed from thence ; we have only, therefore, to remark, that when the bladder contracts, the sphincter is forced open, and the fibres surrounding the urethra dilate, or become passive ; the urine then flows out, by the force of the contraction of the bladder, in a considerable stream ; and, when finishing, the last drops are expelled by means of the accelerator muscles. Generatmg use of these organs. — Within the testicles is generated, or secreted, a fluid, which, when it is formed by an adult and healthy horse, and placed in a proper receptacle, such as the healthy uterus, or womb of the mare, it bestows the power upon the female organs to frame, fashion, and bring to maturity, a foetus, whose parts, habits, and manners, shall correspond with those of its parents. Animals being formed by nature solicitous for the propagation of their species, the appetites conducive to this end are very strong; and any obstruction offered them, when under the influence of lust, makes them ferocious : to quell this, and render them open only to the stimulus of preservation, horses are very generally in this country, and many partsof Europe, castrated. Nature has also wisely ordered that the perfection of the generative organs shall not become com- plete till the animal is evolved, and arrived at maturity : had it taken place sooner, not only the offspring would have suffered, but the parent likewise ; for it is a secretion in which much general power is wasted ; and hence, when it begins to form in large quantities, the body ceases to grow : therefore it is that, when we do castrate ani- mals, we do it also early, to make them large ; for then the portion of living power that would be expended on the seminal secretion, is employed in the other general secretions of the body ; hence more FEMALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 255 I blood, more bone, and more muscle are generated. It is not only ' the mere quantity secreted that occasions this waste of power; for there is more saliva formed in one day than the testicles secrete semen in a week or month ; but this secretion has a greater con- j nexion with the mind, and the exertion of the mental powers weak- ens more than those of the body ; hence the male of all animals ! becomes weak in the season when the female has her osstnwi on her, ' or is at heat ; and even without copulation the horse will not thrive, I provided he is suffered to be under the influence of- lust, by being near to mares. That this secretion has some remarkable sympathy with the body in general, as well as with the mind, is evident from i what takes place in cut horses, and what is observed in those uncut. ! When a horse is early castrated, he partakes of the mixed nature of ! the horse and mare ; his crest is neither so round nor large, nor his " voice so deep ; his general form also becomes lightened, though his ij size is increased. In an entire horse, on the contrary, at the time when the semen first begins to form, his person alters, his tones S deepen, his neck thickens, and his crest rises ; the mane and tail [ lengthen, and his whole figure becomes round and graceful ; at the I same time he exhibits repletion, and a strong smell, j In the act of copulation, therefore, it appears, that the nervous influence acts upon the vascular system of the penis, whereby the arteries carry more blood, while the veins are rendered unable from some cause to eflTect its removal, by which means the cavernous cells become filled, and the penis, by this distention, erected ; when, from the friction produced by the vagina, the penis becomes stimulated I into a more exquisite sensation, with which, by a common consent i of parts, the enlargements of the vasa deferentia and the vesiculae seminales participate ; when, by the assistance of the accelerator muscles, the semen and diluting fluids are pressed out, and, by a convulsive effort, injected into the vagina: the stimulus of the semen being lost, the appetite becomes satisfied, the nervous influ- ence is removed from the vessels, and the penis returns to its ordinary size. THE FEMALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. Though the division of these organs into external and internal is sufficiently common, it is in this instance, at least, useless ; the only parts that can be considered as external, are the bag and teats, with the vulva, or sheath. The bag of the mare is formed of two distinct collection of glands, which, from their proximity, are considered as one. In the multipa- rous animals, as the dog, the hog, the rahbit, &c., these bags are nu- merous and distinct, because, from the number of young, it would be inconvenient were the teats not as numerous as the offspring : but in the uniparous, as the mare, cow, sheep, &c., as the progeny at one bringing forth is confined to one, or at most, in ordinary mstances, to two ; so this part is double, and situated bctvveen the 256 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. hind legs. In the mare, each of these bags has a nipple or teaf^ and the bodies of the glands themselves are made up of an infinity of arterial ramifications; from which a fluid is secreted, called milk, which is destined to the support of the young colt, till the evolution of his organs has enabled him to pursue his owm means , of support. The feai, or nipple (of which there are two), receives the secreted milk by several tubes, which have separate expellent orifices on its lower extremity, with valves placed superiorly over each opening, by which the fluid, in ordinary cases, is prevented from flowing out ; but when the nipple is pressed up, the valve opens and permits the free entry of it; thus the colt is seen to push up the teat with its nose ; pigs and puppies with their feet ; and a similar action is common in milking of cows. The milk in different animals has different component parts, and different tastes ; but in each, it has those best adapted to the animal it is intended to nourish. The vulva, or sheath, is a long oval opening immediately below the anus, with a very small space between, called the perinaeum : it appears formed of two labia or lips, exactly applied to each other, whose junction above and below is called its commissures. The skin that covers them externally is usually black, and deprived of hair, with a line of division forming indented edges ; after which the same integuments form the inner surface, but become more vascular, and at last degenerate into, or become blended with the real tunics of the part. The substance of the lips is, besides, made up of some cellular membrane, with a strata of muscular fibres, uniting at the superior commissure to the sphincter ani, and ii\fe- riorly to the clitoris : in copulation these embrace the yard, and at | other times they support and close the labia. The internal surface of the vulva is kept moist by a mucous secretion from its vascular membrane. The clitoris. — When the inferior commissure is separated, which is thicker and rounder than the superior, it is found to lodge a body that appears like an imperforate glans penis, and which is intended to answer the same purpose in the female, being, by its cavernous structure, filled during copulation, by which its sensibility is in- creased. The clitoris, like the male penis, has two cavernous bodies attached to the ischium, whose internal structure is cellular, and their external strong and very elastic ; they may be inflated also jike the penis, either by air or Injections : it corresponds with the glans, in having a species of prepuce formed from a fold of the inner sides of the labia, within which likewise are openings pouring out a matter similar to the glandulte odoriferae in the male : and it has likewise an expansion of muscular fibres, termed the erec- tors, performing the same office with those muscles in the male. The female urethra : When the labia are separated, the internal cavity is called the navicular or scaphoid fossa, at the inferior part ; of which is placed the clitoris, as ue have shewn; above this, and rather more internally, is situated the urethra, which in the mare is | FEMALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 257 a, short large canal without any curvature, and simply membranous, with an internal vascular surface furnished with lacunae similar to the male. Its orifice may be distinguished from a doubling of sub- stance like a fold around it ; and when the urine is ejected, the clitoris is brought forwards, and elevated by means of the muscles, so that the urine may be completely expelled, and none remain to irritate the internal surface. The vagina is the long membranous canal that appears above the clitoris, which is capable of great extension, but in the natural state being about eight or ten inches long, and tw'O in diameter Its direction is nearly horizontal, and situated between the bladder and rectum ; by its external orifice uniting with the vulva, and by its internal terminating in the neck of the uterus. It is composed of a spongy cellular substance interwoven with numerous blood vessels ; it has likewise a considerable muscular fabric, and internally is lined by a fine vascular membrane secreting mucus, which is thrown into numerous folds, whereby its capacity for distention is much increased. The vagina, uterus, and bladder, are only in part covered with peritoneum, and the extent of this covering is easily seen in the dead subject ; for it takes in as much of these parts as can be observed within the cavity of the abdomen. The female bladder, therefore, though it might be punctured like that of the male with- out penetrating the abdominal cavity, yet it must be through the vagina, and therefore is still less eligibly performed in the mare than in the horse. The superior part of the vagina is bordered by a membranous valvular fold, which Mr. Hunter appears to have mis- taken, and has thence been led to assert, that women, mares, and elephants, were the only beings who had a hymen. But this- structure, in mares, appears simply a membrane to guide the urine, and to prevent its entering and irritating the vagina; and is situated at the inner extremity of this canal, and therefore differs from the human female hymen, which is placed at the mouth of the vagina. It likewise is not destroyed in those mares who have had foals, and therefore is still less like this part in women : we may add, that monkics are the only animals that have a hymen similar to the human. The uterus of the mare is very dissimilar to the human womb, \yhich is only an uniform bag, but in this animal, it has a body and two branching portions, called its horns. This organ is implanted into the vagina by a narrow portion, called its neck, from wdiich is continued the body, which is six or eight inches long, and about the size of a small intestine; with the fundus or bottom extending rather beyond the bladder, and bifurcating into two large cornua which also measure six or seven inches, and float within the cavity of the abdomen, one to the right and the other to the left, under the anterior part of the ilium, rather without the pelvis, resting di- jjectly upon the large intestines and behind the convolutions of the small ones. In the multiparous animals, or those who have nu- hrergu^ young at a birth, these cornua are very considerable, and 258 OF (ESTRUM, CONCEPTION, PREGNANCY, the foetuses are lodged within them ; but in the mare, who has usually but one, the secundines only are lodged within them. To prevent any prejudicial removal of these parts from their situation, the peritoneum, after it has covered part of the uterus, is reflected over the horns, and envelopes the Fallopian tubes. Though the mare has a womb similar to that of a multiparous animal, she seldom has but one foal; and when there are two, they seldom both survive. Fallopian tubes. — The extremity of each cornua, or horn, has a small conical tube attached by its apex, while its broad extremity called the fimbria, like the large part of a trumpet, with a fringed edge, floats in the cavity of the abdomen, being only slightly at- tached by one part to the ovaria ; they are very tortuous in their di- rection, and the extremity of eachattached to the cornua is extremely small, hardly admitting a hair ; but the other is considerable, and turned towards the ovaria. They have rather a firm membranous structure, and at the largest part are the size of a large quill, and ^bout two or two and a half inches long. The ovaria are two oval oblong bodies of the size of an egg, situated at the extremity of the uterine horns, enveloped within a fold of the peritoneum, but floating in the abdominal cavity : they are composed of a compact spongy substance, containing a number of little transparent vcsiculae, called ova, whose number is uncertain : each ovum appears surrounded by cellular substance, and is described as having two coats, the outer of which is represented as belonging to the ovaria; for when the vesicle escapes, this remains and produces an indentation, and leaves a green spot, which remaining spot is called corpus lutea. The vessels and nerves of the uterus have been described in the sections on Angiology and Neurology. ect. XVI. OF (ESTIIUM, CONCEPTION, PREGNANCY, AND EVOLUTION OF THE FCETUS. NOTHING in the animal economy is a greater subject bf ad- miration than that wonderful process whereby a new animal arises from the efforts of the old. In the lower orders of animals, concep- tion and the production of their young appear more simple ; but in the higher orders, the process becomes more intricate and obscure. Some of the former produce their young without sexual distinctions, each being fruitful, and capable of the production of its kind : in some, the offspring are produced within the body ; in others, by a limb or part of the parent trunk. But in quadrupeds there is a true sexual distinction and division of generating organs ; the work of propagation is divided, and it becomes necessary for the Inale semen to render the female ova prolific, either by direct contact or by AND EVOLUTION OF THE FCETUSi 259 Sympathy. The animals called cold-bloodedj sortie of them do it without the immediate contact of sexual organs ; but the greater ir.imber have a penis intrans, and inject the male seed into the fe- male organs. It is not certainly known whether the semen ever enters the uterus, or whether it is deposited only in the vagina, and produces its great effects upon the ovaria by sympathy. Haller in-^ forms us he saw semen in the uterus of a sheep ; Verheyneus, in a cow; and Ruvsch asserts he observed it in the bodies of two women, who were killed immediately after copulation ; the one by her husband, for infidelity ; the other was a common prostitute, and was killed by a soldier, her paramour; in both which he states, * that he found semen not only in the uterus, but in the Fallopian tubes. Mr. Hunter found it likewise in the uterus of a bitch who was killed in the act of copulation, or immediately after, by punc- turing the spinal marrow. Though these appear strong facts, yet still it is not certain that the contact of semen is necessary to the fecundation of the ova, nor that semen always gets into the uterus. Of CEstrum. — That the great work of propagation might not be left to chance, all animals are irresistibly impelled to it by a sensa- tion called lust or cestrum. This sensation happily does not arise in any great degree till the organs, by their complete evolution, are fitted to the purposes they are destined to fulfil. In the human. Providence has kindly limited this sensation so as to be under the dominion of reason and modesty ; and to this end in ourselves, though it is not violent, it is constant; that it might not, byre- turning only at stated periods, be of necessity, strong and irresistible. But in brutes it is connected with certain states of the body, whereby the young are produced at proper times; and this act, which is a weakening one, docs not by this means always go on ; but they have leisure for the gratification of their other appetites. Briite animals, therefore, have their organs sometimes in a state of inapti- tude to fecundate; and when they are thus, the disposition to co- pulation does not exist ; but when the aptitude returns, then the disposition returns likewise, and this state is called cestrum. The cestrum of the mare is popularly termed horsmg, and in other ani- mals it has likewise technical terms. At these times considerable changes take place in the generative organs ; they become more vascular, are swollen, and a considerable quantity of whitish matter is secreted in the vagina, and ejected occasionally, termed the heats : not only do the vulva and vagina appear to have this increase of vascularity ; but even the uterus, the cornua, the Fallopian tubes, and the ovaria, likewise participate. The tubes at this time likewise shew a disposition to unite with the ovaria*. When, therefore, all * As aestrvm, or horsing, appears in great measure brought on by an increased vascularity of these parts; so sometimes the inflaming or stimulating the vagina by artificial means, as by an infusion of cantharides, &c. has been practised^ But it is evident, that as this is against nature, and as all the parts may not equally participate in this artificial mode ; so it is probable that it would almost alvvavs fail. Instances have also occurred of death being occasioned by an injudicious injecting of some acrid fluid into the vagina, to produce this effecti T 260 OF CESTRUM, CONCEPTION, PREGNANCY, these parts have become thus vascular, and the vesicles of the ovaria become turgid, the animal is fit for impregnation ; and in copulation at this time, in multiparous animals several, and in imiparous one, of these vesicles bursts its outer coat, and escapes, leaving a greenish spot called corpus lutea. The vesicle that has burst its confinement is taken within the Fallopian tube, and con- veyed into the uterus by a vermicular motion, which in some of the lesser animals, as in rabbits, it takes three days to effect, and per- haps it is not widely different in all. If a vesicle should burst, under the influence of the semen, and, escaping the fimbriated ex- tremity of the tube, fall into the cavity of the abdomen, and the ovum should be nourished there, it is called an extra- uterine foetus ; and it is evident that the cavity of the abdomen must be opened to deliver it. There have been instances likewise of an impregnated ovum remaining in the ovaria and tubes, and yet coming to matu- rity. When the ovum has been brought into the uterus by means of the tubes, it continues to float loose some time within it; but at last some changes appear to take place, and it becomes at- tached, not to any certain portion of the cavity, but wherever chance directs : but during this time there is no danger of its escape, for while the Fallopian tubes are bringing it, the womb is sympa- thizing in its action, and preparing for its reception, by effusing a quantity of coagulable lymph within it, which completely glues up the opening of the cavity into the vagina. This effusion likewise becomes general, and a thick lamen is formed, which Dr. Huntef first accurately described, and gave to it the name of tunica decidua. Membrana caduca, false or spongy chorion. — This membrane Dr. Hunter found to consist of two lamellae ; that which lines the uterus, he named tunica decidua uteri: the other being reflected from the uterus over the ovum, he called tunica decidua refiexi. The tunica reflexi in the latter months of pregnancy adheres so firmly to the tunica uteri as to be no longer distinguishable into two. The ovum, it will be found, has two distinct tunics of its own ; the external is more firm, less transparent, and vascular than the other, and is called the true chorion : the inner is a very ihin fine membrane, termed amnios. I'hcse tv/o coats belong to the foetus strictly ; for if the umbilical vessels are injected, these become in- jected likewise, but none passes to the false chorion ; and if the vessels of the mother are injected, the false chorion alone hecomes filled, but the true chorion and amnios remain as they were. As •this effect is constant, we are led to conclude, that the tunica de- cidua belongs to the mother, and the true chorion and amnios to the foetus ; and that, though there is a continuity of parts, there is no inosculation of vessels. To these involucra must be added another, which appears after the embryo is formed, and is called the allantois, as will be described hereafter. The embiyo may therefore be regarded as being enveloped in the early months by four membranes ; the tunica decidua, tunica rejlexa, tlie chorion, and the amnios; and in the later months from the dis- AND EVOLUTION OF THE FCETUS. 261 appearance of the reflexa, and the addition of the allantois, the number still remains the same. In the human impregnated uterus, if examined within the first month of gestation, there appears a prominent spot upon some part of the surface, and a similar pro*- jection on some part of the true chorion of the ovum ; these two inosculate with each other, and become a thick round cake called the placenta; and this forms the only communication between the mother and foetus. But in quadrupeds it is widely different : the ovum of the mare, after remaining some time within the cavity of the uterus, has the whole external portion of the chorion thickened and rendered vascular, by which it unites with all the surface of the membrana decidua ; and this union takes place not only throughout the circumference of the uterus, but even throughout the cornua : and it may be remarked, that mares are the only animals known, except asses, whose placenta occupies the whole of the uterus. This part, therefore, in the mare, instead of presenting a single spot, appears as a general covering of the ovum, propagating its connexion throughout the whole uterus audits horns *. Before this • When we consider the economy of quadrupeds, and their particular structure, so wisely adapted to their intended habits, we are not to regard them in the nar- row and confined view to wiiich we have subjected them by domestication, which is wholly a life of art, and, as such, unnatural; for, though Providence has given us this power over them, and undoubtedly designed them to be subser- vient to our use and comfort ; yet it was not probably intended that such an utter perversion of nature’s dictates should have taken place, as has been introduced by luxury and refinement. Considering the habits of the animal in question, phi- losophically, we must regard him as living uncontrolled and in common with other- animals, many of whom wage eternal war with him, and from many of whom he is to escape by flight. He is likewise to be regarded as being destined to rove in search of food, perhaps to considerable distances : for in a state of na- ture where these animals congregate, that is, where they associate in herds; the scanty provision raised on one spot, without the assistance of agriculture, would not long suffice the wants of a numerous assembly of wild horses. Therefore, contemplating his habits in a state of nature, we are led physiologically to regard his organs as fitted to this kind of life ; and not to draw our inferences from the nurture of the stable, or the education of the riding house. Regarding him there- fore aright, we shall find the structure of this noble animal admirably adapted to his economy ; the young colt, as soon as foaled, appears capable of making con- siderable exertions, and is possessed of great speed ; by which he can accompany his mother and the associated herd, either in flying from their enemies, or in search of food ; and if we examine him attentively, we shall find his exterior form as well as his internal economy admirably adapted to this: his body is very slender, and consequently very light, and his legs long, particularly his hinder ones; by which he is enabled to exert very considerable speed without making any greater exertions than his juvenile state will admit of. On the contrary, in ani- inals who seek the safety of their young by hiding them in holes and caverns, where it is necessary for their preservation that they should remain quiet, nature has wisely given them a correspondent form; their bodies are fat and unwieldy, that thus they may have a constant disposition to rest and sleep ; and which is further Itrought about by their being blind. Their legs also are short, so that every impe- diment is placed as a bar to their roving till they possess something like the parent strength, and the parent intelligence : but the internal economy of the foal is such, that he has no need of much sleep to quicken digestion ; for, in him, the process yt solution is not carried on in the stomach wholly, but in the intestines likewise : therefore he can be always alert and on the look out to avoid surprise. In the T 2 202 OF OESTRUM, CONCEPTION, PREGNANCY, inosculation takes place, the little contained animal, or rallier the rudiments of the future animal, are nourished by the contents of- the ovum ; but now they derive their nutriment from other sources. The tunica decidua we have described as being strictly a maternal portion of the uterus ; that is, that though it is continuous, yet it has no inosculation of vessels with the foetal portion j but that the vital principle is absorbed from the mother in the same manner as in the adult state is effected by the ramifications of the pulmonary vessels in the lungs. This lainen is vascular and spongy, and is thence called /aZse chorion. The true chorion forms the next (or, in fact, the first strictly proper to it) membrane of the foetus ; and presents on its outer surface, in the ruminant tribes, fleshy promi- nences which correspond with cavities in the tunica decidua, and are called cotyledons, or placentula ; these appear very vascular, but have no anastomosis of vessels, though the connexion is other- wise considerable. The allantois is a peculiar membrane whose ex- istence in the human has never been proved; and in animals it differs much in regard to extent. In hogs and rabbits, it is little liiore than a tube ; in ruminant animals it is more considerable : but in mares, bitches, cats, and some other quadrupeds, it forms a general involucrum. It appears to be an expansion of a canal that arises in the foetus from the bladder, continued to the umbilicus or navel, when it is reflected over the cord, and over the inner sur- face of the chorion, and outer of the amnios ; so as to form a sac, in which is contained a fluid appearing in every respect similar to urine. This canal, thus leading from the bladder to the umbilicus, is called urachus; and it is within this sac, and floating in this fluid, that the substances called /lippomawes are found ; w'hich appear not unlike portions of coagulable lymph, being from ten to fourteen or more in number, usually unattached. The antients supposed they adhered to the forehead of the foal, and that they had peculiar virtues ; others have supposed them formed of concretions from the urine ; but neither their structure nor formation is under- stately herds of horned cattle likewise, though the calf can make considerable exertions at birth, yet there is not that studied attention to his speed, and the safety of the offspring consists in the means of defence given to the parent by its formidable horns; and, tlierefore, to them nature has given a, greater degree of ferocity when they have young, that they may make use of these means ; but, in the mare, who has them not, she is stimulated to trust more to flight than re^ sistance. Therefore, that the evolution of the parts of the colt at birth might be such as to admit of these necessary exertions, we find a considerable peculiarity in the gestation of his mother; for, by the very extensive attachment of the placenta to the whole surface of the uterus and to the horns, the blood must be much more oxygenated ; there must be likewise a much greater quantity of chylous nii-, triment, and hence the organs of necessity more completely evolved at birth, and fitted to greater exertions. By this means it is that his pelvis is completely ossified when foaled, and many of the epiphyses of the bones likewise, which, in the human infant, remain cartilaginous for many months afterwards; and it is for this purpose, it is more than probable, that this very extensive attachment is permitted in the uterus of the mare, AND EVOLUTION OF THE FCETUS. 2G3 Stood. The amnios Is a very fine but firm membrane immediately involving the foetus, with the umbilical vessels ramifying upon its inner surface, and from which arc separated a fluid within the cavity, in which the foetus swims till birth : this is called liquor anmii. It varies in qualities and appearance indifferent animals; and was originally supposed to be swallowed by the foetus, or ab- sorbed by his skin for nutriment; but it has been lately more gene- rally supposed to regard the preservation of the foetus from pressure, and for lubrifying the parts of the mother: in the early months of gestation its proportional quantity is much greater than in the latter months. 'i'he umbilical cord. — The foetus becomes connected with the coats and parts surrounding it, not only by means of the fluid in which it swims, but by means of vessels which are passing from it to the expansion of the placenta : these vessels, together with the canal we have described, called urachus, are invested with coverings from the membranes, and some inner spongy gelatinous substances, and these united form a long rope of two or three feet or more in length, and an inch in diameter, which is called the iimbilicul cord, originating from the navel of the foetus, and inserted into some part of the placenta. The vessels within this cord are two arteries and a vein, which are called umbilical ; and it is by these that the communica- tion is kept up between the foal and mother; for as these ramify throughout the placenta, and as the placenta unites intimately with the uterus, so it is evident a close union is kept up. "I'hese are the parts that are particularly concerned in bringing the embryo into maturity, all which undergo great changes during preg- nancy, both with regard to the foetus, and with regard to each other. In the early periods of gestation, the coats or bags of the ovum form much its largest proportion ; as gestation advances, the proportions become more equal ; while, in the latter months, the foetus is infinitely greater than the membranes. We have shewn how small a part the uterus formed when unhnpregnatcd ; it is sur- prising, therefore, how great must be its increase to contain such a quantity as it does in the latter months of gestation ; but anatomy teaches us that it is not by a distention of its parts that it becomes increased, but by an actual growth and addition of them, from its additional vascularity ; so that as it enlarges in size, it increases in thickness. • The fundus appears the part that enlarges the most, so as to stretch far beyond the cornua ; extending up to near the epi- gastrium, pushing the large intestines on each side, so that the preg- nant uterus lays upon the abdominal muscles. In this state it con- tinues to increase, till, at last, the distention becomes greater than tl^e capacity ; when its muscular fibres, powerfully assisted by the diaphragm and abdominal muscles, contract; by the joint action of which, the foal and its membranes become expelled. Parturition is not so difficult in quadrupeds as in the human ; the human pelvis, from the situation, is necessarily much smaller, and the feetus has to make a considerable curvature in its exit : but, in brutes, the 264 THE FCETAL COLT. passage Is direct, and the pelvis large ; therefore there is less pain, and less occasion for a very muscular uterus. Nevertheless, diffi- cult parturition, as well as false presentation, occur now and then in mares, cows, and ewes. In bitches, . particularly those much confined, 4hese evils are very common. The Festal Colt. The embryo of the future animal at first exists in an oviparous state; gradually the ovum becomes attached to the uterus, and ihetr the rudiments of the embryo appear in the form of a spot ; but it is some weeks after impregnation before any form can be dis- tinctly marked ; the whole is a mass without figure. The more material parts first appear, as the head, with the brain, and the organs of sense ; then follow the heart, lungs, and abdominal viscera. During this state, though it has a life of its own, yet this life is very simple ; for it may wai>t brain, heart, and many of the other organs absolutely essential to the adult state : in this stale its existence is nearly vegetative ; it draws its supplies from the pa- rent, by means of its circulation, but its organs are passive. Foetal circulation. — To describe the mode in which the blood proceeds, and in which it gives out nutrition in its course to the foetal system, we must again recognise the placenta. From what has been said, it may be remembered, that this mass is formed of the true chorion and tunica decidua united together; and that, though both of these are intimately united into one body ; yet that it is only by a contact of parts, without an inosculation of their mutual vessels : consequently, that they were to be still regard- ed as two portions, because two distinct circulations went on within them, and blood injected from one would not pass into the other; therefore, the part immediately connected with the uterus, and formed from the tunica decidua, is called the maternal portion of the placenta y while that half connected with it, and formed from the outer surface of the chorion, is called the foetal portion of the same placenta. Into this part the umbilical arteries terminate ; and it must be remark- ed, that the blood within them is dark and venous. They terminate not in the usual manner of arteries, by an exhaling outlet, and a re- turning vein ; but the branches unite very freely with each other, and te^rminate wholly in returning veins ; for if we pass injection by any one branch, it fills the arteries around, and likewise the veins through- put the system ; but the maternal portion of the placenta is left un- injected, In the maternal portion, on the contrary, the arteries pene- trate it from the uterus, and terminate in an exhalent orifice, and a returning vein. This exhalent orifice deposits a fluid of a chylous qua- lity, and which becomes introduced into the blood of the foetus ; but whether this is effected by the medium of absorbents, or whether it is popred directly into the returning veins, does not appear altogether pertain : but it is probable, that it is effected by absorbents, which, though they are not very evident, yet may exist ; and, in some late jpjections, are actually said to haye been found : and which is rendered THE F(ETAL COLT. 265 Still farther probable, as madder given to a mare has been known to tinge the foal. By these means, therefore, the blood brought from the foetus by the umbilical arteries, which is impure and venous, becomes changed, and by absorbing oxygen from the cells of the maternal portion, from being dark and venous, it becomes more florid and oxygenated ; though not in an equal degree to that which takes place in the lungs in the adult state. It likewise gains an addition to its quantity from the chylous fluid it absorbs ; and from these joint changes it becomes vivified and fitted to the support and evolution of the fcetus. Thus, therefore, the placenta forms the true foetal lungs ; in fact, it forms also the true foetal stomach; and it may be said to be the organ that possesses the specific power of all the organs combined, while the organs themselves only enjoy the life fitted to their evolution, but not adapted to their specific action. As the blood of the foetus derives its oxygen from the placenta, so it must be evident, according to the modern doctrines, that the vital heat of the foetus is derived from this source. But as the oxygenation of the foetal blood is not so complete as the adult, so the heat evolved may be less ; less however is necessary to the foetus, for it is surrounded by a high and uniform temperature. To continue the subject, the foetal blood so changed is gathered up by the minute divisions of the veins of the fcEtal portion of the pla- centa, which gradually unite to form one trunk. The umbilical vein is this trunk, which passes in a spiral manner with the cord through the umbilicus, or navel, where it leaves the urachus and the umbilical arteries, and proceeds to gain the sinus of the vena portae, into which it pours its contents to be by that means circulated with the blood of the abdominal viscera. It is evident, that here a very wide difference exists between this subject and the human ; in whom, and in all other animals that have been examined, except the ass, there is a considerable branch of the umbilical vein, that, by communicating with one of the branches of the hepatic veins, appears to intend, that part of the blood, shall purposely avoid this circuitous route : this peculiar communication is called canalis venosus. But in the horse, and his counterpart, the ass, the whole of the foetal blood circulates through the liver, and which it is remarkable that the French ana- tomists were unacquainted with ; for Bourgelat, La Fosse, and Vitet, all describe the canalis venosus as existing in this animal. It is therefore evident, that the foetal circulation of the horse and ass differs from that of all other animals with whom we are acquainted. It becomes a very natural subject of inquiry, as to what may be the cause of this peculiarity ; and which, by an attentive consideration of the foregoing remarks, will, perhaps, not be difficult to under- stand. We have shewn that in the foetus, or unborn colt, the glands and other organs have only growth to perform ; but they have no specific action, and as such they must be merely in a state of ca- pacity : thus, therefore, they have need only of blood of such purity as is necessary and sufficient to the growth of parts, but not 266 THE F(ETAL COLT. to their specific action : for were the specific action to take place, that is, were the liver to secrete bile, and the kidneys urine, and so with the other glands, the destruction of the foetus must be inevita- ble; w'e, therefore, find that nature has made some wonderful contrivances purposely to render the blood less pure, that the specific action of parts might be prevented. As the maternal placenta only vivifies the foetal blood in a second- ary manner, that is, after it must have given out some of its oxygen ; so, it is evident, the blood of the umbilical veins, when first received, is only in a comparative state of purity, and as it passes towards the heart in the human, and other animals, except the one we treat of^ it mixes part of its blood with that circulating through the liver, by which it must be rendered still less pure : and here we can but admire the peculiar wisdom displayed ; for as the liver is the only gland that secretes from venous blood, so,^ that its specific action might not be urged at this time, it is so arranged that it shall receive, at this period, purer blood than any other organ. Now, it being remembered, that as the placenta in the mare is attached to the whole surface of the uterus, there must consequently be a very great absorption of oxygen from this exten- sive attachment ; so it does not, under this view, appear wonder- ful, that there should be a still farther contrivance to deteriorate it : and, therefore, as the blood in the umbilical vein in the foetal colt is purer than that of any other animal, so there is no canalis ve- I nosps, that by this means it might be all under the necessity of passing through the liver, and thus become as equally deprived of its oxygen, as in those animals who have not this extensive attach- ment. Nor does this at all tend to destroy our former argument, that this large surface was for the purpose of taking up a greater qijantity of nutritious principles ; for it is more than probable, that one portion of the blood may be designed to perform the growth and evolution of parts, and another to keep up their spe- cific action ; and, probably, it is this latter part which is given out in its circulation through the liver. From the liver the bipod is passed into the vena cava, and from thence to the right auricle ; hut it does not from this pass into the right ventricle, as in the adult ; hut a part of it escapes through an opening in the septum of the heart, between the right and left auri- ples, at once into the left auricle, from whence it is prevented from returning by the eustachian valve. This opening, called ihe foramen ovale, closes up as soon as respiration takes place. The rest of the bipod passes, as in the adult, into the right ventricle, and from thence into the pulmonary artery ; but here, again, another great contrivance appears, to prevent the foetal blood from going through the lungs, and which would be unnecessary, as these organs have only grovyth to perform, hut no change on the blood to effect : hence, therefore, there is in the circulation at this early period, a communication between the pulmonary artery and the aorta, by means of an additional lateral trunk, called the ductus arteriosus^ THE FCETAL COLT. 267 through which the greater part of the blood escapes at once from the right to the left side, without the circuitous round of the lungs. As the foetal blood is not so perfectly oxygenated as it is in the adult state, by the intervention of its own organs, therefore the round of circulation is shortened, and it is more quickly returned, so that what may "be wanted in quality, is thus made up in fre- quency. Yet still some blood circulates through the lungs, and, besides which, the bronchial artery is considerable ; so that the same ends are apparently kept in view here as in the liver; both are organs whose use is immediate and necessary at birth, therefore both must be completely evolved, and both must consequently re-* ceive an additional quantity of blood. That which circulates through the lungs is returned in the usual way into the left auricle, ii where it meets with what had escaped from the right side of the j heart, through the foramen ovale, from whence it passes into the left ventricle, and from thence into the aorta, to join with that re- ceived by the ductus arteriosus. Here then the blood is reduced to the adult state, and is distributed over the body in the usual man- ; ner ; but, at the bifurcation of the aorta, there are given off twa considerable arteries. The umbilical arteries. — The two arteries given off at the bifurca- tion of the aorta, are called umbilical : in the human, and, I be- f lieve, in most animals who are born indigent, these arteries originate from the internal iliacs ; but, in the horse, and some other large : animals, they arise as above : the reason of which may be, that the lower extremities might have a more considerable proportion of > blood than usual, by which means they might be fully evolved at birth, and equal to bear the superincumbent weight, as well as to make considerable exertions. These arteries then pass down towards I the bladder, one on each side, where they join the urachus, with which they are continued out of the abdomen by the umbilicus, and along the umbilical cord, to be ramified in the way vve have described. By these means, therefore, the colt is first conceived, and by these it is brought to maturity, and ushered into the world by the act of Joaling. We have before taught, that the blood received an addition, both in quality and quantity. The organs for the first, ; are fitted to be brought into immediate action at birth, and the colt respires as perfectly the first hour as at any future period ; but the addition to the quantity of the blood is brought about by parts which have not yet gained sufficient strength to enter into jmme- I diate and full action ; they, therefore, have a food prepared for ] them, that contains nutriment in a high degree, already masticated, I and partly digested and animalized : this food is the milk of the ! mare, and the same consent of parts that first made her feel oestrum, , and propagate from the embraces of the male, produces this se- i cretion ; and this sympathy still remains, for she continues to se- crete, and to regard her offspring as a part of herself ; and thus she i puriures, rears, and protects it, till, from the complete evolution I 268 PERIODS OF GESTATION. of the organs of the offspring, it is fitted to perform all the parent acts, when, being able to counteract its own wants, it sympathizes only with itself ; while the parent-mother’s care being also no longer necessary, her secretion ceases, and she likewise sympathizes only with herself : her generative organs prepare anew for the same great work; for the mutual dependence being lost, she again feels oestrum ; while her foal grazes, digests, and shifts for itself. The period of gestation varies in different animals; in the larger kinds it is a process of much longer duration than in the smaller. In the elephant, and the whale, it occupies a great many months : in the mare eleven months ; in the cow about nine months ; in the sheep five months; in swine about 150 days; in dogs about 63 days ; hares and rabbits bring forth about the thirtieth day. The Memoirs of the National Institute of France contain an interesting communication on this subject, by M. Tessier, whose observations are detailed as follows : — I. Cows. One hundred and sixty cows were observed. 14 calved from the 241st to the 266th day; that is, from 8 months and 1 day to 8 months and 26 days. 3 on the 270th day. 50 from the 270th to the 280th day. 68 from the 280th to the 290lh day. 20 on the 300th day. 5 on the 30Sth day. 160 Consequently there were 67 days between the two extremes. II. Mares. One hundred and two mares were observed. 3 foaled on the 311th day. 1 .... on the 314th day. 1 .... on the 325th day. 1 .... on the 326th day. 2 .... on the 330th day. 47 • . • • from the 340th to the 350th day. 25 . ,. . . from the 350th to the 360th day. 21 ... . from the 360th to the 377th day. 1 .... on the 394th day. 102 - This gives a latitude in the time of gestation of 83 days ; and the following observation may be made respecting cows and mares j namely, that more of the first brought forth before the completion of the ninth month, than of the second before that of the eleventh. PERIODS OF GESTATION. 269 III. Sows. Of these only sixteen were observed. 1 brought forth young, which lived, on the 109th day ; that Is, 3 months and 19 days. 10 from the 1 lOth to the 120th day. 3 on the 121 st day. 1 ; , . on the 122d day. 1 on the 123d day. 16 Consequently the difference between the two extremes was 14 days. IV. Rabbits. One hundred and thirty-nine were observed during the course of three years. 1 brought forth on the 26th day. 2 on the 27th day. 3 on the 28th day. 53 on the 29th day. 50 on the 30th day. 21 on the 31st day. 9 on the 33d day. 139 The difference between the two extremes in these animals was seven days. In Dogs, I have observed the general period to be between the six- tieth and sixty-third day ; but, in some instances, it has occurred as early as the fifty-eighth day, and, in others, has been protracted to the sixty- fifth : in two or three cases I have seen it prolonged to the seventieth day. )fCt. XVII. THE STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS, AND ECONOMY OF THE EXTREMITIES. IN the human anatomy, it is usual to blend the description of the extremities with the other parts of the body ; and we have, in general cases, accommodated ourselves to this mode : but as pro- gression forms the most material of the functions of the horse, re- garding his utility to mankind, so the most marked attention must be paid to these parts, wherebv this progression is effected ; and the more as they are found, from the life of art we subject the 072 THE ANTERIOR EXTREMrTlES. animal to, particularly prone to disease ; therefore the structure, functions, and economy of the extremities, become matters of pe- culiar import ; and, as such, we shall treat of them separately. SDe^tciption of plate VI. This plate is intended merely to give an outline of the muscles of tlie superior parts of the fore and hinder extremities, as those of the thigh and shoulder. Figure the First Represents the muscles of the shoulder; a, trapezius; h, the common muscle; c, abductor longus humeri; d, abductor brevis humeri; e, postea spinatus; f, antea spinatus; g, postea spinatus minor; h, pectoralis minus ; i, pectoralis inag- iius ; A, serratus major; /, part of the fascialis cubiti ; w, triangularis; n, biceps extensor cubiti ; o, part of the biceps flexor cubiti ; p, that part of the common muscle that is only described by some authors ; q, rliomboideus minor; r r, the ligamentum colli, cervical ligament, or fix fax of the neck; s, extensor cubiti intermedii. Figure the Second Represents the muscles of the inside of the shoulder; a, subscapularis ; 6, flexor radialis anticus; c, flexor hrachialis amicus ; d, brachialis internus; e, biceps ex- tensot" cubiti ; fascialis cubiti ; g, latissiraus dorsi ; h, antea spinatus ; i, trian- gularis; k, serratus major; I, rhomboideus major; m, coraco brachialis; n, ad- ductor humeri; o, rhomboideus minor; p, pectoralis minor ; q, insertion of the pectoralis magnus; r, insertion of the sterno brachialis; s, the fascia of the fas- cialis cubiti. Figure the Thb'd Represents the outside of the buttock and thigh; au, semimembranosus; 6, biceps flexor cruris; c,d, flexor cruris posticus; e, gluteus minimus ; gluteus niaxirnus; g, tensor vaginae femoris; A, vastus extenius; i, the anus, with its sphincter. Figure the Fourth. Inside of the thigh ; o ii, triceps adductor femoris ; h, gracilis; r, pectineus ; d, psoas parvus; e, psoas magnus ;y’, iliacus internus; g, part of the tensor vaginae femoris; A, sartorius; i, part pf the rectus cruris; A, part of the vastus internus; t, part of the flexor cruris posticus; ??/, gastrocnemius. THE ANTERIOR EXTREMITIES. SDe^cdptioit of plate VII. This plate represents' two views of tiie fore leg, with the outer integuments re- moved, and the fascia taken oflf so as to bare the muscles : in both figures, the utmost care was taken to preserve the natural appearance, so that the pupil may place them before him as a reference when dissecting. Figure the First Represents a lateral, and rather front view of an off fore leg; a, extensor meta- rarpi magnum ; b, its termination at the tuberosity of the canon ; c, extensor lon- gus pedis anticus ; its fibres pass into the white band, at its outer part, which is its tendon ; it proceeds down under the annular ligaments, and widens as it goes over the knee, where it gives oftj in a peculiar manner, a little tendon which joins the y the anterior extremities. 271 jntcnnc-diate'anterior ligament ; rf, the termination of the extensor muscle of the li loot into tlie anterior and superior part of the coffin bone, first receiving the sus- pensory bifurcating ligament ; e, extensor metacarpi radialis; atjfj it passes ob- liquely round the knee, to be inserted into the inner side of the canon ; flexor j metacarpi externus; /), its partial insertion into the head of the outer small meta- j carpal bone; being afterwards continued over this part of the knee, to blend with ' the anterior ligaments ; k, one head of the flexor pedis perforans aiiticus ; I, its exit from under the tendinous expansion of the knee, invested by the perforatus |i tendon ; ot, its termination in the foot ; n, part of the flexor perforatus anticus ; j o, its tendon investing the perforans, and continued through the ligaments of the i fetlock ; p, its insertion by two portions; one on each side of the bottom of the I pastern, some fibres being continued on to the little pastern, or coronary bone ; : ij, the point of the olecranon, or elbow ; r, the head of the radius, from whi^h is j seen to arise the extensor mctacarpi radialis : its tendon is continued down very : small, and unites with the outer anterior ligament, under the annular, to be con- tinued with it; s, the outer anterior ligament formed from an expansion of the flexor metacarpi externus, receiving the small tendon of the little extensor, and continued with it down to t, to be inserted into the bead of the pastern ; the intermediate anterior ligament receiving the tendon of the extensor of the foot, and continued with it to be fixed at v, in the same manner with the former. 1. The tibia; immediately below this is seen some lines which describe the cap- sular ligaments of the knee joint, arising from the inferior part of the tibia. S. The loose floating edge of a very strong ligamentous or tendinous expansion, formed from a continuance of the fascia covering all the knee, and forming its an- nular ligaments ; it is continued down over the back sinews, half way along the leg. S. The annular ligaments : the portions cut out are thinner than the rest, and shew the tendons passing underneath, and the capsular ligaments of the knee joint. 4. The tendinous expansion of the knee proceeding down over the flexor tendons, after which it becomes loose and slight, but is continued on to the ligaments in front, and to the extensor tendon, and from tlience to the inner metacarpal bone. 5. Its edge, where it is cut from the canon, which appears beyond it. 6, The outer metacarpal bone, having the tendinous expansion running down, adhering to it, and which at its bottom part is continued as a ligament on the pastern. 7. The suspensory bifurcating ligaments, forming a support to the sessamoids, and like- wise to the fetlock ; and passed on to the extensor tendons of lire foot at 8. — 9. Under the expansion of the flexor tendons and bifurcating ligainents are seen the ligaments of the pastern and coronet. 10. The expansion of the suspensory bifurcating ligament, passing around the ring of the perforatus. 11. The bursa mucosa tlrat surrounds the tendon at this part; the dilatation of which forms windgalls. Figure the Second. a, Flexor metacarpi internus, is seen to run at its lower part under an annular ligament; b, flexor carpi cut off from its origin at r, to shew the muscles under- neath; its posterior part passes within an annular ligament to its insertion; d, flexor pedis perforatus, or perforated muscle; e, f,g, three heads of the flexor pedis perforans, or perforating muscle: its tendons enter within the annular liga- ment, under which they are seen passing separately ; 4, extensor metacarpi mag- nus; i, part of the biceps flexor cubiii ; k, part of the extensor cubiti intermedii • l, part of the biceps extensor cubiti ; )7i, the humeral vein forming its branches; m, the branch forming the plate vein ; o, the humeral artery ; p, the three branches of the humeral nerves ; ij, the inner condyle of the radius; r, a ligament ruuninf from the posterior part of the radius, into the tendon of this head of the flexor ol’ the foot; s, another ligament running into each side of the perforated tendon, arising immediately at the origin of the bifurcating ligaments ; t, the continuation of the perforated tendon, at which part it is completely perforated, and forms a perfect ring for the perforans ; t/, the termination of the perforated tendon; v, the flexor ot the toot, or perforating tendon; w, its termination ; .r, bifurcating lioa- rnents ; y, their junction with the extensor of the foot; z, the inner metacarpal bone. 1. The tendinous expansion of the knee continued down with the bone, g. The articulation of the radius, with tlie first row of the carpus'; it is shewr. 272 Description of covered with the tendinous expansion which is removed at the edge. S, 4. The canon. 5. The tibia. 6. The vein that furnishes the foot. 7. The ligaments of the pastern : x The axillary glands. 9. The expansion of the bifurcating liga- ments. 10. The situation in which splents are frequently formed. 11. The situ- ation of windgalls, originating from a dilatation of the mucous capsules of these parts. It may he observed, that in the first figure, half the hoof has been removed, to shew the laminated substance of the foot ; and in the second figure, the horny and fleshy soles have been removed, to shew the insertion of the flexor tendon : it should be remarked also, that the lateral cartilage has been taken off with the hoof. DESCRIPTION OF THE ANTERIOR EXTREMITIES. In the myology of the trunk I followed Bourgelat’s nomenclature, as being the most correct extant : had I been perfectly aware of the one used at the Veterinary College, I would have introduced that in preference to any other ; from my wish to simplify the art as much as possible, and being anxious to throw no obstruction in the way of the college pupil by multiplying his references : but as I am not perfectly aware of the nomenclature adopted there, and as also, if I am rightly informed, the terms there used vary on each description, so I have forborne to give, as in the former edition, Mr. C.’s pre- sumed names of muscles. I have, therefore, for reasons stated in the Myology, used a nomenclature for the muscles of the extremities formed by myself, as nearly corresponding with that in use in the human subject as the circumstances will admit. Muscles of the Shoulder. Trapezius. — According to Mr. Stubb’s description, this is an im- mense muscle ; but though the division of it appears sufficiently definite, yet, by some mistake, he has blended it with part of the common muscle, or levator humeri, and the cutaneous. It arises posteriorly from several of the spinous processes of the dorsal ver- tebrae, and blends with the panniculus carnosus, and latissimus doxsi : anteriorly it arises from the ligamentum colli, or cervical ligament, and then runs down in an angular form to be inserted tendinous into the prominent part of the spine of the scapula (vide Plate VI, Fig. 1, a)' This muscle is very useful in drawing the scapula up- wards and backwards ; and, therefore, must be a powerful assistant in progression : it appears to form the triangular of La Fosse, and the cutaneous of Bourgelat. In the horse, there exists only what is called in man its ascending portion ; and it is from a too close strain- ing of the analogy, and a want of sufficient independency in the Hippopotamist, that so much confusion has arisen in the description of this and other muscles. Rhomboideus major. — This muscle arises, and continues fleshy, from the 3d, 4th, 5th, and 6th spinous processes of the dorsal ver- tebra;, and is inserted into the internal surface of the cartilage, at the base of the scapula, through its whole extent, (Fide I, Fig. 2, THE ANTERIOR EXTREMITIES, 273 Plate VI.) It evidently draws the shoulder upwards, and attaches it to the chest. Releveur propre — Bourgelat. Rhomhoideus minor. — The little rhomboid arises under the cer- vical ligament, to which it is attached nearly its whole length, and is inserted into the anterior edge of the cartilage at the base of the sca- pula, rather internally : it is so blended with the former, as to make its insertion with difficulty separable, and which has occa- sioned it, with some propriety, to be described as a biceps muscle. (See q, Fig. 1, and o, Fig. 2, Plate VI.) It has been also called the levator scapuli ; as when the neck is fixed, it must tend to elevate and draw the superior part of its base forward. Pectoralis minor, vel depressor scapuli, is a long fleshy muscle immediately in front of the scapula, arising from the lateral part of the sternum, under the origin of the sterno brachialis, and inserted into the anterior superior part of the scapula. {Fide h, Fig. I, p, Fig. 2, Plate VI.) Its use is to depress this bone. Triangularis. — This muscle Bourgelat considers as part of the serratus major ; and it is so connected with it, as to be perhaps as properly so considered, as distinct : nevertheless, as there is some- thing like a line of division between them, I have chosen this mode. It arises from the transverse processes of the third, fourth, and fifth cervical vertebrae, and inserts itself above the little pectoral, at the superior and anterior edge of the blade bone. {Fide m. Fig. 1, Plate VI.) It draws this bone forwards. Serratus major anticus, or grand dentata, is a very extensive and Important muscle, and arises by fleshy digitations from all the true ribs, covering all that part of the thorax comprehended in this space, and interlacing with the digitated portions of the obliquus abdo- minis : it unites very intimately with the intercostals likewise, and is continued forward on the neck as far as the transverse process of the fifth cervical vertebra, uniting with the triangular. All this exten- sive expansion is determined towards the under surface of the sca- pula like radii to a centre, or like the sticks of a fan, and is inserted into the whole of the upper and internal surface of that bone, below the great rhomboid ; one small slip being particularly inserted into the posterior edge of the cartilage. Intermixed with its muscular fibres are some strong tendinous portions towards its insertion, and which Bourgelat mistook for ligaments peculiar to the articulation of the scapula with the chest. It is, however, principally by means of this muscle, that the shoulder is attached to the chest ; and while other bones are kept in their situation, by opposition of bone to bone with appropriate ligaments, the scapula has only muscular attach- ment ; hence the extensive origin and insertion of this muscle. When the whole of the serratus is in action, it must tend strongly to draw the shoulder blade to the chest, and in some measure to pull it downward, and hence to elevate the body upon the leg as upon a pillar 5 therefore, it is the great sustaining muscle of the fore- part of the machine, supporting that weight before, that the pelvis does behind. It is likewise a very powerful assistant muscle in inspira- 274 DESCRIPTION OF tion, by enlarging ihe chest when the extremities are the fixed point ; and which appears to be the reason why, in inflammation of the lungs, a horse seldom lays dqwn ; because the fore extremities being fixed, the chest can be more enlarged by this muscle : and hence likewise in exercise, when this muscle is wanted for progression, with other assistant muscles, a difficulty of breathing is experienced, and it is done quickly, to make up by frequency what is wanted in strength. {Vide k k, Fig. I a«rf 2, Plate VI.) Muscles of the Humerus, or Arm. The antea spinatus here, is the supra spinatus of the human, and occupies the whole antea spinatus fossa of the scapula ; as it pro- ceeds it becomes thicker, and towards its insertion bifurcates into two portions, admitting the tendon of the flexor cubiti between them : these two tendons are inserted into the two anterior tuberosities of the humerus. From this division, La Fosse has been induced to describe it as two distinct muscles {videf, Fig. 1, Plate VI) : it powerfully extends the arm, and carries it forward. Postea spinatus major, which is the infra spinatus of the human, has been described as a biceps muscle. It fills up nearly the whole of the postea spinatus fossa ; arising thin, but becoming thicker, it is inserted into the lateral external and superior head of the humerus, by which it can draw the arm bone outward and upward. {Vide e. Fig. \, Plate \l.) Postea spinatus minor is a small muscle immediately under and behind the former, arising from the posterior part of the scapula, near where the spine ends, and is inserted into the upper small tube- rosity of the humerus. In its action it assists the former. {Vide g. Fig. 1, Plate VI.) Extensor ligamenti vel capsularis is a small muscle, apparently -distinct from the former, arising from the coracoid process, and in- .serted over the capsular ligament; by its action preventing it from being pinched. Latissimus dorsi is a large thin muscle arising by aponeurosis, from all the dorsal muscles almost to the ilium, and from the spinous pro- cesses of the dorsal and lumbar vertebrae ; becoming muscular, it is continued over the ribs, intimately connected with the panniculus carnosus, as well as with the trapezius : contracting, and being con- tinued downwards under the scapula, it is inserted into the internal superior tuberosity of the humerus, either connected with, or giving a tendinous expansion to unite with the fascia of the muscles of the radius. It draw^ the humerus obliquely backwards, and assists the trapezius in elevating the scapula. ( Vide g, Fig. 2, Plate VI.) The cmnmon muscle, or levator humeri, is one common to the head, neck, and arm, and is variously described in almost every author ; by some being confounded with the cutaneous muscle of the neck, and by others with other muscles. Mr. Stubbs calls it latissi- mus colli ; Bourgelat and La Fosse confound it with the expansion proper to this part, with which it is in fact so intermixed, that it is THE ANTERIOR EXTREMITIES. 275 not easy to describe the separate divisions and characters. It is a niuscle peculiar to quadrupeds. One origin is from the mastoid process of the occipital bone, and partly also from the temporal bone, proceeding towards the inferior and anterior part of the scapula ; another head arises from tlie cervical ligament, and some of the pos- terior transverse neck processes : these two passing down under the cutaneous muscle, the first head attached to the anterior of these processes, as the last is to the latter of them, it unites and in- serts itself into the middle and anterior part of the os humeri. {Vide p, Fig. 1, Plate Yl.) In the plate, the cutaneous muscle adheres with the common ; and, in fact, authors are so much divided about these two muscles, that none have yet agreed on the portions be- longing to each : it appears that that which is described by them as the cutaneous, is but the portion of this common muscle that arises from the cervical ligament, and I have made the same division in fact ; for my cutaneous muscle, described in the Myology of the neck, appears but a portion of this ; but as this thin expansion can influence and corrugate the skin of the neck, perhaps it might be not altogether improper to consider that part of it as cutaneous ; which, arising from the cervical ligament, lays over the whole muscles of the neck, meets its fellow before the trachea, and is connected by apo- neurosis to the spine of the scapula, extending down to unite in the insertion pointed out. From the sterno brachialis being united to a portion of the common muscle, Bourgelat has been led to con- sider the former as a part only of the- latter. {Vide p, h, Fig. 1, Plate VI.) Its use is to elevate the arm, and, when the extremity is fixed, it becomes a muscle of the head and neck, and bends them laterally. Subscapularis. — It fills up all the subscapulary hollow not occu- pied by the serratus and rhomboid, but does not extend quite to the anterior part of the shoulder blade, which part is occupied by the antea spinatus {vide h, Fig. 2, Plate VI) : it is inserted into the dinner head of the os humeri. It depresses the scapula, slightly ad- ducts and rotates the humerus, strengthens the articulation, and prevents the capsular ligament from being pinched. {Vide a, Fig. 2, Plate VI.) Adductor humeri, is a muscle arising from the posterior and supe- rior edge of the scapula, attached to the former, but sufficiently distinct to merit a particular name : it is the teres major of the human, and is inserted internally into the humerus some way below its head. {Vide n, Fig. 2, Plate VI.) It depresses the shoulder, rotates the humerus, and draws it backwards. Flexor brachialis aiiticus arises from the lower part of the scapula near the articulation, and is inserted into the humerus at its upper and outer part, so as to flex and rotate it in action. Pectoralis magnus arises from the posterior half of the sternum, and from the cartilages of the six last true ribs; is connected with the panniculus carnosus, and the aponeurosis of the obliqiuis ; and is inserted into the head of the humerus internally, and slightly into U 276 DESCRIPTION OP the outer and anterior part of the apex of the scapula. It draws the humerus downwards and backwards. It is cut off in the plate, but its insertion is marked by the letter g, Plate VI. Sterna brachialis, I have so named, on account of its situation. Bourgelat considers it, improperly, as part o^f the common muscle t it is divided into two portions, which arise from the anterior part of the sternum, and are continued over the humerus, one to be inserted into the lower and inner part of that bone, and the other by an ex- pansion over the muscles of the radius: both must powerfully adduct the arm. It is removed in Fig. 2, Plate Yl, but its insertion is likewise marked {vide ?■). Coraco brachialis is the omo brachialis of Bourgelat ; arising from the coracoid process of the scapula, and is inserted, not into the middle of the humerus, as he describes, but towards the lower head anteriorly. {Fide v, Fig. 2, Plate VI.) It draws the humerus up- wards and inwards, and must prove an adductor. jibducior longus humeri forms the human teres minor, arising near the teres major, towards the superior part of the posterior costa of the scapula: passing along the hinder edge of the next muscle, it is inserted into the external tuberosity, at the upper part of the humerus. {Vide c, Fig. 1, Plate Yl.) It rolls that bone out- wards, draws it from the chest, and elevates it. Abductor brevis humeri. — This muscle arises from the posterior edge of the scapula below the preceding, and is inserted between that and the subscapularis muscle : it assists the former in its abduction of the arm. Muscles of the Fore-arm. Flexor radialis anticus arises tendinous from the coracoid process of the scapula, and runs between the divided portions of the antea spi- natus muscle : as it passes over the articulation of the scapula with the arm, it widens and hardens into a substance that represents a patella, and becomes of the same use to this joint that the patella is of to the stifle ; this enlarged part is also invested with a particular ligament, and contains synovia : the tendon is then continued between the two anterior eminences of the humerus, from whence it becomes fleshy, having a central line of division, and a strong tendinous or fascial covering, and is finally inserted into the anterior and superior part of the head of the radius, towards the inner side, with the bra- chialis obliquus. {Vide b, Fig. 2, Plate VI.) This forms the principal flexor of the fore-arm ; and it appears probable, that a dislo- cation of this tendon, from a violent blow of the shoulder, or arm at its point, forms what is termed a dislocated shoulder, or shoulder slip : for a real dislocation of the humerus from the scapula seldom if ever happens. Brachialis obliquus, by Bourgelat, is called the short flexor, as the foregoing muscle is by him termed the long flexor ; but as, when deprived of its obliquity, it would be the longest of the two, it is evident this term is a very improper one. It arises from around the THE ANTERIOR EXTREMITIES. . 2/7 hi.uTierns immediately below its bead ; passes obliquely over the body of the bone, through the extensor intermedii, or rather through an interval left by its attacument, and is inserted into the superior part of the radius rather internally with the preceding. It is a flexor muscle, and can produce a small degree of lateral motion. {Fide o, o, Fig. 2, Plate VI.) Fascialis ciibiti is the muscle which Bourgelat calls the long extensor. It rises very thin by an aponeurotic expansion from the posterior costa of the scapula attacl;ed to the biceps ; it passes down by a small fleshy belly till it arrives at the inner part of the olecranon, when its fibres expand into some breadth ; the fleshy part inserts it- self on the inner side of the olecranon, but the aponeurosis is con- tinued over the fascia of the inside of the fore-arm : its principal use appears to be to keep this fascia tense, not only that it might prevent it from being ]finched, but that it might strengthen the muscles in their action. {Fide I, fig. 1, and/", Fig. 2, Plate VI.) Bleeps extensor cubiti is a very powerful muscle, and forms the large extensor of Bourgelat, arising by two portions from the poste- rior edge of the scapula, forming a large fleshy mass, which fills up the angle between the bladebone and olecranon, and inserts itself into ihe outer and upper part of the latter of these bones. {Fide n, Fig. I, and e. Fig* 2, P/ate VI.) It is a very powerful extensor of the fore-arm. Extensor cubiti infermedii. — ^What I have so named, Bourgelat has called the short extensor, and which arises from the outer head, neck, and some part of the body of the humerus, passes down the outer edge, leaving an interval where the brachial is obliquus passes over the bone; it then continues attached to the bone, and Inserts itself into the lateral and outer part of the olecranon : that portion of it that occupies the inferior and posterior part of the hu- merus, and the cavity for the reception of the olecranon, has been described as the little extensor of Bourgelat, but it appears not to deserve any particular division. Brachialis internus forms the moyen extenseur of Bourgelat, and arises from below the head of the humerus internally : in the human it arises from the external condyle of this bone, and is inserted into the internal surface of the olecranon. It strengthens the elbow, ex- tends the fore-arm, and is an antagonist to the oblique brachial. (Fide d, Fig. 2, Plate VI.) Muscles of ihe Canon. Extensor metacarpi magnum forms the right anterior extensor of Bourgelat, and arises fleshy from the tuberosity and external head of the humerus, and from the body of the bone half its length ; its fibres are directed into an anterior tendon which takes them in, in a half pennated form ; this tendon being formed towards the lower part of the radius, it here passes through a groove under the tendon of the next nniscle to be inserted into the anterior and superior part U 2 27S DESCRIPTION OR of the head of the canon or large metacarpal bone. (Vide a, Fig. 1, Plate VII.) This muscle straightens the knee and extends the canon. Extensor melacarpi radialis is the oblique extensor of Bourgelat, arising from the lateral part of the radius externally ; its fibres pass over the bone anteriorly, and contract into a tendon which proceeds over that of the former muscle, and inserts itself into the inner head of the canon, and into the head of the small internal metacarpal bone. (Vide e, Fig. 1, Plate VI.) This muscle assists in the ex- tension of the metacarpus; but its principal use is exerted upon the ligaments of the knee, which it keeps firm and from being pinched. Flexor metacarpi extcrnus. — The flexor muscles of the extremities of the horse, it may be remarked, are more complex than the ex^ tensors. The muscle in question arises from the posterior part of the external condyle of the humerus, and is inserted in part into the pisiform bone, from whence it has been named pisiformis externus ; but it appears also to be continued onwards to be inserted into the external small metacarpal bone, and into the ligaments surrounding these parts ; and it must be remarked, that these ligaments are so very complex and numerous, and the metacarpal muscles, as w'ell flexors as extensors, are so blended with them ; that it is hardly possible to give any of them a determinate insertion. This muscle can act very strongly as a flexor by its advantageous attachment to the pisiform bone, being thereby removed far from the centre of motion. Also by a very peculiar connexion it has with the ex- tending anterior ligaments of the pastern, it appears to be so con- tinued into these as apparently to become both a flexor and an extensor {oide s, Fig. I, Plate VII) ; but it will be found, on examination, that by the tightness with which it is bound down to its insertions, it cannot act very strongly on these ligaments, and what action it has, is really favourable to flexion ; for it pulls the tendons influencing these ligaments out of the line of their insertion, and consequently must weaketi their action, by which it proves an antagonist to them. (Vide g, h, Fig. 1, PlateYll.) This muscle has been described by the name of extensor parvus, I suppose from this peculiar attachment to the extending ligaments ; but from the reasons before given, I think it ought to be considered as a flexor. By Bourgelat it is the external extensor. Flexor metacarpi hiternus arises from the posterior part of lh§ internal condyle of the humerus, and is a long thin fleshy muscle, which passes down under an annular ligament peculiar to it, and is inserted into the posterior portion of the inner head of the canon. It is a flexor to the metacarpus (vide a, Fig. 2, Plate VII), and forms the internal flexor of Bourgelat. Flexor carpi. — I at first proposed calling this Flexor metacarpi medii ; but as I could not trace it in any instance, farther than the carpus, I considered the former as the most proper: by Bourgelat it is called the oblique flexor. It arises near the former, and, passing obliquely across the muscles at the posterior part of the radius, it THE ANTEIUOR EXTREMITIES. 279 inserts itself into the pisiform bone, and hence must prove a forcible flexor to the knee. (Fide b, c, Fig. 2, Plate Yll.) The iiiferossii muscles are not always present, but when they^ are, they usually arise by two small fleshy bodies in the groove formed by the canon and the two small metacarpal bones, or a little below the suspensory bifurcating ligament, and run down two or three inches, to be inserted by a joint tendon into the internal side of the flexor muscles of the foot. In one subject that I examined, they existed before and not behind ; in others, I sometimes found them both before and behind 5 and in some not at all. Muscles of the Pastern and Foot. Extensor longus pedis anticus. — This forms the anterior extensor of Bourgelat, and the extensor digitorum communis of Stubbs, from its resemblance to that muscle in man ; and arises fleshy, in part from the external and lower head of the humerus, and in part from the external and superior portion of the radius, passing over the extensor metacarpi radialis, and being semipennated like the ex- tensor metacarpi magnum : towards the lower part of the fore-arm it becomes wholly tendinous, proceeding down in front in a firm cord to the knee, where it is received under an annular ligament, which firmly binds it between two prominences in the carpus. As it passes over this joint its tendon expands (see Fig. 1, Plate YJl), and becomes very smooth, by w'hich wise contrivance the effects of friction are prevented ; and by not being raised up into a round cord, it is less liable to accidents. As it runs under the annular ligament of the knee, it detaches in a very peculiar manner a small tendon that unites with the outer slip of the anterior ligaments by an expansion of cellular substance. At the pastern joint, the same enlargement of its surface takes place; at the inferior part of which it widens and receives the lateral expansions of the suspensory liga- ments (vide Fig. 1), connecting itself very firmly with the lower head of the great pastern, and the upper head of the small ; it is finally inserted into the anterior eminence of the coffin bone, to the joint of which, aitd to that of the pastern, it anteriorly performs the office of a capsular ligament ; for on raising it from these parts, the cavity of the joint is always exposed. ( Vide c, d, Fig. 1, PlateYlJ.) This muscle is an antagonist to the flexors, and acts on the knee, canon, pastern,- and foot ; straightening all these parts, when the flexors have elevated the limb. • Extensor lateralis pedis is both a muscle of the pastern and foot ; but appears rather more appropriate to the pastern, and arises from the outer head of the radius : it becomes soon tendinous, and passes down through an annular ligament on the anterior and rather ex- ternal part of the knee ; from whence it passes obliquely backward to unite itself with the lateral slip of the anterior ligaments, with which it is continued, and with them is inserted into the pastern, sending an expansion that passes on to the ligaments of the foot. 280 DESCRIPTION OR {Vide r, f, t, Fig. 1.) This small peculiar muscle is an assistant extensor. Flexor pedis perforatus anticus. — The perforates and perforans have been considered and described as one muscle with several heads ; but though some few of their fibres intermix, yet they are evidently distinct muscles. The perforatus arises from the posterior and lower part of the internal condyle of the humerus, between the heads of the next muscle, and descends along with these heads, with some of which it blends its muscular fibres, and becoming tendinous ■ at the same part with them, it enters the ligamentous arch formed from the pisiform bone and neighbouring parts. It here first spreads to encase the united tendons of the perforans ; but at this part the encased and encasing tendons are not united by cellular substance, but are very smooth ; and though one lays within the other, there is mucus between. Within this arch, these tendons are firmly bound down between the heads of the small metacarpal bones, by ligamentous fibres; and between them and the surface they pass over in this arch, a true cavity exists, which contains synovia ; so that cutting the tendon through here would have all the effect of opening a joint. By its being so firmly and closely connected to the bones, its strong contractions are prevented from rupturing or lacerating the surrounding parts. As this tendon passes below the knee encasing the perforans tendon, it receives a peculiar liga- mentous substance which arises near the origin of the clastic bifur- cating ligament, and which substance divides, one portion inserting itself into one side of this tendon, and the other portion into' the other; by which means both tendons are more firmly connected to the bones, and kept in their proper line of action : they are likewise considerably supported by this means. {Vide s, Fig. 2.) The per- fpratus tendon now passing down, encasing the other at its posterior part, and united to it by a cellular substance, near the fetlock, it first enlarges, and, when opposite ihe sessamoids, it becomes a com- plete ring. {Vide t, Fig. 2, Plate Yll.) This exhibits a most wise provision ; for as this is a most prominent part, purposely made so by nature, to throw the tendons farther from the centre of mo- tion, which are here peculiarly exposed to accident ; so without this admirable contrivance they might become dislocated from each other. The joint tendons are held in this situation by an expansion of the. suspensory ligaments {vide 10, Fig. 1, 9, Fig. 2, Plate Yll) and by fibres from the integuments, which over this part are very thick; ajid lower down by an expansion of the ligaments of the pastern {vide 9, Fig. 1 and 7, Fig. 2, Plate VII) : so at this part the perforans is inclosed with a double theca. The perforatus tendon now passing towards the heels, bifurcates into two portions {vide p. Fig. I, It, Fig. 2, Plate VII), which are inserted into the large and small pastern bones, and blend with the ligaments from these parts. Flexor pedis perforans anticus. — Though 6ome of the fibres of this blend with the last described, yet it is evidently of itself a muscle ^ THE ANTERIOR EXTREMITIES. 281 SHd arises by two heads distinct, and two heads less distinct ; one (if which originates from the posterior part of the ulna (vide g, Fig. 2, Plate VII) ; two others, in some measure blended together {vide -e, f. Fig. 2), arise from the internal and posterior inferior portion of the humerus ; and a fourth still more indistinct, appearing like a collection of fibres belonging to one of the former, arises under these, rather posteriorly : these portions pass down fleshy to near the knee, where the most central receives a peculiar ligament from the inner edge of the tibia {vide r, Fig. 2), the use of which must be to bind it more closely down in its action. As these heads enter the arch formed by the ligaments from the pisiform bone, they unite to form one strong tendon, which is received into the per- foratus tendon ; and does not wholly surround it, but embraces all its posterior part {vide I, Fig. 1, v, Fig. 2) : in the humau the per- foratus forms a division merely to let the perforans tendons through. As it passes the ligamentary arch behind the knee, it is firmly bound down to the bones as we have shewn, by which it not only can operate in the flexion of this part, but its strong action is also pre- vented from lacerating any of the surrounding substances ; at this part there is between the perforatus tendon and its own, synovia, and likewise between the pisiform bone and this, by which motion is assisted, and the effects of friction prevented ; but between the other parts of this and the perforatus tendon, except at the ring of the fetlock, there is connecting cellular membrane. Proceeding from under the arch of the knee, and down the canon, invested at its posterior part in the way we have mentioned, it passes between the divided portions of 4.he ligament described with the last mus- cle, and, continuing down the canon, at the fetlock it becomes entirely surrounded by the perforatus, which at this part forms itself iuto a complete ring, as before noticed, to prevent the possibility of a dislocation between the two tendons at this exposed part. {Vide 10, Fig. I, t, g, Fig. 2.) At the heels the perforatus leaves the perforans, and is now continued alone, to be inserted in an expanded portion in the posterior part of the vaulted arch of the coffin bone. {Vide Pig. 2, Plate VII, and f, J, Fig. 1, Plate IX.) These muscles, it is evident, are most important, and bend the knee, pasterns, and foot. Ligaments of the Anterior Extremities. The bones of these parts have been before particularly described m the Osteology ; and the ligaments immediately connecting them, have been treated of likewise;- but there are others connected with the muscles and integuments of these parts we have yCt to describe. I'he muscles of the arm and fore-arm are covered by a tendinous theca, which forms a sheath to each of them individually, and is likewise reflected over the whole of them generally ; so that on removing the integuments one plain surface is seen, and the risings and depressions of the muscles are by this means hardly visible. Na- ture has also wisely made the integuments, or skin ot the extremities, 282 DESCRIPTION OP very strong and dense, particularly over the joints, forming a guard to them : this skin is thicker at the posterior part of the leg than at the anterior, and is much more firmly attached to some parts than to others ; it adheres not only by the general cellular mem- brane, but by ligamentous fibres between it and the parts it covers; but these do not exist generally over the whole, but only in parti- cular places, as the fetlocks, and most of the lower parts of the leg, as well as the posterior parts of these both above and below. Over all the extremity afso, but particularly over the knee, canon, and fetlocks, is spread a very firm dense cellular membrane, that may be raised in layers. It forms a strong investing covering to the whole ; some portions of which are loose, and others attached to the ligaments below ; so that it is extremely difficult in raising it, to ascertain justly what is investing cellular substance, what is fascia, or aponeurotic expansion, and what is appropriate ligament. When the outer and more loose layers of this general membrane have been removed, there appears over the muscles of the arm and fore- arm., a general fascia formed from extensions of the muscles of these parts ; which seems either to end in, or unite with, a general liga- mentous expansion that covers the whole of the knee, and inferior part of the radius, as well as the superior part of the canon : and is firmly bound down to the outer edge of the radius. (Videz, Fig. 1,' Plate VII.) It appears continued around over the back of the knee, and over the pisiform bone, to form the ligamentous arch, existing there for the purpose of binding down the tendons in their action : these densely united expansions likewise form the general an- nular ligament {vide 3, f. Fig. I) : other reflections of it, and of the immediate portions from one bone to the other, form also the particular annular ligaments, of which almost every tendon has one or more appropriate to it. From the posterior part of the knee, where this general annular ligament is the thickest, it is continued down thus dense and firm rather more than a third of its length {vide 4, Fig. 1, and 1, Fig. 2), by which it firmly fastens the flexor tendons. It is then carried round the fore part of the canon, firmly attached from one, small metacarpal to the other, in its passage becoming attached to the anterior ligaments, and is carried in front down as low as the pastern, though behind it is continued no farther than where we described it ; or at least the more tensely stretched portion, for there is a looser part still carried down behind as well as before. In Fig. I, at 5, this anterior por- tion is seen, cut from the inner edge of the extensor longus, where it passed over, to be reflected on the inner metacarpal bone as de- scribed, and as mav be seen in Fig. 2, between x and z. This ligamentous expansion is wisely not continued lower poste- riorly, or it would have impeded the motions of the tendons, by increasing the friction; but anteriorly, it cannot have this effect; on the contrary, thus far it strongly assists the parts. That, if continued lower, it would impede the motions, is very evident ; for even as it is, when it is bound too closely to the bones, as is some-.- THE ANTERIOR EXTREMITIES. 283 times the case, these tendons then act disadvantageously : such a horse is said to be tied in under the knee, and These horses are always found to be easily strained ; for they have not only greater resistance from the friction of the part to overcome ; but the ten- dons, by not being so far removed from the centre of motion, re- quire a much greater force to overcome even the common opposition to the flexion of the parts. It would appear, that this might pro- bably be remedied by dividing this ligamentous expansion some way up, by means of a groove and a history : it would at least be worth the trial, as, if carefully performed, it is more than probable no ill effects would ensue ; but it is evident that the ligament only should be divided : if too deeply or injudiciously done, it might have the effect of opening a joint. The ligmnents of the extremities are curious and complex ; for besides this general one reflected over the knee and metacarpus, there are two anterior ligaments of the canon, which appear composed of a layer of the general annular ligament, of a particular one sent off from the pisiform bone, and of two tendinous laminae, one belonging to the lateral extensor, and the other given off from the long extensor. {Vide s, u, Fig. 1, Plate Wll.) These ligaments are an outer and an inner, but run down nearly together, obliquely from the outer side of the knee, to the anterior part of the canon, and insert themselves into the pastern, having an expansion conti- nued on to the lesser pastern and foot. {Vide t, v, Fig. 1.) The tendons assisting to form these do not so closely unite with the ligaments, but that the distinct portions may be traced down all the way; nor do these ligaments unite with each other, but are continued separate with an intermediate portion of the general investing cellular substance between them. At the posterior part of the canon, are two very peculiar por- tions, which have usually been ctdled the lateral ; but they would be more properly termed elastic bifurcating ligaments, or suspensory. They are placed in the hollow formed at the posterior part of the large metacarpal bone, or canon, by means of the two small me- tacarpals {vide 7, Fig. 1, x, Fig. 2), and originate near the head of this groove ; that is, near the superior head of the canon, to which they are firmly attached, as well as to the small metacarpal bones : they are then continued within the groove, but unattached to the bones, down the canon, where they appear, on close exa- mination, to be divided into two portions, by a hollow on their inner part, that bisects them, and in which hollow sometimes a blood vessel runs down to the pastern. These ligaments have the p*ecu- liarity of being elastic, and, except the cervical, there are but few instances of ligamentary elasticity in the body. As they approach the pastern, they bifurcate into two portions {vide x, Fig. 2) : these branches are inserted into the sessamoids, and give each a continuation of their substance, expanded and passing obliquely over the body of the pastern, to unite with the tendon of the extensor longus in a more connected form. {Vide 8, Fig. 1, y, Fig. 2, 28-1 DESCRIPTION OF Plate VII.) It likewise gives off a posterior expansion that sur- roimcls the pcrforatus tendon, fixing it in its situation. {Vide 10, Fig. 1. 9, Fig- 2, Plate Yll.) 'J'he elastic suspeiisory ligaments are of the greatest consequenee to the extremities ; they support the sessamoids in their situation, and by their continuation in front to join the long extensor, bind dow'n this tendon in its action, and support the pastern in its ex- tensive flexions ; acting, in conjunction with the sessainold bones, both as a pulley and a lever. This ligament must evidently be liable to compression from splents, and from the ossification of the junc- tion of the small metacarpals with the large ; and though it is not very vascular or sensible, yet the cellular membrane surrounding it is so. It will, therefore, appear evident, why splents placed poste- riorly, should be more liable to lame a horse than when placed more to the side of the leg. In regarding z, Fig, 2, of Plate VII, which is not far from the usual situation of splent, it will be seen that it must make a material diflerence whether a splent exists behind or before this ligament; when behind this, it must interfere with this ligament; when situated before, it will interfere only with the in- teguments : but placed behind this, we may again remark a splent must, during its increase, by its rough surface, wound the vascular membrane of the ligament, as well as the ligament itself, which has some sensibility, particularly under inflammation; and, by this means, pain and lameness must be the consequence. Besides these, there are two other peculiar ligamentous substances, which are inserted into the flexor tendons, and appear designed to confine them down in their action, and to support them under violent exertion. The superior of these {vide r, Fig. 2) arises from the inner edge of the tibia, and is fixed into one of the heads of the perforans muscle, just before its junction with the rest, by which means it acts upon the whole. The other arises inferior to this, from the posterior part of the canon, near the origin of the suspensory ligament, and then branches into two portiorfs to insert itself into the two sides of the perforates tendon. {Vide s. Fig. 2.) By these, the flexors of the foot are not only suspended, and their action increased, but the latter is eminently useful in prevent- ing the perforans tendon slipping from the perforates above, as the ring of the perforatus does the same below. The various tendons of the canon and foot have eacji a sheath, or theca; betw'een which and the tendon, exists a mucus to prevent the effects of friction ; and to secrete which, the inner surface of this fVieca is very vascular. It often happens that this vascular sur- face becomes inflamed from extension of the parts, when, instead of mucus, coagulable lymph is thrown out between the sheath and the tendon ; hence motion is rendered painful and imperfect, and swelling remains : this is usually termed a clap, or strain in the back sinews ; but sinews or tendons are perfectly inelastic, and consequently cannot correctly be said to be strained ; yet they may be ruptured, though this is seldom the qase; hut what is termed a THE POSTERIOR EXTREMITIES. 285 strain in the back sinews, is either the effect of inflammation be- tween the sheath and the tendons ; or, in more violent cases, there is often a laceration of the cellular substance interposed between the one and the other. Sometimes the sheaths ihemselves are ruptured, in which instances the lameness is excessive, and the limb incapable of sustaining much weight ; but yet it is not brought to the ground ; although this receives the name of breaking down. It is, however, evident, that the term of breaking down ought only to be applied to a rupture of one or both of the tendons, and which very seldom occurs ; and when it does hajipen, may be knowQ by the fetlock being actually brought into contact with the ground. The vessels and nerves of the extremities have been fully described in the Angiology and Neurology. THE POSTERIOR EXTREMITIES, OR HIND LEGS. iDegimptton of plate VIII. The Reader is requested to observe, that the muscles of the buttock and su*( perior part of the extremity, are to be seen in Plate VI. Plate VIII, represents a right and left hinder extremity. In the right extremity, the femur or thigh bone is seen whole, with some of the external muscles removed, and part of the canon taken off. In the left extremity the greater portion of the femur is removed, but the whole of the tarsus and metatarsus is shewn. Figure the First. «, rectus cruris muscle inserting itself into the head of the patella; the line between it and 2 is the division of the cruris from the cruralis: all the rough marks along the femur up to its neck are remains of the vastus internus cut off from its oiiginat the cervix of the femur; b, the insertion of part of the triceps muscle ; r, a ligament of the patella continued into the outer part of the tuberosity of the tibia; d, a ligament from the inferior part of the patella, united with a conti- luiution of the rectus tendon; e, the popliteus muscle; A a ligament extended from the outer side of the tibia, forming part of the general ligament of tire hock and canon; the plantaris muscle; /i, h, the two heads of the gastrocnemius mu;c!e ; one is cut off to sneiv the parts beneath ; i, the perforated muscle ; k, tlie perforating muscle; its oblique fibres are seen running into its tendon, immediately below which is the nerve ol‘ the leg passing with it; I, the assistant flexor of the foot ; m, the invested bifurcating tendon of the flexor of the canon ; n, the invest* ing tendons of the same muscle; e, the general outer annular ligament of the hock; p, the fascial ligaments formed from the fascia of the perforatus muscle; g, the continuation of the general aponeurotic ligamentous expansion attached to the small metacarpal bones; r, an articulatory cartilage interposed between the end of the tibia, and the flexor of the canon ; s, the inner condyle of the femur, articulating with the tibia, and resting on the articulatory semilunar cartilage; t, part of the tibialis anticus, or extensor of the canon; u, the patella connected tq the thigh by the insertion of the muscles of the leg, and by its ligapients; v, the head of the femur, with tiie cavity, in which is contained the ligament connecting it with the acetabulum ; below is seen the rough edge of the capsular ligament cut off; if, the great trochanter; y, the tendons of the perforating muscle; s, the tfendons of the greater and lesser flexors of the foot; 1, is a ligament from the femur to the head of the tibia, fprmed in part from a continuation of the triceps muscle; 2, part of the cruralis muscle; 3, semilunar cartilage; 8, the usual st- l^uation of vvindgalls on the hock. 286 DESCRIPTION OF Figure the Second. a, tlie patella connected to the thigh, l;y the insertion of the rectus mus- cle superiorly, and of the vastus externus muscle atf; and below by its liga- ments; b, a ligament from its outer side to the head of the tibia, united with a portion of the tendon of the vastus externus ; c, a lateral ligament of the patella; d, the tendon of the tibialis anticus arising from the front of the condyle of the femur, forming an attachment of the femur with the tibia; e, part of the semi- lunar cartilages attached to the tibia by a ligament ; ^ the tendon of the lateral flexor of the foot, forming likewise an attachment from the femur to the fibula; the insertion of the popliteus muscle; h, the outer condyle of the femur; i, part of the vastus internus; k, the gastrocnemius muscle; its tendons are seen running down twisted within the fascial ligaments; I, the perforans muscle; its tendon is seen passing down at the lateral extensor; w, extensor longus; its tendon is seen at r, and between it and s, is seen the artery of the leg passing down; o, the investing part of the tibialis anticus; p, the invested bifurcating part of this tendon ; q q, the general annular ligaments of the liock, formed from the expansion continued from the edges of the tibia, and carried downwards around the canon, leaving the posterior parts of it at 14, but continued in front over the tendons of the flexors of the foot, and the ligaments united with them, from the sides of which it is reflected on to the small metacarpal bones; in the plate it is cutoff to shew the parts beneath; its cut edges are seen adhering to the metacarpal bones : the portion between q q, which is thinner than these pe- culiar bands, is removed to shew the part underneath; r, the tendon of the ex- tensor of the foot ; s, the tendon of the lateral extensor ; t, the tendon of the flexor of the foot ; ti, ihe inferior head of the tibia articulating with v, the os calcis; immediately below it, is seen some lines which describe the posterior liga- ment of the hock, which is usually the seat of curb; x, the fascial ligaments, formed from the fascia of the perforated muscles; y, the twisted tendons of the gastrocnemii ; z, plantaris muscle ; 1, the union of the tendons of the extensor of the foot; 2, the elastic bifurcating suspensory ligaments continued on to unite with the extensor of the foot, and giving an expansion to bind the flexor tendons down ; 3, the metacarpal bones within their ligaments, continued on to the liga- ment of the pastern ; 4, the perforated muscle going to its insertion ; 6, the per- forating muscle entering the foot; 6, the expansion of the bifurcating ligaments; 7, the union of the bifurcating ligaments and tendons of the flexor muscle; 8, the ligament of the pastern formed from its own proper ligament, and a continuation of the ligaments from the small metacarpal bones; 9, the little extensor muscle ; at this part is likewise seen the sheaths of the tendons of the flexor muscles; 10, the anterior ligament of the patella; 11, the bursa mucosa that surrounds the ten- dons of the flexors of the foot, and that in its dilatation forms windgalls in the pasterns; 12, an articulating cartilage between the tibia and flexor tendons; 13, the bursjB mucosa of these tendons, which form the windgalls of the outer side of the hock ; 14, is the part where the ligamentous expansion terminates posteriorly. DESCRIPTION OF THE POSTERIOR EXTREMITIES. On removing the skin from the loins, croup, thigh, and leg, the muscles of these parts are so covered with a strong firm expansion, called fascia, as to be indistinct till it is removed. This fascia is intermixed with fat and cuticular nerves, and does not appear to be produced by any particular muscle alone, but arises conjointly from all the muscles of the posterior extremity ; principally, however, from those situated on the loins and buttock, and is found particu- larly strong and firm on the outer side of the thigh and leg,' so as THE POSTERIOR EXTREMITIES. 