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i

E L E M E'N T S

O F

NATURAL HISTORY

AND

CHEMISTRY.

%

By M. FOURCRQT;

V '

DOCTOR OF THE FACULTY OF MEDICINE AT PARIS, OE
THE ROYAL -ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, & C.

P r an sited from the Icijl Paris Edition, 1789, being the
third, in 5 vols 8vo.

V/ I T H

An Alphabetical Comparative View of the Ancient anclModern
Names of Chemical Substances, with all the Tables
and a Complete In dex.

To which is prefixed by the Transi.ator,

A PREFACE, containing Strictures on the Hiftory and prefent
State of Chemistry ; with Obfervations on the Pofitions
Fads, and Arguments, urged for and againffc.the Antiphlo-
gistic Iheory, and the New Nomenclature,1 by
MefTrs Lavoisier, Priestley, Kir wan, Keir, Sage' &c.

. I N T H R E L V O L U hi R s.

V O L. III.

L O N D O N:

(Timed for C. Elliot and T. Kay, at Dr Cullen’s
~L'' ’ Strand; and C. Elliot, Edinburgh,

. m,dcc,xg.

ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS
LIBRARY

CLASS

5>

ACCN.

1 Xi 93

SOURCE

DATE

OF

»HYSICIANS

OF

%

ELEMENTS

0 F

NATURAL HISTORY

AND

CHEMISTRY.

PART III. continued .

CHAP. VII.

Of Vegetable Acids, formed by the Action of Fire , and by

the Nitric Acid.

IT has been long known to chemifts, that many ve-
getable matters afford, by diftillation, phlegms, or
acid liquors : thefe faline fubftances, altered by fire,
were, however, but little attended to. Since jfuch a
number of acids have been difcovered, really diftinft
from one another, either in their intimate nature, or in
the proportion of their principles, many of thefe falts
have been found to poffefs peculiar and diffinftive pro-
perties. It has been alfo afcertained that fome acids aft,
like heat, on vegetable matters, and that the nitric acid,
Vol, III, A in

2 • Vegetable Acids.

in particular, converts mod of them into acids. Thefe
new, or newly modified falts, need to be carefully exa-
mined, in order that we may acquire a knowledge of
their nature. We cannot avoid remarking, in the firffc
place, that there muft be a general analogy of nature,
or formation, among vegetable acids, produced by the
a&ion of heat : On account of that analogy, we give
them the generic name of empyreumatic falts; and
apply to each of them, as a fpecific diftinclion, the fyl-
lable pyro, joined to a term indicating the origin of the
fait; thus we fay, the pyro-tartareous , the pym-mucous.-
and the pyro- ligneous acids.

§ I. Of the Pyro-Tartareous Acid.

JT has been already mentioned, that, by the diftillation

of the tartareous acidulum, an acid phlegm is obtain-
ed, which is not the pure tartareous- acid, but that acid
altered in a particular manner. The hydrogenous gas,
and the carbonic acid gas, that are, at the fame time,
difengaged, (hew plainly that fuch an alteration muff
take place ; for thefe can only be produced in confe-
quence of the decompofition of the acid of tartar. As
this alteration is owing to the a&ion of heat, and as an
oil, mixed with the diftilled acid, is at the fame time
volatilized, which modifies its colour, we have there-
fore called that acid the pyro-tartareous , and its faline
combinations pyro-tartarites, according to the laws of
our nomenclature.

The firfl chemifts who made experiments on this
matter with any degree of accuracy, afcertained, that,
by diftilling about a quarter of a pound of tartar, there
might be obtained an acid phlegm of a very pungent

fmell,'

Vegetable Acids,

fmell, or pyro-tartareous acid. The academicians of
Dijon reprefent the fecondary rectification or diftillation
of this acid, which has been recommended by fo many
authors, as attended with one very great difficulty : — ■
notwithftanding every precaution which they could a-
dopt to moderate the fire, and give room to the va-
pours, they always found the liquid to rife fo quickly as
to burfl the veffels containing it into pieces. This phe-
nomenon they attribute to the aCtion of gas produced
by the decompolition of the acid, and coroprelTed 'by
the oil ; which preffure it at length overcomes, as it is
more dilated. Befides, the rectification is not very ne-
ceffary, as the acid feparated from the oil by the flill-
pipe, is fo pure as to exhibit all its diftinCtive characte-
rises.

The pyro-tartareous acid has an empyreumatic tafle
and fmell. It does not redden violets, but it produces
that effeCt on turnfole and blue paper : It difengages the
carbonic acid from its bafes with a lively effervescence.
With the earths and alkalis it forms Tales very different
from thofe which the tttrtareous acid forms with the
fame bafes. Thefe faline compounds have not yet been
examined j only, we know the pyro-tartarites of potafh
and foda to be foluble in cold water, and cryflallizable :
the acid decompofies nitrate of filver, producing from it
a grey precipitate ; it by degrees renders nitrate of
mercury turbid ; it does not decompofe calcareous mu-
riate , and the fulphunc acid decompofes its neutral
falts by diftillation.

Chemiffs, before hydrogene, carbonaceous mattery
and oxigene, were underflood to be the foie and genu-
ine component principles of all vegetable acids, confli-
luting different acids, only by being united in different
proportions, had adopted opinions very remote from the

A 2 truth/

4 Vegetable Acids •

truth, concerning the nature of this acid, obtained by
diftillation from tartar. Venel averted it to be acid of
nitre. M. Monnet concluded, from a more accurate in-
veftigation of its nature, that it was muriatic acid dif-
guifed by oil and mucilage. Eut, although Scheele
found' tartar to contain a little muriatic acid, yet the
cubic form of the neutral fait produced by the union of
the pyro-tartareous acid with foda, and the precipitation
of nitrate of mercury by this acid, the twro faffs on
which M. Monnet eftablifhes the identity of the pyro-
tartareous with the muriatic acid, are not fufficient evi-
dence to induce modern chemifts to alfent to the con-
clufion deduced from them. Befides, the chemifls of
Dijon have repeated the fame experiments without ob-
taining the fame refults ; nor have Meffrs Berthollet,
Spielman, and Corvinus, been more fuccefsful. On the
contrary, it is highly probable, that the principles of
the pyro-tartareous acid, are the fame with thofe of the
acid of tartar itfelf ; and that the two acids differ only
in the proportion of their principles : the fmell and taffe
of this empyreumatic acid, its not being fufceptible of
cryftallization, and all its other properties, and flill
more, -the difengagement of oil and carbonic gas. from
the tartareous acidulum, when the pyro-tartareous acid
is formed, — concur to prove the truth of what is here
after ted.

The charaffer of this empyreumatic acid has not yet
beat fufficiently inveftigated, to enable us to determine
the order of its chemical affinities with earthy, alkaline,
and metallic bafes.

§ IE

Vegetable Acids.

5

5 II. Of the Pyro-Mucous Acid.

’J'HE acid which we denominate Pyro-mucous, is that
obtained from infipid, faccharine, gummy, farinace-
ous, &c. mucilages, which was, at firft, denominated by
M. de Morveau, the fyrupous acid. Chemifrs have
long know that fugar affords, by diftiilation, a pretty
ftrong acid phlegm. Neuman, Cartheufer, Geoffroy,
and Bucquet have made particular mention of that acid,
but without having examined its properties. M. Schric-
kel has examined its nature with more minute attention
than any other chemift.

By diftilling 16 ounces of fugar, M. Schrickel obtain-
ed 6 drachms of phlegm, which paffed into the receiver
in the form of white vapour, and was condenfed'into
un&uous flrice, of a pungent fmell, like that of horfe-
radilh, or bitter almonds, roafted ; of an acid, acrid, and
bitter tafle, and of a red yellow colour. He rectified
this acid upon clay; it then paffed clear, with a lefs
pungent fmell, and a four tafle. This acid, when thus
purified, did not cryflallizc : but when expofed to cold,
the aqueous part froze, and that part which ftill re-
mained liquid became much more concentrated.

M. de Morveau obferved, when preparing the pyro-
mucous acid by the diftiilation of fugar, that the bot-
tom of the retort was corroded during the operation.
He does not attribute that to the acid, as it exhibits no
fuch property, when rectified, or when left long in the
glafs ; but rather to the attion and adhefion of the car-
bure of iron, which exifls in the coal that remains after
the decompofition of the fugar, and had been violently
heated. This acid, therefore, cannot be concentrated
by volatilizing the water that is united with it, as the

fait

i 'Vegetable Acids.

fait Is no lefs volatile than the fluid. This acid, accord-
ing to M. Morveau, exiftsin molaffes, and renders them
deliquefcent and not fufceptible of chryftallization.

The pyro-mucous acid, when concentrated by freezing,
is very pungent, and communicates a deep red to blue
vegetable colours. It produces red fpots on the fkin,
as was long ago obferved by Cartheufer ; and the fpots
thus produced, deflroy the epidermis before they difap-
pear. When expofed to fire, it is totally volatilized,
leaving no refidue, but a brown mark on the place
where it lay. Molt of it may be converted into car-
bonic acid gas, and hydrogenous gas, by diddling it,
with proper precautions, in clofe veffels : it now affords
a more copious carbonaceous refidue than when heated
in open veffels. A part is volatilized without alteration.

When combined with barytes, magnefia, lime, potafh,
foda, and ammoniac, it forms neutral falts, which we
cal! pyro-mucites , the properties of which haye not yet
been examined with fufficient care, but which differ
from all other known neutral falts. It difengages the
carbonic acid from all of thefe alkaline bafes with a
lively effervefcence.

The property of diffolving gold w7as formerly afcrib-
ed to the fpirit bf honey ; but it appears for certain,
that the pyro-mucous acid does not affecl either that
metal, or platina, or filver, or even mercury ; but it
might poffibly diffolve the oxides of thefe metals. This
acid corrodes lead, becoming opaque itfelf on the occa-
fion ; which alteration it owes to the oxide of lead which
it forms. Pyromucite of lead is in oblong cryftals. It
acts upon copper, and becomes green by the reaftion of
that metal; it diffolves tin; it affs upon iron, and com-
bines with that metal to form cryftals.

7

Vegetable Aeids.

Its chemical affinities ha.ve been determined by M. de
Ivlorveau in the following order ; Potaffi, foda‘, barytes,
lime, magnefia, ammoniac, aluminous earth, metallic oxi-
des, water, alcohol.

This empyreumatic acid has not, as yet, been applied
to any purpofe. Spirit of honey, of manna, &c. were
formerly made life of in pharmacy j but the ufe of them
has been long given up.

§ III. Gf the Tyro-ligneous Acid .

W°OD’. efpecially beech, birch, and box-trees, afford,
by diftillation, a brown acid liquor, of a pretty
ftrong, peculiar fmell, which reddens blue vegetable co-
lours, and effervefces with alkaline carbonates. Boer-
haave was acquainted with the produff of box, juniper,
oak, and gayac : but the chemiils who have repeated
Boerhaave’s procefs, have not examined the nature and
peculiar properties of this acid. M. Goettling, in the
year 1779, firfl publifhed, in Crell’s Journal, a memoir
on the acid of wood, and more efpecially on its union
with alcohol. That .chemifl diftillecl the bark of birch
in an iron retort ; he obtained a brown, oily, acid pro-
duff, which he left to fettle for three months 5 at the
end of that time, he obferved drops of oil fwimming on
its furface, which having feparated by filtration, he pour-
ed into the filtrated liquor a folution of potafli. A
lively effervefcence took place ; the liquor affumed a
blood-red colour, and afforded, after being faturated
with alkali, and evaporated, a black fait, which was
melted in an iron pan, and purified by a fecond folution,
and a fecond evaporation.

A ^ The

S' Vegetable Acids.

The pyro-ligncous acid may be alfo rectified by difl.il-
lation, according to M. Goettling. The pyro-lignite of
potafh, formed of this rectified acid, becomes very hot
when brought into contact with the fulphuric acid, and
affords pyro-ligneous acid in a Hate of confiderable pu-
rity. That chemift, to whom we are indebted for thefe
faffs, obferves, that the pyro-ligneous acid, when fepa-
rated by the fulphuric acid, has no longer an empyreu-
matic odour, but a fmell of garlic.

The chemift s- of Dijon extraffed this acid from beech,
by diflillation, and afterwards rectified the liquid pro-
duct : 55 ounces of this wood, well dried, and in fhavings,
afforded 17 ounces of reffified acid, of an amber colour,
not mixed with oil, and of which the gravity was to that
of diftilled water in the prpportion of 49 to 48 : 23^
ounces of lime-water were required to faturate an ounce
of this acid. When expofed to a gentle heat, it afeends
in vapour. A ffrong heat decompofes this, as well as
all other vegetable acids. It cannot be obtained in a
concrete form.

It combines with earthy and alkaline bafes, and forms
with them peculiar falts which we call pyro-lignites of
aluminous earth, barytes, magnefia, lime,, potafh, foda,
and ammoniac. Thefe falts have not yet been exa-
mined with fufficient care, to enable us to give here a
particular account of them. M. Eloy Bourfier deCIervaux
has communicated, in the Leffures of Chemiftry of Dijon,
fome experiments very fuitable to determine the eleffive
attraffions of the pyro-ligneous acid. Calcareous and
barytic earths adhere to it with greater obftinacy than
the alkalis ; lime has a flronger affinity with it than ba-
rytes 5 and magnefta a flronger than ammoniac : and
even thefe .affinities may ferve to diftinguifh it from moft

other

9

Vegetable Acids .

other vegetable acids. It a&s alfo upon many of the
metals, and diffolves mod of their oxides.

All kinds of wood, it appears, would afford the fame
acid by diftillation ; for box, birch, and beech agree in
affording one acid. But much enquiry and many expe-
riments are neceffary, before we can be fully acquainted
with the chara&eriftic properties of this acid.

/

§ IV. Of Vegetable Acids, formed by the Nitric Acid.

jDERGMAN has proved, that the nitric acid converts
fugar into an acid, which, being at firft thought
peculiar and different from all others, was therefore cal-
led the Saccharine Acid. Scheele has fliown this fait to
be precifely the fame with that which is, in part, neu-
tralized by potafh, in fait of forrel : this very fait is there-
fore in every refpeft the fame with the oxalic acid. Se-
veral modern chemifls, and efpecially M. Berthollet, have
proved, that almoft all animal and vegetable matters af-
ford this acid, when treated with the acid of nitre. It
is therefore certain, that the bafe or radical principle of
the oxalic acid exifls in a great many bodies, and, in
general, in all bodies which have been formed by vege-
tation, or the funttions of animal life. The nitric acid
afts in an equal and uniform manner on all fuch fub-
ftances ; it always gives up to them either more or lefs
of its oxigene, and pafles into the flate of nitrous acid,
nitrous gas, or even azotic gas, according as it is de-
prived of a greater or a lefs proportion of its oxigene.
As the bafe, or radical principle of the oxalic acid, is
more or lefs copious in the various organic matters in
which it is found, thefe matters afford more or lefs of
this acid, when treated with nitric acid. At the fame

time,

t o Vegetable Acids «

time, when the acid of nitre is decompofed by organic
fubftances, together with nitrous or azotic gas5 there is
alfo difengaged a certain quantity of carbonic acid gas,
which proves the organic matter to have loft a part of
its carbonaceous fubftance, and, at the fame time, {hews
the oxalic acid, thus produced, to contain lefs of that
principle than the fubftance from which it is obtained.
Since a number of vegetable acids, particularly the tar-
tareous acid, &c. pafs into the ftate of oxalic acid, in
confequence of being expofed to the aftion of nitrous
acid ; and fince carbonic acid is difengaged while this
change takes place ; it follows plainly, therefore, that
all the vegetable acids have the fame radical principle,
and differ only in their proportions of oxigene.

In the Nouvelles de la Repub lique de Lettres for the
year 1785, No. 42, and 44, it was related, that M.
Kofegarten, by diftilling nitric acid on camphor, eight
times fucceftively, had obtained from that matter a con-
crete acid, in parallelipiped cryftals, of bitter tafte, and
capable of reddening the tinffure of violets and turnfole.
That fait, according to this chemift, differs from oxalic
acid, as being incapable of feparating lime from the mu-
riatic acid. With potafh it forms a fait in regular hexa-
gons ; with foda, a fait in irregular cryftals ; with am-
moniac, prifmatic or needled cryftals ; with magnefia, a
foluble, pulverulent fait. It diffolves copper., iron, bif-
muth, zinc, arfenic, and cobalt. But thefe fatts, which
have not yet received confirmation, are not fufficient to
enable us to enter into a minute account of the proper-
ties of this acid, which is, perhaps, nothing but a parti-
cular modification of fome one of thofe of which we
have already fpoken. And if farther experiments on
this acid fliall difcover it to poffefs peculiar properties,
different from thofe of the other acids, its nature and

chara&eriftic

Vegetable Acids . 1 1

charateiflic properties muft then be examined under
the name of the camphoric acid, and its neutral falts
will be called camphorates.

M. Brugnatelli difcovered, in the year 1787, that
cork, on which he diftilled four times its own weight of
nitrous acid, left a yellowifh mafs, thick, acid, foluble in
water, and of a four or rather a bitter tafte. I his acid
is not fufceptible of cryftallization ; when evaporated by
a ftrong heat, it takes the form of a vifcous mafs, like
wax, which is fo foft that it may be moulded with the
fingers. It is foluble in alcohol ; on burning coals it is
reduced to a coal without inflammation ; with earths and
alkalis it forms deliquefcent falts, many of which cryftal-
lize: laftly, it has as ftrong an affinity with lime as the
oxalic acid, and forms with that earth a fait that is not
foluble in water, but may be diffolyed in muriatic acid.
Without prefuming to fpeak decifively of the peculiar
nature of this acid, M. Brugnatelli appears, however, to
think it different from the oxalic acid. Future experi-
ments muft determine whether this be really a peculiar
acid meriting a feparate examination ; and we muft, in
the fame manner, leave the particular nature of that
which has been difccvered by Meffrs Prouft and Angulo,
in the neighbourhood of Madrid, on the furfaces of grey
peafe, in veficulm at the extremity of the hairs of that
leguminous plant, equally undetermined.

Thus we have given an account of all known vege-
table acids. We have ftill, however, to treat of thofe
which are formed by fermentation. But as the chief,
nay, the only one of thefe acids that is known, is produ-
ced in confequence of an alteration taking place on li-
quors that are already fermented, we will give its hiftory
immediately after that of fpirituous fermentation, and its
prodpa.

CHAP,

Saccharine Matter ,

1 2

CHAP. VIII.

Of Saccharine Matter , Gums , and Mucilages.

TpHE faccharine matter, which many chemifts think
JL to be a fort of elfential fait, is found in a great
many vegetables, and is to be confidered as one of their
immediate principles. — The maple, the birch, the red
beet, the parfnip, the grape, wheat, &c. are found to
contain it. Margraf extracted it from mod of thefe ve-
getables. The petals of many flowers, and the nefta-
ria placed in thofe organs prepare a principle of this
kind.

The fugar cane, arundo faccharifera,\s the plant which
contains the moft of it, and from which it is extracted
with the greatefl advantage. The fugar canes are
crufhed to pieces between two iron cylinders, in a per-
pendicular pofition. The expreffed juice falls upon a
plain furface underneath j and is called melajfes. It runs
off this furface into a boiler with allies and lime, where
it is boiled and flammed ; and, in the fame manner, it
is fucceflively boiled and fkimmed in three other boilers;
and, after undergoing thefe boilings, it receives the

name

Gums and Mucilages . 1 3

name of fyrup. It is, after this, boiled anew, by a
flrong heat, and for a confiderable time, with lime and
alum. After being fufficiently boiled and concentrated,
it is poured into a veffel called the cooler. When it is fo
cool that the finger may be dipped in it without injury,
it is poured into large barrels Handing over cifferns, and
the bottoms of which are perforated with holes Hopped
with canes. In the barrels, the fyrup takes the form of
a folid mafs, part of it running off into the cifferns. The
fugar, when thus rendered concrete, is yellow and unclu-
ous ; it is now called inufcovado. In the Sugar IHands,
it is refined by boiling it, and then pouring it fluid into
inverted cones of earthen ware, called pans. That part
which cannot be rendered concrete, runs through a hole
in each of the pans, into a pot placed below : it is called
coarfe fyrup. The bafe of the fugar-loaf is taken away,
and white fugar in powder put into its place, and prefled
well down : The whole is then covered with pure, moiff
clay. The water of the clay filtrates through the fu-
gar, carrying off with it a portion of the mother water
of the fugar, which runs out by the holes in the pans, and
is received into new pots. This is called fine fyrup , as
being purer than the former. A fecond layer of clay is
Jaid on, when the firff becomes dry, and the water fil-
trates through a fecond time : When the water con-
tained in the fecond layer of clay is drained off, the
loaves are removed into a Hove \o dry. At the end of
eight or ten days thefe loaves are broken, and fent into
Europe in the form of brown fugar, where it is refined
into fugar of different qualities.

The refining of fugar is accompliflied by boiling it in
lime-water, and with bullock’s blood, flamming it two or
three times, filtrating the liquor, and running it in pans,
to give it the fliape of loaves. Thefe loaves are then

coated

I tj. Saccharine Matter ?

• i

coated over with wet clay, the water of which is fuffcre<$
to filtrate through them. The filtration is repeated with
frefh clay, till the fugar become diffidently white. The
loaves are then removed into a flove, and at the end of
eight days are wrapped up in paper for fale. The fyrup
which cannot be cryflallized is called molajfes.

Chemifts have univerfally been of opinion, that thefe
different operations feparated from fugar a fat matter,
and thereby rendered it fufceptible of cryftallization.
Bergman thinks, that the ufe which the lime ferves, is,
to carry off the excefs of acid, which hinders it from
taking a folid form. The acid can be no other than
the pyro-mucous acid which is formed by hear, as we
have related in the foregoing chapter. As the liquor is
expofed, during the operation, to a violent evaporation,
it becomes a granulated, irregular mafs, agreeably to
what has- been already obferved of fulphate of zinc.

Sugar confifts of a peculiar acid, combined with a lit-
tle alkali, and altered by a good deal of oil, or greafy
matter. It cryflallizes in truncated, hexahedral prifms.
In this date it is called fugar-candy. It affords, by di-
flillation, water, pyro-mucous acid, and a few drops of
empyreumatic oil. There is at the fame time difengaged
from it a confiderable quantity of carbonic acid gas, and of
hydrogenous gas, with coal diffolved in it. The refidue
is a fpongy, light coal, containing a little carbonate of
potafh.

Sugar is inflammable : When laid on burning coals-,
it melts and fwells ; it exhales a very pungent acid va-
pour ; it takes a brown yellow colour, in confequence
of which it receives the name of caramel. It diffolves very
readily in water. It communicates to it a confiderable
conflftency, forming with it a fort of faccharine muci-
lage, which has received the name of fyrup. This fy-

Fup?-

Oums and Mucilages.

rup, when diluted in water, is fufceptible of fermenta-
tion ; it may even be converted into a vinous liquor, and
alcohol diftilled from it.

Bergman prepared from all the different faccharinc
matters, efpecially from fugar, oxalic acid by means of
the nitric acid. To obtain that acid from thefe matters,
put into a retort one part of fugaf in powder, with fix
of nitric acid : Expofe the mixture to a moderate heat ;
continue the evaporation for fome time after red va-
pours ceafe to pafs ; leave the folution to cool ; and it
then precipitates white needled or prifmatic cryflals,
which are concrete oxalic acid.

Sugar is very much ufed. — It is an article of food which,
when taken in too large a quantity, heats the animal fyflem;
It is much ufed in pharmacy, being the bafis of fyrups,
lozenges, and fome other preparations. It contributes
to diffolve and fufpend in water, refins, oils, &c. It
ferves to preferve fruits reduced to jelly. It may be even
confidered as a medicine ; for it is incifive, aperitive,
and, in a flight degree, tonic and ftimulant : And accord-
ingly, there are fome inflances related, in which difor-
ders arifing from obftru&ions have been cured by the
continued ufe of fugar.

There are fome juices of plants which have a tafle of
' fugar. Manna and neftar are of this kind. Manna is ob-
tained from the leaves of fir, oak, juniper, & c. and maple-
trees, &c. The afli, which is very plenteous in Calabria
and Sicilly, affords that which is commonly fold. It runs
naturally from thofe trees, but is obtained in flill greater
abundance by making notches in the bark of the tree. — -
That which is received on chips of wood, or fmall flicks
introduced into artificial apertures in the trees, takes the
form of hollow Aalafiites, and is called jnanna in tears.
Manna in flakes runs down the bark, and contains fome

impurities.

Saccharine Matter ,

i $ /

impurities. The inferior unftuous fort contains many
extraneous matters, and is formed from the refufe pieces
of the two former. It is always humid, and frequently
altered. The tafte of manna is mild and infipid : That
which the larch tree that abounds in Dauphiny affords,
and that of the alhagi, which grows in Perfia, around
Mount Tauris, are not in ufe ; the latter bears the name
of tereniabin. — Manna is foluble in water , it affords, by
diflillation, the fame products as fugar. There is ex-
tracted from it, by means of lime and white of eggs, a
matter refembling fugar, which, when treated with the
nitric acid, affords concrete oxalic acid.

It is given as a purgative, in dozes of from one to two
or three ounces j or, when it is given as a difcuiTive, a
few drachms of it are diluted in a large proportion of
water.

Another fort of proper juice, is that called gum , or
mucilage . This fub fiance is very plenteous in the vege-
table kingdom. It is found in a great many roots :
Young ftejtns and leaves, immediately after their appear-
ance, contain a good deal of it. This principle may be
known by its vifeous, adhefive property. >In the feafon
when the juice is mod copious, it runs naturally down
' the bark of trees, and thickens into gum on the furface.
The gum is foluble in water, to which it communicates .
a thick, vifeid confiftency. This folurion, known by the
name of mucilage , becomes, when evaporated, dry, tranf-
parent, and friable.

Gum burns without emitting any perceptible flame. — *

It melts, and fwells upon coals. It affords, by diflillation,
a good deal of water and pyro-mucous acid, a little thick
brown oil, and carbonic acid gas*, mixed with hydroge-
nous gas : The refidual coal is very bulky, and contains
a little carbonate of potafh.

We

Giims ar.d Mucilages » 1 7

We know of three forts of gum that are ufed in me-
' dicine, and in the arcs.

1. The gam of the apricot, the pear, and the plum-
tree, &c. It is either white, yellow, or reddifh; the bed
of this fort of gum may be applied to the fame purpofes
with the other gums. A kind of gummy juice, of a
beautiful orange-colour, flows front the elm ; confiderable
quantities of it are fometimes found on the bark of the
tree. I have found this gum to poffefs the properties of
infipidity, infolubility, vifeidity, with the other character-
iftics belonging to fuch juices.

2. Gum Arabic, which runs from the acacia in Egypt
and Arabia. Gum Senegal is of the fame kind ; it is ufed
in medicine as a mitigating and relaxing remedy. Cray-
ons, and fome other fuch compofitions, are indebted to it
for their confiftency. It is ufed in various arts.

3. Gum Adraganth, which flows from the adraganth
of Crete; Tragacantha-Cretica. It is adminiflered in the
fame cafes as Gum Arabic ; the folution of it is fome-
v/hat thicker than the folution of Gum Arabic ; it foon
depofites vifeid flakes, and requires more water to dif-
folve it.

Mucilages, of the fame nature with gums, are obtain-
ed from various plants. The roots of mallows, marili-
mallows, the greater comfrey,'the bark of elm, linefeed,
the feeds of quinces, &c. afford, by maceration in water,
vifeous fluids, which, when evaporated to drynefs, afford
real gums. In medicine, decoftions of thefe plants are
ufed inflead of folutions of gums.

All of thefe matters, chemically confiderddj appear af
firft view to be nearly llmple bodies ; for chemical ope'
rations often offer to our obfervation fubllances of a ge-
latinous form, much like that of gums and mucilages 5
yet, front thefe products of vegetation, which appear td
Vol. Ill, B for hi

1 8 Saccharine Matter , &c.

form a fort of excrementitious humour, are' extra&ecT Wa«
ter, liquid pyro-mueous acid, carbonic acid, an oily prin-
ciple, and fixed alkali United to a coaly refidue. This
refidue likewife contains a fixed earth, the nature of
which is (till unknown-.

When mucilages and gums are treated- with nitric
acid, and its a&ion affilted by heat, they afford oxalic
acid in cryffcals. They contain therefore the oily or ra-
dical principle. Which, in combination with oxigene, oon-
ffitutes this- acid.

This analogy between mucilage and faccharine matter
is farther obfervable, in that the fmell of burnt gum is
much the fame with that of caramel — that the produtts
which both afford by diftillation are of a firtiilar nature—
and that the balk and levity of the refidual coal are the
fame for both. Some of thofe fruits which becomer
faccharine, fuch as apricots, pears, &e. exfude, when ripe,
a real gum. That fort of dry mucilage which we are
hereafter to examine under the name of amylaceous fa-
cula , is converted into faccharine matter by germination.
Thefe fa&s, and many others which might be joined'
with thefe, {hew that there is a near relation between
fugar and gum. Perhaps the infipid or gummy muci-
lage paffes by a fort of fermentation into the date of a
faccharine body. Were this an afccrtamed fa&, this
fermentation would come in order before that which
Boerhaave has called fpiritous fermentation ; and muff
eonffantly precede it, both in the natural procefs of ve-
getation, and in the operations which art employs to pro-
duce the faccharine tafte in barley, &c.

CHAP,

/

fixed Oils t

19

CHAP. IX.

Of Oils of a ficed Nature y that are extracted by

ExpreJJion .

OILS are proper juices, of a fat} un&uous nature,
either fluid or folid, not foluble in water, liable td
burn with flame, volatile in various degrees : They are
contained in the proper veffels, or in particular veficulte.
Thefe bodies are found exifling in two flates in vege-
tables : They are cither combined with other principles,
as in extracts, mucilage, &c. or they are free, and not
united with any other principle. Thefe latter oily juices
are thofe of which we are here to fpeak,

Chemifts have fuppofed the exiflence of a Ample oily
principle, as well as of a primitive fait. This oily prin-
ciple, combined with different filbftances, and modified
by thofe combinations, conflituted, according to them,
the various forts of oils that were obtained by analyfing
vegetables. The chara&ers which they afcribed to thac
Ample primitive oil were, great fluidity, an high degree
of volatility, privation of colour and fmell : — It burnt
with flame and fraoke : — It did not combine with water;

B 2 ■ — H

Fixed Oils.

#3

— It was thought to confiff of water and an acid com-
bined with an earth and phlogiflon. It is certain that
oils, when decompofed, always afford a fmall quantity of
acid, and a good deal of hydrogenous gas: earth con-
ffitutes but a very fmall part of them, for they leave but
very little fixed Carbonaceous refidue. This notion of
the oily principle deferves to be viewed only in the light
of an bypothefis.

Oils are never formed by any but organic beings ;
and fuch bodies in the mineral kingdom as are of an oily
nature, always owe their origin to the affion of vege-
table or animal life. It is even highly probable, that
vegetables are the only bodies in which oils are formed ;
and that they pafs, without alteration, from vegetable in-
to animal bodies.

The oily juices of vegetables are diffinguifhed into fix-
ed oils, and volatile oils.

Fixed oils, called alfo fat oils,fweet oils , oils by expref-
fion , are very un&uous : they have generally a mild and
infipid taffe, and no fmell ; the heat requifite to volatilize
them is above that of boiling water ; and they never take
fire, till they are brought to that degree of heat which
is requifite to volatilize them. — It is for this purpofe the
wick ufed in burning fixed oil in lamps is employed ; it
heats the oil to volatilization.

Moff fixed oils are fluid, and require no confiderable
degree of cold to' render them folid: Others, again, lofe
their fluidity by the flighted: cold ; and, laftly, there are
others always folid : Thefe laff are called, but vejy im-
properly, vegetable butters .

b ixed oils never flow from the furfaces of vegetables :
T hey are contained in the kernels, the pippins, and e-
mullive feeds. They are extra£led by bruifing the little

cells

Fixed Oils.