287 greatly to strengthen the muscles in their action. This peculiar ligamentous expansion is acutely sensible under inllammation ; and I am disposed to attribute to an inflammation in this, that distress- ing sensation frequently felt by a horse in blistered legs, grease, or other open sores behind ; in which instances the animal is observed, after he has been suffered to remain quiet a little time, when he next moves, to draw his leg up to his. body in a convulsive and distressing m.annerj sometimes to such a degree as nearly to fall over. The integuments of the hinder extremities, like those before, will be found to be naturally much thickened, particularly over ex- posed parts : they are remarkably so over the hock, and down the canon likewise ; and as the hinder part, where the back sinews are situated, is much exposed, so they are there peculiarly thick and strong. At the coronet the thickness is also considerable ; and in many parts of the hinder legs, as in those before, the skin appears attached by peculiar ligamentous fibres ; so that in dissecting the integuments, it is often difficult to remove them in such a manner as to be exactly able to ascertain, what is the. appropriate ligam.ent to the parts remaining, and what only rendered the adherence more intimate between the integuments and muscles. As soon, as the skin is removed, the external layer of -fascia then appears, and upon which two considerable veins are observed to pass superficially ; sometimes there appear more than this number; generally, however, qne runs on the inside of the hock, and is that which, when vari-. cosed, forms blood spavin ; the other is situated in the hollow form* ed between the tendo Achilles and the flexor muscles. Like the fore extremities, the upper parts of the hinder limb appear covered with a true fascia, or tendinous expansion ; but the lower have this expansion formed of apparent layers of cellular and ligamentary substance ; one is dense, firm, and inelastic ; the other is dense, firm, and very elastic : the fascia itself is also composed of several layers, some of which surround only one muscle ; some a set of muscles of the same action ; and some form a general investment of the whole ; yet all of these intermix. The fascia that covers the inside of the thigh is not so deiase as that on the outside. Muscles situated on the Pelvis and Thigh, belonging to either the Thigh or Leg. In the division of these muscles it will be seen I have, as in those of the fore extremities, differed from all former authorities ; but in this I was not stimulated by any love of novelty, nor by any pre- sumption in supposing my own mode unobjectionable ; but because I was not aware of any division known to me that appeared so cor- rectly to describe these parts. Tensor vaginez fonoris. — -This muscle is called, by Stubbs, mus- culus fascia lata, and arises from the anterior angle of the ilium ; connected posteriorly with the external glutei, it runs into the flank, thus appearing, at the lateral external part of the thigh, a thin fleshy 288 tlESfcRtPtlON O# . expansion, which soon degenerates into an aponeurosis, itniting Itt some degree with that from the other muscles, to cover the external part of the thigh very strongly, as well as part of the leg : being continued over part of the inner side of the thigh immediately under the fascia expanded from the pannlculus carnosus, it inserts itself into the patella, as well as into the head and lateral part of the tibia. {Vide g, Jig. 3, Plate VI.) This muscle tends to bend and abduct the thigh ; it likewise, by stretching the vaginal fascia, increases the general strength of the muscles, and, as such, this name is a more proper one than that of fascia lata. Gluteus posticus, or externus, is the outer of the glutei muscles, and is not, as in the human, the largest : it arises by two portions ; an anterior from the anterior angle of the ilium, and a posterior from the posterior angle of the same : between these two heads a semicircle is formed, leaving the gluteus maximus exposed ; at least it is only covered by a slight expansion of aponeurosis, from which this part of the muscle takes its origin; it then inserts itself at the small external trochanter, by a flat tendon, first giving off along the posterior side of its belly a firm aponeurosis to the muscles tvithin the thigh. {Vide Jig. 3, Plate VI.) It acts as a flexor and an abductor. Gluteus maximus is not, as in the human, situated the most ex- ternally of the glutei muscles, but is placed under the former one ; it is a very large rauScle, contiguous to, and blended with, what Mr. Stubbs has called the sacro lumbar mass, and fills up almost the whole of the croup, covering the external surface of the ilium and lumbar vertebrae : arising from the spinous processes of these as well as those of the sacrum, and from the anterior and superior spine of the ilium ; when, contracting, it becomes interspersed with tendinous layers, and terminates by inserting itself very strongly into the trochanter major. {Vide f, Jig. 3, Plate VI.) It acts by drawing out the femur, by which it can straighten the limb, and force it outward and backward. Gliitetis minimus. — This muscle is a small mass Immediately vnder the former muscle, arising from the ilium above the acetabu- lum, and inserted immediately under the former, and into the tro- chanter. It must assist the foregoing. • Biceps Jlexor cruris arises principally by two heads ; the longest of which originates in common with the next described ; the other from the tuberosity of the ischium : these two heads form one muscle, which inserts itself in a double manner by a tendon which is fixed into the patella. By the length and mode of these inser- tions its powers are much increased, and it can act strongly as an abductor and a flexor. {Videh, Jig. 3, Plate VI.) Flexor cruris posticus forms what Stubbs calls the semi tendino- sus, and is so called in the human subject : by Bourgelat it is named the deinimcmbranosus ; but which are both indefinite terms. It arises by two heads, from the ligament of the sacrum and ischium; the tuberosity of the latter, and from some part of the coccygis : THE rdSTERIOU EXTREMITIES. 289 tk’scending along the posterior part of the thigh, it inserts itself into the internal surface of the tibia, three inches below its head ; it likewise forms an aponeurotic expansion, (c, c, d, Jig. 3, Plate VI.) Since I formed this'myology, I have thought that the former muscle might be more properly called biceps abductor, and this biceps adductor : they are both flexors, but this latter is also an ad- doctor. Semimembranosus. — This muscle is a part of Bourgelat’s longns vastus; it arises from the tuberosity of the ischium, and the whole of the inferior angle ; and from an aponeurosis connected to some part of the length of the femur ; it then passes down in a fan-like form to be expanded into a broad fascia ; the anterior portion of which is inserted into the anterior part of the femur and tibia: its posterior covers the posterior muscles of the thigh, leg, and tendo Achilles. {Vide a, a. Jig. 3, Plate VI.) The whole must power-- fully flex the leg, and abduct both thigh and leg. Capsularis is a small fleshy and apparently distinct slip from the glutei muscles, arising from the brim of the acetabulum, passing over attached to the capsular ligament, and inserted into the lateral superior part of the femur. Bourgelat calls this the straight muscle, and describes as its use, that it assists in rotating the thigh : but it appears to me intended to keep the capsular ligament from being pinched between the pelvis and femur. Muscles on the Inside of the Thigh. Oracilis. — This has been called biceps adductor, and, by Bour- gelat, the short adductor; nor is it hardly thin enough to be named gracilis, as in the human. It has a line of division through it, and is that muscle that first appears on the inner side of the thigh on removing the integuments and fascia ; arising from the pubis, and from the ischium, and terminating by an aponeurosis, covering the internal part of the thigh, and more particularly ending in the superior and internal part of the tibia. {Vide b, Jig. 4, Plate VI.) It is a principal adductor of this part. Bourgelat gives the name of gracilis internus to the muscle which is analogous to the semi tendinosLis, and which we have named triceps adductor femoris. Sartoriiis is so called from its crossing the legs, by which it be* comes of great use to tailors ; but it is questionable whether adduc- tor longns would not be a more proper name for it in the horse. It arises from about the middle of the brim of the pelvis on its inner edge, and passes obliquely across the psoas and iliac muscles to ter- minate in a small tendon attached with the gracilis to the upper and lateral internal part of the tibia. It flexes and adducts the leg and thigh. {Vide h, Jig. 4, Plate Yl.) Psoas parous is a muscle proper to the loins, and which is oftetTi Vanting in the human, but is always present in the horse. (See Muscles of the Loins, and d, fig. 4, Plate Yl.) Psoas magnus arises from the tw'O last false ribs, and last lumjbar vertebraj on the outside of the psoas parvus; continues attached to 290 DESCRIPTION OP the pelvis in its descent, and is inserted into the internal trochanter. (^Vide e, fig. 4, Plate VI.) It draws the thigh forwards. The disease existing in the cellular membrane of this muscle, called psoas abcess, is not found in the horse ; which perhaps strengthens the opinion that this complaint first forms in some of the bones of the spine, and to which affection also the horse is not subject. lUacus internus magnus. — This muscle arises from the internal surface of the ilium, passes on the outer side of the preceding, and terminates with the former. It rotates the thigh, and bends it in- wards. {Videf, fig. 4, Plate VI.) Iliacus internus minor is a muscle not present in the human, arising from the brim of the pelvis, and inserted into the small tro- chanter, by which it assists the former. Pectineus takes its origin from the pelvis at the os pubis, and is inserted rather below the internal small trochanter. It draws the thigh inwards and upwards. {Vide c, fig. 4, Plate VI.) Triceps adductor femoris arises by three heads ; one from the in- ternal edge of the pubis ; another from the interior branch of the ischium; and a third, smaller, from its tuberosity; passing down together, but not intimately united : one is inserted into the pos- terior part of the femur; another into the superior and internal part of the tibia; the third inserts itself distinctly into the internal tu- berosity of the femur. This last portion Bourgelat calls gracilis in- ternus. {Vide a, a, fig. 4, Plate VI.) These portions all flex the leg and thigh, and draw it inward. {Vide b, fig. 1, P/n#e VIII.) Vastus externus arises broad and fleshy from the root of the tro- chanter major, and external lateral parts of the femur, and inserts itself into the lateral part of the patella. Rectus cruris arises by two tendons ; one from the ilium above the acetabulum ; the other from the upper part of the femur : its fibres run in a penniform manner, having a tendinous centre. It is inserted into the upper part of the patella by a very strong tendon, which sends an expansion over this bone, and unites with a power- ful ligament {vide Plate VIII), extending from its lower part to the head of the tibia : this expansion is united with a similar one ol the vastus externus, and which, by this means, sends oft' from its side a fellow one that connects itself with the tibia laterally. These bands are assisted, both in their strength and formation, by the fascia which covers all the joint and adheres to this part. {Vide i, fig. 4, Plate VI.) This muscle acts with the vasti, in straighten- ing the leg by drawing up the patella. Vdstus internus, taking its origin from the neck of the femur, and from its whole inner surface; is continued down to be inserted into the inner side of the patella. Cruralis, or crureus. — The propriety of the division of this into a distinct muscle admits of a doubt ; for it is very much blended with the three former, occupies the lower portion of the femur, and is inserted with the preceding into the patella. It must be evident, that the foregoing muscles are joint extensors of the leg; and when THE POSTERIOR EXTRIiMITIES. 291 we observe iheir mode of insertion, we shall be aware they can act with surprising strength, which-is increased by the patella elevating their tendons from the centre of motion ; and which likewise gives a smooth surface for these two bones to act upon, and acts itself as a pulley to the muscles 5 for as they are short, so they require a mechanism whereby the advantageousness of their position may be increased. Obturator externus arises from the inner crus of the ischium, surrounds the foramen thyroideum ; and likewise arises from the ligament covering this oval opening : collecting its fibres, it passes rather around the root of the back part of the neck of the femur; and is inserted by a strong tendon into the cavity at the back part of the great trochanter. Though it is a short muscle, yet by its direction, and by multiplying its points of contact, and those ad- vantageously, -it can act with considerable strength in rotating the thigh inwards ; directly contrary to the action of the same muscle in the human. Quadratus feinoris is a long thin muscle not described by Bour- 'gelat, arising from the lower portion of the ischium, and inserted a little below the great trochanter, by which it rotates the thigh outward. The gemini are two slips arising, one superior to the other, from the ischium and pubis, near their junction ; and inserted along with the preceding, to which they in common with the two next muscles are antagonists. Obturator internus arises within the pelvis from around the fora- men thyroideum. Pyriformis arises within the pelvis from the sacrum ; both this and the former pass out at the nitch in the ischium with the poste- rior crural nerve, and are inserted with the gemini, assisting them in their action. ’ The Muscles of the Canon. The popUteus is a muscle that may be described either as belong- ing to the leg or canon. Bourgelat chooses the former, and calls it the abductor, describing it erroneously as a very small mass, whereas it will be seen, that it is a very considerable muscle. It appears to me, that, in all the descriptions of it, both in the horse and man, its origin has been mistaken for its insertion : it seems to arise from a ridge on the internal side of the tibia, below its head {vide e, Fig. 1, Plate VIII); with its fleshy fibres running obliquely outwards and up- wards, to be inserted by a tendon into the lateral part of the external condyle of the femur (7, Fig. 2), having in its course adhered firmly to the capsular ligament of the joint. Its use is extensive and various; it strengthens the articulation by approximating the ends of the bones, prevents the effects of concussion, and is no inconsider- able flexor of the canon, turning the hock inwards, and preventing the capsular ligament from being pinched; it also attaches the semi-* lunar cartilages. X m DtftCRIPTION OF Tibialis anticus. — This very curious and complex muscle forms the flexor of the canon of Bourgelat. It is a biceps, having two origins ; the first by a very strong tendon (cZ, Fig. 2), from a cavity on the anterior part of the external condyle of the femur, which tendon performs the office of a support to the joint, and likewise serves as one of the origins of the flexor of the foot : this tendon, then passing inwardly, is received by the fleshy part which arises from the cavity behind the anterior spine of the tibia for nearly its whole lengthy and is continued down still in a tendinous form within, this fleshy part, and only slightly united with it : towards the inferior part of the same portion it degenerates into a tendon, which now in turn becomes invested, being surrounded by the tendon of the first origin, and, coming out from that (vide m, Fig. 1, p, Fig. 2), it bifurcates into two branches, one of which is longer, and expands to insert itself on the inner side into the lateral and posterior part of the canon : the other, and shorter, is inserted into the anterior and superior part of the head of the canon. The investing tendon (vide n, Fig. 1, 0, Fig. 2) likewise divides into two branches, whicli attach themselves near those of the former portion, but rather supe- riorly. By this peculiar mode of insertion of its tendon, it acts with much greater force and advantage, embracing more points of contact, acting upon several points of the hock at the same time, and by these means strongly flexing the canon. Gastrocnemius (vide h h, Fig. 1, k, Fig. 2) forms what Bourgelat calls the gemini ; but which in the horse is only a biceps, and therefore it does not deserve this name as in the human, where they are really a pair of muscles of twin action, origin, and insertion. The origin and termination of this, like the former, are not a little curious, arising by two distinct heads, an inner and outer ; the outer arises from the inferior portion of the femur, at the external part j descending, it then gives off a flat tendon, which, about midway along the tibia, becomes rounded, and passes under the tendon of the internal head. This internal head arises less fleshy (vide Ji, Fig. 1) from the lateral internal part of the femur, just before it ex- pands into its condyles ; it soon becomes tendinous, and its tendoa stretches over that of the external, both becoming curiously twisted with the plantaris tendon, and united with cellular substance, into a rope with spiral windings (vide y. Fig. 2) : from this it passes down,- rather to the outer side of the perforatus tendon, between the liga- ments united with it ; where the rope inserts itself into the point of the calcis or hock ; the tendon of the internal head sending down an expansion to the canon and parts below. This muscle forms the extensor of the hock, and is one of the most important of those concerned in progression. It is by means of this, that the angle of the hock being opened by carrying the hinder extre- mity forward, as in galloping, leaping, &c., the horse is enabled ta throw his body onwards, by again contracting the angle ; and hence it is that a wide hock is of such advantage : for the farther this. Bliiscle is- removed from the centre of motion, so much can. it aef THE POSTERIOR EXTREMITIES. .293 with the greater force j and hence we see great wisdom in the forma- tion of this muscle, which, by being divided into two portions, pre- sents a greater number of points of contact ; and also, by the divi- sion and twisting pf its tendon, the strength becomes greatly aug- mented. Plantaris forms the lateral extensor of Bourgelat, and is a very small thin muscle arising from under the external head of the gemini above the outer condyle of the femur : passing down fleshy and ob- liquely, it crosses the tendon of the gastrocnemil {vide g, Fig- 1, z, Fig. 2) from within outwards, and inserts itself by a tendon into the point of the hock, in company with the gastrocnemius muscle, sending down an expansion that affixes itself into the inner side of this part. Its use appears doubtful in the horse, for, as an assistant to the flexor muscle, it is too trivial to have had a separate existence : nature, who ever works with as much simplicity as is consistent with the proper formation of parts, and with the regular economy of the organs, will not make a small and large muscle, when one would be adequate to all the ends of the contraction : but it is more reason- able to suppose, that it acts during progression in keeping distinct some of the muscles and ligaments of these parts. Flexor pedis perforatus posticus arises near the origin of the gas- trocnemius in the cavity behind the condyles of the femur : its fibres uniting, it proceeds from the inner side of the tendon of the gastroc- iiemii to the outer and posterior part, and then passing down, it re- ceives the expansion of the fascial ligament, atp. Fig. 1, x, Fig. 2, and is, by this means, bound more closely to the point of the hock, at which part it is considerably expanded to receive the point of the os calcis into a kind of sac or cap, in which synovia exists : so that here also a wound of this part, sufficiently deep to penetrate the tendon, would have the effect of opening a joint. ' It then runs down the posterior and inferior part of the hock, and is seen in Fig. 1 and 2, having the investing fascial ligament cut off * to shew its progress as it proceeds to meet the perforans tendon, which it passes to the outside of, and surrounds its outer portion : continued down, it wholly encircles the perforans tendon at the pastern {vide b, Fig. 2), in a similar manner to the perforatus of the anterior extremities, when running through an expansion formed jointly from the elastic suspensory ligaments, and that extended from the small metacarpal bones, it bifurcates into two portions {vide 4, Fig. 2), which are in- serted one on each side of the large pastern at its inferior part, send- ing an expansion to the heels of the sensible frog. Flexor magnus pedis perforans posticus arises from the posterior and external parts of the head of the tibia; continuing down, it re- ceives oblique fleshy fibres, which pass into its tendon {vide k, Fig. 1) from the inner edge of the tibia, and some from the outer edge ; between which two places runs the posterior tibial artery, and some * Tlie term fascial ligament may probably be objected to; but as I observed it formed from a continuation of the fascia, and that it performed the office ot*a li- gament, I so named it, till it gains a better. X 2 2,04 DKSCmPTION OF sinall branches of the vein and nerves ; at the beginning of the hock it becomes one strong tendon, which enters into a groove, formed on the inner side of the calcaneum, and slides upon the articulation of the tibia and hock, having a cartilage interposed for the purpose of preventing friction. {Vide r. Fig. 1, t, Fig. 2.) This groove it passes into, under an annular ligament appropriate to it, and in common likewise under the general annular ligament of the hock : soon, however, after its passage through this groove, it comes in contact with the tendon of the perforatus nruscle (s. Fig. 1), and is continued down on the inner side, having its posterior part covered by it, till it arrives at the pastern, when it becomes sur- rounded by the complete ring of the perforatus, to be inserted, as in the fore-extremities, on the coffin bone. The metacarpal nerve ac- companies the gastrocnemius at its origin, and continues down on the edge of the tendon of this muscle, passing with it through the annular ligament on its outer side ; it then gains the inner, and runs within it, to be divided and distributed over the foot and pastern {vide r, Fig. 1), just above which it is seen. This and the pre- ceding muscle are the flexors of the foot, but this latter is more im- mediately so ; while the former, which is much more complex in its terminations, and more divided in its uses, appears to belong to the hock, canon, and pasterns alsoj and forms a medium, whereby the actions of all the parts are uniform and consentaneous. Flexor minus pedis perforans posticus arises at the posterior part of the head of the tibia j passing down on the outer siile of the popliteus, it bends its course obliquely inwards, and proceeds under an annular ligament at the lateral internal part of the hock {vide Fig. 1): it unites about the middle of the canon {vide 2, Fig. 1) to the pre- ceding, and to which it is thus an assistant. Extensor longus pedis posticus. — This is the first of three muscles, by which the extension of the foot is performed. {Vide n, Fig, 2). It appears to arise first from around the tendon of the extensor of the canon, as well as by some tendinous fibres of its own ; next from the head of the tibia at its outer part ; it is then continued down, and becomes formed into a strong tendon {vide r, Fig. 2), which passes under the annular ligament, connected to the tendon of the next muscle by the little extensor, about the middle of the canon. {Vide 1, Fig. 1.) It then proceeds down in front of the canon uniting with the next muscle, to be continued over the front of the pastern, receiving the expansion of the suspensory ligaments {vide 7» Fig. 2) : it inserts itself, as in the fore-leg, into the anterior en)i- nence of the coffin bone, and to which it is similar in its action, ex- tending the foot. Extensor lateralis pedis forms, the lateral extensor of Bourgclat, and is similar to the peroneus longus of the human ; arising by a tendon from fhe lateral part of the external head of the femur, and likewise from the head of the fibula ; running down, it becomes ten- dinous, and joins the artery some way under the annular ligament ; I'kea passing obliquely on Lite cauon,. it receives the fibres of the little THE POSTERIOR EXTREMITIES. 295 extcnsorj and at the middle of the canon unites with the extensor longus, to which it is an assistant. Kxtemor minor is an expansion of fleshy fibres continued from the tendon of the extensor longus to the extensor lateralis, at the supe- rior part of the canon, descending two or three inches. (Fide 9, Fig. 2.) Its principal use appears to be, that of approximating these two tendons, which must greatly assist them in their action by keeping them in a right line. Ligaments and other Parts of the Hinder Extremities, The bones of these parts .have already been fully treated of, and the ligaments generally have been noticed with them ; but there are others that are immediately appropriate to the motions of the parts, as well as some that connect them. It must be at once evident, that the articulation of the femur with the pelvis is formed with pe- culiar strength ; so much so, there can be but little danger of dislo- cation. The thigh bone is held in the acetabulum by the means of two ligaments, whose strength is very great : the capsular arises from around the neck of the femur immediately below its head (see Fig. 1, Plate VIII), and is inserted around the whole cavity of the acetabulum : but the principal strength is derived from a liga- ment improperly called round, which is connected by one end to the cavity in the head of the femur (see v, Fig. I, Plate VIII), and by the other to the acetabulum into a similar cavity : by the force of these two it is evident this head must be held very firmly in its place. The articulation of the thigh with the tibia and fibula is formed likewise with great art and strength ; and that the muscles forming this joint, or rather that the muscles extending these bones, might act with greater power, there was given a patella, which allows them to move on the parts below without incumbrance, or without in- terrupting the ease of motion ; for which purposes, therefore, the vvhirlbone glides smoothly over the articulation in front of the con- dyles of the femur. This bony appendage is retained in its situation by means of very strong ligaments, which appear formed in part, of the fascia going over the joint 5 in part also from the tendons of the muscles of the thigh, and likewise partially from some proper li- gamentous fibres. One of these, placed before, appears jointlv formed of the rectus tendons extended over the patella, and continued with a ligament from its inferior and anterior portion into tire cavity in the front and head of the tibia (see d, Fig. 1, 10, Fig. 2) ; an- other arises from its outer side, united to an expansion of the vastus externus muscle, and is inserted into the external part of the tubercle of the tibia. (See c. Fig. 1, b, Fig. 2.) A third slight one, which is removed in the plate to shew the joint, arises from the inner side of the patella, is conpnued with an expansion of the vastus internus, and inserted on the inner side of the head of the tibia. A fourth, coming from its outer side, inserts itself into the external condyle of the femur : there is likewise a correspondent one on the inner side. 296 DESCRIPTION OF and, independent of these, there are some strong fibres carried across the patella : the general capsular ligament of the joint also invests this bone. From the great strength of the muscles inserted into the patella, it is sometimes fractured by a sudden effort ; more frequently by a kick (see Fractures) ; and this w'ould oftener happen, thick as the bone is, were it not for these continuations of the tendons over it, which greatly increase its strength. The articulation of the femur with the tibia, is held in its place by means principally of the crucial or cross ligaments, which originate from the posterior part of the femur, and, crossing each other within the joint, are inserted into the head of the tibia : the posterior arises within the articulation behind these ligaments, between the con- dyles, and terminates in the posterior part of the head of the tibia ; which prevents this bone from being dislocated forward, as the crucial prevents both bones being rotated on each other. There is likewise continued on each side, from the condyles to the femur, a tendon which answers the purpose of a lateral ligament ; on the outer side this is effected (videf, Fig. 2) by the tendon of the lateral extensor of the foot ; and on the inner side by an expansion formed of part of the triceps, and vastus internus muscles. In the front of the con- dyles the tendon of the flexor of the canon arises, and by this means forms an additional connexion, and to which may be added the cap- sular, which surrounds the ends of the bones. Within the joint is a cartilage, named, from its form, semilunar (3, Fig. 1, and c. Fig. 2), which is situated on the head of the tibia, is thicker in front than at its posterior part, and held in its situation by ligamentous fibres. The hock is covered by the skin very strongly, which is likewise connected to it very closely, and is particularly thick at its posterior part. It may be remarked, that this is the most complex joint in the body, not excepting even the knee, and hence is very difficult to be understood. I have taken great pains to render my description of it clear, as well as accurate ; nor can the student, with a proper attention to this, and a reference to the plates, fail of gaining an adequate idea of the formation of this very principal joint. It is invested generally by several layers of ligamentous substance j and im- mediately on removing the skin, there appears a very dense mem- brane spread over its surface and that of the leg, loosely, but evenly, forming the whole into one nearly smooth surface ; that is, the tendons and ligaments underneath are not very prominent : this dense cellular substance may be raised in several successive layers; and w'hen it is all removed, the muscles of the leg, the hock, and the parts below, will then be found to have still a strong tendinous or aponeurotic expansion firmly extended over them. This aponeurotic expansion appears to be the fascia of the semimembranosus and tensor vaginae femoris, continued down over the muscles of the tibia, and, becoming stronger as it advances, it seems to give a complete cover- ing to each muscle, and perhaps assists to form the sheaths of their tendong, as well as to be reflected generally over the whole. If it is THE POSTERIOR EXTREMITIES. 2D7 1‘kised from the front of the leg, it seems to thicken as it gains the hollow formed between the tendo Achilles and the flexor of the foot, where it is very firm, and appears to end in two ligaments, which I have called fascial. These ligaments (vide p, Fig. 1, andx. Fig. 2) appear more immediately formed from a very strong tendin- ous expansion from the inner 'surface of the perforatus muscle. The annular ligaments likewise seem formed in part from this, and in part from a particular ligamentous expansion arising from the inner and outer side of the tibia, which, passing over and around the hock, attaches itself to the bones on the inner, outer, and posterior part, being continued down over the tendons, as well anteriorly as poste- riorly, to some inches below the hock ; posteriorly to about the origin of the elastic bifurcating ligaments, where it appears to be reflected over from one small metacarpal bone to the other, it passes down in the front, binding the extensor tendons to each other, and reflected from the sides, but leaving the flexors, that thereby they might not be impeded in their motion ; for by being bound down they could not act to advantage, as situated too near the centre of motion : but this is not the case with the extensor tendons, which, from their situation, can only act when closely applied to the canon. Each of the tendotis of the hock, and parts below, have a proper theca, which is smooth and loosely reflected over them ; they have likewise another investment, which is a continuation of the general theca of the whole. Within the inner sheath, near to the termina- tion of the tendons, those that have considerable actions to perform, and whose motions are extensive, are furnished w'ith mucus to prevent the effects of friction ; this slippery medium is contained within proper capsules, which are called hiirsce mucosce. The mucus is furnished from the secreting arteries of the part ; which arteries, on any violent and continued action produced in them from great exer- tions, take on an increased or a diseased secretion, and this forms what is erroneously called windgall. Sometimes this mucus seems not so much increased as diseased; more frequently, however, this collection is merely increased : at other times, however, after it has been simply increased, the more watery parts are absorbed, and the remainder becomes gelatinous, or even more solid. Unless the pressure of these sacs is considerable upon the neigh- bouring parts, the injury produced by them is trivial ; but from their being placed usually in the neighbourhood of organs having much motion, when much enlarged, they may by that means become hurtful. Their most usual situation is in the bursae of the hock (vide 3, Fig. 1) and pasterns (11, Fig. 2), both before and behind. The sheaths and bursae of the bifurcating tendons of the flexor of the canon are liable to them likewise, and the tendons both of the large and little flexor of the foot (h and I, Fig. 1), at their entrance into their annular ligaments of the hock. The enlargement of the bursa of the tendon of tlie little flexor of the foot (I, Fig. 1) fre- quently occasions blood spavin ; for the superficial branch of the vein, .passing over the inside of the hock, becomes by this means pressed 298 DESCniPTION OF upon, and its efforts to overcome this obstruction occasion an i’h- crease in its coats. The investing fascia covers' also a bursa at the point of the hock, which is liable to a diseased enlargement similar to the others, and is then called a capulet. It is not, I am disposed to believe, so much the mechanical effects of the pressure on the surrounding parts that produce mischief, as the diseased action brought on by this continued stimulus to any part, occasioning an alteration in its form, and an absorption of the portions immediately subject to the pressure, and perhaps from some other bodies foreign to their nature taking their place. Thus, from the increase of a bursa mucosa, the surrounding ligaments may be absorbed, and boriy matter deposited in their room : for in all increased action of any of these parts in the horse there is a great disposition to a bony deposit, apparently from a law in the economy, whereby it endeavours to strengthen a weak part by a more solid stipport. Hence likewise exostosis of the bones of the hock, usually called spavins, may arise from some inflammation existing within either the tendon or liga- ments ; for these parts, having but few of the powers of life when they become enlarged, do not soon return to a healthy size 3 but the increased pressure may occasion an inflammation of some of the neighbouring bones ; the constitution taking the alarm, throws out a ■preternatural quantity of osseous matter, which by this means occa- sions spavin. Besides these general ligaments of the hock we have described, there are particular ones connecting the bones firmly together, and which are very difflcult to make separate divisions of : they appear to run one into another ; but from the course of the fibres we may distinguish, that each bone has a separate plan connecting it w'ith the contiguous ones: these ligaments are not, however, so stretched, but that the bones of the joint have some motion on each other, which must assist the angle of the hock. Besides the individual ligamentous fibres from each of these bones to those in contact with them, there are two lateral ones extending from the lateral parts of the tibia, over the sides of the hock, firmly connecting the tibia; there are likewise other plans of fibres extending in front, and poster riorly. The capsular ligament of this joint arises from the tibia, unites with the fascial ligaments, and is continued over its various bones to the superior extremity of the. canon. At the bottom of the tibia may be observed a curious cartilage, held in its situation by an appropriate ligament, interposed between the posterior and inferior head of that bone, and thfe tendon of the flexor of the foot. It is probable, that some of the inveterate lamenesses of the hock, where nothing can be seen, arises from an ossification of this cartilage. {Vide r, Fig. 1, 12, Fig. 2.) There is likewise a very strong liga- ment at the posterior part of the astragalus, below v, Fig. 2, con- tinued over the bones of the hock posteriorly, and to the small me- ‘tacarpal bones, serving to connect them with the canon ; besides which, they have fibres from their sides, which attachments become J)ony by age. It is this posterior ligament that becomes affected in '"ri • (* ■ -) 'C ' r t': 1'. I: 4 ( iv ■ • . . ' ' ■' V' 9 fr Si kt m il'.JUMru- J,;hn . ■ ff.JUrtland THE POSTERIOR EXTREMITIES. 299 the curb, but the situation of the affection is usually rather lower down. Tlie ligaments of the inferior joints are the same in the hinder with those we have described as beloiTging to the fore ex- tremities. ' THE STRUCTURE, FUNCTfONS, AND ECONOMY OF THE FOOT. IDegimption of plate IX. Figure the First Represents a foot, with the arteries and veins injected with wax, from the pas*, terns ; a a, the veins seen branching and ramifying over the foot, so as to form a complete network ; b b, the arteries. Figure the Second Is a foot sawn down the middle, from just above the little pastern bone ; a, the coffin bone ; b, the coronet, or small pastern, which is here represented rather too long; c, the navicular hone, confined by its ligaments; d d, tliese ligaments of the navicular; e, flexor tendon of the coronary bone ; flexor tendon of the coffin bone; g, the sensible frog ; h h, the sensible sole; i, the sensible laminae; k, the coronary ligament ; /, the extensor tendon of the coffin bone ; m, the horny or insensible frog; n, the horny sole. Figure the 'Hiird Represents a foot without the hoof ; a, the sensible laminae ; b, the lamina; of the sole continued from the front round the heels; c, the sensible sole; d, the sensible frog ; e, the cartilaginous part of the frog continued from the lateral cartilage ; f f, the vascular coronary ligament ; g g, the lateral cartilages. Figure the Fourth Shews the coffin, the navicular, and coronary bones, with the flexor tendon at- tached, to shew its connexion with these bones ; a, the coffin bone without the lateral cartilage attached to the left side ; on the right is seen an ossification of the right lateral cartilage ; b, the navicular, or shuttle bone ; r, the flexor tendon passing under the shuttle bone to be inserted in the coffin; d, the articulating cavities in the coffin and navicular bone; e, a groove for the passage of blood vessels between the lateral processes of the coffin; f, the little pastern, or coronet bone. DESCRIPTION OF THE FOOT. The foot of the horse presents a mechanism truly wonderful and curious, and most admirably adapted to the habits and manners of the animal. All the complexity of structure, exhibited in the nu- merous phalanges of the fissipes, is here united into one. From the various artificial circumstances to w'hich we subject this noble qua- druped, such as stabling, hard roads, and the attachment of foreign substances to counteract the effects of the unyielding surfaces tra- velled upon, the feet become peculiarly susceptible of disease; and 300 DESCRIPTION OF THE FOOT. as progression is the very foundation of the utility of the animal In question, so these diseases become objects of the greatest import to the veterinarian ; to the proper understanding of which, an intimate acquaintance with the structure and economy of the parts com- posing the feet is absolutely necessary. In the colt, at birth, these are found less cA^olved than most of the external organs ; were they more perfected, their hard surfaces might bruise the mother : but, on the contrary, at this early period the pasterns are long and upright, and instead of the extremities ending as in the adult, in a broad extended base, they terminate in a small circle of horny matter, pointed in front and behind, and presenting only the rudi- ments of a frog. The parts composing the hind and fore feet are similar; therefore, by describing one foot, we teach the form of the whole. The bones entering immediately into what is termed the foot, as being within the hoof, are the coffin, and the navicular or shuttle bone : ar- ticulating with these, and partly within the hoof, is the little pas- tern, or coronary bone, which is also much connected with the eco- nomy of the foot. I’he coffin hone corresponds in shape to the hoof. In front it has an eminence, to which the extending tendon is at- tached ; the sides extend back into two lateral processes, to the upper of which are fixed the lateral cartilages. Its superior surface presents two articular cavities, and its lower is vaulted, and attaches the flexor tendon. Its anterior part is covered by the sensible la- minae, and its whole structure is spongy {vide y, Plate of Skeleton ; vide a, fig. 2, and a, d,fig. 4, of Plate IX), and curiously (particu- larly on its outer surface) formed into innumerable small ridges lon- gitudinally disposed, evidently serving the purpose of favourable at- tachment for the laminae. This curious texture is nearly obliterated in the old horse. The navicular bone, called likewise the nut and shuttle, is placed at the posterior part of the coffin bone, attached to that, and to the coronary also, by ligaments; one of which passes from its posterior part into the posterior portion of the coffin ; two others stretch from its upper surface, and are inserted into the coro- nary bone. The coronary, or small pastern hone, is seen in fig. 4, f, and fig. 2, h, Plate IX, and articulates with the coffin and with the navi- cular, to both of which it is united by capsular and appropriate liga- ments ; and upon this the great pastern rests. The lateral cartilages are two, affixed, one to each side of the coffin bone by indentation; they are externally convex, and internally slightly concave, having some portion covered by the hoof, and some without it. The laminae are vascular sensible productions of the cutis, being elastic, and situate all round the anterior surface of the coffin bone, in leaves, or lamellte, in number about five hundred, and which are received between correspondent horny ones in the hoof. The coronary ligament is a vascular expansion, projecting and extending around the coronet to the back of the frog ; from the vessels of which the hoof is secreted. The extensor tendon is inserted under these parts DESCRIPTION OF THE FOOT. 301 into the anterior eminence of the coffin, and the flexor tendon affixes itself to the vaulted arch posteriorly. The sensible frog is situated next to this, and is made up of semi-cartilaginous and ligamentous substances, with some reticulated tendinous layers and adipose mat- ter ; and, by the elasticity of which construction, the expansion of parts is greatly influenced: the navicular bone rests in some degree on this and on the flexor tendon. The sensible sole lays under that part of the coffin, covered by neither of these latter substances. The hoof is a hard insensible box, which covers and protects almost the whole of these. Having thus mentioned the parts in this order, we shall retrace them in a contrary one, by which the student will be familiarized to their description. The hoof of the horse is a horny envelopement, secreted from an expansion of the cutis, in a manner similar to that in which the hu- man nail is formed from the portion of cutis termed the quick. Nature, who delights in similitudes, keeps up the likeness, how'ever, in a less degree here than is usual : for in the horse, the nail enve- lopes the phalange inferiorly as well as superiorly ; both surfaces meeting to form a round blunt edge which admirably corresponds with the wants of the animal. The hoof in its natural state is conical, but by no means so perfectly so as has generally been taught. Mr. Bracy Clark expressively describes it as an oblique cylinder truncated, w'ith the truncated extremity brought to the ground : but age, artificial habits, and the application of shoes, tend much to alter its natural appearance. The hoof presents a consider- able degree of obliquity in front, where also it is much higher than in any other part, the quarters or walls being less oblique and less high ; and, as it approaches the heels, the obliquity becomes still more decreased, and the height also. - In a natural state the hoof is also widest at the outer side of the Inferior margin, by w'hich a broader surface of support is afforded without encumbering motion, or increasing a tendency to cut. The structure of the hoof is fibrous, with its fibres longitudinally disposed, and which are sepa- rable by maceration. Heat and a want of moisture will also tend to separate them, as we know by that spontaneous division that fre- quently takes place in hard dry hoofs, called sand cracks. The crust of the hoof is all the horny part that appears laterally and anteriorly when a foot is placed on the ground 5 presenting surfaces externally smooth and convex, but internally concave and laminated. In the fore feet, the thickest and strongest portion of horn is placed in front, as this part is the one most pressed on and exerted. The quarters, so called, are the lateral parts or walls of the crust ; and, as in the fore feet, the anterior portion of each hoof is the thickest, so, in the hinder ones, the sides arc by much the strongest : thus the fore shoes are principally fastened towards the front, but the hinder ones more towards the quarters. The inner side of the hoof is the weakest, and also rather the highest ; and which natural formation is not in general attended to by smiths and farriers ; for as this quarter is weaker than the other, so it always wears faster, and DESCIUPTION OF THE FOOT. which ought to be rcmcclied by general care, and also by particular management in the shoeing : instead of which, the outer heel may be frequently observed to be the highest, before and behind, which, as it reverses the natural line of pressure, and produces an undue bearing on the weaker part, so it proves a fruitful source of spleutS, curbs, spavins, and contractions. The lateral parts, towards the heels, in both fore and hind feet, become thin in proportion as they proceed backwards; which appears a wise provision, that they might the more readily yield to pressure ; and having reached the heels, the horn makes a sudden inflection inwards, as we shall hereafter describe. At its upper margin, the circumference of the hoof is whiter, softer, and thinner, than at the other parts ; and this upper surface is internally hollowed out, and called the coronary ring, re- ceiving into it a vascular prolongation of the cutis, which has re- ceived rather improperly the name of the coronary ligament (vide k, ff,fig. 3, and k, fig. 2, Plate IX.) Immediately contiguous to which, but rather under it, exists an elongation of .dense substance, said to be a true continuation of the horny frog, as we shall notice. From the vascular coronary ligament is secreted the horn ; and though the laminae are also capable of secreting horn, as we know from what occurs in scoring the hoof, yet it is principally from this source that this substance is produced. That this coronary liga- ment, as it is termed, is not intended as a means of attachment between the hoof and its internal parts, is evident from the ease with which they may be separated from each other ; and also further, from the circumstance of there being a complex apparatus, after- wards to be, described, purposely to eflfect this union in the com- pletest manner. Posteriorly, the hoof presents its inflections, with the intermediate space filled up by the fleshy or soft heels, formed from the frog inferiorly ; towards the middle, by the elastic matter in which the sensible sole loses itself; and superiorly, by the car- tilages covered with integuments and cellular substance. It was ne- cessary that there should be a break to the continuity of the hoo^ to lessen the effects of concussion and resistance ; and the inter- posed substances we have described, that fill up the chasm, are, for this reason, of the most elastic nature. As, during life, the secre- tion of the hoof continues, so it was necessary that means should be provided for its waste or decay. The natural wear is usually suffi- cient for this in a state of nature; but when this is not commensu- rate with the growth, the extreme ends, beyond the reach of the tenacity of the matter, become brittle, and drop off in flakes. The horny sole : the under concave elastic surface of the hoof is so called (vide n, fig. 2, Plate IX), and which is not so fibrous or brittle as the crust : it is also thicker at the circumference, where it unites with the crust of the hoof, than it is towards its centre. Its concavity admirably'adapts it to embrace the ground, and prevent the dangers of slipping : but this concavity is not always equal ; on the contrary, by the pressure of the parts above, it descends momen-r tarily by virtue of its elasticity, which must decrease its conc*vity> DESCRIPTION OF THE FOOT. .303 and at the same time must greatly relieve the body from the effects of concussion. This descent of the sole should be carefully kept in mind by the veterinarian, particularly by the operative smith ; for if a shoe is so placed as to rest upon this horny sole, it cannot descend lower, and thus the sensible sole above it must be pressed between the bone and horn : if this pressure is considerable, inflammation and abscess may be produced. The/r og is the triangular horny portion that fills up the natural ex- cavation of the under surface of the hoof. {Fide m, ^fig, 2, Plate IX.) This elastic pad bulges out beyond the immediate part it is in contact with, but not so much in general as to be beyond the level of the outer surface of the crust: it thus evidently receives its share of pressure. A horizontal section of the foot wil' shew the frog to be completely a distinct secretion ; the line of separation, and the difierence in structure, being rendered very apparent between this and the horny parts it is connected with. In fact, its connexion seems little efl'ected by a mixture of fibres, but principally by internal prolongation of cuticular matter; and which connexions are propagated throughout all these parts. To the sensible frog above, it is also intimately connected by that adhesion that arises from inosculation of vessels; but more particularly it appears connected to it by a process of itself, that is indented into the sensible frog purposely to strengthen the union between the two. This also may be readily seen in a horizontal section of the foot, and it appears also in Plate IX. The posterior superior part of the frog is covered by the fatty elastic substance, into which the sensible sole blends itself, forming the soft fleshy heels : from whence its lateral parts appear to be continued by a true prolongation ; or, otherwise, a firm lamen of clastic horny matter is reflected from it to extend around the under part of the coronary ring immediately below the vascular coronary ligament. Mr. Bracy Clark, who was the first that accurately described this part, calls it the frog stay, its use being evidently designed to support the frog in its situation. Mr. Coleman, I believe, denies its existence altogether ; but an accu- rate dissection of the parts certainly demonstrates a prolongation of the frog, or otherwise a continuation of an elastic matter reflected from it. Mr. Clark, in return, denies the existence of the coro- nary ligament as described by Mr. Coleman ; but which appears to me equally erroneous on his part also. A vascular fold or enlarge- ment of the cutis, evidently thickened at this part to increase the surface of secretion, does actually exist: innumerable dissections have made the appearance familiar to me. Nevertheless, the dis- agreement between these two authors on the subject, is rather more in name than substance ; for Mr. Clark allows that there is a pro- cess or enlargement of the skin within the coronary ring, but that it is not separable by maceration. This is therefore the coronary ligament described by Mr. Coleman, though probably under an er- roneous term. It has been observed, with considerable truth, that the real quan- '804 DESCRIPTION OF THE FOOT. tity of horny matter, even in a full-formed frog, Is not so great as would appear from a simple inspection of the under surface of the foot ; for the frog is placed as an Inverted arch with regard to the other parts {vide Jig. 2, Plate IX) : consequently smiths cannot cut with impunity so much as they frequently do; hut in breadth a full healthy frog forms not less than a sixth part of the whole. Between the bifurcations of this part, a deep sinuosity appears, which is called its cleft ; by means of which division the frog ob- tains a power of expansion, and also a capability of adapting itself to the uneven surfaces the foot may pass over. The formation of the horny frog is effected by secretion from a vascular part imme- diately over it, called the sensible frog : it is hence subjected to the same laws with the hoof and sole ; and therefore when grown to a useless extent, it scales and detaches itself, and breaks away as that does. But it is necessary to observe, the growth of the frog is very seldom inordinate; on the contrary, in horses who have been often shod, more particularly if there exists the slightest disposition to contraction, the growth is hardly commensurate with the wear ; and, in such cases, an imprudent smith may pare more away in three minutes than will grow in three months. Modern physiologists havtv been very much divided in their opi- nions relative to the use of the frog ; but all agree that it must be a very important part. Among the moderns. La Fosse first drew the attention more decidedly to the impropriety of paring it away, as it appeared to him so necessary a guard to the flexor tendon. Mr. Freeman considered it in a similar point of view, and also that, in conjunction with the navicular bone, it greatly assisted the spring of the tendon. Mr. Coleman denies that it can do either of these in any considerable degree, for it is not, he observes, so situated as wholly to guard the flexor tendon ; nor can it so act as to assist as a spring to it : but he is at great pains to prove that its principal and determinate use is to resist the contraction of the hoof, to which there appears a constant tendency ; but which, when of its ordi- nate size, the frog is fully equal to counteract. The professor, it may be supposed, argues very ingeniously on the subject ; but the drift of his object is to prpve that the horny frog presses on the sensible frog, which, by its connexions with the lateral cartilages, expands them, and that they, in return, force open the hoof. Nevertheless it appears to me, that, upon an extended view of the matter, w'e should not be led to circumscribe the use of this organ to any one of these operations solely ; but should rather conclude that it acts in various salutary ways. Its most important office ap- pears to be that which a natural philosopher would at once assign it on viewing the external foot ; for it presents itself evidently as a natural wedge to prevent slipping and sliding on smooth surfaces. It may be viewed, also, as an extended point of support to the soft elastic parts above it, that descend by pressure ; and probably it acts importantly also as an antagonist to the downward and back 7 ward direction of the internal parts of the foot, by means of the DESCRIPTION OF THE FOOT. elasticity of the laminae. It appears to me, that these its principal \ises have been almost wholly overlooked : for that such are really the offices to be ascribed to it, may be readily allowed, on a strict attention to its external form, which admirably adapts it to these purposes ; but which, on the contrary, would add little to its uti- lity for the uses ascribed to it by others. That it may also assist to guard the flexor tendon is probable, but not in the way sup- posed ; it more probably acts by giving a solidity of support to the insertion of this tendon, by pressing upon it during its strong ex- tensions ; and which is rendered more necessary from the sudden- ness and acuteness of termination in the tendon. An animal so weighty as the horse, and yet so speedy, required a mechanism of support peculiarly elastic : we accordingly find his foot so con- structed as to be made up of springs : and, as it has been observed, that in a well formed foot the frog forms not less than one-sixth of the circumference ; and as also it must be taken into the ac- count, that, in some actions in which the horse first meets the ground with the hinder part of the foot (as is probably the case in the gallop of full speed and in very wide leaps) ; so, in such cases, to keep up the general spring of the parts, it was necessary that the hinder parts of the foot should be furnished with an apparatus as elastic as those of the fore. And though it is certainly not in the usual actions of progression, that the heel is first opposed to the ground; yet that there are times when it does so; and that this apparatus is intended to act at those times may be fairly presumed. Nor would it be prudent to deny, that the frog may assist in pre- venting contraction ; not only by its simple resistance, but also by its action upon the elastic cartilages ; yet it is presumed that it ope- rates in this manner in a subordinate degree to that attributed to it by Mr. Coleman. Indeed, there are such other contrivances to effect this alledged expansion, as necessarily throw a shade over the action of the frog in this point of view. As the very form of this organ shews that it was inicnded by nature to meet the ground ; as also the reasons stated shew that it is essentially proper it should do so, and that this opposition of it to the surface of the ground is not so much by descent as by actual application ; so the impropriety of cutting it away, as practised by some shoeing smiths, is self evident, and cannot be too much re- probated. Nevertheless, as the application of the laws by which dead matter is acted upon, to the operations of living organs, is that which has led to the greatest errors in physiology ; so also a reasoning, founded on the uses of the organs to an animal purely in Q, state of nature, leads into error, when applied too closely to the same animal living a life of art. Therefore from this is meant to be inferred, that though the constant and full application of the frog to the ground in a state of nature, is not only harmless, but necessary ; yet it does not appear but that in a horse living a life of art, subjected to long journies on hard roads, if a full and constant application of the frog were to take place against these surfaces,, it 306 description of the foot. would probably not only wear away faster than it should, seeing it is not so bulky as a common inspection would make it appear; but that also, by such an extra degree of pressure, there is reason to know that the parts immediately placed over it would become bruised. Such a paring therefore, particularly in hard working horses, is proper as will keep it rather within, or at least not beyond, the level of the under surface of the circumference of the sole : the heels of the shoe being then sufficient to relieve it from inordinate pressure, as the yielding surfaces of the ground will still allow it sufficient application to operate in its useful purposes in progression. In general cases, however, it is apt to be pared below this ; and as the regeneration, particularly in some feet, is very slow, so the evil becomes aggravated. The barti. — We have already fully explained, that the crust of the hoof does not terminate at the heels, as a superficial observation might lead one to conclude; but that having gained the heels, it turns acutely inwards, decreasing in extent, and laying itself ob- liquely along each side of the frog to terminate at the point. The bars, or binders, they are often termed by smiths and farriers, cannot be considered, therefore, as parts exclusively belonging to the sole ; on the contrary, they more immediately belong to the crust of the hoof. If the subject is accurately attended to, they will be found to be infinitely more important in their office than is generally imagined. In the first place, it was essentially necessary to destroy the effects of resistance, and to lessen concussion, that the hoof should not extend around the foot ; but that it should be interrupted by a chasm. It was also as necessary to guard against contraction, that it should not end abruptly around this chasm ; nature therefore has wisely effected this termination in a way that not only increases the general elasticity of the foot, but also makes it the principal means in preventing contraction. The great ob- liquity of the bars is evidently intended for this very purpose; and so long as this outward bearing remains, and they are suffered to maintain their due approach to the ground ; so long they must almost necessarily prove a bar to contraction. But the smith con- ceiving these parts useless, because he cannot immediately see their operation, cuts them out ; and thus the foot loses one of its prin- cipal supports : and it is the peculiar but unfortunate tendency of this evil to aggravate its cause as well as its effects ; for, as con- traction commences, the obliquity of the bars decreases, and thus, in a twofold degree, is the mischief multiplied. Other circumstances may tend more immediately to hasten contraction; but the destruc- tion of these parts is certainly pregnant with the evil. The bars, therefore, seem peculiarly designed to operate against the tendency to contraction that nature foresaw would be liable to take place in used feet ; and they also appear to operate particularly in expanding the lower points of the heels, as the cartilages do by widening the upper parts of the same. it may be worth while pausing a fev.' moments to inquire into the 307 DESCRIPTION OF THE FOOT. cause of the erroneous disposition in smiths to pare the foot unne- cessarily. This habit is however more erroneous in the part ope- rated on than in the quantity taken away : for if I am right in my conjecture, and I draw my inferences from a very extended experi- ence, more evil results from a want of paring than arises from all the injudicious and extravagant cutting that occurs, great as this may be. It appears that the smiths wage war against the posterior and central parts of the foot Instead of the circumference; and as these posterior and central parts are more slow in their reproduction, while the others grow more quickly, so the effects prove still more hurtful. A healthy frog presents a full rounded appearance, and meets the eye forcibly ; and even the ease with which it cuts will alone invite the knife or butteris, and this the more, as when pared it leaves a neat clean appearance. But it would hot exhibit this ap- pearance of neatness so well, if any thing remained alongside to ob- struct the view ; therefore the bars are also removed to effect this, to clear all obstructions, and to make a smooth clear surface : for what possible use, a smith says to himself, can this hard ridge be of alongside the frog. Nor does the evil stop here, for as most feet, or, at least, a great number, present some incipient contraction ; so it is observed by the smiths, that the inflections of the heels in these cases approximate and press on the horny frog, as well like- wise on the elastic matter forming the heels ; and in cases where the contraction is considerable, these parts really appear to bind in, as it IS termed. Not considering, therefore, the immediate intention of these inflections, these persons are led to regard them as the offending parts, and they also are accordingly cut out. The very term given to this latter operation is fascinating, and shews the hold it has upon their minds : it can hardly be necessary for me to notice that this, is popularly called opening the heels ; but which it would not be difficult to prove might be more correctly called shutting the heels. However, as the cause of truth should ever be predominant, so it must be acknowledged that wiser persons than are the generality of smiths, might he incautiously led into this error ; because, in many instances, a salutary effect is absolutely observed immediately to follow this operation ; as where the approximation of the inflections is such, or, as more popularly expressed, where the binders draw in, so as to press upon the intervening substances ; in which case real pain and lameness is occasioned by their pressure. In such instances, also, the practice may be admissible to give present relief; but the evil resulting from it should at the same time be counteracted, by the means recommended under contracted feet. From this detail of the important functions of these parts, and from the remarks that follow this detail, it may therefore be inferred how grossly errone- ous must be the system that Induces the smith to prepare a foot for shoeing, by removing totally the bars, and partially the frog ; at the same time that they probably allow the sole and crust to retain an improper quantity of horn. From these remarks may be also learned, but more particularly from what will follow when the sub- Y 308 DESCRIPTION OF THE FOOT. ject of contracted feet is considered ; that the pQpular outcry against paring of the foot is wrongly directed ; for, were a similar degree of paring practised on the sole and crust, instead of the bars and frog, a very great number of feet would be benefited by it. The Interior of the Foot, The first part that presents itself when the hoof is removed, is iht sensible, or, as it is sometimes termed, the fleshy sole {vide h, fig- 2, h, flg. 3, Plate IX), which is a vascular expansion cover- ing a considerable portion of )lie uiuler surface of the coffin bone; extending beyond its posterior part, but leaving a triangular space for the vascular expansion of the sensible frog. As the sensible sole passes behind the coffin bone, it becomes thicker, and more elastic, and attaches itself to the cartilages, as also slightly to the navicular bone. Throughout its whole upper surface it is formed of a liga- mentous or tendinous substance, but the whole of the under surface is covered with an expansion of the true skin highly vascular, and from which is secreted the horny sole. The vascularity of this part “ renders it very susceptible of inflammation, and only a moderate degree of pressure upon it from its horny covering will produce this ; thus, if by accident the shoe should pres on the horny sole, it imme- diately inflames, and pus forms ; and as the matter becomes confined by the horn, its attempts to find a vent make it extend itself around, which the farriers call underrunning. When pressure occurs also at the heels, if it is not violent, a bruise takes place : and as the sole is less vascular and less irritable at this part, so active inflammatioA seldom follows, but blood is deposited, and a corn is the conse- quence : yet if the pressure is very great, particularly if any foreign substance intrudes itself, as gravel, &c., then the same conse- quences are produced as in the other parts, of the sole : similar effects also ensue frequently from punctures by nails or other sharp bodies. The sensible sole furnishes a few laminae to correspond with those in the heels of the horny sole. The sensible frog {vide g, fig, 2 and fig. 3, Plate IX) presents a very curious structure of ligamentous and tendinous expansions, the lamen of w'hich are in divers directions, but with its under sur'« face covered by a vascular expansion corresponding in shape to the horny frog, which is secreted from it. It lays in an interval formed within the sensible sole, attached by its point to the concave inferioc surface of the coffin bone, with its heels expanding posteriorly be^r yond that, and attached to the posterior and lower portions of the lateral cartilages; at which part they are connected with, or dege- nerate into a lax cartilaginous substance, that, united with cellular substance, and the coverings of the skin, form the rounded bulbs of the fleshy heels. An inflammation of this sensible frog alters its secretion from horn into pus or matter, which finding its most ready exit between the cleft of the horny frog, is then called a run- ning thrush. As this part is very prone to this diseased secretion, so thrushes are very common j appearing now and then in some DESCRIPTION OF tHE FOOT. S09 iDeasure constitutional : but much more frequently they originate from some injury done to the sensible frog, and are kept up by a continuance of the same, or by the application of other causes fa- vourable to the production of inflammation in the part. The form and situation of the sensible frog may be seen in Plate IX, Jig. 2, g $ Jig. 3, d, e. Above the sensible frog and sole, the Jiexor perforans tendon appears, inserting itself into the vaulted arch of the cofHn ; the perforatus is inserted into the large and small pastern bones, but sends down an expansion to the heels of the sensible frog. The flexor perforans tendon also, in its passage, gives ligamentous pro- ductions that attach the lateral cartilages, and form a kind of cap- sular ligament for the navicular bone: it becomes finally inserted into the surface of the arch of the coffin, having thus its upper surface applied to that bone, and its lower to the sensible frog. The lateral cartilages are one to each side, and, from the great peculiarity of their situation, they must be very important parts. They are fixed into indented grooves in the lateral upper surfaces of the coffin bone, extending in front almost to each other, separated only by the insertion of the great extensor of the foot. Independent of their being implanted into the coffin bone, they are still more strongly held in their situation by means of ligamentous fibres, as well as by lateral connexions to the ligaments of the coffin and navicular bones, and likewise by a ligament given from the flexor tendon : their situation may be best learned by a reference to Plate IX, g, g, Jig. 3. They are externally convex, and internally con- cave, having their middle portion the highest, the extremities gra- dually becoming thinner and smaller; the posterior portions pass, beyond the lateral processes of the coffin bone, and unite with the semi-cartilaginous substance of the sensible frog. They are partly within, and partly without the hoof, and are covered at their lower portion by the coronary ligament, which, by being extended over them, prevents their too great dilatation: to their lower portion likewise the attachment of the laminae takes place. Within the concavity formed by the extension of the cartilages beyond the coffin bone (see Jig. 3, Plate IX), is lodged the ligamentous fatty sub- stance forming the upper and posterior part of the fleshy frog. From a mistaken opinion of La Fosse, who asserted, that in quittor the cartilages must be wholly removed, much unnecessary extirpation frequently took place, when the improvements brought about by tl^e French school first appeared among us. But we now know, that though it requires a violent process, yet that these parts will ulcerate, exfoliate, and heal like other parts. The uses of these cartilages are very important, and without them the foot would have been a very incomplete machine. Divested of these, the coffin bone appears but a small part, compared to the coffin tljat incloses it : but increased by the attachment of these, it presents a very exten- sive body, serving all the purposes of bone, yet being almost one half of it elastic, instead of solid and unyielding. They evidently Y 2 3I0 DESCRIPTION OF THE FOOT. act upon all the upper portions of the foot, and in one part inclose the joint 5 but more particularly they appear to operate in the extension of the upper half of the horn of the hoof, as the bars do in the lower half. From continued pressure, these cartilages are very apt to ossify, particularly in draught horses. The sensible lamince. {Tide a, Jig. 3, Plate IX, also Jig, 1, Plate VII.) — In describing the Imof, we had occasion to notice that Us internal surface was lined with numerous horny lamelbc, which possessed a considerable degree of elasticity obliquely downwards and backwards, with an arrangement of their fibres corresponding to this direction. These are, in contradistinction to those we are going to describe, called the insensible konince. Around the whold circumference of the coffin bone from above downwards, it is covered with about live hundred semicarVilaginous leaves, each of which is received between, and firmly attached to two of the laminae of the hoof, just noticed, and vice versa. It is therefore evident, that the surface of attachment between the hoof and the internal parts (for the coffin bone governs all the rest) must be most intimate and most extensive. Indeed it is so much so, that few accidents can separate these parts : inflammation, which dissolves the bond of union, is alone able to eflect it. It is by means also of these principally, that the foot enjoys its sjiring, and almost wholly its support. It may, perhaps, at first sight, be imagined that the sole bears the super- incumbent weight resting upon the coffin bone; but nothing is farther from the real truth : Indeed, we find the sensible sole can bear little continued pressure, though its elasticity and form enable it to bear a portion of momentary pressure, and to descend in the efforts of the horse ; being then moderately pressed on by the parts above. But it in no instance receives one twentieth part of the weight of that portion of the machine acting upon the coffin bone ; on the contrary, it receives only so much as the elastic elongations of the laminae allow it. That these laminae are the means whereby the foot is sustained, appears evident from the following fact : A horse in whom both horny soles of the fore-feet had been removed, and who was remarkably given to kicking, still continued the prac- tice, lashing out behind with both feet with great violence ; yet no injury was sustained by the fore-feet. From this it is clear, that had the sole been intended to sustain the superincumbent weight, the feet must have actually forced themselves through the hoofs. 7'he sensible laminre are therefore the important organs whereby the internal foot is held in its situation within the hoof; and itjfis by these means that the foot enjoys the principal portion of its ease, elasticity, and freedom, from the effects of concussion : for the foot is internally observed to be oblique from behind to before ; but the weight is not oblique, but nearly perpendicular : hence it is evident there must be a constant tendency to dislocation between the internal parts of the foot, the coffin bone being pressed down in a direction different from that of the internal surface of the hoof. As the b- ■j»iu® both of the hoof and of the coffin are elastic singly, so they BESCrUFTION OF THE FOOT. 311 jre also highly so conjointly, and in their joint action allow a very considerable alteration in the position of the coffin bone obliquely downwards and backwards. Iffius it would appear that, during action, the weight is first thrown perpendicularly on the pastern ; from whence it is transmitted to the coffin principally, and to the navicular subordinately : but that the hard medium of these bones, and the equally hard medium of the earth, might not produce con- cussion and a hurtful pressure, these elastic laminated springs are admirably contrived, whereby the w’eight is distributed over a AMSt extent of surface; and that no auxiliary aid might be wanting, so was superadded the vaulted arch of the sole, which still further prevents concussion. It is evident also that this oblique and back- ward direction of the coffin bone, resulting from the elasticity of these leafy processes, must greatly tend to prevent conl:action. Their formation appears dependent on the cutis, of which they are productions : they are longer in front than at the sides, and at the sides than behind, and are most intimately connected with the coffin bone. Acute founder appears to arise from an Inflammation of these parts : they are also capable of a more slow or chronic inflamma- tion, in which they lose their elasticity, and, yielding to the pressure of the coffin bone, they elongate, and permit it to rest on the sole, which, by this pressure, becomes first planiform, and then exter- nally convex, forming what is termed “pumice footed, or more pro- perly, as observed by Mr. Clark, pomefooted. The vessels and nerves of the foot have been particularly described in the Angiology and Neurology, to which I would refer the stu- dent. The vascular appearance may likewise be gained by a re- ference to Plate IX, fg. 1, where a foot with the vessels injected with wax is accurately represented. The arteries (vide b, b) may be seen situated posterior to the veins, one on each side, which first give each a branch to the coronet, and then are ramified throughout the anterior and posterior parts of the foot. The veins pass "more anteriorly, a large branch to each side, when they ramify in a similar manner, but are beyond all comparison more numerous, formino- a complete network around the internal parts of the foot, as well as penetrating its substance, and having the peculiarity of no valves to obstruct their passage. (Vide a, a, fig. 1.) The nerves are two small branches posterior to the arteries, passing down and giving rami to the different parts of the foot. I have thus brought the description of this wonderful mechanism to a close; it is a subject so curious and important, that I would willingly have entered still more at large into it than I have done. Arduous as the task has already proved, it neither tires nor disgusts ; every inquiry opens a new source for wonder, a new page for ad- miration and delight. To the veterinarian I need not remark, that an intimate knowledge of the structure and economy of tire foot forms the groundwork almost of his practice; and that he cannot study too closely the various authorities from whence he may draw information. To him^ and to the inquisith^e and curious reader, I 312 HYGROLOGY. would recommend the works of Mr. Coleman, Mr. Treeman, and Mr. Bracy Clark; writers who have professedly treated on the foot of the horse. ect. XVIII. HYGROLOGY. THE fluids of the body do not admit of a ready division ; they are very numerous, and their properties various. They are mostly separated, or secreted, from that grand fluid of the body, the blood. Blood is contained in the heart, arteries, and veins ; is formed with the animal, and continues with him through life : it is circu- latory and compounded, appearing red in the arteries, and purple in the veins ; and contains iron, albumen, gelatin, fibrin, and water, with some other components : it has already been very fully ex- plained. Gastric juice is a limpid colourless fluid, yielding but few sensible qualities to a chemical test, and has a property of coagulating milk. It is secreted from the arteries of the stomach, and is in less quan- tity in the horse, proportional to his size, than in any other animal. Chyle is a fluid of different appearances in different animals : in the horse it is of a milky hue; and is gained from the decompo- sition produced by the gastric, biliary, pancreatic, and intestinal juices, acting on the chyme ; and appears intended, when so formed, to add support to the animal, by increasing and repairing the blood. Lyrrvphatic fluid is necessarily very various, as it is received from every part of the body ; it is elaborated in the lymphatic glands, and mixed with the chyle. Milk is a fluid secreted in the breasts of lactiferous animals, in some degree animalized, and partaking of the nature of chyle : it separates into cream, coagulum or curd, and serum or whey ; and from its being possessed of phosphate of lime, has been supposed to be useful in the first formation of bone : its principal use is for the juitrition of the foal. Pancreatic juice is a fluid apparently intended for the dilution of the chyle, and probably effecting some decomposition in it. Bile appears first to effect a decomposition of the chyle, and then to become the natural purge to the intestines. It has some of the qualities of soap, but wants others, and is secreted from the venous blood in the liver : in the horse it is only of one kind, the pungent pystic bile being wanting in him. l/^tine is a turbid yellow fluid, at times transparent, separated frorp the blood in the kidneys, and is apparently excreinentitious. • Its properties partake of the nature of the food; and its quantity is relative as well to that, as to the season of the year, and the stat^ HYGROLOGY. 313 of the skin. Chemistry separates several salts from It, and an animal matter : phosphorus is made from it, and it enters into several ma- nufacturing processes. Mucus is a general thick fluid, secreted universally upon those membranes, termed mucous. It is of a mild, bland quality, in- tended to keep the parts moist, to protect them from improper irri- tation, and to keep them apt to the impression of proper irritation. Saliva is a fluid very slightly saline, whereby it gives relish to the food, and dilutes it preparatory to its passage into the stomach. It possesses some phosphate, from whence arises its disposition to form a concrete on the teeth, and earth within the glands. It is secreted from the maxillary, parotid, and sublingual glands. Lachrymal secretion. — This does not materially differ from saliva, and is secreted by the lachrymal glands, to moisten the eye, and keep it transparent. Semen is a fluid, secreted from the blood in the testes. It con- tains mucilage, phosphate and muriate of soda, and phosphate of lime ; but no light is thrown upon its ultimate ends by any analy- zation of it. The microscope detects animalculae in it. Synovia is an animal mucilage, secreted by the inner membrane of the joints, to prevent attrition. Interstitial fluid is a vapour poured out Into all the cavities, to prevent friction and an improper union of parts. Fat is a condensed inflammable juice, spread over almost the whole body, secreted within the cells of the adipose membrane, by the arteries ramifying on their inner surface ; it is of various con- sistencies in the different parts, and in different animals ; forming grease in the horse, tallow in sheep and oxen, lard in the hog, and train, oil ami spermaceti in fish : it is not miscible in water, and, like oil, it forms soap with alkalies. It is a protection to parts, and a depot for occasional inanition. Sweat is an excrementitious fluid ; in some horses of a strong smell, particularly when feeding on grass : its properties are not in reality differing from urine ; and where one is formed in great quan- tities, the other is usually lessened. Having proceeded thus far in my arduous undertaking, I would pause a few moments, to entreat the veterinary student, who may have followed me attentively through the foregoing pages, not to be deterred by the seeming dry and rugged detail, from entering still more deeply into anatomical and physiological investigations. Ela- borate and intricate as they may at first appear, each succeeding day of study will open a new ray of intellectual light, and each new fact will forcibly impress the mind, until that which was begun with dread will end in pleasure. Upon a due acquirement of these im- portant branches of medical knowledge, can the student alone hope to build himself a solid reputation. The possession of these will 314 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. prove a gujcle and way-post in all his future professional pursiuts, and become the means of preventing those fatal mistakes that his fellow practitioners, less informed, will infallibly fall into ; and, in fact, without a proper conversance with these key-stones of the healing art, his practice can be at best but a fortunately empirical one. He may possibly accumulate wealth, but he can never disse- minate improvement. After more than twenty years’ profession of the veterinary art, I may presume to form some judgment as to the importance of these acquirements, and may be allowed with con- fidence to recommend them to the strict attention of my fellow- veterinarians : in which having well grounded themselves, I invite them, with the best intentions towards their welfare, to proceed with me through the remaining pages to a consideration of the dis- eases of this noble animal, whose admirable qualities render a life devoted to the melioration of his sufferings, natural and acquired, not an unpleasing task. In the following detail of maladies and their cure, I have carefully avoided idle and unnecessary theory; yet I have endeavoured to join cause and effect, and to blend the reason with the act ; thereby attempting to teach the curative art by principles more than by recipes : nevertheless, the matter is so conducted, that the amateur who chooses to strip it of its systematic and arrificial dress, may find a ready and safe guide to a domestic practice. I have borrowed very little; it might be said, comparatively, nothing: but I cannot say thus much of others ; for, without fear of contradiction, it may be remarked, that many of the present popular veterinary works owe much of that part of their matter which appears at all systematic, to the former edition of the Veterinary Outlines. I will not follow their example by sinking any occasional obligations I may be under, but candidly acknowledge them. The practice hereafter detailed is, however, strictly my own; it was first formed on the principles I have recommended ; it has stood the test of a long and successful trial ; and is now, therefore, offered with confidence to others : and as long as it remains uncontradicted;;^ I would invite the young practitioner to study it, and to follow it, until another presents itself in a higher degree worthy of his at- tention. That such may happen, I make no doubt ; but if it does not occur till one more disinterestedly written than this, appears, or with more zealous intentions for the advancement of the art, it will long remain without a competitor. PART THE THIRD. THE brattice of ^etermar j i^etjicme ; OR, A DESCRIPTION OF THE CAUSE, SYMPTOMS, AND MODES OF CURE, OF THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE, United also with a MORE CONCISE ACCOUNT OP THOSE or Neat Cattle and Sheep. 316 OF DISEASE GENERALLY. OF DISEASE GENERALLY. Disease is a morbid affection of a part, or of the whole of the body, whereby the exercise of some of its functions is altered or suspended. The causes of disease are various; some of them are evident, others we are entirely unacquainted with. We name these causes proximate or remote, occasional or predisposing. Till the time of Hoffman, it was supposed most diseases originated in a de- pravity of some of the fluids : this system, which was termed the immoral pathology, has continued to decay from this time; and we now consider some morbid change in the solids as the most usual cause of disease ; though we are still convinced that many diseased alterations in the fluids do occur. The symptoms and effects of disease, are more various even than their causes ; hence appears the fallacy of any attempt at reducing them into the two states of diminished, or increased strength, of too great heat or cold, or the redundancy of dryness or moisture. Diseases have general peculiarities ; such as the difference between glanders and staggers : each disease likewise has individual peculiarities ; that is, the same disease does not put on the same appearances, nor produce the same effect in every subject : but these varieties are not so great in the horse as in man, whose frame is more complex, and his life more artificial. Climate produces variations also ; anticor is a disease frequently mentioned by continental writers, but is here almost un- known. Inflammations of the eyes are, with us, more frequent, I believe, than with them. Some ages, likewise, are particularly favourable to the existence of some diseases : cataract more fre- quently attacks young horses, and strangles is almost entirely con- fined to them. Diseases have been divided into epidemic, endemic, sporadic, and specific. Epidemic diseases are such as are generally prevalent among all ages and kinds of horses, at some particular time, the liability being the same throughout, and the cause equal ; but the origin appa- rently dependent on some change taking place in the bodies of all the animals of that kind, at that time, spontaneously ; or more probably produced from the action of something applied from with- out, as a peculiar state of the air, improper food, or miasmata in any form ; these diseases may be contagious, or they may not. In epidemics, another indication is superadded to the veterinarian’s practice, and that frequently the most important j this is, prevention ; GENERAL INFLAMMATION. 317 to enable him effectively to undertake a preventive treatment, he must ascertain, if possible, the exciting cause. Endemic diseases are those peculiar to a particular climate or place, confining their effects principally to the animals inhabiting those parts : these dis- eases are but few in brute subjects. Sporadic diseases stand in op- position to the two former, and are a very widely diffuse class, and comprehend such as have a particular cause, and affect particular constitutions or ages : thus strangles becomes a sporadic disease to young horses ; and the distemper a sporadic disease among young hounds. Specific diseases are such as are peculiar to a particular class of animals : thus farcy, glanders, and strangles, are among the specific diseases of the horse, as distemper, popularly so called, is one peculiar to dogs. To a proper knowledge of the management of diseases, we con- sider the cause, symptoms, diagnosis, prognosis, and cure. The cause is frequently involved in obscurity; at others, by attention it may be discovered ; and again, in some instances, it is evident at once. The symptoms of a disease are the immediate effects it pro- duces ; thus an inflamed brain, being productive of delirium and redness at the eyes, makes delirium and redness at the eyes a symp- tom of inflamed brain : but this does not take in any other than the immediate effect ; for death is frequently a result of this disease, but death is not a symptom of an inflamed brain. From the symptoms, we form our diagnostic of the disease ; that is, we judge of its pre- sent state, when we are masters of this, we are led to form a prognosis, or opinion of its probable termination. The cure forms the most important part, and consists in an attempt at assisting nature in her efforts to produce a natural remission of the disease. If these efforts are wanting, or inert, we promote an artificial one, or we attempt to resist the effects of the disease. Class I. Diffused or general Inflammation. INFI.AMMATION is a matter of the highest importance to the veterinary practitioner : its proximate causes have been a subject of investigation with the ingenious of every age ; but they appear .so intimately blended with the minute actions of the body, whose phy- siology we are but little acquainted with, that we shall probably ever remain in uncertainty on this head. Inflammation may be considered as general or diffused, and local or confined ; and it is the first of these we propose considering in this place, as more immediately relating to internal diseases : the local is more appropriate to the surgical part of the art, and with which we shall treat of it. Diffused or genei'al infiammation ap- 31S GENEUAT. INFLAMMATION. [Class I. pears to consist in an increased action of the heart and arteries, by which the blood is circulated with a greater velocity, accompanied with an increase of heat. Inflamed vessels retard the coagulation of the blood, and augment its fluidity, by which means the red glo- bules fall to the bottom of the blood drawn, and the gluten or coa- gulable lymph, called the buff, appears on the top : and thus, when blood drawn exhibits a while surface, and sizy consistence, we say, there is an inflanimatory state in that habit. In local inflammation the vessels of the aflfected part only are in this state, unless the part be of great magnitude or importance in the system j in which case general inflammation sometimes accompanies it ; and this state is called symptomatic fever. General inflammation produces inflam- matory fever : nevertheless, there appear states or circumstances in fever which are not dependent on increased action alone, and it is this something that forms the very great obscurity in our theory of fever, and which is, in fact, the very essence of the disease. Dif- fused inflammation, constituting fever, should be distinguished from simple increased action arising from the affection of particular parts : the former constitutes a disease ; but the latter is merely sympto- matic, and sometimes even a salutary effort. It may, however, in some cases, rise to such a height as to wear out the patient. Most extensive inflammatory actions in the horse proceed to their termination sooner than those of the human, which appears to arise from the greater quantity of muscular coat found in his arteries. This gives a peculiar character to inflammatory diseases in this animal, and renders it particularly necessary that no one should form either his diagnosis, or prognosis, on the doctrine of similar affections in the human. Inflammation has different names, ac- cording to the parts it affects, assuming by this means different characters. Inflammations terminate usually according to their violence, the causes they proceed from, the parts they attack, or according to the constitution, age, and other circumstances of the affected horse ; and which various terminations may be referred to four kinds : re- solution, effusion, suppuration, and sphacelus or gangrene. Schir- rous cannot properly be considered as a termination of inflamma- tion : it is an action dependent on a peculiar cause, and is likewise in the horse very seldom met with. Resolution consists in a removal of the cause, symptoms, and effects of the increased action ; the texture and former state of the parts remaining entire. Effusion produces different effects. In phlegmonous inflammation there is frequently a pouring out of lymph or serum : thus in pneumonia, where the cellular texture of the lungs is affected, an effusion of lymph or serum is a very frequent termination. In inflammation of the mucous membranes there is usually effusion, which is at first thin and watery, but afterwards it becomes thicker and purulent. Suppuration is a state in which the vessels either secrete a fluid, called pus, or pour out one that afterwards takes on that nature. This pus either continues within the cavity into which it was poured, GENERAL INFLAMMATION. 319 Clas^ I.] till it becomes absorbed, or some part of the condensed sac is taken up, and the matter makes its way outwards and discharges. But if the increased action that should have produced one or other of these terminations, is continued to a very great extent, and the powers of the part become totally lost, it then produces Gangrene or Sphace- lus; in which case the colour of the inflamed portion changes from red to pale, and from this to purple or black ; vesicles are formed, containing a fluid ; and finally the dead portion becomes thrown off by the living powers of the neighbouring parts, or the animal dies under the affection. The prognosis, or the being able to give an opinion as to the probability of these several terminations, must be formed from an attentive observation of the foregoing circumstances ; and this at- tention must of itself form the diagnosis. In resolution, not only the affected parts return to their former state ; but the system at large, when generally affected, likewise returns to its original standard : this is evinced by the tenseness and swelling subsiding; by the pulse, that was full, hard, and quick, becoming soft and moderate. Effusion, is indicated by a remission of the increased action, the pulse usually also becomes smaller; but if the effused fluid is considerable, it may be observed to be likewise irregular : there is also frequently an ob- struction to the functions of some of the organs in the neighbour- hood of the effusion. When suppuration takes place, the symptoms of irritation and pain cease, the pulse becomes softer, and fluctuation may usually be felt. And when gangrene follows inflammation, the pain likewise subsides, and the pulse becomes also softer; but it likewise becomes weaker, and the strength sinks ; and it is parti- cularly characterized by these effects taking place abruptly. In addition to the foregoing terminations, there is another that now and then takes place naturally ; at other times it is brought about artificially. Two distinct inflammations are seldom found in parts situated near to each other : but a part in proximity may be- come susceptible of the increased action in a superior degree to the part first affected ; in which case, as it takes on the inflammation, it very generally produces the effect of removing it from the other; and this termination is called metastasis : but as this is much more frequent in erysipelatous and arthritic inflammations, to which the horse is not very liable; so it is seldom that this termination takes place naturally in him ; the most common instance, however, of this, is in what is termed moon blindness, wherein one eye will sometimes become suddenly well, and the other affected. But an artificial metastasis is frequently produced in the horse with the utmost benefit; thus, in a pneumonic state of the lungs, by raising an active inflammation on the sides of the chest externally, by fire, by caustic, or by blisters, many horses are saved; for a removal of the affection takes place from a part essential to life, and with which the system sympathizes largely, to a part not essential to life, and with which the constitution does not so intimately sym- ' pathize ; and which likewise is more able to bear it. 320 general inflammation. [C/oM I. In the inflammatory affections of internal and essential organs, and which are those to which we particularly wish to apply these remarks, resolution is always to be strenuously attempted j and to this termination all our directions of treatment will tend ; referring others to the description of the local and more confined inflamma- tory affections. In attempting the reduction of general or diffused inflammation, the cause, if still existing, should be attended to, and removed, if possible : the increased action of the vessels should then be subdued, by diminishing their contents by general bleeding; and this should be continued so long as the action of the heart and arteries conti- nues inordinate, and the muscular strength unimpaired. Heat in- creases inflammation ; speaking generally, therefore, the animal should be kept cool ; but when, from a wish to promote a counter- determination to the skin, warmth is advisable, we shall notice it. Costiveness is favourable to inflammation, the body, in such case, should be opened by laxatives or clysters ; but active purging is not often prudent in great inflammatory affections of the horse. Every cause of irritation should be removed, for irritation accelerates the action of the arterial system. It is most important that the circu- lation should be rendered equal throughout the body, unless we ■wish to procure an artificial metastasis. Those remedies should be made use of that are found most readily to act, directly or indi- rectly, in moderating the action of the heart and arteries, as anti- monials, foxglove, nitre, neutral salts, and diluting liquors. Nau- seating medicines have a remarkable effect on the action of the vascular system in some subjects ; and though we cannot avail our- selves of this means in the horse, we may in the ox and sheep. A moisture of the skin should be encouraged, but seldom forced. Stimulating medicines, as cordial drinks, spicy balls, much cloth- ing, and hot stables, should, speaking generally, be avoided. These are the more general indications of cure of diffused inflammation, and that of internal and essential organs ; and we shall now proceed to speak of the several kinds separately. Of Fever Generally. The subject of fever is always an intricate one, but in the hors^ its Intricacy is infinitely less than in man. Some ingenious prac- titioners do not even believe that it ever exists in the former as an idiopathic, simple, or primary disease : but that all febrile com- plaints are in this animal symptomatic of a local inflammation of some important organ. That fever in the horse does very seldom exist as a primarv affection, is certain ; and that it still less frequently remains in an original idiopathic state, without being transferred to some one particular organ, is even more certain. Nevertheless, the attentive veterinarian, whose opportunities for observation are exten- OF FEVER GENERALLY. 321 Class I.] sive, will now and then meet with cases where what may be called the specific nature of fever shall be present. To perfectly under- stand what is here intended, we must again refer to what has beeu said on the subject of general inflammation ; where we have re- marked, that ‘ there appear states or circumstances in fever which ‘ are not dependent on increased action alone ; and it is this some^ ‘ thing that forms the very great obscurity in our theory of fever, ‘ and which in fact constitutes the very essence of the disease.’ (Cicle p. 318.) That fever is a disease sui geiieris, having a specific character not altogether dependent on the heightened action of the vascular system it creates, is pretty generally acknowledged, and tolerably easily proved : one very familiar instance seems to present itself. Pneumonia or inflammation of the lungs, even when very violent, and producing alarming symptoms, does not produce so much absolute present prostration of strength in a horse, as an attack of epidemic catarrh, comparatively mild, and attended with little danger. The reason is, that, let the former be as violent as it will, it is still local Inflammation, and attended only with increased action, being unaccompanied with other fever than that we term sympto- matic ; and which is, as has been before said, a state dependent on the mere increased action of the blood vessels ; and in fact may be rather considered as an effect than a cause. But, on the contrary, aS' in true or primary fever, one of its strongest characteristics is an early and universal muscular weakness; so in the epidemic catarrh, which is evidently a true febrile affection, having superadded the in- creased vascular action of an extensive surface of mucous mem- brane ; a comparatively mild attack of it produces a more speedy and evident debility of the muscular powers, than a much more serious affection that is purely local ; even though the symptoma- tic fever should be much higher than that of the epidemic. It is also very common to deny the existence of a putrid tendency in the fevers of horses ; or rather that any original disposition exists, in the inflammatory affections of the horse to assume that type we characterize by the term typhus : but if it is granted that the horse is not wholly incapable of generating or receiving a disease having the specific character of fever (and from what has been brought in proof, I think it must readily be) ; then, this being granted, it surely will be difficult to deny the putrid tendency of some of the fevers of horses ; seeing that all fevers have many characters in common, and that from analogy it may be readily assumed, that the animal, who is liable to a mixed febrile complaint, such as we describe the fever of the horse to be, shall almost necessarily be subjected to that type of fever so little remote from it. But one fact is worth all the theory in the world : in proof, therefore, it may be added, that the observant practitioner need not be reminded, the epidemic catarrh frequently produces oedematous swellings along the chest and belly, or oyer the head, or around the joints: in some cases buboes exist, or very large glandular abscesses form : in others a sanious, stinking, and bloody ichor flows from the nose, and, in the end, the whole 322 OF FEVER GENERALLY. [Class I. cellular membrane become suffused with a serous fluid termed water farcy. All these are common appearances, singly or conjointly, in aggravated cases of the epidemic catarrh ; and are also now and then met with at the close of that fever which appeared to commence as an idiopathic affection. It may be, therefore, safely affirmed, that the unprejudiced observer, who has once only seen a horse sinking under a disease accompanied with the above appearances, will not hesitate to allow his being capable of becoming the subject of putrid fever. In the malignant epidemic that sometimes visits horned cattle, the putrid tendency is still more evident and notorious. Under these views of the subject I shall proceed to describe the fevers of the horse, into, first. Simple or Idiopathic fever, approaching in some measure, but not wholly, to the synochus of the human. Secondly, the Epidemic or Catarrhal fever. Thirdly, the malignant Epidemic, or malignant Catarrhal fever, which perhaps may, to su- perficial observers, be considered only as an aggravated degree of the former; but when it is considered, that in some years the ap- pearances which characterize its malignant and putrid tendency are more striking and more generally diffused than in others ; then w'e are warranted in considering it separately. The fourth and most frequent fever of the horse is the Symptomatic, or that febrile ap- pearance that accompanies great local affection or inflammation of some vital and important organ. It has been observed, that man, by his luxurious habits in the present state of society, lives up to the full extent of his vital powers ; and that thus, when disease arrives, these cannot be pushed any further, but he soon falls into a state of diminished energy, instead of one of increased strength ; and to this it may be attributed, that vve now very seldom meet with a case of pure inflammatory fever in the human subject. It is not unlikely, also, that m a less degree the same may be attributed to horses ; at least the majority of those the veterinarian will be called to, live, like man, a life of art: much is required of them, and their efforts are rendered, if I may so express myself, artificially strenous by a large portion of nutriment, so as to keep in them also the vital powers up to, or above, par ; and, there- fore, neither in them is a fever purely inflammatory to be met with, at least it never remains long so. But in the horse there appears another and much more cogent reason for this ; for in him the very great strength of the arterial system causes all his febrile affections to assume a character of considerable action in the first instance; but as, in this case, the powers must be necessarily sooner exhausted, so they very commonly flag early, and with very little previous warn-' ing ; great debility at once succeeding to the most inflammatory diathesis. From this peculiarity in the fevers of this animal results a neces- sity for a constant attention, on the part of the veterinarian, that these sudden changes may be detected : for as it is essential that, in the first instance, a cooling, mitigating, and refrigerant plan should be pursued, so long as active inflammatory symptoms remain ; and 323 Class I.] COMMON OR SIMPLE FEVER» as a change into direct debility is often sudden and unexpected, so it is also equally important, in such an event, not only to pursue a lowering treatment no farther, but also promptly to counteract this debility, by such means as tend to keep up the bodily functions without hurrying or'irritating them. In this order, therefore, I shall proceed to a consideration of the fevers of horses ; and it may be here remarked, that those of oxen and sheep in no wise differ materially, except, perhaj^s, that a putrid tendency is rather more apparent in their inflammatory afiections, than in those of the horse* COMMON OR SIMPLE FEVER* Latin Name Frencli Name. Synochus cum Synocha.] {_Fievres. It has been before stated, that the fevers of horses are so generally united with an appearance of topical affection, that many veterina- rians deny altogether the existence of this disease as a primary affec- tion : but if, as was then remarked, it is allowed that the catarrhal affection partakes of the specific nature, or the true character of fever, then the capability of the horse for this complaint is beyond contradiction : it may be here further added, that though fever, without distinct local affection, is a rare occurrence ; yet that it does now and then occur, the experience of the observant practitioner will convince him. Indeed I am disposed to think, that it is not so much the extreme rareness of its existence which has led to a belief that it never occurs, as that, from some peculiar tendencies in the constitution of this animal, the disease very usually remains but a little time as general fever but becomes very soon transferred to some one part, commonly to an important organ : and it may be added, that four times out of five the lungs prove the subject of it. In my own practice I have certainly met with this fever ; and I am convinced that many inflammations of vital organs begin by an at- tack, not local, and confined to that immediate part, but one which exists, in the first instance, as a general diffused inflammatory action of the vascular system at large. Every practitioner is aware that it is common, when a horse is observed at the very first approach of illness, to rouse him by various means : among horse-dealers and job-men, when the epidemic of the spring is prevalent, it is the custom to watch their horses narrowly, and to pursue some plan of this kind promptly ; after wdtieh they frequently observe no more of the complaint: but if the first cold fit is passed over without atten- tion, a hot stage generally succeeds; in due time the horse again shivers, his hair stares, and he becomes subjected to other symp- toms of illness, and the disease is then fully formed. The means pursued for this end are various, but they are all such as tend to rouse the powers into increased action, and into such a degree of it Z 524 COMMON OR SIMl’L* FEVER. t. as shall be greater than the Increased action of the complaint ; and it- is upon justly appreciating the two degrees of action, and uporj pitting the forced one against the diseased one in sufficient strength, that consists the salutary effort. Now, were such a plan to be put into practice, when a topical inflammation of some important anS vital organ had actually taken place, it would most undoubtedly greatly aggravate it: but as in diffused inflammator]^ action, constituting^ fever, there is a specific character, not wholly dependent on the in- crease of the vascular power ; so the prcxluction of an artificial Action, greater than the diseased one, in the early stage, will some- times overcome the febrile one. I think this a sufficient proof that the inflammatory complaints of horses sometimes originate from true fever, translated afterwards from an universal to a particular afiection. In the first edition of this work it was stated, that Common or Simple fever might be more properly designated by the term Syno- chis cum Synocha, it not having debile or putrid characteristics suf- ficient fully to entitle it to the former ; and certainly, not being so purely inflammatory as to merit the latter. Subsequent experienca has confirmed the propriety of this consideration of the matter ; and the very few instances that do occur, shew, that though not essen- tially differing from the human mixed fever, it yet has a greater pro- portion of synocha entering it. It also appears not to be peculiar to any age ; neither is it more prevalent at one period of the year than another, except we allow that the catarrhal fever, as well as some topical affections that take on an epidemic form, are produced from it. The cause of this fever always, I believe, originates in a plethoric state of the blood vessels ; but the circumstances producing this state may be various. Perhaps one of the most common may be the sudden access of cold, as the turping a horse out to grass without preparation, or other exposure to a decreased temperature. Another proximate cause may arise from any imprudent alteration in the habits of the animal, as an immediate removal from grass, or a straw yard, into a heated stable ; or fronv the meagre diet of the one, to a full allowance of corn : either of these might be sufficient to produce the complaint, but when both operate together it is still more likely to occur. Great fatigue may also produce it, and is, I believe, not an unfrequent cause. A long deprivation likewise from either food or water, particularly the former, may bring it on ; but an alternation of cold with heat is certainly the most common of the existing causes of this as well as of most of the inflammatory attacks of the horse. Th^ vessels of the skin seem in these cases to be first acted on, and probably it is the reaction of the heart and arteries upon this state that constitutes the primary attack ; the keeping up of this reiiction is probably dependent on the specific nature of the complaint. The Symptoms that present themselves are, first, a shivering fit ; tSiae times out of ten the complaint comm^ncesr by a staring coa^ CluSS I.] COMMON OR SIMPLE FEVER. 