2 I

cells in which they are contained ; that is, by pounding
and fqueezing.

Fixed oils, when expofed to the air, are altered, and
become rancid ; their acid is liberated ; they lofe the pro-
perties which they poffefled, and acquire others, in con-
fequence of which they are nearly affimilated to volatile
oils. Water and alcohol carry off the acid, and thus de-
ftroy their rank tafle, but never reftore them to their
primary flate. M. Berthollet has difeovered, that fat
oils, when expofed to air, by being thinly fpread over
the furface of water, become thick, and alfume pretty
much the fame appearance with wax. It is at prefent
known as an undeniable fa£l, that this thickening of oils
is owing to their abforbing oxigene from the atmofphere ;
for all fubflances that contain this principle, and refign
it to fixed oils, — as for inftance, many of the acids, efpe-
cially the oxigenated muriatic acid, and metallic oxides, —
thicken fixed oils, and reduce them to a flate in which
they refemble wax.

Fixed oils afford by diflillation a little water, contain-
ing a very acrid pungent acid, fome light oil, a thick oil,
and a large quantity of hydrogenous gas mixed with
carbonic acid : They leave but very little refidual coal.
By diflilling thefe products a fecond lime, pure febacic
acid is obtained, of which we will have occafion to fpeak
in the animal kingdom, and fome oil, flill lighter than
what was before obtained. — This oil is improperly called
philofopheF s oil. The alchemifls prepared it by diflilling,
feveral times fucceffively, a brick impregnated with fixed
oil. It is not perfectly known how far this decompoii-
tion may be carried : formerly, indeed, it was faid that
a fixed oil might be reduced to a free inflammable prin-
ciple j into water, acid, air, or earth.

B 2 £pld

n

Fixed Oils.

Cold water effe&s no alteration on fat oils ; it purifies
them, by carrying off a part of their mucilage, which is
likewife precipitated when they are fubmitted to com-
buftion, and is the principle that renders them fufcep-
tible of fermentation, and liable to become rancid. — It
is well known, that water call; upon thefe oils, when
burning, inftead of quenching, caufes them to burn with
new violence ; the reafon of which is, that the water,
being decompofed, fupplies oxigene to the oil, and at
the fame time gives out a good deal of hydrogenous gas.
When the vapour which proceeds from fixed oil in com-
buftion, is colle&ed into a chimney terminating in a
worm-pipe, a confiderable quantity is obtained ; which
proves this immediate pripciple of vegetables to contain
hydrogenous gas.

Fixed oils do not combine with filiceous earth : With
clay they form a foft pafle, which is employed in chemi-
cal manipulations under the name of fat lute.

They combine, by particular proceffes, with magnefia,
and are thereby reduced to a faponaceous hate.

Lime combines with them, but not in a very difcern-
ible manner, when the combination is immediate. Pure
alkalis combine eafily with fat oils, producing in this
combination what is called foap.

In making foap, oil of olives or fweet almonds is
triturated with a concentrated lixivium of foda, render-
ed cauftic by lime ; and this preparation is known by
the name of foap-lye. — In the courfe of a few days, the'
mixture becomes thick, and forms medicinal foap. Com-
mon foap is prepared by boiling the lixivium with alter-
ed oil ; it is then white. Green foap is made up of
the refufe of olives and potafii.

Soap diffolves in pure water : Heat decompofes it, dif-
pr.gaging from it phlegm, oil, and ammoniac formed in

confetjweocs

Fixed Oils*

confequence of the decompofition of the alkali and the
fixed oil ; the coaly refidue contains a good deal of fixed
alkali. This artificial compolit-ion of ammoniac feems to
prove, that there is azote in the fixed alkali, which re-
afts upon the hydrogene of the oil.

Since water decompofes foap, as has been remarked
by M. Thouvenel; an infoluble calcareous foap is then
formed and depoficed in fmall lumps. Acids .poured on
foap, difengage the oil, fcmewhat altered.

Ammoniac does not eafily combine with fixed oils :
however, by long trituration, the mixture acquires fome
degree of confiftency, and becomes opaque.

Fixed oils combine with weak acids to form peculiar
foaps. MefTrs Achard, Ccumette, and Macquer, have ex-
amined thefe compounds. M. Achard formed them by-
pouring {lowly a quantity of concentrated fulphuric acid
upon the fixed oil. By continued trituration, this mix-
ture is formed into a brown mafs, foluble in water and
alcohol. The oil obtained from it by the intervention
of alkalis, is always more or lefs concrete, as well as that
obtained by diflillation. Macquer advifes to prepare
this foap by pouring acid on the oil ; but he informs us,
that an acid foap, formed in this manner, is fcarce foluble
in water. That which is prepared of concentrated ful-
phuric acid, triturated with common alkaline foap, is
more foluble. The concentrated fulphuric acid blackens
fixed oils, and affimilates them to bitumens. This phe-
nomenon feems to be produced by the rea&ion of the
hydrogene of the oil on the oxigene of the acid.

The fuming nitrous acid, blackens fixed oils inflanta-
neoufly, and caufes fuch as are of a dry nature to kindle
and emit a flame. Thofe, again, which cannot be fo
readily dried, require, to kindle them, a mixture of this
acid with the acid of fulphur, as has been fhown by

B 4 Rouelle,

Fixed Oils .

H

Rouelle, the elder', in his Memoir on the Inflammation
pf Oils. Academy , Tear 1747.

The muriatic and the carbonic acids aft with but little
ftrength on fixed oils. — The former of thefe, however,
in a concentrated ftate, combines with them to a certain
degree, according to M. Cornette. The oxigenated
muriatic acid thickens them a good deal, and feems to
make them pafs, by abforbing their oxigene, into a ftate
in which they bear a great refemblance to wax.

We know nothing of the aftion of the other acids on
fixed oils. It appears that they do not combine with
neutral falts. Several of thefe, and efpecially all calca-
reous falts, decompofe alkaline foap. In this inftance of
decompofition, particularly when fulphate of lime, or of
magnefia, which is often found in union with waters,
decompofes this foap, the fulphuric acid combines with
the fixed alkali of the foap, and thereby forms fulphate
of foda ; the lime or magnefia combines "with the oil,
and produces a fort of foap that is fcarce foluble, and
fwims in whitifti lumps on the furface of the water. This
is the caufe of the common appearance produced by
hard waters, which curdle foap, but do not diflolve it.

The aftion of hydrogenous gas on fixed oils has not
yet been examined.

Thefe oils diflolve fulphur, when their aftion is aflift-
ed by a boiling heat. The folution is of a dark red co-
lour, inclining to browm. It has a very fcetid fmell. It
depofites, by degrees, fulphur in cryftals. On diftilling
this combination, the fulphur is volatilized, being fo
completely diflolved in the hydrogenous gas that is difen-
gaged from the oil, that not an atom of it is to be af-
terwards found. This faft deferves to be more particu-
larly enquired into. There is alfo a little fulphureous
gas obtained by this decompofitiono

Fixed Oils.

2 5

Fixed oils Teem not to be fufceptible of combination
with pure metallic fubflances, excepting iron and cop-
per, upon which they acl in a fufficiently diftinft manner.
But they combine with metallic oxides, and form with
them thick concrete combinations, of a foapy appear-
ance, as is obfervable in the preparation of unguents
and plafters. Thefe preparations have not been yet
chemically examined : only we know, that fome metal”
lie oxides are reduced in the making up of plafters ; as,
for iriflance, oxide of copper in the Divine Flatter, and
litharge, or oxide of lead, in the Ointment de la mere.
In the affaying of metals, fixed oils are employed to re-
duce the metallic oxides. M. Berthollet has given an
ingenious and fimple procefs for effecting inflantaneoufly
a real combination between fixed oil and any metallic
oxide, that is, for preparing a metallic foap. It confifts
in pouring a metallic folution into a folution of common
foap. The acid of the metallic folution combines with
the fixed alkali of the foap ; and the metallic oxide is
then precipitated in union with die oil, to which it com-
municates a colour. In this manner, foap of a beautiful
green colour may be prepared with fulphate of cop-
per; and with fulphate of iron, a clear deep brown foap.
Thefe compounds might be very ufeful in painting.

Scheele has difeovered, that when oil of fweet al-
monds, olives, rapefeed, or lintfeed, is combined with
oxide of lead, with the addition of a little water, there
is a matter feparated from the oil, which fwims on the fur-
face of the liquor, and to which he has given the name
of the mild principle. On evaporating this fupernatant
water, the principle diffolved in it caufes it to take
the confiftency of fyrup ; when expofed to a flroug
heat, it takes fire : one part is volatilized, in diflillation,
without burning : the coal which it leaves is light : it

does

Fixed Oils .

2 6

does not cryftallize ; nor does it feem to be fufceptible
of fermentation. Nitric acid diftilled on this matter, four
times fucceflively, changes it into oxalic acid. This
mild principle of Scheele’s appears to be a fort of mu-
cilage.

Fixed oils diffolve bitumens, particularly amber ; but
they mull be affifted by the action of heat, in order to
effect this folution. They form a fort of greafy varnilh,
which does not readily become dry.

Fat oils may be diftinguilhed into three genera :

To the jirfl clafs belong fuch pure fixed oils as are
fixed by cold, are flowly thickened, form foaps with
acids, and are kindled only by a mixture of fulphur and
nitre. Such are,

1 . Oil of olives, obtained by bruifing that fruit between
two millftones, and preffing it in bags made of rufhes.
That which runs firft is called virgin oil ; that which is
obtained from mark fprinkled with water is not fo pure,
and depofites a lee j that obtained from unripe olives, is
the oleum omphacinum of the ancients. Oil of olives
freezes at io° degrees under Zero, in Reaumur’s ther-
mometer, or tOj above that point in Fahrenheit’s, and
will hand about twelve years without becoming rancid.

2. Oil of fweet almonds, extra&ed without the appli-
cation of heat, becomes very foon rancid : it freezes at
6° under o in Reaumur’s fcale, or 17! of Fahrenheit’s.

3* Oil of rapefeed, obtained from the feed of a kind
of cabbage called col/a.

4. Oil of ben, extracted from the ben nut of Egypt
and Arabia. It is very acrid, and deflitute of fmell. It
freezes very eafily.

The fecond genus comprehends oils fubjeft to become
dry, which are very eafily rendered thick, are not
iixed by the a&ion of cold, are kindled by the nitric acid,

an<3

Fixed Oils • 2

and form with fulphnric acid a fort of refin. Such
are,

1. Lintfeed oil, obtained by preffurc from lintfeed*
It is ufed for oily varnifhes, and in painting.

2. Oil of nuts, applied to the fame ufes.

3. Oil of carnations, or poppy feed ; which, as has
been fully proved by the Abbe Rozier, is not at all nar-
cotic.

4. Oil of hcmpfeed, which is very drying.

Under the third genus, we comprehend concrete fixed
oils, or vegetable butters ; among which we may diftin-
guifh. the following :

1. Butter of cacao, extracted from the cacao nut. —
There are four forts of cacao ; the large and the fmall
caracca, the berbice, and that of the iflands. This but-
ter is extra&ed from the nut by roafting, and fubfequent
boiling in water ; it is purified by melting it by a very
moderate heat.

2. The cocoa nut affords a fimilar butter.

3. Vegetable wax is of the fame nature, only more
folid. It is the production of China. It is there made
into yellow, white, or green candles, the colour vary-
ing with the manner in which the wax is extracted.
The catkins of birch and poplar afford a fmall quantity
of a fimilar wax. — That of Louifiana is more plenteous.
M. Berthollet eafily whitens it with oxigenated muriatic
acid.

Fixed oils are much ufed in the arts, and in medicine,
and are applied to various purpofes. In the latter they
are ufed as foftening, relaxing, calming, and laxative me-
dicines. Some of them are even purgative ; as, for in-
ftance, the oil of Ricinus, which has been found to de-
ftroy the tmnia, or folitary worm, and caufe it to be e-

vacuated.

*8

fixed Oils ,

vacuated. They enter into a great many compound
medicines, fuch as balfams, unguents, and plafters. —
Laftly, they are fometimes ufed as feafoning, or food, on
account of their agreeable tafle, and the mucilage which
they contain.

CHAP,

\

Volatile Oils.

U

CHAP. X.

Of Volatile Oils .

i

OLATILE or ejfential oils are diftinguifhed from

fixed oils by the following peculiar properties. —

Their fmell is flrong and aromatic : They are fo volatile,
that they may be diflilled by the heat of boiling water:
Their tafte is very acrid : They are much more combuf-
tible than the other clafs of oils.

Thefe oils are found to exifl in almoft all odorous
plants. They are contained either in the whole plant,
as in the angelica of Bohemia, or only in the root of
the plant, as in flarwort, the iris, white dittany, and
kidney ; or in the hem, as in fandal, faffafras, and pine-
wood ; or in the bark, as in cinnamon. Sometimes it is
confined to the leaves, as in balm, peppermint, worm-
wood, &c. In other plants, it is found in the calices of
the flowers : Of this kind are the rofe and lavender ;
the petals of camomile and the orange-flower are filled
with it. It is, at other times, fixed in the fruits, as in
cubebs, pepper, and juniper-berries. Laflly, A number

of

Volatile Oils*

30

of vegetables contain it in the feed ; fuch as nutrileg,
nife, fennel, and the many umbelliferous plants.

Thefe oils differ from one another, t. In their quantity,
which varies according to the ftate or age of the plant i
2. In confiftency ; fome are very fluid, fuch as thofe of
lavender, rue, &c. ; fome congeal by cold, fuch as oil of
anife, and fennel ; others are always concrete, of which
kind are the oils of rofes, parfley, kidney-wort, and flar-
wort : 3. In colour; fome are deflituteof colour; others,
fuch as oil of lavender, are of a pale yellow ; or a dark
yellow, as oil of cinnamon ; or blue, as oil of camomile; or
fea-green, as oil of St John’s-wort; or green, as oil of par-
fley : 4. In gravity ; fome fwim on the furface of water,
molt of thofe, indeed, that are produced in temperate coun-
tries ; others fink to the bottom of that fluid, as oil of faffa-
fras, of carraway feeds, and mofl oils of this kind from hot
countries : this property, however, is not conflant with
refpeCt to climate, for the efTential oils of pepper, nut-
megs, and mace, & c. are lighter than water : 5. In
tafte and fmell : the tafle of an efTential oil is often very
different from that of the plant from which it was ex-
tracted ; pepper, for inftance, affords a mild oil, and oil
of wormwood is not bitter.

Volatile oils are extracted, 1. By preflure, from cedra^
bergamot, lemons, oranges, &c. ; this is called ejfence s
2. By diftillation ; the plant is put into the cucurbite of
a copper alembic, with water ; the water is boiled, and
the oil paffes together with the fluid, and gathers aboye
it in a receiver prepared for their reception.

Volatile oils are adulterated either by fixed oils, which is
detected by their ftaining paper ; or by oil of turpentine,
which may be difcovered by the ftrong fmell peculiar to
turpentine, which always remains after the efTential oil

is

/

Volatile Oils .

3‘

B evaporated ; or by alcohol and water, which, by ren-
. dering the mixture turbid, detefts the alteration pro-
duced by this fubftance.

Volatile oils lofe their fmell by a moderate heat. As
they are fo very volatile, fire does not decompofe them.
When heated in clofe veflels, they give out a large pro-
portion of hydrogenous gas. When heated in contaft
with air, they take fire fpeedily, and exhale a very
thick fmoke, which is condenfed into a very fine, light,
carbonaceous matter : They leave but very little coaly
refidue after inflammation, being fo volatile, that the car-
bonaceous matter is formed in the part that afcends.

When expofed to the air, they become thick, and, in
procefs of time, are converted into refins. They depo-
se needled cryftals, like thofe of fublimated camphire.
Geoffroy the younger obferved thefe cryftals in the
volatile oils of moth-*- wort, marjoram, and turpentine.
Their fmell, he informs us, is much the fame with that
of camphire. Acad. 1721 , page 163.

They combine with fome difficulty with lime and al-
kalis $ and form with thefe fubftances imperfeft foaps,
to which we give the name of faponulce : Acids alter
them ; the concentrated fulphuric acid changes them in-
to bitumens ; when weak, it forms with them a fort of
foap. The nitrous acid inflames them ; the muriatic
acid reduces them to a faponaceous ftate ; the oxigenated
muriatic acid thickens them.

They aft not upon neutral falts.

They combine very eafily with fulphur, with which
they form compounds that are called balfams of fulphur ,
in which the fulphur is fo divided that it cannot be ex-
trafted, but is feparated by heat in the form of ful-
phurated hydrogenous gas,

Mucilages

32

Volatile Oils •

Mucilages and fugar render them foluble in water.
They are ufed in medicine as cordials, flimulants, anti-
fpafmodics, &c. Externally applied, they are powerful
amifeptics, and hop the progrefs of caries in the
bdnes.

C H A P.

%

Camphor ate Principle.

33

a,). .=~==^ - — ' —

CHAP. XI.

Of the Camphorate Principle „

CAMPHOR is a white matter, concrete, cryftalline,
and of a ftrong tafte and fmell ; in fome of its
properties nearly allied to 'volatile oils, but widely di-
ftinguifhed from them by others.

Chemifts have, from a great variety of obfervations,
concluded camphor to be an immediate principle of vege-
tables, which, they think, exifts in all highly odorous
plants that contain volatile oil. It has, in fact, been ob-
tained from the roots of the cinnamon tree, zedoary,
thyme, rofemary, fage, and many other labiated plants,
either by diflillation or decoftion, as has been obferved
by Cartheufer and Neumann. But the quantity of the
camphor thus obtained is very fmall, and it always re-
tains a fmell of the plant from which it was extracted.
This fmgular fubflance appears to be combined with the
volatile oils of thefe vegetables, as thofe oils have been
obferved by Geoffrey to depofite needles of camphor.
I have feen, in the poffeffion of M. JofTe, apothecary at
Paris, true camphor extracted from the root of elecam-
Vol, Ill, Q pane*

34

Camphor ale Principle .

pane. Lorry thought camphor a very general principle
in vegetables, and placed its aromatic flavour at the head
of aclaffsof very powerful odours, the effe&s of which on the
animal ccconomy well merit the attention of phyflcians.

The camphor ufed in medicine is extratted from a
fort of bay-tree that grows in China, Japan, and in the
ifles of Borneo, Sumatra, Ceylon, &c. The tree which
produces it, often contains it in fuch abundance, that
very large and pure tears of camphor may be obtained
from it folel'y by fplitting the wood. It is commonly,
however, extracted by diftillation. The roots, or other
parts of the tree, are put into an iron alembic with wa-
ter, covered over with a capital containing ropes of rice
ftraw, and thus expofed to heat. The camphor is fub-
limated in fmall greyifli grains ; and thefe again unite
into larger pieces. This crude camphor is impure.
The Dutch purify it by fublimating it in a fort of bal-
loon, and adding an ounce of lime to the pound of crude
camphor.

Camphor is much more volatile than the effential
oils; for the gentled heat is fufficient to fublimate it. It
cryftallizes in hexagonal plates, with a ftem in the mid-
dle. When a flrong heat is applied, it melts before vo-
latilizing. It does not appear to be decompofable by
this means : however, when diddled a number of times
fucceffively, it affords a reddifli phlegm, evidently of an
acid nature ; and this fiiews, that if the procefs were
carried farther, its nature might at length be altered.
The temperature of dimmer is fufficient to volatilize
camphor. When expofed to the air, it is entirely diffi-
pated and lofl ; when inclofed in clofe veffels, it is fubli-
mated in hexagonal pyramids, or in polygon crydals,
which were in the year 1756 obferved and defcribed by
liomieu. sit exhales a drong fmell, too flrong indeed

for

Camphor ah Principle.

35

For the nerves of fome people to bear. It takes fire
very eafily, burns with a good deal of finoke, and leaves
no coaly refidue.

It is not folnble in water ; it will, however, commu-
nicate its fmell to water : it burns on its furface. Romieu
has obferved, that fmall pieces- of camphor, one third,
or one fourth of a line in diameter, when put into a
glafs of pure water, move round, till they are at length
diiTolved in about the fpace of half an hour. He fufpecls
this motion to be an effect: of electricity ; and obferves,
that it ceafes when the water is touched with any body
that can aft the part of a conductor, fuch as iron wire ;
and that, on the contrary, it {fill continues, though the
water be touched with an infulating body, fuch as glafs,
reiin, fulphur, &c.

Earths, falino-terreous fubftances, and alkalis are in-
capable of afting on camphor. We rauft obferve, how-
ever, that the power of cauftic alkalis on this fubflance
has not yet been brought to trial.

Acids, when concentrated, diffolve camphor. The
fulphuric acid diffolves it, with the help of heat : the fo-
lution is red. The nitric acid diffolves it flowly : this
folution is yellow. As it fwims over the acid in the
fame way as oils, it has been improperly called oil of
camphor. M. Kofegarten has difcovered, as has been
taken notice of in the Vllth Chapter, that the nitric acid,
when diflilled eight times fucceffively upon camphor,
changes into a cryftallizable acid, which he thinks to be
of a peculiar nature.

I he muriatic acid gas diffolves camphor; fo like wife
do the fulphureous acid gas, and the fluoric acid gas.
When water is poured into thefe folutions, they becOitie
turbid; the camphor is feparated in flakes, which fw/rti
on the furface of the liquor, and appear to have iuf-

C 2 fered

N

ft jiff-

2 6 Camphor ate Principle

fered no alteration. Alkalis, the falino-terreous ftfb*
fiances, and metallic matters likewife precipitate thefe"
folutions.

Neutral falts a£t not upon camphor. We know not
in what manner fulphur and bitumens aft upon this fub-
flance; but they are probably capable of combining
with it.

The fixed and the volatile oils diffolve camphor with
the help of heat. Thefe folutions, when cooled, depo-
fite, by degrees, cryftals in a vegetative form, fimilar to
thofe that are formed in folutions of ammoniacal muri-
ate ; that is, confiding of a (talk, with very fine fila-
ments extending from it horizontally. Thefe filaments,
which in their difpofuion referable the beard of a fea-
ther, exhibit a very beautiful and regular appearance,
when viewed through a microfcope. We owe this fine
fa£f to Romieu, ( Academy 1756, 448). The folu-

tion of camphor in alcohol, which is much better known,
and much more in ufe than the preceding folution, was
obferved by the fame chemid to afford, by a particular
procefs, a fpecies of cryflallization fomewhat different.

Camphor is one of the mod potent remedies which
medicine employs. It difpels inflammatory tumours in a
very fhort time. It is ufed as an antifpafmodic and anti-
feptic medicine, in infeftious didempers, the malignant
fever, and all difeafes in general that are attended with
affections of the nerves, and putridity. In France, it is
given only in dofes of a few grains : In England and
Germany, they go fo far as to give it in dofes of feveral
drachms a day. It is alfo worthy of being mentioned,
that camphor alleviates burnings, and pains In the uri-
nary paffages, fo fpeedily, often, as might tempt the pa-
tient to think his relief the effeft of enchantment. It is
given, either triturated with the yolks of eggs, fugar,
. and:

37

Camphor aie Principle.

and gums, or in the date of oil of camphor, and always
in certain drinks prepared for the purpofe. Surgeons
apply camphorated aquavita?, of the compofition of
which we fhall hereafter give an account, to external
gangrenes j and the liquor often puts a flop to their
prog refs.

C

3

C I I £ F,

^ 8 Spintus Red or of Plants.

C Pi A P. XII.

\

Of the Spiritus Red or, or ihe Aromatic Principle
v of Plants.

BOERPIAxWE gives the name of fpiritus redor tq
that principle to which plants owe their fmell :
very little, however, is as yet known concerning the
properties of this lingular fubftance, which, from its in-
fluence on the animal oeconcmy, fo ftrongly attracts our
notice. We ufe the name aroma, inflead of fpiritus
rector , deriving it from the well known term aromatic.

The aromatous principle of plants appears to be very
volatile, very fugitive, and very lubtle ; it is continually
difengaged from plants, forming around them an odo-
rous atmofphere, of a wider, or a narrower extent.
Plants differ all from one another in the quantity, the
flrength, and the nature of their aromatous principle.
Some are plenteoully provided with this principle, and
lofe it only in part when dried, fo that it would appear
to be in fome manner fixed in them : of this kind are in
general all odorous woods, and all the dry and ligneous,
odorate parts of vegetables.- In others this principle is

fo

Spiriitis Reftor of Plants. 59

fo fugitive and volatile, that though they be drongly odo-
rous, they can fcarce be rendered permanently fo. Laft-
]y, there are fome plants which poffefs the odorous
principle in fo low a degree, that they are faid to be
inodorous, and their aroma has been diflinguiflied as
herbaceous.

The flighted degree of heat is fufficient to difengag,e
the aroma of plants. To obtain it, the plant mud be
diddled in a balneum-mar ice, and its vapours received
into a cold capital, which may condenfe, ,and con-
duct them in a fluid date into the receiver. The pro-
duct is pure odoriferous water, and is known by the
name of effential or diddled water.’-' This liquor is to
be confidered as a folution of the odorous principle in
water. That principle is more volatile than the water
in which it is diffolved. This aromatic water, when heat-
ed, lofes by degrees ad its fmell, and becomes inlipid.
It differs a lingular alteration when expofed to air \ it
then depofites very light flakes, of a mucilaginous ap-
pearance, and acquires a fmell of mouldinefs.

The principle of fined combines with oily juices, and
even appears to conditnte one of the elementary princi-
ples of volatile oils; for, 1. Thefe oils are always imr
pregnated with it : 2. Thofe plants in which the prin-
ciple or fmell is confiderably fixed, afford invariably
more volatile oil than thofe of which the fmell is very
fugitive, many of which, as, for indance, thofe of the lily
kind, often afford no volatile oil at ad. The aromatic
water of this latter clafs of plants, fuch as the tuberofe
and the odoriferous lily, needs to be combined with
fixed oils, in order to prevent its efcapc. The jafmine,
too, is of the fame character. The flowers of thefe
plants are put into a tin cucurbitc with cotton moidened
;vith oil of ben 5 the flowers and the cotton are difpofed

c 4 in

Spirit us Rector of Plants.

in alternate layers ; the cucurbite is then {hut, and ex-
pofed to a gentle heat : The aroma, difengaged from
the flowers, then combines with the oil, fo as to become
permanently fixed, 3. Plants that have no fmell, never
afford a fingle particle of volatile oil. 4. Vegetables,
from which aromatic wrater has been extraffed by diftil-
lation on the balneum-mariae, no longer afford any vo-
latile oil ; at leaft, unlefs they ffill retain fome little
fmell ; and even in that, cafe they afford but a very fmall
quantity of oil, 5. Volatile oil that has loft its fmell,
readily regains it with all its properties, when diftilled on
a frefh plant of the fame fpecies with thofe from which
it was at firft extraffed.

The action of faline matters on aromatic water has
not yet been examined. M. Berthollet has difcovered,
that the oxigenated muriatic acid often deftroys the fmell
of vegetables, and of confequence alters their aroma.

The nature of this principle is not the fame in all
plants ; it varies according to the genera of the plants
to which it belongs. Macquer follow's Boerhaave in
thinking, that it is generally a compound of an inflam-
mable fubftance with a faline matter ; but obferves, that
it foraetimes partakes more of a faline nature, and at 0-
ther times approaches nearer in nature to oily matters.
The aroma of cruciform plants, he thinks to be faline ;
and afcribes to it the charafferiftics of being pungent
and penetrating, yet not affeffing the nerves : That, a-
gain, which is infipid, or ftrong but not pungent, and
aftcffs the nerves, fo as either to occafion, or to revive
from, fits owing to the particular ftate of the nervous fy-
ftem, — effects W'hich aromatic and narcotic plants ufually
produce; — that, according to this celebrated chemift, has
more of an oily than of a faline nature. Several faffs con-
cur to fuppcrt this opinion. The fraxinelh diffufes an o-

dcu?

Spirit us Redcr of Plants. 4 1

dour which forms an inflammable atmofphere around it;
g and whenever a burning body comes within this atmo-
fphere, it takes fire ; and the vapour then burns from
the lower to the upper part of the dem that fupports the
flowers.

The aroma of the fraxinella feems therefore to be of an
oily nature. Venel, a chemid at Montpelier, who dudiedi
under Rouelle, extracted an acid fpiritus re<flor from favoy
(marum)by a gentle heat ; and Roux, profeflor of chemidry
in the fchools of medicine, having examined the produtt,
found that it did not redden vegetable colours, but fatu-
rated alkalis. With refpeft to the aroma of cruciform
plants, chemifls are not yet agreed concerning its nature.
Some think it acid ; others call it alkaline. It appears
from the experiments of Meflrs Deyeux and Baume,
that fulphur is found in combination with the odorate
principle of antifcorbutic plants ; and that it is that
combuflible body, reduced to the date of elaftic fluidity
by combination with hydrogene, which conflitutes the
aroma of cruciform plants.

There are yet twro important obfervations to be made
concerning the aroma of plants. In the fird place, it
is perhaps, as Macquer fufpe&ed, a gas of a peculiar na-
ture : its invifibility, its volatility, the manner in which
it diffufes itfelf through the atmofphere, its power of
expanfion, together with fome experiments by Dr Jn-
genhoufz, on the noxious gas exhaled from flowfers, ren-
der this opinion highly probable. — What we want to
determine this point, is a feries of experiments, which
would indeed require to be performed with the utmod
care and accuracy, but wrould certainly accomplifli fome
noble and ufeful difcoveries. Boyle has already opened
a wide field of enquiry concerning fmells, their alterabi-
}hy and reciprocal combination : and that train of re-

-fearch

4 2

Spirit us Rector of Plants.

fearch lias been very fuccefsfully profecuted by Lorry.
This philofopher has obferved the alterations produced
on them by mixture with one another, by fermentation,
and by the attion of fire, air, and different menftrua. —
W& cannot, without making an improper digreffion, en-
ter here into a particular detail of his experiments ; but
we may mention his general divifion of fmells. Lorry
divides thefe bodies into five claffes, camphorate, aethe-
real, poifonous or narcotic, acid, and alkaline : All
fmells may, in his opinion, be referred to fome one of
thefe clalfes. In explaining the grounds on which he e-
dablifhes this divifion, with refpett to the manner in
.which fmells affect the fenfe of fuelling, and the nerves
in general. Lorry informs us, that he propofes not to
examine their chemical nature : But it is probable, as he
himfelf thinks, that thofe of each clafs are nearly of the
fame nature in refpeft to chemical properties, as well as
to the manner in which they affect the animal oeconomy.

Our fecond obfervation, and with it we mean to con-
clude the chemical hidory of the principle of fmell, is,
that, though the plants which have been called inodo-
rous, be thought to contain none of this principle ; yet
it is at prefent a well-known fact, that, by the gentled
heat of a balneum-marise, there may be extracted from
them a water, of which the fmell, though very faint,
will however be fufficient to indicate from what plant it
was extra&ed. — I can affert this upon my own experi-
ence. I have often found thofe plants that are com-
monly reckoned the mod inodorous, fuch as fuccory,
•plantain, borage, fee. to afford, by the balneum-maria?, a
water that difiufes a fmell, by which the nature of the
plant from which it .was extracted may be diffidently
.known. It is true, that thefe infipid aromatic waters are
very fopn decompofed, and lofe, in a fhort time, that

faint

43

Spiritus Rector of Plants.

faint fmell by which they are diftinguifhed : They are
altered, and ferment, and pafs either into an acid or an
alkaline hate.

The perfumer’s art, which preferves the odorous parts
of vegetables, and fixes them in different fubfiances, is
founded on the chemical methods by which thofe parts
are extracted from the vegetable. Moft of the proceffes
of that art are entirely chemical.

Medicine, too, makes much ufe of diftiiled or aro-
matic waters. They poffefs different virtues, according
to the peculiar nature of each. Thofe employed for the
purpofes of medicine are ufually diftiiled by naked fire,
with water, in the fame way as volatile oils. This ma-
nipulation anfwers very well for the aroma of fuch wa-
ters as are truly aromatic, but not fo well with ‘thofe
plants that are commonly called inodorous. Thefe
ought to be diftiiled in a balneum-marite ; and as this
precaution is feldom taken, they have ufually an empy-
reumatic fmell acquired from the fire, even when not
impregnated with the odorous principle of the plant. —
If thefe waters owe all their virtue to the aroma which
they contain, weak as that is, it is certain that the mode
of preparing them defiroys all the properties which that
principle can pofiibly confer upon them.

To thefe obfervations we fhall only add, that the di-
ffilled waters of plants prepared by the apothecary, are
not that pure aroma which Boerhaave called fpiritus
redor, but that principle, diluted in a large proportion of
water, diftiiled with the plants.

C II A l\

i

Ref nous Juices , and Balfamst

"44

CHAP. XIII.

Of Ref nous Infammable Juices in general , and of
Balfams in particular .

HE name, Ref ns, is given to certain dry, inflam-

mable matters, which cannot be mixed with wa-
ter, but are foluble in oils and alcohol, and run fluid
from the trees in which they are produced. Thefe
matters are nothing but oils concreted by the deficcative
a&ion of the air. Various opinions are entertained
concerning the difference between Balfams and Refins.
Some give the name of Balfams to inflammable fluid fub-
ftances ; but there are alfo dry balfams : Others confine
the name to the molt odorous inflammable fubftances.
Bucquet has thrown much new light on this matter, by
confining the name of balfams to fuch of thofe combus-
tible matters as are fweet-fmelling, and can communicate
their fmell to water ; and, efpecially, which contain
odorate and concrete acid falts, that may be obtained
from them by fublimation or deco&ion in water.

The principal fpecies of balfams, are the three follow-
ing :

I. Benzoin.

45

Ref nous Juices, and BalJams.

i. Benzoin. Of this there are two forts : the amyg-
daline benzoin, in white tears refembling almonds, united
by a brown juice ; and common benzoin, of a brown co-
lour, not in tears : it exhales a very pleafing fmell, when
melted, or pricked with a hot needle. The tree that
affords it is unknown. This balfam comes to us from
the kingdom of Siam, and the illand of Sumatra. On
account of its folidity, it affords but little effential oil.
Boiling water extra&s from it an acid fait in needles,
which is ftrong fmelling, and cryftallizes by cooling..
The fait is alfo obtained by fublimation. When ob-
tained by this laft procefs, it is called flowers of benzoin .
This operation is performed in two varnilhed earthen
pots, placed one above the other, and made clofe with
paper at the place of their junftion. The fire muff be
moderate, otherwife the fait becomes brown. The
paffeboard cone which was formerly ufed for this
purpofe fuffered a great deal of the concrete acid to
efcape. W e have given an account of the properties of
this acid in a preceding chapter. Benzoin affords, in a
retort, a very acid phlegm, a concrete brown fait of the
Tame nature, and brown thick oil: the refidual coal
contains fixed alkali.

Benzoin is foluble in alcohol ; and the tinffure of this

balfamic fubffance, precipitated by water, forms lac vir-

gmale. Salt of benzoin is ufed as a good incifive in

pituitous diforders of the lungs and reins. The oil is

difcuffive, and is externally applied to limbs affefted with
palfy, &c.

2. Balfam of Tolu, Peru, and Carthagena. This
balfam is brought to Europe, either in cocoa mu-ffells
or in yellowilh tears, or in a fluid ffate : it flows from
e to uifera, which Linnasus ranks in the decandria mo-
^ogyma clafs, It may be extracted from the ihells, by

Peeping-

4 6 Refinous Juices , and Balfams.

(

fteeping them in boiling water, which renders it fluid.
It comes from a country in South America, fituated be-
tween Carthagena and Nombre de Dios, called by the
inhabitants of the iflands Tolu, and by the Spaniards
Honduras. It affords, when analyfed, the fame pro-
duds as benzoin, and efpecially a concrete acid fait. It
is made into fyrup ; and adminiftered in difeafes of the
lungs.

The acid of the balfam of Tolu has not been yet ex-
amined : it is thought not to differ effentially from the
benzoic acid.

3. Storax calamita is in tears, either red and clean, or
brown and greafy. It fmells very ftrong ; it runs from the
oriental liquidambar, a plant that is but little known.
Duhamel obferved a juice running from the aliboufier ,
that had nearly the fame fmell. Neumann analyfed the
ftorax calamita, and obtained from it an eflential oil, a
concrete acid fait, and a thick oil. :lt ferves for nearly
the fame purpofes as benzoin : it is chiefly ufed for per-
fume. We formerly had it fent to us in reeds ; but we
now get it in loaves, or irregular mafles, of a reddifh
brown colour, mixed with a few tears of a lighter colour,
and a more pleafant fmell.

CHAP.

Refuis.

47

C II A P. XIV.

Of Ref ns.

RESINS differ from balfams, as having a lefs pleating
fmell ; and, ftill more eminently, as containing
no concrete acid fait. The following are the principal
fpecies of retins.

i. Balfam of Mecca, Judma, Egypt, Grand Cairo.
It is liquid, white, bitter, and of an high lemon colour.
It runs from a tree that is called amyris opobalfamum ,
ranked by Linnaeus in the offandria monogynia, and dif-
covered in Arabia the Happy by M. Forfkahl. This
liquid retin fometimes affords effential oil by diffillation.
With fugar, and yolks of eggs, &c. it is ufed as a vul-
nerary.

2. Brown or yellow balfam of Copahu, which runs
from the tree, called copaiba, and by Linnaeus copaifera ,
and ranked by that botaniff in the decandria monogynia.
The common kind, both of this and of the balfam of
Tolu, is, according to Cartheufer, a mixture of ge-
nuine balfam of Copahu with turpentine. It is ufcd, as
well as the preceding refin, as a remedy for ulcers of
the lungs and bladder.

3. Chio

4s

lle/ins.

3. Chio turpentine runs from the turpentine tt'ed
that bears the piftachio nuts. It is of a white or yellow1
colour, inclining to blue. It affords on a balneum-mariae'
a very fluid volatile oil : that which it affords by naked
fire, is not fo fluid. The turpentine is, after this opera-
tion, of a fill yellower colour. When diftilled with wa-
ter, it is white and filky, and is called boiled turpentine.
This turpentine is not common, and is not applied to
any ufe.

4. Venetian turpentine, or Milefian refin, is that
mofl commonly ufed in medicine. It is ufed either in
its natural fate, or combined with fixed alkali. This
compofition has been called Starkey foap. We confider
it as a faponula. To prepare it, the Paris Difpenfary
directs to pour four ounces of volatile oil of turpentine
on half a pound of nitre fixed by tartar and dill hot ; to
fir the mixture with an ivory fpatula, and cover the
vefiel with a piece of paper ; adding oil, by degrees, till
the whole form one white mafs. This procefs takes up
feveral months ; and chemifls have therefore fought to
find out fome more expeditious method of making up
the medicine. Rouelle prepared, in the fpace of three
hours, a pretty confiderable quantity of this foap, by
triturating alkali with the oil dropped upon it, and add-
ing a little water towards the end of the operation.
M. Baume directs to levigate upon porphyry one part of
alkali of tartar, previoufly expofed to heat till it was
brought near the point of fufion ; and to add to it, by
degrees, two or three times its weight of volatile oil.
Vvrhen the mixture is brought to the confiftency of a
foft opiate, put it into a glafs cucurbite covered with
paper, and fet it afide in a damp place. I11 fifteen days
time, the deliquefcent alkali forms a diflin6t portion of
liquor at the bottom of the Yefiel > the foap occupies the

middle j

Refins.

49

middle ; and a portion of the oil, having affumed a red
colour, fwims on the furface. M. Baume thinks that
the alkali unites only with that portion of the oil which
is in a refinous hate. M. le Gendre purfues this idea
farther, and propoies to faturate a cold folution of the
fixed alkali with concentrated oil of turpentine, or even
with turpentine itfelf. This foap is in fome degree
folid, and becomes gradually more fo : cryilals are form-
ed in it, which have been confidered as a combination
of the acid of the oil with vegetable fixed alkali. But,
according to the academicians of Dijon, they are nothing
but potalli faturated with carbonic acid, and cryftal-
lized in that hate. As it is no eafy matter to make up
this foap, and it is befides very liable to alteration ;
Macquer thinks, that when a fubhance is wanted, pof-
fefiing the properties of volatile oils, and thofe of foaps,
in union, it were better on any occafion to incorporate
a few drops of volatile oil with medicinal white foap, to
ferve the prefent purpofe. Ammoniac, triturated with
turpentine, forms a folid faponaceous compound, which
dilfolves very readily with water, and renders it milky
and frothy.

5. The refin of the fir tree is called turpentine of
Strafburgh. It is obtained by piercing the veficulse of
the bark of the fir tree, of which there are extenfive fo-
refts on the hills of Switzerland.

6. Pitch is the juice of a fort of fir tree called abies
picea. It is obtained, by incifion, from the bark of the
tree. It is melted by a moderate fire ; preffed in bags of
cloth; and received into barrels: This is Burgundy-
pitch, or white pitch; by mixture with lamp-black, it is
converted into black pitch. When it is kept long in fu-
fion with vinegar, it becomes dry and brown, and fo forms
^hat is called Colophony. The more impure parts are

Vol, III* D burnt

burnt in a furnace, with a chimney paffing into a frnalT
cabinet, terminating in a cone of cloth: the fmoke \ i
condenfed in this cone, into a fine foot that is called
lamp- black.

7. The Galipot is the refm of the pine which bears the
foft apples'. T his tree is notched towards the bottom,
and the refm runs out into troughs. "When the refn
ceafes to run out by the lower holes, they are continued
up the tree'. When it runs fluid, it is called Galipot; that
which hardens upon the tree into yeliowifh mafles, is call-
ed Barr as. Thefe juices are liquefied in boilers; and,
after being concentrated by heat, arc filtrated through
draw mats, and run into moulds in land, or formed into
loaves that are called drear, son. or braj-fcc. When wa-
ter is poured in, the matter becomes white, and forms
refm , or pitch-refin. T he inhabitants of Provence di-
fl.il galipot : they ext rad from it an oil which they calf
huile de raze. Tar , which is the empyreumatic oil of
this fubftance, is prepared from the trunk and roots of
the pine. A quantity of the wood is heaped together,
covered with turf, and fet on fire. The turf hinders the
oil that is difengaged by the heat from being volatilized;
and it pafles into a fliallow tub through a channel, out of
which it is removed, without farther preparation, to be
fold as tar.

, 8. Tacamahaca, gum elemi, gum animus are very lit-
tle ufed. The tree that affords the firfb is unknown.
The elemi is produced by a fpecies of amyris. The orien-
tal gum animse, or copal, the origin of which is unknown,
and the occidental gum animee, or courbaril, which flows
from the hymencea, a tree that grows in South America,
are ufed for varnifhes.

9. Maftic is in white, farinaceous tears, of a faint fmell:
It flows from the turpentine tree, and the maftic tree ;

. .

Refms. 5 1

It is ufed as an aftringent, and an aromatic ; it enters into
the compofition of drying varnifhes.

104 Sandarac is in white tears, more tranfparent than
thofe of maftic. It is obtained from the juniper tree, in
which it occupies a place between the bark and the wood.
It is likewife called varnifli, as it enters into thofe prepa-
rations. It is ufed, in powder, to prevent ink from fink-
ing on paper, from which the external coating of fize has
been fcraped off.

1 1 . The relin of Guayacum, which is greenifh, is ufed
as a remedy for the gout. It is obtained, byincifion, froni
the guayacum tree.

12. Labdanum, the relin of a fnecies of ciffus in Can-
dia, is of a blackilh colour. The peafants gather it by
ftriking the trees with ftaves, having a number of leather
thongs fixed to the one end. They make it up into cy-
lindrical pieces, which they call ladanum in tortis. It is
adulterated by a copious addition of blackifh fand : It is
ufed as an aftringenr.

1 3. Dragon’s blood is a red juice, extra&ed from the
dracana draco , and fome other trees of a fimilar nature.
It comes to us in fmall flat cakes or round balls, or in little
fpherical pieces, wrapped up in leaves, and knotted like §
chaplet. It is ufed in medicine as an aflringent,

& 2 CHAP,

\

1

♦

Cum Rtfins.

/

CHAP. XV.
Of Gum Ref ns.

j

GUM RESINS are mixed juices, confiding of refin
and extractive matter, which has been taken for a
gummy fubftance. They run by incifion, but never na-
turally, from trees or plants, in the form of white, yel-
low, or red emulfive fluids, which are fooner or later con-
folidated. Water, alcohol, wine, vinegar — none of all thefe
liquors diflolves more than a part of gum reflns. They
differ in the proportions of the refin and the extract, and
afford, by analyfis, many various refults. The following
are the mod important fpecies :

i . Olibanum confids of yellow, tranfparent tears, of a
very drong and difagreeable fmell. It is not known from
what tree it flows. It affords, by didillation, a fmall por-
tion of volatile oil, and an acid fpirit, leaving a pretty
large refidual coal, produced from the extrattive matter
which it contains. It is ufed in fumigations as a refolvent
medicine.

2. Galbanum is a fat juice, of a brown yellow colonr,
and a naufeous fmell. It runs, in Arabia, Syria, and at
the Cape of Good Hope, from inciflons in a ferulaceous

plant

53

Gum Refins.

L plant called Bubon Galbanum by Linnceus. When diftilled
( by naked fire, it affords a blue eflential oil, which after-
wards becomes red, an acid fpirit, and a ponderous em-
pyreumatic oil. It is an excellent difcuffive, and a power-
ful antifpafmodic.

3. Sfammony is of a blackiffi grey colour, a firong
naufeous fmell, and a bitter and very acrid taffe. I he
fcammony of Aleppo is by far the pureff. That of Smyr-
na is ponderous, black, and mixed with extraneous bodies.
It is extracted from the convolvolus fcammonia of Linnaeus.
The root of the plant, cut and fqueezed, affords a white
juice, which, when dried, becomes black. The various
fpecimens of fcammony contain various proportions of ex-
trad and refin 5 on which account, its effeds as a medicine
are far from uniform. It is given as a purgative, in dozes
of from four to twelve grains. Mixed with a fweet extrad,
fuch as that of liquorice, it forms the common diagredium.
It is likewife ufed for this purpofe with the juice of quin-
ces. It is ufually given in a powder with fugar and fweet
almonds.

4. Gum guttte is yellow, reddifh, deftitute of fmell,
and of a firong, acrid, and corrofive taffe. It comes from
Siam, China, and the ifland of Ceylon. It is extraded from
a large tree, very little known to us, and diffinguifhed in
the countries where it grows by the name of Coddam Pulii.
It contains a good deal of refin, which renders it ffrongly
purgative, when adminiffered in dozes of four or fix
grains. It fhould be very cautioufly adminiffered inter-
nally.

5. Euphorbium is in yellow tears, which are of -a ca-
rious, or worm-eaten appearance, and have no fmell. It
runs from incifions in the plant euphorbium , which grows
in Ethiopia, Libya, and Mauritania. It contains a very
acrid refin. It is fo ffrongly purgative, as to be ranked a-

D 3 mong

54

Gum Rcfins.

raong poifons. The only medical ufe for which it ferves,
is, in external applications to caries.

6. Afla-fcetida is fometimes in yellowith tears, but of-
teneft in loaves, confining of different pieces agglutinated
together. It has a very fetid fmell of garlic, and tafies
bitter and naufeoufly difagreeable. It is extracted from
the root of a fort of ferula that grows in the province of
Chorazan in Perfia, and has been called by Linnaeus AJJa
faetida. The root of that plant is flefhy, and fucculent.
It affords, by expreffion, a white juice, of an abominable
fmell, ufed by the Indians as a feafoning, and called by
them food for the Gods. It is ufed internally as a power-
ful antifpafmodic, and externally as a difcuffive.

7. Aloes is a juice of a dark red, and fometimes even
a brown colour, with confiderable bitternefs of tafle.
There are three kinds of it : fuccotrine aloes, hypatic
aloes, and caballine aloes. The frrft is the pureft ; and it
is only in purity the three forts differ. A. de Juflieu faw
thefe feveral kinds of aloes prepared at Morviedro, in
Spain, from the leaves of the common aloes. Deep inci-
fions were made in the leaf ; the juice ran out by thefe :
It was then decanted from above the fecula, and thicken-
ed ‘by expofure to the fun. The aloes prepared 'in this
manner is put up in leather bags, and fold under the
name of fuccotrine aloes. The juice fqueezed from the
leaves, purified by reft, and then dried, forms hepatic
aloes. Laftly, the leaves are again prefied ; and the juice
now obtained from them, mixed with the lees remaining
from the two former operations, forms caballine aloes.
The firlt of thefe different forts of aloes, contains much
Ms refinous matter than either of the two latter, and is
therefore much lefs purgative. It is ufed in medicine as
g draflic purge, and is known to poffefs the property of

bringing

Cum Refuu*

55

■bringing cn the menftrual flux with women, and the hpe?
morrhoidal flux with men. i't is rcfipmmended as an exr
cellent hydragogue.

8. Myrrh is in the form of rcddifli tears, of a brilliant
appearance, of a pretty ftrong but agreeable fmell, of a
bitter tafle, and exhibiting in their fraftore, when bro-
ken, white lines of the form of a nail. Some of thefe
tears are entirely gummy and inflpid. Myrrh comes
from Egypt, but chiefly from the ancient country of the
Troglodytes, in Arabia. The plant that affords it is
unknown to us. It contains much more extract than re-
fin. It is ufed in medicine as a very good ftomachic, an
antifpafmodic, and a cordial. Cartheufer advifes literary
people, who have delicate ftomachs, to chew and fwallow
it with their fpitcle. It' is ufed in furgery for eleanfing
putrid ulcers, and flopping the progrefs of caries, either
in powder, or diluted in fpirit of wine.

9. Gum ammoniac fometimes appears in tears that are
white internally, but externally yellow, and often in raaf-
fes much like thofe of benzoin. They are eaflly difiinr
guifhed, however, by their white colour and foetid fmell.
This gum refin which we get from Africa, is thought,
on account of the feed mixed with it, to be extracted
from an umbelliferous plant. This fubflance being folu-
ble in water and fpirit of wine, as well as inflammable, is
nearly of the fame character with thofe which Rouelle
has named refinous extractive matters.

In medicine, gum ammoniac is ufed as a very good
difcuflive, in cafes of obftinate obftruftion. It is given
in dozes of a few grains, either in pills or emulfions : it
enters alfo into the compofitiGn of many difcuflive and
refolvent plaflers.

10. Elaflic refin, or Caout-chouc, is a fubflance, con-
cerning the nature of which it is hard to fay any thing'.

D 4

5^

Gum Rejins.

I

Its containing combuflible matter, a part of which is exr
tra&ed in America for lights, is a charafteriftic in which
it agrees with refinous fubftances : but its elafticity,
foftnefs, and infolubility in the menfirua which ufually
diffolve refins diftinguiih it as a fubftance of a different
nature.

The tree which affords it>grows in various parts in
America. Incifions are made acrofs its bark, which
mud always penetrate to the wood : a white juice, more
or lefs fluid, flows from it, and is received into veflels, in
order that it may be applied to the different purpofes
for which it is fuitable : it is laid in layers on clay
moulds ; and dried by expofure to the fun, or to fire.
Various defigns are then Jketched upon them with the
point of an iron inflrument : they are then expofed to
fmoke ; and when diffidently dried, the moulds are bro-
ken. In this way are formed the bottles, and other
utenfiis of gum elaflic, that come into Europe.

The veffels made of this matter are capable of hold-
ing water, and fuch other fluids as have no power of
a&ing upon it. If it be cut into pieces, and the edges
applied to each other foon after they are cut, the pieces
unite again. I examined juice of caout-chouc, which
was fent me from Madagafcar. It Was white as milk,
and its ffnell infufferably foetid. It contained a concrete,
white, fpongy matter, in the middle of the bottle, of a
fimilar form, and likewife elaflic. When the liquor was
heated, a white pellicle of genuine elaflic refin was very
foon formed on its furface. Alcohol, mixed with the
juice, feparated from it flakes of that refin.

When the caout-chouc, in a dry flate, fuch as it is
fent into Europe, is expofed to fire, it becomes foft,
fwe!ls, exhales a foetid odour, and fhrinks as it burns.

Elaflic

i Xj .1 . . «

57

Gum Refuis .

Elaftic refill is not foluble in water. We know not
in what manner faline matters aft upon this fubflance.
Macquer, after trying to diffolve it in various men-
ftrua, was convinced of what had been before afferted
by MefTrs de la Condamine and Frefneau, ( Academy ,
year 1751), that alcohol was incapable of afting upon
it, but that oils diffolved it with the help of heat.
However, as he wifhed to reduce it to a liquid flare, fo
that it might be made ufe of in that form, and might re-
cov.er its properties by the evaporation of the folvent li- 1
quor, he was obliged to employ another menflruum
than oils ; becaufe oils, however volatile, always altered
the elaftic refin, and became fixed in it fo as to weaken
its flrength, and deflroy its elaflicity. He, at length,
diffolved this fubflance in highly reftified tether ; and
it, being fo very fubjeft to evaporation, perfectly fuited
his purpofe: ( Academy, year 1768). And, though that
liquor be indeed very dear, yet he thought it might be
of fome confequence to make known to the public a me-
thod of making fome very ufeful inflruments, fuch as
catheters, by putting, on a waxen mould, fucceflive layers
of this lolution, till they be of the required thicknefs.
When the catheter is dry, let it be immerfed in boiling
water, which, by melting the wax, feparates it from the
mould. The foftnefs and elaflicity of a catheter of this
fubflance, render it the moft proper for perfons who find
it neceffary to carry fuch an inflrument about with
them.

Thefe are all the particulars of the hiftory of gum
elaftic that were known to the world before the month
of April 1781 ; at which time M. Berniard, diftinguifh-
ed by the accuracy of his experiments, inferted in the
Journal de Rhyfique an excellent memoir on this lingu-
lar

58

Gum Rcfins*

Lar fubfiance. That chemirt concludes from his experi-
ments, that elaflic refin is a peculiar fat oil, coloured by
a matter foluble in alcohol, and contaminated with the
foot of the fmoke to which each layer of the refm muft
be expofed, in order to dry it. Water produces no al-
teration upon it : alcohol, alii feed by a boiling heat, dif-
colours it. Cauftic fixed alkali is incapable of acting upon
k. The concentrated fulphuric acid reduces it to a car-
bonaceous Hate, and is itfelf, at the fame time, tinged
with a black colour, and takes, the fmell and the volati-
lity of the fulphureous acid. The common, or weak ni-
tric acid, adts on this refill in the fame way as on cork,
and gives it a yellow colour ; the nitric acid, flrongly
concentrated, decompofes it very rapidly ; the muriatic
acid produces no fort of alteration upon it ; redfified
fulphuric tether did not dififolve it : This fadt muft ap-
pear fingular, as the author obferves, to all thofe who
know the accuracy and veracity of Macquer. Nitric aether
did diilolve it. This fclution is yellow, and affords, by
evaporation, a tranfparent fubllance, friable, and foluble
in alcohol ; — in a word, a genuine refin, formed, ac-
cording to this author, by the adtion of the nitric acid
on the elaflic caout-chouc. The volatile oils of laven-
der, afpic, and turpentine dilfolved it with the help of
a gentle heat ; but they form clammy fluids, which
flick to the hands, and cannot therefore be applied to
any ufeful purpofe. A folution of elaflic refin by oil
of afpic, when mixed with alcohol, depofited white flakes,
which were infoluble in hot water, but floated on the
furface of that fluid, and became, by cooling, wdfite and
folid like wax ; in a word, they formed a genuine, fixed,
concrefcible oil. Oil of camphor dilfolved elaflic refin
by Ample maceration. Y/hen the folution was evapor-
ated.

1 ated, the camphor was volatilized; and there remained in
c the capfule an amber-coloured matter, of a firm confift-
ency, but fcarce gluey, and eafily foluble in alcohol.
Fixed oils, when boiled upon elaftic refin, difiolve it :
wax likewife difl'olves it. This fubfiance does not melt
by a boiling heat ; but when expofed to the aftion of
fire in a filver fpoon, it is reduced into a thick black oil t
I *It then exhales while vapours; after which it remains
fat and clammy, though expofed to the air for feveral
months ; nor does it ever again recover its drynefs and
elafticity, which are fo neceflary to fit it for the purpofes
to which it is applied. Laftly, M. Berniard concluded
his experiments on this fubfiance, by analyfing it by na-
ked fire. From an ounce of gum elaftic he obtained a
very little phlegm ; an oil, which, though at firft clear and
light, became afterwards thick and coloured; and ammo-
niac, the quantity of which he does not fpecify : There
remained a coal, fimilar to thofe of other refinous fub-
fiances, which weighed 12 grains. This chemift afcribes
the origin of the ammoniac to the foot which colours
gum elaftic.

On this analyfis we may obferve, that it does not de-
termine, in a very accurate manner, the nature of elaftic
refm : for acids aft not on this fubfiance in the fame way
as on fat oils: they aft on thefe bodies with much more
rapidity than on gum elaftic : neither do cauftic alkalis
reduce it to a faponaceous ftate ; nor does it melt, un-
lefs a much ftronger heat be applied to it than what is
fufficient to reduce the moft folid fixed oils to a ftate of
fluidity : and, befides, no fixed oil ever becomes dry and
elaftic like elaftic refin, &c. &c. In his fifrh experi-
ment, too, the author aflerts this gum to confift of two
diftinft fubftances, the nature of which he does not ex-

plain j

DO

Gum Rejins .

plain ; and concludes with reprefenting it as a product
of human induftry. From thefe reflexions, and many
others which might be added, concerning thefe experi-
ments of M. Berniard’s, which are in other refpeXs
very well performed, we are induced to think, that
much ftill remains to be done, as he himfelf acknow-
ledges, before we can be fully acquainted with the
properties of this fubftance, or decide with certainty
concerning its nature.

Pure Facula of Vegetables*

61

7

CHAP. XVI.

t

Of the Pure Foscula of Vegetables .

THE juices of vegetables, when elaborated in their
veffels, become thick, and are, by degrees, depo-
fited on the furfaces of their fibres, where they contribute
to their increafe and nourilhment, or are accumulated in
a more or lefs folid form, in the different organs ©f which
the vegetable confifts. After fpeaking of the fluid parts
of thefe organic fubflances, we come next to examine the
fubftance of which the contexture of their folids is form-
ed.— We are, as yet, far from being fufiiciently acquaint-
ed with the nature of all thofe folid matters which com-
pofe the organs of plants. However, thofe particulars
which are known to us, on this head, fliew that thofe
organs, when treated by proceffes which we are going
to deferibe, are reducible to a dry, pulverulent, infipid,
fubftance, either white, grey, or variegated with different
colours, infoluble in cold water, and feemingly earthy,
which is called faculum.

To obtain this fubftance, the root, ftem, leaves, or
feed of a plant, is pounded down to a pulp with a peftle.

When

Pure Facula of Vegetables,

When thefe parts are fucculent, there is no occafion for
adding water to aflifl the procefs ; but this fluid is ufu-
ally employed to facilitate the reparation of the fibres,
and to take up the attenuated, pulverulent parts. When
reduced by this procels to pulp, the vegetable fubflance
is then Iqueezed ; the juice, or water obtained from it
by prefibre, is either turbid, white, or coloured ; and it
gradually depofites, by refi, a flaky matter, partly fibrous,
and fometimes pulverulent, which is the true faeculum of
the plant. Some parts of vegetables appear to confift
entirely of this matter ; fuch as the feeds of gramineous
and leguminous plants, tuberculous roots, &c. Thefe
parts ufually afford the fin eft fteculum, and the greatefl
quantity of that matter. As to the tender Items and
leaves, their texture, being more fibrous, never affords,
when treated by this procefs, any thing but a coarfe,
coloured, filamentous fubflance, which is known by the
name of coarfe fceculum. If, after being thoroughly dried,
thefe be reduced to powder, and the powder lixiviated,
the water takes up a much finer feculum, precifely of the
fame nature with that of tuberculous roots and gramine-
ous feeds. In the eye of the chemifl, therefore, there
is no other difference between thefe two kinds of fmcula,
but that the fir A is produced from a part which is lefs
fibrous, not fo perfectly organized, and apparently form-
ed of fmall cells, in which Nature has depofited a dry
or farinaceous mucilage ; whereas the fecond, being
wrought into a tiflue of fibres, needs to have its organi-
zation deftroyed, and to be attenuated by art.

Strittly fpeaking, all the folid parts of vegetables are
capable of affording a fort of fmculum. But that which
is prepared for the arts, for pharmacy, and for aliments,
muft here be more immediately the objefl of our atten-
tion. The ftecula of briony, potatoe, caflava, fago, fa-

Pure Facula of Vegetables.

bp, (larch, are thofe which deferve to be particularly
taken notice of, as applied to thefe purpofes.

1. To prepare the fcecula of briony ; take the frefil
roots of the plant, (trip off the bark, rafp the root to
pieces, and then.fubmit them to the prefs. The juice
fqueezed out by the force of the prefs is white, and de-
polites a very fine fceculum. At the end of four and
twenty hours, decant off the juice ; dry the fcecula. As
the juice muff have left in it a certain quantity of ex*
tra«ff, it is very acrid, and purges violently. If waffled,
before being dried, it becomes finer and whiter, but lofes
at the fame time its purgative powers. • But this way of
preparing the fcecula of briony affords only a very fmall
quantity. Much more may be obtained by diluting in
water the mafs which remains in the prefs, pafiing that
water through a hair-fieve, and fuffering it to (land un-
diffurbed, till it depoffte the fcecula which- it contains.
When this is depofited, let the water be decanted off,
and the fediment dried. This fceculum obtained by waffl-
ing the lees, is not of a purgative nature like the former,
as the water has carried off the extraffive matter in which
that virtue refided. M. Baume has obferved, that the
fceculum of briony, when well waffled, bears an exaff
refemblance to ftarch, and that hair-powder might be
made of it ; by which means, the wheat made ufe of for
that article would be fpared for other purpofes. The
faecula of the roots of calves-foot and cornflag are pre-
pared in the fame way for medical ufe.

2. Potatoes, being fo plenteous, and affording in a
crop fuch large increafe, form one of the mod ufeful ar-
ticles of food. We can very eafily extraff from them a
great deal of very fine white fceculum, that becomes, by
roafting, boiling in water, &c. a nourilhing article of
food. This fceculum may be obtained by grating down

the

6/\ Pure Fa at l a of Vegetables ,

the potatoes on a fieve, and pouring plenty of water up-
on them. The fluid carries off the fined and mod atte-
nuated portion of the fcecula, and, after danding for
fome time undidurbed, depofites it. Decant off the wa-
ter ; dry the facculum by a gentle heat : it is now in
the date of a very fine light white powder. For the
preparation of large quantities of this powder, mills, or
a fort of graters turning on cylinders, have been contriv-
ed, which appear to be very happily adapted to the pur-
pofe. /

3. The Americans extract, from the root of a very
acrid plant called manioc , a very pleafant, nourifliing fre-
culum, to which they give the name of Caffava. In
preparing it, they firip the root of its bark, grate it
down, and put it into a rulh-bag, of a conical figure*
and a very flight loofe texture, and hang the bag upon a
dick, reding horizontally on two wooden forks. To the
lower end of this bag they fix a very heavy veffel, which,
by its weight, fqueezes out the juice, and, at the fame
time, receives it as it runs. The juice is a very acrid
and noxious poifon. When the ftecula are fufficiently
preffed, and all the juice drawn off, it is then dried by
expofure to fmoke, and paffed through a fieve ; and now
it is in a proper date for being baked into caffava. It
is now fpread on an hot iron gridiron, and turned till it
be fo completely roafled, as to take, on both fides, a
xeddifli yellow colour. In this date it is called Caffava
' Bread. When expofed to heat in a bafon, and dirred
from time to time, it takes, as it dries, a granulated form ;
in which date it is called Couac. From the juice that
was fqueezed from the ftecula, there is, by degrees, a
very fine fw^et-taded fteculum precipitated, which is
^called Mouffache, and ufed in pa-dry.-

4. Sago

Pure Fa cut a of Vegetables . 65

1 v

4. Sago is a dry feculum, reduced to grains, and a
little reddened by the action of fire, which we get from
Java, and from the Molucca and Philippine iflands. — It
is extra&ed from a fort of palm-tree, called in the Mo-
luccas Landan. The trunk of that tree inclofes a fweet
marrow, which the inhabitants extract by fplitting the
tree longitudinally. They then fcrape down this mar-
row, put it into a fort of cone or funnel made of the
bark of a tree, place the cone upon an hair-fieve, and
pour upon it a good deal of water. — The fluid conveys
with it, through the holes of the fieve, the fineft and
whited part of the marrow, leaving the fibrous part Hill
upon the fieve. — The water impregnated with the atte-
nuated part of the marrow is received into pots, in
which the fleculum is foon depofited, and it becomes
tranfparent. — The water is now decanted ofF, and the fe-
diment palled through fmall plates perforated with holes,
which give it the granulated form by which lago is ufu-
ally didinguilhed. — The reddilh colour of the furfaces
of the grains is owing to the adion of the fire by which
they are dried. — Thefe grains become foft and tranfpa-
rent in boiling-water. With milk or broth they make a
fort of foup, which is light, and far from difagreeable
to the tade, and is greatly recommended in phthifical
cafes.