325 with extremities, muzzle, and ears cold, accompanied by a strong shaking of the skin, which lasts a longer or shorter period as th^ attack is more or less violent, or as means are more or less early employed to bring about a reaction of the capillaries. If, as has been observed, artificial means are judiciously used to overcome this first rigor, the specific action sometimes gives place to the one arti- ficially promoted, and no more is seen of it : but should this be neglected, to the cold fit succeeds a very considerable degree of heat, frequently followed by partial sweats, and always accompanied with quickened, but seldom with laborious, breathing. If the pulse is examined during the cold fit, it will be commonly found but little increased in frequency or fulness ; but as the horse becomes hot, it is observed much quicker, with a corded, hardened feel in the stroke that sufficiently shews the struggle between the blood and its vessels. There is likewise generally present in this fever much restlessness and uneasiness, betokened by a shifting of position, and frequent laying down and getting up again ; but there does not appear much pain, though I have observed the bowels apt to be uneasy and flatulent, which is known by the rumbling noise commonly present in these cases. The inner surface of the eyelids is always increased in its redness, and the inside of the nostrils also ; but not in an equal degree to what occurs in the epidemic fever, and still less than what is present in pneumonia. The skin and extremities vary in their temperature, being sometimes hot and at others cold, and the coat feels universally harsh and unthrifty. In the early periods of the complaint there is often considerable thirst, for all the secretions appear diminished ; the dung, therefore, is dry and hard, and the urine high coloured and small in quantity. This forms the first stage of the fever, and thus much of it, I con- ceive, occurs more frequently than is generally supposed ; but it is very common for it at this time to sink its specific character of true fever, into a purely inflammatory, but confined, state ; that is, that immediately succeeding to this first stage, an attack commences on some particular organ, as the brain, lungs, bowels, kidnics, and, in some instances, probably the feet; in all which cases it ceases its primary character, and its febrile symptoms become secondary and symptomatic. The preference it may have in these instances for any one organ over another, is not easily accounted for; but it may he connected with local circumstances, particularly with such as have had a tendency to produce an unusual determination of blood to a part. Violent and long-continued exercise is observed to give this disposition to the lungs, from the Vi.ry great quantity of blood forced through them during exertion. Water, thrown over a horse when hot, is very apt to bring on a state of the bowels, predisposing them to inflame. A heavy and awkward rider, travelling a great dis- tance, subjects the kidnies to such injury, that they often require but little additional stimulus to take on nephritis : and it is equally notorious, that severe riding in the snow, or the custonji of washing Z 2 326 COMMON OR SIMPLE EEVER. [Class I. the feet when a horse is very hot, will produce a tendency to acute founder, that may be brought into activity by a slight attack of fever translated to these parts. It remains to be noticed, that, independent of these purely local attacks, there is great reason to believe that this fever not unfrequently degenerates into the catarrhal epidemic ; and I am inclined to think, that many of those cases that commence with a simple rigor, and which are often prevented from proceeding farther by simply overcoming this, are of this nature. But should none of these attacks occur, but, on the contrary, should this fever remain, after the first stage, purely idiopathic, which, though very seldom, does now and then happen, a series of symptoms supervene seldom invariably the same in any two subjects, but with sufficient general characters to describe them as follows : — The pulse continues to have a corded feel, but loses still more of its fulness, and increases in quickness ; the skin also becomes moist, the eyes weep, and the nose and mouth secrete either a thin or a viscid mucus : now and then, however, the mouth continues hot and dry throughout ; the urine, which was before high coloured, and in small proportions, is gradually secreted in larger quantities, and becomes of an opaque colour. It is not unusual, also, for the hind legs to swell, and sometimes likewise swellings appear about the head, the throat, or along the chest and belly; and when these occur early in the complaint, I have usually in this, and in the epi- demic catarrh, considered them rather as favourable indications ; that is, I have found fevers in the horse, so accompanied, more tractable than others without : but I think I have observed the re- verse of this to be the case in the fevers of horned cattle. What I have just described may be considered as constituting the middle and principal stage of this fever, but in which it seldom re- mains more than two or three days at the utmost ; for either suc- ceeds a gradual abatement in the frequency of the pulse, but more particularly it becomes softer; the countenance looks more lively; the muscular weakness rather increases, while the irritability lessens j the secretions also return to their natural state ; the mouth feels cool and properly moist, and the heat of the body becomes lessened, as well as regular and equable throughout; slight symptoms of return- ing appetite likewise appear : under which circumstances, though the weakness may be extreme, yet a resolution of the fever is formed. Or, on the contrary, instead of these favourable appearances there may succeed either great restlessness and watchfulness, or a constant drowsiness, with an increase in the frequency of the pulse from lOQ to 120 in a minute, particularly if irregularity is joined to its quick- ness; and still more, if to these are added convulsive twitches of the skin of the neck and flank, and a grinding of the teeth, then great danger is to be apprehended, and a fatal termination is likely to occur ; and if, in addition, the horse chews his hay, and then lets it fall, as though insensible of its escape; if also profuse purging comes on, or the breath becomes offensive, it may be regarded as COMMON OU SIMPLE FEVER. 327 Class I.] certain. In snch cases, an extreme prostration of strength succeeds, a deadly coldness of the extremities, a laborious and quick respi- ration, cold sweats, and death soon closes the scene. It must be remembered that the whole of the above symptoms may not be present in every case, and also that in some, other appearances may be added to those we have particularized ; yet it is no less fever for these varieties ; and as it will be found by the practitioner that this fever is one that is compounded of the inflame matory and low types ; so also it may be remarked, that the pro- portions of these will vary in different subjects, according to the causes producing it, the temperament, the age, the season, and, above all, the condition of the horse : perhaps also, in no small degree, it may depend on the mode in which it has been treated on its first attack. Prognosis. — This must be formed from the degree of inflamma- tory chathesis manifested in the first instance; the disposition of it to lessen or to increase in the second stage ; and the capability of the patient to bear the violence of the attack ; which consideration involves the particular circumstances under which the individual labours. The Cure of Simple Fever.— It has been before remarked, that if the first rigor is observed, and means are taken to overcome this artificially, by rousing the flagging powers under the influence of the cold fit, that the future progress of the disease is often arrested. It is but seldom, however, that sufficient attention is paid to detect it at its outset ; and without the matter is attended to on the first cold fit, it would be useless, and even worse than useless, to attempt any thing of this kind afterwards. But as in cases where others have been attacked in a similar maaner, the attendants may be sufficiently aware of the commencement of future instances ; so it may be proper to point out the means that may be safely used ; but only on the very first attack of simple shivering, the hoise having been previously well. In such a casey as soon as observed, clothe warmly, and immediately take out and trot briskly for ten minutes only ; remove into the stable, and rub well over by the assistance of two or three persons : having done which, give the following : — Sweet spirit of nitre {nitrous athev") . . one ounce, Or, in default of this, substitute Spirit of hartshorn {carbonated ammonia) six drams, Warm ale . a pint. If, after all this has been done, the shivering should still con- tinue, again trot briskly for ten minutes more, then bleed liberally, rub the body again all over ; after which clothe as before, and keep the stable warm. In two hours reduce the clothing and heat to their former state, and if the disease is arrested, no more will be seen of it : but should other symptoms arise that betoken a continuance of the fever, proceed to treat as follows, bearing in mind that the rules laid down presume no blood has been drawn ; consequently, if it is 328 COMMON OK SIMPLte FEVER. [Class I. Otherwise, and blood has been drawn, the quantity previously take^n should be subtracted from the account : if not^ on the first appear- ance, or as soon after as possible, bleed in a full stream to the amount of three, four, or five quarts, regarding the age, size, and condition of the horse, The blood taken away should be suffered to settle undisturbed in the vessel it was drawn in : it is unne- cessary, it is presumed, to direct that a vessel should be always made use of, and the horse by no means permitted to bleed at ran- dom on a dunghill, or the ground. When the blood has been suffered to settle quietly, if there is much inflammatory action going on, it w'ill most probably appear sizy or buffy at the top of the coagulum ; that is, the cake swimming in the middle of the fluid part, will have a tough yellowish crust over it ; should this appear- ance exist to a very considerable degree, and the pulse remains full and hard, it warrants a repetition of the bleeding, particularly if the other symptoms do not moderate. As soon as blood has been drawn, the horse should be back-raked j after which a laxative clyster may be thrown up. (See Materia Medica-) The following may be given two or three times a-rday, according as the case is more or less urgent ; — Emetic tartar (tartarised antimony) . . two dram?, {nitrated potash) three drains. Mix with a pint of gruel, or make into a ball with honey. Cordial medicines in this state of the disease must be most care- fully avoided ; the food also, if the horse will eat, should be of the most cooling kind, such as hay, bran mashes, &c. with bran water or thin gruel, as drink, which are the only aliments that ought to be allowed ; unless indeed it should happen to be in spring or summer, when any esculent vegetable may be given in moderate quantities, as tares, lucerne, sainfoin, &c. The heat of the stable should be so regulated, that it may be temperate only, but never hot: heat increases action, and hence augments the disease ; and as the fevers of horses seldom terminate by sweating, so keeping them hot is the less advisable. The clothing should also be moderate ; in summer, a single linen sheet is sufficient : nor should the surcingle be tight ; it must be evident, that an animal beating at his flanks with acce- lerated respiration, can ill bear this confinement. A free ventilation of air in the stable ought to be encouraged, the litter should be plen- tiful, and every noise and cause of irritation as much as possible removed. The body should be often examined by the attendants, and when any parts are found cold, or even cool, they must be hand rubbed, to encourage an equal heat, and a circulation through the capillaries : for it is certain, that as much as the cold fit is lessened, the subsequent hot fit is proportionally diminished. Should the legs, in particular, become cold, let them be well whisped, and then wrapped up in flannel or haybands ; and as often as the cold fit returns, apply the friction for the above reason. "I'his appears the proper treatment of the first stage but the con- CWs I.] ©OMMON OR SIMPLl? FEVER. 329 tinuance of this, or the adopting of another mode, must be Indicated by the succeeding appearances, and which must therefore be care- fully observed ; and as the changes in the type of this disease ar« often very sudden, the animal ought to be seen by the medical atten- dant at least twice a-day ; never less than once ; and, if possible, much ofteneri for should the inflammatory symptoms suddenly cease, and debility succeed, it might happen, from the practitioner seeing the animal once in two days only, that the antiphlogistic treatment might be continued during this period to the destruction of the horse : and it will be generally found, that the stronger has been the action of the heart and arteries, or the higher the inflam- matory symptoms have run during the first stage, the greater ex- haustion is produced during the succeeding progress of it. 'J'he former treatment being pursued on the first day, if, on the succeeding one, together with the quickness, much of the febrile hardness remains in the pulse, the other symptoms remaining in full force, two or three quarts more blood may be drawn from the ©pposite side. The strength of the pulse should be a greater guide in ibis particular than the hardness; for though this latter indicates an inflammatory action in the vessels, yet we must not in fev'er, particularly, if it at all approaches to the weaker and mixed kind, continue bleeding till the whole of the hardness is removed, or so, tnuch debility will otherwise be brought on, that the animal will be unable to struggle against the specific part of the complaint; but 60 long as, siiperadded to hardness, there is considerable strength ia the pulse, we may safely bleed in moderate quantities. It will, however, rarely happen that such a fulness will remain on the third day, as to warrant a repetition of the bleeding beyond that time, if the previous treatment has been energetic and prudent ; and it may be remarked, that almost every thing depends on the mode pursued the first two or three days : an opinion of the disease should not be hastily made up, but the moment that it is formed, the treat- ment proposed should be pushed with vigour, and no time lost. On the second or third day, if the symptoms run high, the medicines before ordered should be now given three times in the day, and once during the night ; or they may give place to the following ; — White antimonial powder {Jame^s powder) two drams. Nitre {nitrated potash) three drams. Make into a ball, and give night and morning : and in such a case give also, during the intermediate time, some linseed tea, in which cream of tartar has been dissolved ; but should the former powder be continued, and that three times a-day, then the addition of the cream of tartar might gripe. During the complaint, it is of the utmost consequence that the bowels be kept open, but active purging should by no means be encouraged ; if, therefore, the body has not been relaxed by the clysters, give by the mouth a laxative^ such as are prescribed under that head in the Materia Medica, and repeat till the passages are slightly relaxed; but do not push it be- 330 COMMON OR SIMPLE FEVER. [Class I. yoncl this : and when this has been effected, return again to the fever remedies ; warm gruel, bran mashes, and elysiers, will be equal to keeping the bowels free from constipation in future. In case the nitre should be found to gripe, or occasion profuse staling, omit it, and substitute cream of tartar in its room ; or should the thirst, heat, and restlessness increase, and the pulse become quicker, but less strong ; in such case refrain from the former remedies altogether, and substitute the following : — Mindererus’s spirit (see Mat. Med.) . . four ounces, 'lartiw emetic {la/'tai'iscd UJitbiwni/) . . . Ijalf a dram, Strong camomile tea six ounces. Give this every six hours ; and if any sore throat, soreness of chest, or disposition to cough, should appear, add four ounces of simple oxymel to the drink. See Mat. Med. If the legs swell violently; but more particularly, should there be shifting swellings of the head, throat, or belly, a rowel may be very properly inserted in any part of the body ; and the same may be done, should there be any appearance of topical affection of any vital organ ; unless. Indeed, the attack is a very decided one, in which case, blistering, and the other means recommended for these cases, slvould be pursued ; but when no swellings appear, I do not re- commend rowels in this fever ; and when no local affection seems to exist, but the inflammatory diathesis remains general and diffused, neither would I blister ; for blistering, without topical affection, proves a source of irritation ; and, in these cases, increases action, in- stead of diminishing it, and therefore, if at all admissible in this fever, is best adapted to the weaker types of the disease, as wh»n the horse becomes very dull and languid, and the whole powers flag : but this caution is not meant to apply to local inflammations, as those of the lungs, bowels, &c., where external stimulants are of the greatest service, and chiefly to be depended on. During the continuance of the complaint, particularly in the early stages of it, the animal should not be urged to eat, as is often done by grooms and stable attendants ; for the stomach partakes of the want of muscular and secreting energy with the rest of the parts, and hence food, when it cannot be digested, becomes a foreign body, and a cause of irritation to the stomach, and through the medium of that to the constitution in general. But this caution applies only to the very first stage of the complaint; by some it may be thought altogether an unnecessary one, because the horse is seldom inclined to eat during his illnesses : but when it is considered that many persons, if the appetite is a little palled with hay, w'lll press oats, or even beans, to excite the animal to eat, then the pro- priety of this caution will be evident; but, as before noticed, it only refers to the first stages of the disease; for after this, particularly where the weakness is considerarble, the horse should be encouraged to eat by selecting the sweetest hay, sprinkling it with water, and offering a lock at a time by the hand. Clover-hay will sometimes also tempt the appetite, and green meat should be carefully sought Class 1.] INFLAMMATORY FEVER IN NEAT CATTLE. 331 after. Malt mashes may also be given, and if all food disgusts, then gruel made thick by boiling should be poured down the throat with a horn, and also thrown up as clysters. Under this treatment it may lie expected that the animal will be- gin to look more lively, the pulse will become softer and less fre- quent, and the appetite give tokens of return. But if, on the contrary, he becomes more dull and heavy, starting sometimes, and dozing at others ; if the pulse becomes quicker and threadlike, with liquid stools, and profuse staling, then great danger is present, and the treatment must be very active to prevent a fatal' termination. In such a case, give the following, every four hours, in conjunction with some gruel : — Powdered camomile one ounce. Tincture of opium three drams, Mindtrerus’s spirit (see Mat. Med.) . four ounces, Sweet spirit of nitre (raifrozis «f/(er) . half an ounce. Or the following may be substituted where a ball is preferred, but I should in preference recommend the drink : — Powdered ipecacuanha one dram, Powdered camomile two drams. Camphor and opium, each . . . one dram. Mix into a ball with honey or other matter. Should the symptoms become even more urgent ; should the thirst altogether cease, the tail become raised and quiver, the pulse irregular, the mouth smell foetid and produce a glairy mucus; and, particularly, should symptoms of oedema, or water farcy, appear; add to the drink, in lieu of the powdered camomile, one or two ounces of Peruvian bark ; or if this is objected to on account of the expense, two or three ounces of willow or oak bark, in powder, may be substituted, Inflammatory Fever in Neat Cattle. Oxen and cows are subject to a highly inflammatory fever that usually terminates by a critical deposit on some part or parts. This complaint is called, by farriers, cowleeches, and graziers, by va- rious absurd names, which are prevalent in degree as they stand in order : Black quarter; Joint Jelon ; Quarter evil ; Quarter ill ; Shewt of blood ; Joint murrain ; Stinking in of the blood ; and Black leg. It is more common among two or three year old cattle than those of any other ages ; but it sometimes attacks older beasts. Any cause producing an inflammatory diathesis will occa- sion it ; among the most frequent is a change of food from a meagre to a more nutritious one, and hence it is very common among the droves brought from the north into the luxurious pastures of the southern, midland, and western districts. It is sudden in its attack and rapid in its progress, presenting highly inflammatory ap- 332 INFLAMMATORY FEVER IN NEAT CATTLE. [CloSS T. pearances at first, which as quickly degenerate into a low and putrid type ; as indeed do most of the inflammatory aflTections of neat cattle and sheep. The first symptom usually betrayed is a dull heavy countenance, with red eyelids and nostrils, a pulse quick and hard, and the dung either retained altogether, or hardened and in small quantities. The appetite is usually lost, and the animal is sometimes disposed to doze, but more often to increased watchful- ness. On the second day a critical deposit takes place, and which terminates the inflammatory action. This deposit is various in dif- ferent subjects ; in some, it proves an universal suffusion of bloody serum throughout the cellular membrane ; in others, inflammatory phlegmonous tumours form on the joints, or on the back or belly. From the putrid tendency in the complaint, a quantity of gas is likewise let loose within the cellular membrane in some instances, which produces a crepitation or crackling under the skin, exactly similar to what appears in veal when blown up by butchers. Under these appearances, unless speedily relieved, the animal sinks; and it may be remarked, that after the critical deposits have forpied, the disease assumes a more putrid type, and proceeds in its malig- nity in the same degree of rapidity that the early stage ran in inflam- matory action. The Treatment. — When the disease is detected before the skin crepitates, or before swellings have formed, bleed freely to the amount of three quarts, and immediately give a brisk purge : but, if the critical deposits have been made, be more sparing of the lancet, and also of the purging ; unless the pulse should still re- main very full and strong, in which case the purge may be admi- nistered ; and when that has operated, proceed to give the following night and morning : — Yeast from beer six ounces, Mindererus spirit (see Mat, Med.) . four ounces. Mix. The swellings may be rubbed also with yeast, which will be found to have a very salutary effect on this complaint either outwardly or inwardly. The emphysematous air is sometimes let out with a pen- knife or lancet ; but this practice is not, I think, a good one, un- less the swelling is very extensive ; then indeed it may be done, but by very few and very small openings. I should be thought to have made an omission if I did not men- tion a popular remedy for this complaint, which is to divide the claws with a scalpel or knife, and with a tenaculum to draw out one of the veins of the lesser pastern, and divide it. — Credite vult. Inflammatory Fever in Sheep. Sheep fever, Higham striking, or Bhod striking; arc all namos vsed to characterize a species of sudden inflammatory attack to which Class I.] EPIDEMIC CATARRHAL FEVER. 333 these valuable animals are liable. The treatment in nowise differs from that of neat cattle, making allowance for the different pro- portions of the animal. THE EPIDEMIC CATARRHAL FEVER. Catarrhus.'] [Courbatiire, Morfondure. The catarrhal fever, which is also popularly called Distem'per, may attack horses at any time, and almost under any circumstance •, but it is infinitely more prevalent at some times, and under some cir- cumstances, than others. During the spring months, and sometimes, though less frequently, during the' autumnal also, it becomes very prevalent ; in some years most particularly so ; and it then rages in a truly epidemic form. No age is exempt, but the number of young subjects attacked is infinitely greater than that of older ones. The horses of large cities and crowded towns are certainly more ob- noxious to it than those less confined ; nevertheless it is sometimes also sufficiently common among these, raging every now and then in so truly an epidemic form, that the liability becomes nearly the same throughout all kinds and classes, with the exception before noticed, that the young are much more the objects of its attack than the old. The spring months are particularly favourable to its production, and these are aided materially by a variable state of the atmosphere, as great and sudden changes from dry to wet, from heat to cold, and still more certainly if accompanied with a long continued easterly wind. It has been disputed whether it is conta- gious or not, and this point is by no means easy to decide. When the disease is generated from the mere application of cold, it certainly appears but little contagious ; but when it rages as an epidemic, and is very prevalent, it then certainly exhibits contagious charac- ters ; though, even under these circumstances, many aged horses fully within the sphere of its action will often escape : nevertheless the liability is so generally diffused among all kinds at such times, as to be most easily brought into action, and it is to this liability that it principally owes its character of contagious. Its real nature has been hitherto much mistaken : among the older farriers it has been usual to consider it as a cold; and in most of their books it passes under either this term, or that of morfoun- dering, from the French j among whom also it was formerly but little better characterized, being by some described as a flux of mat- ter from the nose, the effect of cold ; and by others, still more erro- neously, as a species of chest founder, courbature, but which is merely an inflammatory rheumatic attack on the muscles of the chest. It is called, also, courbature by La Fosse ; but he does not fall into the error of considering it as chest founder, but describes it as a species of inflammation the lungs, apparently unmind- 334 EPIDEMIC CATARRHAL FEVER. [Class I. ful of its epidemic character, and of its partaking of the specific nature of fever*. Later French authors, however, describe it as catarrh, or cold, accompanied with fever, and raging sometimes as an epidemic, and seem not altogether unmindful of its specific characters. But the mistake that is most frequently made by practitioners, js that of confounding it with the purely topical afifection of the lungs, pneumonia; and an error of this kind is a very likely one among those of only moderate experience, from the symptoms of the two on a slight observation appearing very similar ; and, also, because the complaint is almost invariably accompanied with some actual chest affection ; or, at least, in every case the bronchial passages are affected. But it is of considerable consequence to distinguish it from simple inflammation of the lungs ; as, from what follows, it will be found that there are some important differences to be pur- sued in the treatment ; for, in the catarrhal fever, if the bleeding and other parts of the lowering system are carried too far, the con- sequences are almost surely fatal : while, on the contrary, in pneu- monia this plan, particularly in the early stage, can hardly be pro- secuted too vigorously. To an attentive observer, such a mistake is not likely to happen ; many circumstances will present themselves that may serve as a guide to distinguish between them. Inflamma- tion of the lungs usually commences with a short dry cough that does not appear to distress the animal much at first ; this sometimes exists two or even three days before any violent symptoms appear ; and under any circumstance this short dry cough very usually precedes any cold rigors : indeed, in pneumonia there is often no regular cold fit observed ; at least, no general rigor of the surface such as so fre- quently proves the precursor to catarrh ; but a stupid appearance, heaving of the flanks, and the extreme coldness of the extremities, alone first attract the attention, when the disease attacks with vi- olence. In the epidemic fever, on the contrary, there very usually is first observed a rigor or shivering fit of the whole surface of the body. It must however be allowed that this, though very general, is not invariable ; for, in some instances, the other symptoms are preceded by a weak cough ; but even then this cough will be a dif- ferent one from that which precedes the full attack of pneumonia : for it will be more sonorous, and though probably the sound is de- ceptive in this respect, yet it appears to produce the idea of its coming deeper, if I may so express myself ; the cough also usually in catarrh seems to give great pain, and is accompanied even from the very first with an evident soreness of the chest ; and which early soreness is alone a characteristic : it is sometimes so consider- * La courbature est a peu pr^.' la meme maladie que la pleuresie : e’est une in- flammation du poumon, causee par une fatigue outree, ou un travail forc4. Lc cheval a une iifevre considerable, dent la tete basse, est degoute, respire avec peine, tousse et jette par le nez une humeur glaireuse, quelquefois jaun&tre, quel- quefois sanguinolente. On donne quelquefois le nom de courbature a une fatigue ou lassitude simple; mais ce n’est pas ce que j’entends ici. — La Fosse; Dift. d' Hippiutriq'ue. Class L] EPIDEMIC CATAHRHAL FEVER. 335 able as to make the horse stamp when he coughs with a sort of pe- tulance at the pain he feels. In some cases the soreness exists throughout the whole nasal and bronchial passages, when, of course, the pharynx will become affected ; and as all the mucous membranes, either in continuity or even in contiguity, take on a disposition to partake of the inflammation of the other, so it is very generally accompanied with sore throat and a great difficulty in swal- lowing : liquids are altogether refused, or sucked in slowly and with caution ; the hay is deliberately chewed and then thrown out, or, as is said, th6 horse quids it : but it is very seldom that any thing of this kind occurs in pneumonia. Another evident distinction between these two diseases arises from the early weakness that takes place in the catarrhal fever ; for even on the second or third day, those around, if not used to the complaint, will be surprised to find the horse stagger and reel as though he had been ill a week : the reason of which appears to be, that here, though the inflam- matory state is more general and diffused, yet it partakes of the specific character of fever, the partieular tendency of which is to produce an early and invariable prostration of strength : but in pneumonia, though the inflammatory action is much greater, yet it is- simply increased action, with a fever purely symptomatic, and un- mixed with the specific character of idiopathic fever, and therefore not accompanied with so early a debility. It is not here meant that early debility does not sometimes come on in inflammations of the lungs, but such is only the case when the attack is exceedingly violent, and when the strength fails from an early defect in the or- ganic structure of the lungs; they no longer being capable of giving the blood its vital principle, in which cases prostration of strength must ensue, but then all the powers equally fail ; while, in the epi- demic, the weakness appears muscular, and in no respect cor- respondent with the degree of violence of the symptoms in the com- plaint. In catarrhal fever the pulse is also quickened and febrile, but is devoid of that oppressed feel so usual in inflamed lungs : the nostrils also, though sufficiently red and inflamed in the former, yet have seldom that intense colour bordering on a purple which is present in the latter; and though the extremities may be cold in catarrh, they are never so intensely so as is frequent and almost in- variable in pneumonic affections of the topical kind. From all these distinctions, it is hoped the practitioner may readily learn to detect either the one or the other ; it remains only to remark that this fever may be sometimes confounded with strangles, and it is not unusual in very young horses for it to end in that complaint ; in wliich cases, the inflammatory tendency of the catarrh calls the predispo- sition to strangles into action. Symptoms, — -The first appearance denoting this disease, usually ob- served, is a rigor or shivering fit ; such fit may not always be re- marked, but I believe it Invariably occurs : other symptoms also are early accompaniments, as, a sore cough, moist and inflamed nose and eyes, all which arise from the general and early attack on 336 EPIDEMIC CAtARRHAL fever. [0«S5 I. the mucous membranes of the nasal cavities and adjacent parts : but whether this primary attack on these mucous membranes pre- cedes the rigor which only occurs when the specific part of the complaint (i. e. the fever) begins to operate; or whether the rigor may not appear prior to the attack on the membranes, and the af- fection be translated from the skin to those parts which may be under the influence of predisposition to the complaint, is not, I think, quite clear : but from what I have observed, I believe this disease may be generated in both these ways ; and, as was remarked in simple fever, it probably owes its origin now and then to a fit of simple fever translated by metastasis to the catarrhal seat. But in whichever of these ways the complaint begins, an early inflamma- tion takes place in all the cavities lined by the pituitary membrane, which seems the first local object of attack ; and, as there ap- pears in all the secreting or mucous membranes continuous or even contiguous to each other, a disposition to partake in the same in- flammatory action, which is particularly exemplified by the constant tendency apparent in this complaint to extend backwards into the fauces; so, in many instances, it occasions sore throat; w'hile, in others, it does not so much affect the pharynx apparently, but passes on to the rima glottis or entrance of the windpipe, producing a painful cough : should the inflammation be considerable, it' may extend dowm the trachea, occasioning a more distressing sonorous and deeper cough, with a rattling noise in the throat frcfin the in- creased secretion of mucus. Now and then the affection extends still further, and proceeds throughout the ramifications of the bronchia, when to the usual catarrhal symptoms are added peri-v pneumonic appearances. The symptoms therefore may be detailed as being composed of a dull heavy countenance, appetite lessened, eyes red and weeping, the nostrils also redder than usual, and moistened with a flow (jf thin watery fluid. There is almost always present a sonorous, deep- sounding and painful cough, which is frequently accompanied with sore throat. The pulse is always quickened, but is seldom either very full or hard, unless the inflammatory symptoms are urgent, and even then the urgency is more betokened by the acceleration than by the force, and this more particularly after the first and second day. It is also not uncommon for the submaxillary glands, under the throat to become swelled, and, sometimes, the parotid or vives at the side of the throat are the same, and, now and then,- other swellings also appear on the chest, the belly, or legs ; but neither the one nor the other prove critical, that is, the disease never seems to centre in these swellings, and thereby to^ecome evacuated ; neither do these tumefactions seem to exasperate the fever, but, on the contrary, I have remarked, that when they have appeared early in the disease it proved rather a favourable symptom. On the se- cond or third day the appetite wholly ceases, the cough seems still more painful, the pulse still quicker, and the breathing also becomes e^en more accelerated ; but, unless there are peripneumonic symp-^ EPIDEMIC catarrhal FEVER. 337 0ass I.] toms, it is not often laborious in this complaint. About this time, likewise, a purulent discharge appears at the nose, and the horse is observed to become very weak, much more so and more suddenly than the intensity of the symptoms would lead one to expect. The legs, muzzle, and ears, alternate from hot to cold and from cold to heat, but there is very seldom that intense coldness in them that is present in inflammation of the lungs. In this state the disease may be expected to appear at three or four days from its commencement ; when, if not very violent, and if it has been judiciously treated, the discharge from the nostrils may increase, but the heaving and quickness of breathing may be expected to decrease ; the pulse also will moderate, the horse look more lively, and be disposed to eat a little of some favourite food. The dung, which has been before dry and in small quantities, and the urine, which has been also little and high coloured, return to their natural quantities and consistence, and the horse recovers gradually, but seldom rapidly. But the complaint does not always take this favourable turn ; on the contrary, by injudicious treatment, or by a translation of the in- flammatory action, it may be changed into a true peripneumonia : sometimes also, in spite of every care, the discharge will become. inordinate and very foul, the weakness will increase, the pulse be- come faltering, cold sweats appear, and the animal sinks on the- fifth, sixth, or seventh day. In others, these fatal symptoms are. not so rapid, but, eventually, the horse becomes tabid, and dies after ten, twelve, or fourteen days. It also not unfrequently occurs that, though he soon recovers, yet an obstinate cough will remain, from coagulable lymph thrown out into the trachea : if this consists of one distinct mass on any part of the tube, the horse becomes a roarer. The disease sometimes also ends in broken wind : and, not unfrequently also, when the inflammation has extended to the, lungs it terminates by effusion in the chest : in which latter case, the animal first seems deceptively amending, bat a yellow serous fluid issues from his nostrils, the pulse becomes soft, but hurried and irregular, and, at last, suffocation ensues, sometimes early in the complaint ; at others, it is protracted much later, as is more fully detailed in Pneumonia. Causes. — These have been described as principally dependent on a variable state of the atmosphere, acting upon a peculiar liability or aptitude in the constitution to become affected ; more particularly at the vernal and autumnal equinoxes. In some years, this liability is more general than in others, and the disease also in these years assumes a severer and epidemic type, and appears likewise dissemi- nated by a specific contagion. In other seasons there is reason to question its contagious characters, and it seems simply promoted by the liability that the spring months particularly, produce in all horses> but principally in younger ones. It may also make its attack at any other time of the year upon an undue exposure to cold, and prpbably, also, upon a sudden change from cold to heat as well. 338 EPIDEMIC CATAHRHAL FEVER. [C?aS« L Stabled horses are more particularly obnoxious to Itj but it will also attack those at grass, or in any other situation. Pi-ognosis. — This must be drawn from the violence of the symp- toms, as the quickness of the pulse, as well as that of the breath- ing, the early and kindly discharge of a moderate quantity of healthy purulent matter from the nose. When the patient coughs strong and without much distress, eats moderately, and remains to- lerably free from weakness, there is little danger : but if, on the con- trary, the inward soreness is extreme, the wetness excessive, and the pulse much beyond a hundred, the danger is considerable. Treatment of the Epidemic or Catarrhal Fever. — According to the degree of violence exhibited by the symptoms, so must the treat- ment correspond in activity ; and before this is detailed, it is proper to remark, that it may happen when the cold fit preceding the attack is detected, if any stimulant is given sufficiently strong to overcome the irritation already produced, that the complaint will make no further progress : the means whereby this may be effected are detailed in the treatment of simple fever. But when the cold has once given place to the hot fit, the disease may be considered as formed ; and then to give stimulants would greatly aggravate it. The treatment in such cases must be begun by bleeding to the amount of two, three, or four quarts, according to the age, size, and condition of the subject but should a practitioner be called to a case of this kind, the third or fourth day from the attack, he ought well to examine the pulse before he proceeds to bleed : in such case it would be prudent also to try the strength of the horse, by walking him out a few paces ; for if the pulse, though quick, should be small, and the patient staggers in his gait, and, particu- larly should he be a young one, then by no means draw blood. But, otherwise, when called early in the complaint, bleed to the amount mentioned ; and, unless urged to it by a fear of topical affection of the chest, or that the febrile symptoms remain very strong, and the pulse does not become softer ; unless any, or all, of these circumstances urge it, do not repeat the bleeding ; but should the existence of any of these render it necessary, then repeat it to the amount of two-thirds of the original quantity. After this, back rake, and open the body by laxative clysters (see Materia Medico), bran mashes ; and if these do not succeed, give some laxative by the mouth also (see Laxatives, Mat. Med.), but avoid actively purging the horse, and proceed in mild cases to give the fol- lowing ball twice a-day : — No. 1. — Emetic tartar {tartarised antmony) . . two drams, {iiitruted ■potash) . . . . . . three drams, Cream of tartar (supertartrate soot, gunpowder, brimstone, and salt, in equal parts ; a spoonful of which mixture was a dose. During the years 1760, 1/61, and 1762, different provinces on the Continent were again visited by it. The ingenious Plenck, on dissection, by the help of his microscope, found all the viscera affected with num- berless small worms, which he conjectured were the cause of this complaint, and set himself to discover the best vermifuge as a re- medy : but these might possibly be engendered subsequent to the complaint, or the industrious Leeuwenhoek would, perhaps, have dis- covered the same in a healthy animal. Bourgelat, who was con^ suited at this period, recommends ammoniacurh and the fetid gums, dissolved in vinegar, to be used. From these united testimonies two indications present themselves ^ the one is a curative, the other a preventive one. The Curative Treatment of this complaint may be, in a great mea- sure, gathered from these united accounts. It may be added, that the treatment may be condensed into such means as will principally tend to support strength and combat putridity. Bleeding, even in the early stages, ought to be sparingly employed ; but an active purgative may be with great propriety administered. Fumigations should be made use of tending to destroy contagion, and those of the nitric acid would be most proper. See Fumigation^ Mat. Med, The abscesses should be bathed or fomented with hot vinegar; but, above all, I would recommend an active and observant trial of the following, given three times a-day : — ■ Mindprerus’s spirit (see Mat. Med.) . four ounces. Beer yeast , . . eight ounces. Should there be much diarrhoea present, add to this powdered opium one drachm ; and likewise throw up a starch clyster frequently. The Preventive Treatment must consist in first separating the in- fected from the healthy, and strictly preventing their future inteiv course. In the human plague it has been found, that the anointing the body universally with oil, has, in a most wonderful manner, pre- vented the persons so rubbed from being susceptible of receiving the infection. I should, from analogy, have the greatest hope of a similar result ffom this process, tried on such healthy cattle as were exposed to the contagion ; and as the means are easy, and not ex- pensive, they might with great propriety be tried. The unhealthy districts should be put under strict quarantine, and the healthy should destroy the germ of contagion if pqssible, by universal fires of green wood throughout the country. In these places particular care should be taken to house the cattle when the weather is intern- . perate, and all exposure to inclemency should he carefully avoided. It is not improbable also that a mild purgative every ten days might do much as a prophylactie. The houses in which the affected may SYMPTOMATIC FEVER. 347 Class L] have been, and all their appointments, should be washed with lime, and the apartments fumigated with the antiseptic fumigations de- tailed in the Materia Medica. The bodies of the animals who die from the disease should be buried sufficiently deep to cover them from dogs. See.; and their skins should be buried with them. SYMPTOMATIC FEVER. By this is to be understood those general inflammatory appear- ances that accompany great local affection ; that is, when any one or more of the vital organs are much inflamed, or where there is any great internal affection, there is always present considerable derange- ment of the system at large, accompanied with much gencal in- creased action or inflammation ; this is termed symptomatic, or compounded fever. It is evident, therefore, that fever, in this in- stance, is not to be regarded so much a disease as a prominent symptom ; and as such it is to be considered in the practice, and any attention to it is but a secondary indication ; nevertheless, as it some- times runs so high, as greatly to aggravate the other symptoms, wearing away the strength of the animal, sO as to render him unfit to struggle with the real disease, so it must still, under these circum- stances, be a subject of attention. This is by much the most fre- quent fever of horses for though other febrile affections certainly do appear, yet it is comparatively but seldom ; whereas fever, combined with inflammation of some essential organ or organs, as of the brain, lungs, intestines. See., happen every day. We must, however, ex- cept from this the catarrhal fever, which is sufficiently frequent. It is not easy to say whether the febrile disposition is antecedent to the local inflammation, which then becomes a consequence of it, or whether it is produced from it ; but, I believe, from what I have observed, that at times it is both. On the first attack of most fevers, there appears to be a particular contraction of the capillary vessels, which are probably increased in their action, perhaps by the application of a particular stimulus ; by this means the blood is driven into the veins, and this state seems to form the cold shivering fit preceding fever, or constitutes a part of it : when this first effect is pompletely over, these vessels, before constringed, now become pre- ternaturally enlarged, by the heart and larger arteries overcoming the resistance, and then there is first a return of heat, and at last sweat breaks out. Perhaps it may happen, when all the parts are acting in concert to overcome this contraction of the extreme vessels, some one part may be more weakened than another by the exertion, and its minute vessels rendered less able to contract on the distention that follows upon the hot fit, by which the weakened vessels remain permanently distended, constituting local inflammation of that part ; the irritation and derangement of which keep up that fever as symp- tomatic, which before was primary : thus much must take place, to account for local inflammation arising from the attack of fever, and 348 INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN, [ClcSS II. proceeding from it, which, I believe, is very frequently the case. It likewise is not difficult to suppose one organ in an accidental or even natural state of weakness, and which, in such cases, will be the one most likely to suffer. But it happens again, in other instances, that inflammation at once attacks an organ or part, in which its effects are seen before the febrile symptoms appear ; in this case, the pain and inflammation of the part shall gradually increase unperceived till they become too severe to be hid, and we detect them then accompanied by the fever. Though the general treatment of internal inflammations may re- semble each other in many particulars, yet, as there is always a ne- cessity of topical applications, so it becomes essentially necessary to distinguish the organs affected ; and this forms one of the great branches of the art. It is to be remarked, that in some instances several organs shall be affected at once, and yet the fever remain symptomatic ; these cases become very complex, inasmuch as the symptoms are difficult to define j nevertheless the treatment must be that of general inflammation. When, therefore, to the general characteristic marks of fever, which we have in the foregoing pages described, there are super- added other symptoms, we have reason to suspect, that, instead of simple fever, it owes its origin, or its continuance, to a local affec- tion of some one essential organ ; the particular mode of judging of which, may be gained by attention to the details in Class II. Cla0S II- Inflammation of Organs essential to Life. BY this is meant those internal inflammations, that though local and confined, yet affect organs of such magnitude and importance, as to form themselves each into a peculiar and marked disease. INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. Phrenitis.'] \Mal de Feu, ou Mai d’Espagne. This disease, which is by farriers called mad staggers, and phrenzy fever, is also by some veterinarians termed apoplexy : but which is a much more improper name for it than either of the former j for it has none of the characteristics of apoplexy, which is a mechanical rupture of some of the vessels of the brain ; whereas this disease consists in an increased determination of blood to that organ, united with an inflamed state of its vessels. The staggers INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. 349 Class II.} appears to exist in two different forms ; one produces symptoms of coma, and from hence is known by the term sleepy staggers : the other is accompanied with much delirium, and is, therefore, called the mad staggers. I was formerly disposed to consider these as separate complaints, or, at least, as varieties of one disease ; but a more extended experience has disposed me to consider them as one and the same affection, differing only in the different degree of in- flammatory action going on ; and perhaps also on the different de- grees of irritability in the organ attacked : and this mode of viewing it appears the more correct, when we observe how frequently the drowsiness and torpor, that accompany the complaint in the outset, give place to the delirious and furious state in the latter stages. The comatose or sleepy state of the complaint renders it very liable to be confounded with another, but totally different disease, originating in a specific inflammation of the stomach, and which is at present known among veterinarians by the term stomach staggers. In this latter complaint, such a paralysis takes place of the stomach, that it becomes incapable of contracting on its contents ; and the pressure occasioned throws a vast quantity of blood on the brain, which also produces comatose symptoms, as stupidity, drowsiness, and an inclination to press the head forward. These appearances, being so very similar with those of true staggers, would make it appear difficult at first to decide between the two ; but the increased urgency of the symptoms, particularly in the delirious state, is alone sufficient to distinguish them ; add to which, that in staggers the eyes and mouth remain of their natural colour, or at least are only increased in vascularity ; whereas in stomach staggers they are almost invariably tinged with bile. There is also present in the stomach staggers a more generally diffused nervous affection, characterised by spasmodic twitchings, not common in the true phrenitis. While, therefore, every stage of this complaint (except now and then when the coma is extreme) betokens increased muscular energy, from heightened action of the brain ; the stomach affection exhibits usually symptoms of mechanical pressure and diminished energy, with a sympathetic weakness dependent on, and always present with, inflamed stomach and bowels. But a correct judgment can only be formed between these two diseases, by a careful attention to the symptoms of each as detailed in the Outlines ; for in our description of stomach staggers, it will be seen that now and then a considerable degree of violence is present in this also, which might, without a conversance with the other peculiarities, mislead a casual observer. The phrenitis, brought on in the horse by the bite of a rabid or mad dog, as it is called, still more nearly resembles the mad staggers ; but even here the observant practitioner can detect distinctions fully sufficient to ground an opi- nion upon. In the rabid phrenitis the symptoms evidently betoken an alienation of right mind, if I may so express myself, and which is characterised by a mischievous disposition. A horse thus affected, therefore, attacks, as in a rage, every thing that comes in his way ; 350 INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. [CZa55 11. rack, stall, and manger, are all laid prostrate. In the true staggers nothing of this kind appears ; the horse is wild, and beats himself about, and endangers every thing around him, but not by premedi- tated design : on the contrary, he simply labours under a violent spasmodic contraction of his muscles, uncontrolled by the judgment of his mind ; from whence he throws himself about, falls prostrate, or kicks, from mere muscular irritation. The Symptoms of true phrenitis, or staggers, may be detailed thus ; — There is usually, first, observed a disinclination for food, with a slight running of moisture from the eyes, which, if attentively ob- served, even in the very early stages, will be found rather redder than natural ; the nostrils also are more vascular than usual : as the disease advances, the horse appears impatient, and throws himself about in a strange manner, as though frightened at something ; or he falls into a drowsy state, holding his head low, and resting it in the manger, and which state sometimes continues till within a few hours of his death, when he becomes convulsed, and is carried off : but more generally, on the second day from the attack, he ex- hibits more watchfulness, his eyes sparkle, his nostrils extend, his head is raised, and he appears as though looking at the rack. Each succeeding hour aggravates the disease, if nothing is done to stop its violence ; the animal, becoming more furious, bounds from side to side, and then falls in a state of insensibility on the ground, or dashes about the pavement in convulsive and insensible struggles ; suddenly, however, he rises, and renews his violence. The pulse is not always the same in every case, being in some instances more frequent than natural, accompanied with a full throbbing feel ; but it is, I think, more usually diminished in its quickness, yet in either case it has very generally a hardness and fulness : now and then, however, particularly in the comatose or sleepy state, the pulse is oppressed, and very slow. It is always accompanied with great marks of fever, and the secretions are sometimes increased, but more frequently they are diminished, and costiveness is present, as well as a very small urinary secretion ; and which latter symptom commences with the disease, and continues till within a few hours of the death of the animal, when there is frequently a considerable flow of urine. The progress of the complaint is various ; it now and then destroys on the second or third day; at other times the fatal termination is protracted to the fifth, sixth, or seventh ; or it may admit of a natural cure, and the horse slowly amends. It is, fortunately, not a frequent disease, and, when early and judiciously attended to, it may in the greater number of instances be successfully treated. On examination after death, the pituitary membrane throughout has been sometimes found highly inflamed, and the membranes of the brain are always very much so : in some, w'ater has been found in the ventricles ; but in all, the plexus choroides is greatly enlarged, and unusually vascular. The Causes of phrenitis, or mad staggers, may be various : one common origin is, I believe, the translation of idiopathic fever to this INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. 351 Class II.] part ; great heat may also occasion it ; excessive exertion likewise : and it may be produced by the common causes of other local affec- tionsj as the sudden transitions from heat to cold, and from cold to heat. A full state of the habit, suddenly acquired, is not an unfre- qucnt cause of it, which may be brought on from an injudicious re- moval from a low to a full diet, without preparation or restraint ; and however any of the other circumstances may operate as the im- mediate cause, the remote one commonly exists in a plethoric habit ; for which reason it is seldom met with but in the young, robust, and full fed. The Prog7iosis is favourable when the redness and flushing of the eyes decrease, when the horse becomes more tranquil, when the pulse softens, the dung and urine appear in sufficient quantity, and symp- toms of appetite return ; but when the secretions continue small, the impatience increases, the teeth are heard to grate, and particu- larly if a sanious discharge issues from the nostrils, the termination proves in general unfavourable. The Cure of Staggers. — As all the varieties of this disease appear to arise from an increased determination of blood to the brain, joined to an inflammatory state of its vessels ; so it is evident that the cure must principally depend upon lessening the quantity of the blood generally, and on diminishing the increased action of the vessels of the part particularly. Both these indications are equally promoted by bleeding; and whenever this is early and largely prac- tised, the effects are commonly salutary. In such a case, there- fore, proceed to draw blood immediately to the amount of six, seven, or eight quarts, according to the age, size, and condition of the horse ; as well as referring to the degree of violence in the symp- toms. But it will be often found very difficult to draw blood in this complaint, from the furious, impatient state of the animal : under these circumstances patience must be exercised, and the practitioner should not be deterred, but must wait the momentary cessations of the violence, when he may boldly open one or even both jugulars, and suffer the blood to flow until something like the above quantity may be supposed to have escaped. Should the violence of the horse prevent the application of a pin to the vein, no danger need be apprehended from suffering it to bleed as much as it will, particularly if one only is opened ; on the contrary, when the quan- tity that flows is not sufficient, a further encouragement ought to be given by a ligature passed round the neck. It has been strongly recommended, from very respectable authority, to bleed from the temporal artery in preference to the jugular vein ; I presume, un- der a supposition that, by so doing, the blood immediately pass- ing to the head would be lessened : but this is one of the errors of acting from analogy, or arises from a circumscribed attention to the particular anatomy of the animal in question. It will be seen in pages 128 and 201, and in Plate 4, letter b, of the head, that I have been at particular pains to shew that the distribution of this artery is different from that of the temporal of the human, and that, in the 352 INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. f[CZawII. horse, it simply ramifies and terminates in the masseter muscle, and neither furnishes the eye, nor the internal parts of the head ; conse- quently no particular good can be derived from opening it in prefer- ence to the jugulars, unless it should so happen that, from the horse laying extended, it might be more easily got at. Under these circumstances the practitioner would be justified in opening it, but not in the same manner as is described in bleeding from the human temporal, by dividing it across, for, if so done, the ends would probably retract under the skin by the muscular power in the artery : but it should be operated on by puncturing it in the same manner as is practised on a vein, and it may be secured if necessary after- wards by a pin, &c. ; which will seldom be requisite, for the first bleeding can hardly be too considerable : on the contrary, if it is even pushed till the horse is faint, it will be so much the better, and then the vessels collapse as a matter of necessity. When it is wished to open this artery, therefore, its situation is particularly described as before stated, and may be always detected three or four inches below the root of the ear, in a line from its base towards the nostril. Having finished the bleeding, if possible, insert under the Jaw a rowel well smeared with blistering ointment, back rake, and throw up a purging clyster (see Materia Medica) ; and, if practicable, give an active mercurial purge by the mouth, either as a ball, or, if more convenient, dissolved as a drink (see Purges, Materia Medica). Should the symptoms continue violent in a few hours after all this lias been done, bleed again largely, and blister the head, if it can be done without danger of the ointment getting into the eyes : but if from his violence there is reason to fear this, I have, in such cases, very successfully encased the upper part of the head in a pitch cap, and have introduced the blister in the centre of this. Mr. Coleman recommends to pour boiling water on the pasterns, but this plan has nothing but its cruelty and novelty to recom- mend it, and never can be equally beneficial with a blister applied more immediately in the neighbourhood of the affected organ. There is little necessity to caution the attendant with regard to the food, for it is very seldom but that there is a total loss of appe- tite ; if, however, from a false sympathy, the horse should be in- clined to eat, he should be debarred from it on every account ; the motion of the jaws is unfavourable to the return of the blood from the head ; a full stomach is equally unfavourable ; not to add, that the weakness occasioned by fasting would be particularly salutary here. When the delirium and frantic symptoms are very great, it would be very advisable to sling the horse as is done on board ships, which will effectually secure him from injuring himself, and render him more conveniently got at by the operator. It can hardly be ne- cessary to hint, that the stable should be kept as cool as possible ; and when a blister cannot be applied, it might not be amiss to dash the head with cold water frequently. When the disease assumes z comatose appearance^ and the horse has what a farrier would cali- 355 Class II.] SPECIFIC inflammation of the stomach. the sleepy staggers, the treatment must be exactly the same, and the blistering is as urgently called for in this as in the former. In cases of amendment, it is prudent to guard for some time against any exciting causes of plethora, as I have seen it return with in- creased violence more than once. Oxen and cows are subject now and then to have a species of fever, which country persons call a fever of the brain. In such cases, if the delirium is manifest, the treatment must be also similar. SPECIFIC INFLAMMATION OF THE STOMACH, CALLED STOMACH STAGGERS. This disease^ from its resemblance to staggers in its symptoms, and from its cause being attributed to an over- distended stoinach, has received the name of stomach staggers. To Mr. White, of Exeter, the veterinary world are particularly indebted for a much more detailed and clear account of this complaint than any that had yet appeared ; and though I materially differ from him in my opi- nion of the nature of the malady, I fully acknowledge that I have added also much to my stock of information concerning it from his researches. Mr. White, in describing this malady, hints that it should be called the symptomatic staggers, in contradiction to the phrenitis, which he terms the idiopathic staggers j and, under his view of the matter, there would certainly be great propriety in so calling it ; but some experience, and a Very close attention to the subject, has fully convinced me that, on a more extended acquaint- ance with this peculiar disease, it will be found to merit the novel designation I have given it. Several of our older writers describe the complaint with sufficient accuracy, but they all consider it as a primary affection of the head j and as their researches seldom extended to the examination of the morbid appearances of cases after death, so the cause remained in- volved in obscurity. Mr. Coleman, who had heard of the affection, but had very seldom seen it, first conjectured that it arose from a distended stomach, and hence called it stomach staggers ; but ho appears to have prosecuted his inquiries no further. With much more experience, and infinitely more ardour, Mr. White adopted the term, hinting only that it would be more proper to call it symp- tomatic staggers ; but, in other respects, he has been content to consider it in the same point of view with Mr. Coleman, It however appears to me, that what has been regarded as its cause, is d. consequence alone; and that the distention of the stomach is a mere symptom of the complaint, but whose real nature seems to consist of an inflammation of that organ sui generis; differing 354 SPECIFIC inflammatio!n of the stomach. [Class Iti from gastritis, or simple inflammation of the part^ as well as from that likewise brought on by the action of poison ; though a morbid effect produced from something without, has been also hinted at as its probable source. In all the cases that have been examined after death, one appearance was common to all ; an inflamed state of the lower part of the stomach towards its pyloric orifice ; but a distended state of the stomach was not always present : it is therefore not unnatural to look on that as a cause which always exists, in prefer- ence to that, which, though common, yet is not invariably present. From the great frequency with which the distention of the stomach is met with in these cases, Mr. Coleman and Mr. White have been induced to consider mechanical distention as the immediate cause of the complaint ; and the weight of such authorities entitles the matter to great attention. These gentlemen regard the symptoms produced, as resulting from the sympathetic connexion between the brain and stomach, united to the effects that would arise from this disten- tion throwing a vast quantity of blood on the brain. This gorged state of this organ is considered as an accidental circumstance, de- pendent on any cause that induces the animal to take in an in- ordinate quantity of food, particularly of a dry nature ; and, hence, that it may, in many instances, be clearly traced to follow a full meal given after long previous fasting, the distention of which pro- duces a mechanical debility in the organ : as a farther proof of which, Mr. White observes, that it usually attacks old, weak, and hard-worked horses. But, in my own experience, old and weak horses are by no means the only subjects of attack ; on the contrary, I have seen it in the young and robust, and, likewise, under cir- cumstances where no exposure to irregularity in the manner or mat- ter of feeding appeared to exist : and Mr. White himself candidly admits that it has occurred also under his observation as well at grass as in the stable ; and in cases where there was no opportunity of paralyzing the stomach in the first instance by abstinence, nor any stimulus to over-distending it afterwards. In these instances, at least, we must therefore look for another cause. But we need not be indebted to theory to induce a belief that this disease is not dependent on an accidental distention of stomach ; we may at once advert to facts clear and decisive. There is before the public, through the medium of Mr. White, a very full account of- this complaint as it existed in the neighbourhood of Swansea, in South Wales, where it appears to have raged in an endemial form, and assumed a truly epidemic and even contagious character : we are told by Mr. White’s correspondent, that it was most prevalent between July and September, and was fatal in seventy-six cases out of eighty. No age or sex was exempted, and, whether in the stable or at grass, or working underground in mines, all vvere equally obnoxious to it. It has occurred more than once in the same i\eighbourhood, always in an epidemic form ; and it also gave ample proof of its being highly contagious. Mr. White, though he ad- Class II.] SPECIFIC INFLAMMATION OF THE STOMACH. 35.5 mits these appearances were strongly characteristic of a contagion ; and though he also allows that the country people familiar with it, all consider it catching, as it is termed ; yet he himself very un- willingly allows it any character of this description : but, from the very clear and satisfactory statement of the disease, as it raged near Swansea, and from what I have myself seen of it, I have no hesi- tation in considering it, in some instances, as a contagious epide- mic. In minutes of a correspondence, now before me, where mv opinion was required, it occurred during the spring, and attacked three horses out of five ; the other two were removed as soon as the nature of the disease was understood, and thereby escaped. Otlier notes made by me, of actual cases, and other correspondences re- lating to the subject, all tend to confirm the opinion I have already stated ; nor does it at all go to weaken this argument, that it often selects a single horse from among a number, the rest of whom shall all escape it: the same happens every day with tyjdius fever in the human subject, which is too notoriously contagious to need com- ment ; and it is not attempted to be denied that it is only under par- ticular circumstances of malignity that it does assume an epidemic and contagious form. From all these considerations I feel, therefore, no hesitation in considering this as a disease w’hose proximate cause is dependent on a specific inflammation of the stomach; distinct and differing from those inflammations of this organ brought on by the usual causes of such affection ; as, translation of common fever, access of cold, or from the action of any common poisonous substance. I was first disposed to regard this matter in the .novel point of view it is now placed in, from observing the effects of an inflam- mation (evidently specific) of the stomach in other animals, but particularly from what occurs in the rabies, or, as is popularly termed, madness* of dogs : for, whoever will be at the pains to in- form liimself by an attentive observation of the symptoms while living, and of dissections of rabid canine subjects when dead ; will find that this malady unquestionably consists in an inflammation specific and sui generis, principally affecting the stomach of the animal : and though the inflammation is not in rabid dogs, nor in other brutes, confined to this organ alone, but extends also, in some cases, to the bowels, and, in others, to the lungs; yet this very circumstance rather tends to strengthen the proofs I would draw from it : for when the lungs form the principal seat of the complaint, the symptoms are always more violent, or, rather, the manners of the animal are so : and it is from these cases, and these only, that this fatal malady has derived the popular name of mad- * I believe I do not arrogate too much to myself when I assert that I have seen more of this singular complaint, rabies, and have also paid more attention to it, than any other person in existence. I have attentively watched the progress oi' it in many hundreds of cases, and have as attentively examined the morbid ap- pearances of a vast number after death ; I can therefore deliver the above opi- nions and remarks with some confidence, and witliout fear of contradiction. B b 356 SPECIFIC 1NFEAM5IATION OF THE STOMACH. [C/o55 II. ness*; but when, on the contrary, toe inflammatory attack is principally spent on the stomach and the bowels, it produces symptoms extremely similar to what occurs in stomach staggers; and it is worthy of remark, that the analogy holds good still fur- ther; for in almost every rabid dog who dies under that stupid drowsy kind, called dumb madness, there is present also an enor- mous distention of the stomach from substances taken in; and here, likewise, the inflammation is usually greatest at its large curvature and pyloric oriflee. This distended state of the stomach, in the rabid dog, is so very common, that it may be almost regarded as an unerring characteristic of the complaint : and it appears, that the disposition thus to fill the stomach, is actually dependent on the peculiar inflammation of the part, and on that alone ; for idiopathie gastritis is sometimes seen, and the inflammation pro- duced by mineral poisons is sufficiently common ; but in these no such disposition is observed ; whereas, in the specific inflammation of the organ produced by rabies, there is a peculiar and almost invariable disposition to distend the stomach sometimes with food, but more commonly with other substances : and it appears to me, that this uncontrollable desire (the effect of some morbid sympathy) is simply to Jill the stomach ; the sensation of hunger having no part in it : and therefore, after death, in almost every one of these cases, an enormous mass of undigested anomalous matter is found within it, composed of every trash that comes in the way of the animal. Exactly the same, I conceive, occurs in the horse, the specific inflammation of whose stomach stimulates him in like manner by a similar morbid sympathy to take in a large quantity of food, the paralytic state of which prevents its contracting on its contents ; con- sequently, though this distention is not the original cause of the complaint, yet it will greatly aggravate the distress and urgency of the symptoms. The ^mptoyns of this specific gastritis commence generally by a drowsiness ; the horse eats slowly and at intervals, but he still recurs to it again ; the breathing is slightly accelerated, but the pulse suffers no material alteration, except now and then wiren it is rather quickened, and in other instances again it appears rather oppressed in the greater number, however, as has been observed, it is not materially altered until within a few hours of death, when it inva- riably becomes small and oppressed. There appears a particular diminution of all the secretions ; the costiveness is peculiarly ob- stinate ; and the urine is ejected by a convulsive effort, and in small quantities; but the quality is not generally altered. In every, instance there are strong marks of biliary affection, anfl all the mu- cous membranes are tinged yellow by it; the probable cause of which * It is worthy of remark, al=o, that the rabid malady io other brutes, as the horse, the ox, and sheep, always produces symptoms of great fury and excite- ment; and, in all tliese, the lungs are principally inflamed, while the Stomach and bowels are, in general, subordinately affected. Class II.] SPECIFIC INFLAMMATION OF THE STOMACH. S.iy is, that the liver, to a certain degree, partakes of the inflammatory affection. Tlie nostrils, the eyes, the mouth, and the inner part; of the anus, are therefore invariably yellow under this disease. Therc is generally, also, some appearance of slight rigor at the be- ginning of the complaint ; but as it advances, the extremities be- come, one half hour, very cold ; and, the next, the horse breaks out into a profuse sweat. The sympathetic effects on the brain very constantly and early shew themselves by the nervous or spasmodic twitchings present over the whole panniculus carnosus, particularly observed in the breast and hind quarters : the nervous affection is also accompanied by an early and characteristic muscular weakness ^ which is such as to make the unfortunate sufferer bend his legs and totter, as though falling ; and he is likewise observed not to rest his head in the manger, as in the sleepy staggers, but he elevates it ; and as though he wished to gain a fulcrum of support, he forces it often between the rack staves, I never saw the disease in a horse at grass ; but when it does oc- cur there, it is said that it is peculiarly marked by the manner of the animal, and the state in which he is frequently found : if he is discovered moving, he is seen to stroll about unconsciously till he meets with some obstacle against which he fixes his head, where he remains tottering. Now and then, however, there is some degree of irritability and violence present, but much more generally he is in a stupid, drowsy, and almost insensible state ; and, in either case, there is always present a marked distress of countenance and man- ner; the jaws usually have a considerable rigidity, but not amount- ing to a perfect locking. These detailed symptoms are the common attendants on the malady, and are usually, all of them, present in every case ; but the spasmodic twitchings, the obstinate costiveness, and the marks of biliary affection, are constant and invariable. Progtiosis. — As, in all the cases I have seen, the disease nas ter- minated fatally, so I can only give, from my own experience, the symptoms that betoken mortality; which are, an obstinate continu- ance of the costiveness, profuse sweats alternating with cold extre- mities, and the under jaw rigid and nearly immovable : but from the accounts derived from other sources, returning health, in the very few who have recovered, has been signified by the convulsive twitchings abating, the jaw loosening, but particularly by the faeces passing. The Cure. — Here, likewise, I can offer little on my own expe- rience, having never witnessed a successful issue. This general fatality is not dependent .ilone on the obstinacy of the malady, but may be attributed, in some measure also, to the time generallv lost before application is made for help. Mr. White has however been more fortunate ; and in the case or two that fell under his notice, where recovery did take place, he attributes it to an early overcoming of the costiveness : but, if my ideas of the nature of the complaint are correct, however much a free exit to the fieces is to be wished, our efforts should be particularly directed to overcome the inflam- B b 2 35S SPECIFIC INFLAMMATION OF THE STOMACH. [CIUSS iL mation of the organ, winch alone occasions the obstruction to the passage of the aliment. I perfectly agree with Mr. White, that bleeding promises but little change of benefit, seeing the disease arises from a specific affection. Nevertheless, in all cases, I would at least try it ; and when the symptomatic phrenitis is considerable, I would do it largely. The chest, or belly, about the girthing place, should be actively blistered ; and, as unloading the bowels must, under every circumstance, be desirable, immediately give the following : — Epsom salts (sulplwle of magnesia ) . eight ounces, Castor oil ditto, Watery tincture of aloes (see Mat. Med.) . . ditto. Dissolve the salts in the tincture of aloes, united with an addi- tional teacup full of warm water, and then add the oil and give. From a peculiar sanative effect that castor oil appears in other cases to produce on the stomach and bowels, I should be disposed to give this remedy a trial first, and then proceed to back rake and throw up a purging clyster (see Clysters, Materia J^edica) : but as the costiveness is usually very obstinate, and the symptoms very urgent, so I would not wait more than five or six hours, when I should recommend to repeat the same ; or, if judged more expedient, a strong purging ball (see Purges, Materia Medica) may be dissolved by rubbing it down with a yolk of an egg and a little warm gruel or ale. But I should be disposed to advise the drink in preference, more frequently repeated. Those, who reason from analogy only, will deprecate even the exhibition of the drink on an inflamed stomach-; but one feet is worth all the theory in the world, and it does appear, from experi- ence, that no medicine given by the mouth aggravates the uneasi- ness : which may be accounted for on a consideration of its specific nature ; and certain it is likewise, that no remedies are calculated to do more good, than such as tend to draw the inflammation from the stomach by acting on the bowels ; and, considering the pa- ralysed slate of the organ, a liquid remedy is much more likely to pass than a solid one, which does not seem to have been consi- dered by Mr. White in his directions for the treatment : for the same reasons, also, active clysters should be continued. It only remains to throw out a hint to the experimental veterina- rian, which is ; that in any future instances of this complaint that might occur to him, but more particularly where it should appear to exist in an endemial or contagious form, I would recommend him to try the effects of arsenic internally administered, and I w'ould do it on the following grounds. This poison, there is reason to believe, does not exert its baneful influence wholly by its caustic qualities, but it excites a specific inflammation on the stomach ; one princi- pal proof of which is, that it will act equally through the medium of the blood vessels. If this is the case, from analogy we are warranted in concluding that no better remedy could be devised Class II,] INFLAMMATION OF THE LyNGS. ' 359 than one wherein we v/ere enabled to pit one specific inflammation against another: under which treatment, from what we see in cases something similar, we might hope for a beneficial result. As the disease is a desperate one, and no efficient means are at present known to combat it, this may be worth the trial. INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. Pneumonia .] \_Peripneu monie. The lungs in the horse form a very large mass, which, united with their extreme vascularity, renders them very susceptible of in- flammation ; and as this affection proves very frequently fatal to him, so the subject is a very important one to the veterinarian. This disease was formerly but little understood among farriers, which added much to its fatality ; and if no greater improvements had been made in the art, than have taken place in the knowledge of the causes, effects, and mode of treatment of this disease alone ; still the founders of these improvements would have been eminently useful, and deserved well of the community. Farriers, from ob- serving the gangrenous state of the lungs in these cases after death, have supposed that the horse died from some long-continued ma- lady, which gradually decayed these parts, from whence they called it the rot: and their treatment of the complaint has been what such a supposition would lead to, as hot stimulating drugs to stop this rotting process ; but as we now know that the disease arises simply from an inflammation in the p.arts, we are aware, that this heating plan is the most destructive that can be pursued, and must end in death in the majority of cases in which it is practised. Other farriers again, observing the difficulty of breathing present in it, have supposed that the iungs rose towards the throat, and have hence named it rising of the limits : these persons have set them- selves to give heavy medicines to keep down the lungs; and, at the same time, combined the heating drugs, so that the effect has been the same. Writers on human medicine have usually described under pneu- monia two different diseases, one of which, termed peripneumony , was considered as an inflammation of the substance of the lungs, characterised by a quick, but soft, or by an oppressed pulse ; the other, called pleurisy, being an inflammatory affection of the mcm- hranes only of these organs, and distinguished by a hard and more full pulse. The older writers on farriery also, however good, trusted too much to analogy, and derived but little from experience, or from observations made on morbid anatomy ; hence they also de- scribe at length, after the human, two distinct affections. But a more intimate acquaintance with the subject has clearly proved that no such distinctions exist in the horse ; in whom the sub- 360 INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. [C7as^ IT, Stance of the lungs is always inflamed in. common with the mem- branes. 7’he French authors of celebrity, as La Fosse, Bourgelat, and Vitet, likewise describe a distinct affection of the pulmonary membranes, under the term pleuresie : but it was the peculiar fort of the French writers of this time to split differences, and to make numerous varieties, which their more modern writers have, in a great measure, corrected. Symptoms. — The approach of pneumonia is sometimes very insi- dious, commencing w’ith a dry hard cough that is scarcely noticed ; and which will now and then exist two or three days before the horse appears otherwise ill : at length, however, he looks less lively, and is observed to breathe quicker. In other instances the attack at once shews itself, not by a cough, but by a shivering fit ; or sometimes he is first observed to be dull, hot in his skin, and to heave at his flanks : gradually the eyes become red, and the nostrils more parti- cularly so, which, as the disease advances, change to a purple hue. The ears and legs, in the beginning of the disease, will be found of a variable temperature, sometimes warm, and at others cold ; but as the complaint proceeds, or even if very violent at the outset, the ex- tremities will be intensely cold, and will remain invariably so. The pulse, on examination, will not always present the same appearances ; it will sometimes be very considerably increased in quickness, to 90, 100, or even more, in a minute: at other times again it will be but little quicker than natural, but a particular indistinctiveness and op- pression are always present, and this forms a very distinguishing fea- ture in all violent inflammations of vital organs, but in this one still more particularly. The reason for which appears to be, that the right side of the heart becomes weak from distention, while the left has not sufficient blood to contract on ; for the enlargement of the. lungs, from the inflammation, is such as to prevent the free flow of the blood through them ; and from the same cause the air also is prevented from being so readily respired, which occasions the quick laborious breathing : other febrile affections may quicken the breath- ing materially, but here it is evidently laborious, and difficult also. From a similar cause arises the characteristic mark of the complaint so common, which is, that an affected horse seldom lays down, it may indeed be said never, but continually stands, day and night, often with his fore feet apart ; which arises from the necessity he feels for employing the assistant muscles of respiration more fully to dis- tend the chest with air ; and which auxiliary muscles are some of them common to the chest and fore extremities, and consequently act best on the former, when the latter are fixed, The appetite is generally lost, and there is a remarkable appearance of distress in the countenance, without usually much expression of active pain : there is always likewise a stiffness and disinclination to move, the head is held low, and the nostrils distended wfith the diffi- culty of breathing. The eyes are commonly moist, sometimes they are red and starting, while the whole veins of the head and neck betoken suffusion, and an obstruction to the passage of the blood. INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 361 Class II.] A frequentj hard, and dry cough is sometimes present, and forms a strong feature in the complaint ; at others little is heard of it. At this period, if an active and judicious treatment is not adopted, the disease proceeds rapidly, the pulse becomes still more oppressed and irregular, the neck and breast are observed to be affected with con- vulsive twitchings, the ears and legs feel still more intensely cold, although the body may have partial cold sweats breaking out over it; the nostrils change to a still more deep livid hue, and the air that comes from them is cool or cold ; the mouth looks of a deadly white, the teeth grate, and the animal dies on the third, fourth, or fifth day, suffocated from a congestion in the capillaries of the lungs. On dissection, these cases exhibit a complete destruction of the pul- monary cellular structure, by the violence of the distention, by the suffusion of serum within them, and by the voagulable lymph thrown out ; the right side of the heart is also inflamed from over-distention, and has been found burst. Sometimes, instead of simple conges- tion, the inflammatory action may proceed to gangrene, but whieh produces no particular difference in the time or manner of the termi- nation ; after death, however, the lungs will be found more livid than in the former case, and so tender as to hardly bear examining : this state may be known previous to death, by a foetid smell, with some discharge from the mouth and nose. At other times a fatal termination of the complaint is occasioned by a serous effusion into the cavity of the chest, which usually begins about the third, fourth, or fifth day ; the exhalent vessels of the lungs continuing to pour out the fluid till they completely fill up the cavity of the thorax, which consequently suffocates the animal by preventing the expansion of the air cells. This termination, which is equally quick and fatal with the others, may be detected before death by a serous discharge from the nose, but without much foetor ; and after death it shews itself by the quantity of bloody fluid extravasated between the lungs and ribs. These form the early fatal terminations to the disease ; but there is likewise another no less unfortunate winding up of the account, but which is considerably protracted, often to the second, third, or even fourth week from the attack, and is one also that frequently occa- sions the junior practitioner much mortification, and sometimes leads him greatly astray. It arises, equally with the last termination, from serous effusion into the cavity of the chest, but it is a gradual one, and accompanied with a remission of all the inflammatory symp- toms, leaving only this disposition in the exhalents slowly to pour out the interstitial fluid in great quantity; combined also, as it usually is, with a tendency in the vessels, at the same time, to form a deposit of coagulable lymph, or which perhaps may have been an effect of a more early stage of the disease. In these unfortunate and deceptive cases, the horse looks more lively, the heat returns to the extremities, he begins to eat, and the pulse decreases in its frequency and increases in strength, and it is only a very experienced observer that can detect any difference in it from that of a horse under a real 362 INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. [ClasS II. amendment*: sometimes this variation from a healthy state is so very trifling, that it almost certainly escapes detection, particularly if the practitioner is still further thrown off his guard by the flatter- ing picture drawn of the animal’s situation by those around him. But in general cases the experienced veterinarian will detect, with a moderate degree of attention, a peculiar beat of the pulse, notwith- standing the improved state of it before alluded to ; there will be a slight degree of hurried irreguJarity better felt than described. The peculiar sensation this pulse gives to the practitioner may be still more distinctly felt by placing the hand against the left side, when the heart itself will afford a criterion to the touch, that it is beating through a watery medium, as though vibrating within a bladder of water. This feel, contrasted with that of a healthy horse examined in the same way, will best teach the peculiarity. The existence of ■the water may be also generally suspected from the state of the coat, which usually stares and feels unkindly j and there is likewise, in most of these cases, a yellow serous discharge from the nostrils, at first thin, but afterwards- thicker and glutinous ; and it may be ob- served, that the animal appears alarmed on any sudden exertion, as turning quickly in his stall ; he will be particularly so on holding his head up to receive a drink, which arises from a fear of strangula- tion f. In this state, something between sick and well, a horse will ■* My worthy and ingenious partner, Mr. W. Youatt, was, during the summer months of 1814, called upon to attend a pneumonic affection, in the horse of Mr. H. E , an eminent surgeon, then residing in the neighbourhood of Hanover Square. I happened to be absent from town, and only saw the horse once on my return, apparently in a state of progressive and even rapid aniendincnt, and yet not such a one as quite satisfied either myself or my colleague however, here the discriminating symptoms were so very obscure, that neither of us were prepared for the result. After the lapse of many equally flattering days, the horse was suddenly attacked with the symptoms usual in these cases ; and as neither my partner nor myself were on the spot at the moment, another practitioner was called in, who bled the horse largely, which of course greatly aggravated his symptoms, and induced his owner, on. the other hand, to ply him most actively with opium, bark, and other tonics. This was scarcely less injudiciou.s, and the case proved, as might be expected, quickly fatal. I particularize this instance to warn the junior practitioner to be always on his guard, and likewise as a hint, that he must, in his profession, be always prepared for untoward events; for were he even a prophet, he should not escape mortifica- tion. Here, was a case attended with judgment, and one that promised the hap- piest results; but from that fatal tendency in it to terminate in this manner, it proved one that no art could parry ; and the consequence was, that though the animal belonged to a gentleman whose education ought to have enlarged his mind generally, and whose profession particularly should have made him aware of the deceptive appearances under which some diseases mask themselves; yet in this instance, I believe, Mr. E— — was far from satisfied with what had been done, and, on the contrary, expected that Mr. Y ’s judgment ought to have been so beforehand with the disease, as to have foretold the mode of its termination from the first moment he saw it. -}• A very curious fact is stated with regard to horses in this state, that, if tliey are taken into water out of their standing depth ; as soon as they lose their footing, and are forced to attempt to swim, they turn on their backs and suffocate: this lias happened from the circumstance of bathing them, under a supposition that it would benefit their convalescent state; and it has occurred more frequently i|nder sea bathing. I INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 363 Class II.] continue to deceive the persons around him that are unused to these cases, for a longer or shorter period, perhaps for ten days, or some- times two or three weeks even : suddenly, however, he is taken with a shiverino; fit, and all his former symptoms recur; and though they return with diminished violence, yet they will carry him off in a few hours. It may be, therefore, prudent to recapitulate to the practi- tioner, that the distinguishing marks of these kind of cases are to be drawn from the peculiar state of the pulse above described ; — the breathing continuing rather quicker than natural ; — an unhealthy feel, and staring of the coat; — a disinclination to lie down ; — and an evi- dent dread of any hurrying movement, or to a considerable elevation of the head. After death, it is surprising to see vdiat mischief has taken place in the chest in such instances : the lungs are usually full of adhesions, and large masses of coagulable lymph will be found ad- hering to them, and others swimming in the serous fluid with which the chest will be filled. Now and then, but much less frequently, peripneumony will pro- duce suppuration in the lungs ; in which case also, as soon as the suppurative process commences, some appearance of a remissionof symptoms takes place, but not so perfect a one as in the former in- stance; matter will flow from the nose, the pulse will become hur- ried and irregular, and at length the animal will become choked without previous warning, or he may linger and die tabid from hectic irritation. There are terminations likewise to this complaint not fatal, but still unhealthy and unfavourable. In one of these, arising from coa- gulable Ivmph being thrown into the air cells, respiration becomes considerably impeded, and the animal is ever after forced to make up, by more frequent inspirations, what ought to be effected by fewer ; which forms what is called thick wind. At other times, an increased irritation of the lungs themselves, or of the mucous membranes of the bronchia and trachea, is left, and subjects the horse to a lasting chronic cough: if the affection is considerable, it lays the foundation for broken wind, which, as an accidental cause is applied, sooner or later takes place. In other cases, the air cells rupture directly after the illness, and broken wind immediately succeeds to convalescence *. '* A clergyman requested my opinion relative to a favourite horse, who had be- come broken winded, inconsequence of inflammation of the lungs. The history of the case was, that the horse was violently attacked with this complaiut, and a neighbouring farrier, of considerable repute, was sent for, who decided at once on the disease, as what it really was; but lie alledged, that the pulse was salow he was afraid to hleed the animal, and, unless he gave cordials, that he would die. The event was, that under this treatment, though the horse did not die, his natural strength being great, yet his recovery w'as very slow, and broken wind remained. Here, it was evident, a valuable horse was rendered nearly useless, from a want of knowledge of the peculiar oppressed state of the arterial system in this disease ; liad the farrier, on finding this low oppressed pulse, bled the animal freely, it would have risen on the flowing of the blood ; and had he repeated this two or three times, it would have returned to its natural state, and the horse would have re- covered, sound in his wind : but the active stimulus of the cordials had occasioned •a rupture of the air cells of the lungs. oG4 INfLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. II. Sometimes also the lungs themselves are left free from complaint, but coagulable lymph is thrown out across the trachea or windpipe, which narrows its capacity at some particular parts, and the air, rushing through these strictures, produces a sonorous noise called roaring ; and the quicker the respiration, the greater of course will be the noise made : indeed, it is seldom but under increased action, as trotting or galloping, that it is heard at all : these coagulable masses become organized, and, as such, are never afterwards re- moved ; a roarer, therefore, always remains such during his life. On the subject of symptoms, it remains only to guard the practi- tioner against mistaking the true inflammation of the lungs for the catarrhal one, with which it may be confounded ; though the expe- rienced veterinarian will readily distinguish between the two. In the catarrhal epidemic, the extremities do not continue invariably cold, but are now cool and now warm ; the distress of countenance is not so great ; sore throat is commonly present j the breathing is less laborious, and the pulse seldom oppressed. The cough in catarrh is generally deep, and very painful ; a weakness, not corre- sponding with the violence of the symptoms, is very early seen in the complaint; and though the lining of the nostrils may be in- flamed in catarrh, it is seldom so much so as to present a purple hue as in pneumonia. The principal necessity that exists for making a careful distinction between the two complaints, arises from it not being found prudent in the catarrhal affection to push the bleeding, and other parts of the lov/ering system, so far as in the peripneu- monic ; and also from the greater necessity of keeping cool in the latter, to what exists in the former. Inflammation of the lungs has also, by the inexperienced, been mistaken for colic ; because the horse sometimes expresses some un- easiness, and often looks round to his sides ; in which mistaken cases the treatment generally pursued has ,been such as to increase the disease; but in colic, the horse expresses much pain, kicks at his belly, lays down and rolls, and then suddenly rises : while, on the contrary, in peripneumony he never lays down, but stands stu- pidly quiet, except now and then, when he may look at his flanks ; yet not with the impatient indications of pain that colic forces him to : it may be added, also, that the nasal membrane in colic remains unaltered in colour. Causes. — The alternation of heat with cold is probably the most usual cause of this complaint. It was formerly considered that it could only be produced by a removal from a warm to a colder tem- perature ; but it is now known that the sudden access of a warmer medium is a parent also of the complaint, though certainly not in an equal degree. Mr. Coleman, I believe, even goes so far as to say, that the exposure to simple cold never produces the disease ; and that, though turning horses to grass without preparation may emaciate them, it never produces peripneumony : but this appears to be carrying theory far beyond fact, and such doctrine cannot be too carefully guarded against. Human subjects, horses, cows, sheep, INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 365 Class II.] and dogs, are all more liable to coughs, colds, and pneumonic af- fections, in cold climates than in warm ones. The persons who slaughter horses in London, are accustomed to expect a glut of dead animals in hard frosts, from the fatal effects of inflamed lungs. It is true that the candidates for the former doctrine may say, that this still arises from the effects of exposure to stable heat, supervening upon the frost : but this cannot be the case in cows, sheep, farmers’ horses, and those of others who do not treat them so artificially. Nor do we want numerous other facts to prove that a sudden access of cold is more certainly prejudicial than that of heat : few persons in the habits of hunting, but have met with, or heard of, cases of horses, who, from plunging into a river, have very soon after been attacked with the complaint ; and in such cases it has been observed, that a permanent rigor has commenced immediately, and the animal could never be got universally warm again. Hunting on a cold scent, with frequent checks, or travelling with a cold wind blowing against the chest ; washing the legs and body with cold water while the horse is hot ; a sudden removal from a warm stable to a cold one, may any of them occasion the disease : and, as has been remarked, there is reason also to believe, that the removal from a cold stable to a warmer one, or from grass to a warm housing, without preparation, will also produce it. In fact, so open are horses to affections of the chest from a change of temperature, whe- ther the change be from a warmer to a colder medium, or otherwise from a colder to a warmer ; that it is very seldom a horse is brought from a dealer’s stables, who does not, in a day or two, exhibit some cough. When a horse is removed from a cold temperature into a hot one, it is evident that the hot medium is immediately applied to the seat of inflammation ; and as hot air must greatly tend to acce- lerate the circulation, so it is not difficult to account why it can produce the disease, and this more certainly if the heated air is less pure than that which the animal was removed from : when, on the contrary, the removal takes place from a warm to a colder situation, a similar effect perhaps also takes place ; the cold air is immediately applied to the lungs, which may, particularly if the change is very great, by this means be suddenly weakened. These organs are liable not only to the ill effects of sudden changes of the air, as being at once applied to their internal surfaces, but also thev are peculiarly liable to become affected from their intimate connexion with the skin, which is likewise at all times exposed to the vicissi- tudes of temperature: for both skin and lungs appear emunctories of the foecal parts of the blood, and hence the sympathy between them is observed to be very great ; and any thing that may prevent the exit of this fcecal matter, called perspiration, from the vessels of the skin, will throw much more of it on the lungs. When, therefore, in addition to these occasional causes, we con- sider that the lungs are very large as well as very important organs ; and that in an animal of speed they are peculiarly extensive in their surfaces, and extremely vascular in their structure ; we shall be at no 366 INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. [ClaSS II. loss to account for their tendency to inflammation. This tendency also seems much heightened, in common with the proneness to other diseases, by a life of art; for in- a state of nature, or one nearly ap- proaching to it, they are seldom attacked. 7'he cow's even expe- rience this increased tendency, arising from artificial habits, as is observed in those kept near London and other great cities, where they are more artificially supported, and subjected to occasional housing. The Prognosis in peripneumony must be formed from the strength of the symptoms, the progress of the disease, and the accidental circumstances under which the.animal may labour. The veterinary practitioner should never lose sight of the greater rapidity with which all acute inflammations in the horse run to their termination beyond what they do in man, or in animals with weaker powers ; which disposition is dependent, as we have taught, upon the great force of the circulation in this animal, and the increased strength of the muscular coat of his arteries. In this disease this rapid progress is particularly exemplified, which renders the caution here doubly re- quisite, when forming a prognosis relative to it. A resolution of tbe inflammation is the most favourable mode of its termination, and this may be expected when tbe pulse approaches a natural state ; when the horse shews an inclination to lay down ; when the distressed look disappears ; the pulse rises on bleeding ; when the blisters rise, and the rowels inflame : and particularly the appearances are favourable when the breathing becomes less labo- rious, the breath itself of a natural temperature, and when the legs and ears resume their usual warmth. But if, on the contrary, the pulse does not rise on bleeding, if the breathing continues very labo- rious, a rattling in the throat comes on, the pulse being oppressed, or hurried and irregular, with partial cold sweats, and with an ex- treme dejection of manner; a fatal termination maybe expected, either by direct gangrene from the extreme disteption of the pulmo- nary capillaries, or from serous effusion into the cellular texture of the lungs. It is always a most unfavourable sign when the patient is insensible to external stimulants ; that is, when the blisters and rowels remain without operating. The vital stores of the body are drawn from the lungs ; and when they become diseased, all other parts lose their powers, and consequently their irritability and capa- bility to be acted upon by external agents is diminished. I hardly ever remember to have seen a horse recover where neither the blisters nor row'ds would act ; such cases always betoken an intensity in the inflammatory action, and shew that the balance of power between tbe parts is destroyed. The Cure of Peripneumony . — The principal indications of cure are two ; first, to lessen the increased vascularity or distention of the lungs by bleeding; and next, to endeavour, by external stimulants, to change the diseased action ; that is, by raising an external inflamma- tion, we may hope to lessen the internal one ; and it must be re- marked, that as this disease is obstinate and quickly fatal, so the INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 3G7 Class II.] treatment must be active, and pushed with energy; and we must use the means in our power with the more energy, because they are fewer in the horse than in man, and other quadrupeds, in whom we can lessen the action of the heart and arteries by nauseating reme- dies ; and in some of whom we can also moderate inflammation greatly by exciting perspiration ; but in the horse we are deprived of these powerful aids *. * At the Veterinary College a contrary doctrine is taught, and from whence proceeds a practice that, in my opinion, is fraught with danger*, and replete with absurdity. Mr. Coleman, I believe, considers a nauseating efttet possible in the horse: and as such an effect is found materially to lessen the arterial action in man, so Mr. C. endeavours to produce the same in the horse by small doses of aloes, and which, I believe, is the only internal remedy administered at the College in pneumonia. The horse is also bled and rovvelled ; after which, to crown tins effi- cient practice, he is at once, with all his infirmities on his head, turned out night and day into the open air, even in frosty weather. On this latter part of the pi ac- tice the Professor argues, that, as we cannot act readily on the skin of the horse to produce perspiration, so all necessity for keeping him warm is done away. The cogent part of the argument, however, is, that as cold is found to lessen inflamma- tion, so, by turning out, the cold air becomes applied at once to the inflamed part. Mr. C. condemns blisters because they irritate, and irritation adds to inflam- mation he remarks. ■ I would suffer this erroneous reasoning and this dangerous practice to speak for themselves, were it not that the College agents consider this treatment as the very feather in the cap of the school. To e.xamine the matter attentively, we must dis- member the parts; and we will begin with the aloes. Though a horse appears certainly dull under the effects of purgatives, we are by no means warranted to conclude that this arises from nausea; for one-third only of the stomach in this animal presents a secreting surface, and physiology shews us that but little of his digestive process goes on in that cavity. Nausea is a preparatory state of the stomach previous to vomiting; but as the horse was not intended to vomit, it is much to be doubted whether lie feels this preparatory nausea, except on very par- ticular occasions. The effect produced by purgatives are confined to the bowels, and do not exert a .sympathetic effect on the stomach as in the human ; indeed, there is reason to suppose the stomach in the horse is but little an organ of gene- ral sympathy, compared with the human : but the bowels in this subject are much more sympathetic organs, and form the true digesting stomach ; and it is on them that the purging order of medicaments exert their properties : and though, as has been before observed, under their action a duluess and listlcssness are observed, it is self evident it cannot be of a regurgitating kind ; on the contrary, the distaste to food, and other appearances of affection, are more probably dependent on the slight degree of inflammation which is always produced in the intestines by purga- tives ; and which is a necessary part of the action of all cathartics, and is also more particularly felt in the horse than other animals, from reasons so fully detailed when treating on the physiology of his bowels (see Intestines, Anatomy of the Ab- domen). It may be added, that as we know that the internal inflammations in the horse are not only prone to run from one part to another ; but more particularly that one important bowel seldom becomes inflamed without the surrounding ones becoming partakers of it also, so the great error of expecting benefit from such a practice will still more clearly appear. But the matter may be brought yet nearer proof. Does the pulse of the horse, under what seems to be erroneously called the nauseating effect of a!oe.s, decrease in strengtli and frequency ? If my experi- ments are correct, and if my observations have not been erroneously conducted, the action of all cathartics tends to increase the arterial system, both in strength and quickness ; that is, under that state of the bowels that precedes active purg- ing, which is the state the College practice suggests, and endeavours to keep up. Another proof offers itself, that it would be most difficult to controvert. It is sul- ficiently notorious that active purging is almost always fatal in this complaint; and 368 INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. [Oass ir. The cure should therefore be begun by bleeding, according to the age, size, and strength of the animal, and also regard being paid to the time it has existed : for, when the curative treatment is commenced too late in the corhplaint, the bleeding cannot be car- ried to the extent that it may be in the early stage. As a general rule, it should be remembered that bleeding, in this disease, is never to be continued longer than it raises the pulse ; that is, sup- posing it to be previously in an oppressed state, which it almost always is. More good is also gained by one bleeding within the first twenty-four hours of the complaint, than from numerous repe- titions of it afterwards. From a moderate sized horse, five or six quarts, or even more, may be drawn ; and should the symptoms indicate a necessity for it, particularly if the pulse rose on the first bleeding, in five or six hours take three or four quarts more ; and, as long as the breathing continues laborious, the extremities perma- Mr. Coleman himself, aware of tl)is, advises that the aloes should be given only to nauseate, but carefully to avoid purging. Allowing even the nauseating effect of the remedy, how is it possible that, by giving two drams every two or three hours, as is the College practice, we can secure the animal against the dangers of purging, which almost always comes on suddenly as soon as the bowels are once roused into action? and, likewise, how is it possible to guard against this sudden attack, when we know that one quarter of the quantity will operate on some horses that it takes to move another ? And, if I am rightly informed, this very effect has often followed this practice, and horses, so treated, have not unfrcquently died from the ill effects resulting from the purging alone. We will next glance at the cool, or rather cold, part of the treatment; the de- bilitating effect of which is sufficiently known ; and though it is true that the cold is immediately applied to the lungs, yet it is equally true that active sedatives, except at the very outset of the disease, always hasten the gangrenous termina- tion. But even though such might not take place with regard to the lungs them- selves, yet the effect that cold has on the skin is too well known to need com- ment ; and the peculiar quality of corrugating the skin and driving the blood from the capillaries into the larger vessels, and from thence to the heart and lungs, is universally admitted, and is capable of a thousand proofs. We know, also, that all our exertions are requisite to produce a general circulation, and to get the blood to flow towards the surface and the extremities; for which reason we warm and stimulate the skin by hand rubbing, and the extremities by clothing; all which is done to draw the blood to them, and thus to lessen the quantity accumulated within the thoracic viscera. The propriety of this practice is so notorious, that the College pupils were formerly directed to pour boiling water on the pasterns : and yet, to undo all this, the horse is subjected to the most active of all the re- pellents we know for driving the blood to the internal parts. Equally fallacious with the rest is the theory whereby rowels are recommended in preference to blis- ters; which, it is true, may cost more, and, if the veterinarian works by the piece, this may certainly be a consideration to him : otherwise he may, perhaps, find out that they do not increase irritation, but greatly lessen inflammation; and that rowels are, in desperate cases, much too slow and too confined in their action. In fact I cannot, in terms too strong, warn the young practitioner not to be misled by the theory laid down to recommend this erroneous and novel practice. It is, unfortunately, the present habit at this seminary to affect a simple plan of treatment, and to decry the use of active, I believe I ought to have said of costly, remedies ; and hence, a bleeding, a rowel, a frosty night, and a few drams of aloes, are said to be all that is requisite to cure a disease, that the disinterested practitioner will find to require active care, valuable medicaments, and, altogether, the most efficient means. 369 Class II.] INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. nently cold, and the pulse oppressed, but rising on the flowing of the blood ; so long the bleedings should be repeated to the amount of two or three quarts at a time, at intervals of six or eight hours. This is recommended under a supposition that the treatment com- cenccs soon after the attack : but, if otherwise, and violent symp- toms have existed thirty-six or forty-eight hours, the bleeding must be repeated with more caution, and the pulse most attentively watched ; or the opposite extreme may be fallen into, and such de- bility succeed as may produce the very event we wish to avoid. The blood should be drawn from a large orifice, as directed under General Inflamnmtion, and suffered to cool gradually without dis- turbance, by which the buffy surface will have an opportunity of shewing itself, and afford an additional indication of the propriety of persisting to bleed, or prove a check to its continuance. Immedi- ately after the first bleeding, some active stimulants should be applied to the surface of the chest. Blisters have the effect of taking oft' the hair, which disfigures the horse for a long time afterwards ; .and, therefore, when the danger is not immediate, if any forcible objection is made to their use, the sweating blister may be rubbed well into the chest, or the mustard poultice may be applied ; either of which will considerably stimulate the integuments, without removing the hair {see these articles in the Materia Medica). And, in more desperate cases, where other means of blistering were not present, a mustard poultice spread over the fleshy side of a sheep skin newly stripped off, and applied closely to the chest, would make an excel- lent substitute ; or, in default of these means, as might happen under some circumstances, oil of turpentine rubbed well in, or even boiling water applied to the chest by means of flannel, might be usefully substituted. But whenever the symptoms are at all urgent, proceed at once to blis- ter the chest, first shaving the hair from the brisket or breast in front, and between the fore legs, and also the sides behind the elbows ; and then rub in a blistering ointment wholly made of cantharides. If a strong prejudice exists in favour of rowels, and the symptoms are not very urgent, one may be inserted between the fore legs, and another ten or twelve inches further behind ; but each should be quickened in its action by smearing with turpentine or blistering- ointment : or, what would be better, the sides may be blistered, and the brisket rowelled. Nevertheless, in all urgent cases, it should be remembered, that the blistering is the quickest mode of subduing the inflammation. The state of the bowels should be next attended to, and a loose but not a purging state encouraged ; to this end, back rake and throw up a laxative clyster; and in default of the operation of these in moderately loosening the bowels, give a laxative composed of any of the neutral salts (see Laxatives, Materia Medica): but I must be.pardoned for again repeating that active purg- ing must by all means be avoided. During this stage of the complaint, more particularly, no heating medicines on any account should be allowed, nor should the oppressed state of the pulse be suffered to 3/0 INFJ.AMMATION OF THE LUNGS. [ClaSS II. , lead into the error of supposing any cordial remedy necessary, nei- ‘ ther is any thing admissible under the notion of a sweating medi- J cine : for, though a determination to the skin would be much to | be wished ; yet, in the horse, we are not able to produce such an | effect but by means that greatly Increase action, and hence do infi- | nilely more harm than good. But as it is of the utmost conse- quence that we encourage an equal circulation and a warmth over the surface and extremities, so we should hand rub the skin to pro- duce these effects, and then clothe warmly ; and as it is, if possible, of still more consequence that we bring the circulation back to the extremities, which it is in general very difficult to do ; so the legs should be very actively rubbed till something like warmth appears on them, and then they should be bandaged up either in hay- bands, or, what is preferable, in flannel. But the most certain way of restoring the circulation to the extremities, is to blister them ; and in those cases where blistering might be otherwise ad- visable, as, in windgalls or weakened sinews, it would be more par- ticularly eligible; for, by these means, much blood would be drawn from the chest, and the action of the vesicatory would keep it in the extremities. The muzzle, ears, and whole of the head in fact, may be considered as an extremity, and, as such, should be likewise attended to ; the ears may be hand rubbed, and the head clothed in a neck hood ; and if no blistering is made use of to the legs, litter w'ell up to the belly with clean straw. | But it must at the same time be kept in mind, that the more care ] w'e take to promote warmth in the “surface, and in the extremities, j by clothing, &c., so we must be the more careful to lessen any ' source of internal heat ; the temperature therefore of the surround- ing air should be kept cool : if a thermometer is present, fifty de- grees will be a proper medium. That cool air is refreshing and genial in these cases, we know by a horse in a box alw'ays standing with his head tow'ards the door if open, and which, unless the wea- ther is very cold, it ought to be, as a free circulation of pure air is of material consequence. When all the former directions have been complied with, proceed to give one or other of the following : — No. 1. — Tartar emetic {tartarised antimony) . . two drams, Powdered fonglove {digitalis) .... one dram, ■ Nitre {nitrated potash) ..*... three drams, Cream of tartar (tartrate of /sofas/') . . ditto. Mix with honey to make a ball, and give every four, six, or eight hours, according to the urgency of the symptoms. In case the cough is considerable, or the chest sore, the follow- ing should be preferred, and it is the formulae I generally use on these occasions : — No. 2. — Tartar emetic two drams. Powdered foxglove one dram, Powdered nitre three drams, Simple oxymel (see Mat. Alcd.) . . . four ounces. Liquor No. 3 eight ounces; II.] INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. Or, in lieu of this liquor, add linseed tea, gruel, &c., and give every four, six, or eight hours. I may here remark, that when the young college practitioner has had but one-tenth of the experience I have had of the extreme efficacy of the foregoing formulae, particularly of the latter, in all in- flammatory affections of the chest ; he will then judge for himself whether there are not other medicaments efficient in horse practice besides the few that he has heard recommended. The efficacy of each of the aforesaid articles singly, in this complaint, is consider- able; but the increased virtues of the whole, when conjoined, are truly remarkable, and cannot be too strenuously recommended. It may be further remarked, that as peripneumony so frequently ter- minates by serous effusion into the chest, so it must be evident, that the prevention of this is most judiciously promoted by carry- ing off as much as possible the serous or watery parts of the blood, for which purpose such remedies as stimulate the kidnies are the most proper; and in this point of view, also, the foregoing formulae will stand conspicuous. With regard to food, no anxiety need be entertained for the first twenty-four hours, during which time the less the animal eats the better ; but, if green meat can be procured, as being cooling and opening, it should by all means be given ; and in the absence of this, bran mashes may be allowed, with only a small quantity of hay : but no corn should on any account be offered, nor should his mashes be given hot, or hung round the head, as in the catarrhal fever, or distemper. On the contrary, every thing that heats the air carried to the lungs increases their action, and the disease can only be properly treated by a strict observance of whatever tends to diminish the inflammatory diathesis. In this point of view, though we must carefully abstain from producing purging, we should also as studiously avoid costiveness, which is best done by back raking, or by aperient clysters ; and, in case of failure in these, six or ei^ht ounces of Epsom salts may be given. The body and extremiues should be frequently examined, and whenever found to be getting cold, the means before detailed should be resorted to, to promote a re* turn of the circulation. During the continuance of the complaint, linseed tea, slightly warmed, may be given to drink frequently ; and if this is refused, give chilled water, and, occasionally, horn down the tea; or, if preferred, the following liquor, particularly if there is cough and much chest soreness : — No. 3. — Linseetl, and liquorice root, of each . . four ounces, Mallows "two handfuls. Boil in six quarts of water half an hour. By steadily pursuing this mode of treatment for the first thirty- six or forty-eight hours, it may be expected that the distention and inflamed state of the pulmonary vessels will subside into resolution, which will be indicated by the appearances detailed in the prognosis. The strength must now be supported to assist this proc.ess, and C c 372 INFLAMED LUNGS IN NEAT CATTLE. [Class II. prevent a disposition to gangrene ; but this must not be done by heating cordials, but by thick gruel, or malt mashes, and if the debility becomes extreme, by the following, substituted in lieu of the foregoing medicines : — No. 4.— -Powder of ipecacuanha ...... two drams, Tincture of opium half an ounce. Camphor . two drams, Mindererus’s spirit (see Jlltil. Mfci.) . . four ounces. Rub the camphor with the tincture aPd powder, and then add the Mindererus’s spirit, and give with half a pint of gruel, or liquor No. 3. But this is recommended only in such cases where the severity of the inflammatory symptoms has relaxed, and when from the exist- ing debility there is reason to fear a gangrenous termination, as will DOW and then occur from the effect of this very debility. When, on the contrary, after the period before alluded to, the inflammatory symptoms do not relax, push the medicines pre- scribed, particularly No. 2, still more actively, as, every three hours; rub in more blistering ointment to the neighbouring parts; or should that which has been rubbed not have operated, scald the chest with boiling water, applied by means of cloths wrung out between two other cloths, which will prevent scalding the hands of the operator. Continue active in this and every other part of the treatment detailed, until a favourable termination has been ob- tained ; and, when it has taken place, it must be yet remembered, that there is no complaint hardly in which there is more danger of recurrence ; every prudent precaution should therefore be used, as regular temperature, mild diet, gentle exercise, and an early expo- sure to cold ought to be guarded against. The whole list of what are termed expectorants, particularly in the early stages, should be carefully avoided, as they are always sthnulants ; nor is their benefit much more manifest at any period of the complaint : the digitalis, tartarised antimony, and oxymel, are the best and only expectorants admissible throughout the affection. Sudorifics, or sweating re- medies, should be also shunned, more particularly in th6 begin- ning of the disease. Infla.med Lungs in Neat Cattle. Horned cattle are also subject to peripneumony, but not by any means in an equal degree with horses. Cowleeches and graziers cal! ilrising of the lights, and it has also provincial names unnecessary to be noticed here. Various causes may occasion it, but it is, in ge- neral cases, produced by exposure to inclement weather, as driving rains with easterly wind, or snowy nights : oxen become affected with it sometimes from over driving, and I have seen the disease attack calves. In its appearances it is very similar to the same com- plaint in horses : the animal heaves violently. at the flank, the mouth Clas^ n.] INFLAMEO LUNGS tN SHEEP. 573 opens to render respiration easier, the nostrils are very red, and the linings of the eyes also, and a moisture distils from them the pulse is also very quick, but small. The head is hung dowm de- jected, but the beast in general refuses to lay down, though not so invariably as is observed in horses ; and the ears, legs, horns, and muzzle, are always intensely cold. The proper Treatment of the complaint does not essentially differ from that recommended for horses, and should be begun by bleed- ing to the amount of four or five quarts ; a large ox may lose six quarts: and here we may very properly avail ourselves of the power that nauseating remedies have over the action of the heart and arte- ries. If the beast is valuable, and the cost not objected to, give half the drink No. 2, detailed in the peripneumony of horses ; but, if otherwise, half of No. 1, either as a ball or mixed for a drink, may be given ; or the following will nauseate, and has been used with success : — Emetic tartar {tartarised antimony) . . half a dram to a dram, Powdered foxglove one scruple to two. Nitre powdered C'ntratetZpofttsfi) . . . two drams, Infusion of tobacco eight ounces. Mix and give two or three times a-day, according to the violence of the symptoms. The infusion of tobacco is made by boiling two drams of the herb in a quart of water, for a quarter of an hour. The bowels of the beast should be opened, but not purged ; and the sides either covered with a mustard poultice (see Materia Me- dica)y or they may be blistered, and a large seton placed in the dewlap : the legs should also be wrapped up in haybands, and a rug thrown over the body, but the temperature of the air kept particularly cool. The heating remedies of cowleeches should be most carefully avoided, and even the recipe of a more correct practitioner, containing two drams of camphor, must be considered as infinitely too stimu- lating. In six hours after all these are done, if amendment is not very evident, repeat the bleeding, and increase the doses of the re- medies until evident nausea is produced ; but, if distressing efforts to retch appear, lessen the quantities ; beginning always with the s-maller dose, and afterwards increase it if there is occasion. Inflamed Lungs in Sheep. None of the writers on horned cattle describe peripneumony as a disease affecting sheep ; but I have seen it well marked, and in them, also, its origin could be clearly traced to exposure to incle- ment weather. Among my note? of practice, I find that the dis- ease was rather prevalent among the few sheep that were kept near I.iondon in February 1808. Among other cases that fell under my notice, I was s^nt for by Mr. Adams, of Moun,t Nod, near Streat- C c 2 374 INFLAMMATION OF THE HEART. [Clags ham, to see the afiected ones in his flock. From the shepherd’s account I gained, that all the sick were attacked nearly together, immediately succeeding a very stormy cold night ; five of whom were dead when I arrived, and -five others remained very ill with it, and it may be noticed that the whole of them were ewes with young, and within a month of yeaning. 7'he first symptom ob- served was the refusal of food, after which one and all had a peculiar stedfast fixed look ; from litis they would reel about, elevate the head in the air, become convulsed, and fall backward in a strong fit ; and when the fit ceased, the teeth would grind so as to be heard to a great distance. The flanks heaved violently, the nose and eyelids w'ere red, and from the nostrils distilled a watery moisture in some, and matter in others. I opened the five dead ones, and, in all, the lungs were highly inflamed ; in some, the whole of the lobes, in others only one side, was affected ; but wherever the inflammation. reached, that par^ was condensed almost into a solid mass by the congestion : some of the air cells also contained pus. In two, the liver w'as also slight- ly inflamed ; and it is remarkable, that each of them contained two feetusses. The five that were living I immediately bled and blistered ; and, as soon as it could be procured, a drink was given to each, composed of nitre and tartar emetic, which appeared to arrest the disease, as the whole recovered ; and all, except one, went their full time. This one, who, though prematurely delivered, yet must have liad less time to go than the rest, yeaned while I w'as standing by ; and, in despite of her illness, which was excessive, she made feeble efforts to nourish and cherish her young one, and appeared rather amended by the event : both mother and young lived. In the peripneumony of sheep the treatment in nowise differs from that of neat cattle : bleed from the amount of half a pint to a pint, shear the sides and blister, and give one-third of either of the recipes directed for kine ; house the sick, but not too warmly ; and if the cud is lost, drench with gruel. INFLAMMATIOxN of the heart. (Jarditis.] This is a very rare disease in horses ; I never saw but one ease in my own practice, and a veterinary surgeon of my acquaintance, who visits many sick, likewise never met with but one. In these eases there was less difficulty of breathing, but still more distress of manner than in inflammation of the lungs, to which the symptoms were very similar. The pulse was small and irregular, and there Appeared frequent cold sweats over the body ; the extremities rc7 Class IL] INFLAMMATION OF THE STOMACH. 375 mainccl Invariably cold, and both cases proved fatal. The treatment differs in nowise fjom that of peripneumony. INFLAMMATION OF THE STOMAOM. Gastritis.'] This disease is very rare also, though the stomach is certainly sometimes primarily attacked with inflammation, in which cases it is very difiicult to detect it, from its similarity to inflamed bowels. It is evident that it is not meant here to include those inflammations that are produced by acrid substances taken in : the symptoms in such cases are more definite, and which will be treated of in another place: neither is included the specific affection called stomach staggers. When the complaint occurs, the uneasiness is extreme; there is a loathing of all food, and if any thing is given it creates increased pain for a long time afterwards. The animal breaks out into cold sweats, lies down and quickly rises again, as in inflammation of the bowels ; and the loss of strength is most remarlcable ; the pulse is also very quick and much oppressed. If the disease can be clearly detected, treat in every respect as directed under Enteritis, except that none of the internal remedies there directed should be used, but the following may be tried instead : — Dissolve half a dram of sugar of lead (superacetate of lead) in eight ounces of water, to which add four ounces of very pure castor oil, and give every three hours. In a well marked case, pouring iced water into the stomach might not be an improper experiment. INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES. Enteritis.] [TrancMes Rouge. The Red Colic of the farriers is an inflammatory state of the bowels, so called in distinction from the flatulent kind, termed, by the same persons, gripes, gullion, and fret; and which will be treated of in another place. Next to inflammation of the lungs, enteritis, or inflamed bowels, is the most frequent and fatal of the local aflections of the horse, and of which there appears two distinct kinds ; the one affecting their villous coat or surface, and producing purging ; the other attacking the peritoneal coat, and accompanied usually with obstinate costiveness. It is this latter that forms the subject of out; present consideration; the former will be treated of 376 INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES. [CZflW II. afterwards. From an imperfect acquaintance with the art, it has been common for farriers to mistake this for spasmodic colic, and the error has commonly proved fatal to the affected horse ; for the comfortable thivgs and heating drenches given on such occasions always increased the inflammation, and frequently produced gan- grene. A careful distinction should therefore be made between the two, which may be readily done by attending to the characteristic marks of each as detailed in spasmodic colic. The Symptoms. — The complaint is sometimes preceded by fever, , and always accompanied with it. It commences with restlessness, loss of appetite, the mouth hot and dry, and the inner membranes of the eyelids and the linings of the nostrils rather redder than na- tural. As the inflammation advances, the pain increases so as to force the horse to lay down and get up again frequently; but, as the pain is less acute, he very seldom rolls on his back as in gripes. Sometimes, however, he kicks at his belly or stamps with his feet, and in all cases he scrapes his litter or stall with his hoofs, and looks wistfully round towards his sides. The pulse is frequent and small, but with a distinct corded hardening in the stroke, whereas in spasmodic colic it is always much fuller: the animal also heaves much from the accelerated breathing ; the belly is painful to the touch and very hot, and the pain is constant. The extremities are cold, but the skin of the body often heated, and the tongiie white : the bowels are also confined, arid if any dung is evacuated, it is in small quantities and very hard and dry. ITe urine likewise is made sparingly and of a high colour ; and a character of the complaint is a very early and excessive de- Causes are various, but they are generally dependent on the application of cold, as washing when hot, or plunging into a river ; the drinking of cold water has likewise produced it, though more frequently this occasions spasmodic gripes. A long retention of the faeces may bring it on, as likewise hernia or intus-susception, which is occasioned by one part of a gut getting fixed within another: it may also be produced by the translation of the inflammatory diathesis of general fever, or by the communication of the inflammation from other parts, as I have often witnessed. Another and not unfrequent cause arises from flatulent colic, either neglected or improperly treated, which I have many times seen degenerate into enteritis under such circumstances. The ProgHom.^If • the costiveness is early removed, if the pulse becomes softer, more full, and less frequent; if the pain remits, and the heat of the body and extremities appear equal, it will terminate favourably. But if the costiveness remains obstinate, or, otherwise, a voiding of black feetid matter appears ; if the pulse becomes more quick anil wavers also, and if the extremities continue invariably cold, the danger is great. And when added to these there is a peculiar earthy cadaverous smell from the mouth, with cold sweats, deli- strong bility. The Class II.] INFLAMMATION’ OF THE INTESTINES. 377 Tiuin, and extreme debility; the termination will be almost to a cer- taintv unfavourable ; and as soon as the pain ceases in such a case, the gangrene may be known to have commenced. The Treatment. -^h\ke most of the other inflammations of im- portant organs, this requires a very energetic and early application of the means used for relief, and still more particularly so in this com- plaint, as an instance of recovery seldom occurs where the treatment has been delaved beyond the second day : indeed, it often destroys in twenty-four hours. Bleeding is the first indication, and if the sub- ject is young, large, and plethoric, six quarts may be safely taken away; and should the symptoms continue unabated, the same may be repeated in four hours, to the amount of three or four quarts more; nor should even a third bleeding be omitted at the same dis- tance of time, if the inflammatory appearances have not become mi- tigated. The bleeding may be known to have a salutary effect by the pulse becoming softer and fuller, and at the same time lessening in hardness. As soon as the first bleeding is over, proceed to back rake, to remove any hardened dung that may obstruct the passage, and which would infallibly aggravate the complaint, and, indeed, in some instances is the cause of it : the distressing strangury that sometimes accompanies the red colic, is also in a great measure pro- duced by the pressure of hardened excrement, as well as by a parti- cipation in the affection. It is not the dropping away of a few balls of hardened dung, nor the passage of some thin glairy matter, that shews no obstruction exists : on the contrary, when these are present, a most obstinate costiveness might yet remain farther up in the passage ; and a flow of thill foeces may escape by a groove formed by the. side of an ob- structing portion of dung, as has happened. Unless, therefore, there is an evident free passage to all the faecal matter, and that it is wholly softened, it is always proper to rake; and as costi.’eness is. commonly present in the complaint, and as it is seldom that amend- ment begins until that is overcome; so every means must be pur- sued to produce this : and as the state of the bowels is such as not, to appear prudent, to admit of strong purgatives being given by the mouth ; so the greater activity is required to empty them me- chanically, and by the assistance of clysters, which should be thrown up very frequently. Till the relaxation is complete, the injections should be mildly laxative ones, such as are recommended in the Mat. Med. ; afterwards warm water only, or thin gruel will be suffi- cient. The quantities composing the clysters should be consider- able also, so as to penetrate beyond the rectum, and to enter, if pos- sible, the colon and ctecum. The next indication is to raise a brisk external Inflammation over the belly, to lessen thereby the internal affection ; and in this case even the, cantharides are hardly quick enough in their action : but a more speedy determination to the skin may be made, by first fo- menting the belly with hot water for a quarter of an hour, and then applying a large mustard poultice farther liquefied with oil of turpen- 37S INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES. [^ClaSS U. tine (see Mat. Med.), which may be spread on coarse linen or a horse cloth ; or, what is preferable, the fleshy side of a newly- stripped sheep skin may be covered with it, and then applied close to the belly by means of flannel rollers, which will retain it in its situation : and should the complaint continue in full force after this, then proceed to blister in the usual way. If a situation were to occur, where nothing besides of a blistering nature w'as at hand, the belly might be actually scalded with boiling water, or a hot shovel might be drawn oyer it ; or any other means may be made use of to stimulate the surface that are in the reach of the persons employed on the occasion. It next becomes a consideration as to what re- medies may be properly given by the mouth, which must greatly depend on the degree of costiveness present. In a case where there was a moderately free passage to the dungj I would simply recom- mend castor oil or salad oil, eight ounces, made into an emulsion by beating with the yolk of two eggs, and adding half a pint of gruel, But when costiveness is present, as is usually the case, it is seldom overcome without some difficulty, and the symptoms will not abate until the bowels are freed of their obstruction ; the practitioner must not, therefore, in such case, be too niye about the means to be em- ployed ; for those who teach, that nothing more active than castor oil should be given in red colic, reason only from analogy, and are not guided by experience. It will be found, that none even of the more active purgatives add much to the urgency of the symptoms, and I have in obstinate cases given six drams of aloes with evident benefit. The reason of this appears to be, that it is not the internal or villous coat that is affected, particularly in the early stages, con- sequently no more than the ordinary effect follows the administration of aperients. In general, however, where considerable costiveness is present, I would recommend that the following may be given in the first instance : — • Epsom salts {sulphate of magnesia) , eight ounces, Castor oil eight ounces. Dissolve the salts in six ounces of boiling water, or more if requisite, and by means of the yolk of two eggs beat into a smooth emulsion the oil and saline solution. In the absence of castor oil, use olive or even spermaceti oil ; and in case the obstinacy of the costiveness should require it, or a second drink is necessary, add also four ounces of uatery solution of aloes (sec Mat. Med.), and repeat, if occasion requires, in four or five hours *. Under these means there is reason to expect that the costiveness will be overcome, and the inflammation lessened ; but should the eflfects not be equal to what is desired, a second bleeding, and even a third, must be resorted to if necessary ; the aperients and the clysters repeated ; and it must be attempted to hasten the stimulating eflects * In obstinate constipation in the human subject, the dashing of cold water without cessation for a considerable time has overcome it ; but it must be left to the prudence of the practitioner to determine whether it may be advisable here. 379 elates II.] INFLAMED BOWELS FROM SUPERPUROATION. of the external applications. Rowels are very commonly used by farriers, but they are much too slow in their action ; however, when they are made use of, they at least should be smeared with blistering- ointment. Before the costiveness is overcome, we should be careful of increasing the distention of the bowels by much liquids ; but when there is a free passage to the faeces, considerable quantities of warm water, thin gruel, or linseed tea, may be poured down. The horse should be clothed warm, to promote a determination to the skin, the legs bandaged up, and plenty of litter allowed ; at the same time that the external temperature should be cool : and in this, as in every case of illness, the patient ought by all means to have the use of a loose box. Inflammation of the Intestines ^-om Superpurgation. As the former affection consists of an attack on the peritoneal covering or coat of the intestines ; this latter is usually the conse- quence of the administration of improper purging medicines, either as to quantity or quality ; by which such a state of irritation is brought on as ends in inflammation of the surface, to which the substances were applied. It is commonly accompanied with purg- ing, whereas the former has almost always costiveness with it: neither is the pain so acute in the latter, consequently the horse seldom expresses so much uneasiness by rolling or stamping; tbe pulse is also quick and small, but seldom hard. If the symptoms of inflammation run high, that is, if there is violent pain, if the extre- mities are cold, and the pulse appears able to bear it, three quarts of blood may be drawn ; but unless these appearances exist in force, it will be more prudent to omit it. Stimulants should, however, be applied to the bowels, as in red colic ; the clothing also should be warm, and means taken to keep up the circulation in the extremities by hand rubbing and bandaging : the stable also, in this disease, should be kept warm. The following drink may be given every four or six hours : — Prepared chalk two ounces, Powdered gum arable half an ounce, Powdered catechu two drams. Mix, in half pint of thin starch, arrow root, rice liquor, or tripe liquor; and, in case the purging is considerable, not only give this by the mouth, but also mix the same with two or three quarts of rice or tripe liquor, or thin starch, and give as a clyster, which will be found peculiarly useful and efficacious. If the diarrhoea should be excessive from the first, or should prove obstinate afterwards, add to the drench, powdered opium and powdered alum, half a dram of each. 380 INFtAMMAtlON OK THE LIVER. [Class II. Inflamed Bowels in Neat Cattle. Both the kinds of this disease, already described as common to horses, are also not unfrequent among kine. The red colic may attack them from over-driving, and then suffering them to drink their fill of cold water ; from being out during a tempestuous night, or from other applications of cold ; in which cases they present ex- actly similar appearances to those which occur in the same complaint in horses, except that it is here more difficult, I think, to distin- guish between the red and the flatulent colic, which arises from our lesser conversance with the manners of these animals than we are with those of horses. The treatment in nowise differs from that we have already laid down : bleeding, opening the bowels internally, and stimulating them externally, are here also the principal means of cure. The inflamed purging state, is likewise not unfrequent among cattle, but in them it does not draw its origin so much from the effects of purging medicines, as it does from a diseased state of the natural purge of the body, the bile ; and to which form of the dis- ease, from the greater complexity of their biliary structure, they are found peculiarly liable. Here the treatment pursued must depend on the cause, which will sometimes, as in horses, arise from flam- mation of the internal surface of the intestines ; in which the cura- tive plan must also be the same as detailed for the removal of the complaint in horses : but when it is dependent on a mixed inflam- mation, in which the liver bears a part, as is not unfrequently the case in cattle, then the treatment must be such as is detailed under that head. INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER. Hepatitis.~\ The liver of the horse is but seldom primarily affected with in- flammation ; though, when other great abdominal inflammations take place, then this often participates ; and now and then also it be- comes the immediate object of attack. Symptoms. — The complaint commences by appearances not dissi- milar to a mild attack of inflammation of the bowels, but the pain is not so acute. There are usually cold extremities, heaving of the flank, a pulse quick and hard, but not very full, hot mouth, and commonly also some yellowness of the nostrils, eyelids, and tongue, which principally characterises it from other affections. It is some- times, indeed, usually accompanied with costiveness, for the liver ceases to secrete, and the bile, previously formed, is not passed into the intestines, but becomes, from the increased activity of the ab- sorbents, carried into the blood, and from thence is deposited on the CZaS5 II.] INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER. 381 skin, which is the cause of the yellowness observed. But now and then, instead of a stoppage to the secretion, there is a diseased in- crease of it, and the complaint is, at such times, accompanied with a purging of black foetid stools. A few years ago many cases of this kind fell under my notice about the same time, at the close of a very hot summer. In every instance the symptoms of fever are great, and the languor extreme ; sometimes so much so, it is hardly pos- sible to keep the horse on his legs. The progress of the complaint varies much j I have seen it fatal in three days, and I have known it continue three weeks, and destroy at last : in these protracted cases the horse in the end swells universally, and becomes anasarcous, or, as a farrier expresses it, he has water farcy. This disease is, as might naturally be expected, often confounded with an inflamed :^tate of the bowels ; and indeed it very often is connected with the inflaiw- matory affections of these or some other of the abdominal viscera, from the general tendency observed in these affections to spread from one to another. The Prognosis is favourable if the extremities are not invariably cold, if the weakness is not extreme, and if the pulse improves on bleeding : but if the languor increases, and the extremities cannot be got warm ; if the breath is hot and foetid, and the pulse small and beyond 120 in a minute, then it is extremely unfavourable. The Cure should be attempted ; first, by bleeding to the full ex- tent of the powers of the animal, and the same repeated at intervals of four or six hours, if complete success does not follow the first. Blister the sides of the belly, and apply a rowel near the navel ; or if preferred, apply a mustard poultice over the whole : but in this in- stance I should recommend blistering. The costiveness should be overcome by back raking, by clysters, and by the following, repealed every six hours till it operates : — Calomel {submuriate of quicksilver) . . one dram, Antimonial powder two drams, Powdered aloes three drams. But in those cases where there is already diarrhoea or purging, the lancet should be used more sparingly ; indeed, unless the inflamma- tory symptoms are considerable, and the state of the pulse shews a capability of bearing it, omit it altogether; but stimulate the belly by a rowel, and, if the heat is considerable, rub in some sweating blister (see Mat. Med.) ; and instead of the purging ball give the following : — Castor oil eight ounces. Gruel, or linseed tea six ounces. By the help of the yolk of two eggs beaten with the oil, and the gruel added gradually, a smooth uniform mixture may be made, and which will be found peculiarly useful to amend the state of the eva- cuations, and should be repeated every other day, giving the follow-; ing b4l1 also twice every day : — '382 INFLAMED LIVER IN CAtXLE. [Class II. Powdered opium . . i . . . . lialf a dram, Cn\ome\ {submuriate (^’quicksilver) . half' a dram, Powdered camomile half an ounce. Mix with honey to make a ball : no apprehension need be enter- tained that the calomel will increase the diarrhoea, as the opium will sufficiently restrain it. This treatment will be found singularly effi- cacious in this complaint j this caution only being requisite, that should the disease be protracted beyond the third day, the calomel must not be persisted in, for fear of salivation ; but instead, a course of tonics with steel may be entered on for four or five days, and then again have recourse to the calomel, &c. &c., as an additional security against relapse. In other respects, as diet, clothing, &c. &c., treat as directed under inflamed bowels. Inflamed Liver in Neat Cattle. From the increased complexity in the structure of the liver in neat cattle, they appear more subject to hepatic affections than the horse j but these affections in them are more usually of a slow chronic kind; nevertheless now and then acute hepatitis appears, with all the symptoms that characterise it in the horse. Both varieties of the complaint likewise are observed, but cattle are more subject to that which is accompanied with diarrhoea, from the greater disposition in them to accumulate bile by the presence of a gall-bladder. In cither case the treatment must be similar to what is directed for the horse, except that it would be prudent, in the acute kind accom- panied with costiveness, to give a lessened dose of antimony, from the different degree of irritability in the one stomach to the other. The treatment of that which is dependent upon, or accompanied with, a vitiated state of the bile, must also be similar : on w'hich subject more information likewise may be gained by referring to diarrhoea and jaundice in cattle. I have never seen distinct hepatitis in sheep, though chronic affec- tions of the liver are sufficiently common among them. INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNIES. Nephritis.'] From the frequency of this complaint among horses, and from its fatal tendency, the consideration of it becomes an important matter ; and it is rendered still more so, from the proper treatment not being understood by the common class of fai’riers. It has been said, that inares are more liable to it than horses, and horses more so to in- flammation of the neck of the bladder : but my experience has not INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNIES. 383* Class II.] justified this observation. Small as these organs are, they are very essential to life, and the quantity of blood passing through them is very great ; therefore, we cannot wonder at their aptitude to inflame, nor the great derangement they occasion in the machine when they are so. Sipnptoms. — The complaint is usually first observed by the animal being dull, and expressing pain by looking at his flanks; the urine is made in small quantities, and often red or bloody likewise; and, as the inflammation increases, it becomes in some instances almost wholly suppressed. The pulse at first is rather hard and frequent, with an addition to its fulness ; but as the disease advances, it be- comes smaller, oppressed, and intensely quick. The animal stands with his legs wide apart, as though going to stale, and shrinks when the loins are pressed. To distinguish it from inflammation of the body of the bladder, or from that of the neck of that organ, the horse should be examined by passing the hand up the rectum ; when, if the inflammation exists in the kidnies, the bladder, whe- ther empty or full, will not he hotter than the surrounding parts, nor more tender: but should the affection be confined to the body of the bladder, it will be surely found empty, but very hot and painful to the touch : if again, the neck of the bladder, as some- times happens, should be the seat of the disease, the heat and ten- derness will be considerable, and the bladder will be found distended w'ith urine. During the continuance of the complaint, the horse shews a great disinclination to move about, the hinder extremities swell, and, what will often characterise the disease, is their aptitude to become paralytic and cold ; and if one kidney only is affected, one leg only has been found paralysed and swelled*. The disease * The following strongly marked case I have selected from among others noted by me, because it was one purely nephritic, and which, from being in my own infirmary, I had peculiar opportunities of noting: nor do I conceive it irrelevant here, because it is a simple detail of facts, and, as such, a clear guide to future discrimination. A very valuable horse, the property of John Inglis, Esq., was sent to my infirmary on the 24th of January, 180?, having been unwell since the 21st, witli what was considered by the groom as a coimnou cold; and as such it had been treated. He was so ill when he arrived, that my remark to the servant who brought him was, that I doubted whether he was not come to his last home ; but so unconscious was this person of his situation, that he had ridden him from bis master’s stable, a distance of three miles. The animal was immediately bled, and put into a loose box, where he appeared very uneasy and in considerable pain, but he never was 'observed to look towards his loins, or gave other indica- tions to shew the seat of the disease. There was great thirst, beating at the flanks, some cough, with frequent inclination to make a small quantity of water, after which , some blood usually followed; but this appearance did not last more than two or three days, while the small evacuations of high-coloured urine conti- nued throughout. On the next day after his arrival his pulse was 110, he exhi-: bited a great dislike to the smallest motion, the near hind leg and thigh became cold, swelled enormously, and, by the third night, was completely paralytic; and it is remarkable that the near fore leg was also more cold than the off. So completely was the mobility of this hinder limb destroyed, that the poor animal never once changed his position, or attempted to lay down during the twelve days the dis- ease lasted. On the 30th of Januarv, tliis affected limb, however, returned to its gliancy^ warmth, and capability q£ voluntary motion; but the off hind leg itnme-:; 384 INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNIES. [CloSS IT. inay terminate by resolution, by suppuration, or by gangrene. In resohition, which is what we should alw'ays aim at, the secretion of urine becomes increased, and of a thick whitish appearance; the pulse rises, the pain lessens, and a cessation of the other symptoms of fever occurs ; the extremities also return to their usual size, pli- ancy, and mobility. Suppuration is, in the horse, not a frequent termination ; the strength of the vascular system in him tends rather to produce gangrene, when the inflammation is very great ; which termination is announced by the increased debility, by the weakness and intermission of the pulse, accompanied with cold sweats. The Causes. — It is probable that it may sometimes arise, like the other topical affections, from a translation of general fever to these glands. It is more cemerally brought on from severe exercise, par- ticularly if aided by the motion of a heavy or unskilful rider. It may be occasioned by the imprudent administration of acrid diuretic substances, particularly of such as are long continued. The appli- cation of cold is also not an unusual cause of it, as I have wit- nessed in horses turned out to grass w'ithout caution ; nor is it diately became affected in a similar manner to that in which the near had been, and remained in that state for twenty-four hours, wlien the swelling and paralysis as suddenly again left it, and resumed its station in the near or left hinder leg and thigh, and remained stationary there until the death of the animal, which took place on the 6th of February. About four days before this, a considerable remis- sion of symptoms took place, and I entertained hopes of his recovery; but this fallacious appearance lasted only a few hours, when he relapsed into a more ag- gravated state of disease ; the pulse became irregular and hardly discernible, deli- rium came on, and death closed the scene. The treatment pursued had been active, and, I believe, judicious; bleeding bad been pushed to a considerable extent; care had been taken to introduce no diuretic into the system, and external stimulants were actively employed ; but from the first no benefit appeared to follow any part of the treatment: the com- plaint was fatally obstinate throughout, and such I have commonly found to be the case, when, unmindful of an incipient affection, a horse has been rode some distance, and perhaps exposed to cold when ill, as happened here; for, though he was found to be unwell on the 21st, he was imprudently ridden both on the 22d and 23d some distance, during two wet days, and, even on the 24th, he carried the servant who brought him up to me. After death a very careful examination was made of the morbid appearances : less general inflammation was apparent than is conjmon ip horses who die of in- flammatory affections of any of the abdominal viscera, which, in general cases, participate throughout more or less. The lungs, it was remarkable, had been early inflamed, and still bore some slight marks of the affection : indeed, I am dis- posed to believe they were the primary objects of attack; and that the injudicious riding on the 22d and 23d had translated the affection from them to the kidney. The left kidney only was diseased ; but in this the inflammation had been so great, that it was become gangrenous even to a state of absolute rottenness. The right was but little affected; though there is no doubt but that, on the 30th of January, a metastasis had taken place, and the disease had been translated from the left kidney to the right. The remaining viscera, as before mentioned, were healthy, and the inflammation had communicated itself to the parts around less than usual. The paralysis evident in this and other cases may be accounted for, bv considering that the inflammatory affection extended itself to the iliac nerves,, which- are situated in the immediate neighbourhood of the kidnies, and which nerves furnish the hjnder extremities with nervous influence. 385 Class Ily] inflammation of the kidnies. uncommon for it to follow a cold wet tempestuous "niglit, even among such as have been out to grass before ; the cold water lodging on the region of the loins appearing peculiarly hurtful to horses. Mode of Treatment. — There are some circumstances in the cure to be particularly attended to, but which have been passed over unnoticed by our best English authors ; on the contrary, many of them have recommended a practice almost certainly destructive by ordering different diuretic substances, which, from the difficulty that already exists in the vessels to separate the watery parts from the blood, it is evident must greatly aggravate the complaint. As soon as the disease appears, bleed plentifully to the amount of four, five, or six quarts, according to the size, age, and strength of the animal ; which, if the symptoms do not give way, repeat in four or five hours ; and should the disease still remain violent, a farther bleeding should not be neglected. After the first bleeding, empty the bowels by raking, and afterwards by a clyster ; and if there has been any appearance of costiveness, a purgative containing no diuretic substance should be given by the m_outh also ; and when- the bowels are opened, clysters of gruel, or warm water, should be still constantly applied, which will act as a fomentation, and tend greatly to relieve the complaint. It is very necessary here also to excite an external inflammation over the loins, but we are much confined as to the means of doing this ; for the use of Spanish, flies is here inadmissible, from their disposition to become absorbed, and to pass unchanged through the blood, until they get into the kidnies, when they exert their stimulating effects, evidently in this instance, to the extreme prejudice of the animal. Turpentine, for the same reason, should not be used ; but no such fear prevents the use of scalding fomentations, or of a hot iron drawn over the back, or of any diluted caustic: but the best means will be to apply a simple mustard poultice without turpentine, and to renew it every two hours ; and, if the poultice is applied upon a newly strip- ped sheep skin, it will increase its activity greatly. We have before had occasion to point out the great connexion, that subsists between the skin and the kidnies, and to shew that when one is in a high state of action, the other secretes less ; this being the case, it will be evident, that whatever determines the blood to the skin, or, in other words, whatever excites perspira- tion, must be highly useful : but it must not be forgotten, that this secretion is very difficult to excite, and that the exhibiting such me- dicines as would tend to produce sweat, would increase the action of the heart and arteries too much : but the clothing of the horse may be made warm ; hi^ legs may be bandaged up, plenty of litter * Bartlet copying from Gibson, and treating of this disease, directs that if the secretion of urine should continue suppressed, to give nitre, turpentine, myrrh,, and balsam capivi. Now, as the suppression arises from the continuation of the infl.wnmation, this stimulating treatment would probably urge the kidnies into im- mediate gangrene. 586 INFLAMED KIDNIES IN NEAT CATTLE. [CloSS IT. allowed, and the stable kept moderately warm. Diluting liquors are inadmissible, on account of the distention they produce, for which reason the animal should be allowed but little to drink. To afford, however, some chance of operating on the skin, without increasing action, give the following : — Powdered ipecacuanha two drams, Emetic tartar (tartarised antimony) . . one dram, Powdered opium . one scruple, JVJindererus’s spirit (see MaL Jierf.) . . four ounces,^ Camomile tea eight ounces. Mix, and give every six hours. Inflamed Kidnies in Neat Cattle. Red water, which is the cowleech’s and grazier’s name for in- flammation in the kidnies, is still more common among horned cattle than it is among horses : in them it is sometimes primary, and, at others, connected with an inflamed bladder ; while again, in some cases, I have observed it accompanied with an affection of the bowels also. These varieties make it not a little complex to the common practitioners : indeed, these cases are in general to them wholly incomprehensible, for one only circumstance arrests their attention, which is, that the afflicted animal has a difficulty in void- ing the urine; and they immediately attempt to overcome this ob- struction by forcing diuretics. In a celebrated publication on cattle we find, when treating on this disease, a quart of infusion of pel- litory is directed to be given two or three times a-day. Mr. Clater recommends camphor, oil of juniper, and salt of tartar. By such forcing remedies, these inflammatory affections were very commonly pushed into gangrene ; and a disease that under proper treatment would prove manageable, is by this injudicious conduct rendered fatal. If the physiology of the kidnies is attended to, as fully laid down in treating of the anatomy of those organs ; it will be found that all diuretics act by forcing a greater quantity of blood through the kidnies ; and, as inflammation also acts by increasing the vas- cularity of these organs, so the action of the medicine and the dis- ease are one and the same. The Symptoms of this complaint are, usually, considerable dul- ness, a great stiffness behind, and tenderness in the loins ; the pulse is generally quick and seldom much fuller than natural, but presents a hardened stYoke similar to what occurs in horses. The most prominent symptom, however, is the evacuation of urine, which is made in small quantities, and of a reddish colour ; some- times evidently mixed with blood : as the disease advances, parti- cularly if it terminates fatally, the urine becomes darker and of a brown hue. It would always be prudent to ascertain the exact scat of the disease, as, in some measure, the applications must be dif- ferent for one and for the other : the best mode of doing which is 1' Class II.] INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER. 387 to examine the beast by the anus, as directed in horses. 'When the bladder is also affected, the belly will feel hot and tender, and there will be a more frequent evacuation of the urine, which will seem to give intense pain while making, but which does not occur in ne- phritis. Tbe Treatment is little different from that directed for horses; bleed largely, accordina; to the state of the animal and the duration of the disease, and, if there are considerable marks of fever, give antimonials, but no nitre. The following may be tried : — No. 1. — Antimonial powder half a dram, Powdered ipecacuanlia one dram, Pow'dered camomile three drams. Make into a ball with honey, and give twice a-day, washing it down with linseed tea, which also give to drink, but in small quantities only, for th& reasons detailed in nephritis in horses. Stimulate the back and loins with the mustard poultice, or the sheep’s skin, or apply them together. I have likewise seen this complaint exist in a less acute form, so as to last some weeks, sometimes originating in over driving or blows across the loins, and not unfrequently from the effects of dif- ficult calvings. In these more slow cases there is seldom any ne- cessity for bleeding : a warm charge applied over the loins is very proper, and the following drink may be given every morning : — No. 2. — Powdered catechu . two drams. Mucilage of gum arable four ounces. Lime water (see Mat. Med.) six ounces. In such instances a change of diet also is often useful : I once saw a cow greatly benefited by being fed wholly on carrots. Sheep now and then have red water, both of the acute and the more slow kind : bleeding, housing, and feeding on any sweet root, as carrots, parsnips, or in default of these upon turnips, form the best means of cure, with the occasional use of one-third of the medicine No. 1, if the disease is violent. INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER. Cystitis.'] [Inflammation de la Fessie. The bladder may become inflamed throughout its whole body, or the affection may be confined to the neck of it only ; and as differ- ent symptoms arise as either the one or the other of these are the immediate seat of disease, so we shall describe them separately. D d 388 INFI.AMMATION OF THE NECK OF THE BLADDER. [CIOSS II. There is reason to believe, also, that the bladder itself may be the subject of two varieties of inflammation ; that is, its peritoneal coat in some cases, and its villous in others, may be the seat of the affection : but the former is usually the effect of some general ab- dominal inflammation ; while the latter is a primary affection, and is that we mean to describe here. Symptoms. — When a mucous membrane is inflamed, it ceases to secrete mucus ; this takes place in the inflammation of the internal coat of the bladder, and when it ceases to secrete the mucus that was to defend it from the acrimony of the urine, it then becomes acutely irritable, and is constantly contracting. This complaint may be dis- tinguished from inflammation of the kidnles, by what has been said with regard to that disease ; and from inflammation of the neck of the bladder, from what follows. As the inflamed bladder cannot long retain its contents, so there is a frequent evacuation of a small quantity of urine ; and, on pass- ing the hand up the rectum, the bladder will be found hot and tender, but empty ; the horse is also commonly observed to have a disposition to dung frequently, as well as to stale, from the sympa- thy of the rectum with the bladder. The fever is usually consider- able, and the pulse at first harder and fuller than natural, but as the disease proceeds it will become oppressed. Its Caiises may originate in the translation of fever, perhaps sometimes by cold alternating with heat ; and it has been occasioned in mares by the passing some irritating substance up the urethra to make them horsy. Pj 'ognosis. — It may terminate by resolution ; by an increased se- cretion of mucus ; or by gangrene; the first of which is the most fa- vourable, and the latter fatal. We must be guided, therefore, in out opinion as the symptoms tend towards either of these terminations. Cure. — Bleed according to the height of the fever and state of the pulse, and repeat as these indicate ; the rectum also should be im- mediately raked to empty it. Throw up clysters of warm gruel, or water, to foment the parts ; and as soon as one returns, throw up another. It might not be improper likewise, if the subject is a female, to pass up a decoction of linseed with gum arabic by means of a syringe, to sheath the surface of the bladder from the acrid urine. As in inflammation of the kidnies, avoid blistering with Spanish flies, but stimulate the abdomen in any other way exter- nally. Every thing that increases the flow of urine should be avoided, as it tends to irritate the bladder. The body should be kept warm to encourage perspiration, and the internal medicine^ may be the same as recommended in inflammation of the kidnies. Injiammation of the Neck of the Bladder. Sometimes the neck of the bladder takes on inflammation alone, and this occurs more frequently to horses than to mares. It is to be distinguished from inflammation of the kidnies, because, in pass- ing the hand up the rectum, the bladder will be found distended : Class II.] INFLAMMATION OF THE NECK OF THE BLADDER. 3S9 this will also prevent mistaking it for inflammation of the body of the bladder. The frequent making of a little \yatcr will notj how- ever, distinguish either of the foregoing complaints from this, as, in inflammation of the neck of the bladder, there is sometimes a small quantity of urine evacuated at different times : for after the bladder is distended, there will be, by the force of the distention, a few drops now and then squeezed out. But in this disease the frequent staling will not take place till the bladder is distended fully, whereas in the former complaints it will come on at the very first : and likewise, in the latter case, the distended bladder may be felt even by the belly. The Prognosis in this disease will be more favourable in a mare than in a horse; but it will be unfavourable in both if the stoppage continues obstinate twelve or fourteen hours. In attempting a Cure, the inflammation must be got under if possible ; but if not, means must be taken to obviate the fatality of the symptoms. To promote the first indication, bleed very largely, open the bowels, throw up clysters, and stimulate externally, in the same manner as in the two last complaints. But if the inflam- mation does not subside sufficiently to permit the urine to pass, it must be drawn oft' by artificial means, or the bladder may burst ; or the Irritation alone may kill ; or gangrene will come on. In a mare, from the urethra being large and straight, a catheter may be easily passed up, and the w’ater drawn off : but, in the horse, ta effect this, an opening must be made from the perinseum ; yet this should not be done until the effect of passing the hand up the rectum and pressing on the bladder has been tried, which will often promote the expulsion : when this and every other of the usual means have been ineffectually tried, proceed to attempt the introduction of a catheter by the perinaeum. By referring to the anatomy of the urethra, or passage into the bladder, page 252, it is there clearly stated why no sound or other instrument can pass into this cyst at once from the yard : but when it becomes neces- sary to force open the neck of it, a sound must be first passed up the penis until it reaches the thin membranous part of the ure- thra in the perinaeum there described : the instrument then intro- duced must be cut down upon, and a sufficient opening made to introduce a catheter; which must be done very carefully and gra- dually, as the resistance is sometimes considerable ; so much so, indeed, in some instances, that no efforts are sufficient to overcome the contraction of the inflamed part; in which cases, to prevent the evils arising from the distention, we must proceed to puncture the bladder itself, which may be done by means of a trochar intro- duced within the rectum, and which opening will not, in that case, penetrate the peritoneal cavity. [See remarks on this in the Anatomy of the Bladder, page 244.) It remains to add, that I have seen small continued doses of opium, as thirty grains every two hours, greatly relieve this affection, and this in more than one in- D d 2 390 INFLAMMATION OF THE WOMB. \_ClaSS IL Stance : bleeding, also, till fainting was nearly produced, has re- laxed the contraction. Inflamed Bladder in Cattle. This now and then occurs, though but very seldom. I have only heard it described, for I never saw the complaint j but it is evi- dent that a corresponding treatment with that we have laid down for horses must be pursued. ^ INFLAMMATION OF THE WOMB. This disease sometimes arises in mares a day or two after they have foaled, or at any time when abortion has taken place and they have slipped a foal. It is likewise, not unfrequent in cows, under the same circumstances, as well as 'm ewes ; and is frequently occa- sioned in all, from violence used in attempting the extraction of the foal, calf, or lamb. It produces very similar symptoms to inflammation of the body of the bladder, and can only be distinguished from it by its hap- pening at these times. There is usually the same frequency and pain in staling, from the bladder being affected by contiguity or Sympathy, or from the pressure of the inflamed womb upon it. Il is usually accompanied with shivering, marks of great distress, the extremities are cold, the pulse commonly oppressed, and the beast is much on the ground. Sometimes there is a flow of a coffee-coloured matter from the bearing. It must be treated in a similar manner with inflammation of the bladder; but as the animal must have been previously weakened by the act of foaling, calving, or lambing, so the bleeding and general cooling plan should not b^ carried so far; nevertheless, if the in- flammatory symptoms run high, and the subject is in full flesh, a proportionate bleeding must not be neglected. The bowels should also be opened first by raking, and then mild clysters must be fre- quently thrown up of a tepid temperature ; and, in this instance, a purgative of Epsom salts is particularly indicated. Sometimes the bladder also becomes Inflamed and irritable ; at others, the neck of it only receives the affection ; in which latter cases the urine must be drawn off by a catheter to relieve the distention (see the last article). Foment the belly at its posterior part with hot water, and support the strength with gruel or other nutriment; and in case there appears great irritation of the bladder, by the extreme fre-* qirency of the evacuations of urine, give opiunx in small doses united with antimonlals, or the following CATARRH, OR COMMON COI.D. 391 Class III.] Tartar emetic (turtarised antimony) . . . one dram. Powdered opium one scruple, Camomile tea, made strong eight ounces. Give this drink every four or six hours : If to a cow, put only half the quantity of emetic tartar; if to a sheep, only one-sixth of the quantity. In all other respects the treatment, whether for the one or the other of these subjects, must be the same ; except that the artificial habits of the mare make it more necessary to keep her warm. It remains only to notice on the subject of this class of diseases, that the pancreas, the spleen, the omentum, and indeed any of the contents of the abdomen, may become the seat of primary injiam- mation ; but these instances rarely occur in the horse, and still more so in the ox or sheep ; and when they do happen, the proper treat- ment will not differ from that laid down for the other viscera of the abdomen. Class III. Inflammation of Mucous Membranes. CATARRH, OR COMMON COLD. Catarrhiis.] \Morfondure. BESIDES the catarrhal fever, influenza, or epidemic catarrh, horses are subject to take cold at any time, and to have all the symp- toms of common catarrh ; being at such times a little off their feed, the coat staring, being chilly, and coughing frequently, with some little defluxion from the nose and eyes. I do not think that the human subject even is more obnoxious to common colds than stabled horses ; but unless they are exposed in this state to some very injudicious treatment, these cases require only a little more clothing, avoiding exposure to currents of air, a moderate lessening of the corn, and substituting instead of a part of it, a nightly mash, with the following powder introduced : — 'Ta.rto.r emctxc (tartarised antimony ) . . two drams. Nitre (nitrated potash ) three drams. If the complaint however seems to require it, bleed ; and the mo- 393 THICK WIND. [Class III, ment the symptoms become urgent, refer to catarrhal fever, and treat as there directed. The hoo^e in cattle is nothing more than an accidental cold taken ; in which they should be housed a few days, and have grains or mashes, with the above powder, giving to them only one cjuarler of the quantity of emetic tartar. THICK WIND, For the sake of order and method, I shall consider this subject separately ; otherwise, thick wind, broken wind, and chronic cough, are very intimately allied in both cause and effect. All inflammatory affections of the chest are very prone to leave the wind affected ; or, in other words, to leave the lungs in such a state as tb.at respiration shall not in future be carried on with its accustomed facility and regularity. Thick wind* may also be produced by otlier occasional causes, as immoderate exercise when the stomach is distended with food or water; and it sometimes seems to arise from predisposition, and hence is found most frequent in horses with great appetites, with foul feeders, and such as fatten upon little food. In broken wind there is frequently an evident rupture in the air cells ; but though thick wind is frequently a precursor to broken wind, the air cells are not found to be ruptured in this case. In some instances I have not been able to detect any morbid appearances in the lungs of thick-winded horses after death ; but, in others, there was an evident thickening of the membranes, and a lessening of the capa- city of the air cells by a deposit of coagulable lymph' within them. This latter state may be commonly traced to some recent inflamma- tory attack, in which the lymph is thrown out, when, not being im- niediately absorbed, it becomes organized : and on these grounds the difficulty of breathing, and the acceleration produced, may be easily accounted for, as it is evident that this decrease to the capa- city of the air cells renders' it necessary for the air to be more fre- quently taken in ; because, being acted on by a less surface, the, blood is not sufficiently oxygenated ; and a sufficient number of aif cells not being expanded, a sense of fulness in the right side of the heart, induces the animal to make hasty fwspirations to remedy the defect, and consequently hasty expirations : the obstruction to both being equal, the inspirations and expirations are equal ; which serves to distinguish it from broken wind, in which there is no obstruc- tion to the entrance; therefore the breath is drawn in with ease, but expelled with difficulty. A roarer is so denominated, when the coagulable lymph is thrown put in bands across the trachea or windpipe ; or, in some cas^s. BROKEN WIND. 393 Class III.] one mass narrows the tube. I have seen the diameter even reduced to one-third of its original dimensions. It is not improbable that the custom of grasping the windpipe, as practised by dealers to try the soundness of the wind, may sometimes produce inflammation, and even occasion this very affection. What regards the medical treatment will be given when the other subjects connected with this are finished. BROKEN WIND. [La Pousse. Though thick wind often leads to ' broken wind, yet there are some considerable differences between them. The peculiarity of the latter; its consequences rendering the animal nearly useless ; and the certainty of its never leaving him ; have made it a subject of much experiment and more conjecture. The older writers ascribed various causes for it. From the peculiarity of a broken-winded horse being subject to pass much wind by the anus, the ignorance of the times induced the practitioners of that date to imagine that some communication existed between the lungs and fundament ; and therefore they made an artificial opening to draw off the super- fluous air, and the unoffending animal was made to endure two evils instead of one. Gibson attributed it to an enlargement of the contents of the chest. Dr. Lower conjectured that it arose from a rupture of the phrenic nerve. Many have considered it as simply' an asthmatic affection ; and Mr. Coleman has asserted that it con- sists in a mechanical rupture of the air cells. On examination of the lungs of broken-winded horses, there is sometimes not much differ- ence to be observed between them and healthy ones ; but there is always some emphysematous appearance, commonly it is consider- able, and much air is diffused throughout the parenchymatous sub- stance of the lungs ; sometimes there are little vesicular appear- ances over the outer surface. That air is diffused within the sub- stance, and not wholly pressed out by the last expiration, is farther proved by the circumstance of the lungs not collapsing when the cavity of the chest is opened. When air, therefore, is inspired in broken wind, it finds no difficulty of entrance ; but being diffused and entangled among the cellular tissue, it finds a difficulty in being expired; and this makes the expiration much longer than the in- spiration, and the horse is seen to do it at two efforts : by the first, he appears to empty the air from the cells themselves ; and by the second more forcible contraction, which is operated by means of the abdominal muscles, the lungs are pressed on to endeavour to force out the extravasated air from the cellular membrane. Causes of Brokeyi Wind. — Some of these are involved in consi- derable obscurity, others of them are sufficiently plain and apparent. 394 BROKEN WIND. [C7awIIT. The urgency of the symptoms of broken wind being very unequal at times, renders it clear that there must be some additional cause for the peculiarity of breathing besides the mechanical rupture of the air cells ; for some horses with this complaint will, on particu- lar days, move quickly without pain or distress, but, on others, can hardly go beyond a walk, their respiration is so much oppressed. In these instances there is evidently an asthmatic alfection of the lungs superadded to the extravasation of air; and which extravasa- tion, it may be remarked likewise, is not always sufficiently evident in the lungs when examined, after death, to have accounted for the violence of the symptoms. That a morbid tendency exists in some horses to become broken-winded ; or, rather, that the lungs of some appear to be predisposed to take on a disease that shall pro- duce appearances not very dissimilar to human asthma, is certain : and, further, this tendency seems wholly distinct from the mecha- nical rupture of the air cells, brought on by acute causes, as dis- tention, inflammation, &c. Gross feeders, horses who fatten on little food, of sluggish easy dispositions, and, I think, short thick- made horses of low breeding, are all of them peculiarly liable to the disease. In some of these it comes on very slowly, being pre- ceded by thick wind and chronic cough ; in others it is rapid in its attack. Nevertheless it must be admitted, that no age, sex, or kind, is exempted from it ; but, in all, it may be produced by inflamma- tion of the chest : the manner in which it is brought on in these cases is fully explained in treating of peripneumony, to wliieh I would particularly refer the reader. The suddenness of the attack of broken wind is sometimes very striking : three days have confirmed it in a horse previously unaffected, and without any known cause. These instances are, however, comparatively rare; for when it can- not be traced to either a constitutional liability, as before noticed, to an acute inflammatory attack, or to chronic cough ; it is brought on by some improper management, as exercising violently, particu- larly on a distended stomach. I'he ignorant custom of ffalloping after drinking water to warm it in them, may produce it ; for at these times the diaphragm not being able to descend from the distention, the blood at the same period being accelerated in its niotion from the exercise, a very forcible inspiration is necessary to expand the cells, and to permit the passage of the blood from the right side of the heart, through the lungs to the left side ; but the lungs not having room for a sufficient expansion, the cells become ruptured and the air extravasated. It is evident also, that horses unaccustomed to violent exertions are more liable to be injured in this way, in case of being injudiciously exercised, than others; for their air cells are probably less elastic than those of horses in full wind and condition-. The treatment of this complaint will be considered at the end of the next article. Class in.] CHRONIC COUGH. 395 CHRONIC COUGH. [Tuux. Coughing, considered as an action generally, is a violent effort of the diaphragm, intercostal, and abdominal muscles, pro- ducing a forcible expiration of the air from the chest, with such violence as to remove any extraneous body that may intercept the free passage of the air. Considered as a mark of disease, whenever it accompanies a general affection of the constitution, it may be re- garded as simply symptomatic, and the cause must be attended to lor its removal. And though a chronic cough is no less symp- tomatic of some affection of the air passages, yet as it is the only prevalent symptom, the mitigation of which removes most of the ill effects of the complaint, so it is in this instance primarily attended to. Chronic cough is a very usual attendant on thick wind, and on broken wind, and likewise accompanies glanders and pulmonary consumption. But besides these, there is at times, and without any difficulty of breathing, the horse eating well and thriving, yet a permanent cough, usually more considerable in the morning and evening, after meals, and on any violent exertion, particularly also on first going out to exercise. A cough of this description is very common, and it will remain in this state, without otherwise affecting the horse for years, sometimes even his whole life. In other in- stances it does not end in so harmless a manner, but upon any oc- casional cold becomes aggravated ; at each cold becoming worse and worse, till at length the wind becomes affected. The effects and the termination of chronic cough are dependent, in a consider- able degree, upon the cause producing it. From what has been said of the terminations of peripneumony, it will be seen that an irritable state of the bronchial passages often remains after that dis- ease, as well as after the catarrhal affection ; in which cases any change of atmosphere excites these irritable parts into action; thus the horse coughs whenever he moves out of, or into, the stable ; for the air inspired is either colder or warmer than what was before breathed, and hence becomes a source of irritation. Drinking cold water produces the same effect, for a similar reason. Any hurry or irregularity of motion does the like, because it propels more blood towards the chest, which cannot bear the increased stimulus. In some cases the irritability of the bronchial membrane itself does not seem so much increased, as that the mucus secreted from it appears altered, either in quantity or quality. It may become in- ordinate in quantity, as is often observed, and such horses, when they cough, throw off much of it by the nose ; or it may be more acrid in quality, and hence prove a source of continual irritation. In other instances, the inflammation arising from catarrh or peri- pneumony appears to have tjirown out masses of lymph, which. 396 CHRONIC COUGH. [Class III. though they may not be sufficient to obstruct the air passage, and make the horse a roarer ; yet they may prove a source of irritation, and produce cougli. That such is the case, we know by what now and then occurs after such inflammations, in which the cough con- tinues some time until these masses are absorbed, or forced up by the violence of the cough : and it is by assisting the separation of this deposit, that expectorants act in relieving this complaint.. An- other cause of chronic cough arises from worms wdthin the stomach and bowels, which produce their effects by. a sympathy existing be- tween the stomach and bowels with the lungs ; probably through the medium of the great sympathetic nerve, as we have explained in Neurology. The Treatment of Thick Wind, of Broken Wind, and of Chronic Cough, must be in essentials the same, and may be considered how- ever as of two kinds, the one palliative, the other as curative. Thick wind and chronic cough may be sometimes cured ; and as they are apt to end in broken wind, which is never cured, so our endeavours should be actively turned tow'ards removing them. In horses naturally gross, liviirg high, without much exercise, and feeding foully, our attempts must be directed to lower their general fulness of habit, by bleeding, exercise, and more moderate feeding. If at grass, a less luxuriant pasture should be chosen ; many a horse becomes broken-winded from gorging himself with too much grass ; while, on the contrary, another, who is much affected in his wind in the stable, becomes much relieved w'hen out upon a short bite, or pasture not luxuriant. In the stable, such a horse should be muzzled at night to prevent him eating his litter, and his water should be given in moderate quantities only : all sudden exertions likewise should be as much as possible avoided. Such horses can trot or gallop with ease and safety, but it should not be at once pressed upon them, from a state of previous rest, or the w'ind may become "irretrievably broken. Occasional coughs from colds may be removed by treat- ing as directed under common catarrh, page 391 : but when the cough is of longer continuance, or in case of thick wind, the fol- lowing may be tried : — • No. 1. — Co\ome\ isuhmuriate of quicksiher) . . . one scruple. Gum ammoniac two drams, Balsam of Peru one dram, Powdered squill one dram. Horseradish, bruised ....... two drains. Make into a ball with honey, and give every morning fasting. In some cases the following has been found efficacious : — No. 2, — Tar water (see Mat. Med.) half a pint, Lime vvater (see Mflf. Med.) ditto, Powdered squill one dram. Mix, and give every morning. To either may be also added, with benefit, in some instances, as an additional expectorant, one or two drams of tartar emetic. CHRONIC COUGH. 307 ! Gass III.} I have seen chronic cough and thick wind both benefited by a course of mercurial physic ; but the cough in such cases was pro- bably dependent on worms : and whenever a continued cougli exists, with irregular appetite, or unthrifty coat, it is more than pro- 1 bable that they are the real cause of the cough. (See Worms.) In chronic coughs the best effects sometimes follow from feeding with carrots. Turnips, parsnips, beet, and potatoes, may be tried, where carrots cannot be got ; and a mash with bran and linseed may be occasionally given ; or, a malt mash sometimes proves beneficial. In those cases of thick wind, or cough, where it may be suspected to be dependent on coagulable lymph deposited within the trachea or air tube, the rubbing in of mercurial ointment its whole length, for a week, wOuld be advisable, and then to blister the like extent of surface. The same is also proper in the beginning of the affec- tion called roaring. In broken ivind the treatment can only be palliative; but it is most unfortunate that so great a prejudice exists against horses in this state, that they are commonly abandoned to the lowest uses ; whereas, with moderate care, they may be rendered equal to most purposes. Attempts at cure have always failed, for the air cells cannot be again made whole : our endeavours, therefore, can only be directed to mitigating the symptoms. The first care will he to prevent over-repletion of the stomach, for this, in every case, will greatly aggravate the difficulty of breathing : the second is, to avoid over-distention of the lungs by too violent and too sudden exercise. By carefully attending to these two principal indications, a broken- winded horse may be rendered comfortable to himself, and useful to his owner. To fulfil the first indication, the food should be regu- larly given in moderate quantities only ; but most particularly it should be such as contains much nutriment in a small space : hence corn is more proper than hay, and, above all, I have found a manger food composed of one part bran, one part bruised beans, and two parts bruised oats, agree particularly well : on a sufficient quantity of this food a horse will need but very little hay, and what he does have, should be of the oldest and best kind ; and, when they can be got, carrots, chopped and mixed with the manger food, will often be attended with a most salutary effect on the wind^ particularly as it will render less water necessary. Turning out to grass, commonly aggravates the symptoms of broken wind ; but a daily run on a very short pasture is generally found advantageous in these cases : water should be sparingly given, and without this caution all the others are useless ; whatever also is allowed should be given by measure, for if a horse, under this affection, is allowed to drink his fill at a pond, he will almost burst himself, so great is the greediness after water on these occasions. But this debarring from drink should never be such as to border on cruelty ; neither is’ benefit derived from it, but the contrary. Four quarts may be given morning and noon, and six quarts at night; and when the exercise and perspira- tion arc considerable, something more on that account should be 398 CHRONIC COUGH. [Class HI. allowed. By judicious management, and the exercise of a little humanity, much may be done in these cases; and if the suffer- ings of this valuable animal are considered when a different course is pursued, I should hope that it is ignorance, and not obstinacy, that dictates it. Modes of distinguishing Soundness and Unsoundness of the Wind. These various affections of the wind are very important to the veterinarian, nor can he be too well informed of the appearances that characterise each distinctly; because, as their existence affects the, legal soundness of horses, so he will be very often forced to decide peremptorily on very slight appearances. With regard to thick wind, it is not every horse who heaves at his flanks that is perma- nently thick winded : he may have an occasional cold ; the stable may be unusually hot, or other accidental causes may have operated to produce it ; of the probable existence of all or of any of which he should inform himself before he decides : but if, by strict inquiry, he can ascertain that, under every circumstance, and in the absence of every occasional excitement, the horse he examines breathes always quicker than natural, he may safely decide that he is un- sound; and this the more surely, if a brisk trot increases the heaving beyond what it would in a perfectly healthy horse. Much stress is laid on the sound of the cough by dealers and other persons- about horses, and it is with considerable justice that it is so consi- dered. When a perfectly sound horse is made to cough, he pro- duces a shrill whistling noise ; and the effort seems to arise from the upper part of the neck : however, there is little reason to doubt but that in cases of pressure of the hand on the windpipe to produce cough, that the muscles of the larynx act upon the part pressed on, and that such cough is more immediately produced of that deter- minate sound than at another time ; and this is so certain, that a horse shall have an occasional cough on him that does not sound so pleasantly as a judge would wish, and yet, when coughed by pres- sure, he shall produce a satisfactory effort; for in the one instance he coughs naturally from the parts affected, which are the bronchial passages ; and in the other from the upper part of the throat. Nevertheless, a considerable'^dependence may be placed on the sound of the cough, which should be, as before described, a light whistling expiration, coming evidently more from the throat than the chest. There is also a firmness with fulness in the cough of a sound horse, and he clears his nostrils after it usually by snorting : while, on the contrary, in the permanent cough, and more particularly in that which betokens any actual affection of the lungs, the cough is deeper, and more deeply sonorous : if the horse is really broken winded, or bordering upon it, it is particularly short, and sounds more like a grunt than a cough. Such a horse will also give a half expiration, or kind of grunt, when turned quickly, or when struck, which is a usual method of trying the wind. Roaring may be immediately detected by a brisk gallop, but the person who is to judge of iia SORE THROAT — GLANDERS. 