5. Salep, falop, falab, &c. is a fubdance which the
inhabitants of the Ead prepare from a fpecies of orchis.
They feled the fined bulbs of that plant, firfl peel them,
and then deep them in cold, and boil them in hot water j
next, after the water is well drained from them, they are
drung m bunches, and dried in the air. M. Jean Moult
gives another procefs for the prepartion of falep, by

which it may be prepared from any fpecies of orchis.

V°l, III. E The

66

Pure Fee cilia of Vegetables. ,

The roots mu ft be rubbed, either dry or in water, with
a brnfli, to remove the exterior pellicle, and then dried
in an oven. They then become very hard and tranfpa'
rent. But they may be very eafily reduced to a powder;
and this powder, diluted in hot water, forms a nourifh-
rng jelly, the virtues of which Geoffroy mentions with
very lavifh praife, as highly efficacious againfl all difeafes
occafioned by an acidity of the lymph, more efpecially
againft confumptions and the bilious dyfentery.

CHAP.

i

Farina of Wheat and Starch.

67

CHAP. XVII.

»

Of the Farina of Wheat , and of Starch *

STARCH, properly To called, is a fmculum precifely
of the fame nature with thofe of which we have
already given an account : But as the farina of wheat,
of which ftarch is a condiment part, is one of the mod
important matters that can engage the attention of the
chemift, we fhall defcend to a much more particular ac-
count of this than we have given of any of the other
faecula.

What is called farina, is in general a dry, friable, in-
fipid fubftance, capable of acquiring fapidity and digefti-
bility by the a&ion of fire, and confiding of feveral
matters which may be very eafily feparated from one
another. This fubftance is difpofed by nature in the
feeds of gramineous plants, efpecially in thofe of wheat,
rye, barley, oats, rice. See. Even leguminous plants
appear to contain a compound of an analogous nature.
There is, however, no other fubftance but the farina
of wheat, which poffefies all the fame properties : none
but this farina poffeffes that juft proportion of the con-
ftituent principles to which alone all its diftinguilhing

E 2 properties

63 Farim of Wheat and Starch.

properties can belong. Although the farina or flour cf
wheat has, from time immemorial, been ufed as a prin-
cipal article of food, yet it has only within tiffs fhort
time begun to be chemically examined. Meffrs Bec-
cari, an Italian phyfician, and Keffel Meyer in Ger-
many, are the firfl chemifts who attempted to-feparate
the different matters of which farina confifts. Meflfrs
Rouelle, Spielman, Malouin, Parmentier, Poulletier de
la Salle, and Macquer, have profecuted thefe refearches
a great way farther than the above mentioned natu-
ralifts. M. Parmentier efpecially has profecuted them
with very uncommon zeal and induftry. His refearches
into the nature of thefe alimentary fubflances, the prin-
ciples of farina, the different kinds of fascula, and con-
cerning nutritious vegetables in general, are undeniably
the mod compleat and accurate of any thing that we
have of the kind.

Water is, of all agents, the mod ufeful, as it produ-
ces the lead alteration on the various matters with
which it becomes impregnated, or which it feparates,
according to the laws of their folubility. Accordingly,
it is by this fluid that the different matters of which the
farina of wheat conflfts are mod fuccefsfully obtained fe-
parate from one another. In performing this true
analyfls, a pafle is firfl; to be compofed of the farina
with water ; the pafle muft then be kneaded in an earth-
en veffel, with water pouring upon it from a cock ; the
fluid, as it falls upon the pafle, takes up from it a very fine
white powder, by means of which it acquires the colour and
confiflency of milk : let this procefs be continued till the
Water run off clear. The farina is now found to be
naturally feparated into three diftimfl fubftances — a grey
elaftic matter that flicks to the hand, and on account of
its properties has gained the name of the glutinous, or

Farina of Wheat and Starch.

*9

y •aegeto-animal parr, — a white powder which falls to the
j bottom of the water, and is the fceeulum or (larch, — and
a matter which remains diifolved in the water, and
feems to be a fort of mucilaginous ext raft. Let us pro-
ceed to an examination of the properties of each of
i thefe three fubftances.

matter, of a whitifh grey colour. It may be ex^
tended to twenty times its natural length ; and it then feems
to confiftof fibres or filaments, difpofed befide one another
in the fame direftion in which it has been drawn out.
When the power by W'hich it was extended ceafes to aft, it
then returns with elaftic force to its primary form. By
drawing it out in different direftions, it may be render-
ed fo fine as to refemble, in the polifli of its lurface, the
texture of the membranes of animals. In this hate, it
adheres with confiderable force to dry bodies, and forms
a very tenacious glue, which was ufed by feme people,,
for the purpofe of re-uniting pieces of broken porce-
lain, long before chemifls had found out the way of
obtaining it in large quantities. M. Beccari obferves,
that in the beft flour the proportion of the glutinous
matter is from a fifth to a third part, or even more : —
he remarks, too, that this proportion varies, according
to the feafon, and the nature of the corn.

The glutinous matter has an agreeable and fome-
what mucous fmell ; its tafle is infipid ; it fwells amar
2ingly when expofed to a flrength of heat fufficient to
dry it quickly. It dries very well by a moderate heat,
91 even in the dry air. It then becomes femitranfpa-

§ I. Of the Glutinous Part of Wheat,

glutinous part is a tenacious, duftile, eiaflie

rent

7o

Farina of Wheat and Starch.

rent and hard, like a ftrong glue, and, like that iub-
ftance, breaks with noife, and with a fmooth fra&ure.
If, when in this date, it be laid on a burning coal, or
held over the flame of a taper, it exhibits all the cha-
ra&eriflics of an animal matter ; it crackles, fwells, be-
comes liquid, is agitated, and burns in the fame way as
a feather, or a piece of horn, exhaling a ifrong foetid
fmell. When diddled in a retort, it affords, like ani-
mal matters, water impregnated with ammoniac, ammo-
niacal carbonate, and an empyreumatic oil : the carbo-
naceous relidue is very difficult to incinerate, and is
found to contain no fixed alkali.

The gluten, when expofed freth to a moid and hot
air, is altered, and actually putrefied in the fame manner
as" animal matters. If it dill retain a little darch, then
the darch, palling into the date of acid fermentation, re-
tards and modifies the putrid fermentation of the gluten,
and reduces it to a date in which it is much like cheefe.
In this way Rouelle, the younger, prepared, from this
gluten, a fpecies of cheefe, in tade and fmell much the
fame with Dutch cheefe, and that of Gruyere.

Water does not at all diffolve this glutinous matter.
When boiled in that fluid, it becomes folid, and lofes its
tenacity and eladicity, but neither acquires a tade, nor
becomes foluble in the faliva. We may however ob-
ferve, that to the water which was ufed in making the
pade the gluten owes its eladicity and folidity. In the
farina, this vegeto-animal matter, which is thus fufeep-
tible of a folid eladic form, was in an incoherent and
pulverulent date ; but when the water is poured upon
the farina, and mixed with it, thofe panicles which are
of a glutinous nature abforb the fluid, and are by its
means fo clofely united as to form, in a fliort time, that
fort of eladic folid which is known by the name of glu-
ten.

7i

Farina of Wheat and Starch.

ten. Water, therefore, contributes greatly to the form-*
ation of this fubftance, which is perhaps to be confider-
ed as a peculiar compound faturated with water, and,
for that reafon, not capable of abforbing any more. So
true is this, that if it be deprived of its water by delic-
cation, it lofes entirely its elaftic and adhefive powers.

Molt faline fubftances aft either with more or lefs
force on this gluten. Potalh and foda, in a cauftic and
liquid (late, diffoive it with the help of a boiling heat.
The folurion is turbid, and, on the addition of acids, de-
pofites gluten, which, however, is deftitute of elallicity.

The mineral acids diffoive this gluten. The nitric
acid diffolves it with great aftivity; and M. Berthollet
has obferved, that this gluten, as well as animal fub-
fiances, gives out azotic gas, when expofed to the aftion
of the nitric acid. After the emiilion of this elaftic
fluid, the folution affords a great deal of nitrous gas, and
takes a yellow colour. By evaporation it affords oxalic
acid in cryltals. The fulphuric and the muriatic acids
form with this fubftance brown or violet folutions. A
fort of oily matter is feparated from thefe folutions : the
gluten exifts in them, in a real ftate of decompofition.
M. Poulletier, who has made many experiments on this
matter, has difcovered, that, from thefe combinations,
diffolved in water or alcohol, and evaporated in the
open air, there may be ammoniacal falts obtained.

Prom what we have related concerning this fubftance
it appears, that it is entirely different from all of thofe
which we have before taken notice of, as exifting in ve-.
getables ; and that in many of its diftinguithing pro-
perties, it bears a great refemblance to the fibrous pare
of blood. It is to this gluten the farina of wheat owes
its property of forming a clammy pafte with water, and
its rcadinefs to rife with leaven. It appears either not to

E exifl.

72

Farina of Wheat and Starch.

exift, or to exift only in a very fmall proportion in the
farina of other vegetable fubftances, fuch as rye, bar-
ley, buckwheat, rice, &c. all of which form folid, opaque
paftes, fcarcely duCtile, and brittle, and which can fcarce
be raifed when expofed to the fame temperature by
which pafte of the farina of wheat is raifed. No other
fubftance but flour of wheat, therefore, is poffeffed of
all the qualities neceffary for making good bread.

M. Berthollet is of opinion, that this glutinous fub-
ftance, like animal matters, contains phofphoric falts,
which are the occaflon of its coal being fo difficult to
incinerate. Rouelle the younger has difcovered a glu-
tinous fubftance, refembling that ,of the farina of wheat,
in the green faecula of plants, which afford, by analyfis,
ammoniacal carbonate and empyreumatic oil, like the
veg.eto-animal matter of which we have been fpeaking.

§ II. Of the Starch of Wheat.

gTARCH, the amylaceous ffeculum, is the moft co-
pious part of the farina. This is the fubftance
which is carried off, and afterwards precipitated from
the water with which the pafte is waflied in order to
obtain the pure gluten- This fubftance is very fine,
feels foft, and has no perceptible tafte. Its colour, when
it is extracted by the procefs above defcribed, is a dirty
grey white ; but the manufacturers of ftarch render it
exceedingly white, by fteeping it in an acid water which
they call four water. It appears, from the experiments
of M. Poulletier, that the fermentation which takes place
in that fluid whitens and purifies the ftarch, by atte-
nuating and even deflroying the extractive mucous fub-
ftance which is precipitated with it in the firft waffling.
Starch, chemically confidered, is a mucilage of a peculiar

pature.

73

Farina of Wheat and Starch .

nature. This mucilage, which, by fome chemifts, has
been miftaken for an earth, is very different from the
gluten. It does not, like the gluten, diffufe an empyreu-
matic fmell, when it burns. When diftilled by naked
fire, it affords an acid phlegm, of a brown colour, and,
towards the conclufion of the procefs, a very thick em-
pyreumatic oil. The coaly refidue is eafily enough in-
cinerated ; and its allies are found to contain fixed alkali.

Starch is not foluble in cold water ; but when boiled
in water, it forms with the fluid a glue, or rather what
in French is denominated by the peculiar name of
empois. This compound, when expofed to damp air,
lofes by degrees its confiftency, ferments, becomes four,
and is covered over with mouldinefs.

The nitric acid affords, with this faeculum, oxalic
acid, perfeffly the fame with that of which we have
fpoken in the foregoing chapter.

As ftarch forms the greateft part of flour, there can
be no doubt of its being the principal alimentary fub-
ftance contained both in flour and in bread.

§ III. Of the Extractive Mucilaginous Part of the

Farina .

gY evaporating the clear water that had been ufed in
wafhing the pafle, and had depofited the flarch, M.
Poulletier obtained a vifcous, adhefive matter, of a brown
yellow colour, the tafte of which was faintly faccharine.
This fubftance, to which he gave the name of mucofofac -
charine , difplayed, in combuflion and diftillation, all the
fame phenomena with fugar. By it, the acid fermenta-
tion is produced in the water which fwims over flarch ;
for, as Macquer has obferved, ftarch is not at all foluble ia

col^

74

farina of Wheat and Starch.

told water. The mucofo-faccharine matter exids in the
farina of wheat only in very a fmall proportion. It may,
poffibiy, be more copious in the farina of fome other ve-
getable fubdances.

However fmall the proportion of this fubdance in the
farina of wheat, yet there can be no doubt of its aiding a
peculiar part in the fermentation which takes place in
pafte, and caufes it to rife. The nature of this motion,
fo neceffary to render bread wholefome, is dill but very
iittle known. It would appear to be nothing more but
the beginning of a putrid fermentation in the gluten, an
acid fermentation in the darch, and perhaps a fpiritous
fermentation in the mucofo-faccharine matter. Thefe
x three incipient fermentations, which mutually oppofe each
other, are perhaps what produces the compound, fo much
lighter than dough, which, by baking, and a proper ex-
pofure to heat, forms bread. One thing certain is, that,
in bread, all the three fubdances which we have here ex-
amined, are found exiding together, but fo much alter-
ed, that they can no longer be extracted feparately. E-
ven the a&ion of heat alone, without the motion of fer-
mentation, is fufficient to change the nature of thefe three
fubdances, and combine them in fuch a manner, that
even from bread, unleavened, or baked without being
raifed, Malouin and M. Poulletier tell us, the gluten
can no longer be obtained.

From thefe particulars we underdand, how that all
dour but that of wheat, and, dill more, the leguminous
or farinaceous feeds, fuch as beans, peas, chefnuts, & c.
is far from podeffing the qualities requifite for making

good bread.

CHAP,

Vegetable Colouring Matters .

7 a

CHAP. XVIII.

Of Vegetable Colouring Matters , and their Applied-*
tion to the Art of Dyeing.

EGETABLES contain colouring matters through

all their organs. Thefe matters are extremely
various. It often happens, that a vegetable matter which
has, of itfelf, no apparent colour, alfumes a very diftinft
one, when expofed to the a&ion of certain menftrua. The
art of dyeing, all the procefles of which are entirely
chemical, is founded on the knowledge of the folubility
of thefe colouring parts of vegetables, in various men-
flrua, — of the way of applying them, fo as to communicate
colour to other fubhances, — and of rendering them perma-
nent and tenacious on thofe fubhances. In examining
the properties of each of the colouring matters, we Will
have occafion to give forne account of the principles of
this important art, on which MelTrs Hellot, Macqufcr,
le Pileur d’ Apligny, Hecquet d’ Orval, and the Abbe
Mazeas.have already publifhed excellent works.

It appears that the colouring matter of vegetables, pro-
perly fo called, is hill unknown. Roulle was of opinion,
that the green part, fo copious in the vegetable kingdom.

76 Vegetable Colouring Matters,

was fimilar in nature to the gluten of the farina. But it
is certain, that this matter exhibits different chemical cha-
ra&eriftics, according to the diverfity of the bafes with
which it is united. It is, therefore, rather the bafe, than
the colouring part itfelf, of which we fpeak, when we
fay, fuch a colour is extractive, and fuch another colour
refmoiis, &c. The fubftance which really colours thofe
parts of vegetables that are employed in the arts, is, no
doubt, a very fubtle body, perhaps not lefs fo than the
principle of fmells. There is even fome reafon to think,
that it confifls folely in a certain modification of the folid
and liquid parts of vegetables.

It may be proper to recoiled here, that the colouring
of vegetables depends, in a great meafure, on the contaCi
of light. But, in what manner the contact of light con-
tributes to the production of colours, is a problem, of
which the refearches of the natural philofopher have, as yet,
afforded no folution. Whatever that may be, as it is im-
pcffible to feparate the colouring matter entirely from the
vegetable bafe to which it is united, it is generally agreed
to confider thefe two fubftances together as the colouring
matter of plants.

Of all chemifls, Macquer has beft diftinguifhed the na-
ture of the different colouring matters of vegetables, con-
fidered with refpeCt to the art of dyeing : And his theory
concerning the application and the fixation of colours on
other fubftances in dyeing, is beyond a doubt the moft
fatisfa&ory. As I intend here to connect that theory of
dyeing, with the hiftory of the chemical properties of the
colouring parts of vegetables, I fhall begin with the con-
fideration of thofe properties.

i . A great many vegetable colouring matters, which
are either extractive or faponaceous, diffolve very readily
in water. Baftard rocker, madder, logwood, redwood, and

Brafil

Vegetable Colouring Matters . • 7 7

Brafil wood afford yellow or red colours of this fort. It is
eafy to fee, that matters dyed with thefe colours, muPt Iofe
their tin&ure in wrater : on this account, there is employ-
ed, to render thefe colours permanent, fome additional mat-
ter capable of fixing and decompofing them ; fuch as
crude tartar, alum, and other falts. Thefe falts are called
corrofives. A folitary acid might produce the fame effetft;
but would alter the colouring matter. The fuperfluous
portion of the acid of the alum combines with the alkali
of the faponaceous colouring extra£l, and occafions the
precipitation of the refinous part of that extraft, w7hich is
then infoluble in water, upon the fubftance intended to be
dyed. This colouring part, however, which is rendered
infoluble by the alum, or the corrofive, is of two kinds.
The firff is very folid, and refills the a£fion of air, of
foaps, and of all the liquors ufed by dyers as proofs. The
other is liable to be altered by air, and (till more by the
proof liquors : it is called a falfe dye. In order to afcer-
tain the nature of thefe colours, and the durability of dyes
in general, M. Berthollet has propofed the ufe of theoxi-
genated muriatic acid. That acid effetts, in a very fhort
time, by means of its excefs of oxigene, what the vital air
of the atmofphere takes up a longer courfe of time to ac-
complilh : And, by obferving what quantity of this acid
is neceffary to difcolour and entirely whiten any dyed
fluff, as well as the time which it takes to produce the ef-
fect, a judgment may be formed of the folidity and the
durability of the colours thus fubmitted to examination.

It is obfervable that wool takes a dye better than any
other fubftance ; and, next after wool, filk, cotton, and
flax, in the order in which they are here mentioned, re-
ceive fa dye, each of them with more difficulty than the
preceding one, and lofe it fooner.

Thofc

78

Vegetable Colouring Matters .

Thofe authors who have written upon the art of dyeing*
have maintained different opinions concerning the way in
which colouring matters aft on the fubftances expofed to
their operation. Many have fuppofed, that in proportion
as the pores of the fubffance to be dyed are more or few-
er, greater or fmaller, the colouring matter is more or lefs
completely applied to it ; and that the reafon why wool
takes a colour better than filk or thread, is becaufe its
pores are more open and more numerous than thofe of
either of thefe fubftances. But Macquer thinks the true
caufe which renders the application to any fubftance more
or lefs eafy, is, the relation between the colouring matter
and the body to be dyed being nearer or more remote.
Dyeing, in his opinion, is aftually nothing but painting,
which fucceeds and lafts only by virtue of an intimate af-
finity between the colouring matter and the dyed fubftance.
That celebrated chemift adopted this opinion in confe-
quence of the numerous experiments which he made in
the art of dyeing ; which is indeed highly indebted to his
difcoveries.

2. There is another clafs of colouring matters, which
feem to confift of refm and faponaceous extraft. Mac-
quer calls them refino-terreous matters. "When thefe mat-
ters are boiled in water, the refinous fubftance which they
contain is melted, and diffufed through the fluid, by means
of the aftion of the heat, and the folution of the fapo-
naceous part : but it is precipitated as the bath or decoc-
tion cools. When, therefore, wool, or any other matter,
is immerfed in a decoftiori of mixed colouring matter of
this kind, the refin is feparated by cooling ; and, without
requiring any farther procefs, fixes on the fubftance thus
expofed to it. Not being foluble in water, it forms a
permanent dye. Colouring matters of this kind are ob-
tained from almoft all aftringent vegetables, fuch as the

hulks

Vegetable Colouring Matters. yp

hufks of nuts, the roots of the walnut tree, or of dock,
■I fumach, bark of alder, fandal wood, &c. Thefe colours
are all yellow, and are called by the dyers 'root-colours.
They are generally ufed to form a good ground, on which
colours of a higher Iuftre may be laid. We may further
remark, that the colouring matters, for the application of
which no particular preparation, either of themfelves, or
of the bodies to which they are to be applied is requifite,
afford the fimplefl tinfture, and are the eafieft applied
to ufe.

3. The -colouring principle of various other fubfhmces
exifts in a matter that is purely refinous, and infoluble in
water. Several of thefe matters are not folublc even in
alcohol ; but, in alkalis, they are all diffolved, and re-
duced into a fort of faponaceous flate, in which they are
foluble in water. — The following are the principal co-
lours of this fort ufed in dyeing.

A. The annatto, a kind of faecal um obtained by ma-
ceration from the feeds of the urucu putrefied in water.
This fteculum is depofited during the putrefafHon of the
fubftances. It is at firfb red, but, in courfe of time, be-
comes of a brick-duft colour. Stuffs intended to be dyed
with this matter, are immerfed into a lixivium of this
pafle, with the cendres grave Ices, which we are fhortiy
to defcribe, mixed together in water. Without the af-
fiflance of any corrofive, there is depofited on the fub-
ftances immerfed into this lixivium a golden yellow, or
orange colour, of confiderable beauty.

R. The flower of Carthamus or haftard faffron af-
fords, by the fame procefs, a very beautiful red colour.
This flower has two different colouring parts; the one
purely extractive, and foluble in water ; the other refin-
ous.— I o obtain the latter, the foluble part of the car-
thamus rouft fir ft be carefully wafhed away : What re-
mains

So Vegetable Colouring Matters •

mains after the wafhing mud be mixed with the cendres
gravelees , or foda ; this mixture is then to be formed in-
to a lixivium, and employed in dyeing. But as the al-
kali alters the colouring matter,, and tarnifhes the colour,
the dyed fubdance is deeped in water, acidified by lemon
juice. This acid, feizing the alkali, the colouring matter
is left at liberty ; in confequence of which it regains
its original properties, and becomes red. By a fimilar
procefs, there is a coloured fteculum obtained from car-
thamus, which, mixed with Briancon-chalk in powder,
compofes the rouge made ufe of by the ladies.

C. Arehil is a pade prepared from mofs and lichen,
macerated in urine, with lime. The lime difengages the
volatile alkali ; and that caufes the red colour to appear.
Archil diluted in water communicates a dye without any
other preparation with alkalis. It gives a violet co-
lour ; but this is a falfe dye, which is altered in the air,
and rendered yellow by the aftion of acids.

D. Indigo, the colour of which is a deep violet blue,
feemingly of a cupreous nature, is a fa?culum prepared
at St Domingo, and in all the Antilles, &c. by macerat-
ing the dalk of the Antillo or indigo plant in done
troughs, with water. The water becomes blue ; and,
after it has been for fome time violently dirred, the fee'
culum is precipitated. The indigo feparated from the
water is put into cloths to drain. It is then dried in
fmall wooden boxes, and, when dry, broken into pieces.
When it floats on water, and burns entirely away on a
red-hot fhovel, it is edeemed good. The colouring part
of it is extracted by alkalis, and applied to the matters
intended to be dyed, without any farther preparation. —
It cannot be brightened by acids, as thefe would alter
the colour.

4. There

\

Vegetable Colouring Matters. 8 1

4. There are certain colouring matters foluble in oils*
Alkanet, or the red root of a fort of buglofs, communi-
cates its colour to oil. Alcohol likewife diffolves feveral
colouring matters : Green fmcula dinolve in it as well as
in oil. It may be ealily underftood, that thefe colours
cannot be ufed in dyeing ; becaufe the liquids neceffary
to extract them cannot be employed.

Such are the principal facts at prefent known concern-
ing the nature of vegetable colours. From thefe it ap-
pears, that any of the immediate principles of vegetables
may become the bafe of their colouring parts ; as we
find them to be faponaceous, refinous, and extra&ive. —
Some of them even appear to be of the fame nature
with fixed oils, and are not foluble either in water or in
alcohol, but difiolve readily enough in alkali. Laftly,
There are, according to Rouelle, fome of thefe colour-
ing parts of the fame nature with the glutinous part of
vegetables.

There is every reafon to think, that future enquiries
may difcover various other properties in thefe matters
which are fo copious in vegetables, and thus carry to
fiill higher perfection the art of dyeing, one of thofe
arts to which chemifiry is capable of rendering the moft
eflential fervices.

P

Vol. III.

CHAP,

Analyfis of Plants by Naked Fire.

CHAP. XIX.

Of the Analyfis of Plants by Naked Fire.

FTER examining all the matters which can be ob-

tained from vegetables, by fuch fimple means as
produce no alteration in their nature, and confidering
thefe matters as the immediate principles of thofe or-
ganized bodies ; it will next be proper to confider what
alterations they are liable to fuffer from fire.

The ancient chemifts were acquainted with no other
method of analyfing vegetables but this ; and all their
enquiries into the nature of thefe fubftances were direct-
ed only to difeover, how much fpirit, oil, and volatile fait
they afforded by diflillation in the retort. At prefent,
we give but little credit to the refults of this procefs. — *
We know, that all plants give nearly the fame produfts;
and the diflillation of a great many different vegetables,
by chemifts in other refpe&s very fkilful and highly re-
fpe&able, has only ferved to undeceive us with refpeft to
this analyfis. Plow, indeed, can it be thought, that the
action of fire, which is exerted on all the different prin-
ciples contained in a vegetable, extract, mucilage, oil, re-
fin, faline matter, gluten. Sec. and which decompofes

each

Analyfis of Plants by Naked Fire , fc>3

each of them in a peculiar manner, can afford any cer-
tain information concerning the nature and the quantity
of thofe principles ? efpecially when we obferve, that the
produffs of thefe different deconipofitions form, by mu-
tual combination, new bodies, which did not exifl in the
vegetable under examination. The analyfis of vegeta-
bles in the retort is therefore falfe and complicated.

However, as in a chemical examination of any fub-
flance, we fhould not refufe the ufe of any means which
art fupplies for the difcovery of its nature, we may have
recourfe to this analyfis, and obferve its effects, provided
we be fufficiently on our guard againft giving too much
credit to its refults : Nay, it fometimes happens, that
when, in a feries of experiments on any vegetable fub-
ffance, in order to difcover its chemical properties, we
compare the effects of aqueous, fpiritous, and oily men-
ftrua on that fubitance, with the alterations which it
fuffers from fire ; thefe alterations accord with the affion
! of the folvents, and fhew, by the produffs of the diftilla-
tion, what matter is contained in a larger or a fmaller
quantity in the vegetable, the nature of its fait, &c. But,
that we may be able to make fuch important deduffions
from an analyfis by naked fire, it is requifite, i. That
we be well acquainted with the manner in which fire
affs on each of the immediate or proximate principles
of vegetables, the extract, the mucilage, the faline mat-
ter, the oily juices, fluid or dry, &c. 2. That we

compare the produffs of the dillillation of the whole ve-
getable with thofe which its proximate principles gene-
rally afford, when treated in the fame manner. 3. That
we, at the fame time, analyfe the vegetable by men-
ftrua, in order that we may diflinguifh its proximate
principles, and draw fome ufeful inferences concerning
tne alterations which it fuffers from fire,

F 2 The;

&+ Analyfis of Plants by Naked Fire.

The procefs neceflary for the diflillation of vegetables
by naked fire, is very eafy and very fimple. — Put into a
glafs or earthen retort a certain quantity of the dry ve-
getable : — care mufl be taken, however, to fill the veflel
only half, or not more than two thirds full. Place the .
retort in a reverberatory furnace ; to its neck adapt a
balloon of a proper fize. There ufed to be formerly
recommended for this purpofe, a balloon perforated with
a fmall hole, to afford a palfage for the air which was
faid to be difengaged, in a fmaller or a larger quantity,
from the vegetables, and was likely, if confined, to break
the vefiels. At prefent we know, that the aeriform fluid
which efcapes from thefe bodies, when fubjccted to diftil-
lation, is never air, but rather carbonic acid and hydro-
genous gas, with carbonaceous matter diffolved in them.
But as thefe elaffic fluids are produfts of the vegetable
decompofed by the aftion of fire, as well as the phlegm,
the oils, and the volatile falts ; it is no lefs neceflary to
collect them than thefe latter fubftances. For this pur-
pofe, there may be employed a perforated receiver,
joined to a curved fyphon, entering by one end into a
bell-glafs filled with water, or rather with mercury.
By this means, the liquid produ&s are collefted into the
receiver, and the aeriform produtts into glafs vefiels,
placed on the flielf of a pneumato-chemical apparatus.
When the fubftance diffilled is fuch as can afford any
concrete fait, there is put between the retort and the re-
ceiver an adapter, or long glafs veflel, in the form of a
fpindle, on the fides of which the fait fixes as it is fubli-
mated. In this fort of diflillation, the fire fhould be gra-
dually and cautioufiy applied, that the products may be
obtained in the order of their volatility, without being
confounded together. The procefs begins with placing
a few coals under the retort, and the fire is by degrees

increafed

■ Analyfis of Plants by Naked Fire. 8_£

I kicreafed till the veil'd become red-hot, and the palling

!of the products into the receiver appear to have ceafed.

The retort is now fuffered to cool, the luting removed
| from the apparatus, and the products examined,.

Although the prodmffs obtained by the di it illation of
vegetables are never to be entirely depended upon, yet
fo much do they differ from one another, that they well
deferve to be carefully diftinguiihed.

The firft product obtained is an aqueous liquor, im-
pregnated with fome odorous and faline principles. This
phlegm affumes by degrees more colour, and more faline
properties. After it comes a coloured oil, the colour of
which becomes deeper, as the procefs advances. This
oil is fometimes light and fluid, at other times weighty
and liable to become folid. It^conffantly exhales a ffrong
empyreumatic fmell. At the fame time with it, there is
a fmaller or a greater quantity of elaitic fluids difen-
gaged ; which are either carbonic acid, or hydrogenous
gas, or, which is moil frequently the cafe, a mixture of
thefe two fubffances. At the fame inftant, too, amffror
niacal carbonate is fublimated, if the nature of the ve-
getable be fuch a$ to afford it. After all thefe matters
have paffed, the vegetable is found reduced to a carbona-
ceous ftate. Let us now return to a more particular ex-
amination of each of thefe produces, and attempt to dL
ffinguifh what is their nature, and to what fubffances
they owe their formation.

The phlegm is owing to the water which enters into
the compofition of the vegetable, and in part to the wa-
ter of its vegetation ; and this efpecially, when the body
analyfed is not entirely dry : and accordingly, the quantity
of this phlegm is greater or lefs, in proportion as the vege-
table has been more or lefs thoroughly dried before it
Was fubmitted to diftillation. This phlegm is coloured

F 3 ; of

86 Analyfis of Plants by Naked Fire.

of a lighter or a deeper red by the final! portion of oily
matter which it carries off with it, and which is reduced
to a faponaceous hate by the fait that is ufually dif-
folved in it. The faline matter in union with it,
is mod commonly acid ; on which account this phlegm
ufually reddens fyrup of violets, and produces an effer-
vefcence with alkaline carbonates. This acid belongs
to the mucilages and oils. The phlegm is fometimes of
an alkaline nature, as in the diftillation of nitrous and
cruciform plants, and of emulfive and farinaceous feeds.
It is frequently ammoniacal ; becaufe the ammoniac
which follows immediately after the acid, combines with
it. Of this fact full evidence may be obtained, by
throwing a little fixed alkali or quicklime into the
phlegnr: When it is ammoniacal, there is a lively fmell
diffufed from the ammoniac.

The oils obtained from vegetables by diftillation in a
retort, are all flrong-fmelling and high-coloured, and ex-
hibit ail of them nearly the fame properties. Thofe
parts of vegetables which contain a great quantity of
thefe inflammable fluids, fuch as emulfive feeds, afford,
when analyfed, a good deal of oil. The odorous plants
afford an oil which, in the beginning of the procefs of
diftillation, retains fomewhat of their fmell, but foon af-
fuir.es the common chara&eriftics of all thefe oils, that is
to fay, the colour, gravity, and empyreumatic fmell by
which they are diftinguifhed. All of thefe fluids are
highly inflammable ; the nitrous acid caufes them to
flame : they are folpble in alcohol, and bear, all of them,
fume refemblance to the vegetable from which they
were obtained. By reflification, they may all be ren-
dered very fluid, very light, colourlefs, foluble in alco-
hol ; in a word, they may thus be reduced to the flute
pf aethereal or. volatile oils.

With

Analyfis of Plants by Naked Fire. 87

With refpeft to the volatile fait, which is nothing but
ammoniacal carbonate, it is obtained only from a few
vegetables; but we mull not imagine, as has been ad-
vanced by fome chemills, that it is to be obtained only
from cruciform plants. All plants, in general, contain-
ing a certain quantity of glutinous or vegeto-animal
matter, afford more or lefs ammoniac .; becaufe, as has
been fully proved by M. Berthollet, that principle of
vegetables always contains azote. It very feldom hap-
pens, however, that any quantity of it can be obtained,
in a concrete Hate : it is often diffolved in the lafl por-
tions of the phlegm. This fait is produced by the
union of the azote with the hydrogene of the oil ; on
which account, it does not ufually pafs till the end of
the difliliation. It even appears, that what is carried
up by the phlegm in the analyfis of fome plants, fuch
as the cruciferous plants, poppy, rue, &c. is always the
produft of fome new combination ; for Rouelle the
younger has fhewn, that the plants themfelves do not
contain it in their natural date.

The elaftic fluids which are difengaged during the
difliliation of vegetables, are to be included among the
produ£ts that may be obtained from them. Their na-
ture appears to depend on the nature of the vegetable.
A plant which contains a good deal of oily combuflible
fluids, affords hydrogenous gas. Mucilages, on the
contrary, afford carbonic acid. We have mentioned,
under the article Oxalic Acid, that Meffrs Bergman
.and Fontana have obtained from them a large quantity
of carbonic acid, and that Fontana thinks vegetable
acids to be compofed chiefly of it. It is, therefore, not
at all furpriflng, that mucilages, in which Bergman
found the fame radical acid as in fugar, fhould afford
carbonic gas when analyfed. Laflly, there are fome

F q. vegetable

88

Analyfis of 'Plants by Naked Fire.

vegetable matters which afford azotic gas. Thefe aeri-
form fluids pafs only towards the end of the procefs of
diftillation ; becaufe they are not difengaged till the in-
flant when the vegetable is totally decompoled. Hales,
who was not acquainted with their nature, obferved,
that the more folid the vegetable, fo much the greater
was the quantity of the air difengaged from it during
its di (filiation : and he of confequence confidered that
element as the cement which produced the folidity of
vegetable bodies. From what we have had occafion to
fliew, the reader may eafily judge of the truth of this
hypothefis.

Vegetable Coal , or Charcoal.

«S>

CHAP. XX.

Of Vegetable Coal , or Charcoal.

HARCOAL is the black refidue of vegetable

matters, whofe volatile principles have been en-
tirely decompofed in clofe velTels. None but organic
matters, containing the combuflible fubflance known by
the name of oil, afford charcoal. The production of
the fubflance which we are beginning to confider, ufed
to be aferibed to the decompofiticn of this latter Sub-
stance ; but it is now beginning t£> be underflood as a
fact, that the carbonaceous matter exifls ready formed
in the vegetable ; and that which is accomplished by the
operation of fire, is the Separation of the volatile prin-
ciples that exifled in union with it.

Charcoal is generally black, brittle, Sonorous, and
light. If the vegetable of which it has been formed
was very compact, and contained but a Small proportion
of fluid fubflance, it flill retains a vegetable form. But
again, when the plant decompofed, is tender, and con-
tains a good deal of juice, the fluids, as they are difen-
8agedj deflroy the organic texture of the vegetable.

and

po Vegetable Coal, or Charcoal.

and leave a friable coal, which exhibits not the form of
a decompofed vegetable. Different vegetable matters
afford coal in greater or lefs abundance, according to
the folidity and the form of their texture. Wood af-
fords- much more of this fubflance than herbs ; gums
afford more than refills ; and refins more than fluid oils.
Every different vegetable matter appears to contain this
fubflance in a particular proportion, — if we confider
charcoal as one of the immediate principles of vege-
tables.

Charcoal is a body poffeffed of fmgular properties,
which are in general but very little known. — Though
it be of the highefl importance in chemiflry, and exhibit
phenomena entirely of a fmgular nature, yet no chemift
has as yet engaged in a feries of experiments with a
view to.afcertain its nature. Stahl, who paid more at-
tention to it than it has fince obtained from any other
perfon, thought it the principal repofitory of phlogifton.
We know fcarce any thing concerning the properties of
charcoal, but what relates to the oeconomical purpofes to
which it is applied : the labours of the learned afford no
full information concerning it.

The phyfical properties of charcoal are different, ac-
cording to the nature and the flate of the vegetables from
which it is formed. It is fometimes hard, and retains in
fome degree the organization of the vegetable ; at other
times it is friable, and fomewhat pulverulent. Pure oils
afford a coal in very fine, and feemingly levigated mole-
cules, called lamp-black. Its gravity varies in like man-
ner. When well made, it has no perceptible take or
fmell. Its colour is fubjefl to as many varieties as its
other phyfical properties ; it is either of a lighter or a
, deeper, a fparkling or a dull colour. But the chemical pro-
perties

\

Vegetable Coal , or Charcoal. 9 r

perties of this product of fire, defer ve the moft par-
ticular examination.

Charcoal expofed in clofe vcffels to the turnoff violence
of fire, fuffers no alteration. When heated in a pneu-
mato-chemical machine, it affords no hydrogenous gas,
unlefs it happen to contain moifture : an intenfe heat re-
duces it to vapours. When heated in contafi with air,
it burns to allies ; but with fingular phenomena, which
are to be carefully diftinguilhed from thofe of other com-
buftible matters. Affoon as it takes fire, it becomes red,
and exhibits a white flame, which is more confidera-
ble in proportion as the mafs of charcoal is larger. No
fort of fmoke exhales from it ; but it is reduced into car-
bonic acid* an elaflic fluid, which, from the fine experi-
ments of M. Lavoifier, appears to be nothing but a com-
bination of the carbonaceous principle with the oxige-
nous,— of the latter of which principles three fourths of it
confift. It is on this account that charcoal con fumes
fiowly, and leaves nothing but a cinder, more or lefs
white, partly of a faline, and partly of an earthy nature.
Different forts of charcoal are of different degrees of in-
flammability ; and this diftinclion is the moft ufeful to the
arts of all the facts refpe&ing charcoal. Some forts of
it burn readily with flame, and are quickly confumed ;
others are difficult to kindle, burn but fiowly, and remain a
long time red-hot, before being reduced to afhes. Some
of them, — for inftance thofe of oils, — burn indeed, but
with the utmoft difficulty. This property they feem to
owe to the obftinate adhefion of the carbonaceous prin-
ciple to the fixed falts of the vegetables.

Charcoal, when expofed to the air, attra&s moifture ;
probably becaufe it is very porous; and perhaps, too, on
account of its containing falts in a latent ftate. When
pioiftened, it affords hydrogenous gas, which is produ-
ced

92 Vegetable Coal , or Charcoal.

ced by the decompofition of the water : for, when this
fluid is pafled through an earthen tube, filled with red-
hot charcoal, the two bodies are converted into hydroge-
nous gas and aeriform carbonic acid. Nothing now remains
but a little afhes. Rouelle has taken notice that fixed al-
kali diflolves a pretty confiderable quantity of charcoal by
fufion.

The fulphuric acid, when expofed to a ftrong heat
with powder of charcoal, is decompofed by this combuf-
tible body, w'hich has a ftronger affinity with oxigene
than fulphur has.

The nitric acid is decompofed with much more rapidi-
ty by charcoal. Dr Prieflley obferved that there was a
good deal of nitrous gas produced from this mixture.
Macquer faw the nitric ttcid, wdth the help of a certain
degree of heat, produce a very discernible effervefcence
with this body. M. Proufl has fucceeded in kindling
charcoal with acid of nitre, the weight of which was one
ounce four drams and twenty three grains, in a bottle contain-
ingan ounce of diddled water. The refult of his experiments
is of no fmall importance : And I (hall therefore here in-
fert an account of it in his own words, taken from his
Obfervations on Pyrophori without alum, &c. inferted in
the journal de Medicine for July 1778.

“ A coal of the extraft of carthamus, reduced to pow-
“ der, and newly calcined, detonized in a very lively
“ manner with the nitrous acid ; and the combuftion was
“ fo rapid, as to raiie the powder in the form of a very
“ beautiful fky-rocket. I calcined, likewife, very fine
“ powder of common charcoal ; and the detonation fuc-
*e ceeded very well.

“ Into a glafs retort, perfe&ly dry, I introduced about
ft a dram of powder of charcoal ; after which I poured into
“ the fame retort about as much nitrous acid : the nitrous

“ acid

Vegetable Coal, or Charcoal. 93

« acid no fooner reached the bottom of the retort, than a
« detonation was produced with the utmoft rapidity. There
« proceeded out of the mouth of the retort, as 1 held it in
« my hand, a dream of flame, more than four inches in
“ length, carrying with it fome of the powder, and very dark-
“ coloured vapours of the nitrous acid : The vapours were
“ condenfed into a green and fomewhat fuming liquor,

“ which proved to be nitrous acid weakened by the wa-
“ ter which entered into the compofition of that which
“ detonized firft. I poured a new quantity of nitrous acid
“ on the coal which dill remained in the retort, and con-
“ tinued to indame it in the fame way, till the whole quan-
“ tity was exhaufted.

“ This experiment I repeated with calcined lamp-black;

“ the fame phenomena were exhibited. In the retort
“ there remained only a very fmall portion of afhes, fome-
“ times half vitrified, and dicking to the bottom of the
“ retort.

“ All charcoal is ufually impregnated with a confider-
able quantity of moidure. 1 found that charcoal cal-
“ cined in the evening, was next day unfit for this deto-
“ nation, having acquired, 'during the intervening fpace, a
“ fenfible quantity of moidure. But, what is very fingu-
“ lar, thefe experiments are fo capricious, that they do not
“ always fucceed, even with the fame charcoal, and the fame
“ acid, intermixed in the very fame proportions. By the
“ following expedient, I believe, fuccefs may be fecured :

“ When the acid is poured on the middle of the charcoal,

“ it does not take fire at all ; but, again, when the acid is '
“ made to trickle down the fides of the crucible or cap-
“ fule, till it reach the bottom, then detonation infal-
“ libly follows, and the powder is raifed and kindled by
“ the nitrous acid. When the nitrous acid is all confum-

“ ed.

94 Vegetable Coal , or Charcoal.

“ ed, the detonation ceafes of courfe, and the reft of the
“ charcoal remains black.”

We know nothing concerning the a&ion of the other
acids on charcoal.

»

This body, with the help of heat, decompofes all ful-
phuric falts, forming in confequence fulphures with va-
rious bafes.

Charcoal caufes nitre to detonize; the nitre burns it by
means of the vital air which that faline fubflance affords
by the aflion of fire. There is a preparation made for
the purpofes of chemiftry and pharmacy, which is called
nitre fixed by charcoal. Mix two parts of nitre with one
of powder of charcoal ; put the mixture into a red-hot
crucible : A lively detonation immediately takes place :
And, when this detonation ceafes, there remains a white
mafs which attra&s moifture from the atmofphere, and is
nothing elfe but the fixed alkali of the nitre and the char-
coal combined with carbonic acid. On lixiviating this
matter, the water dilfolves the fixed alkali ; and what re-
mains, is a fubflance thought to be of an earthy nature.

Sulphure of potafh dilfolves charcoal with great facility,
both by the dry and by the humid way : it even combines
with it more readily than any other fubflance. We owe
this difeovery to Rouelle.

Metals do not combine with charcoal ; but metallic oxi-
des are reduced when expofed, in contaft with this body,
to a heat more or lefs intenfe. We have already feen,
under the article of Metals, that this phenomenon is owing
to the near affinity between oxigene and pure carbona-
ceous matter.'

The action of vegetable fubflances on charcoal, has been
but little examined. We know, only, that charcoal mixed
with fat oils, renders them fufceptible of inflammation by

the

95

Vegetable Coal, or Charcoal,

the nitrous acid ; a fa<fl which confirms Rouelle’s beautiful
theory concerning the inflammation of oils by that acid.

All that has been here faid concerning the known pro-
perties of charcoal, tends to prove that this body is a com-
pound of a combuflible matter, faline fubftances, and
earths.

The peculiar combuflible matter which conflitutes more
than three fourths of the compofition of charcoal, or pure
carbonaceous matter, is but little known. It appears only
to be one of thofe bodies which have thegreateft affinity
with oxigene ; fo great indeed, that it is capable of fepa-
rating it from every other fubftance ; and that, in certain
circumftances, it exhibits properties much the fame with
thofe of native carbure of iron.

The ufes of charcoal in the arts are fufficiently known:
it is likewife of great ufe in chemical operations.

i

CHAP.

i

9 6 > Fixed Salts and Earths of Vegetables.

CHAP. XXI.

Of the Fixed Salts and Earths of Vegetables.

WHEN a vegetable coal is burnt, there remains a
grey, blackilh, or white matter, according to
the nature of the coal. This fubftance, which is called
afhes , is of a very compound nature. When the char-
coal is thoroughly burnt, it contains only different faline
and earthy fubftances, mixed with a little iron and a
little manganefe. When, again, the charcoal does not
burn very freely, the allies produced from it fometimes
contain a little inflammable matter which has not been
confumed. M. Lavoifler, on examining the afhes of the
wood made ufe of by the manufacturers of faltpetre,
found it to contain extractive and refino-extraCtive mat-
ters. The faline fubftances obtained by lixiviation from
the allies of charcoal, have received the name of the
Fixed Salts of Plants. There are three forts of falts
obtained by the incineration of vegetables, the nature
of which we {hall here defcribe.

i. Potalli, which is prepared in the North by burn-
ing wood, which they there poflefs in great plenty.

This

/

Fixed Salts and Earths of Vegetables. 97

This fait is very impure ; it often contains combuflible
matters by which its whitenefs is impaired, a varie-
ty of neutral falts, fuch as fulphate of potafh foda and
lime, muriate of potafh and foda, a little carbonate of
foda, oxide of iron, and earthy matters. To purify this
fait, and extraft from it pure porafh, it is diflolved in the
fmallelt pofhble quantity of cold water. Tne fluid takes
up the alkali, with fome neutral falts ; and the earth,
charcoal, iron, and fulphate of lime which the potafh
frequently contains, are feparated by filtration. The fo-
lution is evaporated to a pellicle, and then fuffered to
fettle and cool, in order that the different neutral falts
which it contains may be formed into cryfials. When,
at length, after repeated filtration, evaporation, and
cryflallization, the lixivium ceafes to afford neutral falti,
it is evaporated to drynefs, and calcined. The fait thus
obtained is carbonate of potafh, intermixed with cauftic
potafh. It always contains, however, fome neutral falts,
and a fmall portion of earthy matters, which may be fe-
parated by forming thefe falts and earthy matters into a-
ftrong folution with water, fuffering that folution to fettle
and reft for fome time, and then fepa rating, by filtra-
tion, the fediment thus formed. The potafh may now
be ufed with confidence as pure, even in the niceft che-
mical experiments.

2. Soda is the refidue remaining after the combu-
ftion of certain plants which grow on the fea fhore. It
is prepared at Alicant, in Languedoc, at Cherbourg,-
&c. by the combuflion of various plants. At Ali-
cant, the kali is employed ; at Cherbourg, the algas
and fucus, commonly known by the name of 11 are chi
I he former of thefe plants contains a good deal more
foda than the other; which indeed affords but. very little.-
Thefe plants are made very dry, and burnt over a trench.-
Vol. Ill, G M

9 3 Fixed Salts and Earths of Vegetables.

At Cherbourg, when the combudion is confiderably ad-
vanced, and the aflies are become very hot, they are"
violently ftirred and kneaded together with large poles.
By this motion, the fub fiance, being hot enough to dif-
fer a fort of femi-vitrification, is formed into folid, hard
pieces, which are fold in commerce under the names of
fone-foda, falicore, falicote, la marie, and alun catin. The'
names by which it is chiefly diAinguifhed, and which de-
note its particular date, are thofe either of the country
from which it comes, or the plant from which it is ob-
tained. The foda of Alicant, called alfo barilla^ is the
beft for the purpofes of chemrftry, and of all thofe arts
in which fixed alkali is neceflary.

The foda of Cherbourg, or varech , contains lefs alkali,
and ftiould not be ufed in chemidry ; but in glafs-works
it is very advantageoufly employed ; for it contains vi-
treous frit, which anfwers the purpofes of the glafs-
maker, by promoting the vitrification of the other mat-
ters.

Common foda, chemically confidered, is a compound
of cauftic foda, carbonate of foda, a fmall proportionxof
carbonate of potafli, fulphate of potafli and foda, muriate
of foda,, charcoal, iron in the date of Fruffian blue , as
has been obferved by Henckel, and earth partly free,
partly combined with fixed alkali, as in that of Cher-
bourg. To feparate thefe fubdances, and obtain the
carbonate of foda in a pure date, they are formed into
a lixivium with cold didilled water : this lixivium is fil-
trated, in order to feparate the earth, the iron, and the
carbonaceoys matters : ladly, it is evaporated in the
fame way as potafli. This alkali is more eafily pu-

rified than potafh ; for as it crydallizes fooner, it fepa-
rates more readily from the caudic foda. It however
carries with it, when it crydallizes, fome of the neutral

falts

99

Fixed Salts and Earths of Vegetables.

i falts and the Pruflian blue contained in the lixivium*

I which can be feparated only by repeated folution, and
fucceflive cryftallization.

3. There are fixed falts prepared in pharmacy, which
j have been ftrongly recommended by Takenius, and (till
: bear his name. That chemift’s procefs confifts in put-
I ting the plant from which the fait is meant to be extra#-
1 ed into an iron pot, and heating that vefifel till its bottom
; become red-hot : the plant is conftantly fiirred, and ex-
hales a good deal of fmoke : at length it kindles : it
mufl now be covered up with a lid, which may fuifer
the fmoke to efcape, but extinguilh the flame. By this'
means the plant is gradually confumed. When reduced
to a fort of blackifh cinder, it is lixiviated with boiling
water ; and, on evaporating that lixivium to drynefs,
a yellowifli or brown fait is obtained. That fait is of-
ten alkaline, but very impure ; it contains a good deal
of extractive matter from which it derives a colour, and
which is mixed with all the neutral falts contained in the
plant : it is in a fort of faponaceous fiate, which makes it
very fit for being employed in medicine. But we mull
not imagine that it pofi'efies all the virtues of the plant
from which it was extracted j for the combuftion necef-
farily alters the principles of the plant. It would be
worth while to examine* by a chemical analyfis, the feve-
ral fixed falts prepared in Takenius’s way, in order to
difeover what faline and' extractive fubftances they con-
tain ; and to afeertain their virtues, and the quantities in
which they are to be adminiftered.

4. When the allies of vegetables are deprived, by lix-
lviation, of all the faline matters which they contained,
the refidue is nothing but a pulverulent fubftance, more
or lefs white or coloured, infipid, infoluble in water, and
which has been hitherto thought to confift of earths.

G a- Th<9

ioo Fixed Salts and Earths of Vegetables.

The magnet attra&s iron from this matter. This iron,
as well as the manganefe which has in like manner been
for fome time obtained from this refidue of vegetables,
mull have exifted ready formed in the plant. A num-
ber of naturalifts are of opinion, that plants owe their
colours to iron. M. Baume, who, in his memoir on
clays, mentions the earthy refidue of vegetables, affirms,
that it forms, with the fulphuric acid, alum and fulphate
of lime a little different from that which owes its form-
ation to pure calcareous earth. From this M. Baume
concludes, that the earth of vegetables confifts of clay,
and of another earth, nearly of a fimilar nature with
calcareous earths ; yet diftind from thefe, as it does not
form quick-lime by the a£lion of fire. He thinks that
clay is formed in thefe fubftances by the collifions to
which filiceous earth is expofed in them, and by the
aftion of the acids with which it combines ; and that
clay, once formed, paffes into the Hate of calcareous
earth, in confequence of undergoing new elaborations in
the tubes of vegetables.

We cannot help obferving in this place, that the dif-
coveries made in Sweden concerning the faline nature of
the bones of animals, — which are to animals precifely
what the fibrous texture of plants is to vegetable bodies, —
feem to fuggeft, that the refidue of vegetables is any thing
rather than an earth. Perhaps an exad analyfis, fuch as has
not yet been made, might ffiew, that what has been taken
for an earthy matter, is rather calcareous phofphate;
at lead we may fufpect as much from the experiments of
Margraf and M. Berthollet, who have obtained phof-
phorus from the grains of muftard, from the gluten, and
from various other vegetable matters, — as well as from the
experiments of M. Haffenfratz, who has extracted phof-
phoric add from a great many marfli plants.

CHAP.

Fermentation.

i os.

CHAP. XXII.

Of Fermentations in general , and of the Spiritous
Fermentation in particular .

FTER confidering vegetables in the Rate in which

nature prefents them to our obfervation, we may
attend to the alterations and changes which they are lia-
ble to fuffer from various circumftances. The altera-
tions depending entirely on their nature, are always the
effect of a phenomenon, called fermentation.

Fermentation is a fpontaneous motion which arifes in
vegetables, and fometimes produces a total change of
their properties. This motion is peculiar to the fluids
of organic bodies ; and no fubftances, but fuch as have
been elaborated by the functions of vegetable or animal
life, are fufceptible of it. Chemifls have not infilled
fufliciently on this important truth, the application of
which to the phaenomena of organized fubftances is Angu-
larly ufeful in medicine.

There mull feveral circumftances concur to promote
this fermentation. Such as,

i. A certain degree of fluidity. Dry fubftances fuffer
no fort of fermentation.

A more

102

Spiritous Fermentation.

2. A more moderate or a more intenfe heat. The de-
grees of heat vary with the forts of fermentation ; but
cold hops the progrefs of every kind of fermentation.

Boerhaave, and after him other chemids, have didin-
guifhed fermentation into three kinds : Spiritous fermenta-
tion, which produces alcohol acetous fermentation, which
affords vinegar or acetous acid. ; — and putrid fermentation,
or putrefaction, which produces ammoniac. It is to be
obferved, that there are feveral fermenting motions, which
cannot be referred to any of thefe three claffes of ferment-
ation.— Such, perhaps, are the fermentations of bread,
of infipid mucilages, of colouring matters, &c. It has
been thought, that fermentations always fucceed each o-
ther in the order in which we have mentioned them : but
there are bodies which become acid, without paffing pre-
vioufly into the date of putrefadlion j and, in other in-
dances, putrefa&ion- takes place without being preceded
by the two other fpecies of fermentation.— We may like-
wife obferve, that the internal motion of maturation feems
to conflitute a fpecies of primary fermentation, which
calls forth the facch'afine matter from a latent date. It
is fpiritous fermentation which affords alcohol. In order
to become well acquainted with the phenomena of this
fpecies of fermentation, we may ccnfider, i. The. condi-
tions neceffary to its production ; 2. The phenomena
which accompany it; 3. The feveral matters fufceptible
of it ; 4, The caufe of that internal motion ; 5. The
product which it forms.

It is well known to chemids, that all vegetable matters
are net fufceptible of fpiritous fermentation, and that, in
order to its taking place, feveral different circumdances
mud concur. Thefe we are to ccnfider as neceffary con-
ditipps of fpiritops fermentation,

1

Tbffe

Spiritous Fermentation. 103

Thefe conditions are,

1. A faccharine mucilage. No other matter is fufcep-
j tible of fpiritous fermentation.

2. A fomewhat vifcous fluidity. Too fluid a juice is
: no more fufceptible of fpiritous fermentation than one that

is too thick.

3. The heat of — from ten to fifteen degrees in Reau-
mur’s, or from fifty five to fixty-five of Fahrenheit’s.

4. A confiderable mafs of matter in which a rapid mo-
tion may be excited.

When thefe four conditions concur, fpiritous ferment-
ation then takes place; and certain phenomena invariably
accompany it. The following is what I have been able
•to difcover by obfervation concerning it.

1. A motion is raifed in the liquor, which becomes
more and more confiderable, till, at length, the fermehta-
tion is fairly efiablifiaed through the whole mafs.

2. The bulk of the mixture is confiderably enlarged,
in proportion as the motion is communicated through the
whole mafs.

3. The liquor lofes its t-ranfparency, and is rendered
turbid by opaque filaments appearing in motion through
all parts of it.

4. There is a heat produced, amounting, according to
the Abbe Rozier, to eighteen degrees of Reaumur, or
feventy-two and one half, Fahrenheit.

5. The folid parts intermixed with the liquor are raif-
ed, and fwim, in confequence of the difengagement of an
elaftic fluid.

6. There is a confiderable quantity of carbonic acid
gas difengaged. That gas forms a ftratum above the li-
quor, in the veflel containing it, which may be cafily di-
ftingw aed from common air. It was on air thus produ-
ced, thct Dr Prieftley and the Duke de Chaulnes made

G 4 their

Spirt tons Fermentation.

104

their fine experiments. It extinguishes lights, and proves
fatal to animals. It produces from lime-water a chalky
precipitate: Cauftic alkali it caufes to cryftallize perfect-
ly. This acid is what renders the employment of thofe
who are engaged in conducting fermentation fo very
dangerous to health.

7. The difengagement of this gas is attended with the
formation of a great many bubbles, in the vifcid liquoF
through which the carbonic acid muft pafs.

All thefe phenomena ceafe by degrees, as the liquor
lofes its fweet tafte and faccharine nature, and becomes
brifk, pungent, and capable of producing intoxication.

Men have been taught by neceffity to prepare ferment-
ed liquors from many different vegetable fubftances. But
experience has evinced, that none but faccharine mat-
ters are properly fuitable for this purpofe. The faccha-
rine matters which are molt commonly ufed in the prepa-
ration of fermented liquors, and which, therefore, befl
deferve to be examined here, are the following :

1. The juice of the grape, properly fo called, produces
wine, the beft of all fermented liquors. In learning the
art of cultivating vines, which is of great importance, it
will be proper to examine, 1. The nature of the foil on
which the vine grows ; a dry parched foil is known to
be very favourable to this plant, as it does not thrive
well in aftrong fat foil : — 2. The mode of managing and
cultivating this vegetable ; it is to be pruned, and its
branches bent down, to hinder the fap from flowing in
its ufual direction. Care muft be taken to have the vine
expofed to the fun, particularly to the reflection of his
rays from the ground, &c. ; and it does not need to be
fup plied with any fort of manure, &c. : — 3. TheTiftory
pf the vegetation of the vine, its expofure, its flowering,
and the formation and ripening of the grape 2; That

Spiritous Fermentation. 105

or the accidents to which it is liable from froft, rains,
jnoiflure: 5. The feafon of the vintage, which flionld
be dry and hot. When this previous knowledge is ac-
quired, the art of making wine is next to be confidered ;
which confiils in putting the grapes, after pulling them,
into a veffel expofed to the heat of fifteen or fixteen de-
grees, and crulhing, flirring, and turning them: ferment-
ation is then produced, with all its ulual phenomena.
The juice of the grape, or mull, fliould not be either too
fluid or too thick ; when too fluid, it may be thickened
by boiling ; when too thick, it mult be diluted with wa-
ter. When the wine is made, it is drawn off, and put
into open calks. It there buffers infenfibly a fecond fer-
mentation, by which its principles are more intimately
combined. It precipitates a fine lye, and a fait known
by the name of tartar , which we have examined in a for-
mer chapter of this volume. To preferve wine, rags dip-
ped in fulphur are burnt in the calk in which it is con-
tained.

It is farther of importance, to be able to diflinguilh
the different forts of wine. France produces a great va-
riety of excellent wines : thofe of Burgundy are the befc
for conflant ufe : their principles are fo perfe&ly com-
bined, that none is predominant over the reft. The vines
of the diftricf of Orleans acquire nearly the fame quali-
ties with thofe of Burgundy, when time has mellowed
their harlhnefs, and combined the excels of fpirit or al-
cohol which they contain. The red wines of Champagne
are very excellent, and of a delicate flavour. The white
wine of the fame country which does not fparkle, is
much better than that which fparkles ; for the tafle of
the latter is tart and fourilh ; and befides, it owes its
quality of fparkling to its containing carbonic acid, in
confequence of having been bottled before the ferment-
ation

io6 Spirit ous Fermentation .

ation had been finifhed. The wines of Languedoc and
Guyenne iare deep- coloured, and highly tonic and flo-
machic ; efpecially when old. The wines of Anjou are
ftrongly fpiritous, and therefore foon intoxicate. As
to foreign wines ; thofe of Germany known by the
name of Rhenifh and Mofelle wines, are white, very
fpiritous, and of a frefh poignant tafle : They very foon
intoxicate. Some Italian wines, fuch as thofe of Orviet-
to, Vicenza, and Lachryma Chrifhi, & c. are well ferment-
ed, and not much inferior to good French wines. Thofe
of Spain and Greece are, in general, fweet, crude, im-
perfectly fermented, and very unwholefome. We mull,
however, except thofe of Rota and Alicant, which are
del'ervedly efteemed very ufeful flomachics and cordials.

2. Apples and pears afford cyder and perry : Thefe
are pretty good liquors ; and M. D’Arcet has fhown, that
brandy may be obtained from them.

3. Cherries afford a pretty good wine, from which
that fpecies of brandy which the Germans call kirchen-
•w offer is extracted.

4. Apricots, peaches, and plums afford a fpecies, not
quite fo good.

5. Sugar diffolved in water eafily ferments. From
this, fort of wine, prepared from the juice of the cane,
there is a fpirit extracted, which is known by the names
of taffia , rum , gull dive , &c.

6. Gramineous feeds, and of thefe efpecially barley,
afford a fort of wine, called beer. The following are the
proceffes of the art of brewing : The barley is fleeped
in water for thirty or forty hours, to foften it. It is
then laid in a heap, and left in that hate till it begin to
germinate. It is then dried in a kiln ; and the buds are
feparated by lifting : after which, it is coarfely ground
ijito what is called malt. The malt is put into a veffel,

called

Spirit ous Fermentation . 107

1 called the majb-tun , and hot water poured upon it to dif-
j f0lVe the mucilage. This being drawn off, a fecond
quantity of hot water is poured upon the malt ; and in
like manner drawn off. This fluid is called wort, and
boiled with hops ; after which it is. put to ferment, with
j yeaft, into a veffel called the cooler. When the fermenta-
tion begins to fubfide, the beer is ftirred, and drawn off
into calks. The fecond fermentation throws up a fcum
called yeajl , which is kept for fermenting future brew-
ings. Germination calls forth, from a latent fiate, a cer-
tain faccharine matter in barley, to which malt owes its
property of affording a wine. A fimilar liquor might be
prepared from molt other gramineous feeds.