399 Class III.] existence should be on the ground, and the horse should pass him several times, but without restraint j for I have seen horses whipped into a momentary cessation of the roaring. Broken wind can hardly be mistaken ; the cough accompanying it is always of the short deep grunting kind : such a horse also is pe- culiarly flatulent, and breaks wind most frequently ; but the prin- cipal peculiarity, whereby to draw ajudgment, arises from the beating of the flanks. These are not so much quickened in their action, as they are rendered remarkable by their operating in respiration or breathing, by three efforts instead of two. In the first, the air is drawn in naturally, and the flanks fill up as usual ; but in the next, the falling of the flanks, again to expel the air, is most unusual, for it is not done with a gradual sinking in of the muscles, but at once by a momentary effort, leaving a line across the flank ; and then the third effort takes place, which is a slow but strong drawing up of the muscles of the belly to press out the extravasated air, as we have explained. Broken-winded horses are also observed to be peculiarly greedy after water, which also characterises thick wind when con- firmed ; and in broken wind a little hurried motion distends the nostrils, and produces evident distress. SORE THROAT. Cynanche Tonsillaiis.'] Horses seldom have the tonsils and pharynx inflamed but under the attack of catarrhal fever : when, therefore, a horse is observed to sip his water, shaking it about with the lips, and readily inclining his head towards it, but with an evident fear of swallowing, it may be known that a soreness of throat is present ; and the fact will be still more certain, if, when he chews his hay, he lets fall the chewed njass, which, is termed quiddiiig his food. As it is always connected with a febrile affection, so it can only be properly treated in con- junction with that. See Catarrhal Fever. GLANDERS. [La Morve. This fatal and loathsome disease has long been the scourge of this noble race of animals ; and there is reason to fear that some time may yet elapse before we shall find an antidote to what we now know to be a specific poison, equally common to this complaint, and to that called /arq/. It is not certain to whom it was indebted for thjs name among us, nor whence its derivation, nor at what time it 400 GLANDERS. [Cfoss III. was so named ; but it does not seem to have received any particular appellation, either with us, or our neighbours the French, till the restoration of learning after the irruption of the Goths ; for we find some of the French authors disputing what disease Vegetius meant, when he was evidently describing glanders under a term that, when translated, signifies humidity or moisture. He speaks of it as a viscid white matter running from the nose, of a bad smell, accom- panied with moisture from the eyes ; a haggard countenance, and dry harsh hair; it was added, that, when this running became bloody, the disease was incurable*. It is likewise described in the celebrated work of Ruini, in 1618. The antients formed the most vague opinions concerning this complaint, nor was their treatment less so; and among the old English farriers the absurdity lost no ground. De Gray says, a horse must be first cured of sundry complaints before the glanders can be cured, as consumption of the flesh and lungs, aches in the head, diseases of the liver, purslveness, hide-bound, swelled legs. See. Sulleysel and Blundeville supposed its seat was the spinal marrow, which was wasted by its effects ; others thought the brain was exuding through the frontal sinuses. Neither Gibson nor Bracken had any correct notion of this disease: the latter seems to con- sider it as the remains of a cold, confining its attack to the glands of the throat, and denies its being infectious; directing, as a cure, balsam cojmivi, eggs, and H'hite wine ; at the same time advising the use of stimulating injections up the nostrils. The fatal tendency of this malignant disease stimulated the industry of the French, many of whom attended minutely to it; and, as human surgery was more advanced, it is probable their ideas were guided principally by ana- logy, and their practice directed accordingly ; and it is more than likely that the treatment of ozena in the human subject first gave La Fosse the hint to attempt the cure by injecting the nasal sinuses ; though it is said that this experiment was first tried some years before in England ; but of this I am by no means certain. Both the younger and elder of these industrious veterinarians have taken very great pains to ascertain the nature and cause of this com- plaint. In 1749, La P’osse the elder, demonstrated before the Aca- demy of Sciences in Paris, that the seat of this disease was wholly in the pituitary membrane, and he, therefore, proposed as a cure the injecting the whole surface of this membrane, by openings to be made with the trepan into, the frontal, nasal, and maxillary sinuses. This memoir was translated into. English by Bartlet, and the same experiment was made by various persons, particularly by Snape, far- rier to the king ; but I am not aware of the practice being carried to any length. La Fosse the younger informs us, that the farriers of that time were enraged at the discovery, and, so far from endeavour- ing to examine into the truth of his evidence, they obstinately per- * A late autlior was not aware of this, probably, when he asserted that glanders and tlie venereal disease bore the same date in medical annals. . GLANDERS. 401 Class III.] sisted in the antlent opinions, that the seat of the disease was in the lungs, the kidnies, or the liver. In 1752, La Fosse senior presented another memoir to the Royal Academy of Sciences, in which he more fully explained his theory, and presented many new facts. In this treatise he divided the "disease into seven different species. The younger La Fosse pursued the matter, and, in 1759, he gave some public demonstrations on this subject by order of the French government; and in 1762, he presented his first memoir on the same to the academy, in which he did little more than establish his father’s ibrmer opinions. The result of these discoveries went to prove, that the glanders was a specific affection of the pituitary membrane, affectipg all the nasal cavities and its dependent sinuses ; that though every appearance of mucosity from the nose was denominated glanders, two only were specific affections ; and that the disease is so truly an affection of the pituitary membrane alone, that any inflam- mation of this part, if long continued, may degenerate into it : hence he has seen fractures of the bones of the nose produce it ; a long-continued catarrh likewise; the strangles may also terminate in it ; and, lastly, as full proof, both himself and father have pro- duced it upon a sound horse by acrid injections up the nose*. It was the opinion of these authors, that this disease was only to be cured by local applications, and those must be applied to the whole affected surface of the membrane ; to come at which they recom- mended the penetrating the nasal, frontal, and maxillary sinuses ; but though, in a few instances, it appeared to prove useful, yet the event did not justify their expectations. M. St. Bel, the late professor of our Veterinary College, likewise published his remarks on this disease ; but it is evident that he knew little or nothing relating to it but what he gained from La Fosse, and consequently his opinions offered nothing new. The present professor has prosecuted the subject much farther, and, by an exten- sive course of experiments, has thrown very considerable light on the nature of the affection ; and though we are not now much more suc- cessful in attempts at the cure, yet we have, perhaps, less reason to despair. The venereal disease, to which this has by almost every later writer been compared, is a specific affection, and for a long time committed its ravages without a prospect of relief, but at length mercury divested it of most of its horrors, and proved a specific remedy for the syphylitic poison : nor need w^e be less sanguine with regard to this complaint, which is not more obstinate, nor more rapid in its progress, but less so ; and though we have not hitherto succeeded in detecting the antidote, we should not be deterred in our search after it; for we are justified by analogy to hope that a specific remedy does exist, and that w^e shall yet become possessed of it. {See this subject pursued in the Treatment.) * These authors were, in general cases, sufficiently correct ; but oar experiment,s and observations do not go so far, I believe : glanders has never been thus artifi- cially generated with us; nor have I ever seen it follow catarrh, strangles, or acci- dental wounds of the nose. -402 GLANDERS. III. The modern Improvements in the veterinary art have taught us, that glanders and farcy are dependent on a poison specifically the same ; but that the seat of the one is not the same with that of the other. The experiments that have been made set this matter be- yond doubt ; for horses have been inoculated with the matter of farcy, and glanders has been the result : glanders has also been pro- duced by inoculating with the matter of glanders, which M. St. Bel asserted could not be done : farcy has been brought on likewise by inserting the matter of farcy : and, lastly, the artificial introduction of the matter of glanders has occasioned a true appearance of farcy. It has, however, been inferred, that because these two diseases are so different in their situations, they must be essentially different in their natures ; but in answer to this, had not even numerous experiments and established facts already set this matter clear, still it might have been urged a priori, not only that every poison has its preference of situation, but likewise that the same poison, under different modifi- cations, affects different parts. The first and secondary attacks of syphylis are very different, and the parts they affect remote from each other. The poison of the plague inflames the lymphatic glands, but it is by no means certain which of them it shall attack. It may not unaptly be added, that it is sufficiently notorious that farcy always proceeds in the course of the lymphatics, and observa- tion has proved that glanders, when it produces ulcers, proceeds in the line of the absorbents of the nose. To Mr. White, of Exeter, the veterinary world are much in- debted for his attention to this important subject : the numerous experiments he has recorded, and the interesting facts he has de- tailed, all go to prove that glandered matter will produce both farcy and glanders ; and that the matter from farcy will likewise occasion either the one disease or the other. When the matter of glanders is introduced under the cuticle without occasioning any flow of blood to liquefy or neutralize the. poison, a slight swelling is produced in a day or two, and in another day or two a purulent discharge takes place ; after which the lymphatics of the part become inflamed and corded, as in farcy. The original sore will soon assume the appear- ance of a true farcy bud or ulcer, and similar ones will also follow in the course of the absorbents : in short, the disease will take on every characteristic of genuine farcy. Soon after, matter begins to flow from the nostrils, the lymphatic glands under the jaw become en- larged, and every feature of perfect glanders also appears in full force. Exactly the same will occur, if the matter of farcy is used for the inoculation instead of that of glanders. But though Mr. White’s own experiments tend to shew the spe- cific similarity that exists between farcy and glanders sufficiently clear, yet he appears, in another part, to consider farcy as a local disease, but glanders always a constitutional one. I cannot but re- gard both these views of the matter as somewhat erroneous ; for, although the fact is certain, that the extirpation of a farcy bud will often destroy all further progress of the complaint j so Will the de- GLANDEKS. 403 Class III.] struction of the syphilitic chancre, there is reason to believe, in some instances prevent the future progress of the venereal virus : but no })rudent surgeon would trust to it. On the other hand, I believe, there is no doubt also but that the effectual cauterization of a glan- dered sore of late standing, and artificially created, may prevent any future symptoms of the malady in many instances. These circum- stances will occur equally in both diseases in the very early stages, but in neither do they happen in advanced periods of their exist- ence, and consequently no difference between the two can be de- duced. Glanders appears to kill by the hectic irritation it occasions in the constitution, or it destroys by diseasing the lungs : not unfre- quently also both these causes operate in the same subject; but dis- eased lungs are invariably present in every case more or less, as is proved by dissections of innumerable subjects who have died of it. When horses have been killed early in the disease, the lungs have been found merely affected with tubercles ; but when the animal has been suffered to die from the effects of the complaint, these organs have been always found much ulcerated. Indeed, there is reason to suppose that the malady does not begin to exert much of its noxious influence on the general health, until it has attacked the lungs ; but as soon as it bas affected them, its progress is very rapid. As this translation from the nose to the chest is sometimes slow, particu- larly in strong and otherwise healthy horses; so it serves to account why the disease makes such little progress in some cases to what it does in others ; the poison itself may also be less virulent in some instanees. That glanders is contagious there is no reason to doubt, but the degree in which it is so has been disputed ; nor shall we, perhaps, readily come at the truth, until a vast number of accurate experi- ments have been made on this very point. I formerly thought it more frequently engendered than caught, but a very extensive expe- rience has since disposed me to consider it as more frequently taken by contagion than engendered within the constitution. ^But though this is sufficiently interesting; it is even of more importance to de- termine how the contagion is communicated, which has hitherto been differently accounted for, and is not yet satisfactorily explained. I have seen much of it in the army and in other situations, and watched its progress attentively ; but as I happened to be always denied the opportunity of much experiment, I have not been able to satisfy my mind entirely on this point. Mr. White’s experiments go to prove, that the simple contact of glandered matter, applied to a surface neither abraded nor inflamed, will not produce it. It has even been put up the nose, and retained there, without occasioning; any ill effect ; and though this is in direct contradiction to what occurs in the venereal virus, which will communicate its effects through the medium of any healthy mucous membrane ; yet it cor- responds w'ith what I have observed ; for I have also rubbed the mat- ter on various parts of the body, and introduced it under the eyelids E e 4i)4 GLANDERS. [Class in. likewise, yet no ill consequence ensued : but on rubbing some glan* dered matter into the greasy heels of a horse condemned to the dogs, farcy soon appeared. The air has been supposed a medium for contagion, particularly the air of the stable ; but this I always considered as very unlikeh^, and further experience has convinced me that the air alone will not convey the contagion of glanders. Mr. White informs us he had the opportunity of putting this to the test of experiment, by keeping a sound horse and an infected one in the same stable, but perfectly free from actual communication ; the event was, that the sound horse received no injury from his diseased companion : and though not one or two, nor indeed several individual instances, would esta- blish the fact incontrovertibly ; yet this much even greatly strength- ens the opinion formed. This gentleman further conjectures, that the general source of contagion arises from the glandercd matter being received into the stomach ; and the experiments and facts he details, make this appear to be really the case. If the air cannot be infected, and if the simple contact of matter, to an uninfiamed or unabraded surface, will not propagate the infection, it seems very difficult otherwise to account for its being so highly contagious as we know it to be ; for we cannot for a moment suppose that every horse, out of the number of those who become affected, can gain it by inoculation ; that is, by an accidental application of the poison- ous matter to a sore or abraded surface. P\iture experiments, how- ever, on a large scale can only determine this ; in the mean time, what is known, and here detailed, will enable the veterinarian to give his preventive directions accordingly. From the appearances that sometimes occur, there is reason to suppose that glanders now and then puts on an acute form also, and rages as an epidemic: such has been observed among horses ema- ciated by a long voyage, or after a severe campaign. In one in- stance, where the hatches of a dragoon troop ship were forced to be closed on account of tempestuous weather, it was said, this form of acute glanders broke out, and destroyed numbers in three days only. I think it, however, not improbable that this might be a very malig- nant form of catarrhal fever. The Symptoms of Glanders are an increased and diseased secretion from the membranes of the nose, which continually flows in small or large quantities. This discharge is seldom at first perfectly puru- lent, but is more clairy, thick, and not unlike the white of egg, and it sometimes continues thus for a long time ; at others it soon be- comes purulent, but even then there is always a degree of viscidity and gluiness in it that sticks the nostrils together, as it were, from its tenacity, differing from other pus, and which very strongly charac- terises the complaint. As ulceration takes place, the discharge be- comes bloody, sometimes sanious and offensive, which is always the case when the bones prove diseased. From an absorption of the matter from the nose by the lymphatics of the part, the glands under the jaws, through which these vessels pass, become swollen and GLANDERS. 405 Class III.] tender, and, as one side of the head only is sometimes affected with the glandered running, in such case one lymphatic gland only is tumefied, and of course the one of the affected side. These glands are called kernels by the farriers, and their being enlarged or not enlarged is, with them, a criterion of the existence or nmvexistence of the disease : but though in lonff-continued glanders they are very generally enlarged, yet in mild cases they are not invariably so ; and again, there are other complaints beside this that will tumefy them. I'he increased secretion from the inflamed membrane in common catarrh will sometimes do it; and the same occurs in strangles. Still less can any certain criterion be drawn from the circumstance of their being attached or detached from the jaw bone, though, when they become much swelled in virulent glanders, they certainly are not so loose and free from confinement within the skin. Nevertheless, the enlargement of these glands may serve as an auxi- liary proof of the existence of the complaint, but must not be relied on as a definitive one. The disease sometimes remains long without producing ulceration, and cases of this kind prove very puzzling to the practitioner : at other times, on the contrary, an ulcerating pro- cess quickly appears ; and I believe that such does eventually take place, sooner or later, in every case. These ulcers have a very pecu- liar character, and their appearance cannot be too attentively studied by the veterinarian ; they are not unlike the venereal chancre, but usually commence by small limpid bladders, which soon ulcerate into a sore of a particular kind ; and when there are several of them, they are always placed in the course of the lymphatics. Sometimes the ulceration exists so high up, that it is very difficult to discover them ; yet, with the head held up to a full light, more particularly towards the sun when shining, they may be detected if within any moderate distance. Very great caution is likewise requisite in giving a prompt decision from the existence of these alone ; for sometimes a portion of the matter will adhere to the nasal surface, and much resemble ulceration : and had not the error actually occurred in the practice of more than one veterinarian, I should be almost ashamed to insert a caution, that the opening of the nasal duct, which brings the superfluous moisture from the eyes, may not be mistaken for a chancre ; the situation of which is towards the posterior and lower part of the nostril {seepage 185). As the disease advances, much of the surface of the Schneiderian membrane becomes ulcerated, till at length even the bones prove carious. At an uncertain period of the disease, which occurs sometimes much sooner than at others, the lungs become affected, when hectic symptoms soon follow: there then appears cough, emaciation, and weakness in the loins ; the hair feels dry, and falls off on being handled ; the matter from the nose increases in quantity, becomes sanious, stinking, or bloody, and in this state the animal dies. From the. very serious effects that follow the spreading of this disease, the veterinary practitioner is often called upon to give a prompt and definitive opinion relative to it ; and how very necessary E e 2 40G GLAKDEUS. [Class III, it is for his own reputation, and likewise from the consequences that may ensue, that he should be enabled to do this, the following case^ in iny own practice is calculated to shew. Some years ago I was requested to attend at a market town in Sussex, to examine a horse suspected to be glandered, and whose situation had occupied the attention of not only the whole town, but of the entire country around ; and action upon action depended upon the result ; for the owner had pertinaciously persisted in introducing this horse wherever he went. At last, such an outcry was raised, that the farmer and his horse were literally pelted out of the town. A penal process was threatened against him for danger incurred, and he had rebutted, by having already commenced an action for an assault. The neigh- bourhood were generally interested in the case, but extremely divided in their opinions; and on my arrival, which I found had been pur- posely fixed for the market day, I was literally surrounded by a motley group of not less than two hundred persons. The unfor- tunate object of my examination was stationed in a bye lane, tied to a tree, a quarter of a mile without the town. It proved to be one of those intricate cases, hereafter detailed, of a peculiar morbid excite- ment of the Schneiderian membrane ; but having been much in the habit of examining glandered troop horses, I was less at a loss than T might otherwise have been : after, therefore, attentively examining the animal, and having gained all the collateral evidence in my power, I decided that it was not a glanderous affection, but that irritability and increased secretion before hinted at; and I after- wards learned that the event justified the opinion, to the extreme triumph of the farmer. In numerous other cases also, a necessity will often exist for a prompt and correct opinion on this subject ; it therefore behoves the junior practitioner to make himself as familiar with the complaint as possible. The principal intricacy that will present itself, arises from the glmilarity of appearance that frequently exists between the true disease and an effect arising from long-continued or often re- peated colds. In present colds the difficulty cannot be great, for the general health is commonly affected ; therc-is a loss of appetite, some drought, and a cough, which seldom are seen in the early stao-es of glanders, and the more advanced states require but little to distino'uish them ; and though in colds the submaxi liary glands are sometimes swelled, yet they are in these cases hot and moveable. But when colds have been often repeated, or have continued a long time, a morbid affection of the mucous membranes of the nasal cavi- ties will sometimes remain for a considerable time afterwards, in which there will continue, though the animal may be otherwise healthy, to flow a quantity of thick and apparently purulent discharge from one or both nostrils. I have seen cases of this kind which have existed one and two years, and in one instance it had lasted three years, but eventually disappeared. Such morbid flux of matter is always the effect of former inflammations from cold, in which, though the original affecliou ItaS subsided, yet it has left a disposition GLANDERS. 407 Class III.] in the tricnibrane to secrete inordinately; and as an and 'undue action, long continued, almost always alters the secretions, so it is not the true mucus of the part that flows, but one bordering on pus or matter : nevertheless we shall hereafter shew that it is not correcthj purulent, and on this difference we shall ground an important distinction. These cases will prove particularly puzzling to the practitioner, and many circumstances will unite to increase his difficulties : little dependence, as one instance, is to be placed on the absence of ulceration, nor on the state of the lymphatic glands of the throat, unless indeed the disease is of long continuance, and then this want of these characteristics will be a considerable crite- rion ; but in the early stages very little so, for glandered matter will flow some time without ulceration being detected even on careful examination ; and still less will the presence of tumefied lymphatics ascertain the existence of glanders with certainly ; for in some early instances there is none of this present ; and again, on the contrary, there is no tumefaction that glanders can produce but what may be equalled by other circumstances : indeed, any thing passing the ab- sorbents, foreign to the usual fluids taken up, may irritate and enlarge these glands; and they may be at all times swelled in six hours by injecting any thing acrid up the nostrils. In confirmed glanders they are, however, very generally not only enlarged, but they prove less moveable in their situation, and are almost fixed to the jaw ; whereas, when the flow from the nose is only the effect o a former cold, they do not present much enlargement. With re- gard to the discharge, there are usually some distinguishing marks, which, if attended to, will prove a tolerably sure guide. The matter itself in glanders is generally tenacious and sticking, like glue; it is likewise almost transparent, and hangs about the nostrils in a pecu- liar manner ; but more particularly it is continually flowing : whereas in that state resulting from cold, there is not a regular discharge, but it comes on now and then, as when the horse coughs, cr when he occasionally clears himself; at which times a large .quantity comes away, and then perhaps no more for some hours after. And though the matter of glanders may flow some weeks even without ulceration, yet in general cases there will occur a more early ap- pearance of chancres, such as we have described. To all these con- siderations should be added, the general health of the animal ; and some dependence may also be placed on the state 'of the hair, which I have always observed unthrifty and disposed to fall off in con- firmed glanders. When, however, a necessity exists for an immediate decision rela- tive to the disease, and the foregoing uncertainties throw great obstacles in the way of a prompt opinion, I have practised the following mode of determining this point, and always with uniform certainty. If the matter issuing from the nose in these deceptive cases, arising from cold, be droj)ped into water, it soon rises to the surface and swims; but if the matter from a glandered horse is so dropped into water, it invariably sinks. I will not attempt to assert 408 GLANDERS. [C/o;s III. that this is an unerring criterion j but I have always found it so, and I further believe that this mode of discriminating between the two originated with myself. But when a still more absolute neces- sity exists for a decision liable to no error, it may yet be gained under every difficulty by the inoculation of a healthy horse of little value with the suspected matter of the diseased one, in the following manner. Prepare a piece of wool, lint, or muslin, not larger than a pea, which steep thoroughly in the matter. flowing from the nose; then raise a portion of the skin of the neck of the healthy horse, avoiding as much as possible a flow of blood, and insert within the wound the substance impregnated with the nratter, which confine in its situation by means of adhesive plaister. It is of moment, in this operation, that the skin should be superficially raised, for if it pene- trates deeply, blood will follow, which may wash away the matter applied : and it is equally important that the cuticle be absolutely penetrated, so that the inserted substance may lay exactly between the cutis and cuticle. It will follow from this experiment, that if the matter is not glanderous, though a little swelling may appear, it will, in three or four days, totally subside ; but, on the contrary, if the matter inserted should be glanderous, the wound will tumefy and put on an angry appearance ; additional ulceration will suc- ceed, the lymphatics beyond the part will become corded, and the disease will otherwise manifest itself beyond doubt. The T^mt'fnent of Glanders. — The philosophers’ stone was scarcely sought for more earnestly by the antients, than a cure for the glanders by the moderns, by modern veterinarians at least. The great reward it held out has stimulated many practitioners into a wide field of experiment; and, with such a stimulus, it is no wonder that the present ingenious Professor of the Veterinary College should have given the subject an ample portion of his study. But neither Mr, Coleman, Mr. White, nor the other experimentalists on this subject, have succeeded. I also formerly tired my brains, my hands, and my pocket, in the pursuit ; but I soon relinquished it, and made up my mind to attempt in future the cure of the curable diseases only, and to leave the curative attempts on the incurable ones to wiser heads than mine. That a cure may, however, be yet discovered for this specific poison there is no reason from analogy to despair ; but on the contrary, as before pointed out, much reason to hope : nevertheless one consideration, not usually taken into the account, would probably much lessen the value of such a discovery, which is, that it does not appear to be the glanders, as it affects the head, that destroys the animal ; but as it diseases the lungs. Now, when these important organs become once affected in these cases, it is not clear that even the destruction of the glanderous virus would save the animal ; on the contrary, there is every reason from analogy to conclude, that the lungs having been once ulcerated, let the cause be what it w’ould, the pulmonary affection alone would run on to a fatal termination. If, therefore, we could even completely destroy the specific poison of glanders in the constitutioti by any means, it FARCV. Class III.] 409. Is yet in the very early stages of the complaint only that we could hope for complete success. I have, in my own attempts to discover a remedy for it, consi- dered it as a local affection ; and, as such, have tried numerous ap- plications to the nose. I have then altered my grounds, and attacked it from within, as a constitutional disease, by almost every active medicament in the Materia Medica. Many others have travelled over the same course, some with more persevering industry, but all with the like success. In college practice, I have heard that the parotid duct even has been taken up as the forlorn hope. Many ex- ternal applications seem, for a time, to benefit the complaint, the running even ceases under some plans of treatment ; but the in- ternal morbid action goes on, and the discharge eventually returns. Arsenic has been fully tried, sometimes with deceptive promises of benefit. Acrid mercurials have proved even more illusory, for they have stayed the progress of the disease to such a degree as to en- courage a strong hope of ultimate success ; but the amendment has always proved evanescent ; nevertheless, should a cure be discovered, it will probably be one that attacks the disease by means of the system at large. It can be given through the medium of the blood, as has been proved by transfusing that of a glandered horse into the veins of an ass, who soon became affected ; and it is more than probable it must be by the same medium alone that it will ever admit of a cure when confirmed. FARCY. [Le Farcin. From what has preceded on the subject of glanders, it will appear that these two diseases may be considered as modifications only of each other. Though the older writers were aware that one sometimes terminated in the other, yet they still considered them as two dis- tinct affections ; and this the more, as farcy was found sometimes curable, but glanders never. To prove that no such inference how- ever ought to have been drawn from this circumstance, we know of several other complaints where one modification is easily removed, and another proves very obstinate, if not totally incurable. La Fosse, who paid so much attention to the subject of glanders, did not, how- ever, extend his inquiries sufficiently to this complaint; but, on the contrary, contented himself with considering it as a disease ex- isting in the blood vessels, and also in the blood itself, sometimes affecting the red, at others the colourless parts. It has likewise continued, till very lately, to be considered as a disease of the blood vessels, not, indeed, of the arteries ; but, with us, has long been regarded as affecting the veins. The awakened attention of more enlightened minds to the subject, has now shewn, beyond a 410 FARCY. [Class III. doubt, that farcy, in its local or early state, is a specific inflamma- tion of the absorbe7its of the skin. As long, likewise, as it remains in this superficial form, it is not very difficult to treat; but when it becomes introduced into the systeii) at large, by means of the cir- culation, it proves very generally fatal ; most certainly so, when it ends, as it usually does, in glanders. This spontaneous and general termination in glanders would alone point out its intimate connexion with that disease; in fact, the general identity of the two. Like glanders, also, it may be either generated or caught, but it is much more frequently generated, I believe, than glanders. In some in- stances, where it arises spontaneously, it first appears in the form of diffused swellings over various parts of the body ; and, at others, it seems to originate from a sore taking on a peculiar action. This peculiar action seems itself to generate a poison that becomes ab- sorbed into the habit, and produces its destructive eflects either upon the deeper-seated absorbents, or upon the membrane of the nose, and, finally, on the lungs themselves. No part of the bodv is ex- empt from its attack ; but the head, neck, and extremities, particu- larly the hinder ones, are most liable. When the virus is absorbed by the lymphatics, it occasions a 5;jecj/ic inflammation; and in its passage forwards, when it meets with a valve, its progress appears ar- rested, for the valve swells, becomes hard, and forms a tumour, which is technically called a farcy bud. The slow progress of the disease, in many cases, seems to be dependent on this obstruction oflered to the passage of the poison by means of the swellings of the lym- phatic glands ; and it is by catching the poison at these resting places that we are enabled in the early stages more readily to pro- mote the cure. At length, however, if nothing is done, these tu- mours or buds ulcerate, and discharge a thin sanies ; and from .one bud or valve it passes on to another, inflaming the lymphatic vessels between as it passes, arid giving them a hardened feel like a cord under the skin ; and as these vessels run in the course of the veins, so the older farriers were, probably, from thence led to their opi- nion that the farcy was a disease of the veins, and these enlarge- ments, in their writings, are therefore always described as the corded veins. The invariable course of the affection is towards the thoracic duct, as might be expected, seeing it is at these times confined to the absorbents ; and in its passage it inflames and enlarges all the superficial lymphatic glands it meets with : from whence follows not only numerous little farcy buds in the skin, but larger and very painful swellings take place of the more considerable absorb- ent glands of the groin, and of those between the fore legs, and under the jaw'. Sometimes these proceed to suppurate, when they form extensive sinuses or farcy pipes, and which are found, like most poisoned wounds, very difficult of cure. When the disease is received by infection, there is reason to suppose it is most generally effected by means of the application of the matter from a farcied sore of an infected horse, to some inflamed or abraded surface of a healthy one. I am not aware that the introduction of the matter of farcy FARCY. 411 Class III.] within the stomach will produce the disease ; I am disposed to think the contrary : but, in contradiction to glanders, the application of the matter to a simple uninflamed mucous membrane will, I believe, propagate the infection. These points, however, I do not yet think fully established. From the varieties in the appearance of farcy, it is often not much less difficult to decide on its actual existence than it is on that of glanders ; and mistakes between this and other affections arc every day made in the practice of farriers. Every diffused swelling, from whatever cause, even ossifications and ligamentary enlarge- ments, are termed /crrci/ humours; and the poor animal, from these erroneous conclusions, becomes subjected to a long and painful treatment, unless he more luckily meets a milder fate by being con- demned to the hounds. Sometimes one limb, or part of r limb, will remain indurated and enlarged for a considerable time, probably from the cause above assigned, that the virus becomes arrested in its progress from a lymphatic gland enlarging and becoming imper- vious. This farcied enlargement of a limb is not, to a partial ob- server, unlike the ligamentary thickening of a gorged leg, neither is it much unlike the swelling from oedema or want of condition. But, independent of the circumstance that the farcied poison will find itself other passages, and proceed upwards, and thus shew it- self in its true colours ; on a very careful inspection, these swell- ings, when they arise from farcy, will present an uneven surface ; the little glands of the skin will here and there point themselves into small buds ; and it is further worthy of remark, that such swellings are more likely to exist in definite masses, and between the joints than on them or near them, which is not the case in liga- mentary enlargements arising from over-exertion or strain. Com- mon swellings of the legs, from cracks, grease, or want of condition, may likewise be distinguished from farcy, because they readily disappear on exercise. Like the venereal poison, the farcy confines its attack to the ex- ternal parts, and, like that, it shews a preference for some situations more than others, as we have already noticed ; nor is it less various in its mode of coming on : one particular kind of it I have not seen noticed, and wdaich is probably a generated one, shews itself by the affected horse becoming suddenly lame in one limb, and then again in another, which parts, when attacked, swell, but re- cede again. In this w’ay he may remain for months, with his health very slightly affected ; at length, however, the disease assumes a more marked character, some of the swellings ulcerate, and glan- ders eventually closes the scene. The Treatment of Farcy. — In the very early stages of this com- plaint, when it has been taken from another, or when it commences in the extremities, it appears then, as we before remarked, to confine itself to the lymphatics of the skin, and in this stale it is not found difficult of cure : but when it is generated in the habit, and when it has been inoculated, not in the extremities, but in the head, 412 FARCY. [Gass III. neck, or by means of mucous membranes, by all which the virus is soon received into the blood, and renders the disease constitu- tional ; it then is less easily treated, though until it has injured the lungs, or degenerated into glanders, the case is not hopeless. Mr. White has considered the farcy as a local disease, and the glanders as a constitutional one ; and though he admits that one poison produces both, yet he conceives there is this essential differ- ence between them. I have already, when treating on glanders, described how far I think this erroneous. When farcy has its origin in inoculation, particularly of a part distant from the heart, as the hind leg, &c., it may be considered in a similar light with the wound made by a rabid dog, which, until it reaches the source of circulation, does not exert its baneful influence ; and, therefore, may be destroyed by arresting its progress in its first stage. So far farcy is local ; but when it becomes generated in the constitution, it cannot be considered as local, neither does it prove so but a very short time, if any, when inoculated in the head, neck, or any part near the source of circulation. Nevertheless, I am not pre- pared to say that it is never cured when it has oven tainted the con- stitution ; on the contrary, I think there is reason to suppose that it is sometimes eradicated after this, and insomuch it certainly differs from glanders; but when it has propagated its morbid^ effects to the lungs, it is no longer curable; nor has it ever been eradicated after the nose began to run and the lymphatics of the jaw were affected. In our treatment neither is it ever safe to regard it as purely local, or to trust wholly to external applications for a cure. I formerly thought it might be effectually arrested in the first in- stance in the absorbents, and that nothing more than the destruc- tion of these was necessary to effect all we wish ; nor can it be de- nied that, sometimes, this has succeeded, but it is more usual in these cases for the disease after some time to reappear, and com- monly in a more malignant form. I would therefore recommend to the practitioner always to treat it as a constitutional affection, and I then leave it to his own fancy to call it what he pleases, either constitutional or local. The cure should be commenced by destroy- ing all the diseased buds by caustic or by cautery, and this whether they are ulcerated or not. The quickest mode is to divide them with a sharp firing iron, particularly if they are superficial ; if deeper seated, an opening may be made in each with a lancet, and the bud touched effectually with the lapis infernalis (see Caustics, Mate- ria Medica). In more advanced stages, when these tumours or buds are extensive, and have burst, a wash may be made of nitric acid diluted with water, to a state that does not give inconvenient pain, and with this the sores may be washed twice a-day. The in- ternal remedies used are various : nearly all the mineral acids have been found useful, and some of the vegetable ones : it indeed seems principally necessary to the destruction of the farcy virus, that some other poison should be admitted into the constitution of greater activity, though with its acrimony sheathed in some degree j and in FARCY. 413 Class III.] such way only can we account for so many of the active agents in the Materia Medica being found useful in farcy. All the different forms of mercury have been tried with considerable success ; but the oxymuriate of quicksilver {corrosive sublimate) appears the best ; and, when determined on, should be given to the full extent the stomach and bowels will bear, without purging or symptoms of in- flammation being brought on. Ten or fifteen grains may be began with, ground very finely, and given night and morning in gruel as a drench, or mixed with butter, lard, or any other substance, as a ball. If this occasions no distress, it may be increased to a scruple, and from this to half a dram, if it is borne with ease : but the ut- most care and watchfulness should be exerted when the dose is con- siderable. And when, as is sometimes the case, the weakness and irritability of the horse are too great for the exhibition of the corrosive sublimate, give half a dram of calomel twice a-day, or the blue pill, as it is termed, may be used instead, to.the amount of half an ounce night and morning, still carefully watching the salivating process. After the trial of mercurials, arsenic ought next to claim the at- tention, as that has also proved very efficacious, and may be given in similar quantities, in the same forms, and with equal caution. At one time it was, I believe, the fashion at the Veterinary Col- lege to give verdigris in doses of a scruple, three times a-day, in- creased to a dram. I have witnessed also good effects from this preparation ; but I have found it most efficacious when given in a ball in conjunction with the sulphat of copper {blue vitriol), one dram at a dose. Some practitioners chuse to employ all these in conjunction, and they assert the cure is speedier from the combined articles than from any one separately. In this case, give the follow- ing Corrosive sublimate {oxymuriate of quicksilver) eight grains. Arsenic {oxide of arsenic) ditto, Verdigris {suhacetate of copper) .... ditto, Blue vitriol {sulphat of copper) one scruple. Make into a ball, and give every morning. Should the subject be a small, or a weakly one, begin with rather a smaller dose of each of the articles : but in any case, when the quantity is found to sit well on the stomach, increase the dose of each article, daily, one or two grains, carefully watching the effects produced, occasionally resting a day or two ; and, however \vell the ball may seem to agree, do not increase the more active mineral agents beyond fifteen or twenty grains each, without great caution, and the most marked attention to the effects. It has been thought prudent by some to divide the dose, and to give the half, night and morning : but I have not, in general, found any benefit from this plan, for the quantity that the stomach and constitution will bear, will be as well borne at once as at twice ; and it may be also re- marked, that some horses can take three or four times more than Others. Great caution is therefore necessary in proceeding with the 414 DYSENTERY. [Class in. use of the mineral agents, but it is equally necessary that the dose should he increased, in all cases, to as much as the constitution will bear (see Mercurials and Arsenic in the Materia Medica); and when evident distress and loss of appetite occur, omit the remedies wholly for two or three days, and then resume them again. During their exhibition it is also absolutely necessary that the constitution should be supported liberally, nor should the stomach and bowels ever be suf- fered to remain empty for any length of time. In addition also to the use of the mineral acids, I have experienced much benefit from the following drink, given in conjunction with the ball beforementioned, every day, but not at the same time of the day ; the ball in the morning, for instance, and the drink in the evening : — The expressed juice of the clivers, or goose grass six ounces, A very strong decoction of hempseeds . . . ditto, A ditto of sassafras ditto. Mix. Green meat should be particularly sought after, and if the bowels will bear it, tlie horse should be wholly fed on it ; but if it gripes, add a quantity of bean meat or split beans to some chaff, and give also. Moist and succulent food appears to do much towards a cure ; in one instance, a horse so reduced as not to be able to stand, was drawn into a field of tares and suffered to take his chance ; the consequence was, that, when he had eaten all within his reach, he was able to rise and search for more, and eventually recovered. When green meat cannot be got, feed on carrots, or speared corn. DYSENTERY. Dysenteriai] [Grasfondii. This disease, the grasfondu of the French, and the molten grease of our farriers, is, in itself, one of the strongest proofs of the piti- able state in which veterinary medicine has been hitherto plunged. Bartlet, who was educated a surgeon, and should have known belter, says, ‘ by molten-grease is meant a fatty or oily discharge with the ^ dung, and arises from a colliquation, or melting down of the fat ‘ of a horse’s body by violent exercise in very hot weather.’ Bracken and Gibson had held the same before him, and later writers on this subject have copied their errors *. But the appearance which has * In a work written on horses so late as 1798, by Mr. John Lawrence, the fol- lowing absurdity appears ; — ‘ Molten grease is a colliquation, or general melting ‘ of the fat of the body, part of which is absorbed and thrown out on the blood, ‘ and OH the intestines, and voided with the excrements. The horse must be ‘ much subject to this malady, from his natural propensity to acquire fat in a ‘ short time.’ The author adds, ‘ I have repeatedly seen that the blood of a ‘ horse taken up from grass will not only have a greasy pellicle on it, but will cut ‘ several inches deep in fat; this being of a loose and unsubstantial texture, not like DYSENTERY. 415 Class III.] been mistaken for fat, is nothing more than an increased secretion of the mucus of the intestines, and is as liable to a horse with little fat as to one with much. Dysentery appears a peculiar inflammation of the inner or villous coat of the intestines, producing' an increased secretion of the mucus formed from it, and a frequent discharge of it ; and it is from its • glairy consistence that it has been mistaken for the fat of the body melted by heat or exercise, and passed otf in this way ; and, from so considering it, has arisen the gross term of molten grease, by which it is called in all the former works on farriery ; and as, in this disease, there is always present considerable fever, or increased vascular action in general ; so when blood is drawn it exhibits much buff or coagulable lymph ; and this has been regarded as a farther proof by the older farriers, that the fat of the body is, at these times, in a state of general solution, and floating loose throughout. Mr. White considers dysentery not as a distinct disease, but as only a symptom of general inflammation : nor is it, in a general point of view, of much consequence, whether it is considered as a disease or as a symptom, so it is successfully treated. But in teaching cause and effect, it is of import that our descriptions and designations should be correct. I cannot therefore but endeavour to impress on the veterinary student’s memory, that I think this may most justly i)c regarded as a true primary disease, dependent on the causes, and having the appearances we shall describe. Mr. White has also rather mistaken me, when he observes, that I consider this as simi- lar to the human dysentery. Perhaps I might not have made the distinctions sufficiently obvious between the tw'o, but I expressly state, in the former edition of the Veterinary Outlines, that I believe it is never contagious, and its being epidemic is also questionable. I am, however, very ready to own, that after fifteen years’ additional experience, I consider it as still less allied to human dysentery than I did formerly ; though as it has its origin in an inflammatory alFec- lion of the mucous membranes of the intestines, w’aich also is the grand characteristic of the human dysenteria ; and as, also, both produce a morbid increase of the mucous secretion, so I know no ‘ the pinguedo or suet, no wonder it will fuse by great heat and exertion.’ What this gentleman mistake.s tor fat ill the blood, is only the inflammatory crust or bulT; ,imd is simply the coagulum of the blood, and common to every horse, fat or lean, whose vessels are labouring under increased action. Since the above note appeared, in the justice of which I am supported by the evi- dence of every regular and scientific veterinarian; a second edition ofMr. L.’s pub- lication has been brought forward, in which he attempts to explain away the gross- uessof this reasoning by the subterfuge of attributing it to a casual inadvertence; at the same time, he betrays a pitiful petulance at my discharging my duty as a writer, in fact a public and imperious duty, that of combating error wherever I meet with it. In noticing this gentleman’s work, meagre as it i^, I did it on the broad scale of legitimate criticism ; but, in his second edition, from a paltry re venge, whenever he has mentioned mine, he has done it in envy, without candour, and with a total disregard to the common urbanity that ought to characterise every one who has any value for his own character. 416 DYSENTERY. [Gass III. better systematic name for it than dysentery. In the human subject this disease appears to partake of a putrid tendency, originating fre- quently from marsh miasmata ; it is also highly contagious, and often epidemic. In the horse, on the contrary, though there is reason to consider the inflammation that attacks the inner surfaces of the intestines as rather of a peculiar kind, yet it has no putrid tendency, nor is it dependent on a specific contagion ; neither does it produce usually such intense symptoms, nor prove so obstinate in treatment. It differs in the horse from diarrhoea, in being a primary attack on the mucous membrane of the intestines ; or, perhaps, it may be a true translation of the matter of fever to these parts j whereas diarrhoea consists of a simple morbid increase of the peristaltic mo- tion of these organs, and a frequent ejection of the aliments taken, in the form of liquid faeces : while, in diarrhoea, instead of these, there appears a voiding of a matter actually secreted by the bowels themselves. The secretion is a diseased one; but this serves to form a specific difference between these two complaints, inasmuch as this secretion forms the principal matter voided. From the inflammatory nature of the horse’s habit in general, and, perhaps, from some peculiar tendency in these organs to take on a diseased action ; we very seldom find him subjected to fever or any violent internal inflammation, in which there is not present a disposition to a separation of the mucus of the intestines ; and the dung, in these cases, is frequently surrounded by it. When the febrile action is more increased, the deposit gains more consistence, and is formed of masses of coagulable lymph. It is this peculiar tendency, I suspect, that has made Mr. White naturally enough consider all dysentery as symptomatic, and not primary, seeing it so usually accompanies other inflammatory affections. But though this is commonly the case, it does not destroy the liability in the horse to become subject to it as a primary affection, and which he is found to be, although not frequent, yet sufficiently often to rea- der it worthy of our attention. The Symptoms that characterise dysentery as a primary affection, are the frequent voiding of this mucus we have described, with considerable uneasiness from the tenesmus, and constant inclination to stool. The mucus is mixed in general cases with the feces, which are not, except in very aggravated cases, retained, as in human dysen- tery. Nevertheless, this mucus forms the principal portion of nu- merous of the ejections, and this serves to distinguish it from diarrhoea, with which it is very liable to be confounded. If the disease increases in violence, membranous films, like sodden leather, are thrown out, which are productions of the coagulable lymph, and have been mistaken for the inner membrane of the intestines. In very aggravated cases, the vessels eject blood instead of lymph, and now and then the intestines become ulcerated. The pulse is variously affected ; as when the inflammation is not intense, it is DYSENTERY. 417 Class III.] quickened, corded, and hard ; but when extreme, it is frequent and oppressed. The mouth is always dry, the appetite lost, the flanks heave, and there is usually much thirst. Causes. — As we have observed, it has very different origins from the human dysentery, being in the horse altogether dependent on an inflammatory habit, acted upon by some immediate excitement j and, as such, it is more usually observed in the young and robust. The proximate causes appear therefore to be dependent, in some instances, on a sudden check to the perspiration ; and, in others, on a change of food : acrid substances, as mineral poisons, may occasion it ; and, not unfrequently, it is the effect of drastic and improper purgatives. One other cause also remains to be noticed, that is seldom taken into the account, which is metastasis, or the translation of the matter of fever to the intestines ; and tnis is, I am disposed to believe, a more frequent cause than is generally imagined. Ctire, — Tn the first stage of the complaint bleeding should be premised, to the amount of three to five quarts, according to the size and condition of the subject, and the violence of the inflamma- tory appearances ; and should the pulse continue hard, and the other symptoms indicate it, another moderate bleeding may follow the next day. The yellow buffy surface on the blood drawn must not be mistaken for fat ; neither must this appearance alone be a stimulus to repeat the bleedings, as it is in this case observed to accompany the complaint frequently through its whole course. It is also necessary to be aware that sometimes, in spite of the apparent Inclination to stool, there exists an absolute and obstinate costive- ness, the mucus only passing, but the real dung being retained. This is not frequent; but as it does sometimes occur, so the practi- tioner should always make himself aware that the dung actually does pass. In cases of true fecal obstruction, back rake, but with great gentleness, as the intestines, particularly the caecum and rec- tum, are, in these instances, extremely irritable and tender. Give also a pint of castor oil, or, if the expense of this article is objected to, eight ounces of Epsom salts may be substituted ; but they can- not be considered so eligible as the castor oil. At all events the costiveness must be overcome, and a repetition of laxatives must take place till that event occurs. But much more generally the feces pass freely, and in a purging form, mixed with the mucous secretion ; and between times this secretion passes alone, particu- larly when the complaint is considerable : yet even in these cases, when either cold may be suspected to be the origin of the disease, or the translation of fever to the bowels, or any other cause than superpurgation, the first internal medicine should be the fol- lowing : — No. 1. — Castor oil .six ounces, Powdered ipecacuanha one dram, Powdered opium one scruple, Liquid arrow root eight ounces. 418 DYSENTERY IN CATTLE. [Class III. After this, should the voiding of the faecal and mucous matter con- tinue, the following may be then given once or twice a-day. And also, when the disease originates from violent purging medicines, having been imprudently given, in which cases bleeding, unless the inflam-< inatory symptoms are very high, is not so much called for ; then no internal remedies but the following are necessary : — No. 2. — Powdered ipecacuanha . . ; . . two drams, Powdered opium half a dram, Powdered catechu two drams. Prepared chalk two ounces, Boiled starch or arrow root .... a pint. jSIix and give, horning down at frequent intervals starch, arrow root, or linseed tea. It is likewise most essential that one or the other of these demulcents should be thrown up three or four times a-day as clysters : and in desperate cases the belly may be very pro- perly fomenled with a hot decoction of poppy heads, and a new sheep skin, if at hand, may be applied afterwards. Or the mustard poultice (see Mat. Med.) is by no means an improper application when the inflammation of the bowels appears considerable. Warm clothing is proper, and a moderate temperature ; and when con- valescence approaches, every care must be taken to prejent a return of the complaint. Dysentery in Cattle, In oxen and cows this is called scouring, sconrvig cove, hraorii, bloody ray, and slimy fiux. Some of these names, particularly the three latter, are peculiar to this complaint; the two former are com- mon to this and to diarrheea, or common looseness, with which this is very liable to be confounded ; and few of the practitioners among cattle are aware of the real distinctions between the two, and hence the same treatment is pursued for the one as the other. The dysen- tery is characterised by a peculiar discharge from the bovxels, of a frothy slimy nature, with much feetor or bad smell : sometimes it looks red or brown, and sometimes more yellow, with mucous stringy patches in it ; and if observed when voided, it is very hot, and smokes. These appearances of the matter discharged should be particularly- attended to, as they will serve readily to characterise the disease, and to distinguish it from simple diarrhoea, in which there is nothing more than a liqiiid discharge of dung, composed of the mere mat- ters taken in by the stomach, in a state of solution. These are not the only distinguishing marks, but they are the most familiar ones ; the others mav be- gained from what follows. In a systematic point of view, this disease is' essentially different fjxmi diarrhoea, which is, as above stated, simply an increased action DYSENTERY IN CATTLE. 419 CIUSS III*] of the peristaltic motion of the bowels, whereby they are stimulated to a more frequent evacuation of their contents ; whereas dysentery is here also, altogether an inflammatory disease, that falls particularly on the bowels, inflaming their inner surface, and producing a morbid and an increased secretion of their mucus, and of which mucus their stools are principally composed. This complaint in cattle bears a strict resemblance to the molten grease of horses, except that it ap- proaches in the former to somewhat more of a low type. It is common to the fat and high fed, and less frequent in winter than in summer : but over-exercise will bring it on at any time j and perspi- ration suddenly checked may also produce it. I’he Treatment is nothing different from what is proper in the same complaint in horses ; bleeding moderately, fomenting the bowels, or stimulatina; them with a sheep’s skin or mustard poultice. As an internal medicine, No. 1, page 417, should be given first, and will be found to have a particular good effect on the bowels This may he followed by No. 2 in the same page ; and in all other respects treat as there directed. In cases where the above remedies might be considered as too expensive ; begin with six ounces of Epsom salts, and one scruple of powdered opium : after which give once or twice a-day a pint of thick starch, in which has been mixed an ounce of prepared chalk. Sheep are also troubled with a dysenteric affection called braxy, in which there is a frequent stooling of soft dung mixed with blood and mucus. When it terminates fatally, these motions become dark and foetid. If the inner surface of the eye is very red, and the animal strong, take eight ounces of blood away. Give two or three ounces of castor oil, with thirty drops of laudanum ; or an ounce of salts with the same quantity of opiate : after which give, night and morniua, the following : — Powdered ipecacuanha fifteen grains, Prepared chalk one dram, Powdered opium two grains, Boiled starch four ounces. House the gnimal, give gruel or starch in c-ase the cud is lost, and the cure will be complete. 420 EPILEPSY. — LOCKED JAW. [Class IV. Class IV. Diseases of the Brain and Nerves, EPILEPSY. THE Meagrmis, Sturdy, or Turnsick, are a species of Epilepsy, to which horses are not unfrequcntly subject; and in which, withott previous notice, the animal in mild cases stops short, shakes the head, looks irresolute and wandering : in this state he continues a few minutes, and then proceeds as before. In more violent cases he falls at once to the ground, or first runs round, and then falls senseless. The whole system appears agitated by strong convulsion, he dungs and stales insensibly, is at sometimes violent, and at others' more passive, but equally unconscious to every thing around in both. After remaining a longer or shorter period in this way, his faculties return, and he rises. It may be distinguished from gripes by the suddenness of the attack, and by his being insensible to sur- rounding objects, which is never the case in colic. A Cure may, in general instances, be effected by a course of mer- curial alteratives, followed by, or alternated with, purging medi- cines : after which, turning to grass for .three months greatly en- sures success. LOCKED JAW. Tetanus.'] [Mai de Cerf. The Stag Evil of the farriers is one of the most obstinate and fatal diseases that occur, and appears to arise from some cause operating on the nervous system, by which a rigidity or contraction of all or several of the external muscles are occasioned : those of the head, neck, and jaws, are usually first affected, when the farriers term it jaw-set ; in the human subject this state is called trismus. If it proceeds to contract the muscles of the back and extremities, it assumes the itame of tetanus. As it usually first appears in the external muscles of the throat, a difficulty in swallowing commonly commences the complaint ; gradually the jaw becomes closed: and as the muscles generally, become affected, the horse’s head is raised, his nose is carried out, his legs straddle wide, and his cars and tail are cocked. The eyes are sometimes turned inward, and, from the contraction 6f the suspensory muscle, the haw is partly drawn over LOCKED JAW. 421 ClWfS IV.] each. When the disease is violent, these contractions occasion the most distressing sensations to the horse, and give an air of eagerness to his whole appearance. The pulse is sometimes irre- gular and quick, but more commonly it is little affected : there is seldom fever, but frequently cold sweats ; and the internal func- tions are not at first materially injured, nor is the appetite ini- pai red . The older writers on farriery did not understand this disease at all. La Fosse directs attention to be paid to the general diet, and to introduce setons. Bartlet also prescribes a ball twice a- day, when even a drink can seldom be got down. It appears both idiopathic and symptomatic : in the former case it seems most generally brought on by cold. I once saw it occa- sioned by rain dripping between the tiles of the stable upon a horse’s loins during one stormy cold night : in another instance it was pro- duced by the improper conduct of a servant stopping tw'o hours at a public house, leaving his horse, previously hot, at the door during this time. It may be also occasioned by worms or other Internal irritations. When it is symptomatic, it usually arises from some local Injury, and that often of the most trifling kind, as treads, corns, pricks in the feet, and wounds of all kinds *. Docking and nicking are very common causes of it : in fact, any lesion of parts may occasion itf. Nor have I observed that it is more liable to arise from injuries done to tendinous than to muscular parts, as is remarked in the human. It has been considered as originating from the partial division of a nerve, or otherwise from a peculiar irritation on a nervous branch of the wounded part : but there appears no reason to consider a partial lesion as the cause, but great pro- priety in regarding it as the effect of a peculiar irritation on the nerve or nerves of the wounded part ; which irritation transmits its morbid affection in a backward direction towards its origin, the brain. The brain again transmits the same throughout all the ramifications de- pendent on the spinal marrow, particularly on those going to the * VVitliin these few days I have witnessed a very distrcssinc; case of tetanus in the horse, from a wound inflicted in the breast by the goring of an ox three weeks bf.’forc; and which, by the judicious management of my partner, Mr. Youatt, had perfectly healed in that time, although originally ten or twelve inches in length, and of such a deptli as to allow the protrusion of the thymus gland. At the mo- ment the wound perfectly closed the complaint began to shew' itself; but Mr. Y. was not informed of it until twenty-four hours afterwards: he, liowever, imme- diately proceeded to apply cold water over the body, to blister tbe spine, and to give opium internally; by which means in a few hours a very marked alteration for the better took pl.acc ; and to such a degree, that there appeared almost a certainty that the animal vvoiiUl have been saved, bad not the extreme ignorance and obstinacy of the owner frustrated all the benefit of tbe treatment. f I have also seen it brought on by a bruise. A valuable horse slipped upon tbe pavement and fell, by which the shoulder was evidently bruised, without, however, any breaking of the skin. On the third day after the accident, which Appeared very trifling, I was sent for, and found tlie poor animal universallv tetanic ; and so violent was the afl’ectioii, that, in spic» of eve ry means used, he died on the third day from the attack. F f 2 4T2 LOCKED JA\r. (Gass IV. muscular fibre ; and thus the disease appears to he brought onr. Dissections of morbid subjects After death have not thrown much light on the complaint. I have seen the brain apparently more vas- cular than usual ; and the veins throughout the body are com-monly turgid with blood : but a curious fact has been mentioned by a slaughterer of horses, that he never cut up one who died of locked jaw, without finding the lungs much diseased. Prognosis. — This is always unfavourable, seeing that not one in twelve of those affected survive. In the human subject, the idiopa- thic kind has been found much the most manageable : but I have fiot observed any difference in the horse. It generally wears the animal down, by the excessive irritation, sooner or later ; sometimes in three, four, or five days, and it has been protracted to three weeks : its fatal tendency also must of course be greatly increased by the extreme difficulty usually experienced in giving nutriment. But when the jaw is not wholly closed, and an inch or two of space remains, some hope may be entertained. Treatment. — By far the greater number of instances prove fatal, yet still a sufficient number recover to warrant our utmost endeavours ; and the more so, as those who do survive appear evidently to do so from the beneficial effect of the treatment adopted : while, on the contrary, I never heard of an instance of recovery where the horse was left to himself. Very different means have been successfully used ; perhaps they might all tend to the same end, although the modus operandi to us is not evident. Bleeding to an enormous ex- tent, as to ten, twelve, or fourteen quarts, has relieved the spasmodic affection. Repeated and large doses of camphor and opium have produced good effects. Drenching very largely with strong ale, and tlirowing it up likewise as clysters, has relieved the pressure of the symptoms. Pressure on the brain has been tried, and seemed to give some relaxation to the contractions. But of all the nreans em- ployed, that which most certainly acts beneficially is the application of cold : perhaps no instance even occurs where the rigidity of tho muscles will not give way, at least for a time, to an extensive appli- cation of ice. It is probable that cold acts in this instance as a sedative ; and in the same way, there is reason to believe, every thing acts that proves beneficial in these cases. As a Curative plan I would recommend the practitioner to proceed as follows. As soon as called in, let the horse be immediately moved from the stable into the open air, and there let him be dashed with cold water for twenty minutes ; after which he should be only partially dried, and by no means again moved into the stable, but suffered Lo remain, if in summer, in the open air ; if in winter, he may be placed in a loose open stable, but made as cool as possible. After this first bath, proceed to blister the whole spine, beginning at the back of the head, and omitting the neck, as the cervical vertebras dip down deep within the substance, but at the withers recommence the blister, and rub it in most actively along the spine to the root of the tail, and, when finished, cover the whole over with some adhe- I.OCKED JAW. 423 Class IV.] sive matter or covering, so tliat the future ablutions may not affect the rising of the blister. Having done this, proceed to give the following : — No. 1.-— P(jwdcred opium two drams, Camphor . two drams, Spirit of hartshorn flOTWOTu’fl) . one ounce, Spirit of turpentine two ounces, Strong ale a pint. Mix, and give every two or at least every three hours, by the mouth if possible ; but should the jaws be so closed as to render this im- practicable, let it be done by the nose, which may be effected suffi- ciently easy ; only that in this case it will be prudent to dilute the drink still further with more ale or gruel, to lessen the irritation to the nose : having done which, fill a quart bottle with a long smooth neck, and elevating the head rather beyond a level, so that the liquor may have a slight inclination towards the throat, introduce the neck of the bottle up the nostril, and gradually pour down the liquid. With a little dexterity, medicine and nutriment may be thus given through the whole disease. Wlien all these directions have been followed, throw up the following clyster : — ■ No. 2. — Boil twenty poppy heads in six quarts of water to a gallon, add Camphor dissolved in spirit, one ounce. By pressing down the tail, if not too rigid, retain this as long as possible ; and when there is a necessity of nourishing the horse by the intestines, as there will be after the first day, boil the above in less water, and add gruel, broth, or tripe liquor. In three or four hours repeat the cold allusion, the drink, and the clyster ; and continue to do the same at regular intervals, if any benefit appears to arise from the treatment. And when the tetanic affection has resulted from a wound, it will be also prudent to exa- mine the wounded surface, and if healed to open it, and to stimu- late by means of hot turpentine poured in ; or it may be pencilled with a solution of lunar caustic. If the wound has been extensive, and is wholly closed, blister the outer surface ; but if it has arisen from a punctured wound, do not hesitate, if closed, again to open it, and proceed actively to stimulate. As the afflicted animal ap- pears to suffer by mechanical irritation more than by diseased func- tions ; so it is peculiarly necessary to support the strength, and endeavour to wear the disease out. Nutriment should, therefore, be most actively introduced into the system by the stomach and bowels too. 424 SPASMODIC COLIC. [Class V, Cla0S V. Diseases of the Alimentary Canal. SPASMODIC COLIC. Cholica.] [Tranchces. THE spasmodic or flatulent colic is the disease, known to farriers by the name of the gripes or fret ; to some by the term gullion; and appears to be a species of spasm of some one or more of the intes- tinesj either large or small. It is seldom accompanied with inflam- mation, unless Jong continued, improperly treated, or when intussus- ception takes place; that is, when one intestine gets inverted within another. , It is first detected by an appearance of uneasiness ; the horse shifts his position, and paw's his litter ; as it proceeds his hair stares, he has cold sw'eats, and he lies down and gets suddenly up ; not unfrequently he rolls on his back, after which he rises, and seems for a few minutes relieved. He attempts to stale, looks with anxiety towards his flanks, and sometimes strikes his belly with his hind feet. The pulse is usually not much affected ; it is now and then, however, a little quickened ; at other times it is rather harder than usual, which indicates some inflammatory tendency : there is, likewise, considerable tension of the belly. It is essentially necessary to distinguish it from inflammation of the howels, or what is termed red colic, which may be readily done by attending to the following circumstances. In gripes there are remissions of pain, during which the horse remains quiet ; but in red colic the pain is continual. In gripes, the pulse is seldom much altered ; but in red colic, it is very quick and generally small. The extremities are npt usually cold in gripes ; in red colic they gene- rally are. In gripes, the horse rolls on his back commonly, but he is not apt to do this in red colic. There are seldom arty marks of fever with gripes, but always with the other, Causes. — These may be, perspiration suddenly checked ;■ the drinking of cold water when warm is a very common cause; obsti-^ nate costiveness will bring it on, and proves one of the worst causes ; improper food may also produce it ; and it is frequently occasioned by a quantity of air let loose from soine diseased combinations within the stomach and bowels, Prognosis. — When unaccompanied by inflammation, and without obstinate cpsti\’eness, it seldom proves fatal ; but when it does de- stroy, the intestines after dt^ath are found irregularly contracted. Ciass V.] SPASMODIC COLIC. 425 with hardened fatces in the distended cavities j so.metiines with marks of inflammation and intussusception. Cure. — When there is any hardness of the pulse, or when the complaint has continued some hours, bleed, and which, ia a full conditioned subject, will never be found hurtful ; but the practice of bleeding in the mouth is useless. Carefully remove costiveness, to which end back-rake, and throw up plenty of warm w'ater by clyster, as the mechanical pressure of the fluid will tend greatly to overcome the spasmodic contraction. When this is done, give the following draught by the mouth, which will very seldom fail to procure speedy relief ; — No. 1. — Spirit of vitriolic aether one ounce, Powdered opium one dram, Oil of turpentine, or, if it can be procured, the spirit of turpentine three ounces, Mild ale or gruel a pint. To a very delicate horse the following may be given instead : — No. 2. — Spirit of vitriolic tether one ounce. Powdered opium half a drant. Oil of peppermint half a dram. Castor oil eight ounces. Mix, with the yolk of two eggs, into an uniform liquid. The belly may be well fomented with hot water, or the stimulating applications recommended in jnflammation of the bowels applied. But rubbing the belly, by means of two assistants, should always be first tried ; gently moving the horse about is also prudent, but in red colic this would be hurtful. It must likewise be remembered that w'here costiveness is present it will be in vain, indeed improper, to attempt the removal of the pain by antispasmodics until the bowels are opened, which must be attempted by the exhibition of active rclaxents (see Mat. Med.). Spasmodi-c colic, if neglected, may kill by the irritation it occasions ; and it will, if not relieved, most assuredly degenerate into inflammatory colic, and, therefore^ should he as speedily relieved as possible. As a domestic remedy,, or ill cases where other remedies are not at hand, the following has relieved, given as a drink : — The expressed juice of two or three large onions . half a pint, Common gin ditto, Common oil ditto. Mix. In case relief is not obtained, the repetition of the internal reme- dies should not be delayed beyond two hours. La Fosse strongly recommends a curious remedy for flatulent colic ; which is, an onion pounded and mixed with a small quantity of savin and pepper; this is to be introduced up the rectum as high as possible, and the horse then moved briskly about : but in this case, if the quantity of pepper was large, inflammation would probably be the ponsequence. 42G CHRONIC INDIGESTION, [Class V, Flatulent Colic in FIorned Cattle. Oxen and cows are subject to this cowiplaint, but which does not differ in symptoms or treatnient from that of horses. There is likewise at times a species of colic observed among cattle, arising fropi cosliveness ; in which cases the hardened faeces accumulate, and the liquid parts make their way through them, or by their side. This is called, among drovers and persons about can\e, far dal- bound, and is very dangerous, from the deceitful appearance it puts on, being frequently mistaken for purging. It is evident this can only be cured by brisk purgatives ; and if the obstructing mass was within the reach of the arm, back-raking might remove it; but if not, as before said, active relaxing remedies inust be inimedjately applied, (see Mat. Med.). Bleed also, to prevent inflammation* CHRONIC INDIGESTION, Dyspepsia."] Houses are subject to a loss of appetite, from some morbid change in the stomach, or some disease in its secretions, In these cases the skin sympathises, the hair stares, and the horse becomes hide- bound : he eats without appetite, and what is taken in is frequently passed away nearly in the state it was eaten. Causes. — It arises, in spring and autumn, from the sympathetic effect the stomach and skin have with each other, at which times a grand change is going forward in the constitution, to enable it to bear the vicissitildes of heat and cold, hy the changing of the hair to a more appropriate kind, It is sometimes occasioned by worms. Improper food, bad water, too great heat in the stable, may any of them likewise produce it. Substances given to make a horse shed his old coat, as grains of Paradise, diapente, &c„ have been a cause sometimes, Ctire. — Its removal must, in a great measure, depend on becoming acquainted with its cause. In sprjngand autumn feed more liberally, and encourage a determination to the skin ; by which means the secretion of the new hair will be accelerated. When originating from worms, treat as under that head. If it should appear to arise from want of tone in the stomach itself, aloes, in combination with the warm bitters, will produce a determination of blood to the digestive organ. The proper remedies for these cases are detailed, and the treatment enlarged upon, under the articles Stomachics Iq the Materia Medica, and also under the article Condition, page 57, Class V.] ACUTE INDIGESTION. 427 ACUTE INDIGESTION. Horses will, now and then, distend their stomach beyond its, powers of contraction, in which case the distention produces symp- toms not unlike staggers, and which has occasioned the complaint produced to he called stomach staggers : but from what has appeared on the subject of specific inflammation of this organ, it may be seen that many of the cases attributed to such distention are dependent on other causes. Nevertheless, there is no reason to doubt, but that after horses have been placed in such situations as to be long de- prived of nutriment, when they do find it, they will often eat so voraciously, particularly of dry food, as branj beans, or corn, as to distend the stomach beyond its capacity of contraction. Horses, oxen, and sheep, are all liable, to it ; but it produces very different effects in the one from the other, and requires a very differ- ent treatment. In horses it is less frequently met with, but is very usirally fatal in them ; hence it should be carefully prevented. In treating of digestion, we explained the reasons which nature seemed to have in view in giving a horse so small a stomach ; and we have shewn, that as he necessarily passes his food q^iickly through so small a cavity, this disease can seldom take place under any of the circumstances that occur in a state of nature ; nor will, it is probable, any quantity of food occasion it, unless a horse has pre- viously fasted long, which is to him jiartlcularly hurtful : and as nature did not intend that he should be subjected to long deprivation from food ; so she has not provided against the ill effects resulting from over-gorging himself, by giving him the power of vomiting : consequently, when stomach distention does occur, it is more de- structive to him, for his resources are fewer. In oxen and sheep it is different; both their habits and structure are such as to render them more open to this complaint ; for, with- out any previous fasting, they, by eating inordinately of succulent vegetables, may produce it; for as there is a necessity for them to regurgitate and remasticate, so the food they first take in is not passed onwards, but accumulates ; add to which, that as it is to undergo a second mastication, so they take it in more quickly. It might be expected that this disease should be attended with more acute symp- toms in horses than in cows ; for in the latter it is only the reci- pient stomach, or paunch, that suffers distention, and this is by no means so vascular or sensible as the digestive stomach, which is the organ that is affected in the horse. Therefore, when this disease proves fatal to cattle, it is very frequently by suffocation ; but in horses the simple irritation will kill, by its effects on the sensorium. It happens to this animal but seldom, perhaps never, without pre- vious fasting, which weakens his stomach proportionally more than that of other quadrupeds ; for his powers are great, his exertions excessive, and his wants are nufnerous ; yet as an animal of speed, 42S ACUTE INDIGESTION. V. he has, as before observed, a necessity for a small stomach, through which the food may be quickly passed to renovate the frame, and, therefore, he must also be frequently fed. In all animals the stomach sympathises so much with the wants of the System, that it becomes painful when food has been long withheld; and for the above reasons this exists in a double degree in tlie horse, in whom, when such de- privation is continued, the whole system falls into debility, and the secretion of the gastric juice becomes vitiated. When a horse, therefore, after long fasting is at once presented with a large quan- tity of food, he eats voraciously, hardly allowing himself time to masticate it ; consequently a sufficient quantity of saliva is not separated to moisten the mass, and his stomach itself must be, for the above reasons, doubly incapacitated to the reception of such a quantity, the gastric mucus being vitiated, and the organ weak. Symptoms. — A horse with acute indigestion gradually expresses uneasiness, leaves off eating, holds out his head, looks at his sides, stamps with his feet, and has cold sweats ; which symptoms increase till at length he appears completely mad. This arises simply from the distention of the stomach, which occasions a sympathetic effect on the brain, the appearances of which so nearly resemble staggers, .as to be with •difficulty distinguished from it but by the quickness of its progress ; and in this state it usually continues till the animal dies, which is seldom more than a few hours from the attack. An inge- nious farrier in Sussex informed me, he had met with two cases lately of acute indigestion from eating grains: in one, the stomach burst ; in the other, the horse threw up a vast quantity, and recovered : the latter is a vCry solitary and unusual instance. Treatment. — This disease, in most cases, has proved fatal. We cannot puncture the stomach in the horse as in cattle, nor will the introduction of any instrument relieve the distention, seeing it is massive, and not gaseous. The only hope we can, therefore, indulge is, that by stimulating the stomach, perhaps, a better secretion may be obtained, and the contractile powers, in some measure, restored by the stimulus. Ardent spirits may be given in large quantities, as half a pint of brandy, or more; gin, rum, 8cc., or the fol- lowing : — Spirit of hartsliorn {carbonated ammonia) . two ounces, Oil of turpentine six ounces, Olive oil . . . . ■ half a pint. Mix, and give every two hours. Purgatives are too slow in their effects to be beneficial : bleeding may be tried, but it can do little good ; for though it may unload the v'essels of the head and of the brain, yet these are but sympto- matic, and it will add to the weakness of the stomach, which is primary ; but raking should by all means be made use of, and a clyster of gin and strong peppermint water may be thrown up. Class V.] ACUTE INDIGESTION IN CATTLE. 429 Tlw Hove, or Blown, in Cows, Oxen, or Sheep, Is a more frequent complaint, but is more easily treated, and less fatal ; nevertheless it has been the death of thousands, and is suffi- ciently terrible in its effects to render all our exertions necessary ; and, from the frequency with which it occurs, it has become a sub- ject of investigation with almost every rational grazier, and a par- ticular matter of inquiry with every agricultural body ; from whence it is now very successfully treated by the usual attendants on cattle when skilful ; but when otherwise, it usually proves fatal. It is observed to be more frequent in warm weather, and when the grass is wet. When either oxen, cows, or sheep, meet with any food they are particularly fond of, or of which they have been long deprived, as potatoes, turnips, the different grasses, particularly red clover ; they eat greedily, and forget to lay down to ruminate, by which means the first stomach, or paunch, becomes so distended as to be incapa- ble of expelling its contents. From this, fermentation begins to take place, and a large quantity of air is let loose, which still adds to the distention, till the stomach either bursts, or, by its pressure on the diaphragm, the animal is suffocated. The Symptoms are sufficiently known by the uneasiness and dis- tress, and the general swelling of the abdomen; with the circum- stances of the beast being found with such food, or the presump- tion that it has met with it. Treatment.— There are three modes of relieving the complaint, which may be adverted to according to the degree of distention, and length of time it has existed. These arc internal medicines ; the introduction of a probang of some kind into the paunch by the throat; and ihe jmneturing it by the sides. Dr. Whyatt, of Edin- burgh, is said to have cured eighteen out of twenty hoved cows, by giving a pint of gm to each. Oil, by condensing the air, has been successfully fried. Any other substance also, that has a strong power of absorbing air, may be advantageously given. Common salt and water, made strongly saline, is a usual country remedy. — New milk, with a proportion of tar equal to one-sixth of the milk, is highly spoken of. — A strong solution of prepared ammonia in water, often brings off a great quantity of air, and relieves the animal. Any of these internal remedies may be made use of when the hoving has recently taken place, and is not in a violent degree. But when otherwise, the introduction of an instrument is proper, and is now very generally resorted to. The one principally in use is a species of probang, invented by Dr, Monro, of Edinburgh, and which is particularly described in the list of veterinary instruments at the end. Another, consisting of a cane of six feet in length, and of consider- able diameter, having a bulbous knob of wood, has been invented by a Mr. Eager, which is a more simple machine, but hardly so efficacious. It is probable that, in cases of emergency, even the larger end of a common cart whip, dexterously used, might answer 430 ACUTE INDIGESTION IN CATTLE. [tHass V. the end. The introduction of any of these instruments may be effected by the help of an assistant, who should hold the horn of the animal by one hand, and the dividing cartilage of the nose with the other, while the operator himself, taking the tongue in his left hand, employs his right in skilfully and carefully introducing the instrument ; the assistant bringing the head and neck into such an attitude as to make the passage nearly straight, which will greatly facilitate the operation. By these means the probang rriay be readily introduced, which is known by a large quantity of air immediately rushing out. But when no instruments can be procured ; or as cases may occur when indeed it is not advisable to try them, as when the disease has existed a considerable time, or the animal has become outrageous, or the stomath so much distended with air, that there is danger of immediate suffocation or bursting; in these instances the puncture of the maw must be instantly performed, which is caWed pauiichirig. This may be done with the greatest ease, midway between the ilium, or haunch-bone, and the last rib on the left side, to which the paunch inclines ; a sharp penknife is frequently used ; and persons in veterinary practice should always keep a long trochar, which will be found much the most efficacious, and by far the most safe, as it permits the air escaping certainly and quickly, at the same time that it prevents its entrance into the cavity of the abdomen, which would occasion an equal distention. As soon as the air is perfectly eva- cuated, and the paunch resumes its office, the trochar may be re- moved ; and, in whatever way it is done, the wound should be carefully closed with sticking plaister or other adhesive matter. It is necessary to observe, that this operation is so safe, that, whenever a medical assistant cannot be obtained, no person should hesitate a moment about doing it himself. After relief has been afforded by means of either the probang or the paunching, a stimulant drink may yet be very properly given, such as half a pint of common gin, or one ounce of spirit of fiarts- liorii in a pint of ale, or two ounces of spirit of turpentine in ale, may any of them be used as an assistant stimulus. When also the cud is again chewed, still some relaxation of the digestive organs may remain ; at first, therefore, feed sparingly, and as a stomachic give, fora few mornings, the following : — Pmvdered camomile half an ounce. Powdered oak or willow bark .... ditto. White vitriol .... one dram, Warm ale one pint. The hove, or blown, in sheep, is to be treated exactly in a similar manner; and a smaller instrument for introduction to their stomach, as invented by Dr. Monro, is sold in an improved form by Mr. Long. (See Instruments at the end.) aass V.] WORMS. 431 WORM S. Every part of animated existence appears subservient to the pur- poses of other parts. The predacious tribes prey on each other, and we again prey upon them : in return, whether living or dead, we become food for various living beings of different kinds, Quad- rupeds are likewise equally subservient to this great end,^and equally support numerous lesser animals. The most remarkable of these, and which fall more immediately under the notice of Uie veterina- rian, are ihc ivonn tribe. Some kinds of these appear indifferent in their choice, living equally well in all brutes, and hence the parent fly deposits her ova, without discrimination, on any one of these she meets with. But usually there is a choice in this respect, and the body of one animal becomes the proper receptacle for the erucaa of one kind ; and a second the proper medium for those of another. A particular species of worm inhabits the liver of rats ; in a letter to Dr. Rush, it is said, that out of eighteen of these animals, in. sixteen they were present ; I have likewise found a kind something similar in mice. The hot is seldom met with but in the horse, and the fluke worm is almost confined to the biliary ducts of the sheep. The existence of these animals was very early known, and in every age the utmost dread has been entertained of the mischiefs they were supposed to occasion ; but we do not now suppose them so Injurious a» they were formerly imagined. fl'hcre are s(?i^eral kinds of what arc called worms that prove troublesome to quadrupeds, among which the genus oestrus makes a ■distinguished figure. These are the (pstnis equi, and oestrus hemor- Thoidalis, whose eggs produce two kinds of bots, very much like each other, inhabiting the stomach of the horse. The oestrus bovis, which punctures the skin of the back of cows and calves, deposit- ing its eggs between the skin and flesh. The oestrus ovis, which deposits its eggs probably a little within the nostrils of sheep ; the larvae of which make their way into the frontal and maxillary sinuses. There is another, which Linnaeus calls the oestrus nasalis, and coun- try persons name it the nose fly, Mr. Clark calls it veteriiius, ob- jecting to the term nasalis, as it is unlikely that it ever enters the nostrils. This is found very troublesome to horses and beasts of burden in summer, flying about their noses, and rendering them very impatient. Linnaeus supposed they entered the nostrils, and deposited tlicir eggs in the fauces * ; but though this is not now sup- posed probable, yet the true situation of their larvie is not known. VVe shall describe first the worms of horses. Qi^strus equi, — This formed the oestrus bovls of Linnaeus, who considered the fly that punctured the backs of horned cattle, as the * Habitat in eqiiorum fi^uce, per uares intrans. — Linn- Svst- Nat_. V, p. 960. 432 WOtlMs. V. same with that which produced the hot of the horse’s stomach ; and other naturalists fell into a similar error : but Mr. Clark has demonstrated that these are by no means alike, but the bovis is confined to kine, and the equi produces one of the species of sto- mach bots ; for it is to be remembered, that there are two kinds found in the stomach of horses, very similar to each other, but one rather smaller and lighter in colour. The larva of the oestrus equi is the larger of these bots. The larger, therefore, of the two kinds of bots found in the horse, arc the larvse of the oestrus equi, which are very common to horses ; those who have grazed being seldom without them, existing often in great numbers attached to the inner surface of the stomach, either to the cuticular or sensible portion, though infinitely more frequent to the cuticular, which renders them nearly innocuous. They attach thcmseh'es by two tentacula or hooks situated at their smaller end, and which hooks arc so inserted into the substance they hang by, as to require no farther exertion of the animal to keep themselves firm in their situation ; from this it is that when dead, and formed into a preparation, they arc seen adhering as firmly as ever for years afterwards. Their body is a long oval, of a reddish colour, furnished with eleven or twelve cir- cles surrounded with strong hairy processes pointed towards the truncated extremity or large end. Naturalists have differed about the situation of their mouth, but La Fosse and Mr. Clark both de- scribe it as situated between the tentacula, and that by this they receive their nutriment, which appears to be the chyle ; and, there- fore, when they are extremely numerous, they may deprive the ani- mal of too much of this necessary fluid, and by this means give the unthrifty appearance, observed when horses have worms. But there is reason to suspect that the ill effects resulting from worms are not brought on by bots, but by the teretes : and though the indenta- tions remarked in the cuticular portions of the stomach have led to a fear that they sometimes penetrated through, there is reason to believe this is totally without foundation. Nevertheless, I cannot suppose with Mr. Clark, that they perform any salutary purpose in the constitution. As these animals live on pure chyle, it is proba- ble, but little is necessary to their support ; and this may be a reason why no medicine talzen into the stomach, however active, lias been found to affect them. It has been supposed, no animal could live in the situation they occupy, but this has arisen from a want of suf- ficient knowledge of the animal economy, and from considering this organ too mechanically ; for it is now known, that they not only exist in the stomach, but that it is the situation the parent fly In- tended they should occupy; but how they get there is a question that has puzzled the curious. M. Vallisneri described these erucae, or caterpillars, as being produced from the eggs of a fly similar to the humble bee, which was particularly watchful and active about the anus of horses, within which it insinuated itself and deposited its eggs. Dr, Gaspari asserted the same, and from them Linnaeus is supposed to have formed this opinion, ■ mir^ per anum infrans,' WORMS. 433 Cla.^s V.] But naturalists of the present day regard this as erroneous ; and be- sides the obstacles that naturally arise to such an opinion as the dif- ficulty of the entrance, the high temperature of the situation, and the deprivation of air ; it has been satisfactorily shewn that the parent fly takes a very different mode of depositing her eggs, which she does not do within the rectum, but upon the hairs of the skin of the shoulders, legs, and on most parts within the reach of the horse’s mouth : for the instinct or reason of the animal is such as to' make her choose Such situations only, as the horse by reaching and licking may carry the young worm into his mouth, from whence it is con- veyed into the stomach. The fly, to deposit her ova, is seen to hold her body upright, and, preparing an egg covered with a glu- tinous liquor, she rests for a moiT)ent on a hair, and deposits it; when she rises and prepares another, till some hundreds arc so depo- sited. These are said not to be carried into the stomach till they become worms, which takes place in a few days. (Estrus hemorvhoidalis. — These produce a species of bots like the former, but rather smaller and whiter ; their situation, manners, and habits, are however nearly the same, except that the parent fly deposits her eegs on the lips instead of the legs and shoulders. Both these kinds, when they have remained some time in the sto- mach, make their way into the intestines, and are passed out by the rectum, remaining in this state a few days, when each becomes a chrysalis previous to its final change into a parent fly. These in- sects probably do much less mischief than has been supposed ; it has even been conjectured that, by their stimulating effect on the stomach, they might draw a larger quantity of blood to it, and hence increase the quantity of gastric juice ; but when they exist in great numbers they may, as before hinted, deprive the horse of a. considerable portion of nutriment, and thus prove pernicious ; add to which, that, in their passage from the stomach to the intestines, and through them, they, perhaps, now and then irritate those pas- sages ; but, by no means, do they often produce those fatal colics that are attributed to them. Bots are remarkably tenacious of life, and it is to a want of knowledge of comparative anatomy in gene- ral, and of the economy of these animals in particular, that so many vermifuges have been recommended against them. Oil smeared on flies kills them, hence oil has been prescribed for these worms ; but, though they receive air by means of spiracula, yet its effects are felt in such a way, that oil cannot destroy its influence. I have kept them for some days alive in common oil, and even in oil of turpentine, and many of the essential oils ; even vitriolic or nitrous acids do not kill them immediately. It is evident that bit- ters cannot kill them, for they meet with the most acrid one in the in- testines. If they are observed to do mischief in their passage from the stomach to the intestines, then an active purge may hasten their expulsion. The teretes. — These are the long round worms, and resemble the CQjninon, earthworm in appearance; but are usually .more white. 434 WORMS. [Class V. about eight or nine inches long, and most frequent in the small in- testines. They are by no means so common as hots, but are much more prejudicial, sometimes occasioning colic and a defective di- gestion. They are not so tenacious of life as the former, neverthe- less are sufficiently so to resist most of the common means in use for their removal. It appears that they propagate and are generated within the intestines. The ascarides are now and then found in the large intestines of horses, though it is not frequent : they may prove troublesome, but are never fatal. The general Sympioms of Jf'ornis. — The existence of hots is de- tected by their appearance, sticking out at the anus : when this is the case they should be removed by the hand ; one of them so re- maining there will tease and irritate a horse very considerably. When a horse is troubled with the teretes, he has a disposition to rub his tail, and a yellow matter appears without the anus ; and if they affect his health, he eats heartily and yet does not thrive; the skin sympathises with the stomach and intestines, and hence the coat stares and- feels, as grooms express it, unthrifty, and there are frequent attacks of slight gripes: the horse stands with his legs wide apart and his belly low. The breath is often hot and foetid, and it is not unusual for there to be a short dry cough. Treatment of Worms. — To attempt the destruction of bots is per- haps useless ; common salt is however said sometimes to do it : other worms, though sufficiently tenacious of life, are certainly more easily destroyed. It has been attempted to effect their removal mechanically, by dissolving the mucus they are supposed to be em- bodied in, for which lime water has been used, injected by clyster up the rectum ; strong purges are still more commonly given with the same intent. Remedies have likevdse been recommended to kill them in the body, after which they wdll of necessity pass away with the dung. La Fosse speaks highly of soot ; powdered savin has been found useful. In the human, the cevadilla, or Indian caustic barley, has been successfully tried on the Continent ; and, in one instance, a man was cured of worms by accidentally taking two tea spoonfuls of oil of turpentine. The following will be found a useful vermifuge remedy in all cases : — Powdered arsenic eight grains, Pewter, or tin, finely scraped ... . one ounce, V’^enice turpentine half an ounce. Mix into a ball, and give every morning fasting for a fortnight, un- less it should prove too diuretic. The Fluke Worm in Sheep. This worm is said to be found in horses and asses. In rats it is sometimes also found ; hut in sheep, goats, and deer, it is very common, and is supposed to occasion fatal dropsies, and disease Class V.] Worms in sheep. 435 of all the abdominal viscera, and the effects are thence called the rot. But these worms are, by no means, so hurtful as supposed, neither are they, perhaps, the primary cause of the rot, nor occasion active injury but when they exist in such numbers as to plug up the biliary ducts ; in which case they may produce disease of this viscus and a dropsy of a peculiar kind ; or they may kill, by de- priving the animal of its biliary purge ; for in these cases there is usually much costiveness. They are most frequent in moist situations ; but sheep feeding in salt marshes, let it be ever so wet, are not found to have them. That a certain application of moisture is the cause, is so certain, that Mr. Bakewell, when his sheep were past service, used purposely to rot them, that they might not pass into other hands ; and this he did by overflowing his pastures, when the sheep fed on them were sure to be rotted in the following au- tumn. Salt seems not only a preventive, but it is a cure in some instances ; and it appears, that this is the principal ingredient of efficacy in Mr. Flesh’s patent restorative for rot in sheep. The pa- tent states, that it consists of turpentine, sal ammoniac, turmeric, quicksilver, brimstone, salt, opium, alkanet root, bark, anti mony, camphor, and distilled water. But it is more than probable, that this strange jumble of articles can only be useful from the salt it contains. Hydatids or Staggers in Sheep. The Welsh expressively call this complaint pendro, and It is but lately that the swelling or vesicle observed has been known to belong to an animal substance, so simple in structure, that persons see- ing them have been led to suppose them only membranous bags be- longing to the part, or the mere effect of disease : but they are now well known to be hydatid animals. They occupy all the natu- ral cavities of the body ; but those we particularise here, are situated within some one of the ventricles, or in or upon the substance of the brain in sheep ; and, by their pressure alone, they produce vertigo, or a disposition to turn round to one particular side. From the previous mischief they have occasioned, their removal is not always attended with the benefit which might be expected • but when early and skilfully taken out by means of the trepan, the animal is sometimes cured. (Estrus Ovis, or the Frontal Worms of Sheep. Sheep are observed, in summer, to gather together in clusters, carefully guarding their head, which is to avoid the attack of this, insect, who attempts to lay its eggs on the inner margin of the nose ; which, having effected, these eggs become larvae, and creep up into the frontal and maxillary sinuses. The continental shepherds trepan their sheep, and remove them ; but our shepherds have not been successful with this method. Gg 43G COSTIVENESS. [Class V. CEstriis Boris, 'producing Puckeridge in Cattle. A dipterous insect, which country persons call wormdls, or 'wormuls, settles on the backs of oxen, cows, and calves, and punctures the skin, depositing its eggs therein between it and the cellular membrane : these eggs become larvae or maggots, which, by the irritation they occasion, produce the formation of pus or matter, on which they feed. This complaint is called puckeridge, and is erroneously attributed to a wound inflicted by the goatsucker, or evejar. When arrived at their full size, they make their way out at the external opening, and fall on the ground. From the mis- chief which they do to the hides, their destruction should be at- tempted, which may be effected by introducing a hot wire ; or, by pressing the part ; or, injecting it with a.,little stimulating fluid, as oil of turpentine, &c. COSTIVENESS. j Some horses are habitually costive, which arises either from a de- fective secretion of the fluid of the bowels; or, that the absorbents act too strongly, and take up too much of the liquid contents, by which the fecal mass becomes dry, hard, and difficult to pass ; or it may, and frequently does, arise from a defect in the formation of the bile, either as to quantity or quality. This we know ffom what occurs in jaundice, in which, from a loss of the bile, there is ; always present a strong disposition to a costive habit. Some food is prone to occasion constipation, as whatever is stimulant and heat- ing. Corn of all kinds, therefore, has this tendency, but beans more than all. Habitual costiveness should not be counteracted bv ^ purgatives, as they generally increase the evil ; but attention should : be paid to the habit, and the peculiar tendencies of that should be ; counteracted. Dry food should be remedied by occasional bran mashes, and the same should be done when the disposition is occa- sioned by a natural heat in the temperament of the body. Green meat is particularly useful in these cases in summer, and carrots in winter. When costiveness arises from defective bile, treat as di- rected under jaundice. Occasional or accidental costiveness must be treated differently. First, back-rake, next throw up a laxative clyster (see Clysters, Mat. Med.) ; and then proceed to give a purgative by the mouth, milder or stronger accorffifig to circumstances (see Purges and Laxatives, Mat. Med,). Gass V.] DIARRHCEAj OR LOOSENESS. 