All thefe fafis concur to fliow, that the faccharine
matter is the only principle of vegetables fufceptible of
fpiritous fermentation, and that water is neceffary to the
produ&icn of this intefline motion. M. Lavoifier thinks
that the fluid is decompofed in the operation ; its oxige-
nous part combines with the carbonaceous matter of the
fugar to form carbonic acid, which is difengaged during
the fermentation ; while the hydrogene, the other prin-
ciple of the water, uniting with the oil of the faccharine
body, forms a very light and fubtle combuftible body,
which contains much lefs carbonaceous matter than fugar,
and is much lighter, and much, more inflammable, and
conftitutes what is called alcohol.

The product of all thefe fermented fubftances is a pe-
culiar liquor, more or lefs coloured, of an aromatic fmell,
of an hot, poignant tafle ; which, when taken in a fmall
quantity, re- invigorates the fibres, and, when drunk in too
great abundance, intoxicates ; and is known over all the
world by the name of Wine.

The wine of grapes, for infiance, is a compound con-
ing of a large proportion of water, — an aroma, peculiar

to

ro8 Spiritous Fermentation .

to each different fort of wine, — alcohol, — an effential fak,
called tartar, — and an extradfo-refinous colouring matter, to
’which red wines owe their colour.

Before proceeding to explain the means by which
thefe principles may be feparated, it may be proper to
give fome account of the properties and ufes of pure un-
altered wine. Wine, by means of the water, alcohol,
and effential acid fait which it contains, is capable of dif-
folving a great many bodies. It unites with extracts, re-
fins, certain metals, & c. Thefe are the properties which
render wine fit for entering into medical preparations.
Thefe preparations are, 1. Emetic wine, which is pre-
pared by macerating four ounces of crocus metallorum in
two pounds of good white wine. The liquor is filtrated, or
rather made ufe of in a turbid ffate, as a powerful flimulus
in cafes of apoplexy, palfy, &c. — 2. Chalybeate wine, pre-
pared by digefting an ounce of iron filings with two
pounds of white wine. It is an excellent tonic and ape-
rient.— 3. Vegetable wines, which are prepared, A, ei-
ther with red wine, in which aflringent, aromatic plants
are macerated ; or, B, with Spanifh wine. Both the wine
of fquills, and the liquid laudanum of Sydenham, are
prepared with this fpecies of wine. The latter of thefe
is prepared by digefting, for a number of days, two
..ounces of opium cut into flices, an ounce of faffron, and
a drachm of cinnamon and cloves, in a pound of Spanifh
wine. This mixture, taken in dozes of a few drops, is
an excellent calming medicine, efpecially when there is
reafen to fear that 'opium might weaken the patient too
much, or might hinder fome ufeful evacuation.

The addon of fire is commonly ufed to decompofe wine,
and feparate its different principles. Thq liquor is diflil-
ied in an alembic of copper plated with tin, with a re-
ceiver adapted to it. Affoon as the wine is heated to

ebullition,

109

'Diflillation of Wine,

ebullition, it affords a white fluid, in a fmall degree opaque
and milky, of a hot, poignant fmell, and of a flrong, fweer
talle. This fluid is colleded into the receiver, till fuch
time as the vapours exhaling ceafe to be fufceptible of
inflammation by the contad of light. This produd is
what is called Brandy : It is a compound of water, alco-
hol, and a fmall quantity of oil, which obfeures its trans-
parency while it is diddled, and afterwards communicates
to it a yellow colour. The colour of old brandy is not,
however, owing folely to this oil which paffes with it
when it is diddled, but rather to the extradive matter of
that part of the wood of the ca/ks which it has diffolved.
Alcohol, as we fliall hereafter fee, is extraded from
brandy. Wine, after affording brandy, affumes a deeper
colour, and a harfli, acid tade ; it is alio turbid, and may
be obferved to contain a great many faline crydals, which
are nothing but tartar. This fluid is now, therefore, to-
tally decompofed, and its original properties cannot be a-
gain communicated to it, by combining the fpiritous pro-
dud with the refidue : The analyfls is therefore compli-
cated. The refidue of wine from which brandy has
been extraded, takes, by evaporation, the form and con,-
fidency of an extrad. The colouring part may be fepa- ,
rated by alcohol, which, does not affed the tartar. This
tindure is not liable to be precipitated by water. When
evaporated to drynefs, the refidue readily takes fire, and
is foluble in water. It is, in its nature, a true refinc-
extradive, which the alcohol formed by the fermentation
has taken up from the pellicles of the grapes. From
this analyfis it appears, that wine is adually compofed of
water, alcohol, tartar, a colouring matter, and an aroma*
which is deftroyed or modified by the adion of fire. We
already know the nature and properties of moil of thefe
fubftances : we have only alcohol to examine.

Before

no

Dijlillation of Wine.

Before we proceed to fpeak of this product, it will be
proper to fay fomething concerning a fubflance which is
precipitated from wine while it ferments, and is called
lees. It confifts of the feeds and fkins of grapes, impure
tartar, and fulphate of potafli or vitriolated tartar. It is
obtained from brandy by diflillation with naked fire.
When treated in a retort, it affords an acid phlegm, and
ammoniac ; and its coaly refidue contains carbonate and
fulphate of potafli. The lees of wine, incinerated in the
open air, afford cauflic potafh, mixed with carbonate and
fulphate of potafli ; a fubftance known in the Arts by
the name of cendres gravelees. The particulars which
we are to relate concerning the properties of alcohol,
will complete what has been here faid concerning the
properties of lees.

/

CHAP.

Alcohol.

Ill

CHAP. XXIII.

Of Alcohol, or the ProduEl of Spin tons Fermentation.

BRANDY, obtained from wine by diftillation with
naked fire, is a compound of alcohol, water, and a
fmall portion of oily matter. Diftillation is employed to
feparate thefe fubftances, and give the alcohol pure.
There are feveral proceftes for the diftillation of alcohol.
M. Baume recommends the diftillation of brandy on a
balneum-marise, to be repeated as often as may be ne-
ceflary for the extraction of all the fpirit which it con-
tains. He dire&s, to feparate the firft fourth part of the
product of the firft diftillation, and, in like manner, the
firft half of the product of the fucceeding diftillations ; then
to mix all thefe fisft products together, and rectify them
by a gentle heat. The firft half of the liquor which
paftes in this reftification, is the pureft and ftrongeft al-
cohol : the reft is a weaker alcohol, but ftill better for
ordinary purpofes. Rouelle directs to extra#, by di-
ftillation on a water-bath, one half of the brandy made
ufe of : this firft product is common alcohol. By recti-
fying it twice, and reducing it to about two thirds of its
original quantity, the ftrongeft alcohol is obtained :

This,

Alcbhol.

1 I 2

This, according to KunckePs procefs, is to be again
oiftiiled with water, to feparate the oil by which it is
altered. This alcohol, after the didillation with water,
is rectified ; and the operator is now certain of its be-
, ing perfectly pure. The refidue of diddled brandy is
nothing but water impregnated with home particles of
colouring matter, with a peculiar oil floating on its fur-
face.

It may be naturally inferred, that this fluid being pre-
pared by various proceffes, will be, at different times, of
different degrees of ffrength. Attempts have long been
made to difcover fome means of afcertaining its purity.
It was at firfl: thought, that the alcohol which burns
readily and leaves no refidue, muff be very pure : But,
it is now known, that the heat produced by its com-
buftion is fufficiently flrong for extrading all the phlegm
which it may contain. Powder has been propofed as a teff
of its purity. Alcohol that does not kindle gun-powder,
when it is itfelf kindled and applied to it in a fpoon, is
confidered as bad ; but, if it does kindle the powder, it
is thought very good. This proof, however, is falla-
cious ; for when any confiderable quantity, even of the
bed alcohol, is poured on a little powder, the water
which it affords as it burns, moidens the powder fo as to
hinder it from kindling ; whereas, again, the fame pow-
der may be kindled, by burning at its furface a very
fmall quantity even of phlegmatic alcohol. This method
of proof is, therefore, not more certain than the former.
Boerhaave gives a very good procefs for afcertaining the
purity of alcohol. It ccnfids in cading dry povydered
potafli into the alcohol under examination. The potafh
enters into union with the fuperabundant water of the
alcohol, and forms with it a more ponderous and a higher-
coloured fluid, which does not mix with the alcohol, but

finks

Alcohol*

113

finks under it. Laftly, M. Baume, proceeding upon this
principle, that the purer alcohol is, fo much the more
does its levity exceed that of water, has contrived an
1 areometer, by means of which the degree of the purity
of this, or of any other fpiritous liquor, may be accu-
rately afeertained. When that inftrument is immerfed
in alcohol, the purer the fluid is, fo much the deeper
does it fink. He has afeertained by a number of accu-
rate experiments, that the purefl and mod highly recti-
fied alcohol gives thirty-nine degrees of his areometer,
equal to ten of Reaumur’s thermometer. The method
of conftrufting this inftrument, with the reful ts which
alcohol afforded when mixed with various quantities of
water, may be feen in his Elements of Pharmacy, and
may be applied to determine the ftrength of fpirit of
wine by the hydrometer.

Pure alcohol, obtained by the procefs above deferibed,
is a tranfparent fluid, very moveable, and very light,, of
which fix drachms and forty-eight grains may be contain-
ed in a bottle capable of holding an ounce of diftilled
water. Its fmeil is poignant and agreeable ; its tafte
hot and pungent. Its is exceedingly volatile. When
expofed even to a flight degree of heat in clofe veffels,
it afeends, and ,paffes unaltered into the receiver. By
this means it is concentrated ; and any little water which
it might contain, is feparated from it. On this account
the firft portions are the fweeteft, the pureft, and the
moft volatile. It was formerly thought, that there was
a good deal of air difengaged from alcohol when diftil-
led ; but what was thought to be air, is now known to be
rhe fpiritous part of the fluid, which efcapes from the wa-
ter, and is volatilized in the ftate of gas.

When alcohol is heated, in contact with air, it boon
kindles, and burns with a light flame, the middle of which

Vox.. III. Iff is

Alcohol.

ii 4

is white, and the edges blue : if it has been well dephlegm-
ated, it burns in this manner without leaving any refi-
due. Various chemifts have attempted to difcover what
produfts alcohol afforded when burnt. They have afcer-
tained, that its flame is not accompanied with any foot or
fmoke, and that the prbdmfls volatilized prove to be no-
thing but pure water, inlipid, inodorous, and perfectly in
the fame (fate with diddled water. This phenomenon
induced Boerhaave to think that the flame was owing to
the water; and his opinion receives confirmation from what
is at prefent known concerning the hydrogenous gas ob-
tained from the decompofitiorrof water, — and concerning
the compofltion of water by the combuflion of the fame
gas with vital air. M. Lavoifier, on burning alcohol in
a chimney, which was fo conftru&ed and difpofed as to
collecl the vapours, difcovered, that the quantity of water
obtained, is greater than the quantity of alcohol burnt : A
faft from which it appears that alcohol contains a great
deal of hydrogenous gas. On the other hand, M. Ber-
thollet has remarked, that when a mixture of alcohol and
water is burnt, the fluid refidue precipitates lime water.
This experiment fhews, that alcohol contains a little car-
bonaceous matter, which, by its combuflion, or combina-
tion with oxigene, forms carbonic acid. Chemifls have
entertained different opinions concerning its nature. Stahl,
Boerhaave, and feveral others, have confidered this fluid
as a compound of a very fubtle oil, with an attenuated
acid, and water. According to this opinion, therefore, it
is a fort of acid foap. Others, at the head of whom Car-
theufer and Macquer deferve to be named, think alcohol
to conflfl; of phlogiflon and water. The true nature of
this liquor is flill unknown.

Alcohol, when expofed to the air, is evaporated at the
temperature of ten degrees above the freezing point, and

leaves

Alcohol .

leaves no refidue, except a little water, when it has not
been fufficiently dephlegmated. The hotter the atrao-.
iphere, fo much the more rapid is this evaporation. It is
attended with a greater or a lefs degree of cold, according
to its rapidity. At 68 degrees of heat above o in Reau-
mur’s thermometer, 185° Fahrenheit, alcohol takes the
form of an elaftic fluid. ^ .

Alcohol combines with water in any proportion; and is'
perfectly foluble in it. This folution is attended with
heat, and forms different forts of brandy, the ftrength of
which is in proportion to the quantity of the alcohol. So'
ffrong is the affinity of combination between thefe two
fluids, that water is capable of feparating from alcohol
many of the other bodies which may be united with it ; and
again, alcohol decompofes mo, ft faline folutions, and preci-
pitates the falts. On account of its poffeffing this pro-
perty, Boulduc has propofed the ufe of alcohol to precipi-
tate the lalts contained in mineral waters, and obtain them'
without alteration.

Alcohol does not act on pitre earths. We know not
whether it be liable to be altered by barytes or magnefia;
Lime appears to be capable of producing fome change up-
on it; for when alcohol is diftilled on that falino-terreous'
fubftance, the fluid acquires a peculiar fnriell. But this'
phoenomenon has not been fufficiently attended to.

The fixed alkalis actually decompofe alcohol, as is prov-
ed by the preparation known in pharmacy by the name-’
of acrid tindure of tartar . In preparing this medicine,’
a quantity of potafti is melted in a crucible, 2nd either pul-'
verized hot, or put into a matrafs : highly dephlegmatedf
alcohol is poured, to three or four fingers depth, upon the
Alt : the matrafs is clofed with another of a fmaller fize
thefe are lured together, and the whole is digefted on a1
fund-bath, till the alcohol acquire a reddifb colour. Ei-'
v IT 2 rfief

Alcohdi.

it6

ther more or Iefs alkali remains at the bottom of the veT
fel. By diflilling the acrid tincture of tartar, we obtain
an alcohol of a fweet fmell, but little altered ; and there
remains in the retort a matter refembling a faponaceous
extract, which, when diflilled by naked fire, affords alco-
hol, ammoniac, and a light empyreumatic oil. After this
operation, a little charcoal remains, which is found to con-
tain the potafh. From this experiment it would appear
that alcohol contains an oil which the fixed alkali feizes,
and forms with it a real foap that is found in the portion
ofithe alcohol which has not fuffered decompofition. The
/ilium of Paracelfus differs from the acrid tinfture of tar-
tar, only in that the fixed alkali employed in the prepara-
tion of it, appears to have been reduced to a caaiftic ftate
by the metallic oxides with which it was heated. The
martial, jovial, and cupreous reguli of antimony, of each
four ounces, are fufed together, reduced to powder, and
detonized with eighteen ounces of nitre, and as much tar-
tar : they are urged with fire till they melt ; the mixture
is then pulverized, put into a matrafs, and highly dephlegm-
ated alcohol poured upon it, to the depth of three or
four fingers breadth. This mixture, digefled on a fand-
bath, affumes a beautiful red colour, deeper than that of
the acrid tinflure of tartar, and exhibits all the fame
phaenomena. That tindhire may be rendered entirely fi-
milar to the lilium of Paracelfus, by digefting alcohol on
cauftic fixed alkali, inftead of ufing fixed fait of tartar,
which is not entirely deprived of its carbonic acid by the
action of fire, unlefs it be kept for a long time red-hot.
M. Berthollet is convinced that thefe tinflures are no-
thing but folutions of cauftic potafh in alcohol, and that
they afford an happy mode of obtaining that alkali very pure,
as they leave it feparate by evaporation. Alcohol a£ts in
the fame way on pure foda. The acrid tinfture of tartar,

and

Alcohol,

ii7

and the liiium, are very good tonics, and powerful difcuf-
fives. They are employed in all cafes in which the na-
tural drength of the patient is not fufficient to fupport the
progrefs of his difeafe to a crifis, as in the malignant fe-
ver, fmall-pox of a bad kind, &c.

Thp action of cauftic ammoniac on alcohol has not yet
been examined. >

All the acids exhibit with alcohol phenomena highly
worthy of observation. When a quantity of ftrongly
concentrated fulphuric acid is poured on an equal quanti-
ty of resided alcohol, a remarkable heat and hilling
take place. The two fubftances become coloured ; and
there is, at the fame time, exhaled from them a fweet
fmell, refembling that of lemons, or the apple called the
golden rennet. If the retort in which this mixture is
ufually made, be placed On a hot fand-bath, with two
large balloons adapted to it, the firft being immerfed in
a velfel full of cold water, the produ&s obtained are,

I. A fweet- knelling alcohol. 2. A liquor called aether,
of a very fweet fmell, extremely volatile, and whofe
prefence is indicated by the ebullition of the liquor con-
tained in the retort, and by the large dria? with which the
fides of the veffel are furrowed. Care mud be taken to cool
the receiver with wet cloths. 3. After the tether, fol-
lows fulphureous acid, the white colour and fmell of
which Shew that it is time to change the receiver, in
order to obtain the tether Separate. 4. There is at the
fame time volatilized a light yellowilh oil, which is
called fweet oil of wine. The fire mud be greatly mo-
derated after the tether has paffed ; becaufe the matter
now remaining in the retort is black, and thick, and
Swells considerably. 5. When the fweet oil is all diddl-
ed, there likewife pafles Sulphureous acid, which becomes
gradually thicker, till at lad it is nothing but black and

K 3 dirty

Alcohol.

i iS

dirty fulphuric acid. 6. Continuing this operation by
a moderate lire, the refidue is at length fo much dried
as to take the form and confiflency of a bitumen. This
bitumen expofed to a very' flrong fire, affords an acid li-
quor, and a dry, yellowifti fubftance like fulphur. M.
Baume, who has made a long train of experiments on
fulphuric tether, has examined this refidue with a great
deal of care : He has found in it fulphate of iron, Pruf-
lian blue, a faline fubftance, and a peculiar earth, the
nature of which he has not determined. He even af-
fects, that the yellow fublimate which it affords is no-
thing bur fulphur; and that it remains white and pulve-
rulent, without being kindled on the coals. To thefe
particulars we fhall add, that a new quantity cf aether
may be obtained from the refidue from which aether has
been once obtained, by adding to it, according to M. Ca-
det’s procefs, one third part of alcohol dephlegmated by
potafh, and diftilling that mixture. Thefe diftillations
may be feyeral times repeated ; fo that from a mixture
of fix pounds of fulphuric acid with alcohol, by adding
po it fucceftively fifteen pounds of the latter of thefe
fluids, more than ten pounds of good aether may be ob-
tained.

The operation which we have been describing, is, by
the phenomena which it prefents, one of the moft lingu-
lar, and at the fame time one of the moft important, in
all chemiftry ; as it affords fome information concerning
the principles of which alcohol is compofed. There b
are two opinions concerning the formation of tether ; of
which it is proper for us to give fome account. Mac-
qucr, who, as has been mentioned, thinks alcohol a
compound of water with phlogifton, is of opinion, that
in the formation of tether, the fulphuric acid feiz-
jng the water of the alcohol, brings it nearer in nature

£0

vv/ i

I

JEther.

i ip

''to oils. Thus, according to this opinion, there pafles,
at the firft, alcohol a little altered ; — then a fluid of a
middle character between alcohol and oil, which is ae-
ther; — and, laflly, a genuine oil : becaufe the flronger „
the heat employed to obtain the aether, with the great-
er energy does the fulphuric acid a£i on the principles
of the alcohol. Bucquet, flruck with a ftrong objection
which he made to this theory, namely, its being hard to
conceive how the fulphuric acid, impregnated as it mull
be, from the time when it begins to a£l upon the al-
cohol, with a certain quantity of water, abftradled from
that fluid, can, notwithftanding this dilution, reaCi with
fuch force on another part of the fame alcohol, as to re-
duce it into an oily flate, — has advanced another opinion
concerning the production of aether. He coniidered al-
cohol as a fluid compounded of oil, an acid, and water.:
He thought that, when the fulphuric acid was mixed
with alcohol, the refult of the mixture wa§ a fort of bi-
tuminous fluid, which afforded, by heat, the fame prin-
ciples with all the other bitumens, — that is to fay, a light
oil, very odorous, and highly combultible, a fort of naphtha
which was aether, and then an oil, lefs volatile, but higher
coloured than the former, which is the fweet oil of wine.
We will, in facl, fee, in examining the properties of
aether, that this fluid has all the charaCferiflics of a very *
fubtle oil, fuch as naphtha. This theory does not af-
ford a fuflicienrly clear explanation of what pafles in the
preparation of tether. It appears, that the alcohol de-
prives the fulphuric acid of its oxigene — that a part of
the hydrogenous principle contained in the alcohol, com-
bines with this oxigene to form water ; — and that the
alcohol, after loflng that part of its hydrogene, forms
mther. But we are not acquainted with all that pafles
in this operation.

H i

iEtherj

120

JiLther.

Esther, obtained by the procefs here deferibed, is not
very pure : It is combined with alcohol and fulphureous
acid. To rectify it, it is diflilled in a retort, on a land-
bath, with fixed alkali. That fait combines with the
fulphureous acid, and the aether then pafles very pure
by the mod moderate heat. By feparating the fird half
of this product, the aether is obtained in the pured and
rnoft highly rectified date.

.Either is a fluid lighter than alcohol, of a flrong fweet
fimell, fufceptible of great expanfion, and of a hot and
pungent tade. It is fo volatile, that when dirred or
fhaken, it is diffipated in an indant. When evaporating,
it produces a cold diffident to freeze water, as M. Bau-
me has diewn by his beautiful experiments. It is re-
duced into a fort of se the real gas, which burns with ra-
pidity. Air in which aether is contained, in a date of
folution, will pafs through water without lofing its odour
or inflammability. Esther is very eafily kindled, by being
heated in the open air, or brought into contact with a
burning body ; the elcdric fpark likewife kindles it. It
difplays a very luminous white dame, and leaves a black,
and feemingly carbonaceous mark on the furfaees of bo-
dies expofed to its dame. M. Lavoifler has proved, that'
carbonic acid is formed during the combudion of this
liquor; and M. Scheele, that the refidue of aether burnt
on a little water contains fulphuric acid.

Either, according to the Count de Lauraguais, is dif-
folved in ten parts of water. The phenomena which
tether is capable of exhibiting with faline fubdances,
have not yet been particularly examined. We know
only how it rea&s on acids. Lime and the fixed alkalis
do not appear capable of producing any alteration upon
it. Caudic ammoniac mixes with it in all proportions,
foriping with it a matter, the mi^ed fmell cf which

JEther.

I 2 I

might produce very happy effects in fpafmodic complaints.
The fulphuric acid becomes confiderably hot with aether,
and is capable of converting a great part of it into fweet
oil of wine, by diftillation. The fuming nitrous acid
excites a confiderable effervefcence in tether ; and aether
appears to become higher-coloured, and more oily, and
to acquire greater confiftency in confequence of the ad-
mixture of this acid. When mixed with the muriatic
folution of gold, aether retains a part of the metal, ail-
ing, it would appear, in the fame! way as volatile oils,
which alfo retain a part of the oxide of gold. It dif-
folves volatile oils and relins, like alcohol : And phyfi-
cians often make ufe of aethereal tin&ures..

iEther is thought a powerful tonic, and a very good
antifpafmodic medicine. It is adminiftered in hyfteric
complaints, and in fpafmodic colics. It ails very fpeedily
in promoting digeftion, when it is retarded by a weak-
nefs of the ftomach. It mull, however, be adminiftered
with prudence, for it is known to be dangerous when
taken in too great quantities. It is alfo applied exter-
nally, with very happy effects, to remove the headach,
and cure burnings, & c. Hoffman, who paid much at-
tention to the combinations of alcohol with the fulphu-
ric acid, made ufe of a medicine confiding of fweet oil of
wine diffolved in alcohol, which he called his anodyne
mineral liquor. The .Faculty of Medicine of Paris
have added aether to that liquor, and have, in their Dif-
penfary, directed it to be prepared by mixing two ounces
of alcohol, which paffes before the aether, two ounces of
aether, and twelve drops of fweet oil of wine. This me-
dicine is employed in the fame way as aether, but is
greatly inferior in its effefls.

The nitric acid a<fts upon all alcohol with great rapi-
dity, Javier of Chalons is the firft who has given au

cafy

£22

JEthcr,

eafy and not very expenfive procefs for the preparation
■of nitric cetlier. His procefs is as follows : — Into a very
ftrong bottle of the manufaflory of Seves, pour twelve
ounces of very pure and highly rectified alcohol, and
immerfe it in cold water, or rather in pounded ice : at
feveral different times, ftirring the mixture each time,
add eight ounces of concentrated nitric acid : then clofe
up the bottle with a good cork, covered with leather.
Set this mixture afide, in fome private place, to avoid ac-
cidents from the burfling of the bottle, — which fometimes
happens. In a few hours, bubbles arife from the bottom
of the bottle, are colle&ed in drops on the furface of the
liquor, and form, by degrees, a flratum of genuine aether.
This phenomenon continues to go on for four, or from
four to fix days. Affoon as the motion of the liquor ap-
pears to have ceafed, the cork muff be pierced with a
pin, in order to the emiffion of a certain quantity of gas,
which would otherwife force its way out by uncorking
.the bottle, and carry with it all the ether. When this
gas is difcharged, the bottle may be unflopped, the li-
quor contained in it poured into a funnel, flopping the
under end of the funnel with the finger, and the fuper-
natant ether feparated from the refidue, and received
into a glafs phial.

Mr Woulfe has given a different procefs for the pre-
paration of nitrous ether. He ufes very large veffels,
which afford room for the reception of the air that is
difengaged. Taking a balloon of clear glafs, fufficiently
capacious to hold eight or ten pints, and terminating in
a neck feven or eight feet long, he places it on a tripod,
high enough to receive under .it a chafing-difh. The
neck of the matrafs is to be adjufted to a tubulated ca-
pital, with a glafs tube feven or eight feet long, adapted
to its beak. The lower extremity of the tube is received
v into

JEther.

into a balloon with two necks, the lower part of which
is drawn out into a tube, and inferted into a bottle.
The other neck of this balloon joins the bottles com-
poling Woulfe’s apparatus, which we have already re-
peatedly defcri’oed. When all thefe veffels are fuffi-
ciently luted together, a pound of rectified alcohol, and
as much fuming nitrous acid, is 'to be poured into the
matrafs, through the hole perforated in the capital :
that hole mull then be flopped with a cryftal flopper,
wrapped in a piece of leather. ' The mixture becomes:
immediately exceedingly hot : vapours are difengaged,
and pafs rapidly along the neck of the balloon ; and this
veffel being expofed to a heat fufficient to boil the li-
quor which it contains, a quantity of nitric tether paffes
into the balloon employed as a receiver. This procefs,
though very ingenious, is attended with feyeral inconve-
nient circumftances : It takes a long time to fet up the
apparatus, which is both very expenfive, and very trou-
blefome : and it flill expofes the operator to danger ; for
notwithflanding the room afforded in the veffels for the
reception of the vapours, yet, fo rapidly are they difen-
gaged, that the veffels happen to be pretty often- burff,
with confiderable noife.

M. Bogues, in the year 1773, publifhed another pro-
cefs for preparing nitric aether. He directs to mix, in a
glafs retort, capable of containing eight pints, a pound of
alcohol with a pound of nitric acid, weakened fo as to
exhibit only twenty-four degrees of M. Baume’s hydro-
meter ; — to adapt to the retort a balloon of the capacity
of twelve pints; — to afford a paffage to the air, by in-
ferring, at the juncture of the lute, the barrels of two
quills ; — and to diftil the mixture by a very moderate
heat, taking care that the retort fmk but a little way in
jke (and-bath. By this means he obtained fix ounces of

nitric

124

Zither.

» *' #

nitric aether, of fufficient purity. It appears, from what
the Abbe Rozier has faid, that Mitouard followed, fincc
the yejr 1770, a procefs nearly fimilar to that communi-
cated to the public by M. Bogues. That chemifl fub-
jecfed four ounces of fuming fpirit of nitre, with twelve
ounces of alcohol, to dihillation in a retort : He placed
the retort gently on the fand-bath; and by this means,
which appeared to him fimpler than any other that had
been recommended, he obtained a quantity of nitric
tether, of the fame kind with M. Navier’s. Laftly , M. de
la Planche, apothecary at Paris, has contrived two dif-
ferent ways of preparing nitric aether, each of which has
its conveniences. The firft confifts in putting nitre in-
to a tubulated hone retort, with a large balloon, and
pouring in by the aperture, firh, concentrated fulphuric
acid, and afterwards alcohol. The fulphuric acid difen-
gages fpirit of nitre, which reafts upon the alcohol,'- and
forms, almoft inftantaneoufly, nitric tether. As aether
prepared in this way might be fufpefted to be partly ful-
phuric, he afterwards adopted, in preference to this me-
thod, a new procefs ; which is, indeed, exceedingly inge-
nious : To a tubulated glafs retort, into which he had
put fix pounds of dry nitre, he joined an adapter, and a
receiver, communicating by a curved tube with an empty
bottle. The bottle, again, by means of a fyphon, com-
municated with another bottle, containing three pounds
of the beh alcohol. Then, after properly luting the
whole of this apparatus, and placing the retort on a
cinder bath, he poured upon the nitre, through the aper-
ture in the retort, three pounds of concentrated fulphuric
■acid, — fhut up the retort with a cryftal hopper, — urged it
with fire, till it was raifed to ebullition, — and maintained it
in that flare, till it ceafed to emit vapours. On this oc-
c&fion, the fulphuric acid difengages the acid of nitre,

one

JLther .

*25

f one part of which paffes into the receiver, and the reft
into the fecond flalk. At the end of the operation, the
* receiver contains fuming nitrous acid, the retort iulphate
of potafh, and the fecond bottle an aethereal liquor.
This aethereal liquor is next diddled in a retort, with a.
fingle balloon, and only two thirds of the produft taken
up. This product isdiftilled with a fifth part of fuming
nitrous acid, gradually poured upon it, through a long
glafs funnel : of this likewife no more than two thirds
are diddled off. Ladly, this fecond produft is rectified
on potafh ; four ounces are, at the fird, taken off ; and
then the remaining three fourths. The four ounces are
very pure nitric aether ; and the remaining three fourths
a nitrous, anodyne mineral liquor. The refidues of thefe
two rectifications are dulcified fpirit of nitre.

The nitric aether obtained by thefe proceffes, is a yel-
lowifh fluid, equally volatile and fufceptible of evapora-
tion with fulphuric aether. Its fmell is nearly the fame
with that of fulphuric aether, but rather dronger, and
not fo pleafant. Its tafle is hot, and more difagreeable
than that of fulphuric aether. It contains a fmall quanti-
ty of fuperabundant acid. It caufes the corks to dart
from the phials in which it is inclofed ; a large quantity
of gas being condantly difengaged from it. It burns
with a brighter flame, and a thicker fmoke than fulphuric
aether, and does not leave juft fo large a proportion of
carbonaceous refidue. Laftly, like fulphuric aether, it takes
up gold from a folution of that metal, and becomes char-
ged with a certain quantity of it.