437 DIARRHOEA, OR LOOSENESS* Diarrhcea.] [Cowrs de Venire. This complaint is properly an increased action of the peristaltic motion of the intestines, with a greater secretion of a watery fluid within the intestines ; or, otherwise, a want of a proper ab- sorption of the fluid part of the intestinal contents ; whereby there follows a frequent evacuation of the dung in a very liquid form. It is distinguished from dysentery by the purging being complete from the very first ; by its being more copious, having all the faeces in solution without a glairy mucous matter, erroneously considered as the fat of the body ; and, also, by being seldom accompanied with fever, or any great affection of the general health, unless it is long continued. Some horses are very liable to purging on every exer- tion, and such are termed, by grooms, loashy, having usually nar- row chests and lank bellies, by which the intestines have not sufficient room for their natural processes, but are pressed on, and thus forced to a hasty expulsion of the unassirailated contents. Causes. — It may arise from mechanical pressure, as the form of the body; or from a constitutional debility in the intestines them- selves, dependent on the causes abovementioned. A weakened state of the bowels, inclining to this affection, is often brought on by drastic purges likewise. These may be all considered constitutional causes, and such as are liable to a frequent recurrence; but beside these, there arises a more active and serious affection dependent on some morbid change taking place in the secretions of the stomach and bow'els, whereby those secretions become a source of irritation to the organs themselves. The bile very commonly takes on such a change, and there is reason to believe that this is a fruitful source of diarrhoea. The food itself becomes, at times, improperly assi- milated, and enters into new combinations with the gastric juice, whereby an acrid matter is formed : this matter has been supposed to be an acid, and hence absorbent earths have been much used in this complaint. Horses moving from hay to grass, or even from grass to hay, become affected with looseness ; for the stomach and bowels prove unequal to the office of assimilating a new food at once, and hence they are irritated to an early expulsion of their con- tents, as a matter foreign and useless. It may be symptomatic, or the effect of some other complaint, in which case it ought not to be too suddenly checked. It is fre- quently occasioned by the sudden application of cold, whereby the exhalent arteries of the skin becoming checked, more fluid is ne- cessarily thrown on the intestines ; and which operates not only by increasing their quantity, but likewise by the addition of something foreign, and hence irritating to them. In such case, the restoration of the healthy action of the skin is necessary to a cure ; and as the balance of power has been in favour of the intestines, it would be Gg2 438 DIARRHOEA, OR LOOSENESS. [CIuSS V. desirable now to turn it in favour of the skin, by using the few sudorifics we know of, as sp. Mind., icarm clothing, &c. &c.; and hence it is possible, that very active astringents may prove sometimes hurtful in such cases (unless we can fortunately at the same time promote a determination to the skin). It may, however, be re- marked, that horses are not much subject to symptomatic purging, or looseness, and therefore there is less danger of checking such af- fections in them than in the human subject. Prognosis. — It is seldom dangerous, unless very violent, or long continued ; or unless, by improper treatment, it should inflame the inner surface of the intestines, and thereby degenerate into dysentery. The Treatment. — It is so very seldom, as before observed, that this complaint is critical or purely symptomatic, that it but rarely requires apperients to commence the cure with ; but mild astringents may in general be at once proceeded on. The longer the complaint conti- nues, the farther it proceeds along the alimentary track, so that, at the last, the caecum and rectum become principally affected, and then a distressing tenesmus prevails. This circumstance is not suf- ficiently attended to in the cure of diarrhoea, for in these cases it will be often in vain to give astringents by the mouth, which be- come so changed in the long alimentary track, as to reach these latter bowels almost inert ; but, in such instances, astringent in- jections will frequently effect all we wish. Commence, however, the cure of the general cases of diarrhoea by giving the following drink once or twice a-day, according to the violence of the complaint : — No. 1. — Powdered opium . half a dram, Powdered catechu two drams, Prepared chalk two ounces, Starch, boiled thin a pint. Mix. In very obstinate looseness, half a dram of alum may be added, and the quantity of opium doubled 5 and in such case, and also whenever the affection has been long continued, once or twice a-day give the following clyster : — Boil six poppy heads in four quarts of water to two, add to the liquor Prepared chalk two ounces, Boiled starch two quarts. Mix. To this also, if necessary, alum may be added ; and should the horse be weak, boiled starch, or arrow root, or boiled bean meal, may be horned down the throat frequently. Give no cold water to drink, but, instead, give thin gruel or rice water, chilled. Clothe warmly, encourage a warm temperature also, and carefully avoid exposure to sudden currents of cold air. To the more intimately understanding of this complaint, under its several varieties, see the subject of Dysentery. Oass V.] CIARRHCEA IN CATTLE, 439 Diarrhcea in Cattle. Cattle Looseness, Scouring Coiv, Scantering, Scouring Rot, are, all of them, terms used by cowleeches and persons about oxen and cows, to express diarrhcea, or alvine flux, which is much more frequent in kine than horses, and also more obstinate and fatal. To a proper treatment of this complaint it is necessary to consider it in a different point of view to what it has been generally re- garded. There are, in fact, three kinds of scouring in cattle. A dysenteric, already considered ; having an inflammatory origin. An acute diarrhoea : and, a chronic diarrheea : and it is from gene- rally blending the acute and chronic into one point, that the disease has so long remained misunderstood, and the means adopted for its cure so various and absurd : for among the remedies employed by persons about cattle, are, hog’s dung, turpentine, and butter- milk. Dock rook boiled in salt and water ; and nettle root, in forge water; are also in use: as likewise red sanders and milk, and sulphur and diapente ; while some cowleeches simplify their treatment still more, and give only salt and spring water. Acute Diarrhoea. — By this 1 would distinguish that kind which comes on suddenly, and with a known and apparent cause; such as overheating by exercise ; drinking cold water when hot; a sud- den change of food, &c. ; all which cases may, in general, be easily and successfully treated. The appearances are, a listlessness and shifting about, with a very frequent faecal discharge, in which the hay, grass, or other matters eaten, often appear half digested only. Sometimes the stools are slimy and frothy, but, in the acute kind, they are seldom dark coloured, except the liver is inflamed. As soon as the complaint is discovered, if the subject is at grass, im- mediately move into a shed, and feed on hay ; and should the ap- petite be much affected, try the oil cake, or whatever will please ; but, if wholly lost, drench frequently with bean flour or oatmeal gruel, as it is of more consequence than is generally supposed to support the strength immediately. The following drench may be given, night and morning : — No. 1. — Powdered alum half a dram, Prepared chalk two ounces. Starch, boiled moderately thick .... a pint. Mix. Should this prove insufficient to check the purging, add to each drink the following : — Powdered opium half a dram, Powdered ipecacuanha two drams, Powdered catechu ditto. And, in very desperate cases, throw up also an astringent clyster (see Materia Medica), and clothe the body, or foment the belly with a decoction of poppy heads. 440 DIARRHCEA IN CATTLE [Oas^ V, Chronic Diarrhaa. — This is considerably different from the former in origin, appearance, and in the obstinacy that usually characterises it. It may arise from any thing tending to reduce the animal be- yond a certain limit. Oxen who have been driven long distances, if fat, become affected with dysentery; but, if they are lean, and low in condition, they take on the scouring rot. Cows, suffered to suckle two calves, or not sufficiently fed when long milked, are liable to it ; and now and then it follows exposure to bad weather, particularly in impoverished animals. Bad food is also a common cause of it. The symptoms of this more slow continued kind are, a frequent stooling of liquid matter : the appetite is seldom much impaired at first ; sometimes, on the contrary, it is increased. The evacuations are much darker and more foetid than in the former kind, and, as they drop away, a lighter yellow fluid follows, leav- ing a frothy head to the faecal mass. The animal loses flesh, the eyes look yellow and are sunk, and the graziers affect to tell the existence of the complaint by the tenderness of the animal across the loins, but which does not always exist ; and much oftener *1 have found the beast tender in the belly towards the right side. I have had opportunities of observing the morbid appearances of se- veral of these cases after death, and in every one of them there were great marks of visceral affeetion : in some, the mesentery was enlarged ; in others, the kidnies have been injured ; in a very few, have the intestines themselves exhibited appearances of primary af- fection ; but, in every one, a diseased liver has been a marked characteristic ; and, I believe, to this origin may be ascribed almost every one of these cases, and to which source we are also to look for the obstinacy and fatality of the complaint. In some, the liver has been indurated and lessened ; in others, it has been indurated and enlarged ; while, again, a third may have this gland much en- larged, but much softer than natural, and, when cut into, having cells filled with pus or matter. The Treatment of this kind of scantering, or rot, does not al- ways succeed, however judicious ; the immediate looseness is the least part of the complaint, for it only arises from a diseased bilious secretion, which proves a continual irritation to the bowels. How- ever, the cure may be began by attempting to check its violence by the drink No. 1, before prescribed. But when the flux is a little checked, or in case that remedy is not found equal to it, proceed as follows : — Cut the hair from the belly, principally from the right side, beginning at the navel, cutting forward, around, [^and upwards, towards the sides, making a surface of fourteen or fifteen inches in diameter. Rub into this, every day, half an ounce of strong mer- curial ointment, and every morning give the following : — Powdered opium . . Powdered gentian . Boiled starch . . . half a dram, one ounce, one pint, CRIBBITING. 441 Class V.] Feed liberally, and give bean meal in a mash or otherwise; and if symptoms of salivation appear, omit the mercury, but continue the drink. I have used the prepared rust of iron, half an ounce in a ball, with advantage in these cases ; but the benefit of the mercurial course is apparent in every instance of hepatic disease, and it is but very few of these cases but have their origin in biliary affec- tion. Scouring in Calves. From a morbid stomach secretion, calves are very prone to diarrhoea ; to remedy which, graziers give them chalk to lick. When the looseness has already appeared, they also give chalk in milk ; others give suet boiled in milk, and which is an excellent domestic remedy ; as likewise starch or bean flour boiled in their food. But when these fail, give the following, which is almost certain in its good effects : — Prepared chalk half an ounce, Powdered opium five grains, Powdered alum ditto. Suet and milk, boiled half a pint. Sheep are subject to both the acute and chronic scouring; and Lambs are also liable to a similar looseness with calves. In either case, the rules already laid down exactly apply, making one-third of the quantities of the remedies the exhibited dose. CRIBBITING. This peculiar action is very generally, but erroneously, supposed to arise from a little air drawn into the stomach ; and is hence called sucking the wind. But, I believe this idea of it to be very incorrect ; and that, on the contrary, it consists in the simple eructation or forcing out of a little gas let loose from morbid com- binations within the stomach, which, as it proves a source of irritation to the organ, and painful to the animal ; so, to promote its expulsion, he applies his teeth to a fixed point, by which he gains the aid of some of the muscles of the fauces to open and straighten the oesophagus, while, at the same time he, by means of the abdo- minal muscles, presses on the stomach and forces out a little of the irritating air. Exactly the same process takes place in ourselves, except that we have no occasion, from the peculiar shape of our pharyngeal opening, to gain a fixed point for the teeth ; but, in every other respect, human eructation in dyspepsia is conducted in the same manner. If also appears that, from a morbid sympathy 442 JAUNDICE, [Cte VI. in heartburn, the most painful part of the affection is felt at the upper part of the throat ; and it is more than probable the same occurs in horses, which will serve to account why a strap buckled tolerably tight round the upper part of their necks puts a stop to the action. The sensation in the part is, by this means, altered or deadened ; and such a horse is also conscious that he can by no effort any longer increase the dilatation of the pharynx. That cribbiting is dependent on dyspepsia there are many proofs. Turning out to bad keep, particularly in a straw yard, is a fruitful source of it. Bad hay, musty oats, or other indifferent food, will also occasion it ; and it is likewise observed to come on spontaneously in well-fed horses who are much confined in the stable ; in which cases persons erroneously consider that it is acquired from idleness or tricks ; and as, perhaps, others so situated may become the same, these instances are then equally erroneously attributed to catching it from one another. The fact is, that the confinement breeds dyspepsia, and the animal commences cribbiting to relieve himself. Another , proof of this is, that cribbiters seldom accu- mulate flesh ; it is not the mere action of cribbing that can prevent this ; it is the dyspepsia or affection of the stomach that does it. As stated above, the simple action may be prevented, but the effects are not obviated, for such horses do not accumulate flesh afterwards. They however are prevented from wearing the manger, or their own teeth, and a stop is also put to an unpleasant noise, The strap placed round the neck should be not less than two inches and a half to three inches broad ; and care should be taken that it is tightened only to the degree necessary to stop the cribbing, with- out injuring the animal. In several instances, at the commencer ment of the complaint, I have cured it by alteratives, and by turn- ing out : but when it has existed sometime, the formation of aif becomes natural to the animal, and the habit is never relinquished, Class VI. Diseases of the Glands, MUNDICE, Icterus^] THE yellows, as jaundice is called by farriers, is, as a distinct affecr tion, unfrequent in the horse, from his liver being less complex, haying only hepatic but no cystic bile. But, as a symptomatic af- JAUNDICE. 443 Class VI.] fection, it is sufficiently frequent ; for wlienever any great abdominal inflammations occur, the liver is liable to participate ; bile then passes into the blood vessels, and from thence is thrown on the skin. Now and then, however, a more slow and primary affection of this organ occurs, and the bile is either increased in quantity, altered in quality, or obstructed. In the former case, purging ac- companies the other symptoms : in-the second, the evacuations are ordinate ; but they are constipated in the third and most numerous class; and, in all, the bilious tinge of the skin is invariable. Symptoms. — The inner surface of the eyelids, nostrils, and mouth, looks of a dingy yellow ; frequently the dung is hard, dry, and sparing ; there is also a particular listlcssness, laziness, and early fatigue, about the animal, with hot breath, sickly appetite, and high-coloured urine. Treatment. — We must attempt to produce a healthy action in the liver, or we must remove its obstruction. To promote these inten- tions, as in the greater number of cases costiveness is present, be- gin by giving the following : — No. 1. — Calomel {submuriate of quicksilver) . . one dram, Aloes two drams, Powdered gentian ditto, Castile soap . . ; ditto. Form into a ball, and give every morning until the bowels are opened ; and then continue only so much, for a week or ten days, as will keep them lax but not purged ; after which stop ten days more, and recommence till all vestige of the complaint ceases. But in cases where a relaxed state of bowels is already present, give the following instead ; — No. 2. — Calomel {suhmuriate of quicksilver) . . one scruple, Blue vitriol {sulphate of copper) . . one dram, Gentian, in powder three drains. Oak bark, ditto ditto. Camomile, ditto ditto. Make into a ball, and give night and morning, unless the mercury should affect the mouth, in which case give only one a-day ; and should the looseness increase on this plan, add powdered opium, half a dram to each ball. In all cases of yellows, a cliange of foocl is proper, and generally necessary. In winter, spear the corn, or give carrots ; in summer, soil, or turn out to grass ; but, in such case, avoid exposure to the night air, and keep on a rug in the day so long as the calomel is continued. Jaundice in Oxen and Sheep. These animals having a gall bladder and cystic duct, are more liable to these obstructions, and hence this complaint is more fre- 444 BLOODY URINE. [Oass VI. quent among them. It is very common in some of the cold pro- vinces on the Continent, where these animals are stall-fed in win- ter ; from which most of them are attacked with it in the spring. The cure is promoted, in these cases, by turning them into grass lands. In England it is less often the consequence of confinement than of a slow inflammation of the liver. In such instances, therefore, treat exactly as detailed under this head in horses, re- garding, at the same time, the strength and size of the beast. BLOODY URINE. Farriers term this pissing of blood : it arises sometimes from inflammation of the kidnies, in which case it must be treated as under that head : it may accompany a stone in the cavity of the pelvis of a kidney, or an ulceration of any of the urinary pas- sages ; but these are unusual causes. Violent exercise, by rupturing the small vessels of these glands, produces it more often, and therefore it frequently follows hard riding. The Cui'e must consist in restoring the healthy action of the parts, and promoting a healing of the vessels ; and, particularly, in avoiding violent exercise and heavy weights. Diuretics are always hurtful. Mild astringents are proper, as alum, catechu, dragon’s blood, logwood, &c. I have also known great benefit to be derived from a large strengthening plaster across the loins. In one instance, the following, given once a-day, produced excellent effects, after many other means had failed : — Sugar of lead White vitriol Japan earth Make into a ball with conserve of roses. In another obstinate case, a cure was brought about by turning to grass, having first covered the loins with a strengthening charge. ten grains, two scruples, four drams. Bloody Urine in Cattle. This disease among cattle is called red water. When there are strong marks of fever, the complaint probably proceeds from inflam- mation of the kidnies, and must be treated as under that head ; but when the symptoms are milder, and the urine is simply tinged with blood, then treat exactly as is recommended above. Class VI.] PROFUSE STALING. 445 PROFUSE STALING. Diabetes.] " ■ This is not a very frequent disease in the horse, hut, however, oc- curs sufficiently often to require all our attention. It first appears by the making of five or six times the natural quantity of urine, which is milky or watery, and now and then, in very bad cases, deposits a sedi- ment, which, when subjected to experiment, does not differ in taste, colour, or appearance, from common sugar. It is attended, in these latter instances, with great emaciation, for the absorbents act violently, not only on the fluids, but on the solids, converting every thing into blood, from whence this fluid discharge is formed; hence the weakness is great, the thirst excessive, and appetite vo- r.acious; the pulse is likewise usually quickened. But in the more ordinary cases of the pissing evil of the horse, the kidnies appear to be topically affected with a simple increase of their action, brought on by the eft'ects of something taken into the stomach, as bad hay, musty oats, &c.; and now and then, from the exhibition of violent diuretics, something like a morbid action continues : but less fre- quently does it appear to arise from a deranged state of the digestive and assimilating powers, as is suspected in the human. Treatment. — When this disease, as is usually the case, arises from improper aliment^ it must be immediately changed ; and, therefore, when no other apparent cause is manifest, the food ought to be particularly examined. When it occurs from the use of violent diuretics, moderate doses of catechu and alum, with oak or willow bark, will effect a cure. When, however, from its violence, and the presence of a sweet taste in the urine, there is reason to suspect that the disease exists in a deranged secretory structure of the kid- nics, and not the mere effect of external stimulants ; or, perhaps, originating in a diseased absorbent or assimilating system ; in such cases try the following Iawcv ot i^stilphurated potash) . . . two drams, Uva ursi, in powder four drams, Oak bark, ditto one ounce. Catechu, ditto two drams. Opium, ditto half a dram. Mix with a pint of forge water, or other liquid, and give daily. In very desperate cases, instead of other drink, broth or tripe liquor might be substituted. 446- dropsy OF THE HEAD AND CHEST. [aass VII. Class VII. Diseased Collections of Fluid zvithin circum scribed Cavities, DROPSY OF THE HEAD. Hydrocephalus.'] I NEVER heard of more than one or two instances of this dis- ease in the horse ; but it may now and then occur, probably from previous inflammation of the brain, when serum is thrown out into the ventricles, or any of the cavities of the skull. The Symptoms greatly resemble those of staggers, and the Cui'e will be best pro- moted by medicines exciting the waste of the watery parts of the blood, as diuretics, and of those exciting the absorbents, as mer- cury, &c.; blistering the head would be also proper, and Towelling the throat. DROPSY OF THE CHEST. Hydrothorax.] This, as a primary affection, is a rare occurrence, but, as a se- condary one, it is very common ; and then consists in a collection of fluid within the cavity of one or both plurce. It appears by a quickened and difficult breathing ; a feeble, irre- gular, and peculiar pulse, from the pressure on the heart ; the urine is sparingly made, and water may be heard on striking the chest : but care must be taken not to mistake water in the stomach for it. It is easily detected by the fear the animal shews to be moved quickly; or to have his head held up; by his disinclination to lie down ; but, more particularly, it may be detected by feeling the heart, which evidently, in these cases, beats with a tremulous thrill, as though it was vibrating through a bladder of water. There is likewise usually a flow of yellow serum from the nose, with some cough. It may arise from a defect in the absorbents ; or from an increase in the action of the exhalents, which is probably the most usual cause. It may be both chronic and acute, but it is more frequently Class VII.] DROPSY OF THE BELLY. 447 the latter, the effect of inflammation of the lungs ; and usually, in these cases, terminates in suffocation. Treatment. — It might be attempted to promote its removal by sti- mulating the absorbents, and lessening the quantity of serum in the blood ; but as these would probably fail, secure the horse, and make an opening on the suspected side, not far from the sternum, to gain a depending orifice. To effect this, the skin may be drawn to the anterior edge (see Intercostal Arteries, page 129) of either the seventh or eighth rib, and with a scalpel an incision should be carried carefully through the skin and muscles into the pleura ; a canula may be then introduced into the opening, and fastened around the horse till the whole water is evacuated. If the water occupies both cavities, both sides must be thus punctured. When matter forms within the chest, its removal may be also effected in the same manner. This is a very unusual disease in the horse ; now and then, how- ever, it does take place after inflammation of some of the abdomi- nal viscera. It consists in an increased deposit of fluid within the cavity of the peritoneal sac, being seldom enevsted in the horse. It is knoicn by the tension of the abdomen, and by the undulation felt by one hand when the belly is gently struck with the other. The urine is made in small quantities, the thirst is great, and the horse is short breathed. It may arise from an increased action of the exhalents, or a de- ficient one of the absorbents, by previous inflammation, by hydatids, or by long-continued jaundice. The Treatment. — In these cases it would be fortunate if we could ascertain whether the absorbents or the exhalents were in fault at the origin of the complaint. To promote the Cure, however, in either case, we must stimulate the arteries to throw out their super- abundant fluid by other emunctories, as the bowels and kidnies ; diuretics are therefore principally to be resorted to ; and the more so, as in the horse we have greater power over these glands than in the human. Strong purges likewise promote a serous discharge, but, from their weakening effect, cannot be very often repeated. The absorbents may also be stimulated by mercury, or other means known to have the effect of acting on them. A horse might also be tapped very safely ; but in whatever way recovery was promoted, the recurrence should be prevented by strengthening the general habit. DROPSY OF THE BELLY. Ascites. "j [^Ascite. 448 DROPSY OF THE SKIN — SWELLED LEGS. [ClaSS VIII. Class viiL Diseased Collections of Fluid within the Cellular Membrane, DROPSY OF THE SKIN. AnasarcaJ] [CEdeme. THIS is variously called by farriers. It does not materially differ from ascites either in cause, effect, or cure ; but is very dif- ferent in its seat, being generally, or partially, diffused through the cellular membrane of the skin. When it is partial, it usually oc- cupies the legs, the sheath, or the lips ; when general, every super- ficial part of the body becomes affected. It sometimes is joined with farcy, but is then purely symptomatic, and occasioned by no specific poison, though sometimes it produces troublesoine ulcers, and has then been called water farcy. It is particularly characterised by the indentations of the skin remaining, when the pressure occa- sioning them is removed. It may be brought on by all the causes of ascites, and is frequent in spring and fall, when horses are weak from moulting. When partial, it is not difficult of cure ; when general, it is more obsti- nate. Violent fever and inflammatory affections terminate sometimes in general oedema, or water farcy; and which cases are generally, though not universally, fatal. I have more than once successfully evacuated these ciedematous swellings by small punctures with a lancet, following up the treatment with tonics. Cure. — Feed nutritiously, and use similar means as in ascites or dropsy of the belly ; to which add vigorous rubbing of all parts of the body, and considerable walking exercise. Alteratives and mild diuretics should be tried ; but if the horse is in a weakened state from any previous affection, give tonics, as arsenic or the sulphate of copper, with bitters, oak bark, camomile, &c. (SeQ Condition, page 56.) SWELLED LEGS. Anasarca.^ {Enjiure des Jambes. This is a most common disease, affecting sometimes the fore legs, sometimes the hinder, and sometimes both j but nine times out of SWELLED LEGS. 449 Class VIII.] ten, when it attacks the one of these only, it is the hinder ones. Swelled legs may be occasioned by inflammation, and prove phleg- monous ; but the species we allude to, is a kind of local anasarca, and consists in an increased deposit of fluid within the cellular membrane of the limbs, commonly the lower parts. When long continued, it so weakens the skin as to break out in the form of cracks, yielding serum ; gradually, however, the whole of the secret- ing capillaries of these parts throw out pus, and the disease then becomes what is called grease. Causes. — This complaint always originates in weakness ; but this may be general over the whole system, or confined to the legs only, in consequence of the increased strength and action of some parts overbalancing that of others. That debility occasions it we know, for at the close of long continued diseases that v/eaken much, the legs always swell ; and it is reasonable to expect they should do so, when we consider how far they are removed from the heart, the source of circulation 5 added to which, the fluids in them have to move in a direction perpendicularly against their own gravity : the veins therefore finding a difficulty in propelling their contents, cause a species of stoppage in the capillary arteries, which are thus stimu- lated to throw out more fluid into the cellular membrane. The ab- sorbents may be also affected, but it is more than probable they are the least part of the cause, for we find them, in these cases, equal to full action on the increase of stimulus ; that is, a little ex- ercise soon removes the whole swelling. Sudden changes in the temperature of the atmosphere that horses are used to, or in the degree of clothing they wear, or hasty alterations in the nature of their food, may occasion swelled legs ; this they may do either by diminishing the means that keep up life, and hence produce a ge- neral debility, or, by adding to the means that promote life, a gene- ral plethora may ensue, but a partial debility is the consequence; for the balance of power being unequal here, the cause accumulates, and swelled legs appear. Thus it is, that when horses removed from grass, or from a straw yard, are brought at once into a hot stable, and fed highly, they become leg-swelled immediately ; for the powers of life are unduly pushed before the parts have taken on a capacity for this increased action. Therefore arises a necessity for bleeding and physicking in these cases, but which are found to be less necessary when this alteration is gradually brought on. Stand- ing in the stable, with a full allowance of food, and little exertion, acts in the same way, and from the same cause. Hence exercise is doubly useful, by promoting other excretions, and by the increased action it excites in the absorbents. On the contrary, turning horses out to a straw yard from full feeding, warm clothing, and a hot stable, may bring on swelled legs, by occasioning a general debi- lity ; but so much do horses improve as they approximate a state of nature, that though this is an equal change with that of removing them hastily into stables, yet they comparatively seldom suffer from this. 450 SWELLED LEGS. \aciss VIII. Standing in snow, or cold water, produces swelled legs, by weak- ening the parts, and by being unfavourable to absorption. It is very usual also for horses to have oedematous extremities in autumn, at which period the powers of life are unequal ; there being an in- creased action in the skin to produce new hair rapidly, and there- fore debility arises in the rest of the parts, and more particularly in those remote from the seat of circulation : in short, whatever pro- duces plethora in the constitution without proper exercise to make the waste equal to the increased secretions, may occasion these en- largements, by encouraging a partial debility; and whatever brings on general debility may occasion it, as these parts may necessarily suffer in a greater degree than those more within the sphere of the heart’s action. Cure. — This will not be difficult, when we make ourselves master of the cause. In removing horses from grass to the stable, with the precautions mentioned, it may be prevented ; but when it does occur, it must be combated by lessening the general action of the vascular system at large, at the same time increasing the individual strength and tone of the affected parts in particular. For this pur- pose, bleed ; reduce the diet, if too full ; give bran mashes and altera- tives, with three or four hours walking exercise every day : intervene one or two doses of active physic ; and, if very obstinate, insert a rowel in each thigh : in general cases, however, these are unnecessary. But when swelled legs occur in a horse that is thin and impo- verished, feed liberally ; give mild diuretics, united with tonics, as prescribed in dropsy : purging in this case, though it lessens the swelling momentarihj , by carrying off the watery parts of the blood, yet increases the enlargement finally, by weakening the system in general. Apply friction to the legs ; use gentle exercise, but not to produce exhaustion. The weakened vessels having been long distended will perhaps not easily gain their tone ; they may in this case be assisted by bandages moistened in astringent solutions : when it occurs among cart horses, haybands may be used for this purpose, dipped in cold water, in which some grooms and carters are very expert. In other instances, strong woollen of any kind may be made use of ; .but flannel is the best, evenly and firmly applied in a roller of three yards in length and four inches in breadth. But there are cases when the legs appear to become ha- bitually enlarged, or the recurrence of the swelling is frequent or constant ; in these a permanent bandage is best, produced by firing, and should be done in nearly perpendicular lines ; for, by corrugat- ing the skin, and in some measure lessening its elasticity, it be- comes itself a bandage to the weakened vessels; but if the firing is done in any other than a perpendicular or nearly perpendicular di- rection, the effect is in a great measure lost. See this subject farther pursued in Grease; see also Condition. Ckm iX.j STONJE IN THE 1NTESTIN£Sj KIDNIESj AND BLADDER. 451 (IDIhsjS IX. Calcidar Concretions* STONE IN THE INTESTINES. FROM the horizontal situation of the horse, a stone does not gravitate so much in him as in the human, and, therefore, calcular concretions frequently remain, and accumulate till their size pre- vents their expulsion. They are most frequent in the large intes- tines, and the point of the caecum is a very common situation ; which may be accounted for by considering that this part appears least exposed to the action of the peristaltic motion. Little incon- venience is felt, probably, so long as the stone remains srtiall ; but when it has become large, it is the cause of frequent colics, and in the end it usually proves fatal, and is from the first without our means of relief. STONE IN THE KIDNIES. Sometimes, though very seldom, stones form within the cavity of the pelvis of one of the kidnies. In the human these do not often remain long, but, by their gravity, fall into the bladder; in the horse they accumulate, till they fill the cavity of its pelvis. The kidney does not appear , to suffer much for some time, but con- tinues to secrete ; in the end, however, disease is brought on, and the irritation kills. It can only be removed in the early stage by diuretic medicines, which might relax the passages, and wash away the small con- cretion. STONE IN THE BLADDER. Though this seldom occurs In the horse, yet we have undoubted evidence that it now and then takes place. Mr. Clark, of Edin- burgh, informs us he has several, taken out of different horses. Dr. Mead had one in his cabinet that weighed eleven ounces. The presence of a stone may be detected by examining the bladder by means of the rectum, and its removal might be effected in the same, manner as is practised from the human bladder; that is, an open- H h 452 flYDROPHOBTA. IGass X. ing must be made from the membranous angle of the perinaeum, sufficiently large to admit a fotceps to extract the stone with. — 0ee Tnjlamed Bladder.) Class X. forbid Poisons. HYDROPHOBIA. Rabies.'] [La Rage. The rabid malady seldom occurs in horses, and, when it does, it arises from the bite or contact of matter produced by some animal, generally from a dog, labouring under this dreadful complaint. The Symptoms in a horse are various ; it usually, however, com- mences by great apparent distress, and sudden breaking out into profuse sweats ; at length the horse becomes unruly, he stamps and paws violently, and attempts to disengage himself from his halter. Though madness is a complete misnomer in the dog, it is by no means so in the horse ; for within twelve hours from the attack he usually becomes frantic : and I have seen one, level with the ground the whole of the internal fitting up of a six-stall stable, himself sw'eating, snorting, and foaming amidst the ruins. The disease follows the inoculation, or bite, at the same periods as in other animals ; that is, from five weeks to three months ; but I have observed, as in dogs, its attack is alw’ays soonest when the bite is received in the head. On examination of the morbid appearances after death, in two cases, there were great inflammatory marks in the lungs ; the stomach and bowels also participated in the af- fection. Treatment. — Our efforts must be principally directed to a preven- tive plan ; for nothing we yet know of will arrest the disease when it has actually appeared. In the human subject profuse bleeding has been said to have succeeded, and it might be worth the trial here. When a bite has been received, immediately dissect out the wounded part, or, if only superficial, apply a caustic to it ; but when deep or much lacerated, dissect the part carefully out, and afterwards apply the caustic. When this is properly done, no fear need be enter- tained for the safety of the animal : but it is very difficult often to tiecide that no other bite has been received, As,' therefore, the. VtGEtABLE POISONS. Class X.] 453 preventive efficacy of the tree box, to a certain degree, is now fully established, give also the following : — Box leaves (if possible, the tree box) . . eight ounces, Rue eight ounces. Cut very fine, and boil in three pints of milk in a close vessel for one hour ; then remove and strain off. Again, boil the ingredients another hour in three pints of water. Again, strain off, and mix the liquors. Give a third of the mixture every morning fasting. A cow may take the same quantity, and a sheep one-third of it. /THE BITE OF VENOMOUS REPTILES. Many of these, in warmer climates, inflict fatal wounds both on man' and beast. In the East Indies, the cobra di capello will occa- sion death in the largest animal in a few minutes : fortunately we have none of the serpent tribe whose bite or sting is poisonous but the adder ; this now and then stings horses and oxen while grazing, and sometimes dogs in hunting. This wound is not very frequently of much consequence ; and country persons, in these cases, merely rub the part with an onion, and force another, mashed, down the throat, which may not be injudicious. In more serious cases the following will give relief : — To a horse, ox, or cow. Spirit of hartshorn {liquor of carbonated fumnonia) one ounce, Olive oil a pint. Mix, and give. To a sheep or dog a third of this quantity may be administered, and the wounded part likewise bathed with oil of turpentine. In case the above cannot be got, oil of turpentine internally may be subsiituted ; or a large glass of brandy with half a pint of melted butter ; or gin and melted butter, of each half a pint. The stings of hornets, wasps, and bees, may be successfully washed with vinegar. VEGETABLE POISONS. Though, from the great quantity of cuticular coat to the stomach, the horse is not very easily poisoned, yet now and then by design or accident it may happen. The effects of vegetable poisons are very different from those of mineral : in the former we are not aware of their precise mode of acting; the lauro cerasus taken into the stomach kills even the horse very speedily. The nightshade, and the nux vomica or crow fig, arc also extremely deleterious to ani- mals, but it requires a large do^e to affect the horse. The vegetable acid, or vinegar, proves obnoxious to the horse’s stomach in lar?e H h 2 454 MINERAL POISONS. [C7ass X. closes, clestroyliig by Its sedative quality probably. It is very neces- sary to beware of this, as in moderate doses it is useful, and of^en recommended. Tobacco is very deleterious ; an ounce only has proved fatal. The vegetable poisons of the more powerful kind de- stroy nearly without pain, and occasion hardly a struggle j indeed, life is, as it were, stole imperceptibly away ; and nearly in all they appear to produce their fatal effects by some immediate action on the sensorimn, or nervous system. Animals, destroyed by vegetable poison, soon become putrid. We cannot hope to effect the removal of poison by vomits in the horse ; but we may do it in the cow, sheep, or dog, by considerable doses of emetic tartar, or of white vitriol. We must therefore, in the horse, counteract the effects by a liberal use of acids and demul- cents, as oil, butter, &c. : but in such cases the caution with regard to vinegar must not be forgotten ; half a pint may, however, in ur- gent cases, be safely given, or a dram of oil of vitriol [sulphuric ackJ) may be infused in a pint of water, and poured down. MINERAL POISONS. These act in a very different way to the former, and, from the great portion of cuticular coat to the stomach, a horse can take a very large quantity without being materially injured. Four ounces of emetic tartar will not kill ; nor will a quantity of oxymuriate of quicksilver [corrosive sublimate) , sufficient to destroy five or six men, have any effect on a horse. Arsenic likewise, in moderate quanti- ties, does no harm but in very large doses ; both this and the corro- sive sublimate occasion intense pain, and become caustic to the stomach, producing ulceration, mortification, and death in a few hours. Copper, in large doses, produces inflammation and violent attempts to retch, and is likewise very fatal. I do not know what effects lead would produce as a poison, but I know the stomach of the horse will bear an immense quantity without irritation. When the more active mineral poisons, as the caustic preparations of mer- cury and arsenic, have been taken, in a short time the animal expresses great pain and distress ; the mouth is hot, and a viscid ropy mucus hangs from it ; the breath also is heated and foetid, and the flanks heave. The pulse is always quick and small, and the poor beast, from excess of pain, will roll, look round at his sides, and make frequent attempts to stale and dung. Cold sweats will break out, while the extremities will be alternately hot and cold, until towards the termination, when they will remain invariably cold ; at which time also bloody evacuations will appear, and, during the whole, there will be distressing nauseating efforts. Wheri there is a suspicion that mineral poison of any kind has been given, do not follow the common practice of giving oil ; for the more active mineral agents, as mercury, arsenic, and copper. MINERAL POISONS. 455 iJlass X.] have their deleterious effects best combated by alkalies. Two ounces of liver of sulphur {sulphuretted potash) may be dissolved in thin gruel and given ; or, in the absence of this, dissolve an ounce of common potash, and give ; or, as a substitute, a strong ley of wood ashes may be made and poured down. When lead produces dele- terious effects, they are best resisted by mercurial purgatives promptly administered. If a horse dies from the exhibition of vegetable poisons, dissec- tions seldom detect much morbid appearance : nevertheless the stomach is sometimes slightly inflamed ; and what” is remarkable, the lungs almost always prove so : but the marks exhibited are not sufficiently characteristic to draw a definite conclusion therefrom. But when any of the mineral poisons have been taken, the appear- ances are more striking ; an early decomposition and putridity take place, and a remarkable foetor also, which circumstances are in these cases peculiarly strong and characteristic. The stomach will be highly inflamed, the expellent orifice more particularly so, and the whole villous surface is usually studded with gangrenous spots, sur ■ rounded often with bloody matter. The intestines also will partici- pate more or less in the same appearances ; and which appearances, with the suddenness of the attack, and the rapidity of the progress of its fatal effects, will serve to distinguish it from inflammation of Ihe stomach from other causes. The emptiness, likewise, of this organ, and the inclination to purge in these cases, will serve to point out its non-relationship to stomach staggers. These symptoms, and these distinctions, if well attended to, will, in general cases, serve to guide the practitioner in his opinion as to the probability that poison has been administered : but it will be also necessary for him, in many instances, to detect the actual kind of deleterious matter used ; for which purpose he must have recourse to the aids of chemistry. A few familiar and ready tests we shall detail for his use. Chemical Mode of ascertaining the Exhibition of Poison. When a quadruped dies in such a way as to raise suspicions of its having been poisoned, a veterinary surgeon will be often called upon to decide, not only whether such is the fact, but it will also be further necessary for him (to promote the ends of justice) to be able to decide upon the kind of noxious matter used, and to prove its actual existence. In the human subject, and such quadrupeds as vomit, it is difficult to do this frequently, because the stomach has acted so violently as to carry off all the noxious matter ; though the inflammation raised has yet destroyed. In such cases some of the early evacuations of both the stomach and bowels should be carefully sought after and subjected to experiment. In the horse, though vomiting does not take place, yet an expulsion of the con- tents of the stomach into the intestines will equally occur, and the remedies given will have probably tended farther to wash it clean : however, the folds of the inner coat should be industriously searched. 456 LOCAL INFLAMMATION. l^Class X. and ai)y suspicious matter dexterously scraped off. The liquid con- tents also, if any, must be carefully saved, and those likew'ise of the intestines ; after which, all or any portion may he subjected to the following tests. If there appears, in either the stomach or bowels, any gritty sub- stance, like the sediment of an infused powder, carefully separate it, and expose a few grains to the action of a red hot iron, as a heated fire shpvel, &c. If a garlic-like smell is produced, arsenic is pre- sent ; but corrosive sublimate yields no odour in this way. Next place a few more grains on copper heated highly, until the matter exposed burns away ; whenj if a determinate white mark is left, that likewise shews the existepce of arsenic, but still proves nothing with regard to the mercurial agents, If therefore, after these tests, the matter remains undetermined, pfoceed to mix some of the con- tents of the stomach and bowels with a solution of vegetable alkali, as salt of tartar, or potash ; after this has stood some time, mix with it a solution of the sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) ; if a lively green is produced, still arsenic may be copsidered as present ; but should the oxymuriate of mercury (corrosive sublimate) be the exist- ing poison, no such appearance will occur, nor will any decomposi- tion take place ; but another test must, in such case, be resorted to, which will readily detect its presence ; this is to infuse, as before, some of the stomach and intestinal contents in a portion of lime water ; when, if an orange-poloured sediment falls, it clearly proves that the suspected matter is corrosive sublimate. To detect verdi- gris, add a little pure ammonia to the suspected liquid contents ; and, if it exists, a beautiful blue will present itself. Two or three drops of sulphuric acid (qU of vitriol), being added to the suspected mixture, will discover the existence of lead in it, by the exhibition of & white powder : a little lime added will do the same; except tha^ the result wili be the fajl of a black powder, if lead is present. local INFLA3IMATION, . Priiidples and Doctrine of Inflammation. The body of the horse is liable to an alteration in the structure and functions of its several parts, from the effect of injuries, or from causes connected with the actions of the body itself. These form local diseases, which it is the duty of the veterinary surgeon either to remove, or to obviate the ill effects of, and which is called the prac- tice of veterinary surgery. As inflammation is the cause of many of these local diseases, and the almost constant attendant on every one in some part of its pro- gress, it becomes very necessary to consider it as a principle. In- LOCAL INFLAVfMATION. 457 high, and the external w’ound' should be closed to prevent the unna- tural access of the air. In such a case, whatever is passed up the nose must be soon removed, unless it is hollow ; as it is needless to remark that the horse breathes naturally only by the nose. WOUNDS OF THE NECK. If by any means the neclc becomes wounded in the ligamentous part, a depending orifice should immediately be made, and the wound WOUNDS OF THE NECK. 467 Class XI.] dressed with lerebinthlnated or other warm applications, by which the part may be stimulated into an healthy inflammation, and si- nuses prevented from forming. When a wound penetrates the tjesophagus, all causes of irritation should be avoided, and the ex- ternal wound closed, first uniting the edges of the gullet very care- fully by the glover’s suture; to do which, the tube itself must be brought into view, and the parts around it divided, if necessary, for the purpose. The oesophagus may also be divid'ed purposely in c?,scs of strangulation, from the passage of too large a ball, an apple, or the accumulation of bran or chaff, which has taken place in greedy horses. In such a case, as this tube inclines rather to the left side, the opening should be made there, and opposite to the obstructing matter; the section should likewise be carried longitudinally or lengthways of the neck, which will be in the course of the muscu- lar fibres. The carotid artery, the eighth pair of nerves, and the jugular vein, must be avoided, which, if the section is made with caution, is easily done : the oesophagus, which lies immediately above the air-pipe, being brought into view, may be divided longitu- dinally, and sufficiently to remove the obstructing matter ; it should then be stitched up again with the suture before described, making the stitches very superficial, and leaving the ends of the threads without the wound, which must then be closed, and every means of irritation avoided. For the first twelve hours both drinking and eating must be dispensed with, and this deprivation may be assisted by pouring two or three ounces of laudanum down the oesophagus, which will at once nourish the horse and damp the appetite : a little thick gruel may be given him every twelve hours, but it should not be forced down, as this would endanger the wound. Thirst might probably be altogether prevented by keeping him constantiv with wet cloths around his body, by which moisture would be absorbed ; and food may be principally supplied by nutritious clysters of broth and gruel, passed as far up the intestines as possible. In wounds of the trachea, no ligature can be applied, as the irritation would occasion a constant cough ; the wound itself should also be so managed, that the matter from it may not flow into the opening of the air-pipe; and the access of the external air should likewise be carefully avoided. When the trachea is purposely di- vided, the operation is called bronchotomy, in which case a simple opening may be made between the cartilages, and a tube intro- duced, which must be fastened; no irritation has' followed from this ; on the contrary, the air has passed freely : but in case it should produce great irritation, it would then be prudent to dissect out a square piece from the trachea itself, leaving it free from the in- teguments, and without any tube. li 468 WOUNDS OF THE CHEST AND ABDOMEN. [ClaSS XI. WOUNDS OF THE CHEST. When these take place in the external parts of the chest, as in staking, they must be treated like other wounds of a similar nature; that is, examine the depth, endeavour to remove all extraneous bo- dies, as pieces of stake, &c., and by no means stuff the cavity with tow, candle, or other substances, keeping in mind the excep- tions already noticed. But when wounds penetrate the cavity of the chest, they become more complicated, and the proper treatment must depend on the parts injured. When an opening is made into the thoracic cavity, from the air rushing in, the lung on that side collapses, and becomes useless ; this, at least, will happen in a great number of instances, but does not always occur ; when, how- ever, it does so happen, as the blood can pass through only a part of these organs, there will necessarily follow great accumulation in the right side of the heart, the pulmonary vessels will become turgid, and great inflammation must ensue : therefore, in all cases of this kind, bleed plentifully, endeavour to prevent the blood of the wound from entering or remaining within the cavity of the chest, and the matter likewise; and attempt the extraction of any ex- traneous bodies that may have entered. When the wound pene- trates the lungs themselves, the case is rendered very dangerous from the haemorrhage, which would in every instance prove imme- diately fatal, but that the collapse sometimes checks it ; it is further rendered dangerous likewise from the inflammation which is apt to supervene. These wounds are distinguished by the air which hisses out at the opening, mixed with frothy scarlet blood. Here also the force of the circulation must be restrained by copious bleeding ; and if blood becomes effused into the cavity of the chest, it should be suffered to escape by the opening, and if it will not do this, the operation for empyema must be performed. (See Dropsy of the Chest.) If emphysematous swellings take place in the parts around the chest, which may be known by the crackling noise and peculiar feel they will be accompanied with ; the extravasated air should be Jet out by small punctures with a lancet. WOUNDS OF THE ABDOMEN. When these are external, the treatment must be similar with that of common wounds ; but when such an injury penetrates the cavity^ much danger arises ; nevertheless, as the brute resources are much greater, and quadrupeds are more tenacious of life, so those wounds that in the human would kill, a horse frequently survives. When a wound has penetrated the cavity of the abdomen, the extent of it should be carefully examined, that' we m.ay learn what viscera are WOUNDS of tME joints. 469 Class Xr.l likely to be injured; in which examination we shall be aided much by a previous knowledge of the different regions as already taught, and the viscera that occupy them. If any parts are protruded, care- fully replace them ; unless they should have become frozen, or mor- tified, in which case remove the injured and replace the sound part. When the intestines are wounded, the opening in the gut must be neatly sewed up with the glover’s suture; and when the opening in the intestine is very large, it is good practice to stitch it to the ex- ternal wound, when both may heal together, with less danger than occurs from leaving the wounded gut to float loose in the belly. In these cases food should be at first avoided, and little drink given, but nourishing clysters are proper; in which, however, we must be guided by what intestine is wounded. In any case, bleed and use every means to combat irritation and fever. Sometimes, from very large openings made in the abdomen by staking, or from the gores of oxen, follows an extensive protrusion of parts, which must be returned. It will often require much force, and more dexterity to do this : I have placed close to the wound a very firm bandage first, and then have replaced the parts, gradually drawing the bandage onwards as I returned them : the integuments should, in such case, be carefully and firmly sewn up, and a sticking plaister over all, to keep a permanent pressure on the protruding portions. The in- ternal state of the bowels also should be particularly attended to, that they may never be distended ; for this purpose, the food should be given frequently, but in small quantities, and very nutritious, as wheat, or malt mashes, with an occasional laxative. WOUNDS OF THE JOINTS. There are no wounds that, to horses, prove so destructive as these, and the more so, as their treatment has hitherto been grossly injudicious. Most of the parts forming a joint have but little sen- ■sibiiity except under inflammation ; but when inflamed they become exquisitely so. When we consider the structure of a joint, it will be found particularly unfavourable for a successful treatment under injury ; for the internal surface of the capsular ligament is very vascular, but the external is nearly of the nature of other liga- ments and has few vessels ; the rest of the parts around likewise are such whose powers are small, and consequently their means of restoration few. Thus, there is a very unequal balance of vascular action in the different parts, and the treatment under injuries be- comes therefore very complicated. The joints are subject to several diseases, which are treated on in their proper places ; but that we at present mean is a wound by which the cavity is opened, and, as farriers express it, ihe joint oil escapes. By this escape of synovia, the internal surface of the capsule, so extremely sensitiv'e, rubs I i 2 470 WOtTNDS THE JOINTS. [OcfJS XI. against Itself, and the highest degree of inflammation ensues ; and this is increased by the action of the vessels themselves, which secrete a serous or acrid discharge, instead of the synovia. If such injury happens to any large and important joint, as the hock, the effect on the constitution is such, from the high degree of irritation and symptomatic fever that follows, that death is almost always the con- sequence. And if the irritation arising from the wound was not of itself sufficient to do this, the treatment usually employed would very certainly produce it : for farriers very commonly, on these oc- casions, introduce into the cavity some strong stimulant, under the idea of stopping the flow of joint oil, which suddenly increases the inflammation to such a degree as speedily to destroy life 3 or it changes the discharge, and coagulable lymph is thrown) out, by which the joint becomes anchylosed ; the vessels from each end of the joint shooting into the coagula, and depositing bone : hence it happens, that either death, or pennanent lameness, is so frequently the consequence of a wound into the cavity of a large joint. In such cases, nothing whatever should coine near the part that can possibly enter 3 even warm water would inflame, and, therefore, in the attempts to clean these wounds from dirt, the wetted sponge used should not be pressed hard over the opening : infinitely less, therefore, should the farrier’s heating mixtures be used. Some- times the opening into the joint is so small, that an inexperienced observer is not aware of the extent of the injury 5 but the flow of blood at first, and that of serum afterwards, may be easily distin- guished from that of the synovia, or joint oil 5 which is a peculiarly smooth glib mucus of a yellowish hue, not very unlike the liquid part of the white of an egg, except in colour. When, therefore, this appears, the joint is penetrated 5 but if not, the capsular cavity is safe. Treatment. — This must greatly depend on the extent of the wound : if large, and much lacerated, the case is very dangerous 3 for, either a stiff joint, or death, may be the consequence ; the former, if the joint is not a principal one ; the latter, if it is the hock, the stifle, and sometimes the knee. In such cases, the lacerated edges must be immediately brought together: if they are not bruised, this may be effected by ligature, but most commonly the injury sustained will prevent this 5 in which case we -must trust to strips of sticking plaister applied with judgment, so as to approximate and close the whole opening if possible : over these strips, apply an adhesive cap that will include and strengthen the whole, and then bandage up so as to prevent any flexion for two or three daysv When a less extensive wound penetrates the cavity of a joint, the opening should be immediately closed 3 but the common me- thods of closing wounds are not sufficiently certain here, and a mode less likely to fail than these must be chosen, which is best effected hy firing the opening with a budding iron ; by this the ori- fice will be immediately closed, and ti;e wound will heal. But the aj>plication of the firing iron should only be made to the external. 471 Class XL] WOUNDS of the mucous capsules. surface of the orifice, for if the inner is touched, the inflammation is apt to be too great ; at the same time, however, the external part of the orifice should be sufficiently cauterised, and we may judge when the cautery has done its office by the total stoppage of the oozing. The firing iron should not be too hot ; and if any new running of synovia or joint oil appears, as will sometimes be the case, in two or three days time a|)ply it again. I once applied it three several times in this manner, and succeeded. at last. Some practitioners attempt the closing of the orifice by caustic, which often likewise succeeds; but the iron is, I think, the best remedy. After the opening is completely closed, a healthy secretion will go on within the joint, and the effects of friction be, by this means, prevented. After this, the fired part should be immediately co- vered with dry lint, and the whole with a cold poultice of bran moistened with a solution of superacetated lead {rm ; this is best done by the introduction of a seton on each side of the tumour, beginning near the mane, and passing it to the bottom of the abscess ; doing the same by the other side, by which means this state of pole evil may usually be speedily cured. But when, from improper management, matter has not only formed, but has been suffered to remain, or has only evacuated itself by a superficial opening, either natural or artificial, and not from one in a depending situation, whereby accumulation has taken place ; under these cir- cumstances a healthy secretion of pus ceases, and the parts take on a diseased action ; and, instead of healing, the ulcer increases, the discharge becomes thin and ichorous, and sinuses form in every direction. In such cases we must ascertain the extent and direction of all these sinuses, which, if numerous and small, must be laid into each other by the knife ; but if they are large and deep, or there are only one or two, this should be avoided : for very frequently, by an inju- dicious application of the knife, much mischief is done, and lasting blemishes created. Farriers, for instance, often first open the tu- mour on the top by a cross incision, by which the skin and the muscular fibres recede, and a large surface is formed, but the matter is not evacuated ; and even when it is enlarged at a future time by them, the section is frequently made, not in the direction of the muscular fibres, but across ; and it has occurred even that the cer- vical ligament itself has been divided, to the great injury of the ani- mal. Instead of this, when these sinuses are few and extensive, a seton should be introduced from the original opening through every one of them, and passed out in the most depending situation : the seton tape should every day be touched with liquid blister, or blister- ing ointment, till the matter from the wound becomes of a good consistence. But in cases of great obstinacy, when this fails to produce a good effect, inject the following : — Nitrated quicksilver {lunar caustic) .... one dram, Water two ounces. Dissolve, and, with a pledget of lint, wash the inside of the wound, or inject with a syringe, or try the following : — Muriated quicksilver {corrosive sublimate) . two drams, Water . three ounces. Apply this in the same manner, which will prove nearly or quite as efficacious as the former, and is cheaper. Humanity requires that all these milder means should be first tried ; but unless an evident and decided amendment is quickly ap- parent, too much time should not be wasted in the use of them, for very frequently cases will occur in which the disease has so com- pletely got possession of the ligamentous parts, perhaps also the bones and the surrounding substances have taken on so permanently the diseased action, that all milder means must fail. In these instances the scalding mode nf the farriers is found, by experience, to be the fistulous withers. 481 Class XII.] only means that will overcome the morbid action, and produce a healthy inflammation^ from which granulations may follow : any of the following formulae may be used for this purpose : — No. 1. — Arsenic, very finely powdered one dram, Yellow basilicon four ounces. No. 2. — Corrosive sublimate, very finely powdered . one dram. Yellow basilicon four ounces. No. 3. — Caustic potash one dram, rubbed down with Oil of turpentine four ounces. Either of these may be melted to a scalding heat, when, having se- cured the horse in a favourable position, pour it hot into the cavity, so as to penetrate all the sinuses. A solution of lunar caustic is also a proper escharotic in these cases, or verdigris and tar : but either of the foregoing are excellent, and sufficient for this purpose. In case the outer opening of the pole wound is not sufficient for the sinuses to be readily got at, it must be enlarged. After the scalding, wait for the sloughs to separate, which will be three or four days ; then dress with any mild ointment; and if, after this, healthy matter shews itself, and granulations arise, a cure will proceed : but if the discharge again becomes ichorous, and the sore looks unhealthy, at the end of a week or ten days from the first scalding, repeat it again as before. FISTULOUS WITHERS. When a saddle has continued to press on the withers, by the improper management of an incautious rider for a whole day, and the evil has, perhaps, been repeated the next, the consequence is frequently an inflamed tumour, which should be dispersed in the manner recommended in the former case : but if the heat and swell- ing remain stationary, we should apply poultices to promote the formation of the matter, and as soon as ripe it is not prudent to wait its bursting, but to open on the affected side in the depending part ; or what will, I conceive, be preferable, pass a seton from the top to the bottom of the tumour; if it appears on each side, place a seton on each side. But should the attention be called to a case that has proceeded to a fistulous state, treat exactly in the same manner as with pole evil. Instances have occurred where the matter has pene- trated under the blade bone, and made its way to the point of the elbow or shoulder : in these cases a dependent orifice should be made, and the part syringed from above ; but it would be impracti- cable to introduce a seton this length, as well from its extent as from the vicinity of large vessels and nerves. This disease has rendered carious the dorsal spinous processes forming the withers, in which case exfoliatLpn must be encouraged, or healing will not take place. 4S2 STRANGLES. [CZas^ XII. /•. ULCERS IN THE MOUTH. There sometimes appear small ill-conditioned ulcers in the mouth, approaching to the nature of the thrush in the^ human: when they are accompanied with any appearances of constitutional aflectlon, they must be considered as symptomatic, and the general disease attended to ; but when this does not occur, their removal may be brought about, by touching them lightly with the follow- ing Verdigris {suhacetate of copper) one dram, Honey one ounce. The Ulcers of farcy and glanders, and those arising from grease, are treated of in their proper places. STRANGLES. It is truly remarkable how very contrary the opinions of almost all the writers on this subject have been, and how lamentably ignorant appear their descriptions of it. Mr. Prosser, though he wrote a treatise professedly on the strangles and fevers of horses, in which he introduced some excellent critiques on other writers, yet left both subjects entirely where he found them. Gibson supposed the complaint resembled small-pox; Bracken, the quinsy; others the hooping-cough, measles, small-pox, chicken-pox, &c. All which suppositions originated in a want of attention to the animal economy in genera!, and to the disease in particular ; for it bears no resemblance to either of these, but is a specific fever of horses, accompanied with a disposition to inflammation in the glands of the head and throat. La Fosse divides it into mild or malignant, and false or bastard strangles : but these definitions do not seem to be well founded, for though there are cases in which the symptoms are milder than others, it does not appear that any specific virus is ever left, by which future depositions are formed, called vices. There is no reason to suppose it infectious, though it has been said to have been given, by inoculation. A number of horses having it together, is not a proof of its contagious properties, any more than some escaping and others having it, is a proof it is not so. The disease appears to consist in a specific attack on the parotid and subrnaxlllary glands, more frequently the latter; and which most horses have once during their lives, and once only, generally between the ages of four and six years. But as this specific attack does not render these glands invulnerable to future inflammaiory aflections from cold or other causes ; so, whenever any after swelling STRANGLES. 483 Class XIL] occurs, ignorant farriers suppose it connected with the strangles, which has not, they think, perfectly drained off j and such swelling is called vives. Symptoms. — The strangles usually commences with the general symptoms of catarrh, or, as more familiarly expressed, like a cold and fever ; sometimes there is so little symptomatic affection, parti- cularly in mild weather at grass, that the glands gather, burst, and heal, without the matter being hardly noticed. In general cases, however, it does not pass off thus easily, but there is, beside the swellings under the ear, or under the throat, some cough, dulness, and loss of appetite; and it is then frequently mistaken for the epi- demic catarrh, or distemper, as it is called : but from this it may be distinguished by the swellings themselves, which are more hot and tender, and more enlarged in strangles than in catarrh. The age of the animal attacked will also usually assist in detecting the strangles : add to which, that in the epidemic, or distemper, the constitutional affection generally runs higher. No great harm, however, can arise in the event of the one complaint being mistaken for the other ; for when the febrile symptoms of strangles are considerable, no differ- ence ought to be made in the treatment, except that in strangles we should, to promote an early suppuration in the glands, use warm stimulating poultices ; but in catarrh our endeavours would, on the contrary, be directed to discuss and promote a resolution by mild discutients, as hartshorn and oil, vinegar, &c. In all cases of doubt with regard to strangles, warm fomentations only should be used to the swellings, which tend to allay the tension and irritability without materially promoting either the resolution or suppuration. I was formerly an advocate for attempting to repel these tumours by dis- cutients, and lowering the system ; but a more extended experience has made me consider, that as the complaint is a specific inflamma- tion of these glands, whose natural cure appears to be a suppurative process ; so it is more prudent to promote than to discuss them. It is not, however, absolutely necessary to do this, as I have many times eflected their resolution without the complaint ever returning. When the symptomatic affection runs high ; that is, when the fever is considerable, there will be sometimes a discharge from the nose before suppuration takes place in the glands ; this state, which is nothing more than a pure catarrhal affection, and independent of the existing specific affection, the older farriers call bastard strajigles. Treatment. — ^^When the inflammatory symptoms are considerable, treat exactly as directed under catarrh, with this single exception, that the bleeding is not to be pushed, nor even to he attempted at all, unless there is some urgency in the case ; but if the pulse is hard and much quickened, with considerable heaving at the flanks ; if the extremities are cold, the cough painful, and the nostrils red ; then bleed without hesitation. If the throat should be likewise sore, stimulate it ; but do not actively blister. Keep constantly to the head a nose bag, with a warm mash frequently renewed ; and also, iiaving first rubbed the swellings with an ointment of equal parts of K k 484 OK TUMOURS. [Class Xm. suet and turpentine, apply a warm poultice, and repeat every twelve hours. Should the hair covering the glandular swellings be very thick, remove it; and particularly observe that the poultice be pro- perly secured, so as not to fall off, nor become detached from the part. The reason for this caution is, that should air get between the poultice and swelling, it would become a source of cold, from the evaporation occasioned, and this would act as a repellent instead of a promoter. The tiunours, having suppurated, sometimes burst inwardly, in which case the future cure must be left principally to nature, and nothing more, in general, will be requisite than mild food, as green meat, if possible, and gentle exercise. But when the tumours point outwardly, as soon as the matter is felt to fluctuate freely, but not before, they may be opened with a lancet, which will tend to shorten the complaint considerably. It is customary to squeeze the abscess violently with the fingers to press out the matter, which is wrong; a very slight pressure for this purpose is proper, but only a slight one ; and if the opening should be small, either introduce a pledget smeared with digestive ointment to keep it from closing up, or, what will be better, apply, for a day or two, a poultice. In every other respect the proper treatment is so exactly similar to that prescribed for catarrh, or cold, that we shall pursue the matter no further. Class XIII. Of Inflammatory Tumours. TUMOURS may be divided into such as are accompanied with active inflammation, and those without. Among inflammatory tu- mours, the most common are the phlegmonous. Phlegmon is a painful throbbing enlargement, with increased heat. In its incipient stale it is generally attempted to be repelled by the various means we have had so many occasions of mentioning ; as bleeding, purging, diuretics, with cooling applications to the parts themselves. Abscess. — When phlegmonous inflammation exists, the vessels become so distended as to rupture, or to voluntarily pour out coagu- lable lymph, which glues up the sides around the inflamed part ; when, from the continuance of the inflammation, the vessels take on another action, and pits is. formed, but cannot escape. If at this time absorption can be promoted, the matter, if in small quantity, may be removed, and the condensed membrane too, when it is said to terminate by resolution. But if pus continues forming, the cyst becomes distended, which is a stimulus to the healthy lymphatics to RHEUMATtSM. 485 Class XIV.] remove the substance next the surface^ and the abscess Is then said to come forward ; to evacuate which we frequently make an opening through the skin, taking care to give the matter the most depending spot for an orifice. Several abscesses, which, in their early state, are tumours, we have described when treating on ulcers, because that is the state in which they shew themselves most troublesome : of this kind are pole evil, fistulous withers, strangles, &c. Class XIV. Of Indurated Tumours. RHEUMATISM. WHEN I entered on my professional career, t had some doubt whether the horse was ever affected with rheumatism / for I was dis- posed to think what the farriers term flying lamenesses were com- monly ideal or dependent on other causes : and the cases of this kind, that fell under my own notice, I attributed to very different sources. But since that time co’nviction has been forced on me by many well-marked cases of a rheumatic nature 5 and other intelli- gent practitioners I know have witnessed the same. The French writers all treat on this complaint as common to the horse, and describe it as a painful affection, accompanied with lameness resem- bling the cramp, and which shifts from place to place. Some of the older farriers meant this malady when they described chest founderf which they considered to be an inflammation of the intercostal mus- cles, and from thence called it external pleurisy. The pectoral muscles, it is certain, become a common seat of the complaint, and of course at this time a considerable stiffness appears on moving : if the affection is long continued, or often repeated, it likewise occasions a lessening and wasting of these muscles. Con- traction of the feet, or chronic founder, produces likewise a stiffness in the gait, not very dissimilar to this rheumatic attack ; and as here also, when the contraction is of old date, a loss of muscular substance before, is the consequence ; so it has followed as a result, that these two very different maladies have been frequently confounded toge- ther, and a foot-foundered horse has been considered as chest-foun- dered ; much less usual is it for the opposite mistake to be fallen into. Of all the errors of antient and modern farriery, this is, I believe, the most extensive and common, and one that is still adhered to, where veterinary improvements have not shed their light, with un- K k 2 48G nHEUMATISM. IGass XIV, usual obstinacy, as is painfully witnessed every year by thousands of patient and unoffending victims ; for whenever a horse becomes slowly foundered, under the general inspection of a shoeing smith of the old school, it is the very last supposition that enters his head, that the evil can possibly exist in the part he has had in his lap only a few minutes before, and on which he has just been bestowing the utmost efforts of his ingenuity j he consequently directs his atten- tion other ways : and as his father before him always looked first to ' the shoulders for any cause of lameness, he, disdaining to be wisef i than his progenitor, looks there also ; and, perhaps, finding a de- crease of size in these parts, is it likely that his faculties of ratiocina- tion should lead him further ? The poor beast is, therefore, pro- ! nounced chest foundered, and is then blistered, rovvelled, oiled, and tortured in a thousand ways ; but these failing, to complete the cata- logue of his sufferings, he is lastly pegged. The total confinement required to do all this, increases the contraction of the feet, and the ; beast escapes further misery by expiating the offences of the operator under the milder treatment of the knacker or collar maker. This < forms the eventful history of thousands of horses thus tortured and ^ destroyed by this single error; and I thus enljirge on it purposely to > impress it on the memory of the junior practitioner. j By dashing cold water over a horse when hot ; by suffering him | to stand unusually long without doors; by swimming him; but particularly by riding against a bleak wind ; or, in fact, by any | undue exposure to cold, a horse is sometimes the next day found to ; be very stiff, and painfully affected in some of his limbs or in his loins ; more generally, however, it affects the muscles of the shoul- ders and chest, which are, in some cases, slightly tumefied, and tender to the touch. I have witnessed two instances where this : complaint took on an acute form, and both were evidently occa- sioned by cold. In each there were present universal stiffness, great j fever, and an evening exacerbation ; the cold rigors were strongly } marked, and the subsequent heat and sweating as distinct. I bled - both largely, opened the bowels, employed extensive embrocatings, ‘ inserted rowels in the chest and belly, and gave antimonials inter- ; nally. One perfectly recovered in ten days, the other in a fortnight. A local rheumatic affection I have many times witnessed, but this universal and acute attack I never have seen since. When this complaint occurs in the loins, it is commonly attributed to strain or blows. Treatment. — I have treated the chest founder, as this complaint is commonly termed, variously, according to circumstances, or agree- ably with my views of the matter at the moment. By my notes of practice, I find that, in one instance, I fomented with success ; but in this much caution is necessary to rub completely dry afterwards, and to clothe warmly : in another I used stimulating applications, and gave antimonials. In a third, where the stiffness was extreme, I bled in the plate vein, and inserted a rowd into the chest ; which practice I w'as led to by having witnessed, in the former case, a serous ANTICOR. 4S7 Claims XIV.] effusion in the cellular membrane of the muscles, which followed the attack, and proved difficult to prevent from proceeding to suppura- tion ; which is not an unfrequent result of these affections, though less frequent with us than with continental horses, where the tu- mour so formed is termed anticor, i. e. before the heart : it also receives the same appellation by pur farriers. In one instance that fell under my notice, such a gathering followed a very slight rheu- matic attack, and in a few months reappeared, apparently then with- out the rheumatic stimulus : in another, the origin and termination accompanied the exciting affection distinctly. The proper treatmenty whether its scat is in the loins or chest, will, therefore, consist in stimulating topical applications to the part, warm clothing, rest, and mild food : in case the febrile symptoms are considerable, bleed, and in every instance open the bowels, and give antimonials with nitre. It remains to remark also, that if the flying lamenesses we meet with are most of them rheumatic, which there is great reason to believe the case; then it is common to observe them attack every part of the extremities. I once possessed a valuable horse, which I kept some years, whom I bought .with the character of being occa- sionally lame. He would sometimes work a week or two perfectly sound, and then become lame for two or three days. His feet were excellent, he had no corns, and was wholly without blemish. It could arise from no ligamentary strain, for it was neither better nor worse for work, nor was he lamer when he set off than when he had gone some distance. It appeared to be confined principally to the off shoulder ; and it was particularly remarked, that when he returned hot from exercise, and was not immediately attended to, his lameness was sure to come on. Every other practitioner must also have met with instances of lameness returning at uncertain periods, of which the cause is not apparent. The older farriers always attribute these to humours, and, therefore, give physic : and though the cause thus j considered is erroneous probably, yet the treatment is, nevertheless, judicious ; for I have never found any mode that was so certainly efficacious as this, though I have tried others : nor is this the only instance in which the older methods of cure, founded on long expe- rience, prove the best. ANTICOR. This Is described as a species of tumour in the integuments of the chest or abdomen, which all the old writers on farriery mention, but most of them without having seen it. It is said to be more common on the Continent, but in England is not often met with. I have seen two instances only ; one evidently referrible to rheumatism, the other arose from some cause not apparent. — See Rheumatism. 488 LAMPAS, — WAUBLES. [Class XIV. LAMPAS. Young animals have the rugae at the roof of the mouth naturally more full than those of older ones : when, therefore, a young horse cannot eat, his mouth is looked into ; and because the roof is found more prominent than that of an older horse, he is said to have lampas, and the owner proceeds to cauterize the part. Sometimes, however, a considerable enlargement of them does really occur, in which case by no means cauterize, but apply alum and honey, and if very obstinate, very lightly scarify the parts. The real cause oi lampas is generally overlooked ; on the contrary, the same occurs here as happens in numerous other instances where the effect only is regarded, but the cause neglected. In almost every one of these cases, unless when the mouth is tender and inflamed from young teeth appearing, the horse will be found more or less out of condition, from fulness of habit, or some stomach affection. The mouth will be hot and dry, perhaps the pulse may be a little quickened, the appetite irregular, and the coat not in the best order. In ourselves we feel an unpleasant roughness, and often a fulness, in the roof of the mouth in fevers ; exactly the same occurs here, and jnost, if not the whole, of these cases may be referred either to some febrile tendency, or to w'orms, or to some other affection of the ali- mentary canal. This has been so long regarded by me as the true origin of lampas, that I never now attack the complaint, unless to satisfy the prejudice of the owner of the animal, but through the medium of the stomach, — See Condition. WARBLES. These are tumours that arise in consequence of the pressure of the saddle. If they are in an active state, and the pressure is conti- nued, they suppurate, and form a troublesome sore for some weeks, If they are indolent, and the irritating cause is slightly kept up, coa- gulable lymph is thrown out, which does not become reabsorbed, and they then form sitfasts. As soon as they are perceived, tq prevent these consequences give the horse perfect rest j but if this cannot be granted, let the saddle be properly chamberedj and in either case apply a solution of lead, or sal ammoniac and vinegar. When a sitfast is formed, by no means tear it out ; but if large and very troublesome, let it be blistered ; if this does not remove it, it may be carefully dis-> sec ted out, Chss XIV.] BRUISES AND STRAINS. 489 BRUISES. These are tumours formed by some external injury, wherein the continuity is not interrupted ; but a rupture of the smaller vessels oceasions an extravasation of blood within. If the injury is small, the parts will reinstate themselves, the extravasated blood become absorbed, and the tumour removed: but, when the injury is violent, the parts may be unable to reinstate themselves ; the extravasated blood will then become a source of irritation, and suppuration wdll follow. Should a still higher degree of violence be offered, the entire tone of the parts becomes destroyed, and sphacelus must take place ; when the living parts will make an effort to remove the dead, and an extensive sore will be formed. At other times the blood thrown out, instead of irritating or being absorbed, coagulates, and becomes vascular, when the part remains permanently enlarged. The Treatment of bruises must vary according to these several cir- cumstances. We should always endeavour to reinstate the part, and promote the absorption : this may be done by giving local strength by external applications, as saline matter with vinegar, ver- juice, spirits of wine and camphor, &c. If the blood remains fluid, promote its escape by making a small depending orifice. If it sup- purates, treat as a common abscess. When sphacelus occurs, treat as under mortification. If the tumour remains indurated, . stimulate the absorbents by mercurials, by friction, or by blisters, and, if obstinate, by fire. JlIUSCULAR, TENDINOUS, AND LIGAMENTOUS EX- TENSION, CALLED STRAINS. The muscular, the ligamentous, and the tendinous parts, are all liable to extension, if greater force is applied to them than their structure is equal to resist, when of course lameness must follow. These injuries are very various, but with the farriers they all fall under one broad designation of stram. It is probable, when such accident occurs to the muscular parts, that there is a lesion of some of the fibrillae ; for their elasticity is too great not to yield to any common extension. Consequently we find that in muscular exten- sions, from the great vascularity in the part, the symptoms at first are considerable, but the very same vascularity operates to a speedy reinstatement from the effects of the injury. Very different are these same accidents when they happen to parts purely ligamentous or tendinous, or rather to the thecal sheaths of the tendons, which usually suffer in these cases. It has been com- mon to consider strains of these parts as an over- distention of their natural elasticity ; but we have reason to believe that their elastic 490 SHOUI-DER strain. [C7gs5 XIV. properties are not considerable, or they would be unfitted for their functions. The muscular fibres possess great dilating and con- tracting powers ; but the tendons, which are but the ropes of the muscles, are nearly, if not wholly, inelastic. Ligaments have the same character, being only connecting mediums ; and, except the capsular, have all of them but little vascularity, and few living powers. The same may be remarked of the tendons and their appendages, except of their sheaths, whose inner surface is highly vascular, It is to this inelasticity that strains more especially occur in the limbs ; and it is to the small proportion of living powers in these parts that the injury appears at 6rst insidious, but the effects it produces considerable : from this likewise the restoration of the parts is slow, and the recurrence probable. It is also from an erro- neous view of the matter on the foregoing grounds, that it has hap- pened that strains have been so wrongly considered by the gene- rality of farriers, and hence often wrongly treated. Having proceeded thus far on the subject generally, we will now enter on an exarni-* nation of each individual strain, according to the part it affects, Extension of the Shoulder, A Shoulder Strain, as it is called, is an extension of the muscular or ligamentous parts of the scapula, operating the motions of the shoulder, and serving to connect it with the body ; and which parts, it must be evident, are very liable to this kind of injury, from the great extent of motion the omoplate enjoys forward and backward, and its close confinement laterally. Shoulder strains are, therefore, frequently the consequences of a side wrench, or slip, which, by separating the fore legs too widely, put these parts on the stretch. The adductor muscles, or the sustaining ones, as the serratus major, must be the sufferers on these occasions j and very frequently also the ligaments of the articulation are principally affected. Shoulder strains are rather rare occurrences, much more so than is generally supposed ; for farriers and persons about horses are led, from habit, to attribute every lameness they do not ei?actly understand, and whose seat is not self-evident, to an affection of the shoulder ; and when, on viewing a horse in front, the muscles of one or both shoulders appear wasted, it requires more than usual exertion to make even intelligent persons believe that the evil did not originate where its effects are so evident, In a]! affections of the feet, where there is much pain and lameness, and the anirnal consequently much at rest, not only the external but the internal muscles of the shoul- ders waste : this draws the fore legs closer together, the spine of the bladebone becomes prominent, and the whole substance seems lessened. This appears to have two origins ; one from inaction, ia which muscles always diminish as a necessary consequence j the other proceeds from the pain disturbing the healthy functiops pf the part. SHOULDER STRAIN. 491 Class XIV.] It is very necessary, therefore, to be able accurately to distinguish a strain in the shoulder from the numerous affections with which it is often confounded. In these cases the toe is usually dragged along the ground when in motion ; and, while at rest, the limb is generally placed forward in a relaxed position, resting on the point of the foot : and this will particularly serve to distinguish it from affections of the feet, in which, though the whole limb may be carried for- ward and point, yet it will be set straight out, and not relaxed ; neither will it rest on the toe. These cases are farther characterised, by the extreme difficulty with which a horse moves down the slight- est declivity, from the weight being thrown on the shoulders : and, when the ligaments are the principal seat of lameness, the horse, in walking, swings the leg round in a remarkable manner : in fact, he evidently describes the circle of the limb in any direction, but that in which the flexion of the shoulder joint must take a part. And, as a farther mode of ascertaining this affection, if the foot is ele- vated forward considerably, and the whole limb brought out into a straight line, it will give intense pain if the shoulder be the seat of lameness. It may be remarked, likewise, that shoulder strains almost always happen suddenly. Treatment, — There is commonly considerable inflammation pre- sent, consequently either general or topical bleeding is proper; that is, either draw blood from the neck, or from the plate vein ; and if the horse is in full condition, give a dose of physic also ; should there be much heat and tension of the parts, bleed in the plate vein, whether general bleeding is tried or not, and foment with hot water two or three times a-day, rubbing dry afterward. But if the heat and tension are not considerable, and the lameness great, insert a rowel into the chest : and, in every variety, enjoin absolute rest. When the inflammatory symptoms have perfectly subsided, the tone of the part must be attended to. If there has been reason to con- sider it as a ligamentary strain of the shoulder joint, by the heat and tenderness of the point of that part, then, as soon as the inflamma- tion is removed, proceed to blister in the usual manner. But when the evil appears to exist in the muscular parts principally, which is known by the inner side of the arm being tender, I would recom- mend the following practice, which I have long pursued in these cases with invariable success. This consists in watching the decline of the early inflammation arising from the injury, which decline should be strenuously promoted by the means already laid down. As soon as this is efl’ected, I proceed to raise an artificial inflamma- tion by the free use of stimulants, generally of the liquid blister, in the following manner : Mix six ounces of common oil with two ounces of liquid blister (see Mat. Med.), and with this rub the whole affected part every morning, until the swelling and inflamma- tion it will bring on prevent the use of more. In two or three days this will subside, when it should be repeated, until the same effects again prevent the application. In this way keep up a mild inflam- mation for a week or ten days, according to the original violence of 492 STRAIN OF THE BACK SINEWS. [Class XIV. the affection. In general cases, the subsiding of the second swelling will leave the horse sound. This will be found a much more effica- cious mode of practice than the common blister; but it must be particularly remembered, that I know of no affection so liable to return as this ; consequently, although the horse may appear sound, it will be very dangerous to put him to immediate work : on the contrary, it will be more prudent to turn him out to grass, if possi- ble alone, or with cows only ; otherwise, by playing and galloping with others, he may renew the injury. Swimming a horse for shoulder strain is a very common remedy among the older farriers, under a supposition that dislocation has taken place ; but which practice is founded on an ignorance of the anatomy of the animal, and always proves hurtful. Much less inju- rious is the old-fashioned mode of pegging, which consists in making an opening in the skin of some part of the shoulder, and then, by means of a pipe, blowing in air, exactly as butchers blow up veal. The air thus introduced raises considerable inflammation, after the manner of a blister, and frequently does good. Blows on the Point of the Shoulder. — These injuries occur more frequently than strains, and are often productive of more present lameness, and consequences eventually more serious. Turning sud- denly in a narrow stall, running against a hard body, or being kicked, or violently struck, may any of them occasion it. There will be great tenderness and heat at the point of the shoulder, some swelling, and the lameness will be extreme. In such cases bleed in the plate vein; insert a rowel in the chest; foment the part; and, when th^ heat and swelling are reduced, blister. Extension of the Flexor Tendons and their Sheaths. Farriers and grooms call this a c/ap in the back sinews, and, when not very violent, is usually confined to the theca, or sheath, of the flexor tendons ; but when the violence has been more considerable, the injury extends to the tendons themselves. It may take place both behind and before, and can be brought on by any thing that acts more strongly on the parts than they are capable of resisting ; as, a sudden ahd violent contraction of the muscles, by endeavouring to recover a false step, or other numerous causes, &c. It is sometimes occasioned by lowering the heels too much and too suddenly, by which unusual weight is thrown on them. In all which cases these parts being incapable of stretching, much violence is done to their structure, and inflammation is the consequence. This inflammation occasions a tension and swelling, and from this, effusion frequently follows, which at first is merely serous, and may be reabsorbed ; but if the cause is reapplied, or improper applications are made use of, coagu- lable lymph may be thrown out between the tendons and their sheaths, which, not being so readily absorbed, remains, and form OVERREACH. 493 Class XIV.] the permanent callosities around the back sinews, that so frequently follow these accidents, and which, by obstructing the freedom of motion, occasion a lameness much felt after very hard work, and likewise at first starting ; but which, after he has been some time inaction, as his attention is drawn off, he feels little of ; by the same means, part of the obstructing deposit is also removed ; and as horses with old strains go better when they have moved some time, it has induced some persons to hold it as a maxim, that a strained horse may be ivorked sound. It would be as humane and as reasonable to drive the crippled soldier with one leg till the other grew. The Treatment of a clap in the back sinews is to be began by con- sidering it as an inflammation of the sheath of the flexor tendon, usually producing a greater determination to the part, which occa- sions the tumefaction or swelling, as the increased sensibility is productive of the tenderness. In the first instance, therefore, all the means we have so often recommended for local inflammation ought to be applied j as, local bleeding, saturnine poultices, fomen- tations ; and a relief may be given to the distended parts by elevating the shoe at the heels by calkins, &c. When the inflammation fias subsided, the strength and tone of the part must be repaired if possible, which is best effected by mildly stimulating applications, as, spirits of wine and camphor, vinegar, verjuice, stale beer grounds ; but, more particularly, by the saline embrocation in the Materia Medica, applied constantly round the leg by wetting a roller therein- If swelling remains after this, apply a blister. I have treated these cases with great success by pursuing, after the first inflammatory symptoms have subsided, exactly a similar plan of mildly blistering, as detailed in shoulder strain. Sometimes, how- ever, so much weakness will remain, or the enlargement may prove so difficult to remove, as to render it prudent to blister actively. In such a case, first rub the parts before blistering, two or three suc- ceeding days, with mercurial ointment. In still more obstinate cases, fire, and turn out. Hand-rubbing, the use of rollers, or a laced stocking wet with astringent applications, may all be brought in, as aids to prevent a return of the evil. OVERREACH. This is usually a blow inflicted on some part of the fore extremity by the hinder one. When it happens that the hinder foot strikes the flexor tendons or back sinews, it produces an inflammation and tumour similar to that last described, and which requires no variety in the treatment. 494 BREAKING DOWN. [Gass XIV. RUPTURE OF THE SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS. Breaking down is the name given by farriers to this accident, and which now and then happens to young horses in breaking, and more frequently to others in training. It has been usually supposed to arise from a rupture of the flexor tendons either before or behind j but they are seldom found affected. The limb, in these cases, be- trays the greatest weakness, and the fetlock is brought almost to the ground, but tbe horse can bend his foot when he raises it ; which is not the case when the flexor tendons or back sinews them- selves are broken through. A perfect cure is seldom obtained, but the inflammation should at first be obviated by the former means ; the limb should then be elevated, and the heels particularly much raised to relax the parts, when an intermediate substance will be thrown out to unite the divided ends, after which the limb will regain some of its functions. A laced stocking, or firm bandage, is essentially necessary to be used till some degree of strength is gained in the limb. Firing is sometimes useful, as it applies a permanent bandage. RUPTURE OF THE FLEXOR TENDON, OR BACK SINEW. This is a very rare occurrence ; more frequently the former injury is mistaken for this ; but it differs in no respect from that in treat- ment, except that, in the rupture of the suspensory ligament, the flexion or bending of the limb below the pastern only would be ne- cessary ; but here it would be proper to bend the whole limb from the elbow downwards. This could only be effected by slinging the animal, in which case it is probable a very good cure might be effected. A kind of thick leather splent I once saw advantageously applied ; but the extreme intelligence and mildness of the animal much faci- litated the application. EXTENSION OF THE LIGAMENTS OF THE FETLOCK JOINT. A Strain of the Fetlock Joint arises from some Injury done to the ligamentous and tendinous connexion of this part, either from long continued exertion or from the effects of more momentary but vio- lent efforts. The effects produced are, swelling and heat in the part, accompanied with great lameness, considerable pain, and Class XIV.] STRAINS OF THE PASTERN AND COFFIN JOINTS. 495 much tenderness; When it occurs behind, it is often mistaken for common swellings arising from want of condition, particularly if the lameness is not eonsiderable. I have frequently seen a slight strain thus mistaken, where the animal has continued to be more actively exercised to take down the enlargement ; until the increased inflammation thus occasioned has forced the vessels to deposit coagulable lymph, which, becoming organized, could never be re- moved, but what is called a callus remained ever after. In other instances of similar error, the afl'ection has got worse and worse, till conviction has been forced on the owner by the extreme lame- ness and misery of the poor beast. Treatment. — When the heat and swelling shew a considerable in- jury has been sustained, it is always prudent to immediately give a dose of physic. Confine the horse to absolute rest, and apply, night and morning, a cold Goulard poultice of bran (see Materia Medica) : and when the heat and swelling are abated, keep a bandage moderately tight around the part, constantly moistened with any mildly stimulating application, as the saline embrocation ^Materia Medica). Should the swelling and lameness not remove from this, proceed to sweat with the liquid blister, as directed under that head in the Materia Medica. After this, exercise .moderately only, still applying the bandage and embrocation when at rest, to E revent recurrence. Sometimes, however, when the injury has een very considerable, it is necessary to blister and turn out to effect a permanent cure. EXTENSION OF THE LIGAMENTS OF THE COFFIN. A Strain of the Coffin Joint is not an unusual occurrence ; and, like the former, consists of violence applied to the tendinous and ligamentous connexions of this joint. When a horse becomes denly lame, and no part usually affected in these cases is disco- vered to be swelled or hot ; it is prudent to turn the attention to the feet, and to examine them very minutely. Five times out of six, the lamenesses of horses are situated here ; though, by an unfortunate perverseness, a common farrier looks anywhere besides, commonly to the shoulders, which are the least of all likely to be affected ; but here he pegs and blisters to the injury of all parties but himself. But, in such a case, on an attentive examination, there will very probably be found in one of the feet, more frequently of the fore, some heat and tenderness, particularly at the back part, towards the upper portions of the heels, and in the hollow of the junction of the little pastern with the coffin. In these strains this part will be always hot, and the horse will express pain when the foot is bent or extended, and he will generally also, though not always, point the foot when in the stable, or, as it is expressed, will stand favouring. 496 STRAIN IN THE WHIRL AND STIFLE JOINTS. [GaSS XIV. Treatment. — If the heat is considerable, put the whole foot into a Goulard poultice for three or four days : in very bad cases I have thinned the whole crust of the hoof, and have drawn blood from the toe. After the heat has in some degree subsided, blister, as a milder treatment will seldom avail here. A fracture of the coffin or navicular bone sometimes also occurs ; either of which will produce similar symptoms, but so highly aggravated as to enable the prac- titioner to form his judgment thereon correctly: add to which, the fractured portions may, by attentive examination, be felt to grate oii each other. Strain m the Joint of the Whirl, or Round Bone. As chestfounder covers all the other defects of the fore limbs, so the lamenesses behind arc all referred, by the older farriers, to either a strain of the round-bone, or stifle, as their fancy leads them to favour the one or the other. Violence may, however, injure the ligaments of the articulation of the thigh with the pelvis. The Treatment, from the deep situation of the part, must neces- sarily be attended with some difficulty. It will be proper to foment, or, otherwise, to apply saturnine lotions till the heat is reduced, after which blister actively. It is not improbable that the practice of pegging, as performed by older farriers on the shoulder, might here, from the depth of the affection, be a useful stimulant, and may in this case be very properly tried. But, in these instances, the parts sometimes do not readily reinstate themselves, in which case fire over the joint in a star-like form ; again blister ; apply a charge of pitch and crocus metallorura or minium, and turn out. Strain of the Stifle Joint. The ligaments of the patella, and stifle joint, may be strained, or rather injured, by violence, or by blows. As the former affec- tion may be distinguished by a peculiar dragging of the limb; this may be known by the circular direction in which the leg is car- ried, during motion, purposely to avoid flexing the joint. The heat and tenderness will also serve to guide the practitioner mate- rially in this instance. Sometimes, the muscles of the thigh, and not the joint, become extended, and produce the lameness ; in which case, the tenderness will be found within the groin, and not around the patella or stifle. In treatment, however, this affection in nowise differs from the former, except that sometimes a rowel withinside the thigh has benefited this, but is inapplicable to the other. Class XV.] VARIX. 497 Class XV. Of Encysted Tumours, VARIX. A DISEASED enlargement of the coats of the veins is termed varix, but which seldom takes place in the venal tubes of the body of the horse, as his superficial order is comparatively small, and not subjected to such artificial pressure as our owji. The only instance common in this animal is, that termed blood spavin; which is cer- tainly a varicosed enlargement of the superficial vein passing over the inside of the hock ; but which is improperly considered as a disease, at least as an original one, being in most instances only the effect of another and distinct aftection, called hog spavin. For its varicosed state is brought on merely from passing over the mucous capsules of the hock, which, becoming enlarged, press on the vein, occasioning an obstruction to the passage of the blood, and a consequent dilatation of its coats. Usually, therefore, the dilated capsule is the part to be attended to ; but when the vein becomes so much enlarged as, by its own pressure, to occasion mischief, it can only be remedied by counter-pressure, or by removal. A bandage must be so contrived as to surround and take in the hock generally, but should press on this part particularly, not violently but evenly, having also some astringent assistant application; but should it still remain enlarged, and its existence prove hurtful, which, however, is very seldom the case, then its removal may be effected by in- cluding the vein above and below the varix with two ligatures. Having done this, the tumour may be opened and the contents evacuated, suffering the remainder to slough away. But it should be remarked that, in five hundred cases of what is called blood spavin, it would not, perhaps, in one of them be actually necessary to take up, or bar the vein, as a farrier would call it. It is more prudent to attempt the reduction of the dilated bursa, or mucous capsule of the hock, that occasions it ; for which purpose blister, or apply a bandage with astringent applications. In bad cases firing proves the best, as it is a permanent bandage. 498 VVINDGALLS. [Class XV. DISEASED ENLARGEMENT OF THE BURSiE MUCOSA, OR, ®2SinDgall0. The tendons of those muscles connected to joints have membra- nous vascular bags attached to their ends, called bursoR mucoscBy filled with a mucus to assist the motions of the part. These mu- cozear; the dilated blad- der seldom regains, with its original size, its original strength. When windgalls are very large, and of long continuance, if the blemish is not objected to, firing is perhaps the most effectual means of relief, and the more, as it removes both cause and effect. I cannot dismiss the subject without warning the junior prac- titioner never to be incautiously led to puncture a windgall, under an idea of evacuating its contents ; for if even no mischief followed, no good could result ; the cyst would be only momentarily emptied ; for its capacity must remain the same, and the exhalent arteries would almost immediately fill it up again. Even in this point of view it is quite useless ; but, in another, it is worse than useless, being' never done with impunity, for inflammation of the most serious kind is sure to follow. Horses have even been destroyed by it ; and, when the consequences are not fatal, they are still sufficiently se- rious, generally ending in anchylosis ; and, when by any other means such an accident has happened, the practitioner should im- mediately close the wound, by the heated budding iron, in the same manner as in an open joint (see Class XI). Bursal enlargements, or windgalls, bear different technical names, according to their situ- ations, and are particularized immediately following ; hut, in all, the treatment must be radically the same. Bog Spavin. This is only a bursal enlargement of the mucous capsule on the inner side of the hock ; and is what usually occasions the dilata- tion of the vein of that part, forming varix, or blood spavin. LI 500 THOROUGH-PIN— CAPULET. [Cfoss XVI, ThoroUgh-Pin Is the farriers’ term for the bursal enlargement situated in the upper and back part of the hock, between the tendons of the great flexor of the foot and those of the gemini ; and, as it necessarily shews itself on each side, so it is a thorough~pin. From the pecu- liarity of its situation it seldom occasions lameness, unless very large. The Treatment of this and the former must be the same as that directed for windgalls. - Capulet or Capped Hock. This arises from a swelling of the mucous capsule that surrounds the insertion of the tendon of the gemini muscles into the point of the hock. From its situation interfering with none of the moving parts, it is seldom detrimental. The Treatme)it must be similar to that of windgalls. The Elbow Is subject sometimes to a similar enlargement, from a horse sleeping with his legs doubled under him. The Treatment of this' will correspond with the others. This part is likewise subject to an indurated tumour from the same source, which the French call couche en vache. Class XVI. Fractures and Dislocations. WHEN any important bone is fractured in the horse, from the trouble of managing him, the expenses attendant on his keep, and the risk of his future usefulness : attempts are seldom made to reduce these fractures, but the animal is usually destroyed. In France, on the contrary, to shew their ingenuity, they attempt the reduction of every broken bone, however difficult. I have now lay- ing before me a treatise written expressly on the treatment of frac- tures, that have occurred in the practice of the principal French Class XVI.] FRACTURES AND DISLOCATIONS. 501 veterinarians, collected by M. Fromage-Defeugr6, sent to me as a complimentary testimony by its ingenious author *. - This little work contains not only ample proofs of the ardour and industry of the French veterinarians; but also very excellent directions for the treatment of the fracture of every individual bone liable to meet with this accident in general cases ; as, those of the head, the vertebrae, scapula, humerus, canon, and pasterns ; likewise the ribs, sternum, pelvis, femur, patella, tibia, canon. See. I have ever been of opinion, that we destroy an immense num- ber of horses with fractured bones that might be saved ; and, I be- lieve, it was formerly much more the custom than at present, to attempt the cure of most of these. I suspect this subject is but little attended to, even at the Veterinary College ; though I agree with the French professor, that there are but few broken bones but what might be again perfectly consolidated by judicious attention ; ; and, particularly, in the event of its happening to a beast of tract- able and patient disposition. In some of the fractures of large and important bones, if a horse was even merely turned Ipose into a large box, extremely well littered up ; or, perhaps, supported by bales of hay or straw at his skies, so that the idea of restraint was not excited in his mind, nature would often effect a cure. In other cases he might be slung; and, in almost all, the cure might at least be attempted. Nature restores fractured bones in 4he same manner as the soft parts; that is, by inflammation. When a bone is broken, and there is no external wound, it is called a simple fracture, in distinction from that producing a wound externally, which is termed a com- pound fracture. In the simple fracture, coagulable lymph is thrown out from the ends of the bones, in which vessels first form, and then deposit ossific matter ; this, by consolidating, unites the frac- tured ends of the bones, and is called the callus. But, in coni- r pound fracture, the coagula escapes, and the union must be formed i by suppuration, and granulation ; , the vessels shooting through which, deposit the ossific matter : thus the same end is brought about, though by a much slower process. In the Treatment of ii fractures, therefore, it is necessary that we assist nature, first, by i replacing the divided ends as nearly as possible in their original j situation ; and, next, that by proper applications we retain them i there, till union is effected. It is to be remarked also, that when I bones are fractured into numerous fragments, it is often necessary I to remove the smaller and useless portions, otherwise the irritation i of their sharp ends will occasion an unhealthy inflammation. It 13 1 in such cases prudent, when extreme tumefaction shews the exist- i ence of these fragments, to cut down on the fracture, and remove * Traite des Fractures dans les Animaux Domestiques; cd Ton Rapporte des I Exemples de Fr.actures Gudries aux Os des diverses Parties du Corps des Animaux, ! dont un trfes irrand Nombre dans le Clieval, et des Observations sur cette Matidre, ; tirees de la Pratique de plus de soixante Homnies de I’Art. Par M. Fromage- I Defeugre, L 1 2 502 fracture of the ^kvll and jaw bones. [Class XVI. them, before union will commence. We will now proceed to parti- cularize the several fractures individually. Fractured Skull. This injury may happen from any violence done to the head 5 it occurs frequently from one horse kicking another. The first thing to be attended to, when a suspicion of this kind is entertained, is that of carefully securing the horse j by which means the nature and extent of the injury may be more readily traced : if any depres- sion of the bones appears, or if there is any doubt relative to it, the scalp should be removed by two cross incisions, when the depressed parts will come into view : those that are loose and de- tached must be removed, and other portions that are only indented may be raised by any instrument having a firm and safe hold. If this cannot be done without, apply the- trepan. When this is effected, the scalp may be drawn together by a stitch or two, but the wound should be by no means exactly closed. No irritating dressings should be applied, but the part simply kept from the ex- ternal air ; and if much blood was not lost when the accident hap- pened, a considerable bleeding should take place from the jugular, to prevent staggers coming on. Fracture of the Zygomatic Arch. This bony process is liable to fracture from kicks, blows, &c., in which case the broken portions may interfere with the motion of the jaw, and thus starve the horse. In a case, therefore, of this kind it would be prudent, if the fractured ends could not be re- placed through the skin, to make an opening and remove the loose portions ; for should coagulable lymph become thrown out exten- sively, the motion of the coronoid or condoloid processes might be interfered with. Fracture of tfte Jaw Bones. These distressing cases are not unfrequently happening from kicks or other injuries, and the unfortunate animal is almost always destroyed under an apprehension that nothing can be done for him, or that he must inevitably starve. In jaw fractures there is fre- quently a splintering of the bone into fragments, when, the sharp ends irritating the surrounding parts, a vast tumefaction takes place. In such cases we must not hesitate to open the swelling, and remove any such detached portions. It is true, this reduces 503 Class XVI.] FRACTURE OF THE NOSE AND RIBS. the case to that of a compound fracture ; but It is, nevertheless, in some instances, absolutely necessary before the remaining parts can he re- placed, or a healthy action follow. When it is the posterior or lower jaw that is fractured, it is most fortunate if one branch only is broken ; should, however, the injury happen to both, there is still no need to despair. In such case, particularly if the bones are much shattered, both jaws must be actually bandaged together for some time, feeding the horse only by the nose, which is not difficult : but when one side only is fractured, the jaw can be let loose twice or thrice a-day, and the animal suffered to drink and eat, or rather mumble up a mash. In a fracture of the lower jaw, I once succeeded by making a strong leather frame that exactly en- cased the whole jaw, which I made to adhere by means of pitch. Fracture of the Nose. From the brutality of drivers this accident sometimes happens; it is likewise not unfrequently occasioned by kicks from other horses ; and I have seen it, on the Continent, extensively fractured from sabre wounds in engagements. Whenever it happens, the bones should be immediately replaced as much in a natural situation as possible, and the external wound carefully closed from the action of the air. In case the fractured parts cannot be replaced by the nostrils, it would be prudent to elevate them by means of an open- ing made with the trepan : but, in general, the replacement of these bones, when depressed inwardly, as is usually the case, may he effected by means of something introduced up the nostrils wrapped round with tow, linen, or woollen. After which, if necessary, a false nostril of pasteboard, covered with wool or velvet, or one made of stiff leather, 8cc., might be introduced and kept there. Fractured Ribs. Blacksmiths are apt, from the effect of passion, to strike a .horse with their shoeing hammer. I have more than once seen a fractured rib from this cruelty. In other ways, also, the ribs may become fractured. If the end of a fractured rib penetrates the ca- vity of the chest and wounds the lungs, there is considerable dan- ger that the air will escape, and, being admitted into the cellular membrane, will form emphysema. The proper treatment is, there- fore, at the first to apply a bandage to prevent the air insinuating itself, and which will tend also to bring the rib externally into its place, while the action of the lungs will assist it internally. If, not- withstanding, air escapes and enters the skin, which is known by 504 FRACTURED BONES OF THE EXTREMITIES. [CloSS XVI, the distention and crackling feel under the hand, evacuate it by small openings made with a lancet. FJIACTUREP BONES OF THE EXTREMITIES. I tii fractures of the larger bones of the limbs, the horse is almost always killed, as being supposed incurable, or that, if cured, he would be utterly useless : but not only are many of these cases cu- rable, as has been proved, but a horse frequently becomes perfectly useful afterwards ; and it is evident that the breed of such an ani-' mal at all events, provided it is a mare or stallion, may be made subservient to our purposes. A fractured Scapula, or shoulder-blade, may be successfully vmited by slinging, and the judicious application of bandages ; but particularly by enveloping the whole part in an adhesive mass, by which some light splents could be attached to the shoulder, and, proceeding downw^ards, might be fastened around the arm. This plan steadies and supports the limb more than any other. I'he in- genious French author, already quoted, directs that the whole of the fore parts may be encircled with bandages to keep the injured bones as much as possible in their natural situation. After which, the horse should be gently forced on the opposite side (it would he better to dp this first, I should think), and retained there till the cure is effected, In a case of Fracture of the Cervix of the Scapula, the same au- thor informs us a cure was brought about by attaching the lame limb to the well one for forty days. I should suppose that some- thing sufficiently soft and bulky was placed between the fore legs, and that all were then rolled round together : in three months, we are told, the horse walked without lameness, The Humerus is not often fractured. It is very short and thick, and so strong as to be little in danger; but, in such a case, the plan rccqminended for the cure of the scapula would be here also proper. The Cubitus, or Arm as it is called, is more frequently fractured, and may be successfully treated as follows : — Having first slung the horse, reduce the fracture ; that is, replace the ends of the divided bones in correct opposition to each other. The animal should be so slung that the feet may just rest on the ground, without taking but little of the weight of the body : fasten each foot in its natural si- tuation ; that is, in the situation it would of itself fall. Do this by any ingenious means, as hobbles ringed to. the pavement or floor, or four strong boots might firmly be attached to the floor ; and each leg, being introduced to its appropriate boot, may be firmly laced in. When all is safe, bandage the fractured limb accurately, by 505 Class XVI.] FRACTURED BONES OF THE EXTREMITIES. making the bandage embrace every part, and strengthen the whole with proper splents. The Olecranon, or Elbow, has been fractured by violent efforts of the muscles ; but the tendinous attachments render it extremely difficult to apply means to retain it in its situation. It is only in a state of absolute relaxation of the limb that any attempt can have a chance of succeeding. Fractured Canon. — This bone, when fractured, might be ma- naged in a manner similar to the arm. I have seen it, however, treated successfully without slinging, by a stiff frame of leather re- sembling splents for human fractures, only more extensively ap- plied. In Blount’s Farriery there is a plate representing some inge- nious machinery for the cure of these cases. Fractures of the Pasterns and Coffin Bones. — When these occur, particularly the latter, as the accident usually arises from the violent action of its own muscles upon the part, which, of all injuries, is the most severe ; so it is very common for the bone to be pulled into several portions, in which cases anchylosis is the usual conse- quence. In all fractures of this kind, the lameness, tenderness, and feel of the parts, sufficiently distinguish the injury. A bandage carefully applied, and the encouragement of such a situ- ation as will prevent any motion of the part, will insure a junction of the bones. The Pelvis, the Femur, and the Tibia, are all liable to be frac- tured 5 and though the French authors give us reason to hope for a salutary reunion, and likewise directions for the management ; yet I never saw a favourable instance, and I doubt the prudence of the attempt ; but all the parts below may be most properly attended to in case qf fracture, in the same manner as those before. DISLOCATIONS OF THE JOINTS. Nature has so guarded the joints by the great strength of the ligaments and muscles, that luxation seldom happens ; and, when it does, counter-extension is the only means by which the bones could be replaced : but, from the immense strength of the muscles, I believe no reduction of a dislocated bone has ever yet taken place in the horse. 506 CARIES, OR MORTIFICATION OF THE BONES. [C7nW XVII. Class XVII. Diseases of the Bones. Caries, or Mortification. 'BONES are subject to inflammation, which terminates, like that of the soft parts, in resolution, suppuration, or in mortiScation. The living powers of parts are generally proportioned to their vas- cularity ; thus bones, as having but little blood, are weaker ; and .their actions, both healthy and unhealthy, are slow ; from which they do not readily fall into disease, but, when they do, the morbid action generally produces death in them. A loss of the medium by which bones are supported, will also produce mortification : thus, as they receive their support from the vessels of the periosteum, when that becomes torn off, or otherwise destroyed, the hone supplied therefrom dies. Exfoliation, When death has taken place in a bone, the process of its re- moval is called exfoliation, and which process is effected by the absorbents ; for the dead bone becomes a stimulus to the absorbing vessels belonging to the living bone with which it is in contact, stimulating them to remove as much of the living as formed an tmion with the dead ; by which means the decayed portion, losing its attachment, comes away. In caries, therefore, it must be our endeavour to assist this exfoliation by any means that will further stimulate the absorbents of the living part. Sometimes, from an actual want of power, the caries spreads; in which case we must rouse the living bone into greater action by forcible stimulants ; as, oil of turpentine, tincture of myrrh and aloes, brandy, or other spirits : but the most effectual mode is, by the .application of the actual cautery, in the form of small healed points applied around the outer edge of 'the decayed part. Exostosis. The bony swellings of horses have various names given to them by farriers; but they have one general character, and most of them EXOSTOSIS. 507 Class XVII.3 one common proximate cause, which is inflammation. Young horses are more liable to one species of exostosis, and old horses to another; and some are found common to both. Splents, bone spavins, curbs, and ring-bones, are very usually found in young horses ; while anchylosis of the back, ossified lateral cartilages, and wolves’ teeth, are more frequent in old horses. In young ani- mals the vessels furnishing the bones are in a state of enlargement, because they have not only to replace the absorbed portion, but they have to" secrete for the increased growth and solidity. These vessels are more liable, therefore, to be distended upon any exer- tion, and hence to fall into debility and inflammation, from whence bony deposit is formed : and this will take place in such parts as are most subjected to pressure ; as, on the inside of the canon or shank before, and on the inside of the hock behind. In the first they may be occasioned by blows from the opposite foot, or from standing on too great an acclivity in the stable ; a very common cause probably arises from reducing the naturally increased height of the inner quarter, which is further done by improperly raising the outer heel of the shoe ; from whence a greater proportion of weight is thrown on the inner small metacarpal bone, and which being, by this pressure, in danger of dislocation, occasions bony matter to be thrown out to consolidate its union with the large me- tacarpal bone or canon, and the matter thus thrown out forms splent. When this takes place in the tarsal bones, or those form- ing the hock, it becomes bone spavin. There is another kind of pressure productive of exostosis, which arises from the enlargement of either the ligaments or tendons, by inflammation ; that is, when any of the ligaments or any of the tendinous sheaths have been subjected to inflammation, or have been what is termed strained, they may remain permanently thick- ened, and then, of course, occasion a pressure on the bones be- low, which in process of time will so stimulate the absorbents, that the bone pressed on will be in part removed by their ac- tion : therefore, to repair this loss, a greater deposit is occasioned, but not with the original regularity, and thus exostosis is formed. Bad curbs are instances of this ; an incipient curb is usually an affection of the ligaments simply. But it must not be for- gotten, however, that the thickening of the ligaments is sometimes the effect of previous exostosis, which, by its rough surface, irri- tates and inflames them. That species of exostosis which is frequent in old horses, seems more the effect of sympathy than of inflam- mation ; for the absorbents, in the latter periods of life, are in stronger action than the depositing arteries ; hence pressure, and perhaps a sense of weakness, easily stimulates them to take up the cartilages of parts particularly exposed to the effects of pressure and exertion ; as those of the articulations of the vertebrae, those of the lateral parts of the foot, and some others : the consequence of which will be the deposit of a more solid matter to supply the loss, and hence bone replaces the absorbed cartilage. From this it is 508 SPLENT. [Class XVI r. evident, that the common term of ossified cartilage, or ossification of particular cartilages, is not strictly a correct one : a cartilage probably cannot be converted into bone; it may be removed, and bone placed in its room, but the cartilage, there is reason to be- lieve, must be first absorbed. That this action is of a sympathetic kind, is still farther evinced by what takes place when the cartilages are not absorbed, but bony matter is thrown out over them, as is sometimes found to be the case. It is likewise this sympathetic effect that occasions other parts to become ossified ; as the large arteries, the trachea, and the internal parts of some glands, by which nature appears to endeavour to renovate the constitution, by consolidating the whole mass, and, thus warring, as it were, against the univer- sal and inevitable decay. The Cure of exostosis must consist in whatever stops the disposi- tion to farther deposit, and removes the effects already produced : how these ends are best brought about, will be seen under the in- dividual diseases occasioned by it. S P L E N T. Splent is the farriers term for a species of exostosis, situated about some part of the carpal or metacarpal bones ; or, in other words, about some part between the knee and pastern ; very generally on the inner side. When the situation was attached to the knee itself, the older farriers called it osselet ; and, when two small bony enlarge- ments were found near each other, they then named them fuzee. But when, as is most common, there is one bony tumour at the upper part of the shank, or canon, it is universally known by the name of splent, or splint; which is a very common evil with young horses, but much less so among the old, for the reasons before given. It is usual to consider the consequences of a splent as principally dependent on its situation, and this is generally correct ; but a splent may prove painful, and otherwise injurious, although it should not interfere with any tendon or ligament ; for, independent of the increased sensibility of bone itself under inflam- mation, the periosteum that surrounds it being inelastic, and having no yielding powers, must become stretched. Now, though in a natural stale its sensibility is but small, yet, under these circumstances, it proves considerable, and hence is a source of great pain to the animal, till it either becomes absorbed, or has burst. Nevertheless, as the inflammation is seldom very acute, and the increase is generally slow, thereby enabling the periosteum to accommodate itself to the distention ; so more generally, when a splent is not situated im- mediately under a tendon, it occasions but little uneasiness, nor does it often lame. But when it is differently placed, and does in- terfere with the motion of a tendon, or an important ligament, it is easy to conceive that it must then inevitably occasion pain, and SPLENT. 509 Class XVII. ] produce much lameness ; for a ligament so pressed on loses its pliancy, and a tendon passing over a splent must necessarily have inflammation excited on the vascular surface of its theca, which, being stimulated to pour out coagulable lymph between its surface and the tendon, must obstruct the tendinous motions, and, by this means, bring on lameness. The veterinary practitioner should, therefore, in his consideration of the consequences in these cases, be guided, in a great measure, by the situntioti of the splent. If placed anteriorly, that is, when it exists at the fore edge of the small metacarpal, or splent bone ; it is productive of much less injury than when placed at the posterior edge of the same bone. For, as already pointed out, in this latter case, the swelling will press on the ligaments and tendons of the flexors of the limb, which all occupy this backward situation ; and it must therefore, of necessity, raise much inflammation among them. For the same reason also, a splent placed at the lower end of the canon, is still more prejudicial than when situated higher up the leg. All which circumstances are still farther elucidated in pages 39, 92, 264. It is however necessary to remark, that it is not uncommon to attribute that lameness to a splent which is dependent on other causes ; for, as pointed out, a splent does not often occasion lame- ness, except situated as above, or on its first appearance : as, after it has existed some time, the parts become accustomed to its pressure; and this, more particularly, when not placed in a hurtful part, but towards the front of the bone. In cases of splent appearing under these circumstances, therefore, look well to other parts before a de- cision is made on the probable mischief resulting from the splent itself. It may be added, as a curious fact, that these exostoses usually disappear of themselveg, or nearly so, in old horses, al- though bony formations of other parts are more likely to be formed at these later periods of life. The reason appears to be, that, after the union of the metacarpals is consolidated, the sympathy of necessity is lost. Cure of Splents. — ^The successful treatment of this evil depends much on its being attended to soon after its first appearance ; for where the bony matter has been long deposited, it becomes so hard, and so much a part of the organ itself, that it is difficult to sti- mulate the absorbents to remove it. When it has long existed, likewise, the ligaments become thickened around it, so that it is almost impossible to act upon the absorbents underneath ; and it was probably in such cases as these, that the antient rough treat- ment of the farriers was found sometimes useful ; for, by beating the part with a hammer, inflammation was raised not only within the thickened ligament, but even the texture of the bone under- neath was, in some measure, acted on : this violence, therefore, with the assistance of the blister applied after it, in some instances effected that which milder means failed to do, and thus occasioned the absorption of the splent. The older farriers had recourse also to olO BONE SPAVIN. [Class XVII. another very rough mode^ which, now and then, also succeeded, but more often caused incurable lamenesses : this was practised by making an opening, when, with a mallet and chisel, the bony swelling was chipped off ; but this was a rough and dangerous mode ; yet, when a splent forms a very prominent tumour, it might very possibly be laid bare, and removed by means of a very fine saw. This could, however, be proper only under very particular circum- stances, as, where the swelling protruded much, and occasioned great blemish : of course, when its situation is- among the liga- ments, let it be ever so prominent, this must always be improper. For the removal of Splents, I generally proceed in the following manner ; — Rub into the swelling, night and morning for five or six days, two drams of mercurial ointment, using a good deal of conti- nued friction with the fingers, to assist its entrance. After the mercurial friction, which I think greatly tends to soften the osseous matter, apply a mercurial blister (see Mat. Med.) : and when the parts are nearly healed, the blister may be again applied, which will farther insure the removal. In very bad cases it is sometimes nesessary to apply the highest stimulus we know, which is the ac- tual cautery or fire. In such case, do it in a lozenge form, and im- mediately blister over it. BONE SPAVIN. This is also an exostosis, whose existence is very prejudicial to the value of the horse. It forms usually on the inner side of the hock, either upon the cuneiform tarsal bones, or at the upper ex- tremities of the large and small metatarsals. Both in cause and effect, it presents some differences from the exostosis called splent. It does not appear, like that, so mucli an effort of nature to prevent dislocation, or, in other terms, a weakening of the union between the large and small metatarsal bones ; neither is it probably often oc- casioned by unequal pressure from an alteration in the situation of the inner heel. But it appears to arise from an inflammation, first probably originating in the numerous and complex ligaments of the hock, described in the Anatomy of the Extremities. This liga- mentary inflammation is produced by violent and long-continued exertions, which weaken their structure, and not only irritate them into diseased action, but also transmits the evil to the bones, and produces exostoses in them. As this osseous inflammation pro- ceeds, an union of some of the tarsal bones takes place, whereby the elasticity of the mechanism of the hock becomes injured, and lameness ensues. The lameness, however, it is probable, is also equally or more the effect of the same circumstances as operate in producing lameness in splent j namely, the painful interference these bony enlargements offer to parts in motion over each other. For BONE SPAVIN. 5ii Class XVII.] the before-mentioned reasons, as splent is more usual among young horses, so spavin is more frequent among older ones. A spavin, or jack, as it is sometimes called, will often lame when outwardly small ; but, in such case, the exostosis is probably greater within ; and, on the contrary, sometimes a very considerable enlargement produces comparatively little mischief. Unless very deep seated, or very large, the stiffness and lameness occasioned by a spavin go off by exercise, which will serve to distinguish it from other affec- tions ; and, even when the lameness remains permanent, still it is much more painful at first than after a little motion. Neither do spavins, when arrived at a certain state, usually increase j conse- quently spavined horses for some purposes may prove very useful. Post-masters and stage-coach drivers are not however very willing to purchase these, or any others, with permanent lamenesses behind, though they do not object to those with founder. The reason of which is, that, in lamenesses behind, horses, from instinctive fear, are unwilling to lay down ; but, when lame before, they are not im- pressed with this dread ; for a horse makes his principal effort to rise from behind. Impelled, therefore, by pain, a foundered horse readily lies down, and these persons find, by experience, that the horse who lies most can work most. Treatment of Bone Spavin.- — This does not differ from that of splent, except that, as it is much oftener a cause of serious lame- ness, and occurring as it commonly does in older horses, from the effect of long-continued exertion, so it also proves more obstinate ; and, therefore, the treatrrient should be more active. Among the older farriers, very violent means were used for the cure of spavin ; such as boring the part with a gimblet ; punching with a pointed iron; making a hole and introducing caustic substances, &c. All which have been done to excite absorption ; and, though they much oftener ended in anchylosis, or the death of the horse, yet they now and then succeeded. Such cases as these give the practitioner without professional character, a decided advantage over the regular veterinarian ; for should the former, by these violent means, de- stroy his patient, he only stands where he did ; but if he cures him, all the world is told that he has effected that which the veteri- narian could not do ; that is, what he dare not attempt. Unless a spavin is very early attended to, there exists but little chance of its perfect removal ; but if, soon after its first appearance, exactly a similar plan is pursued with that laid down for the cure of splent, it will frequently succeed. When, however, it will not give way to these means, as wfill not unfrcquently prove the case, firing must be resorted to, in the same manner as recommended under the former article, blistering immediately over the firing. 512 CURB — RING-BONE. {Class XVII. A CURB. This is described among exostoses, and certainly is sometimes an affection of the os calcis ; but, infinitely more frequent it is an in- flammatory affection of the ligaments only (see Anatmny of Poste~ rior Extremities, page 298), situated posteriorly a few inches be- low the point of the hock. Its existence is detected by its pro- ducing a prominence more or less conspicuous on the otherwise level line of the hock and canon. It usually comes on suddenly from some momentary extension, and is common to young horses. It is not often productive of much lameness, unless it is very considerable, or has been long neglected, though I have seen it very hot, tender, and affect the action considerably. It is some- times on one leg, and sometimes on both. The Cure of Curb \s seldom difficult. If a horse can be spared sufficiently long for the treatment, it may be, in general, radically cured by one blister. In very slight cases, two or three rubbings with the liquid blister (see Mat. Med.) will sometimes remove a curb ; but as the parts require time to reinstate themselves, it being always the effect of strain, so it is generally prudent to go through the regular blister. Firing, though sometimes practised in these cases, is very seldom necessary ; unless, from a natural weakness in these parts, the complaint has returned two or three times ; in which case it is the best means that can be adopted. A RING-BONE. This is usually a bony circle surrounding the whole, or part, of the coronet. Sometimes there are only two lateral swellings ; but, although the situation is no further varied than this, in the different cases that occur ; yet the parts affected are very dissimilar, and the degrees of lameness by no means the same. In ivery upright pas- terns, either such as are naturally so, or become so from high- contracted heels ; the bones are so perpendicularly opposed to each other, that great jar is sustained during motion, and a dispo- sition is excited in the bones to inflammation from these constant shocks. By these means, osseous spiculi are thrown out around the cartilaginous and lower ends of the pastern, in a bony ring, which shews itself above the coronet. This kind of ring-bone pro- duces the greatest degree of lameness, and it is this kind which frequently proceeds to anchylose the joint, and render the case hopeless. In other instances, the coronary ligament becomes ossi- fied, in which the lameness is not always very great, though com- monly very difficult of cure. But the ring-bones that prove the ANCHYLOSIS. 513 Class XVII.] least mischievous, are those that are found at the sides of the foot, arising from ossification of the lateral cartilages. In these several cases the complaint is not difficult to detect, by the hard prominence immediately ibove the horny circle of the hoof. Ring-bones are sometimes attended with heat, pain, and tenderness j at others, with little ; but they always occasion some lameness. Those arising from ossification of the lateral cartilages, are commonly confined to aged or hard-worked horses : those pro- duced by upright pasterns, or other peculiar formation of the parts, are hastened by hard work, but usually appear at the mid- dle periods of life ; while the ossification of the coronary ligament seems a constitutional affection, dependent on a disposition to bony matter in these and other parts, and therefore may shew itself at any time. In proof of which, I have seen them in colts of three and four years old. The Treatment I have found most efficacious is the following, for simple blistering will seldom succeed ; and even the most judicious management often fails. For four or five days, rub the part night and morning with mercurial ointment ; then blister ; and, in ten days time, fire in straight or lozenge lines, and re-blister immedi- ately. In firing, avoid wounding the horny quick, or a sandcrack might be the consequence. ANCHYLOSIS. A STIFF joint is generally the effect of exostosis, in which bony matter being thrown out from the ends of two articular bones, they become united into one mass. It may be brought on from any cause irritating the cavity of a joint; as the escape of the synovia, a blow, or other injury. The Treatment can only be preventive; in which case blisters and firing might be useful ; but, when the anchylosis is formed, no means can recover the cavity of the joint. 514 inflammation of the etb. [Class XV'llIi Class XVIII. Diseases of the Eye. INFLAMMATION OF THE EYE. Ophthalmia Membranarum."] [Injiamniation de la Conjonctive. IT Is very remarkable, that though the diseases of the human eye are estimated at more than a hundred, yet there is one only very common to the horse; but which, in obstinacy and ill effects, more than equals all the human catalogue : this is the ophthalmia mem- branarum, or inflammation of the coats of the eye, by farriers termed moon blindness, or lunatic. The ophthalmia tarsi finds no place in the diseases of the horse. The ophthalmia membranarum is a specific and a constitutional inflammation of the eye, and, as such, it requires probably a com- plete alteration in the constitution for its cure, which will serve to account for the difficulty attending it. The present Professor of the Veterinary College paid a very early and very full attention to this subject ; but the result of his researches has only tended to confirm the character of its obstinacy, and of its fatality to the organs it affects. It is remarkable how uninformed the older writers were on this subject ; and some of the moderns have little to boast of on this head. The attendant enlargement of the haw, which is only the effect of the disease, has been continued to be regarded as at least adding to the complaint, and very often as occasioning it j from which error, many of their writings still contain directions to remove it in these cases. Nor were the former Continental writers much better informed on the subject ; their descriptions of the affec- tions of the eye being mostly drawn from treatises on human dis- eases, and hence they have introduced complaints never met with in the horse. Another erroneous circumstance attending the consi- deration of this disease, has been the neglecting to regard it as a specific affection ; on the contrary, farriers and grooms have usually attributed it to the effect of accident, and, therefore, viewed it as simple inflammation : whereas the inflammatory affections conse- quent to violence seldom produce any ill effect, and in fact are re- moved very easily. The practice in these cases has likewise been very improper ; for it has been supposed that the accompanying opacity is brought on by a membranous film, distinct from, and foreign to, the eye ; and hence abrading substances have been universally used : but even when they did good, it was not from their scouring quality, 515 Class XVIII.] INFLAMMATION Ot THE EyE. but from the stimulus applied to the absorbents, i^hich sometimes by this means removed the coagulable lymph that obstructed the transparency. The Symptoms of the Complairit are well known to those conver- sant with horses, and often make their appearance very suddenly. The eyelids are found swelled, and almost closed, with the haw half drawn over the surface, and the tears flowing down the face usually, in great abundance. There is always great impatience of light, and the eye has a red heavy look : hut when there is no increased secretion of the tears, as is sometimes the case, the eye has more of a yellow, than a red hue, with a kind of turbid sediment within the humours. When the affection comes on more slowly, all these symptoms exist in a less' degree, and a superficial observer would fail to detect much disease ; but these cases are scarcely less formid- able than the others. When the inflammation is in k very active state, the vessels surrounding the opaque cornea will be found turgid with red blood, and some of them even protruding red particles into the transparent cornea from the whole circumference 5 and at all times the dimness in the appearance of the eye is remarkable, for what is termed the colourless part of the blood, is not strictly colour- less ; but, as it circulates through such extremely fine tubes, it ap- pears to be perfectly transparent. When, however, from this dis- tention of the vessels, the whiter parts of the blood are carried through in larger columns, they lose their perfect transparency, and thus give a degree of dimness to the cornea. In certain states of the complaint the dimness amounts to a perfect opacity, from the de- posit of coagulable lymph. This appearance will sometimes take place with astonishing quickness, and its disappearance is as rapid; I have seen it removed in less than twenty-four hours : whereas, with the assistance of the most stimulating applications, it will com- monly take several weeks to remove an opacity of the human eye. This has been attributed to the coagulable lymph in the human eye I being extravasated ; but in the eye of the horse, to its remaining within its vessels; the real cause is, however, dependent on the greater strength of the absorbing system in the latter. ! The transparent cornea is but little affected by this disease in man, but in the horse it is always inflamed, and usually very much so. In the human, likewise, this complaint generally attacks both eyes at the same time, but in the horse one only is sometimes affected, and this not unfrequently ; but it seldom continues permanently fixed to i one, but shifts to the other, leaving the original much amended or nearly w'dl. This complete metastasis has caused it to be compared to a gouty affection ; and this fully establishes its character as a spe- 1 cific disease. It is this shifting of situation also that has given rise to the barbarous custom of putting one eye out, by which means ; now and then the other has been saved. It" has been observed, that i the immediate species attended with weeping usually attacks both I o.yes, but I have seen it confined to one only. It is also asserted, I: that under ophthalmia a horse rarely sweats, and when he does the 1! Mm 516 INFLAMMATION OF THE EYE. {Class XVIIl. skin is not warm, but cold and clammy: but this is by no means invariable, though experience detects a very considerable sympathetic effect between the eyes and skin in these cases. The first of these inflammatory attacks however violent, having ar- rived at its height, usually gives way to medical treatment, or the disease leaves the horse of its own accord, and the eyes recover nearly their former appearance : but they are seldom so perfectly transparent as before ; for, on a narrow inspection, there will be ob- served either some small opaque spots within the pupil, or the ge- neral cornea will not be so distinctly clear as before ; or even should the centre of the cornea be perfectly transparent, yet there will commonly remain some cloudy lines around its extreme circum- ference. This should always be particularly attended to, for this is the very last part the opacity quits j and, I believe, in an affected eye, this hardly ever wholly leaves the extreme edges. The eye or eyes, however, thus recovered, seldom remain very long sound, but something again calls the diseased action forth, and the complaint recurs with its former violence and its former appearances : but the periods of this recurrence are indeterminate, nor has particular sea- sons, or particular situations, or the moon, any influence on it ; but cold or plethora may hasten it. As these attacks are repeated, they leave the eye less transparent each time ; sometimes a very small white speck is left within the humours, which may be seen through the pupil. This opaque spot forms a nucleus for the growth of the future cataract, by gradually increasing : sometimes, however, it will remain stationary a great length of time, and now and then it never enlarges. But in general repeated inflammations succeed to each other, and the whole crystalline lens at last becomes opaque, when the disease takes the name of cataract, in which almost all these inflammations terminate. It is remarkable, likewise, when the process of forming cataract is become fixed and regular within the crystalline, that active inflammation usually leaves the coats of the eye, and seldom returns. Causes. — It has been conjectured, that the remote cause of this disease arises from the plethora, which takes place in horses at the adult period ; that is, when they have just attained their growth : at which time it is observed they are more frequently first attacked with the complaint; for till this age the blood has not only to nourish the body, but to increase it also by the addition of parts ; when, after maturity, having only to support the organs it has already formed, there must be a superabundant quantity of it circulating through the machine : at this period, likewise, the arterial system is in a state of increase generally, and consequently subject to distention. This theory, however, though ingenious, is by no means sufficient to account for the tendency observed to this complaint ; for it -is by no means confined to the adult period ; arid even barring this objection to its correctness, it yet remains to be accounted for, why the eyes should be, of all the organs, the only ones attacked ? and why also ♦he complaint should be confined to the horse, and not take place in 617 QaSS XVIII.] INFLAMMATION OF THE EYE. the mule ^ and the ass at their adult periods also ? We miiSt, there* fore, for the present .content ourselves by considering it as a con- stitutional liability, dependent on some peculiarity in the system, ! which certainly appears to be greater at this period than at any other. At the same time we may indulge a hope, that a more intimate ac- !; quaintance with the animal functions, and with the anatomy of the head, may, hereafter, enable us to discover the source from whence I these organs draw this liability. The occasional causes are probably various. A determination to the head must be the consequence of the exertion which a horse is exposed to when he is first put to active and laborious exercise, particularly that of drawing^; and this, as he is unused to it, must considerably act on and distend these parts. Colour has been thought to influence the disease ; but there needs no other proof that this is incorrect, than that no two persons I agree as to the shade most obnoxious to it; neither is any particular kind of horse more exempted from it than others ; but size has cer- , tainly some connexion with it, as blindness is much more rare with ponies than with large horses. The acrimonious fumes of a hot foul stable to a young animal, that has been only used to a barn and paddock, may very readily call forth the liability into action like- i wise : and it is not improbable, as we have before said, that this is a i very frequent cause f : though as farmers’ horses and others, who are more naturally treated, still are subjected to it ; so this cannot wholly account for the disposition. Nor are mules*, asses, and stall- fed cattle, however closely confined, attacked by it. There is no doubt also but accidental plethora at any time predisposes to it ; and likewise inflammatory aflfections of other organs may, by translation, prove a cause : and cold applied in any way frequently calls the dis- I position into action. [ Treatment. — It is not in general found difficult to remove the I immediate attack ; but from the specific nature of the disease, and j the connexion it has with the constitution at large, it is extremely difficult to prevent the recurrence. Common farriers attempt its present removal, and usually go no further. More scientific practi- j tioners mitigate the urgent symptoms, and then attack the cause, I through the medium of the constitution at large ; though it must be i owned in general cases their efforts are attended with very dubious success- The treatment should be always commenced by general and copious bloodletting, except in cases of much emaciation, when, • It must be remarked, tliat though very rarely, yet now and then it has been observed in the mule, but in the ass, I believe, never. t Does tlie late prevalence of tbe Egyptian ophthalmia throw any light on the subject of our present inquiry? The great frequency of the disease in that coun- try is very generally attributed to acrid particles generated by the recession of the Nile; and probably as much also by the acrid burning dust continually flying in the air of that fiery region. If this is the case, the gaseous effluvia, generated by crowded and foul stables, may be a more universal cause of the ophthalmia of the horse than is generally imagined ; and, from this error in natural treatment, even farmers and others are not exempt, who, when they do stable their horses, cer- tainly often crowd them, and as often suffer them to stand on foul litter. Mm2 518 INFLAMMATION OF THE EYE, [ClaSS XVIII. it should be confined to topical bleeding only. The general bleeding in a full plethoric horse may also be repeated once or twice after- wards : but when there is no existing plethora, I have not found a frequent repetition of general bleeding advance the cure. Topical evacuation of the blood may be attempted under every state of the body, and may be continued as long as any active inflammation exists ; but cases will often occur when no benefit appears to result from it. It is common both to practise and to recommend a divi- sion of, or a bleeding from, the temporal artery as a remedy ; but I have already been at some pains to point out the error of such re- commendation, seeing this artery is not distributed to the eye, but is wholly spent on the masseter muscle. (See Angiology, page 128 ; see also Plate of general Splanchnology, where the distributicm of this vessel is particularly and purposely traced.) Topical bleeding, therefore, can only be effected from the small vein entering the inner canthus of the eye ; or by a division of the very fine vessels of the conjunctiva ; which, in these cases, may be always seen turgid and full of blood around what is called the white of the eye, as w'ell as within the lids. It requires only moderate dexterity to do this ; for if the horse is firmly twitched by the nose, the eyelids being ele- vated by one hand, with the other these vessels may be readily divided by means of a small scalpel, lancet, or very fine scissars. I have now and then scarified the inner surface of the eyelids in pre- ference, and have sometimes thought I gained more benefit from it. Considerable amendment has also followed the use of setons placed as near the eye as possible. In some instances they have been passed through the under part of the conjunctive coat ; but I am not aware that any greater advantage has resulted from this mode, in preference to placing them in the integuments just below the eye. The objection, however, to setons here, is, that they leave a blemish ; but by the use of a small seton needle (see Instnments) this is rendered very trifling. Rowels under the throat are not liable to this objection, and, as being. a much larger drain, probably act with more advantage. I have often tried them with evident benefit; and as they are not likely to be rubbed out by the horse, so, in general cases, they are to be preferred. I have also blistered the cheeks with success; but much caution is requisite to prevent the blistering matter from being rubbed into the eye itself : it may, however, be done in the following manner : — Spread over a piece of stout but pliant leather, the size of the palm of the hand, a thick margin of cobbler’s wax, an inch in breadth, which will leave a central part bare; over this place some stiff blister plaister, such as is used for human blisters, which is much firmer than that made by the veteri- narian. Apply this, a little warmed, three inches below and behind the eye ; afterwards Carefully tie the head up to each side, when no danger can occur. The extei'nal applications proper in these cases are next to be pointed out ; previous to which, however, it must be remarked, that the inflammation present does not, in all instances, bear the same 519 QlSS XVII L] INFLAMMATION OF THE EYE. character ; but in some is accompanied with a higher degree of irri- tability than in others. For in some cases mildly stimulating appli- cations agree best, as vitriolic solutions, tincture of opium, diluted Eether, diluted brandy, saline washes. See. : but at other times, and that more frequently, weak solutions of the superaectate of lead are best borne, and relieve most. In these cases of high irritation, poul- tices may be applied. I have experienced the utmost benefit from scraped carrots or turnips, and in one instance the common house- leek also was applied in this way : the most common, however, are the saturnine, which may be very properly tried. But, owing to the irritability of the animal, it is often found difficult to retain a poul- tice : in every case, however, an apparatus of folded linen, wetted, with the Goulard water or other wash, may be kept on with ease. Soft linen cloth, several times doubled, may be used for this purpose, fastened to the headstall from the ear of the affected side, as far as the centre of the collar front, hanging from this down the middle of the face over the affected eye, and then secured across by tape. This will have the double advantage, of shielding the eye from light, which is always desirable, and of keeping the medicaments constantly applied. The following formulae will be found a good one for the early states of the complaint j but, when the irritability is extreme, omit the vinegar ; — No. i.— Sugar (saperace^afe) oflead . , . . . one dram, Hose water four ounces. Vinegar half an ounce, Soft water a pint. ? Internal medicines ought next to occupy our attention. In every ' instance, if the horse is tolerably full of condition, debar him from corn ; instead of which give bran mashes : and, if it can be pro- tured, green meat instead of hay ; if not, give carrots, which will support the condition without heating. Everything that requires ' active chewing must necessarily force much blood to the head, and, J therefore, should be avoided. Some practitioners prefer diuretics in •i these cases ; some purge ; and others trust principally to alteratives. I I have generally found it beneficial to direct two doses of physic, j and to give alteratives in the meantime. And as there are frequent rigors in some cases, and in all, the skin is unthrifty, so warm clothing is advisable : and, as a farther assistant towards a determi- j nation to the skin, unite calomel, tartarised antimony, and nitre, as the alterative used. Carefully avoid every source of unhealthy irri- tation from dung, urine, or stables not ventilated. Exercise, for the first few days, had better be omitted, and afterwards it must not be I allowed when the wind is high, or the air cold. i In a week or ten days from the first attack, it may be expected i that, hy these means, the extreme irritation of the affection may have I given way, when any of the following formulas may be then tried ; I for it may be remarked that, in three cases, all appearing alike, it is not uncommon to find each require a different application. The 520 INFLAMMATION OF THE EYE. [GaSS XVIII. prudent veterinarian will, therefore, vary them until the benefit from one shall be evident : — No. 2. — Sugar {superacetate) of lead , , i . one dram, White vitriol (sw/^Aare o/’^inc) , , . two scruples, Water a pint. No. 3. — Crude sal ammoniac {muriate of ammonia) two drams, Vinegar two ounces. Infusion of red rose leaves .... a pint. No. 4. — Brandy one ounce. Vinegar one ounce, Tincture of opium two drams. Rose water eight ounces. No. 5. — iEther half an ounce. Infusion of oak bark sis ounces. No. 6. — Rose water . six ounces, Mindererus’s spirit (see Mat. Med.) . three ounces. Introduce any of these, by means of a small piece of sponge or rag', within the inner angle of the eye, gently pressing in a little, which the action of the nictating membrane, or haw, will soon carry over the surface. Various other applications have been used besides those enu- merated, all with dubious permanent benefit, but many with present advantage. Among them may be noticed an infusion of deadly nightshade, which, from its wonderful properties of apparently para- lyzing the iris, was supposed capable of arresting the inflammatory action ; but the event has not justified the expectation. Had it proved otherwise, it would have formed a most convenient applica- tion, as it will produce its effects by absorption without actual intro- duction to the eye ; consequently an ointment rubbed on the temple would, in such case, have been sufficient. The cajeput oil has been also tried with some benefit. Gall, common salt, watery solutions of opium, of aloes, and of ground ivy also, have all of them had their advocates. Other experimental means have been used, as removing the whole or part of the haw, or nictating membrane j the violence done to which, and the blood drawn by the operation, have now and then seemed to afford a little benefit ; but, as a practice, it is founded in the grossest ignorance and barbarity. The haw is a necessary part, and is drawn over the eye, ptirposely to obstruct the rays when the animal can no longer bear the light, and when the entrance of it is really hurtful : but never, in any instance, can it either occasion or add to the disease. Taking up the carotid artery has been likewise tried ; but if the practice even cured this complaint, it would, pro- bably, occasion others as bad ; neither should any venal branch be divided instead of punctured, as is sometimes done, except in sca- rifying ; for otherwise, though momentary benefit may be experi- enced, yet permanent evil must be occasioned. It remains to notice, that the ophthalmic inflammation js nqt 521 Class XVIII.] INFLAMMATION oF THE EYE. always the consequence of the specific or constitutional affection ; but may be occasioned also by blows, or other external injuries. In these cases, the proper treatment is, however, exactly the same with that already laid down : 'but here usually, although the symptoms are at first considerable, yet they more readily yield to a judicious treatment, and the amendment, once began, is regular and progres- sive, and not subject to the varieties present in the specific affection. It may, therefore, not be improper here to introduce a caution to the veterinarian, that he should always first minutely inspect the insides of the eyelids on these occasions. I have more than once found a hay-seed in the eye ; once also a splinter p>roved the offending cause : and in such cases it would not be creditable to the medical attend- ant’s abilities, to have this discovered by the groom. It should, likewise, be remembered by the veterinary practitioner, that it is always prudent, and often indeed necessary, to ascertain, if possible, whether the disease is really of the true specific kind, or the simple effect of external injury. Various circumstances besides those already pointed out will assist him in this respect, though they may not fully ensure him ; such as the age, the condition, and the other liabilities. For, unless he can ascertain this point, his treatment may be either too little or too much for the occasion ; and, at all events, his prognosis of future return must be very open to error. After the inflammation has subsided, various applications have been made use of to remove the opacity that usually remains. Me- chanical friction has been the principal means resorted to, under a presumption that the evil arose from a film or lamen over the pupil, which might be rubbed away by abrading and scouring sub- stances, as powdered glass, 8cc. But this opacity is not confined to the outer surface of the cornea, but pervades its whole substance, so that, when such applications do any good, it is only as they stimu- late the absorbents to remove the coagulable lymph, which forms the obstructing matter. This being the case, other substances may be found more efficacious than those that are simply grinding and rough. Calomel I have long used for this purpose, sometimes in conjunction with sugar of lead, at other times alone. This should be introduced by placing a little within the inner angle by the help of the fingers, leaving it to be carried over the eye by the action of the haw : but it is not prudent to blow in the powder by means of a quill, as is frequently done, for it alarms the horte, and is apt to make him shy about the head ever after. In some instances, when the disease has been thus far removed, I have recommended turning out to grass for a considerable time, and it has seemed as though the constitutional tendency has been re- moved by it, for it has never returned. In other cases it has again appeared ; nor do I think turning out ever proper, so long as the slightest degree of inflammation lasts. I have, on the contrary, seen it hasten the fatal termination into cataract. The other means that have been tried to prevent its recurrence are various ; as taking up pne carotid ^ doing the same by the temporal, and likewise the 522 CATARACT, [C/ass XVIII. angular arteries ; and as using young horses to draught work has been supposed to increase the tendency, by forcing blood to the head, so such horses have been afterwards used only for the saddle. If! one case the recurrence appeared prevented by permitting a horse, who was otherwise constantly in use, to lie without doors every night, Mercurial courses 3 occasional physic j periodical bleedings ; and often repeated alteratives, have all been tried, but too often failed. Nevertheless, it is left to the discretionary judgment of the veterinarian to determine which means to adopt, seeing all have evinced some preventive efhcacy. Ophthalmia in Sheep. Sheep are subject to a species of this complaint, which ap- pears to have nothing of a specific nature in it ; but is usually the simple efTect of cold. It may be removed in most cases by a wash composed of equal quantities of Mindererus’s spirit and water ; or by a weak solution of verdigris in vinegar and water. CATARACT. This hardly deserves a distinct place among the diseaees of the horse, being in him merely the effect and final termination of the former affection ; and in this it differs very materially from human cataract, in whom it is really a distinct disease, seldom if ever being brought on by previous active inflammation. There is, likewise, in the cataract of horses, independent of the opacity of the lens, gene- rally much derangement of the other internal parts of the eye, parti- cularly of the iris, which sometimes adheres to the lens, at others to the cornea, and in some cases is so contracted as to render the cataract hardly perceptible. This, therefore, prevents any benefit being: derived from the operation of couching or extracting in him ; add to which, a horse so operated on would be under the necessity, to render the operation useful, to wear glasses ever after. It has, however, been suggested that, even without glasses, so much benefit might be gained from it as to prevent accidents, as running against posts, falling into a pit, &c. This, however, would be greatly over- balanced by the imperfect vision of other objects, and a horse, so operated on, would be sure to become very startlish. If, nevertheless, any person should be disposed to try the effects, the operation of couching is by no means so difficult as imagined, as the eye may be reached and steadied through the great orbitary fossa, which musf be opened for that purpose. Class XIX.] GUTTA SERENA, OR GLASS EYES. 523 GUTTA SERENA. Farriers call this complaint glass eyes, from the peculiar glassy appearance the eyes put on. It is supposed to consist of a paralysis of the optic nerve, and the remedies that have been made use of with success in the human subject seem to justify this idea. By others it is, however, thought to arise from the effects of inflammation, by which coagulable lymph is placed over the optic nerve, thus rendering the retina inaccessible to the stimulus of light. The veterinarian, and, indeed, every one concerned in horses, should make himself familiar with the appearance this complaint puts on, otherwise he may lay open to serious imposition. In these cases a horse presents indications of blindness in his manner, though but little in his eyes ; he seems cautious in stepping, and moves his ears quickly : but, above all, a hand moved close to the. eye occasions no winking, xinless held close enough for the motion to influence the air around, which an artful person might manage with ease. When this kind of eye is examined closely, the pupil will be found of one invariable size, and will not enlarge and diminish as in a healthy horse, when removed farther from, or nearer to, the light. The reason of which is, that the retina, ceasing to be open to the luminous ray, no longer influences the contractions of the iris. It is, therefore, from the peculiarities in the manner of the horse, from the want of mo- tion in the iris, or rather from the invariable size of the pupil ; and also from the greenish cast in such eyes, that these cases may be distinguished. As it has hitherto proved incurable, we shall W.pte no time on its treatment. Clas0 XIX. Diseases of the Skitu GREASE. {Eaux aux Jambes. THIS disease appears to be an inflammation of the setreting capillaries of the lower part of the hind or the fore legs, having some- thing of a specific character attached to it. At least we are war- ranted in concluding it such, from what occurs in cow-pox, which is 524 GREASE. [Class XIX. a specific affecfion that may be drawn from this source ; but the human ulcerated sore leg would produce no effect on another person, or on any animal ; because the inflammation is ordinary, and not specific. The disease appears to have its origin in debility, either general or local. It originates in general debility, when the system at large is debile from long-continued disease ; or from want of proper nutriment ; or from long-continued exertion ; in which cases these parts being farther removed from the source of circulation, which itself labours under additional languor, they must suffer pro- portionally in a greater degree than those more within the sphere of the action of the heart ; and hence accumulation takes place, which, if not removed, terminates in grease. This species of general debility appears a natural occurrence in spring and autumn, when horses are moulting or casting their hair, at which times swelled legs are very prevalent. Grease may be said to have local debility for its cause, when the powers of the system are not properly balanced, as when there is great general vigour, with perhaps increased action from plethora, and likewise little waste to the system by exercise. Fluids press, not in proportion to their diameter, but to the height of their column j hence we can readily suppose that the venous blood must find a difficulty to its ascent. This resistance, at all times considerable, is much increased by circumstances, as size, in a tall long-legged horse ; it is also increased in plethoric horses kept without exer- cise, because, not receiving additional aids from the pressure of the surrounding parts, accumulation takes place ; and in a greater degree, when the whole vascular system is in a state of distention : weakness, therefore, is still more certain in those distended vessels remote from the influence of the heart : under all which circum- stances the effects we treat of necessarily ensue. The capillaries of the pasterns likewise become unequal to the exertion of pressing forward the column of blood into the veins, when, to their natural remoteness from the source of circulation, any additional cause is superadded, either of weakness in themselves, or of resistance in the veins. For it must not be supposed that by this mode of reasoning we mean to infer any original defect in the parts. Nature formed the balance of power equal, as she made the functions ecjual \ but this balance is kept up in some parts by their own force, and in others by the aid of other powers. Animals, being formed always for a life of nature, have no alteration in struc- ture to accommodate them to a life of art, beyond their natural powers of bearing this change ; hence, therefore, though the vessels, at this remove from the heart, must be supposed weaker in indi- vidual strength ; yet, in a state of nature, they become equal from the support and assistance they derive from surrounding parts, more ])articularly from the pressure of the neighbouring muscles, tendons, ligaments, and integuments, during exercise; for by this means the capillaries of the skin are pressed upon to throw their blood into the veins, and are themselves likewise acted on and assisted in their GRBASE. 525 Oass XIX.] functions by the same aids : a temporary respite is likewise given to them by the blood being forced into the superficial order. By this pressure, during exercise, the cellular membrane also is itself pressed upon to resist accumulation : and, lastly, the absorbents by this means become stimulated to greater action to remove any de- posit that may have been formed. This is evident from the effect that takes place upon horses with swelled legs, which enlargements are removed by a few minutes exercise. In a state of nature, horses have these benefits arising from exercise constantly, and in due degree j for it is so necessary to their well being, that nature has given them an appetite almost equal in its stimulus to hunger, which is a love of play ; to gratify which they are compelled to exertion and exercise. This is wisely given strongest in those in whom it is most necessary ; in the young to enforce the circulation, that the vessels may be stimulated to their deposit for the growth of parts ; and in the lusty and plethoric, that the absorbents may be kept in equal action with the secreting vessels : hepce when, perchance, horses might find their food readily and without exertion, if they did not feel a stimulus to exercise by a love of play, they would become too fat, and fall into disease ; we, therefore, see them at grass several times in the day race round a field with all the frolick- some sport of children. In the weakened and the old, in whom the absorption is equal, and often greater than the deposit, this would be unnecessary, and they are thus not stimulated by this passion. (See the subject. Exercise.) The horse is, therefore, an animal intended by nature for exertion ; and, whenever we deprive him of exercise, we prevent the proper balance of power being kept up between different parts of the frame, and hence we must expect disease to take place ; and thus it is that, whenever these animals are confined, and at the same time well fed, they almost invariably have swelled legs ; and for the same reason it is that within twenty- four hours, horses taken up from grass or a straw yard begin to iswell in their legs. We deviate likewise from a state of nature, when we feed horses overmuch ; in these cases a larger quantity of blood is formed, which produces a distention in the vessels in general j and if to this ple- thoric state, the w'ant of exercise is added, these parts are most likely to suffer from the reasons before given. They will first be- pome distended, the consequence of which will be an inflammatory reaction of the vessels, by which the greasy secretion of the skin of the heels will become diseased ; and the parts, that should have thrown out mucus in small quantities, will now pour forth a serous effusion in the form of ci'ucks, or a general purulent one under the character of grease. Cold and moisture are likewise circumstances favourable to the generating of this disease. Cold is unfavourable to absorption ; it likewise weakens the general energy of the parts, and suspends the circulation ; and, when this has happened, on the return of warmth the circulation becomes increased, and the vessels, being weakened. 526 GREASE. [Class XIX. are rendered incapable of contracting on their contents. Moisture is likewise favourable to accumulation, for it first produces a deter- mination to the parts, and then, as a parent of cold, it weakens the already-distended vessels. This is so true, that, in a regiment of dragoons stationed in America, one officer of which only was favour- able to the custom of washing the heels of horses, and which custom he was permitted to exercise on his own troop; the result was, that this individual troop in three months furnished more than twenty greased horses, and the remainder of the regiment not more than two or three ; but it is probable that there is nothing imme- diately detrimental in the simple washing ; the evil arises from the legs being permitted to dry without friction, by which means evaporation generates cold. It has been very ingeniously argued by Mr. Richard Lawrence, that the removing the hair of the heels is a very common cause of grease; but as, whenever accidental wet occurs, this hair must retain a large quantity, and hence be long in drying, occasioning a large evaporation, and thus generating much cold ; so it may be doubted whether it is so detrimental. It is seldom, likewise, when there is much hair that the dirt can be effectually removed from the legs ; indeed it is too apt to be altogether neglected in such horses ; though Mr L. appears to think that the hair itself prevents the application of either dirt or moisture to the legs. That it may prevent the access of dirt in a degree, I believe; but I think that it does not prevent the access of moisture is evident, by nature having supplied the surface itself with a defence of another kind from the secreted matter ; on the contrary it retains it, as may be readily seen when they get once well soaked. Reasoning.from ana- logy, from the resistance that feathers give to wet, is fanciful, but erroneous. The hair appears in a natural state to answer two wise purposes ; it keeps the heels warm, which, from their distance' from the heart, and from their exposure, require such a covering; it likewise prevents injury to the heels and fetlocks, from stumps and stones, with which, in a state of nature, most parts of the earth is covered : that this is true appears from what we observe in blood horses, who, as being natives of a sandy hot soil, require no defence either from cold or from stones, and hence have no long hair on their fetlocks. That it is even with us a defence from the cold cannot be denied ; but, then, the benefit is counterbalanced by the evil of our pemitting these parts to remain in our stables wet, thus generating cold, and applying it to the parts intended to be warmed. And as a defence, except to farmers’ hofses at plough, or to foresters’ horses, it is unnecessary, for our fields are smooth, and our roads are levelled. The hair being suffered to remain, independent of its generating cold when wet, prevents the benefits of friction, by which warmth is produced and absorption promoted ; nor are we liable, when the hair is long and thick, to detect the complaints of these aarts in their early stages. The acclivity of the stalls in our stables fias been considered as aiding the other causes of grease, and with GREASS, 527 Class XIX.] some apparent propriety ; for it tends to throw considerable weight on the hinder extremities, and, by the unnatural position of the heels, puts the parts on the stretch, and hence weakens them. The hinder legs are much oftener affected with grease than the fore, which their situation sufficiently accounts for : they have less of the influence of the heart, and are forced to depend on their own energy more than the fore extremities, which are much nearer the source of circulation, and thus experience much of its power. To this it may be added, that the hinder legs miss some of the benefits that the fore experience from art ; for in many instances, indeed in most, grooms, from a certain fear, rub the hinder legs less than those before : they seldom dare trust themselves on their knees, or seldom employ both hands at once to the hinder extremities ; and not only do these parts feel the want of this, but they are also more exposed to cold in the stable, and more liable to the ill effects of moist dung or wet litter. Thick fleshy-legged horses are peculiarly liable to grease ; there- fore it is very prevalent among cart and coach horses, particularly of the low heavy breed : but among those that have a mixture of what is termed blood, in whom the cellular membrane is in small quantities, it is little known : hence, as this breed is now more m use than formerly, so grease is not so prevalent among coach horses. Colour, likewise, as it marks debility, so it influences grease ; that is, it has been remarked that white-legged horses are more liable to cracks, to grease, and to diseases of the feet, than others, whose legs are dark. That debility is in some measure connected with light coloured hair, is evident from many well known facts. White haired persons are considered as weak in their constitutions ; and white animals are more irritably disposed than others, and irritability is usually an attendant on weakness. The hair of children is white, and to which state it returns in old age, for both are states of weak- ness. The new hair of a lately wounded surface is white, because the part is yet in a state of debility. White hair may be, therefore, considered as a mark of weakness, and which is increased if it is confined to one part, because the balance is more unequal. Expe- rience has, therefore, taught persons to reject while-legged horses ; and this has grown into a habit, till they are now thought unfa- vourable to beauty. The Cure of Grease. — Grease has several stages or states, each of which presents considerable varieties ; and, according to the existing state or stage, so will the proper treatment vary. It must likewise vary according to the cause from whence the disease arose. When this aftection is accompanied with great general vigour, or originates from plethora, which is the parent of local debility, as we have explained ; it often shews itself in the form of cracks, which come on without great previous swelling. But when grease originates in general debility, it frequently first assumes the form of swelled legs. However, these must not be considered as invariable facts, though OF CRACKS. 523 lOassXlX. sufficiently common. These several states or appearances that grease assumes have different terms, and are apt to be considered as distinct diseases : but the causes producing any one of them may produce the other ; and the treatment of all must be grounded on the same principles : nevertheless, for simplicity of reference we shall consider these several states separately, still blending the cha- racter of, the specific affection and the treatment. Swelled legs without discharge have been already fully considered, with dropsical swellings. See Class VIII. See also Condition, Of Cracks. As a consequence of general plethora, the capillaries of the heels are subject to have their secretion not only increased, but to have it altered also. At first there will be simply heat and itching in the part ; the horse will be observed to rub one leg against the other, and sometimes to stamp with his foot, the whole surface appearing more red than before, but perhaps without enlargement. If this state is not attended to, there succeeds an oozing out of a serous discharge from a kind of crack, of which there are sometimes several. Some- times, though not often, these cracks throw out matter from the first ; but, if suffered to proceed, pus always comes from them first or last. In this early state, frequently little more is necessary than a saturnine wash, joined with attention to regular exercise ; pro- portioning the food to the exertion ; keeping the parts free from dirt, from moisture, and from permanent cold. But when they occur in a horse of a very full plethoric habit, or in case the cracks shew much virulence and tenderness, then something more is ne- cessary ; as a moderate bleeding, with alteratives, and a nightly bran mash ; or even one or two doses of physic may be prudent, if the horse should be of a very gross habit. The cracks themselves must be carefully washed with warm water, whenever the horse returns from exercise ; after which, bathe with any mild astringent lotion, as the following : — No. 1. — Sugar (su;i;e?’afera 530 SWELLED LfiGS WITH DISCHARGE. [CoJS X1X< that the poultices are producing this effect on the discharge, the general swelling should be counteracted by alteratives. The follow- ing unites the necessary properties : — No. 2, — Corrosive sublimate ^oxymuriate of quicksilver) ten grains. Cream of tartar (supertartrate of potash) . . three drams, Nitre (nitrate of potash) ditto, Prepared antimony ditto. Give this every night in a mash, except the complaint takes place in a very emaciated horse ; when, instead of the oxymuriate of quick- silver, substitute the saiDe quantity of arsenic. On the con- trary, if the patient is of a very full phlethoric habit, add one or two drams of powdered resin to the diuretic, making the whole into a ball instead of a powder ; watching, however, the flow of urine, that it does not become inordinate. In some cases, when the expense has not been an object, I have found the following an excellent alterative in cases of grease : — > No. 3. — iEtliiops mineral half an ounce, Cream of tartar , . . one ounce. Give every night in a mash. In these cases, also, one or two doses of physic are often useful ; and when tbe parts have been brought into a proper state for the action of astringent applications, wash with No. 1 j or, instead, the following may be sprinkled over the sores : — Or, No. 4. — Powdered oak hark ...... one ounce. Powdered \esA^\gT\s(subacetateofcopper)t'KO drams. No. 5. — ^Verdigri.s half an ounce, Prepared calamine ...... an ounce, Tar four ounces. Mix, and smear the parts lightly night and morning, and after each exercising, having first washed them with warm water. When, also, much tumefaction takes place, united to the use of any of these, a linen bandage is often beneficial ; beginning at the coronet, and rolling it more than half way up the leg, being careful that it is only done with a very moderate degree of tightness at first. As amendment proceeds, great care is requisite to prevent relapse, by avoiding the original exciting causes. This will be best effected, in full strong subjects, by long-continued walking exercise, with moderate feeding, particularly by the use of green meat in summer, and of carrots in winter, avoiding much corn, but, in lieu, allowing a sufficient quantity of less heating food, as those kinds already particularised. Bran mashes, as tending to open the body, should not be lost sight of; and when it can bo conveniently managed, place the horse in a loose box. But when the complaint occurs in one already emaciated, or weakened from other causes, give only moderate exercise, but let this be compensated by a loose place to jive in ; feed liberally with green meat in summer, and an occasional CONFIRMED GREASE. 531 Class XIX.] malt mash ; and, in winter, give carrots, beet, boiled potatoes, or other food of this kind. 1 have, in cases where these could not be got, experienced the greatest benefit from spearing the corn, for the use of such horses as were low in their flesh and condition. (See Materia Medica.) Any change of food, almost, is proper; at least, any not manifestly injudicious. I once observed the best effects follow the substituting of beans for oats, and this in a horse not particularly emaciated ; but I had previously remarked, that oats passed away unchanged, which ground beans did not do. Before we quit the subject it may not be improper to remark, that this species of grease is frequently the result of blisters inju- diciously applied, when the legs are in a state of swelling and debility ; and it may be offered, as a caution to the junior practi- tioner, that he never attempts a blister, particularly of the hind legs, under such circumstances. For, towards the close of the year, or during winter, or whenever there is a previous determina- tion towards the heels, if blisters are applied without considerable precautions and subsequent care, it will be hardly possible to pre- vent them from becoming greasy immediately afterwards. Confirmed Grease. This is to be considered only as a more aggravated stage or state of the former ; in which case the matter that issues has a foetid peculiar smell, that strongly characterises the disease ; so much so, that a person used to it can at once tell whether a greasy horse is in a stable or not. The inflammation that was before principally con- fined to the secreting capillaries, now affects the integuments gene- rally, producing ejitensive ulceration with intermediate dry horny scabs : the hair stands erect ; the whole surface becomes exquisitely sensible and vascular, bleeding on the slightest touch ; and the vessels of the heels not only secrete pus, but some of them take on a peculiar action, and form horn ; so that, in the advanced stages and violent degrees of this complaint, hardened horny knobs form over the fetlock, some of them being vascular, while others are more hard and insensible ; and which protuberant portions are called grapes, from their figure. The constitution sympathises much with this extreme state of grease, and the horse, unless very well fed, becomes weak, lean, and irritable ; good pus or matter is seldom produced, but a peculiar feetid discharge. Treatment. — It becomes a question, whether, in a confirmed case, even if it were in our power, how far it would be prudent to stop the discharge at once ; for when secreting vessels have been long habituated to any action, they can seldom be suddenly checked with impunity ; and in this case also, were the running stopped without previous preparation for the change, it is more than probable that some morbid effects would arise. I’o commence the Cure, ihere- N n 532 CONFIRMED GREASE. [Gass XIX. fore, of confirmed grease, we must prepare some other parts to take on this action of forming pus. But it is to be first remembered, that the discharge from grease is seldom a healthy one, and it is hence much more difficult to check than one that is simply purulent ; therefore, while some other parts are preparing to receive this puru- lent action, the heels themselves should be subjected to a treatment that may produce a more healthy secretion in them. The best means I have ever witnessed for effecting this, has been a ferment- ing poultice, made with either barley meal, flour, oatmeal, linseed, or any other farinaceous matter capable of fermenting with yeast. This should be applied every day, as soon as mixed, and suffered to perform all its fermentative process on the leg j when, by the action of the carbonic acid gas, or fixed air let loose, it is remarkable what a change is performed on the part, bringing on, from the most ichorous discharge and irritable state, a mild bland pus-like fluid, with a decrease of irritability. (See the formulae for these under PoulticeSy Mat. Med.) Should either the trouble or expense of these be objected to, a carrot or turnip poultice may be tried in- stead, either of which may be applied till it produces a secretion of healthy matter ; but it must be remembered, previous to the use of these means, that no ulcer shews a favourable disposition to heal so long as its surface remains above the level of the surrounding healthy parts ; therefore it is essentially necessary to the cure, that these sprouting luxurious portions should be reduced even with the sur- rounding integuments. Caustics only render these grapes, as they are termed, more luxurious ; but the mode best adapted to their re- moval is, to scrape off all the horny deposit, and thus level the surface with a very blunt knife j which, when effected, the poultice may be applied as directed. To prepare the other parts to take on the formation of matter; on the first day of applying the poultice, if the horse is large and tolerably strong, put a rowel in the belly, and introduce a seton on the inner side of each thigh ; or place two rowels only, one in each thigh. If the horse is either small or weak, one rowel will be suf- ficient. In three days the maturating of the rowel and setons will be complete; and, in this time, by the above means, the heels will have taken on a more healthy action : it is now, therefore, that we are to attempt the stoppage of the discharge, which can only be done by the use of the most active of those applications, termed astringents, which will stimulate the parts to take on the adhesive inflammation. For this purpose, either of the following may be tried as a wash, to be used daily, or every other, or every third day, or as often as the irritability of the parts will permit : some cases may require either of these applications strengthened, others weaker than here detailed : try, however, the weaker first: — No. 6. — Aquafortis {nitric acid) one ounce. Water eight ounce®. Mix. Class XIX.] CONFIRMED GREASE. 533 No. 7. —Oil of vitriol {sulphuric acid) one ounce, Water ten ounces. Mix. No. 8*. — Corrosive suh]imate{oxi/7nuriate of quicksilver) three drams, Spirit of wine or brandy one ounce. Soft water ten ounces. Dissolve the mercury in the spirit by the help of a mortar, then add the water. No. 9. — Verdigris {subacetate of copper) .... half an ounce, A\\im {sulphate of alum ditto. White vitriol {sulphate of nine) .... ditto. Sugar of lead {superacetate of lead) . . . ditto. Tar six ounces. Mix. This may be smeared over the parts daily, and will seldom occa- sion so much irritation as the former; but it is essential to the cure, that a considerable inflammation should be raised ; the neces- sary degree of which must depend on the state of the case, and temperament of the patient. The clivers, or goose grass, has been likewise extolled as a re- medy for bad grease cases : four ounces of the expressed juice are directed to be given daily, as a drink, and a poultice of the herb, mashed, is to be applied to the heels. When the discharge has ceased, it will sometimes be found, that coagulable lymph has been thrown out, by which a hardened thick- ened state of the limb remains; blisters may, in this case, be first tried, to promote the removal, assisted by a run at grass ; but should these, as is sometimes the case, fail, the stimulus of firing should be tried. It must likewise be remembered, that this complaint is very liable to recur again ; the parts have taken on a habit, which, though removed, they easily assume again, and the secreting surface is likewise increased. This recurrence is also best prevented by firing, for by this means there is a great lessening of secreting surface, by the making an extensive cicatrix or scar; and the limb gains additional strength by the artificial bandage which the firing occasions. Nothing has hitherto been said on internal medicines, nor on other parts of the treatment as regards food, or exercise ; in fact, it will at once strike the judicious reader, that exactly the same rules, and the .same cautions, will apply here, as have been de- tailed when treating on the other states and stages of this complaint. The constitutional tendency to disease must be equally amended by the internal remedies there laid down. • Mr. White relates two remarkable cases of confirmed and virulent grease, cured by the application of corrosive sublimate in the form of a wash, when other means had failed. I have also often seen it beneficial: the strength of the appli- cation should be increased to the full amount that the animal can bear, * N n 2 534 MALLENDERS— SELLENJOEBS — WARTS. [CloSS XIX- MALLENDERS AND SELLENDERS. [La Malandre et Solandre. When a disease appears on the integuments, exhibiting a scurfy or scabby eruption at the posterior part of the bending of the knee, it is termed mallenders : and when a similar one appears at the ply, or bending of the hock in front, it is called sellenders. Neither of them lame or do much harm ; but sometimes, when neglected, there comes on an ichorous discharge, a little troublesome and always a blemish. Both of them are very easily removed by wash- ing with soap and water, and by applying the following ; — Camphor one dram, Sugar of lead (subacetate of lead) .... half a dram, Mercurial ointment one ounce. Mix. WARTS [Des Porreatix. Are best removed by the application of a thread tied round them ; or they may be cut off with a knife or scissars, and the root touched with any caustic body. There is sometimes seen a sprout- ing luxurious species, whose roots are larger than their heads, so that a ligature is not easily passed around them ; these are best re- moved by touching their surface daily with what is by farriers called butter of antimony. In the older books of farriery they are called anbury f or ambury ; and many celebratei^ recipes for their removal are handed down from one sapient operator to ^another. The following application will seldom fail to remove such as can- not be conveniently got at by the knife or ligature, dressing with it once a- day ; — Crude sal ammoniac two drams, Powdered savin one ounce. Lard one ounce and a half. MANGE. This filthy complaint is too well known to need the detail of many characterising marks ; however, it wdll not be amiss to warn the junior practitioner, that he may sometimes save himself much trou- ble, and warn his employers of its approach, by attending to cir- cumstances that might otherwise escape his notice. When a horse MANGB. 535 Class XIX.] has much scurf at the roots of the hairs of the mane and tail, and when he appears pleased to have these parts rubbed ; upon looking into them very closely, perhaps some small bare places may be seen : in such case, mange is coming on. Sometimes one or two spots only appear at first, which grow every day larger ; at others, a few regular blotches are seen over the fore parts, leaving the skin bare, but without excoriation.- It sometimes presents itself under the appearance of what is termed, by farriers, surfeit : not but that there is an apparent affection of the skin, under the name of surfeit, that is purely symptomatic of some internal affection, brought on frequently by sudden cold, sometimes from drinking cold water when warm ; but which readily gives way to internal remedies only (see Condition, page 59). But the surfeit accompanied with hide- bound and bare places, having, in the centre, little pustular risings, is always referrible to a psoric affection, and is commonly a generated kind. The Matige is highly contagious; but, in well fed and properly groomed horses, it makes its advances so slow as to exist a long time before it is noticed ; so inimical is cleanliness to its formation. The part where the collar presses, the bows of the saddle and pads, the head-stall bearings, 8ec., will first shew some scurfy marks that would be hardly noticed but for the pleasure the horse expresses when the currycomb or brush passes over them. In badly groomed horses, on the contrary, its progress is more rapid, and the poll, the neck, and roots of the mane and tail, soon become bare, and itch intolerably, so as to make the animal rub them raw for ease. Thus it may be considered as having three distinct origins ; one from filth, another from debility, and a third from contagion. Cure of Mange. — It has been supposed that psoric affections were occasioned by the existence of animalculae within the skin, which there is no reason to disprove. Whatever is the immediate cause, however, the effects are so filthy and disgusting, as to require the utmost energy immediately to overcome them. In every case of mange not attended with emaciation, but more particularly in that species called blood surfeit, bleed ; and if green meat can be got, feed wholly on it, except, as before noticed, great emaciation is present, in which cases give also malt mashes. In winter, allow carrots, beet, or any food of this description ; and if these are not to be had, spear the corn, and give with bran : for, although not generally taken into the account, a change of food materially assists and expedites the cure. Give also alteratives, as the following : — No. 1.— Corrosive sublimate {pxymuriate of quicksilver) ten grains, Nitre {nitrate of potash) four drams. Cream of tartar (supertartrate of potash . . four drams. Or, No. 2.— iEthiop’s mineral Cream of tartar half an ounce, one ounce. Either of these may be given in a mash every night, observing. 536 MANGE. [Class XIX. at the same time, in case mercurials are used outwardly also, to watch the mouth. The external applications resorted to for the cure are various. I have used all the following formulae, and can re- commend every one of them. The three first are washes, and may be applied with a sponge, carefully wetting every affected part. The two latter are ointmetits, sufficiently efficacious, but not so neat as the former : these are also to be applied every morning, accurately rubbing every part. No, 1. — White hellebore two ounces, Tobacco two ounces, Lime water, strong and fresh made . . . one pint, Water three pints. Boil the hellebore and tobacco in three pints of water to a quart j when cold, add the lime water. Put the whole into a bottle, and cork it well, pouring it out as wanted. No. 2.-^Corrosive sublimate (pxymuriate of quicksilver) one dram, Spirit of wine or brandy one ounce, l)ecoction of tobacco a pint and a balf. Dissolve the sublimated mercury in the spirit, by rubbing in a mortar, after which add the decoction. No. 3, — Liver of sulphur two ounces. Decoction of white hellebore one pint. Ditto of tobacco ditto. No, 4.— Finely powdered arsenic . one dram. Flowers of sulphur six ounces, Tar half a pound, Train oil six ounces. No, 5.