The refidue of nitric aether is of a lemon-yellow co-
lour ; its fmell is acid and aromatic ; its tafte pungent,
like that of diltilled vinegar. According to M. Saume,
it affords, by diftillation, a clear liquor, the fmell of which
is not fo fweet as that of nitric aether, and its tafte an a-

greeable

JEther „

32 6

greeable acid. It reddens fyrup of violets, combines with
water in any proportion-, and effervefces with carbonate
of potafh. There remains in the retort, after this li-
quor is diftilled off, an amber-yellow matter, friable, and
fimilar in its appearance to real amber, which attracts
moifiure from the atntofphere, becomes pitchy while it
continues expofed to it, and diffolves in water without
rendering it mucilaginous.. This fubftance, which M.
Baume calls gummi-fapouaceous* affords, in the retort, a
few drops of an acidulated liquor, which is very clear,
of an oily confiftency, and a light empyreumatic fmell.
After the diftillation, there remains a fpongy coal, which
is brilliant, infipid, and very obftinately fixed in the
fire. Bucquet fays, that the liquor which remains after
the formation of nitric aether, takes, by evaporation,
a mucilaginous confiftency ; and that, in a longer or a
fhorter fpace of time, there are faline cryllals formed in
it, which bear a coniiderable refemblance to hairy cater-
pillars, and are called cryjlals of Hitfrnc, from the name
of the chemifl who gave the firft defcription of them. — ■
This refidue has been difcovered to be oxalic acid ; and
the radical principle of that acid appears therefore to be
contained in alcohol.

The muriatic acid does not aft in any perceptible
manner on alcohol. This acid is only dulcified by fimple
mixture with this liquor, as are alfo the two others,,
when mixed in a final! proportion with alcohol. M. Bau-
me, in his differtation on aether, mentions his having ob-
tained a little muriatic tether, t>y bringing vapours of
muriatic acid into contact \vith vapours of alcohol. — ■
Ludolf and Pott employed fublimated muriate of anti-
mony with this view. Baron Bornes directs to diffolve
oxide of zinc in muriatic acid, and to diifil that fait, af-
ter- concentrating it by evaporation in clofe veffels with

alcohol;-

Jbther.

I alcohol. This is an eafy enough way of obtaining mu-
riatic a’ther. But nobody has paid fo much attention to
I this 0bjed as the Marquis of Courtanvaux. Hisprocefs
is, to pour into a glafs retort a pint of alcohol, with -two
i pounds and a half of muriate of tin, or fuming liquor of
. Libavius. A very flrong heat is thus excited ; and there
i arifes a white fuffocating vapour, which difappears when
the mixture is dirred. An agreeable fmell then exhales
from it, and the liquor takes a lemon colour. Place the
; retort on a hot fand-bath : join to it with luting two bal-
: locr.s ; and let the mod diftant of the two be immerfed
in cold water. The fird produd which paffes is dephlegm-
ated alcohol ; after it the tether afcends. The afcent
of the tether may be diftinguifhed by its fweet fmell, and
the drire which it forms on the Tides of the retort. When
the fmell changes, and becomes flrong and fuffocating,
the receiver mud be changed, but the didillation dill
carried on. The product now obtained, is fird a clear
acid liquor, with fome drops of mild oil fwimming on its
furface; next, a yellow matter, of the confidency of but-
ter, which is a true muriate of tin ; and, laftly, a brown,
ponderous liquor, which exhales a confiderable quantity
of white tapours. — There remains in the retort a grey
pulverulent matter, an oxide of tin. The rethereal pro-
dud mud now be poured into a retort, upon a quantity
of potafh : The phenomena which follow are, a live-
ly effervefcence, and a copious precipitation, both
owing to the tin which the acid has carried up with it,
when diddled. By adding a little water, and diddling
the contents of the retort by a moderate heat, a product
is obtained, equal to about one half of the former tethe-
real produd. All the liquors which pafs after the mu-
riatic tether, are drongly impregnated with oxide of tin :
They attrad moidure from the atmofphere, and combine

with

125 JSLlber.

with water, without affording any precipitate. It was hot
known to what caufe the rapidity with which the muri-
atic acid contained in the fumingliquor afts upon alcohol,
while the pure acid does not aft upon it at all, fhould be
aferibed ; but from a difeovery of Scheele’s, it appears
that it is owing to the acid being then in the ftate of
oxigenated muriatic acid, in confequence of which the
excefs of oxigene which it contains, converts the alcohol
into tether. This theory was firfl advanced by myfelf,
in the year 1781 ; and has been fince confirmed by the
experiments of Meffrs Berthollet and Pelletier.

M, de la Planche, apothecary, has propofed the pre-
paring of muriatic tether, by pouring into a tubulated re-
tort fuiphuric acid and alcohol upon decrepitated muriate
of foda. The muriatic acid gas, difengaged by the fui-
phuric acid, upon entering the receiver, comes into
contaft with the alcohol in a vaporous ftate, and com-
bines with it. The refult of the combination is, an sethe-

»

real acid, which, by rectification on fixed potafli, be-
comes pure tether. It appears, that in this procefs, the
muriatic acid deprives the fuiphuric acid of a part of its
oxigene.

Muriatic 'tether is highly tranfparent and volatile. It
has nearly the fame fmell with fuiphuric tether. It burns
in the fame way, and affords a fimilar fmoke. It differs
from it, however, in two properties : Muriatic tether ex-
hales, as it burns, an odour equally pungent and lively
with that of the fulphureous acid ; and it has a fliptic
tafle like alum. Thefe tw?o phtenomena indicate this
tether to be of a different nature, and poffibly lefs per-
feft than the two preceding forts of te'ther. No doubt,
when its properties are more minutely examined, it may-
be found diftinguifhed by other more remarkable pe
culiarities.

Alcohol.

12J

After this account of the manner in which thefe three
mineral acids aft upon alcohol, we are to proceed with
tha hiftory of this fluid. Little attention has been paid
to the action of the other acids on alcohol. We know
only, that it combines readily with the boracic acid; that
in confequence of combination with that acid, it burns
with a green flame; and that alcohol abforbs a quantity
of carbonic acid gas, more than equal to its own bulk.
As to the neutral fairs, Macquer has afcertained, that
this fpirit diffolves fulphuric neutral falts, but with great
difficulty ; that nitric and muriatic falts combine with it
much more readily ; and that the lefs intimately the acid
is combined with the other principle of thefe fubftances,
the more of them does the fpirit ufually diffolve. Alco-
hol, boiled on fulphate of potafli and foda, diflolved none
of either of thefe neutral falts. Neither does carbonate
of potalh, or of foda, unite with it : Mod amrconiacal
falts combine with it. Deliquefcent, earthy falts, fuch
as calcareous and magnefian nitrate and muriate, diffolve
very readily in it. Some metallic falts are alfo very fo-
luble in alcohol; fuch as, fulphate of iron in mother-
water, nitrate of copper, muriate of iron and of copper,
oxigenated muriate of mercury, or corroflve fublimate.
All cupreous falts caufe alcohol to burn with a beautiful
green flame. M. de Morveau has flnce given a fuller
table of the different degrees in which falts are foluble
by alcohol, which is infected in the Journal de Phyfique .-

Alcohol does not diffolve fulphur, either in maffes or
in a powder ; but thefe two bodies unite, if brought in-
to contact when they are both in a vaporous Hate, as
has been difcovered by the Count de Lauraguais. His
procefs conflfts in putting fulphur in powder into a glals
cucurbite, putting into the fame veffel, above the flow-
ers of fulphur, a bottle filled with alcohol, and heating
Vol. III. I the

1-0

Alcohol.

die cucurbite on a fand-bath, with a capital and a re-
ceiver adapted to it. Both the fulphur and the alcohol
are volatilized at the dime time : They combine, and
pafs into the receiver, in a fluid which is fomewhat tur-
bid, and diffufes a fcetid fmell. It contains about a grain
of fulphur to the drachm of alcohol. I have difcovered,
that the fame combination may be produced by diflilling
fulphureous waters, fuch as the water of Enghien, with
alcohol.

Ardent fpirit, or alcohol, does not ad at all, on either
metallic matters, or their oxides. It diffolves amber in
part : It produces no effects on black carbonaceous bi-
tumens. It is obferved, that it combines beft with am-
ber, after being diffilled on fixed alkali ; and that fixed
alkali, mixed with this bituminous fubffance, renders it
much more foluble, by reducing it, no doubt, to a fapo-
naceous ftate.

There are few vegetable matters on which alcohol
does not ad with more or lefs energy. It deffroys the
colouring part, and frequently the whole fubffance of
extrads, when they are of an extrado-refinous, or a
refmo-extradive nature : the faccharine and faponaceous
extrads combine with this fluid. Margraf has obtained,
by alcohol, a faccharine effential fait from red beet, Ikir-
ret, parfnip, &c. But the matters with which it com-
bines the eafleft, are volatile oils, the aroma, camphor,
balfams and refins. Alcohol impregnated with the aro-
ma of plants, is improperly called dijlilled fpiritous waters .
To obtain thefe fluids, diftil alcohol on a balneum-maria:
with odorous plants. The liquid takes up the odorous
principle,, and is volatilized with it, carrying off, at the
' fame time, a certain quantity of volatile oil, which caufes
it to become white with diffilled water. But the oleagi-
nous principle may be feparated, by redifying it on a

water-

Alcohol,

131

Water-bath by a very moderate heat ; and care muft be
taken, that no more than three-fourths of the alcohol
employed be drawn off-, left forrie other fbbftance, be-
fldes the aroma, fhould be volatilized with it. The fmelf
of thefe diftilled fpiritous waters becomes more and more
agreeable as they grow older ; and it appears, that the
odorous principle combines more intimately with the al-
cohol, the longer they are in union.

So great is the affinity between the aroma and alcohol;
that alcohol detaches it from volatile oils and water. — =
When alcohol is diftilled on volatile oils, and on water
impregnated with the odorous principle of a plant, the
alcohol feizes the odorous principle, leaving the oil and
the water deftitute of ftnell. It is obferved, that alco-
hol diffolves thick and ponderous volatile oils, more rea-
dily than fuch as are very light and fluid. Water fepa-
rates the principles of this compound : It precipitates
the oil in the form of opaque, white globules; but the
aroma ftill remains combined with the alcohol. This li-
quid eaflly diffolves camphor in, a cold ftate; but it dif-
folves ftill a greater quantity of it when affifted by the
aftion of heat. This folution, in the proportion of two'
drachms of camphor to the ounce of alcohol, with water
added, drop by drop, affords a cryftalline vegetative fi-
gure, which has been obferved by M. RomieU ; It is a-
perpendicular filament, with needles riling upon it, un-
der an angle of fixty degrees. This experiment fuc-
ceeds but feldom ; as it is fo very difficult to employ pre-
cifely the proper quantity of watery the proper degree
of cooling, &c.

Compounds of oily or reflnous juices With alcohol, iii
which the alcohol is fo ftrongly charged with the oleagi-
nous or reflnous juice as to be coloured by it, and to af-
ford a copious precipitate in water, are called tindures?

I 2- elixirs?

Alcohol.

elixirs , balfams, quinte (fences, &c. Like diddled fpirit-
ous waters, thefe are either flmple, as when there is on-
ly one matter diffolved in them, or compound, when they
contain feveral matters together. Thefe medicines are
generally prepared by expofing the juice in powder, or
the plant, the volatile oil or refin of which is to be dif-
folved, to the a&ion of alcohol, adided by dirring, and
by the gentle heat of the fun or a fand-bath. To ex-
traft the rejins, or any other vegetable matters from fe-
veral different plants at onee, eare mull be taken, fird
to digeff the matter which is the lead liable to be affeft-
ed by the aciion of the alcohol, and then to expofe to it,
fuceeffively, the other fubdances over which it has greater
power. When the menftruum is charged with as much
of thefe matters as it can receive, it is drained ’off.
Sometimes a compound tincture is prepared at once, by
mixing together feveral fimple tinctures. In this man-
lier, the elixir proprietatis is prepared, by mixing the
tin£tures of myrrh, iaffron, and aloes. Ilefins and bal-
fams may be feparated from alcohol by pouring water
upon the tinctures, or diddling them ; but in either of
thefe cafes, the alcohol retains the odorate principle.
Water is not capable of de'eompofing tin&urcs formed
with extracto-refinous, or refino-extra£tive matters, fuch
as thole of rhubarb, faffron, opium, gum-ammoniac, &c. j
for thefe matters are equally foluble in both the mendrua.

Alcohol and brandy are very generally ufed, and ap-
plied to a great variety of purpofes. The lad of thefe
liquors is drunk as a cordial, to revive the exhauded fpi-
rits ; but in excefs it is dangerous, for it dries up the
fibres, and occafions diaking, palfy, and dropfy. Al-
cohol, either pure or mixed with camphor, is ufed to
dop, by external application, the progrefs of gangrenes.

Diddled fpiritous waters are adminidered in medicine,
as tonics, cordials, antifpafmodics, domachics, See. They

are

Alcohol. s 3 3

*re given either diluted in water, or fweetened with
fyrups.

Of thefe waters with fugar, there are certain drinks
prepared, which are known under the name of ratafias ,
or liqueurs. Thefe drinks, when properly prepared,
and taken in final! quantities, may be of fervice ; but
they commonly agree with very few people, and are
hurtful to very many. Thefe liquors, taken in excefs,
are extremely dangerous to the human conditution. I»-
ilead of invigorating with new ftrength, and fortifying
the tone of the ftomach, as they are commonly thought
to do, they produce, mod frequently, a quite contrary
effeft. Thofe which, drunk but feldom, and with great
moderation,1 are the lead; injurious, -are prepared cold,
with one part of alcohol didilled upon the aromatic fub-
dance which is to afford the flavour, two parts of wa-
ter, and one of the fined fugar.

Tin&ures have nearly the fame virtues with diddled fpi-
ritous waters, but they ad with much more energy; and
therefore, they are to be ufed in much fmaller quanti-
ties, and given in wine, in potions, and even in aqueous
liquors. The precipitate which they yield in the lad of
thefe, is equally fufpended through the mixture, and,
befides, the odorous part remains diffolved in the alcohol.

Ladly, alcohol, combined with the copal refin, with
oil of afpic, or the greater lavender, or with oil of tur-
pentine, forms varnifbes, which are called drying; be-
caufe, when a coat of this compound is laid on any body
to varnifh it, the alcohol Is foon volatilized, and leaves on
the varnifhed body a tranfparent, refinous plating. The
volatile oils, which are* mixed with this eompofition, hin-
der the varnifh from drying too hadily, and, by commu-
nicating to it fomewhat of an uncfuous nature, render it
iefs brittle than it would otherwife be.

I 3

C. H A P.

?34

Acetous Fermentation.

*W"~

CHAP. XXIV.

Qf Acetous Fermentation , and of the Acetous and the

Acetic Acids.

/I" ANY vegetable fubflances are fufceptible of acetous
rVl fermentation. Of this kind are gums, and amy-
laceous fmcula diflblved in boiling water ; but fpiritous
and fermented liquors poflefs this property in the mod
eminent dcgree. Acid fermentation may be excited in
any of thefe fluids, by expofmg them to the achon of heat
and air at the fame time, fo as to convert them into what
is called vinegar. This liquor is chiefly prepared from
the wine of grapes ; but very good vinegar might be alfo
prepared from cyder, perry, * &c.

There are three conditions neceflary to vinous fer-
mentation : t.A heat of twenty or twenty-flve degrees
of Reaumur’s thermometer, or from 750 to 90° of Fah-
renheit’s : 2. A fubflance at once vifeous and acid, fuch
as mucilage and tartar: 3. The contadl of air. The
phange which wines undergo, when converted into vine-
gar,

f Vinegar is made in Britain from wort, the infufion of maU,

Acetous Fermentation .

*36'

gar, can be attributed to nothing but an intedine motion
excited in thofe bodies, in confequence of their contain-
ing a certain quantity of mucilaginous matter, unaltered,
and dill fufceptible of another fermentation. The pre-
fence of an acid matter, fuch as tartar, is rcquilite to
produce acid fermentation. Laftly, the contact of air
is indifpenfibly neceflary ; and it appears,-^-it has indeed
been proved by the Abbe Rozier, that the liquor ab-
forbs a portion of air while it ferments.

All kinds of wine are equally good for making vine-
gar. The word are preferred, becaufe they are the
cheaped. But the experiments of Beecher and Car-
theufer fliew, that generous wines, not deditute of fpirit,
afford generally the bed vinegar.

Boerhaave, in his Elements of Chemidry, has given a
very good procefs for the preparation of vinegar. Take
two calks : at fome didance from the bottoms of thefe
calks, form within each of them a falfe bottom of wicker-
work : upon that falfe bottom fpread grape-dalks and
vine-branches ; pour upon thefe wine, till one of the
calks be entirely full, and the other half full. The fer-
mentation will fird begin in the latter : when it is fairly
commenced, fill up that calk with wine from the other :
by this means the fermentation is moderated in the full
calk, and begins in the other. After it has continued
for a due length of time, fill up the latter calk again
from the calk in which the fermentation fird began : —
thus the fermentation is again excited in the former, and
becomes languid in the other. The two calks are to be
thus fuccefiively filled up and emptied till fuch time as
the vinegar be entirely formed ; which is not, ufually, ia
lefs than fifteen days.

In obferving the phenomena of this fermentation, we
perceive a good deal of boiling and hiding : — The liquor

I q. becomes

1 3^ Acetous Fermentation.

becomes hot and turbid ; and a great many bubbles and
filaments appear to run through it in all directions': there
exhales from it a lively, acid fmell, which is in no way
dangerous : it abforbs a great deal of air. There is a
neceffity for flopping the fermentation every twelve
hours : by degrees thefe phenomena difappear ; the heat
falls, the emotion ceafes, and the liquor becomes clear.
It depofites a glareous fediment, in reddifh flakes which
flick to the fides of the cafks. It appears, from a fuffi-
c'ient number of experiments, that the fmaller the quan-
tity of the wine, and the more it is expofed to the con-
tact of air, fo much the more readily does it pafs into
the (late of vinegar. Care mu ft be taken to draw off the
vinegar clear, when it is thus prepared, in order to fepa-
rate the lye, which, were this precaution negleCted, would
caufe it to pafs into the ftate of putrid fermentation. —
Vinegar does not, like wine, depofite tartar, by reft :
that fait was diffolved, and combined with the alcohol
and water, during the fermentation. It is even probable,
that the prefence of fait has a principal influence in call-
ing forth the properties of vinegar from a latent ftate.
This vinegar is of a lighter or an higher colour, according
to the nature of the wine from which it is prepared : but
even the lighted: coloured vinegar is generally much
higher coloured than any fort of white wine ; becaufethe
colouring part of the tartar which has been called forth
from a latent ftate by the production of the acid, is dif-
folved in it.

Vinegar prepared in the manner above deferibed is ex-
tremely fluid, of an acid, fpiritous fmell, and of a tafte in
a greater or a lefs degree four. It reddens blue vege-
table colours. When expofed to a moderate heat, in
veffels indifferently flopped, it is altered, lofes its fpiritous
part, depofites a great deal of mucilaginous flakes and

filament's,

Acetous Fermentation.

137

filaments, and aflumes a putrid tafte and finell. M.Scheele
has {hewn, that it mull; be boiled for a few minutes, in
order that it may be preferved unfpoiled.

When vinegar is diftilled by naked lire in a (lone cu-
curbite covered with a capital, or in a glafs retort on a
fand-bath, it affords a phlegm of a lively and agreeable
l'mell, fcarcely acid ; to which immediately fucceeds a very
white, and ftrongly odorous acid liquor : this is diftilled
vinegar : What follows is lefs odorous, but more acid ;
and the farther the procefs advances, the more acid does
the product become. — Thefe ieverai products may be ta-
ken feparately ; by which means, fo many different fdrts
of diftilled vinegar will be obtained, of various degrees
of acidity and fmell. The operator mu ft be fatisfied
with obtaining two thirds of the liqupr which forms the
pureft vinegar. The portion which paffes after that, is
more acid ; but it has an empyreumatic fmell,' which may
be removed by expofing it to the air. It like wife ac-
quires a faint colour. This operation (hews the acetous
acid to be more ponderous than water. The refidue is
thick, and of a dirty, deep red colour. It depofites a cer-
tain quantity of tartar, and is, in an high degree, acid. —
Evaporated over an open fire, it takes the form of an ex-
tract ; and if, when dry, it be diftilled in a retort, it af-
fords an acid, reddifh phlegm, an oil which is at firft light
and coloured, but becomes afterwards ponderous, with a
little ammoniac. — The refidual coal, now left, contains a
confiderable proportion of fixed alkali.

Vinegar may be concentrated by expofing it to froft. —
That portion which ftill remains liquid, becomes highly
acid, and is decanted off. The frozen part is almofl en-
tirely water. Only a very little vinegar is obtained by
this operation.

The acid of vinegar, when feparated from tartar and

from

Acetous Fermentation.

•i 3«

from its colouring part by diftillation, is fufceptibie of
combination with a great number of bodies.

It combines only in an imperfeft manner with alumi-
nous earth, and forms with it needled cryflals, the pro-
perties of which are but very little known. The name
of this fait (in the new Nomenclature) is Acetite of alu-
minous earth .

It combines readily with ammoniac, affording in the
combination a fait, which is extremely foluble in water,
and does not cryflallize, but affords, by evaporation, a
vifcid, deliquefcent mafs. Acetite of magnefia is decom-
pofable by fire, by mineral acids, by barytes, by lime, and
by the three alkalis. — It is very foluble in alcohol.

The acetous acid combines with lime ; and decompofes
chalk, difengaging its acid in the form of an elaftic fluid.——
The fait which it forms with lime, cryflallizes into very
fine needled cryflals, of a gloffy appearance, like fatin. —
Calcareous acetite is four and bitter : it efflorefces in the
air. It is decompofed by fire; by fixed alkalis, which fe-
parate the earth ; and by mineral acids, which difengage
the acid.

<?

The combination of the acetous acid with potafh, is
improperly called, in the laboratories, foliated earth of
tartar : it fhould be denominated, acetite of -potafh. In
preparing this fait, a quantity of very pure diddled vine-
gar is poured upon carbonate of potafh, prepared by the
incineration of tartar ; the mixture is flirred ; and vine-
gar is poured in, till the fait be fully diifolved, and the
two fubdances mutually faturated : — there fhould rather,
indeed, be an excefs of the acid. — This liquor is filtrated,
and evaporated by a very moderate fire, in a veffel of
porcelain or pure filver. When it becomes thick, the
evaporation is continued on a water-bath till it be quite
dry. By this means a very white fait is obtained. — If

Acetous Fermentation .

*3 9

I

expoted to too much heat, it takes a grey or a brown co-
lour, becaufe a portion of the vinegar is burnt. — Some
chemiffs affirm, that acetite of potafh may be obtained in
a regular form, by fuffering the evaporated folution to a
thick pellicle.

Acetite of potaffi is of a pungent, acid, urinous fade — •
By the action of fire it is decompofed, fo as to afford, in
the retort, an acid phlegm, an empyreumatic oil, ammo-
niac, and a large quantity of ff rong-fmelling gas, confid-
ing of carbonic acid, with hydrogenous gas. The re-
fidual coal contains a good deal of naked potaffi. — This
fait ffrongly attracts the moiflure of the atmofphere, and
is very foluble in water. The fulphuric acid decompofes
it. To effeft this decompofition, one part of concentrated
fulphuric acid is poured on two parts of acetite of potaffi,
introduced into a tubulated glafs retort, with a receiver
fitted to it. There is inffantly difengaged, with a lively
effervefcence, a vaporous fluid, of a poignant fmell, which,
in the receiver, condenfes into acetic acid, the radical
principle of vinegar. This vinegar is highly concentrated,
and ftrongly acid, but not pure, and always mixed with
a certain quantity of fulphureous acid, which may be di-
ftinguiffied by its fmell. — The tartareous acidulum like-
wife decompofes acetite of potaffi ; becaufe it has a nearer
affinity than the acetous acid with the alkaline bafe of
this fait.

Vinegar enters into a perfeft combination with foda,
and forms with it a fait which has been improperly called
cryflallizable foliated earth : We give it the denomina-
tion of acetite of foda. The only difference between

this fait and acetite of potaffi, is, that it cryftallizes in
ftriated prifms, much like thofe of fulphate of foda, and
does not attraff moiflure from the atmofphere. To ob-
tain it in regular cryftals, its folution muff be evaporated

t.Q

Acetous Fermentation .

t-o a pellicle, and then fet in a cool place. Acetite of
foda, like acetite of potafli, is decompofable by fire, and
by mineral acids. To thefe particulars we may add,
that when calcareous and alkaline acetous falts are di-
ddled by a drong fire, the refidues which they leave are
fb many pyrophori, and burn when expofed to the air.
M. Proud, to whom we owe thefe difcoveries, thinks
the divifion of a carbonaceous re fid tie, by an earth or a
metallic oxide, to be the only condition neceffary to the
produ&ion of a pyrophorus.

The acid of vinegar forms, with ammoniac, a liquor
that is called /pint of Mender er us , and is, properly, am-
moniacal acetite. This fait is fo volatile that it cannot
be evaporated without a great part of it being lod; yet,
by flow evaporation, it may be obtained in needled cry-
ftals which are of a hot pungent tade, and very fpeedily
attract moidure from the atmofphere. Ammoniacal ace-
tite is decompofed by the aftion of fire ; by lime and al-
kalis, which difengage the ammoniac ; and by mineral
acids, which feparate the acetous acids.

Vinegar a<ds upon almod all metallic fnbdances ; and
exhibits, in its combinations with them, a number of
very important phenomena. '

It does not appear that this fluid is capable of effed-
ing an immediate folution of oxide of arfenic ; but that
oxide, by didillation with equal parts of acetite of potafli,
afforded M. Cadet and the chemids of the academy of
Dijon, a fuming liquor of a very dinking fmell, very te-
nacious, and of a very Angular nature. M. Cadet firfl
obferved this. liquor to be capable of inflaming fat lute.
The academicians of Dijon, wifliing to examine ayellow-
ifh matter of an oleaginous confidency, which they found
accumulated in the bottom of a bottle containing arfeni-
co- acetous fuming liquor, decanted off a part of the fu-

' ‘ ^ u ' v pernatant

•-vmu

Acetous Fermentation .

145

pematant liquor, and poured the reft on a paper filter.
Only two or three drops had palled, when fuddenly
there a role a very thick fmoke, of a naufeous fmell,
which formed a column extending from the veffel to the
deling of the room : a fort of ebullition took place
around the edges of the matter, and from it there arofe
a beautiful rofe-coloured flame, which continued to
burn for feveral feconds. A particular account of thefe
elegant experiments may be feen in the third volume of
the Elements of Cbemijlry of Dijon. They compare the
liquor of which wre are fpeaking to a liquid phofphorus :
We take it to be a fort of pyrophorus, as well as fome
others of which we are hereafter to fpeak. The refi-
due remaining after the diftillation of acetite of potalh,
with oxide of arfenic, confifts chiefly of potalh.

Vinegar diflolves oxide of cobalt : the folution is of a
pale rofe colour.

It ads neither on bifmuth, nor on its oxide; but dif-
folves oxide of manganefe.

It accomplilhes a dired folution of nickel, according to
M. Arwidlfon. This folution affords green cryftals, of
the form of a fpatula.

This acid does not ad upon antimony ; but it appears
to diflolve the vitreous oxide of that femi-metal; for An-
gelus Sala made up an emetic preparation of thefe two
fubftances.

Both zinc and its oxide diflolve very readily in diflilled
vinegar. M. Monnet obtained, by evaporating this folu-
tion, cryftals in the form of broad plates. Acetite of zinc
fulminates on the coals, and gives out, on the occafion, a
faint blueilh flame. It affords, by diftillation, an inflam-
mable liquor, a yellowilh oily fluid, the colour of which
foon changes to a deep green, and a white fublimate,
which burns by the light of a taper, with a beautiful blue

flame*

142

Acetous Fermentation .

flame. The refidue is in the hate of a fcarcely combuf.
tible pyrophorus.

The acid of vinegar does not diffolve mercury in a me-
tallic date. This combination may, however, be effected,
by attenuating the mercury into very fmall particles, in
the manner of Keyfer. Mercury, in the ftate of oxide,
combines eafily with vinegar. The only thing necefiary
to produce this combination, is, to boil the acid upon the
red oxide of mercury, called precipitate per fe , upon tur-
bith, or upon mercury precipitated by potafli from a ni-
tric folution of that metal. The liquor becomes white,
but regains its tranfparency while boiling. It is filtrated.
By cooling it precipitates filver-'coloured cryftals in the
form of fparkling fcales, refembling the cryftals of the
boracic acid. This acetite of mercury has obtained the
name of mercurial foliated earth. It is prepared in an
inftant, by pouring a nitric folution of mercury into a fo-
lution of acetite of potafli. The nitric acid combines with
the fixed alkali of the latter of thefe falts, and forms
with it nitre, which remains diffolved in the liquor: and
•the oxide of mercury, combining with the acid of vine-
gar, is precipitated in brilliant fcales. This mixture is
filtrated; and the acetite of mercury then remains on the
filter. This fait is decompofed by the adlion of fire. Its
refidue affords a fort of pyrophorous. It is eafily altered
by combuftible vapours.

Tin fuffers but very little alteration from vinegar.
This acid diffolves only a very fmall portion of the metal.
The folution afforded M. Monnet, by evaporation, a yel-
lowifli fubftance refembling gum, and of a foetid fmell.

Lead is one of thofe metals on which the acid of vine-
gar adfs with the moft powerful energy. It diffolves that
metal with the greateft facility. Plates of lead, expofed
to the fteam arifing from hot vinegar, are covered over

with

Acetous Fermentation.

*43

with a white duft, which is called cerufe , and is nothing
but pure oxide of lead. This oxide, ground with one
third part of chalk, forms what is ufed in painting under
the name of white lead. To faturate vinegar with lead,
the acid is poured upon csrufe in a matrafs. This mixture
is digefted on a fand-bath. After remaining in digeftion
for feveral hours, the liquor is filtered and evaporated to a
pellicle. It affords, by cooling and reft, white cryftals, —
in the fhape of irregular needles, if the liquor was too
much concentrated, — or of fiat parallelipipeds, terminating
in two Hoping furfaces, when the procefs of evaporation-
is properly conducted. This acetite of lead is called fal
or faccharum Saturni, on account of its faccharine tafte.
Its tafte is likewife ftiptic. A fimilar fait is prepared of
litharge and vinegar. Equal parts of the two fubftances
are boiled together till they be mutually faturated; and
this mixture, after being evaporated to the confiftency of
clear fyrup, forms M. Goulard’s extrad of Saturn, which
was known, long before his time, by the name of vinegar
of Saturn. Acetite of lead is decompofed by heat. It
affords an acid liquor, which is ruddy, and ftrongly foe-
tid, but very different from radical vinegar, or the pure
acetic acid of which we are foon to fpeak. The refidue
is a very good pyrophorus. This fait is decompofed by
diftilled water, by lime, alkalis, and mineral acids. The
extract of Saturn , diluted in water, and mixed with a
little brandy, forms the vegeto -mineral water.

Vinegar diffolves iron with confiderable energy. The
effervefcence which takes place in this folution is owing
to the difengagement of hydrogenous gas from the wa-
ter which appears to be difl’olved. The liquor affumes
a red or brown colour. By evaporation it affords no-
thing but a gelatinous magma, mixed with a few oblong
brown cryftals. Acetite of iron has a ftiptic fweetifh

tafte»

i44

Acetous A Ad.

taRe. It is decompofed and deprived of its acid by fire.
It attra&s moiRure from the atmofphere, and is decom-
pofed in cliflilled water. When heated till it ceafes to
exhale the fmell of vinegar, it then leaves a yellowifh
oxide, fubjeft to the attrattion of the loadftone. The
acetous foluiion of iron affords with nut-gall, a very
black ink, and might be very advantageofly employed in
dyeing. Alkaline Pruffiates precipitate from it a very
bright Pruffian blue. Black, yellow’, and brown oxide of
iron, and native carbonate of iron, or jpathofe iron ore , af-
ford, with vinegar, folutions of a very beautiful red colour.