— Sulphur vivum eight ounces, Staves acre, in powder one ounce. Ointment of quicksilver two ounces. Turpentine ditto, Lard, or train oil eight ounces. After the cure is effected, it will be of the utmost consequence that every thing worn by the horse should be carefully washed with soap and water ; as, the clothing, halter, and, in fact, every appoint- ment used. The stable utensils, and the stable itself, should be purified also by lime whitening, or washing with pearlash ; other- wise the disease may be again taken from these things. It is also necessary that the veterinarian should caution the attendants about mangy animals to be careful of themselves ; I have seen the itch taken from a mangy horse more than once : but, as soon as any proper applications are used, little danger is then present ; in fact, it ceases with the first dressing, Class XX.] HIDEBOUND-FOUNDER. 537 HIDEBOUND. I HAVE had many occasions of noticing that this popular term is erroneously applied ; and that the effect is frequently mistaken for the cause. It is very seldom that hidebound exists as a primary disease of the skin, but as a symptomatic affection it is sufficiently common. It is unnecessary to enlarge farther on it j the introduc- tion of it here is merely intended to keep the systematic order of diseases complete. All that regards the practical consideration is detailed under the article Condition, page 59. Class XX. Diseases- of the Feet. FOUNDER. I BELIEVE that every veterinary practitioner at all attached to his profession, has some particular ftobiy-Zioi'se in it ; that is, that some one particular branch, sometimes one particular disease even, engrosses all his leisure attention. Most unfortunately it often hap- pens that the one chosen is nearly, or perhaps wholly, incurable : the selection of which I should suppose could only arise from the glory of conquering the hitherto unconquered. Mr. Coleman spent much time in combating the ophthalmia ; Mr. Morecroft, in forging of shoes ; Mr. White, in experimenting on the glanders^ Others, that I know, have devoted their attention to the^ort^. Mr. Bracy Clark’s extreme ingenuity has been wasted, I am anaid, in devising a method of fastening shoes without the assistance of nails. While a new method of castration occupies the mind of another, who lives in a neighbourhood where a stallion does not pass once a quarter. My hobby, from the beginning of my veterinary pursuits, was the diseases of the Jeet, in general ; but that of founder, in particular : and though, like my cotemporaries, I may not have advanced as much as I could wish towards a cure, I feel confident that, if I could infuse my ideas into the minds of persons connect- ed with the management of horses, the prevention of many diseases incident to the feet, but of founder in particular, would be the con- sequence, and this by no secret method ; but, by a simple attention to the subject, on the broad scale of the economy of the^animal in 538 ACUTE FOUNDER, [Cfaw XX. general, and the functions of the parts concerned in particular, I am the more led to this conclusion from the circumstance of my never having had a horse who became diseased in the feet while in niy possession ; and, although I have purchased a great number who have been faulty in this respect when bought, I do not remem- ber failing to relive every one, so as to render him serviceable to me, and comfortable to himself ; and I am much mistaken, if the following observations and directions are properly attended to, whe- ther others wil] not experience the same benefit. Founder j as a general subject, is very important ; and, when it is considered as probable, that if it does not destroy, it at least renders useless more horses than all other diseases put together, its import- ance can hardly be rated too high. To a proper consideration of it, hovvever, it must be regarded as consisting of two kinds, and these essentially differing from each other. The one is an acute attack dependent on fever, like the inflarnmations of any other important organs ; the other, a chrordc, partly dependent on constitutional liability, but iDiiph njore on outward occasional causes. ACUTE FOUNDER. [Fourboure. Or all the definite and well-marked diseases of the h^rse, this has been most mistaken among the older farriers, and thp least noticed among the modern, I do not know a single work on the subject of farriery, that does more than allude to it. I am at a loss to ac- count for this, seeing that, though not a frequent disease, it is yet sufficiently common to have been many times met with by every practitioner who has only a tolerable range of veterinary practice: and, when so met with, it is, both in appearances and effects, too characteristic to be easily passed over without impressing the mind forcibly. Among common farriers, when this disease occurs, it has been very generally mistaken for an affection of the loins or chest j and thus, their applications being made to these parts, it has usually terminated either in the death of the horse, or in incurable lameness. Eut, acute founder, except as being accompanied with symptomatic fever, is confined to the feet, and has nothing to do with any other part of the body ; but may be defined to be an active inflammation of the internal vascular parts of the feet, brought on by a sudden translation of fever to them ; or, otherwise, by any of the common causes of topical fever. It may be confined to one foot, to two, or it may attack the whole four ; but it is more common to the fore feet, from the weight being more thrown on them in hard riding. The disease usually comes on very rapidly, appearing in a few hours after very hard riding* nr driving, with subsequent exposure to cold. ACUTE FOUNDER. 539 Class XX.} particularly of the feet, as washing them immediately. I once saw it produced by permitting a horse to stand in the snow, after being violently driven. Or it may, perhaps, be sometimes occasioned by first exposing the feet to extreme cold, and then suddenly removing them into a warm stable ; the vessels of the feet, not being able to bear this sudden alteration, distend, and fall into inflammation. It is, however, most commonly produced by violent and long continued exercise on hard roads, with subsequent exposure to cold, particularly to the custom of washing the feet and legs of horses when hot. It is no argument against this, that it is done daily to coach and post horses ; habit reconciles the most contradictory practices. Nor does the disease, I believe, ever attack a horse without being easily traced to some circumstance wherein heat alternated with cold, or cold with heat, and applied to the feet in particular. A careless rider or driver travels his horse in a cold day, perhaps through the snow, twenty or twenty-five miles in two hours and a half: being thought- ful only of himself, at his baiting place, he delivers his horse to an unfeeling stableman, with — ‘Here, ostler, take care of my horse j I shall want him in two hours.’ In a profuse sweat, the poor ani- mal is taken into the stable to stale, and to have his harness or sad - die and bridle taken off, and, within five minutes after, he is again brought out and hung at the door with the bleak air acting on his smoaking carcase j added to which, his feet and legs are deluged with water; and when, from the excess of cold, his perspiration is absorbed, and his skin dry, he is taken in to be fed. Such a horse almost necessarily takes cold. If he had been travelled only six or eight miles, still he would most likely have caught cold, because he had been injudiciously exposed; but then there would have been, perhaps, no preference of parts. That is, in the former case, the long journey, and the quickness of it on a hard road, having heated and tendered the feet — they were the parts most disposed to fail ; and the old adage is here made good, that the weakest must go to the icall. And, likewise, had the horse travelled slowly, or a mo- derate distance only, but yet in thence of the wind, with after ex- posure ; he would be equally subject to the attack, but then it would have been catarrh, or pneumonia ; because the head, neck, and chest had been most exposed. Had the wind blown keenly from be- hind, and the journey been pursued with but moderate speed, it might then have occasioned rheumatism in the loins, or inflamma- tion of the bowels ; or, in fact, whatever part had at that time been accidentally or constitutionally the weakest, would probably have been the object aflected. I mean by this to prove, that acute founder comes on like any other topical inflammation, and only operates on the feet, because in an attack of cold, under such circumstances as those pointed out, they are the most weakened parts. Symptoms of Acute Founder. — When a horse labours under this complaint, the attendants are usually unconscious of the real nature of the disease; and it is not unfrequent that even the medical prac- I 540 ACUTE FOUNDER. [C?OW XX. titioner, when called in, does not immediately detect it, unless much used to these cases : for he finds the horse heaving at his flanks, w'ilh a quick labouring pulse ; and, on inquiry, he hears that the attack commenced with a rigor or shivering fit ; that the suffering animal has been lying down and getting up frequently ; groaning with excess of pain, and occasionally breaking out into cold and profuse sweats. In such case, unless he is informed that the horse has been rode or drove with violence, and afterwards ex- posed to cold ; or, unless his eye catches the particular disinclina- tion to remain on his feet, with their extreme heat, he is at a loss, frequently', whether to consider it an attack ort the bowels, kidnies, or bladder; or an inflammatory or rheumatic fever. An experi- enced practitioner will, however, even though xalled in at first, when the symptoms are not altogether perfectly well marked, still observe that though the horse appears to suffer much pain, and lies down and rises frequently ; yet, that he does not attempt to roll, he does not look at his flanks, or kick his belly ; and that, al- though not yet arrived at the height of the complaint, he be- trays a peculiar manner of shifting and lifting up his legs; standing likewise particularly, by either drawing his hinder ones much un- der him to relieve the fore^ or placing the fore under the chest to relieve the hinder, according as one or the other are the principal seat of inflammation ; or, by a marked disinclination to remain long up, when the whole of them are affected. • The practitioner will, however, be commonly saved the trouble of much discriminat- ing ; for he will, in general cases, not be called in till the features of the complaint are sufficiently marked, by the utter impossibility to make the horse remain on his legs ; on the contrary, when forced up, he lies down again almost immediately, exhibiting every symp- tom of distress and uneasiness. As soon, likewise, as the com- plaint has arisen to any height, the feet will be found intensely hot, and the pastern arteries pulsating very strongly ; which alone would serve to mark the disease. There is sometimes some little tu- mefaction around the fetlocks, and when one foot is held up for examination, it gives so much pain to the other, that the horse is in danger of falling. The poor beast groans and breaks out into profuse sweats at one time, and, at others, is cold ; his eyes are moist and red, and his whole appearance betokens that he is labour- ing under a most painful inflammatory affection. In this state the complaint shews itself the first two, three, or four days ; after which its effects are various. In the worst cases, when the symptoms we have stated have raged a few days ; a slight separation of the hoof at the coronet may be observed, from which may be pressed a small quantity of reddish ichor or thin matter ; the sensible laminae now losing their connexion with the insensible, by the efforts of the inflammation, the hoofs gradually separate, and, at last, drop off : or, in some cases, mortification at once ensues. At other times, the effects are not quite so violent or rapid; still, however, the termination is sufficiently unfortunate; ACUTE FOUNDER. 541 Class XX.} for, instead of the death of the parts, or their falling into the sup- j! purative inflammation, coagulable lymph is thrown out, which i equally forces off the hoofs ; but not until some time after, and not ^ until the parts underneath have acquired some solidity; nor, indeed, I till the genn of a new hoof appears, but which, if suffered to grow, , never proves perfect; on the contrary, the horse usually remains ! permanently lame. I have likewise seen instances where coagulable 1 lymph has been thrown out between the laminae and under the ] coffin bone ; the inflammation, however, not being sufficiently 1 active to force off the hoofs, they have remained ; but still have gradually become imperfect and deformed. This imperfect resolution ; may be known, before its effects on the horn become apparent, by j the very peculiar gait the horse exhibits when taken out, and which,, j once seen, can never be forgotten : for he throws his feet forward ‘ in a seemingly burlesque manner, and brings them down as oddly on the heel. In fact, he clearly shews that he has lost the proper sensibility of his feet. In other cases again of imperfect resolution, the laminae losing their elasticity and power, yield to the weight and stress of the coffin bone, which becomes pushed backwards, and, in its passage, draws with it the anterior crust of the hoof, which thus falls in ; the pressure also of the coffin bone destroys I the concavity of the horny sole, which, instead, becomes convex or pumiced, leaving a large space towards the toe filled with a semi- cartilaginous mass 3 and this is not an unfrequent termination of founder. But when the attack is not commenced with the extreme violence we have detailed, or when an early and judicious treatment has been adopted, the resolution of the inflammation will often be perfect. , The horse will first sweat and groan less : some inclination to eat will be observed, the pulse will moderate, and he will stand up longer. These favourable appearances will increase daily, and, in the end, the animal will recover the perfect use of his feet. Treatment. — As soon as the disease is discovered bleed largely, as four, five, or six quarts, according to size and condition ; back- rake, and throw up clysters; but, unless there is actual costiveness, do not give physic, as it would be inconvenient to the horse to rise i to relieve himself; neither is it proper, on account of the extreme fever present : but febrifuge medicines should be given, as the fol- lowing, twice a-day in a pint of warm water : — Emetic tartar {tartarised antimony) . . two drams. Nitre {tartrate of potash) four drams, Cream of tartar {supertartrate of potash) ditto. The feet themselves should be next attended to after the bleeding. In the first place remove the shoes, and rasp the feet round as thin as is prudent, which will greatly relieve the pressure of the horn on the internal swollen tender parts. As each foot is rasped, let it be also bled from the toe (see Bleeding) ; after which immerse each into ^ cold poultice of bran and Goulard, and occasionally mpisten 542 CHllONIC FOUNDER, OR CONTRACTED FEET. [ClaSS XX. the poultice with the same; or, if preferred, wet cloths may be kept around, or sponge boots. The horse should be extremely well lit- tered up, and permitted constantly to lie down, as this position will favour the return of the blood ; further to encourage which, his food and water should be given on the ground. In case amend- ment does not follow this treatment, the next day repeat the bleed- ing at the toe ; and, if the general febrile symptoms run very high, bleed also from the neck again. Continue the cold applications to the feet, and proceed to actively blister around the pasterns, but avoid blistering so low as the coronets : neither would I recommend blistering at all, unless a beneficial effect is not apparent from the other treatment towards the close of the second day ; but at this period, if the affection continues violent, by all means proceed to blister, and bandage up, as otherwise the blistering matter will be smeared over other parts. Hang a cradle also around the neck. As soon as amendment becomes apparent, common care only is then necessary; feed mildly, give plenty of water, allow the horse to rest much ; and do not proceed to exercise until the feet have gained some firmness. Nor must it be forgotten that feet, once foundered, require great future caution in their management, as they are very liable to become again affected on any considerable exertion. In cases of imperfect resolution, thin the feet ; and, if contraction has commenced, score also, blister the coronets, and turn out, ot treat as under. CHRONIC FOUNDER, OR CONTRACTED FEET. Chronic Founder, or contraction of the horn of the hoofs, some- times called hoof-hoimd by the farriers, is, perhaps, of all the evils this noble animal is heir to, the most common and the most destruc- tive. In this country I am convinced that it shortens the life of more horses than all other diseases united ; and although the ruin- ous properties of this malady are very notorious and universally allowed, still they are not, I believe, considered so in the degree they merit : but whoever will pay as close an attention to the subject, as I have done for some years past, will, I am convinced, fully agree with me. Nature, ever bountiful in her gifts, bestows organs on her children fully requisite for their natural wants ; but for unnatural habits she has not provided : on the contrary, she always punishes artificial deviations from her established laws, and has left it to the ingenuity of mankind to counteract the evils he has entailed, by sub- jecting the various domestic animals to a life of art. Among these evils the subject of our present inquiry stands foremost ; but on the operation of what particulars of this artificial deviation the mischief arises, very different opinions have been formed ; and as upon a due comprehension of this subject our principal means of preventing this Oass XX.] CHRONIC FOUNDER, OR CONTRACTED FEET. 54S very important evil must be grounded ; so it is of consequence that we examine and compare them separately. It was the opinion of the French veterinarians, and of M. St. Bel as their copyist, that the extreme paring of the crust, the sole, and the frog of the foot, was the leading cause of contraction ; and, therefore, on the first establishment of the Veterinary College, parings of all kinds were absolutely condemned, and the grand agent in the business of this supposed error, the butteris, was sent at once to the d — 1. The present ingenious professor travelled over nearly the same grounds ; but, that he might a little vary the course, he chose the destruction of the frog simply as his prime minister in this pro- cess: and on this ground he was led to adopt an artificial frog for the prevention of the evil. But if, as I now suspect, the mere re- duction of this part is not the principal cause of the complaint, we need not wonder that the artificial frog was soon abandoned. The unnatural and grossly erroneous practice of forcing horses to stand constantly on litter, by producing artificial heat, has been considered as the immediate agent in contracting the feet. Others have attri- buted it to the friction of hard roads principally ; while a still greater number regard a wrong system of shoeing as the grand cause. Mr. Bracy Clark has even written a luminous treatise expressly to shew that all shoeing, good or bad, necessarily tends to produce contrac- tion, by the confinement the foot experiences from the nails. When I first entered this profession, I also, from the weight of the authorities then in vogue, was disposed to adopt the opinion originally broached by La Fosse, that a lavish paring of the foot, but particularly of the frog, operated materially in the future con- traction of it. But a very minute subsequent attention to the sub- ject, and a diligent examination of innumerable horses every year, have altered my view of the matter, and led me to differ very widely from the general opinions entertained on this head. So contrary to them are my present sentiments, that I consider the popular doctrine of the evils arising from paring the feet generally, as having been pro- ductive of infinite mischief; and that, on the contrary, for one horse injured by paring, at least one hundred are ruined by letting it alone. I have been a patient attendant in many forges for hours together, and particularly where the drawing knife only was used, and I have invariably observed that, to avoid labour, the workmen are too apt to neglect paring altogether, contenting themselves with rasping the crust to a level, opening the heels, and smoothing the frog. Nor is this to be wondered at ; for if the gentlemen, who are taught to cry out against this operation, were only once doomed to go through the extreme labour of properly paring out a foot that is but mode- rately grown, they would agree with me, that there was much more danger of its being neglected than of its being over-done. Depend- ant on this reasoning it may be proved also, that the popular outcry against the butteris is too far carried. The drawing knife is a neater instrument, and, for particular parts of the operation of paring, is infinitely most handy and proper j and it is much to be regretted 544 CHRONIC Founder, or contracted feet. [CZas^ XX. that its use is not more common among country smiths, many of whom never use it but in cases of surgical practice : some do not, or cannot, use it even then. Deprive these persons, therefore, of the butteris, and your horse must go unpared ; nor would there be any difficulty in proving, that, instead of being so destructive as sup- posed, it is, when judiciously and dexteiH)usly applied, a very useful instrument, as it will do more work in a minute than the drawing knife can effect in five : and where there are a number of large coarse horses wanting to be shod, many of them with very high and large feel, this expedition must prove of very great consequence. What I have advanced, however, though strictly consonant with reason and fact, is so directly in contradiction to the popular doc- trines and opinions entertained, that I shall be taxed with an attempt at novelty, or rather with an affectation of peculiarity : but in answer to this, and fully to disprove it, I only request a minute attention and extended inquiry towards this subject. Nor must it be supposed that I am an advocate for the old system of treating the feet; on the contrary, in most of its parts I condemn it : for it is true, that the frog has been too often injudiciously pared, the bars erroneously cut out, but, worse than all, a thick heeled shoe with unequal pressure has been invariably afterwards put on. The sole tendency of what I mean to impress is, that extreme general paring seldom occurs; and that the evils of erroneous partial cuttings bear no possible com- parison with the mischiefs that result from that neglect oi sufficient paring ; to which the outcry raised about twenty years ago, and since kept up, has so much contributed, and which has by its effects, pro- pagated and increased this disease instead of diminishing it. But it must not in justice be omitted to state, that it is not the smith only to whom blame is to be attached on these occasions ; for wdien a foot wants much paring, it is evident that a neglect must have occurred before it could be brought into this slate. This originates in a mistaken opinion, common among the owners of horses, that paring of the feet is never necessary but when a renewal of the shoes is required ; consequently, if a horse wears lightly, or is little used, he may not want new shoes oftener than once in two months : but the owner appears utterly unmindful that all this time the feet are becoming preternalurally increased in length, and consequently pre- ternaturally decreased in diameter ; and as the labour of reducing such a foot is considerable, not only from the increase but from the hardness of the substance, so the chance that a proper paring will be neglected is greatly increased. It appears, therefore, that the destructive tendency to contraction in the feet of horses, so common, is not dependent on one, but on several causes, and this I believe is the opinion of all who examine the matter attentively ; but the several degrees in which these operate, I am disposed to contend, are, in general, erroneously considered even by these persons. It has been the subject of much of my lei- sure to trace this correctly ; and if I have not laboured in vain, these operating causes of cohtTOction are in degree according to the scale in Class XX.] CHRONIC FOUNDER, OR CONTRACTED FEET. 545 which I have placed them. In the first place, and infinitely of greatest import, stands, A neglect of paring Rway the unnecessary parts of the horn. 2dly, The application of artificial heat. Sdly^ The deprivation of natural moisture. 4tMy, Constitutional liability. Sthly, Bad shoeing. 6thly, The existence of thrushes. Lastly, The removal of the bars, and too great lessening of the That a neglect of paring is the principal agent in this case, ap- pears evident on considering the operations of Nature in general, and the structure of horn in particular. This bountiful mother, who supplies her creatures according to their wants, yet is inimical to waste, and gives nothing unnecessarily. Under this principle it is that a certain portion of horn only (at least in general cases) is fur- nished to each animal, and consequently it cannot be possessed in height and breadth too. I will not say that a high foot may not in many cases have, if critically weighed, more horn than a lower one; but, ceeteris paribus, as it increases in height, it decreases in diameter; and, as a principle, this cannot be too strongly impressed on the mind, nor can any rule be found with fewer exceptions. In coach-horse dealers’ stables, where four year old horses frequently stand for two or three months, without perhaps having their shoes removed or changed, this complaint is not only common, but almost every horse so situated becomes contracted in theTeet : however, as it is not to such a degree as to cause immediate lameness, so it passes unnoticed ; but the disease has begun, and, when such a horse is sold, often before the force of the warranty is expired he is re- turned as unsound : but such is the force of habit, and such is the obstinacy of these persons, that, to avoid the trifling expense of re- moving the shoes, they risk the loss of the horse. In many cavalry regiments a similar neglect occurs, and every third horse, or even a greater portion, may be observed with high feet, and, as a certain consequence, with a partial contraction. As the system of shoeing in these regiments is generally good, and as they never stand on litter, or are too hotly placed ; so it can only arise from their being shod by contract, by which means the shoeing only is paid for, but not the removes and paring : and this cause alone would destroy as many horses as an active campaign. It is not sufficiently considered that the wear the hoof would experience in a state of nature is pre- vented by the application of shoes: but the g?’otof/i is not stopped ; on the contrary, by rest and confinement in hot stables it is even increased beyond its natural limits. Instead, therefore, of a slight rasping once in six weeks, and sometimes even less frequently ; in horses who exercise little, and wear lightly ; instead of this, the shoes should be removed, at least where the feet grow fast, every three weeks ; when the hoof should have a level paring throughout, so as to bring it to exactly ihQ natural height of horn. But, as before 546 CHRONIC FOUNDER, OR CONTRACTED FEET. [CloSS XX: observed, so contrary to this is the usual custom, that after an in- terval, such as we have noticed, a horse goes to the smith’s shop with an inordinate quantity of horn ; the extreme ends of which being far removed from the surface that secreted it, become so dry and hard, that the smith, even were he so disposed, can hardly make any impression on it ; he, therefore, only rasps or burns a smooth sur- face, and puts the new shoes on the old horn. Neither is it unlikely that his duty and inclination in this case go hand in hand ; for the owner having adopted the prejudices that all smiths destroy the foot by excess of paring, has probably given peremptory orders that his horse’s foot should never be cut away. It would, therefore, be diffi- cult to conceive how such a foot should avoid contracting ; seeing it is a general principle, and subject to few deviations, that the cylinder of the hoof will lessen nearly in the proportion that it lengthens. By pursuing this subject through the other causes, this matter will be still further elucidated. The application of artificial heat stands next in order as a cause of contraction, and when we consider the common properties of hoof, nail, and horn (all of them the same), it will be found that this cause and the former are closely linked and operate together. It is the well-known nature of these substances to be much acted on by heat ; they become softened by it, but only so long as the cause is .applied, for, as they cool, they again become hard; and as the heat applied evaporates some of the contained moisture, so they always become harder and drier than before. But they have another pecu- liar property, and which is the actual operating cause in producing this complaint. 7'his is the disposition to contract its fibres generally into a circular form, and which approximation of the extreme ends of the body is always inwards, with a reference to the centre of the circle; and this equally, whether the heat is applied externally or internally. This action may be easily exemplified by placing the segment of a truncated cylinder, or cone, as a piece of a cow’s horn, before the fire ; or the natural hoof may be placed in the same situa- tion, when the contractile effects of the heat will lessen the partial circle in whichever side the heat operates ; that is, when at all mode- rate : when an extreme heat is applied, the effects are not invariably the same ; but this is dependent on another cause, and is besides inapplicable here. This invariable disposition to contract inwards on the application of heat operates here most importantly, and much the more so, as the effects are the same, whether the heat is inwardly or outwardly applied : and in the consideration of the subject of hoof contraction, these particular circumstances cannot be too strongly impressed on the recollection. Thus much being pre- mised, it will not be difficult to recognise the application of artificial heat, in a degree much beyond a natural temperature, to the feet of horses in various ways. The standing for years bedded up in hot litter, heated still more by a stable without ventilation, must operate, on the above principles, towards the contraction of the horn of the hoof in an extraordinary manner ; and the more also as it has been ^ass XX.] CHRONIC FOUNDER, OR CONTRACTED FEET, 547 ! I shewn, that the longer the trunk of the hoof, and the thicker its ' walls, the more will this heat operate : consequently both cause and i effect combine to increase the evil. Not only is the external heat I applied to the feet increased by this erroneous practice, but the arti- ficial life of such horses proves at the same time a source of addi- tional heat vtcit/iin, which becomes also applied to the feet. For their high living, their long standing in one situation, and the heat to which they are exposed, must quicken the circulation, and more ca- loric must be evolved. Both these causes of heat operating on the horn, its contraction is a necessary consequence; and when this takes place, even in the slightest degree, it must occasion pressure on the internal parts of the feet, which are exactly adapted to the horny envelopenient. These being highly vascular and tender, are by this stimulated into counter-action, and inflame ; this produces another source of heat, which increases in a tenfold degree, as the cause continues to operate. Travelling on stony or hard roads must prove also another fruitful source of heat from the friction occasioned ; and when such exercise is either violent or long-continued, the pro- duction of caloric must be immense. Heat also not only acts mechanically in contracting the horn, but it also operates additionally, inasmuch as it is one of its principal properties to promote an unna~ I tural increase of the growth of horn both in length and thick- ness, by means of the stimulus it affords to an additional secre- tion. Thus, therefore, the evil is by this agent magnified in a two- fold manner. Another source of artificial heat has been inveighed against in the bitterest terms, w'hich is the application of a heated shoe to the sole of the foot. ' The evils resulting from this certainly reprehensible practice have been, however, greatly overrated ; and the more so, I apprehend, as it is used in some measure as a substitute, though an improper one, for paring ; and likewise as in the unequal shoes of country smiths it may be even necessary to demonstrate the bearing points that would otherwise escape notice : nor is the practice ever, I believe, carried to any very hurtful extent. The absence of natural moisture must also tend in no small degree to produce contraction. Moisture has exactly the contrary effect ou horn to what heat has ; its application, therefore, greatly tends to counteract the contractile disposition. It also softens, and thus enables the pressure arising from the weight of the body to expand the relaxed hoof : but when, by the extreme length and thickness of the hoof, its resistance is increased beyond even the power of the moisture to penetrate, even this benefit, when occasionally applied, becomes lost. In a state of nature it is evident that the hoofs must meet with much moisture, of which a life of art wholly de- prives them. A stabled horse frequently does not get his feet once moistened in twenty-four hours ; even his only chance from the splashing of his urine is carefully prevented by the litter : but in a state of nature, at least during one-third of this time, these parts are exposed to the dew, and, during the remainder, are frequently im- mersed in rivers and ponds. Horses also less artificially treated than 548 CHRONIC FOUNDER, OR CONTRACTED FEET. [CIOSS XXv those of the gentry, as farmers* horses, and the generality of horses kept in the country, experience the benefits of moisture to a certain degree ; for they get turned out occasionally, and consequently we find they are proportionally less subject to this evil. Constitutional liability is certainly likewise a source of contraction, and this to a considerable degree; but the remote cause of this ten- dency it is not easy to account for, any more than the constitutional liability to cataract. It is probable that both are connected with the life of art we have subjected the animal to ; for it would be an attack on all-bountiful Nature which she does not deserve, to suppose she has originally given so destructive a disease as ophthalmia must prove to a wild horse ; and founder would prove scarcely less so. Neither can the introduction of the eastern breed have wholly pro- duced it, though it may certainly have increased the tendency ; for we have numerous proofs that contraction of the feet was a subject treated of in the most antient writings on farriery. This liability must, therefore, be attributed to the general exciting causes of in- creased circulation occasioned by artificial habits, though the intro- duction of the eastern breed, as being of a more sanguineous tempe- rament, may, as before hinted, have considerably increased this tendency. In the arid plains of the east a small foot was not only sufficient, but also most convenient ; while the moist pastures of the north required a broad flat support. When, therefore, this breed was introduced to this kingdom, and- became universally diffused among us, we cannot wonder that the small foot became propagated also, which, not being natural here as there, might easily prove a source of mischief. There are very few breeds which have noisome small portion of what is called blood in them ; but those that are original and purely northern, as the heavy cart horse, and some of the mountainous, it is remarkable are much less affected with it; and, on the contrary, blood horses of all others are peculiarly prone to it. Some colours also seem to have a greater disposition to contracted feet than others : in dark chesnut horses it is particularly common ; and I think the better breed of blacks are rather more subject than some others. It is possible that the circulation in these may be in some measure quicker than in others ; in confirmation of which, it may be observed, that they certainly possess a peculiarly ardent fiery disposition. White feet, as being weak, are likewise very obnoxious to it. It is probably from an increased circulation that stallions also are so prone to it. In fact, the more this subject is examined, the more proofs arise, and the more clearly these truths evince themselves. Injudicious shoeing. — This certainly operates in producing con- traction, and perhaps not in one point only, but in several. The custom of nailing the shoes on so extremely tight, particularly where the crust is not very strong, must affect the feet considerably, by irri- tating them, and by preventing their ordinary expansion. The bad form of the shoe must also be very hurtful ; the unequal pressure tenders and inflames the foot ; but of all the errors in the form, none are so hurtful as the thickness of the heels. This baneful 549 Class XX.] CHRONIC ROUNDER, OR CONtRACTED FEET. method is still in full force, and, therefore, the evil it occasions is not at all abated. By this the heels are weakened and worn away, and corns produced, the constant pain of which inflames, heats, and consequenily contracts. Nor does the inward slanting direction of the foot surface of the heels of the shoe contribute much less, though it has been attempted to be proved that this does not operate unfavourably, which is certainly erroneous ; but it does not follow from this that all shoeing must necessarily occasion contraction, at least not in the destructive degree maintained by Mr. B. Clark, as is proved by the very circumstances we are detailing : for, were this the case, farmers’ horses, which are more early worked and some of them often shod, and almost all of them subjected to bad shoeing, must necessarily be affected most of all, instead of which it is ex- actly the reverse. We shall have occasion to enlarge on this in another place. The existence of thrushes is too much passed over among horse- men. I am fully persuaded that they operate in the production of founder in a much greater degree than is usually imagined ; and in many thousand instances I never met with a truly harmless thrush. This complaint may be a cause or a consequence of contraction. It is the latter state of it I here allude to ; the other will be examined under the subject of thrushes. Thrushes may arise in otherwise healthy feet from confinement, in which the constitution wanting an outlet, and accumulation taking place here, inflammation of the secreting frog follows. In other instances they are occasioned by standing on wet dung, until the outer horn becomes penetrated, and the inner acted on by the saline moisture. As it is well known that thrushes are an exuding of matter from the natural or artificial open- ings of the frog; and as no purulent matter can be formed without inflammation, nor can inflammation exist without an increase of heat ; so, having already proved how heat acts, it will not be difficult to understand how every thrush must tend to contract the foot in which it exists. — See the subject of Thrush. The desti'uction of the bai's, and too great lessening of the frog. — «■ That both these errors are productive of contraction there can be no doubt : but I cannot help thinking that the particular attention to these immediate causes, when veterinary medicine first became regularly studied among us, has been productive of considerable harm, not as being in itself erroneous, but because it diverted the mind from causes of the evil much more active and mischievous. In the generality of country-shod horses, the bars are always cut away, let ever so little other paring take place; yet these horses have less contraction than others : and though the frog also is described as a wedge-like cushion, purposely placed by nature to keep the walls asunder, a very little examination of the parts will shew that it is utterly unfit for this purpose, having but little solidity and force, and being divided in its centre, which weakens it to a great degree ; whereas, were it intended for a wedge, it would certainly be solid throughout. The principal intention in the formation of the frog O o 2 550 CHRONIC FOUNDER, OR CONTRACTED FEET. [ClaSS XX. appears to be as a hanging point of support to the foot, to prevent it from sliding, which the crust and sole would be liable to do were it not for this admirable contrivance. This matter being already fully treated on, when describing the anatomical structure of the foot, we shall not pursue it further ; but presuming the natural insufficiency of the frog to prevent contraction to be fully esta- blished, it is evident that the simple lessening of it cannot materially assist contraction : and we are further led to this supposition, front observing that many horses remain with open heels, who are de- prived of the action of the frog, either by its being cut away, or by the operation of the calkins of the shoe, which effectually elevate it beyond the requisite pressure, to enable it to act as an expander. From what, therefore, has been advanced, it appears to me that some of the most popular causes assigned as principal agents in con- tracting the feet are more harmless than is generally supposed. Good shoeing tends, perhaps, but little to it. Bad made shoes must xlo it much more, being still not so much so as is usually imagined. Neither, as we have shewn, does the destruction of the bars and frog account for it ; and still less will the extravagant paring, in gene- ral falsely attributed to the smiths, appear the cause. We must, therefore, look to the other sources we have pointed out, acting in conjunction, as the principal agents ; and to the preternatural in- crease of horn, and the omission of paring it away, as most of all conducive. Having thus considered the causes of contraction, we will next proceed to the appearances it presents, and the conse- quences that follow. Symptoms and Appearances of Chronic Founder. — The hoof, from an almost circular form (see Description of Foot), becomes, when foundered, much elongated ; and, on taking up such a foot, the frog, instead of a full bold appearance, seems wedged and squeezed between the contracted bifurcations of the heels, which, in these cases, usually experience the greatest share of the contraction, and are then said by dealers and grooms to be wired in. Some contrac- tions operate on the whole circumference of the horn ; more fre- quently, however, the heels, as being the thinnest parts, suffer the most ; and the inner one, as being the weakest of the two, is gene- rally more drawn in than the outer : nor is it uncommon for it to be confined to the inner side only. Sometimes the contraction affects the whole of the cylinder of the hoof equally : sometimes it is greatest round the coronet, and at others it is most lessened towards the sole : but contracted heels more frequently present their narrowest surface below. From the different degrees of inflammation which have existed at different times, the hoof is often encircled with horny rings, and which are more common in the weak thin foot than in the strong. The hinder hoofs, though not wholly exempt, yet are infinitely less liable to contraction, from the absence of many of the exciting causes present in the fore. They are in the first place thinner at the toes, and thicker at the heel, which greatly destroys the contratrting ten- 551 Class XX.] CHRONIC FOUNDER, OR CONTRACTED FEET, i tlency. They are much less exposed to heat and to pressure, and ' meet with more occasional moisture. It may be also remarked, that when they are contracted, it more usually affects them throughout I the whole circumference ; though I have seen them also wired in at I the heels. Neither does the contraction of the hinder feet produce such serious consequences as that of the fore, j Some horses bear long and considerable contraction before lameness ensues ; and it may be regarded as an established fact, that a small con- traction hastily applied, produces more immediate lameness than a much greater one more slowly brought on. Dealers’ horses often fall very suddenly lame, without much apparent lessening of the foot ; the reason is, that, coming from farmers or other country persons, they are unused to the hot stables they are placed in, when they get into these hands, and the hoofs thus suddenly lessen. This effect is, in general, easily removed by standing in water a few days, which as suddenly expands them. From the causes before detailed con- tracted hoofs are almost always higher than others, and the sole is likewise generally concave : it is in general much thicker in sub- stance also, which greatly adds to the pain usually felt in progression. I'Vom the pressure that occurs on the parts within, there is much ex- ternal heat, and great pain is experienced, which obliges the horse, to relieve himself from the additional pressure arising from the weight of the body, by alternately placing one foot forward and then the other ; which grooms call fencing, or pointing. Whenever, therefore, this is observed, however free from lameness the horse may appear, such feet are diseased : and more frequently on close inspection in th.ese cases one may detect a shortened step and feeling manner, as though the horse walked on hot irons ; and during exercise the proper sensi- bility seems to be lost, for such horses seldom step true, but trip and stumble. Nor can We wonder that lameness should be the consequence of contraction, when we consider how exquisitely sen- sible are the internal parts of the foot, and how completely they fill up the cavity, which, being lessened, must subject the contained parts to pressure between the hard substances of the coffin bone, the walls, and sole. This pressure, so experienced, occasions reaction in the vessels, and inflammation ensues ; by which these vascular parts are rendered even more turgid and full, and the poor animal most likely feels as much as we do after a long day’s walk in tight shoes. When this pressure is not very considerable, the inflamma- tion will be moderate, particularly if the cause is simply mecha- nical, and when the horse has no constitutional tendency to contrac- tion. In such cases the tenderness will not absolutely lame, but the horse continues his work, and gets but slowly worse, though, if attentively observed, he will be seen to step a little shorter, to trip oftener, and is somewhat tender ; yet the alteration is so gradual, that the evil often remains undiscovered, till some accidental circum- stance increases it, when he will become suddenly lame. If a farrier of the old school is called to such a case, the. shoulders are searched. 552 CHRONIC FOUNDER, OR CONTRACTED FEET. [Chss XX. and are probably condemned to a painful treatment as the affected part. But when, in addition to a constitutional liability, a neglect of paring occurs, united also perhaps with some of the other assistant causes, the complaint proceeds more rapidly ; the highly inflamed vessels deposit coagulable lymph between the laminae, and over the sensible sole, which produces a morbid sensibility, but destroys the natural one, and occasions these cases to be expressively called by the common farriers a numbness in the feet ; and when fully formed, the complaint makes them move as though benumbed. The evil does not, however, usually rest here, but the inflammation extends to the bones and cartilages ; and while the former throws out bony spiculi around it, the latter becomes almost wholly converted into bone; and consequently extreme lameness must then inevitably ensue. Treatment, — From what has been premised it will appear that con- traction may arise from an inward or an outward cause ; that is, that when a constitutional liability exists, the internal parts of the feet probably become first affected, and the heat and inflammation occasioned produce the contraction. In such case it is evident that enlarging the hoof will not prove a permanent cure. In other instances some outward cause, as heat, deprivation of moisture, or neglect in paring, may have first occasioned a lessening of the hoof, the pressure of which on the internal soft parts may have occasioned such reaction and inflammation as to have produced some of the evils detailed. Here likewise enlarging the hoof can only be pallia- tive. But fortunately there are other cases wherein no internal de- rangement has taken place, although the outward pressure may be considerable, and have produced heat, tenderness, and lameness. In these instances the ill effects are not permanent, but, by enlarging the hoofs, the pressure is taken off, and the evil re- moved. It will naturally follow from this view of the matter, that it is very important for the veterinary surgeon to endeavour to form a correct judgment of the state of the internal parts of the foot, before he gives an opinioxj, or proceeds to act. In the one case no means would be equal to a perfect cure ; and consequently it would not be prudent to recommend a tedious and expensive process, when a palliative treat- ment only ought to be adopted : but in the latter case a perfect cure would follow a judicious mode of operation, and, therefore, these circumstances would not deter from it. This judgment can only be formed from a close attention to appearances and facts. If the contraction has not existed long, or even if it has, yet has pro- ceeded very slowly ; and particularly if it can be learned that the horse, from confinement, neglect of paring, and other artificial habits, has evidently been exposed to the oiiticard causes producing contraction ; then there is every reason to conclude that the internal parts are not materially affected. This will also be rendered stilj 553 I Class XX.T CHRONIC founder, or contracted feet. [' I more likely if there exist no signs of predisposition to the disease, from colour, breed, &c. &c. To enlarge the contracted hoof many mechanical contrivances I have been invented ; some of them very ingenious, and most of them more or less produetive of the desired end : but unfortunately for all such plans of cure, in most instances, as soon as the ope- J rating cause has been removed, contraction has again returned. This j has happened so frequently, that it has made many persons inimical to the attempting any thing of the kind. The reasons of this failure I are various. In the first plaee, the horse is, too often, again sub- I jected to high feeding, heat of stable, neglect of paring, a want j of moisture, undue confinement; and probably is again allowed to stand on litter. Any of these will operate in its reproduction, and no case can resist their combined influence. In other in- stances thrushes again appear, and, being neglected, prove a source of renewed contraction. Some also may reproduce it by a consti- tutional liability, not sufficiently counteracted by more natural habits, as turning out, &c. Although, therefore, candour obliges me to own, that a return of the affection is not uncommon ; yet it is more than probable that many of such cases are attributable to the causes assigned. The oldest remedy for contraction was drawing the sole, on which we will waste no more time than to observe, that if every wretch who drew a sole was to lose his scalp, it would be but a just retri- bution. The next remedy was the old screw shoe, which was little more than a common shoe jointed at the toe, and having a screw at the heel, by which it might be expanded at pleasure. This shoe has been in very common use, and has proved useful ; but there are many objections to it. The first objection is common to this and to all expanding shoes, that in many cases it begins at the wrong end ; for contraction is frequently greatest at the coronet, and like- wise frequently commences there. The reasons for this are, that the horn is weakest at the coronet, and there the resistance is less also ; for below, the sole and frog form considerable obstacles to the con- traction. The next objection to this shoe is, that it 'acts on the whole circle of the hoof, whereas in the majority of instances the contraction exists principally in the heels, and in some in the inner heel only. To obviate these objections, some years ago I adopted shoes whose joints were variously placed according to the contraction ; for a hoof contracted generally, I framed a joint at the toe in the old way. When the heels only were drawn in, a joint was made oppo- site each quarter; and when the inner heel only was affected, I used one with a joint on that side only. These joints were not operated on by the former clumsv method of either sliding bars or heel screws across the foot ; but by small screws within the body of the shoe, that acted as levers, and forced one limb of the shoe from the other. Each heel had also a clip to embrace the bars. With these shoes I have frequently extended contracted feet, and in 554 CHRONIC FOUNDER, OR CONTRACTED FEET. [C7fl5« XX. many cases, in conjunction with thinning and moisture, their use is marked and considerable ; but they, in common with all other expanding shoes, are still liable to objection ; for whenever either constitutional liability exists, or any of the external causes are allowed again to operate ever so slightly, I have observed the recurrence is more frequent after mechanical expansion by the means of shoes than after any other of the plans in use. The expanding process, by means of screw shoes, was a few years ago successfully (that is, to himself successfully) practised by an officer of the army : but the recurrence of the complaint, so common after these means, soon destroyed the undeserved reputation of the process, and it fell into disuse. Other means have also been used for the cure of this complaint ; such as dividing the heels.the whole length ; taking up the pastern arteries ; and in some cases taking up the pastern nerves has been practised. Firing the coronet has been tried j blistering also. Turning out has long been the common remedy ; and immersing in moisture has been little less so. The inefficiency of most of these, and the liability of a recurrence of the complaint after their use, long ago induced some practitioners to endeavour to make the foot itself enlarge its horny covering. To this end they lessened the resistance of the envelopement by numerous deep scores around, operating as so many hinges, on which the hoof, yielding to the pressure of the internal parts, expanded. To this was sometimes added a thinning of the hoof generally : but very seldom were the heels lowered or the sole divested of its inordinate increase ; so that only half the proper benefit was derived. When Mr. Coleman began his career, he adopted and amended this plan ; and, by his recommendation, it became more known and practised than it had heretofore been. I also, previous to this, had made some trials of it ; but at that time I preferred the quicker, though less permanent mode of the expanding shoe, assisted by moisture and other supposed auxiliaries. I had at one time eight horses, each under a separate process for reducing hoof contraction. An extensive subsequent experience has taught me to depend principally on what may be called a natural and voluntary expansion of the hoof, in contradiction to that produced by expanding shoes, which may be termed the mechanical and forced enlargement of it. By the former mode a more radical cure is effected ; for the parts are themselves brought not so much to enlarge the materials of the old hoof, as to form altogether a new one; and which, if the former disposing causes of contraction are avoided, will not be subject to disease. The means I have long and successfully used, and which I shall proceed to detail, are of this kind ; and though I lay no claim to the invention, yet I believe few have tried it so extensively, and none have so varied its modes, or watched its progress so atten- tively as myself: and, therefore, though the general practice of it is not new, the full detail of it, I am persuaded, is so ; for hitherto this valuable means of removing contraction has been hardly more 555 Class XX.] CHRONIC FOUNDER, OR CONTRACTED FEET. than hinted at : and, I believe that I am correct when I state, that no process of this kind is regularly described even at our national seminary for veterinary instruction. When a hoof is contracted, on a removal of such portions of offending horn as can be spared, a considerable part of the pressure is at once removed, and the parts within begin immediately to rein- state themselves, and to enter on the process of forming an enlarged circle, which sufficiently shews the beneficial tendency of such a proceeding. And it is upon a removal «>f the horn in such a way as to lessen the contraction as much as possible, without weakening the support of the hoof, that the nicety of this operation depends. The mode of doing this will be to take away such portions as can be best spared, and yet such as are the principal agents in the injury. These prove to be, in most cases, the contracted horn of the heels, and likewise, in no less a degree, the inordinate increase of the sole ; for, strange as it may appear, experience has fully proved, that a thickened state of the sole, instead of affording a support to a tender foot, is the most painful addition that can be made to it. To render the performance oi' this useful operation easy and intel- ligible, I have added a figure representing a hoof so operated on, and which, with the following directions, will enable any intelligent smith readily to do the same. It should, however, be premised, that when thrushes exist in a foot or feet to be operated on, it is highly necessary that they should be first removed, particularly if considerable, unless, indeed, it should be very clear that they are actually occasioned by the extreme pressure of the heels on the frogs ; in which case proceed to thin the heels without too much lowering them, but sufficient to bring the lessened frog into the line of pres- sure as much as possible. Treat afterwards as directed under Thrushes, and, when an evident amendment appears, proceed to complete the whole of what is intended. A very small thrushy affec- tion need not, however, impede the process, which, on the contrary, may be at once proceeded on as follows. Expanding process. — First let the sole be carefully pared. I have already stated that the increase of this, which is surprisingly great in usual cases of founder, greatly aggravates the painful affection ; so much so, that I have frequently afforded instant relief to a hoof- bound horse by merely thinning the sole. This fact seldom enters the head of a smith, nor is its operation sufficiently attended to even by the veterinarian ; but at no time can a horse, at all affected in his feet by contraction, step with even tolerable ease without his soles are thin. Having, therefore, pared the sole all over equally, until the thumb, by a firm pressure, is able to make it yield, proceed to lower the crust generally, correspondent with a proper line of the sole ; but lower the heels still more closely, in fact as much as they can safely bear, without depriving them of all their horny covering, or reducing them too much beyond the general level. In this paring clear away the horn within the angle of the bars, and along the whole line ; but leave the bars themselves sound and full. Do 556 CHRONIC FOUNDER, CONTRACTED FJIKT. ^ClaSS XX. the same by the frog, leaving it as large as possible to relieve the Weakened heels, clearing away only the ragged parts, unless it is thrushy, when all pressing and decayed portions, and all under- runnings, must be cut out clear. Having finished the under surface, proceed to rasp the walls or sides of the hoof, beginning about the middle of the quarter, and rasping it to the heel. I find it however useful first to draw a line nearly or quite around the hoof, immediately under the coronary ring, which is that rising covered with the last hairs above the hoof, directly below the quick, marked a a a in the Jig. This line should be made as near the quick or sensible part as possible, yet must by no means touch or wound it ; and in doing this the horse's feelings will in ge- neral be a pretty sure guide, for as the rasp approaches near the vas- cular portion, he will flinch considerably. This line proves a direction to the rasping, which should be carried close to it from the beginning of the quarters about c in the jig. to the heels, doing it lightly at first, as may be seen by b in the Jig’., but deepening tbe rasping as it ap- proaches the heels, so as to remove the substance of the horn in a progressive thickness from the quarters to the heels, rasping the whole surface uniformly from the coronet downwards, leaving towards the heels a covering of horn of only an eighth of an inch in thickness, or in fact so much only as the thumb nail can indent by a firm pres- sure, carefully however avoiding to go too deep, so as to wound the sensible parts underneath. To avoid this danger, as well as to leave the coronary ring distinct, and free from the pressure of any more of the contracted horn than is necessary simply to cover it, the opera- tion should be finished with a small drawing knife, by which n>eans all the hard horn can be removed from parts where the rasp would be inconvenient, particularly towards the heels, where the thming should be carried back quite to the inflections or binders (vide posterior c in ihejig.). The coronary ring should be left quite distinct by a clean angular removal of horn, as seen at b in the Jig. ; and upon a regular thinning from above dovvnw'ards of the whole of the horny portion co- vering the lateral parts of the heels, except the thin lamella of cover- ing we have directed, depends the perfection of the operation. I have endeavoured to make it understood that the rasping having commenced at the black c in the Jig. is there to be lightly done, and a moderate portion of horn only removed, increasing the quantity as the rasping proceeds, till having reached the centre of the quarters it is then to be removed to the prescribed thinness. When finished, the hoof will present exactly the appearance depicted in the following figure. Class XX.] CHRONIC FOUNDER, OR CONTRACTED FEET. 557 When there is a very great thickness of horn, I usually also rasp the whole circumference of the hoof moderately, so as a little to lessen the general resistance v.'ithout weakening the foot, which should be carefully avoided. To favour the further expansion, let the foot now be taken in front, and aline of rasping be carried from above down- wards to a moderate thinness ; not however so thin as at the heels, which would weaken the foot too much. This front rasping should not be more than half or three quarters of an inch over, and its inten- tion will explain itself; for as the centre of contraction must be here, and as even though the heels should be principally affected, yet there is usually also some lessening of the whole circumference, so the resistance to expanding is by this front hinge materially de- creased ; and of so much importance is this, that I have known it practised as a prevention at every shoeing with manifest advantage. When the inner quarter only is affected with contraction, as is now and then the case, then the rasping may be performed on that only ; it will be very seldom, however, but some wiring in of the outer quarter also may be observed. ft is evident that the above mode, performed exactly as herelaid down, is principally calculated for the benefit of such feet as are contracted at the heels, with but a small lessening of the general circumference of the hoof. But there are rases in which the horny box is contracted generally ; in such instances I have still rasped the heels, but not quite so deeply ; nor have I carried the rasping so far forwards, but I have instead added three additional hinges to each side, by means of the old method of scores made in the hoof with a fine drawing knife*. • It is remarkable how far a prejudice in favour of novelty, or what is often mis- taken for improvement, will lead persons. In a work just published, and otherwise ably written, by a pupil of Mr. B. Clark, who appears to have adopted all his mas- ter’s ideas, the practice of scoring the hoof is called barbarous, and de.scribed as cruel. I hope that whoever has patiently followed me through this work will not tax me with cruelty, even though I occasionally recommend scoring, which is 558 CHRONIC FOUNDER, OR CONTRACTED FEET. [CZa55 XX. These scores should be narrow and of a moderate deptli ; the strongest hoofs will allow a quarter of aii inch with perfect safety, and the weakest more than an eighth. One of these scores may be made a little within the heel side of the anterior letter c; the next a little be- yond the toe side of the same letterj and the third between that and the front of the foot, where another ought to be placed. Having finished the operation thus far, put on a tip or tips with four or five nails only to each, and these towards the toe. To complete the pro- cess, if the heat and lameness were considerable before the operation, blister round the coronet, which greatly encourages the growth of new horn, and also tends to remove any mischief that the contraction may have occasioned. The future management must depend on circumstances, and on the convenience of the owner. One thing, however, is indispensible, which is the application of moisture to lessen the remaining resist- ance, and thereby assist the expansion, as well as to promote the fu- ture growth of the horn. The^best means of applying this moisture is to turn out to grass ; but unless this is done where the situation is wet, little benefit will be derived. A dry pasture in a hot sum- mer without rain would be injurious instead of beneficial ; and a moist meadow, salt marsh, or one wherein is a pond to occasionally wet the feet, should be chosen. When thrushes exist, they need be no impe- diment to the turning out ; but in such cases it is requisite that the horse be taken up every other day at farthest, and the thrushes dressed. When turning out is impracticable, it becomes a consideration as to the best mode of keeping the feet moist in the stable ; and innu- merable have been the contrivances for this purpose. Boots of all kinds, some containing sponge, some to be filled with poultice, &c. certainly equally barbarous with cutting one’s own nails, trimming one’s hair, or other as harmless operations, on insensible parts. This attachment to a new theory runs through the whole of this gentleman’s book, and makes him, I think, on the subject of contraction, w'hich he has chosen altogether to separate from founder, mistake cause for effect. To such an extent are these novel opinions carried, that he considers all attempts at preventing contraction useless, so long as horses con- tinue to be shod with shoes attached by means of nails. When contraction has taken place, he not only considers all plans of enlarging the hoof inefficient, but he even deprecates their use altogether, and says ‘ that it is sufficiently obvious why ‘ attempts to relieve the animal from the constant tenderness and lameness of con- ‘ traction are productive of founder,’ &c. No one would, I believe, understand how it would be even possible for this to happen, unless they were made aware that founder and the pumiced foot are blended into one disease in this w'ork. This surely, from a person who is teaching a more approved method of treating the diseases of the feet, is carrying a blind attachment to a given theory much too far. After this, not only must every practitioner who recommends any plan for enlarg- ing the hoof, mislead his employer, and injure his patient; but a notoriously ruin- ous and painful affection must be let alone, for the imaginary chance of producing a pumiced state of the feet. Imaginary is this chance, for I never saw it once follow as a consequence of either scoring, rasping, or the expanding shoe. Without any invidious motive, I cannot but look with suspicion on these sudden gleams of light. With more than twenty years study and experience I have never found the way to become at once wiser than ray contemporaries; and when I daily see these luminous novelties sink below the level of long established facts and experience, I cannot yield them my credence. 559 Class XX.] CHRONIC FOUNDER, OR CONTRACTED FEET. (| have been invented ; but they are so little desirable, that they are sel- dom retained long in use. I have, however, seen some cased with smali iron plates with hinges that answered the end tolerably. Standing in clay is a common plan, and provided the horse stands level it is not an inconvenient one ; but often the paving of the stable is pulled up under the fore feet, and the poor animal is tortured by resting the lame limbs on a descent. On the other hand, I have seen him mounted up in a wooden trough, where much force was required to bring him into it. The best mode certainly is to cover the floor of a loose box with dung, mould, or clay, moistened so as to allow the wet mass to reach above the coronet. In this the horse can move about dur- ing the day, and may be removed at night to a stable, having the moisture still continued by means of wet cloths around the feet ; and which cloths, when other means of moisture cannot be resorted to, may be wholly depended on. Two circles of thick woollen cloth, doubled over a tape within, will form a convenient apparatus, which tied (not tightly) around the pastern will adapt itself to the shape of the foot, and, being dipped in water two or three times a day, will keep it wet. If moisture is duly supplied, the coronary ring will expand, and the new horn will proceed downwards in a large bulbous expansion : the I heels also will widen, and this faster than the frog is able to keep pace with them, seeing its growth in these cases is generally slow. This will leave a hollowness and excavated appearance which it will take some time to fill up : and when this exists in a very considerable de- : gree, I have considered it as a mark that the reproduction of horn is not entirely free from disease, and the benefits resulting from it will not be perfect or lasting. Care should be taken that the tips do not come off unperceived, and the horse remain without them. Every three weeks the sole should be carefully thinned, at which time the old horn may be slightly rasped again, and the line of separation between the old and new rendered distinct and angular as at first. If also the bulbous prominence of the new horn should be very high, thin it a very little by means of the rasp, to prevent internal pressure. In about three months the new horn will first reach the heels and be- come opposed to the ground, at which time, if the horse is much wanted, he may be taken up and may be gently worked in bar shoes ; but if he can be suffered to remain longer without work, it will be ad- vantageous. The whole of the appearances occasioned by the rasping will not be effaced in less than six months. After having thus treated at large on this process, from which I have so frequently experienced the greatest benefits, I am yet fully in- clined to own, that in no instance does the old adage, that prevention is better than cure, apply more forcibly than here. Perhaps almost every contraction might have been prevented; but by no means can any considerable proportion be cured when it has taken place. When, therefore, I enlarge so much for the use of the veterinarian by detail- ing the curative means, I would as particularly draw the attention of the amateur and general owners of horses to means of prevention ; and 560 THB PUMTCED FOOT. [aow XX. which conveniently follow here, because they are equally applicable as a general preventive to the always healthy foot, as to that which has been operated on. These following preventive rules are merely a text ; the context is the preceding detail of the causes and effects of contraction, which should be first attended to. The prevention of chronic founder or contraction in the feet must depend on avoiding the known causes of the evil. The first of these is a neglect of paring, which may be obviated by giving strict orders, or, what is better, seeing that every horse, if his horn grows fast, never goes more than three weeks, if slow not more than a month, without a level paring over the sole, until it can yield to the pressure of the thumb, and this whether the shoes want renewing or not. The heels should also be lowered with the rest ; nothing prevents con- traction so much as keeping them low. Apply always a shoe of equal pressure throughout (see Shoeing) j and still remember to thin the front of the hoof at each paring : nor must a continuance of moisture be dispensed with. I have repeated it with the greatest advantage, and without the least inconvenience, by means of the cloths before described, for a space of three years. In addition to this, never suffer the horse to stand on litter ; and, in summer, water the place he stands on three times a day ; and in feet disposed to contract, every night apply stopping, the various kindsofwhich see in Mat. Med. Thrushes must be immediately attended to if they appear ; and as it has been shewn that contraction is frequently the consequence of in- toard heat, that is, an increased circulation operating in some consti- tutions, so high living, long confinement without exercise, undue heat of stables, should likewise be no less taken into the account, and no less carefully avoided. I would not willingly omit to notice every means that can at all tend to this desirable end ; therefore, although I am clearly of opinion that they will prove equally beneficial with the patent frog, yet, as others may entertain a different opinion, I must not leave out the mention of Mr. Coleman’s clip shoes, which were purposely invented to prevent this evil, by embracing the heels and holding them in a determinate situation. The argument is specious, but the application is difficult; and more than all, even when well ap- plied, they are wholly inadequate. — See Shoeing. THE PUMICED FOOT. As this 1s a very common effect of both acute and chronic founder, an account of it very properly follows those affections. Mr. B. Clark has observed, that it ought to be called the pomme foot ; and a very ingenious and respectable pupil of his, in a work just published, is so influenced by attachment to his teacher’s novel theories, as to blend this with founder, and to consider them as one and the same af- fection. This appears to me extremely erroneous, for the pomme foot is only one of the effects of founder, which is itself clearly a distinct THE PUMICED FOOT. 561 Cfass-XX.] disease, either acute or chronic, having several varieties of termina- tion besides this. Not only in a theoretical and systematic point of view is this wrong, but in a practical one much more so ; for the author, attending to the, ruinous nature of this one consequence of founder only, is led to enter a philippic against all those ingenious attempts at remedying the other effects of founder that have proved useful in the practiceof most veterinarians. Turning to grass wholly without shoes, in every instance of contracted feet, I think should be avoided ; but that the pumiced foot is caused by the other attempts at remedying contraction, is, I think, not only an erroneous, but a most hurtful doctrine (see note, p. 557, 558.). Pumiced feet are in every instance the effect of inflammation ; but the vascular increase may be an acute or a cbronic one. When, they are the effect of the former, the complaint immediately follows an attack of acute founder, and is brought about in the manner de- scribed when treating on that disease. But when it is produced by a slow chronic inflammation, its attack is much more insidious and slow, and its appearances gradual. The front of the hoof is first ob- served to fall in, and the sole to become nearly flat ; at which time the horse begins to falter, and is sometimes very lame, at others can move moderately well. The foot when shod generally presents no acquisition of horn ; on the contrary the sole becomes thinner and thinner, and at last bulges out into a surface more or less convex as the internal derangement is greater or less. The large wide feet of the native horses of moist counties are most prone to this evil, for their feet cannot resist the weakening and irritating effect of battering on stony roads ; and least of all on the pavement of the streets of London and other cities. Any kind of feet, however, may take on the affection, from either hasty or slow vascular increase, though it is more common for the chronic inflammation to operate on smaller hoofs and those of higher bred horses, principally by contracting the walls of the circumference, and by thickening the sole, instead of di- minishing its substance. Neither is the inflammation producing this affection altogether the same with that which contracts the foot ; for in most cases the former is attended with a general increase of horn ; whereas in the lat- ter there is aZtogef/ter a decrease, for both the walls and the sole usually become thinner. The laminae seem first to become affected, and lose their elasticity ; and their vascularity appears excited, not to secrete horn, but a considerable quantity of a diseased substance, which, v/ith the weakened structure of these supports, displaces the coffin bone, drawing the crust with it, and greatly increasing the natural obliquity of the hoof. The pressure that the coffin bone thus displaced makes on the fleshy sole, occasions sometimes an absorption of its own edges, but always an interruption to the healthy secretion of horn, which accounts for the diminished thickness of the sole before no- ticed. The sole, therefore, being unable to resist the superincum- bent weight, loses its concavity, and, yielding to the altered form of the parts above it, bulges into convexity. The whole of the parts 5G2 CORNS. Cc^ffXX. within likewise become deranged in structure as well as situation. A large quantity of hardened matter, between the nature of horn and coagulablc lymph, occupies the space in front, left by the recession of the coffin bone, which now approaches the heels, and rests there in an altered hue of declivity. The Treatment of these feet can be only palliative, as a removal of the deformity has never taken place. I have experienced much be- nefit from blistering the coronets in early cases, which has stimulated the foot to an increased secretion of horn. Every means must be taken to avoid outer pressure on the sole, which is not only painful, but actually aggravates the disease ; and if sufficient rest were now and then allowed in these cases for the crust to grow' level with the sole, such horses might be rendered useful ; but instead of this it is per-' mitted to wear away by repeated shoeings, until the sole is exposed, and becomes tender and unable to bear the most ordinary pressure. Pumiced feet should not be kept too moist, nor can they ever be cured by turning outwithout shoes, though I once thought differently; but they may be very properly dressed every day, both sole and w'alls, with a mixture of tar and oil, which proves extremely beneficial to them. The shoe in use for these feet is sufficiently knowm, being framed with a very wide web, and either made so thick as to allow of being bevelled away on the inner surface, to receive the convexity of the ■sole without pressing on it, or otherwise cockellcd generally to the shape. But lately a different mode has been practised by some per- sons, and strongly recommended, which is to apply a shoe so narrow in the web as to cover the crust only, but of sufficient thickness to elevate the sole above the chance of pressure from the ground. This shoe is said to obviate the ill effects of stones, gravel, &c., getting under the wide webbed shoe, which sometimes lamed the horse ; and it is said that pumiced horses go best in these kind of shoes. — Facts are stubborn things: there can be therefore no objection to their trial, though, reasoning from analogy, I should be disposed to depend principally on the older method, which, if judiciously ma- naged, will render such feet very useful. CORNS. [Bleime. These very troublesome affections arise from Injury done to the vessels of the sensible sole, exactly at the surfaces of union betw'een it and the horny sole, whereby blood becomes extravasated within the angle of the inflections of the heels, that is, between the outer crust and bars. They appear in every instance the effect of undue pres- sure, by which the sensible vascular sole becomes acted on between the horny sole and the heels of the coffin bone. This disease is equally produced whether the pressure arises from the horn of the sole CORNS. 563 Class XX.] or the horn of the walls ; and it is from the pressure of the walls of the heels bruising the sensible sole that corns are so common to con- tracted feet, and also to weak hoofs. It is also to the increased weak- ness of the inner wall and heel of the hoof that corns are so much more frequent in the inner than the outer heel ; and from the supe- rior strength of the hinder heels arises their little liability to them. But though the contraction of the walls of the heels does often occa- sion the complaint, yet it is much more frequently the consequence of pressure of the sole, the very form of which shews that it never was intended to be thus acted on ; for the crust meets the ground, and the sole recedes from it in every part; consequently, whenever pressure does take place on the sole, it is unnatural, and produces in- jury. The general mode in which injurious pressure is applied to the sole is either by an improper form of shoe applied, or by not remov- ing the horn opposed to the seat of corns, or by neglecting to renew the shoes themselves at proper intervals ; and to one or other of these errors most corns may be attributed. Bad shoeing operates in various ways, but in none more commonly than by the thickened unequal heel of the shoe, which is in general formed into a sort of clubbed end that prevents its presenting a level ! surface towards the foot ; on the contrary, a bulbous projection indents I itself into the very part, as though purposely placed there to produce 1 this injury. The custom also of making the seat of the shoe slant inwards, is, I believe, sometimes productive of corns, by forcing the crust to press on the sensible sole laterally. Neglecting to prepare ' the foot for the shoe is also a fruitful source of corns ; for that part of I the horny sole that fills up the acute angle between the crust and bars, i the pressure on which is so injurious, is, in a state of nature, protected by the prominences of the frog and bars, as well as by the slanting direction of the latter; but as artificial habits alter the shape of the ! foot, this part becomes exposed; and, therefore, in preparing a foot i for the shoe, this angular portion should be so pared as to remove it ' from contact with the iron, without weakening the horny covering of the sensible sole. For so surely as this part becomes subjected to I pressure for any considerable length of time, so surely extravasation I takes place, and a corn is formed, and this more quickly when the heels are weak. The third common cause is the neglect of removing or renewing the shoes at proper intervals. When a shoe has been long worn, the growth of the hoof carries it forwards, by which the parts originally opposed to the heels are carried beyond them, and now press on the sole, often becoming indented within the line of the crust, and producing a most injurious pressure. Sometimes, also, either from the original form of the shoes, or by long wear, they be- come loose and springy at the heels, as smiths call it ; in which cases gravel is apt to make its way between the shoe and foot, and, by the pressure of the heels during action, is indented into the substance of the horn ; other, gravel becomes received in the same manner, which presses the first still onward, till at last it meets the sensible part. As soon as it reaches here, inflammation ensues, and a very diflerent coin- Pp 564 CORNS. [aas5 XX. plaint is formed to that of common corn ; for in every instance of this kind suppuration proceeds, and the matter, unable to make its exit below or sideways, forces its way upwards, and a small tumour appears at the coronet, which breaks and discharges a purulent mat- ter. The treatment of these cases is referrible to the rules laid down for pricks, and in nowise differs from what is there described. But the common effects of pressure from long- worn shoes, are the extravasation of a little blood, which, on paring away the horn at the angular point of the heel or heels, appears as a black or red speck, as the blood has been longer or more newly thrown out from its vessels; and it may be followed with the paring knife to its source in the sen- sible part. If the injury has been considerable, this blood itself may irritate and produce suppuration in a similar manner w'ilh gravel. But in general cases this extravasation remains unchanged, and, unless at- tended to, a weakened action of this part of the sole becomes perhia- nent, and blood continues to be throw'n outever after upon any occa- sional renewal of the pressure. In such cases the horn itself over the part proves a source of future irritation, and therefore horses with old corns only go well when fresh shod and newly pared ; for as soon as the portion of sole between the bars grows to a level w'ith the .sur- rounding horn, the sensible sole receives a fresh bruise, and lameness again appears. It is by contemplating this possible termination of corn, that the law has wisely considered every horse with this comjdaint as unsound. Treatment of Cor7is. — When a corn first appears, it is not difficult by proper means to remove it completely ; but when it has existed some time the injured parts become weakened, and the diseased action of throwingoutblood, instead of secreting horn, becomes familiar to them. As soon, therefore, as it is discovered, the cure should be immediately attempted ; first, by removing with a fine drawing knife every por- tion of diseased horn around, and the whole of the extravasation like- wise, avoiding, however, to wound the sensible sole underneath* Having done this, introduce any caustic liquid, as butter of antimony, into the opening, which will act on the sensible sole by destroying the unsound parts, and by stimulating the remainder to a healthy se- cretion of horn. If any contraction of the heels is present, they should be slightly thinned to relieve the pressure ; and, without this, it is probable a cure will be in vain hoped for. A shoe should be then applied, properly chambered opposite the weak part; or a bar shoe may be used, laid off the heel or heels, and taking its bearing on the frog. In a week’s time, or less, the part will have gained sufficient strength, when the horse may be turned out; but, during this interval, intro- duce every other day a small pledget dipped in the escharotic liquid used, as butter of antimony, a solution of lunar caustic, potash, &c. 8cc. (see Caustics, Mat. Med.) After the horse has been to grass a month or six weeks, if the meadow is tolerably moist, and the feet are natu- rally strong, remove the shoes, pare the horn lightly away from the seat of corn, not however sufficient to weaken the support, and then pm on tips ; but if it has taken place in heels naturally weak and low, thrush. ClassXX.] 565 continue the bar or chambered shoe. In this way corns may be per- manently cured when not of too long standing. But when the derangement of this part of the sole is become habi- tual and permanent, a palliative treatment only can be pursued. In the first place, the pressure of the horn must be guarded against by a regular and frequent paring out of that portion between the inflection of the heel ; and if the hoof is very strong, and at all disposed to con- tract, the quarters also should be attended to, and not allowed to be- come too high or too thick. I have also in very strong feet found the use of a short shoe sometimes of the greatest service ; but to a weak foot either a chambered or a bar shoe is preferable. When the weakness is very considerable, or the corn a very bad one, a bar shoe is the most proper support, and should be constantly used ; remem- bering in these aggravated cases to remove occasionally all the sur- rounding horn likely to press on the injured part, at the same time taking care to let the frog rest on the bar of the shoe. And whenever such a horse is shod, it is proper for the corn to be dressed with some active stimulant, as the butter of antimony ; by doing which regularly when shod, and about once a week also in the intermediate times, I have rendered horses, before useless, able afterwards to work with comfort to themselves and satisfaction to their owners. In slight cases of corn, the shoe proper to be used is one of rather more sub- stance than common, with the web a little wider than usual, and its width equal throughout, that is, as wide at the heels as at the toe • it should also extend rather farther back than it generally does, and pre- s'ent a perfectly level surface. This shoe will afford ease and protec- tion : future pressure must be avoided by keeping the seat of corns clear from offending horn. THRUSH. Some pains have been taken to trace the source from whence this unmeaning term arose. Two centuries ago it was called running Fmsh; and, as before that time, in some of the very old treatises on farriery, which borrowed much from the French, we find it named Tunning Fourche, it seems to be probable that it really did take its name from fourche, the French term for the frog, gradually corrupted into its present appellation of running thrush. This complaint con- sists in a diseased action of the sensible frog, whereby, instead of se- creting horn, it produces pus, which escapes out between the cleft of the horny frog. It is very improperly considered by many as a mat- ter of trifling import ; but a little experience only in the diseases of the feet will shew that it is of the most destructive tendency. Still more erroneous is it to suppose that thrushes can possibly do good by drawing off humours : or that there can ever be any danger in stopping them. On the contrary, there never was a harmless thrush. 566 THRUSH. [a«5« XX. or one that could exist long without doing great injury, by laying the foundation for contraction of the foot in which it existed, by the in- flammation and heat exerted on the parts around. Various proximate causes produce thrush ; the remote one is always inflammation of the sensible sole. Contraction, though a very common origin, is by no means the only one, for we observe them frequently in the wide open feet of very young horses, in which cases they appear to originate much in the same way as swelled legs, &c., by accumulation, or a de- termination of blood to the feet, from general plethora, which, occa- sioning inflammation, thrushes form. In many other instances their origin is to be traced to the application of moisture, particularly of ncrid moisture, as that of dung, urine, &c., which, soaking the horny frog, at last penetrates it, and then becomes a source of irritation to the sensitive frog underneath. This effect of moisture accounts for the increased tendency of thrushes to affect the hinder feet in some instances, while the fore feet remain perfectly free from them. Contraction is notoriously a common cause of thrushes j but they are by no means necessary consequences of it, seeing many contracted feet are without them, though many more are with them 3 which is not difficult to account for, when we consider how likely it is that the inflammation accompanying painful contraction should extend itself to the vascular sole. The different actions of secreting organs are here strikingly exemplified. The inflammation attendant on contraction stimulates the laminae and the vascular sole to an extra secretion of horn ; but the same inflammation applied to the vascular frog dimi- nishes the secretion of horny frog ; and it is farther remarkable, that although the contraction may be removed, it is not often that a full secretion of horny frog readily again takes place. As contraction is a very common cause of thrush, so it is equally certain that a long con- tinued thrush always ends in contracting the foot ; and which is one of the few instances in which a complaint may be both a cause and a consequence. Neither can any horse be considered safe that has a thrush, for there is always some degree of tenderness felt ; and, in these cases, if the point of a sharp stone at any time should penetrate the cleft, or any of the sinuses occasioned by the complaint when considerable, the horse will sometimes come to the ground at once from excess of pain. The appearances of thrush are sufficiently known: when mild, the matter escapes only through the natural cleft of the frog ; but when it has existed some time, and affected the sensitive sole throughout its whole surface, all the fissures of the horny frog produce a purulent discharge of a peculiar foetid smell ; and such cases, if unattended to, particularly in the hinder feet, may degenerate into canker. Treatment. — Thrushes may be always considered as local com- plaints 3 and it is not only impossible to do any harm by stopping them, but it is absolutely necessary in every instance to do so. In that kind we first noticed as sometimes taking place in the open feet of young horses, who, fresh from grass, become suddenly subjected to confinement, it will perhaps assist the cure if the plethora of the THRUSH. 567 Class XX.] constitution is attended to ; but in all other instances the treatment should be at once wholly applied to the affection. When thrushes are connected with a contracted state of the feet, it is evident that a removal of the irritating pressure of the walls of the hoof is necessary to a radical cure (see Contraction). When moisture has been the exciting cause, it should of course be carefully removed, and its oc- currence again prevented. But this caution must not operate as a means of denying the application of moisture to the feet in ordinary cases, either as a prevention, or as a cure of contraction ; for it is suf- ficiently easy when necessary, to guard the frog against the effects of wet, and yet to apply it to all other parts of the foot ; for when all the fissures of the frog are dexterously stopped with tow, charged with some oily astringent mixture, no moisture will penetrate to the sen- sible sole. The present stoppage of thrush is seldom difficult, but to prevent its recurrence is not.so easy always ; for the parts having once taken on this action, easily fall into it again. Almost any astringent sub- stance will check the suppurative action of the vascular sole, as Friars balsam, tincture of myrrh, solutions of vitriol, alum, lead, &c., which may be all usefully applied for this purpose. Tar and salt mixed is also a good application, or tar and bole armenic ; but per- haps the following combines the good properties of all in a very con- siderable degree : — Prepared calamine (ore of zinc) .... half an ounce, Verdigris (subacetate of copper) .... ditto, Wliite vitriol (sulphate of zinc) . . . , one dram. Tar three ounces. Mix. Before the introduction of this, the frog should be inspected, and all the decayed hardened parts, concealing underrunnings and si- nuses, removed; so that the introduction of the mixture may be facilitated, and the disposition to harbour filth and moisture prevented. The whole frog may then be very properly smeared over with the mixture ; but more particularly, a small piece of tow should be charged with it, and by means of a skewer, or other similar instru- ment, pressed to the bottom of the cleft of the frog, and also into every other fissure that may exist, as at the lateral parts where the frog joins the heels, where sinuses very commonly form in cases of bad thrush. Care should be taken, when introducing the tow, to do it neatly, so that no parts hang out, by which means the dressing w ill remain secure two or three days ; but no application simply poured in, without the aid of some other substance, as tow, soft sponge, wool, or rag, which retains the application and guards against moisture, will answer so well. In bad cases the dressing should be repeated every day, in others every other day, or twice a week; but in all it is of import, as a guard, that the cleft should never be without the inter- mediate substance employed. When it becomes necessary to turn a horse out to grass with thrushes, and which is often the best means of cure, it is of conse- 568 SANDCRACK. [Class XX. quence to remember that this treatment should be equally actively pursued during the time the horse remains out, otherwise the moisture applied will aggravate the evil ; but if once a day, or at least every other day, a pledget of soft sponge or tow, charged with the mixture, is introduced, so as to leave no hanging parts without, it will remain free from danger of escape, unless the frog should be in a very diseased state, in which case the tow should be fastened in with cross bars, as in canker', or a bar shoe may be put on, and the dressing applied under it. These precautions also are necessary when thrushes exist in feet operated on for contraction, a|>d where the treatment requires continual moisture to the general horn, but the absence of it for the frog in particular. SANDCRACK. [Seime. This is a solution of continuity between some of the horny fibres of the hoof, generally in a direction parallel to their growth ; that is, from above downwards. Now and then, though but very seldom, these cracks exist in an horizontal position. The term sandcrack has been said to arise from the dirt or sand usually observed within the fissure, which is supposed to be its cause ; but this is erroneous ; for absurd as are many of the names of diseases in the old nomen- clature of farriery ; this has a more significant origin ; and is called sandcrack, because it was formerly supposed peculiar to hot sandy districts, the heat of which, applied to the feet, gave them a dispo- sition to crack thus. These fissures are more common to the fore than to the hind feet, not but that the latter are sometimes affected with them, particularly of cart and other heavy draught horses ; in which cases they are most generally observed in the front of the hoof; whereas in the fore feet they are more usually situated towards the inner or outer quarters. I have, however, seen sandcracks in the front of the fore feet. In every instance, wh^re it is not occa- sioned by some outward injury to the hoof, it is, I believe, brought on by a brittle state of the horny fibres ; the effect of some of the same causes that operate in producing contraction, with which it is very nearly allied in origin ; for it is very seldom observed but in such hoofs as have undergone some unfavourable alteration in form, in which the horn, having taken on a diseased brittleness, does not readily yield to the daily contraction of the walls, but some momen- tary application of force suddenly disunites a portion of its fibres. The fissure is not always of a determinate depth, being sometimes so superficial as not to penetrate the whole thickness of the horn, and occasioning no inconvenience at first. At others it exactly ex- tends through the horn, but does not divide any of the sensible parts underneath : while sometimes again a lesion of some of these takes SANDCRACK. 569 Class XX.] place. Neglect, and a continuance of work, will, however, com- monly bring any case from the slightest into the most aggravated state. When, the hoof is completely penetrated, it becomes a most painful affection, and productive of extreme lameness ; for the di- vided edges of the horn are apt during exercise to admit the pro- trusion of the soft parts underneath ; which becoming suddenly pressed on by th^ approximation of the horny edges, exquisite mo- mentary pain is produced. From the injury done to the sensible laminated expansion, there is often a sprouting of fungus between the divided edges, which greatly aggravates the complaint. Acci- dents of all kinds, injuring the vascular origin of the hoof around the coronet, may occasion sandcrack also, as treads, stubs. See. Treatment. — A very different curative plan is proper to be pur- sued, according to the state in which the complaint may be found. The grand object must be to interrupt the communication between the crack and the sound horn, which will otherwise take on the fissure likewise : and when it occurs in a hoof evidently contracted and brittle, a radical removal of the evil will be best attempted by reducing the resistance of the horn, and by correcting its contractile tendency, by the means recommended against contraction, such as a moderate thinning of the quarters, and the application of future moisture, after the edges of the fissure have been brought completely together. Much difference of opinion has arisen as to the best mode of de- stroying the connexion between the divided and the sound horn. Some prefer the firing iron, others the rasp ; while Mr. Budd, an in- genious veterinarian, but not long established, abuses all the usual methods in a most unqualified manner; and contents himself wdth much enlarging the opening; destroying the fungus when ii arises; and afterwards keeping it down by pressure ; and, when this lengthened treatment is finished, he lets nature grow it out. If this is simpli- fying the cure of sandcrack, or if this is the new and efficient me- thod, I must yet adhere to those I have so long tried, and never yet saw fail. Mr. Budd is also a little severe on Mr. White’s method of firing the fissure, by which a glue-like matter becomes an artificial and temporary bond of union till new horn is formed, and the open- ing closed by ultimate connexion. Mr. White does not appear to me to expect more than this ; nor do I think it can be gathered, that he expected this glue-like matter to come from the horn; but, from the stimulus afforded, it springs from the secreting surface below : and if this plan at once destroys the fungus, and plugs up the open- ing, it must be a good one. It should be also remembered that, in country practice, a quick mode must often be adopted; the patients lay wide, and are not all of them daily under the eye of the practitioner. This plan of Mr. White’s is not, I confess, the one I prefer, but I have seen it very successfully practised. When a sandcrack is the efect of injury done to the coronet, the rising edges of the horn must be reduced almost to the quick, and the whole of the surrounding portion also thinned. Having done this. 570 SANDCIIACK. [C/m XX. draw a line of sufficient depth, not to penetrate the quick, across the inferior limit of the crack, either with a drawing knife, rasp, or firing iron ; which will prevent the further extension of the fissure. After this, bandage up; but if any inflammation remains in the original wound of the coronet, do not bandage tightly over that. In the usual cases of sandcrack, the state of the opening must be first carefully attended to. When, either from pressure, the original depth of the injury, or when dirt has got into the wound, and suppu- ration has taken place, were an attempt made at once to close and bind up the opening, very extensive mischief would be the conse- quence. In such cases the hard edges of the horn should be first removed, and the surrounding portions thinned considerably ; after which the opening should be dressed with a pledget of tincture of myrrh with aloes, friars balsam, &c. &c. ; and over this another thick pledget spread with defensive ointment may be placed. If the irritation and inflammation are considerable, apply a poultice over all. In case of underrunnings and detachments of horn, the separated portions must be removed. But as this will seldom happen, conse- quently the removal of more than the edges is not often necessary. In a few days, by repeating a similar mode of dressing, the dirt will be evacuated, the parts will heal, harden, and become dry ; when the process about to be recommended for common cases, without suppuration, may be proceeded on. When a sandcrack appears that shews no signs of suppuration, although it has completely penetrated the horn, and a little blood or moisture has shewn itself at the edges ; proceed to thin the hoof around it, and next, by means of a camel’s hair pencil, introduce within the edges a small quantity of solution of lunar caustic, as ten grains to a dram of water ; or butter of antimony may be used, though I prefer the former. Bandage the hoof up moderately tight for two days, then again examine the fissure ; when, if the oozing is stopped, and no inflammation appears, proceed to draw a line of a moderate depth with a sharp firing iron, a very little above the tipper limit of the crack, and another just beyond the lower limit also, and afterwards bandage as directed below. If preferred, these lines of separation may be made with a rasp, or fine drawing knife ; but I have commonly chosen the iron, as I think the seared line of distinction stronger and more perfect than the rasped or cut one. But in case no moisture at all has appeared at the crack, and on ex- amination with a probe it is clear that the fissure has not reached the vascular parts underneath ; then the insertion of any caustic matter is unnecessary ; the wasting two days for probable consequences is likewise equally so; and the completion oi the treatment for the above state, and the commencement of the treatment for this, will be as follows. The horse being shod with a bar shoe, and the hoof either pared awav in a line with the crack ; or otherwise the shoe chambered, so that the hoof immediately under the fissure may not press at all on the shoe (in a strong hoof the former perhaps is proper, in a weak C/