Copper is very eafily diffolved in the acetous acid.
This folution, with the help of heat, takes, by degrees,
a green colour. But the acid a£fs more readily on this
metal, when it has been already oxidated by vinegar,
and fo converted into the fubftance called verdigris .
Verdigris is prepared in the neighbourhood of Montpel-
lier, by laying plates of copper into earthen veffels, in
layers covered with the hulks of grapes, previoufly fprinkled
and fermented with weak vinegar. The furfaces of
thefe plates are foon covered with a green ruft ; which is
increafed by piling them upon each other, and fprinkling
them with weak vinegar. The copper is then fcraped,
and the verdigris put up in leather bags for fale. M.
Montet, an apothecary at Montpellier, has given a very’
good defcription of this procefs in two memoirs printed
among the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, in the
years 1750 and 1753. Verdigris readily diffolves in vi-
negar. This folution is of a beautiful green colour, and
affords, by evaporation and cooling, green cryRais in
truncated quadrangular pyramids, which are called cryf-
tais of Venus. The cry Rais prepared for commerce,
which are called dijlilled verdigris , on account of their
being prepared with diflilled vinegar, are in the form of

fine

/

Acetous Acid .

M5

fine pyramids. Thefe crydals take a pyramidal form,
from their being depofited on a piece of wood fplit into
four branches, which are kept feparate by a piece of
cork.

Acetite of copper has a very drong tade, and is a
violent poifon. It is decompofed by the action of fire.
It effervefces in the air, and is covered over with a dull:,
the colour of which is a much paler green than the colour
of the original fait. It is entirely difiblved in water, bun
not decompofed. Lime-water and alkalis precipitate
this folution.

When this fait is reduced to powder, and diddled in a
glafs or earthen retort, with a receiver, it affords a fluid,
which is at firfi white and fomewhat acid, but foon be-
comes fo flrong as to be not inferior in acidity to con-
centrated mineral acids. The receiver is changed, in or-
der that the phlegm and the acid may be obtained fepa-
rate. The acid has been called radical vinegar , or vi-
negar of Venus . It is of a green colour, which it owes
to a certain quantity of calx of copper that is carried
up with it in the didillation. When the diflillation ceaf-
es, and the retort is red-hot, the refidue remaining is a
brown copper-coloured dud, which frequently commu-
nicates a metallic tinge to the Tides of the veflel. This
refidue, as has been obferved by the Duke d’Ayen, and
M. Proud, is drongly pyrophoric. Vinegar of Venus is
rectified by didillation with a moderate heat. It is then
perfe&ly white, provided it be not too much urged with
fire towards the end of the operation, fo as to reduce
the^oxide of copper, remaining in the retort, to too dry
a date. The reduction of copper which may be obferv-
ed in this operation, contributes to explain the nature
of radical vinegar. This acid appears to bear the fame
relation to common vinegar, which the oxigenated muri-
Vol, III, K atic

Acetic Acid.

146

atic acid bears to the pure muriatic acid : — or rather,
the fame which the fulphuric bears to the fulphureous
acid, or the nitric to the nitrous acid. In this operation-,
the acetous acid combines with the oxigene of the oxide
of copper, which paffes, at the fame time, into a metal-
lic hate. The effe&s in the produ&ion, of which radi-
cal vinegar differs effentially from common vinegar, feem
to be owing to the oxigene which that acid acquires.
For this reafon, we give it, according to the rules of the
nomenclature now adopted through this work, the name
of the acetic acid .

The acetic acid, or radical vinegar, reflified in this
manner, is of fo lively and pungent a fmell, that it can
fcarce be borne. Such is its cauflicity, that when appli-
ed to the fkin, it corrodes and cauterizes it : it is ex-
tremely volatile and inflammable : when heated in coir-
tatt with air, it takes fire, and burns with more or lefs
rapidity, according as it is more or lefs rectified. This
fa& has led chemifls to think, that vinegar contains al-
cohol, and is a fort of natural aether. The poignant,
agreeable fmell which the firfl portions of this acid dif-
fufe, favours the fame opinion.

Acetic acid evaporates all away in the air. It com-
bines with water, with a confrderable heat : with earths,
alkalis, and minerals it forms falts different from thofe
into which common vinegar enters ; we call them ace-
tates of potafli, foda, zink, mercury, See. M. de Laf-
fone has fhewn, that the ammoniacal fait formed by ra-
dical vinegar, or the acetic acid, is not of the fame na-
ture with ammoniacal acetite, or fpirit of Mendererus.
Although we are not yet fufficiently acquainted with all
thefe acetates ; yet their form, tafle, and folubility, fheW
plainly, that they are of a different nature from ace-
tites.

The

Acetic Acid.

*47

The Marqtiis de Courtanvaux has fhown, that nothing
but the lad portion of the acetic acid, obtained by the
didillation of acetite of copper or verdigris, is fufceptible
of inflammation, and that it poflefles likewife the proper-
ty of being liable to congellation by cold. This lad por-
tion, rectified, crydallized in the receiver, in large plates,
and in needles ; nor did it become fluid, till it was ex-
pofed to a heat thirteen or fourteen degrees above the
freezing point. In this property, this fubdance refembles
the oxigenated muriatic acid.

The acetic acid decompofes alcohol, and forms tether
as readily as mineral acids, as has been difcovered by the
Count de Lauraguais. All that is neceflary to produce
this effect, is to pour a quantity of radical vinegar upon
an equal quantity of alcohol. A conflderable heat is ex-
cited. The retort is placed upon a hot fand-bath ; and
two receivers are adapted to it, the mod diflant of which
communicates with a quantity of cold water, or pounded
ice. This mixture mud be quickly boiled. There a-
rifes from it, fird, a dephlegmated alcohol ; after that,
atther ; and then an acid, which becomes gradually Arong-
er, as the procefs advances. In the retort there remains
a brown mafs much like a refln. Care mud be taken
to change the receiver affoon as the fmell of the tether
becomes acrid and pungent, and to colled the acid by it-
felf. The acetic tether, thus obtained, mud be re&ified
by a moderate heat with potafli. In this operation there
is a good deal of it lod. The fermentation of this tether
is owing to radical vinegar’s containing an excels of
oxigene. Scheeie relates, that he never fucceeded in
preparing acetic tether from radical vinegar combined
with alcohol, and could not accomplifh this preparation
without adding a mineral acid. M. Pcerner had already
made the fame remark on the difficulty of obtaining ace-

K 2 tic

Acetic Acid.

tic tether by M. de Lauraguais’ procefs. A great many
French chemifts have, however, employed this procefs;
and I myfelf, among others, with fnfficient fuccefs.

M. de La Planche, apothecary, prepares acetic aether
By pouring concentrated fulphuric acid and alcohol upon
acetite of lead introduced into a retort. The theory and
practice of this operation differ, in no refpedt, from thofe
of the analogous procefs by which nitric and muriatic
mther are prepared. Acetic aether has, like every other fort
of aether, an agreeable fmell, which, however, is always
Jnixed with the fmell of vinegar, though not acid. It is
very volatile and inflammable, burns with a lively flame,
and leaves, after its combuftion, a carbonaceous mark.

Chemifts need to make yet many more refearches into
the nature of the acetic acid. What we have here faid
concerning its properties, will ferve to (hew, i. That it
differs in a fingular manner from the acetous acid or com-
mon vinegar. 2. That the difference is owing to the
acetic acid’s containing more oxigene than the acetous ;
which excefs it has derived from the oxide of copper. — -
Let us now refume the examination of the other proper-
ties of common vinenar.

O

The acetous acid, with the help of heat, diffolves the
gold precipitated by fixed alkali, from the oxigenated mu-
riatic acid. This acetous folution of gold, precipitated
by ammoniac, affords fulminating gold, as has been fhown
by Bergman. It a&s in the fame way on platina and
fiver. While thefe metals are in a metallic hate, vine-
gar is incapable of afling upon them ; but it diffolves
them, when expofed to it in the flate of oxides.

Vinegar is capable of combining with many of the
immediate principles of vegetables : It diffolves extracts,
mucilages, and effential falts. It combines with the aro-
ma : It is thought to be the proper folvent for gum re-

fin$t

Acetous Acid .

’i 49

fins. It has even, at length, or by the way of diflilla-
tion, a difcernible influence on fat oils, and reduces them
to a fort of faponaceous flate. The combinations of vi~
i, negar with vegetable fubflances, have not been farther
:: examined with any accuracy.

This acid is ufed in the extraction of feveral of the
principles of vegetables, efpecially in the extraction of
their odoriferous principle ; and various forts of vinegar,
both Ample and compound, are prepared for medical
ufes. Vinegar of fquills, colchicum, &c. afford inffances
of the Ample ; theriacal vinegar, and the vinegar of the
four thieves, are compounds. Thefe medicines are pre-
pared by maceration and digeflion, continued for feveral
days. As this acid is volatile, it is diflilled on aromatic
plants, whofe odoriferous principle it takes up. Of this
kind is the diflilled vinegar of lavender, which is ufed at
the toilet. Thefe liquors are, in general, not fo agree-
able as fpiritous diflilled waters.

Vinegar is very much ufed as an article of feafoning.
It is much ufed in medicine, as being cooling and anti-
feptic : There is a fyrup made up of fugar and vinegar,
which is adminiftered with fuccefs in burning and putrid
fevers, &c. This acid, applied externally, is aflringent and
refolvent. All its combinations are, in like manner, ufed
as excellent medicines.

Acetite of potafh, and acetite of foda, which are
known by the names of terra foliata tartari , and acetous
mineral fait, are powerfully difeuflive and aperient : They
are given in dofes of half a drachm, or even a drachm
each.

Spirit of Mendererus, or ammoniacal acetite, given in
dofes of a few drops, in certain drinks, is aperient, diu-
retic, cordial, antifeptic, &c. It is often fuccefsful in

K 3 ‘ the

150

Acetous Acid.

the leucophlegmatia, or {Welling of the external parts of
the body.

Acetire of mercury, or terra foliata tartari , is an ex-
cellent anti-venereal : it is the principal ingredient in
Keyfer’s pills.

The extract of Saturn , vinegar of Saturn, and vegeto -
mineral water, are applied externally, as deficcatives.
They are violently repercuffive, and ought therefore to
be very cautioufly adminiflered, efpecially when applied
to excoriated or ulcerated parts. Boerhaave mentions
feveral young women who were attacked with confump-
tions, in confequence of the external ufe of preparations
of lead.

Cerufe enters into the compofition of deficcative ungu-
ents and plallers ; and verdigris into feveral collyria and
unguents.

The acetic acid, or radical vinegar , is given as a very
a&ive, irritating, and Simulating medicine. It is held to
the noflrils of perfons in fainting fits. In order that it
may be the more conveniently made ufe of, a certain
quantity of this acid is poured on fplphate of potafh in a
coarfe powder, and put into a clofe-ftopped phial. This
medicine is well known in the world, qnder the name of
fait of vinegar.

Aceric aether has not yet been applied to ufe ; and it
is not known whether it poffefles any virtues different
from thofe of the other forts of aether.

CHAH,

Vutrid Fermentation of Vegetables,

SSI

CHAP. XXV.

Of the Fut rid Fermentation of Vegetables*

ALL vegetable fubflances that have fuffered the fpi-
ritous and the acid fermentation, are hill liable to
undergo another inteftine motion, which is called putrid
fermentation. Stahl and feveral other chemifts think
this fermentation to be nothing but a confequential part
of the two other fermentations already defcribed ; — or mo-
ther, that the phenomena of all the three arife from
one internal emotion, the tendency of which is to deftroy
the texture of the folids, and to alter the nature of the
fluids. It is, in fact, obfervable, that certain vegetable
fubflances pafs, of themfelves, through three fuccefiive
fermentations. For inflance, all faccharine matters, di-
luted in a certain quantity of water, and expofed to a
heat of — from 60 to 8q degrees, afford, firft wine, then
vinegar, and at laffc lofe entirely their character of acidi-
ty : they are altered, become putrid, lofe all their vola-
tile principles, and are in the end reduced to a dry, in-
flpid, earthy fubftance. It is to be obferved, however,
that a great number of vegetable fubflances are not, in any
fenflble manner, liable to pafs fucceflively through thefe

K 4 three

152 Putrid Fermentation of Vegetables.

three forts of fermentation, in the above mentioned order.
Infipid mucilages and gums diflblved in water pafs into
an acid, without becoming difcernibly fpiritous : the
glutinous matter again feems to pafs, all at once, into a
ftate of putrefadfion, without becoming acid. It ap-
pears, then, that although in feveral of the principles of
vegetables, thefe three fermentations follow each other
in regular fuccelhon, yet many of thofe principles are fuf-
ceptible of the two latter fpecies of fermentation, without
having previoufly undergone the former \ nay, are even
liable to putrefa&ion, without becoming previoufly acid.
Thofe of the lafl mentioned charadter partake of the na-
ture of animal fubftances, and accordingly afford ammo-
niac by the adlion of fire, and azotic gas by the acid of
nitre. It is in confequence of their poflefling fuch cha-
radreriftics, that thefe vegeto-animal fubftances putrefy
fo readily.

Certain conditions, well worthy of our attention, are
requilite, in order that the inteftine motion which chan-
ges the nature of vegetable matters, and reduces them
to their elementary principles, may take place. Humi-
dity, or the prefence of water, is one of the moft indif-
penfible of thefe conditions. Dry, folid vegetables, fuch
as wood, fuffer no alteration while they continue in that
ftate ; but when their fibres are feparated by moifture,
an inteftine motion then commences. Water appears,
therefore, to be one of the caufes of putrefadlion. And
when we come to examine the animal kingdom, we will
have occafion to fee, that the inteftine motion which
produces putrefaction begins with the decompofition of
that liquid. Heat is not lefs neceflary to putrefadlion.
Cold, or the temperature of ice, is not only adverfe to
this fpontaneous deftrudlion in fubftances which have not
yet begun to fuffer from it ; but even retards its pro-

grefs^

Tut rid Ferment al ion of Vegetables . 1 5 3

crrefs, and, in fome meafure, reverfes it where it has
j aiready begun to operate. The degree of heat neceffa-
ry to putrefa&ion, is much inferior to what is required
for the fpiritous and the acid fermentation ; for putre-
faction takes place at the temperature of 45 degrees ; but
a more confiderable heat is (till more favourable ; at leaf!:,
if it be not fo violent as to volatilize all the moifture of
the putrefcent fubftance, and render it entirely dry.
Accefs of air is another condition, fingularly favourable
to putrefa&ion ; for vegetable fubftances are very well
preferved in vacuo. The contatt of air, however, is
not fo indifpenfibly neceflary to putrefa&ion as the two
other conditions already mentioned ; for this phenomenon
fometimes takes place without its affiflance.

The putrefa&ion of vegetables exhibits peculiar phe-
nomena. Vegetable fluids, when they putrefy, become
turbid, lofe their colour, and depofite various fediments:
bubbles afcend to the furface, and mouldinefs gathers
over it in the beginning of the alteration. Soft vege-
table matters exhibit the fame phenomena, on being
fimply wet. The emotion then produced is at no time
fo confiderable as that which appears in the cafes of fpi-
ritous and acetous fermentation. The putrefying body
does not appear to increafe in bulk, nor does its tempe-
rature become higher. But the principal phenomenon
of putrefa&ion is, change of fmell, with the volatilization
of an urinous, pungent, acrid principle, — in a word, am-
moniac. From this circumftance, putrefa&ion has been
called alkaline fermentation, and ammoniac confidered as
its produtt. The pungent fmell exhales by degrees, and
is fucceeded by a naufeous, infipid fmell, which can fear ce
be deferibed. The decompofition has now attained its
height : The putrid, vegetable mafs, is become very fofty
like a jelly; it finks down, and the odorous principle ex-
haling from it fuffers a great many fucceffive modifica-
tions.

154 Putrid Fermentation of Vegetables.

tions. At lad it becomes dry, and lofes, by degrees, itfe
difagreeable 'fmell ; and what remains is nothing but a
blackilh, and feemingly carbonaceous refidue, known by
the name of humus vegetabilis , which is found to con-
tain nothing but faline and earthy fubdances. Such is
the order of the phenomena that are fucceffively obferv-
ed in the fpontaneous decompofition of putrefying vege-
tables. But this procefs of decompofition, when carried
fo far as to reduce the vegetable body to an earthy or
faline refidue, is extremely tedious, and, we may even add,
has never yet been oblerved by any perfon with fuitable
attention. Chemids and naturalids have paid dill lefs
attention to the putrefa&ion of vegetable, than to that
of animal lubdances. No philofopher has hitherto underta-
ken toobferve all the phenomena of the putrefa&ion of ve-
getables,but many have begun to defcribe thofe which attend
the putrefadlrion of animal matters. Here, therefore, it ap-
pears proper for us to conclude our hidory of the fpon-
taneous and natural decompofition of vegetables with the
following obfervations : i . The little which we have
here faid concerning it, is fufficient to fliow, that the pu-
trefa&ion of vegetables attenuates, volatilizes, and de-
firoys all their humours, and reduces them to an earthy
date: 2. We have as yet no certain knowledge of the
phenomena and the limits of this fpecies of putrefac-
tion, which is to be carefully didinguifhed from the pu-
trefadion of animal matters : 3. Ladly, as this ferment-
ation is much more confpicuous, and has been much more
attentively obferved in the humours and folids of animals;
the more extenfive detail of particulars which we are to
give, in our account of animal fubdances, will complete
the iketch which we have here marked out, and con-
clude the hidory of thole fatts that are known concern-
ing putrefadiqn.

PART

PART FOURTH.

The Animal Kingdom,

i . [

C II A P. I.

Qf the Chemical A?ialyfis of Animal Sub/lances in

general (i).

IN the analyfis of animal fubfhnces, we meet with
greater difficulties than in any other part of che-
miftry ; and our chemical knowledge of thofe fubftances
is accordingly in a more imperfect (late than any other
branch of the fcience. The ancient chemifls were con-
tent with diddling them by naked fire; an opera-
tion which is at prefent known to alter and totally de^
ftroy the nature of fuch compound bodies as the folids or
fluids of animals. The only parts of animals that have
yet been fubje&ed to an analyfis, are, forne of the hu-
mours

(i) In the fecond edition of this Work, the animai kingdom be-
gan with a brief account of the nature of animals, the dillin&ions
fubfifting among them, the methods requifitc for marking out thofe
diftinftions in Natural Hiilory and the Natural Philofophy of Ani-
mals. The mode of arrangement now adopted in thefe volumes,
and the little connexion between the natural defeription of animals,
^nd the chemiflry of animal matters, have induced me to remove
that part into a fifth volume, A.

256 Chemical Analyfis of Animal Sub/lances*

mours of the human body, and the humours of certain
■quadrupeds.

Many circumdances have concurred to retard the
progrefs of this branch of chemidry. The difficulties
with which refearches of this kind were attended, and
the contradictory refuits which they often afforded ; the
imperfection of the chemical methods with which, till
within thefe few years, animal matters were always
treated, and which condantly produced on them great
alterations ; the impoffibility which was always found of
approaching near to a reproduction of any animal mat-
ter by fynthefis ; and, above all, the fmallnefs of the in-
ducements which any but medical chemids could have to
engage in fuch refearches, are the principal reafons
which have prevented the enlargement of this depart-
ment of the fcience of chemidry. But the refearches of
feveral moderns, efpecialiy of Meffrs Rouelle, Macquer,
Bucquet, Pouiletier de la Salle, Berthollet, Proud,
Scheele, and Bergman, have here opened a new traCt of
difcovery, and fliew, that the art of healing may derive
the mod fignal advantages from refearches of this kind.

The human body, and the bodies of quadrupeds — the
principal animals which engage our attention — are com-
pofea of duids and folids. The humours of animals are
divided into three claffes, according to the purpofes for
which they ferve. The fird contains the recrementitial
humours, the ufe of which is to nouridi certain organs :
the fecond comprehends the excrementitial humours,
which are evacuated by certain emunCtories, as ufelefs,
and even noxious, when retained too long within the
body : the third clafs confids of humours to which the
charaCteriftics of both- the two former claffes belong,
they being partly recrementitial, and partly excrementi-
tial. To the fird clafs belong the blood, the lymph,

the

Chemical Analyfis of Animal Sub/lances. 157

):

the jelly or gelatinous part, the fibrous or glutinous
part, the fat, the marrow, the matter which fupports
interior perfpiration, and the offeous juice. The fecond
clafs conlifts of the fluid which is infenfibly tranfpired by
the pores, the fweat, the mucus of the noftrils, the ce-
rumen of the ears, the gummy matter of the eyes, the
urine, and the feces. Thofe of the third clafs are, the
faliva, the tears, the bile, the pancreatic juice, the gaf-
trie and inteflinal juices, the milk, and the feminal li-
quor. We cannot examine all thefe fluids in the order
in which they are here mentioned ; 1. Becaufe they are
(till but very little known: 2. Becaufe it is abfolutely
neceflary that we treat firft of fuch as have been the
raoft completely analyfed.

The folids of animals, which form the parenchyma of
their different organs, may be divided into three clafles.
In the firfl of thefe clafles 1 rank the foft white parts,
fuch as the laminae of the cellular tiffue, the membranes*,
the membranous vifeera, the aponeurofes, the liga-
ments, the tendons, and the Ikin. The foft red parts
form a fecond clafs very different from the former ; luch
are, particularly, the mufcles, and a part of the organs
which contain the mufcular fibres, as the ftomach, the
inteftines, the bladder, the matrix, &c. Laffly, the
third clafs comprehends the offeous or bony folids.

Animal matters are at prefent analyfed in a very dif-
ferent way from that in which they w'ere analyfed a few
years fince. They are no longer fubje&ed to decompo-
fition by fire ; they are now treated by reagents, parti-
cularly acids, alkalis, alcohol, See. The different fluids
intermingled with each other, or contained in the vefi-
cles of the different parts, are feparated by re A, decan-
tation, filtration, or expreflion. The affion of thefe iub-
fiances on colouring matters is examined, and the feveral

changes

1 53 Chethical Analyfis of Animal Subjlanceh

changes which they are liable to fuffer in different tetri-'
peratures are obferved. Animal liquors are carefully
evaporated, and the different falts which they contain,
extracted from them unaltered.

By thefe methods of analyfis, modern chemifts have
made a number of important difeoveries concerning ani-
mal fubflances. Scheele has found them to contain fe-
veral acids different from fhofe which were before
known. M. Berthollet has demonflrated the exiflence
of phofphoric acid, in a naked hate, in urine andfweatj
and has Iikewife found, in animal matters, a remark-
able quantity of the azotic principle. This lafl difeovery
is one of the mofl important faffs which the analyfis of
animal matters has made known to us. The exiflence
of azote in thefe fubflances, efpecially in their fibrous
parts, accounts for the difference between animal and
vegetable matters. This body is obtained in the flate
of elaflic fluidity, or in azotic gas, by treating the flefli
of the mufeies with nitric acid : even without the ope-
ration of any external heat, it is difengaged in a pretty
large proportion ; it paffes before the nitrous gas, and
when the nitrous gas begins to be difengaged, the ope-
ration fliould be flopped, and the veffels changed.

M. Berthollet explains, by this difeovery, the forma-
tion ‘of the ammoniac which animal fubflances afford
when treated with fire, — the production and difen-
gagement of that fait by putrefaction, — -and the re-
lation between thefe fubflances, and vegetable mat-
ters that are liable to putrefaction, and afford ammoniac
by diflillation. It appears, in fact, that in both thefe
inflances, the ammoniac is formed by the combina-
tion of hydrogene with azote. I believe I cannot here
do better than give, in M. Berthollet’s own words,

what

Chemical Analyfis of Animal Subflances. 159

what he has faid concerning the nature of animal fub-
ftances in general, in a Memoir read before the Faculty
J of Medicine, and inferted in the Journal de fhyfique,
vol. 28. page 272.

“ Organized bodies are chiefly compofed of two fub-
“ fiances, which are diftinguifhed from each other by
“ very eminent peculiar chara£leriftics. Of thefe fub-
“ fiances, one clafs affords acids, when decompofed by

1“ the aflion of fire ; the other volatile alkali : The
“ one clafs forms ardent fpirit by fermentation; the
“ other immediately putrefies, flill affording volatile alkali :
c‘ The one leaves, when calcined, a coal that burns eafi-
“ ly ; the other is reduced to a coal which burns with
a difficulty : The one, in fliort, forms the greater part
4{ of vegetable, the other of animal fubflances ; and
“ hence they are diftinguifhed by thefe two different de-
<f nominations.

“ M. Bergman, by means of fugar and the nitrous
“ acid, produced an acid which he called the faccharine
“ acid, poffeffing peculiar and remarkable properties.
“ On applying to animal fubflances this analyfis by nitrous
“ acid, I found that they all afforded more or lei's fac-
“ charine acid, which was always accompanied with a pe-
“ culiar oil. I obferved, that no ammoniacal fait w^as ob-
“ tained, but a refidue remained, which vegetable fub-
“ fiances do not afford. From thefe firft experiments, I
“ concluded, in the Memoirs of the Academy for the year
“ 1 7 Bo, that animal matters contained fome fubftance a-
nalogous to fugar, in combination with an oil which I
confidered as peculiar to animal matters. I learned far-
ther, from my experiments, that volatile alkali did not
exift in animal fubflances, but was produced by fome
combination, effedied either by the adlion of hear, or

“ by

1 60 Chemical Analyfis of Animal Suhjlances.

“ by the influence of putrefaction. And laftly, the re-
“ fldue, concerning which I did not explain iny fenti-
" ments in that Memoir, contains an excefs of phofplio-
“ ric acid, combined with calcareous earth.

<e I afterwards examined the aftion of metallic calces
“ and falts on animal fubftances, and proved, that the
“ a&ion to which thefe owed their caufticity was a con-
“ fequence of the chemical affinities by which metallic
“ calces tended, with more or lefs force, to revivifica-
“ tion ; the calces of filver and mercury, which are very
“ eafily reduced, having an high degree of caufticity,
" and forming very cauftic falts. It follows, on apply-
“ ing the late difcoveries of natural philofophers to the
“ theory which I have given, that it is the air, exifting
“ in a combined ftate in metallic calces , and without its
“ principle of elafticity, which tends to unite with fome
“ principle in animal fubftances ; which principle appears
“ to me to be the oil which they contain. But the cau-
“ fticity of alkalis cannot be afcribed to the fame caufe;
“ it muft be owing to fome other affinity. In the Me-
<c moirsof the Academy for the year 1782, I have prov-
“ ed that cauftic alkali diflolves animal fubftances, without
“ dividing their principles. 1 have explained the proper-
“ ties of this combination, and afterwards employed it in
“ uniting animal fubftances with the different metallic
‘c calces. Several combinations, not previoufly known to
“ chemifts, were produced : But cauftic alkali, treated in
“ the fame way with vegetable fubftances, formed no
“ combination with them.

Purfuing my refearches, I have at length difcover-
tc ed the principles of volatile alkali. I have fhown vo-
“ latile alkali to be a combination of detonating in-flam -
5C suable gas , or, more accurately, of the inflammable gas

“ of

Ss

ic

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It

Chemical Analyfls of Animal Subfiances. itft

of water with pblogijlicated or mephitic air, in fhch
proportions, that inflammable gas compofes one-fixtli
of the weight, or two-thirds of the bulk of volatile
alkali. I next afcertained in what manner volatile al-
kali may be produced by putrefaction, or the action of
fire. All fubftances pofl'effing the characterises of
animal fubftances, contain mephitis , which may be fe-
parated from them in abundance, by the operation of
the nitrous acid. When thofe fubftances are diftilled,
therefore, their mephitis mult, of neceflity, either pafs
into fome new combination, or be found among their
aeriform products. But among thefe laft it is never
found ; as I fully afcertained by detonizing inflammable
gas, obtained by this means, in M. Volta’s eudiome-
ter, and comparing it with inflammable gas obtained
by diftillation from charcoal, and with that of Vegetable
fubftances; and, after the inflammable gat, there is
none other but the volatile alkali among the products
obtained by diftillation from animal fubftances, into
the eompofition of which the mephitis can poflibly be
received. Confequently, whenever volatile alkali is
formed, the mephitis of the animal fubftances combines
with the inflammable gas feparated from the oil, or
more probably with that produced by the decompofi-
tion of the water, whofe vital air combines at the fame
time with charcoal, to form fixed, air ; in putrefaction,
the inflammable gas combines with the mephitis ; where-
as, in thefpiritous fermentation, the fame gas combines
with a vegetable oil and firgar to form fpirit of wine ,
in which I have difcovered and feparated thefe fub-
ftances by means of the dephlogiflicated marine acid.

“ F rota thefe feveral obfervations, it follows* that
animal fubftances are'of a much more compound na-
ture than fubftances purely vegetable. They contain’
Vol. III. L “ a matte?

1 62 Chemical Analyfis of Animal Subflancei .

*c a matter analogous to fugar, a peculiar oil, phofphoric
<£ acid combined with calcareous earth, mephitis, and very
<c probably fixed air. It is the phofphoric acid which
<c exifts in the coal of animal fubftances, in combination
“ with a portion of real charcoal, oil and earth, that ap-
“ pears to me to occafion the difference obferved between
<c the coals of animal and thofe of vegetable fubftances.”
Such is the accuracy and perfpicuity with which M.
Berthollet explains the nature of animal fubftances in ge-
neral. When thefe diftintt faffs and fair deductions are
compared with the vague notions which before prevailed
concerning the difference between animal and vegetable
matters, the progrefs which chemiftry has made within
thefe few years, by means of the refearches of Swedifh
and French chemifls, cannot but appear aftonifhing. There
is the ftrongeft reafon to hope, that farther experiments
on animal matters, upon the fame plan which has been
marked out and purfued by the moft celebrated chemifls,
from Margraf and Rouelle to the prefent inflant, will
fnpply a great deal of valuable information concerning
thefe fubflances ; their formation, the alterations which
they are liable to undergo, and their deflruffion ; and
particularly, may be of the moft effential fervice to the
fcience of Medicine. The truth of this affertion will be
fully proved, by the account of the difcoveries already
made, and of their application, which we are to exhibit
in the following chapters.

C. II A P.

The Blood,

263

CHAP. II;

Of the Blood:

TH E mod important, the mod compound, and the
mod impenetrable of the recrementitial humours,
is the blood. We treat of it fird, becaufe the greateft
phyficians maintain it to be the fource and centre of all
the other animal fluids. Many phyficians, efpecially M.
Bordeu, have confidered it as a fort of running flefli, a
compound of all the animal humours : an opinion, which,
though highly probable, has not been yet fully demon-
flrated.

The blood is a fluid of a beautiful red colour, of a
fat, un&uous, and, as it were, a faponaceous confiden-
cy ; of a tade fomewhat faline, but aimed inflpid ; and
contained in the heart, arteries, and veins. This fluid
is differently modified by the different parts through
which it flows : For indance, in the arteries and veins,
in the bredd and the region of the liver, in the mufcles
and the glands, &c. it is net the fame. This faff has
not diffidently engaged the attention of chemids.

In confidering the blood as it exiffs through the
whole animal kingdom, we obferve, that in different

L 2 animals

The Blood.

animals it is fmgularly diverfified in colour, confiftency,
fmell, and efpecially temperature. The Iaft is the moll
important of all thefe properties, and feems to depend
on the circulation and the refpi ration. The human
blood, and that of quadrupeds and birds, is hotter than
the medium which they inhabit ; and, for this reafon,
thefe are called hot-blooded, animals. The blood of
fillies and reptiles, again, is nearly of the fame tempera-
ture with the medium- which they inhabit ; and thefe are,
for this reafon, called cold-blooded animals. Other
properties qf this fluid, efpecially its chemical qualities-
or charadleriflics, would probably be found, if we were
acquainted with the Blood of all animals, to be fubjeft
to the fame variations.

The human blood, which more efpecially engages our
attention, is differently modified by the age, the fex, the tem-
perament and the flate of the health of each individual.
In infants, the female fex, and confumptive perfons, it is
paler and thinner. I11 robufl and healthy perfons, it is
thick, of a deep red colour, almoll black,- and of a much
more faline tafte than in the former.

Before proceeding to an analyfis of the blood, it is
neceflary that we get acquainted with its phyfical pro-
perties— its colour, heat, tafte, fmell, and peculiar con-
fiftency — of which we have already taken notice. By
the microfcope we difcover in it a great many globules,
which, according to Lieuwenhoek and Boerhaave, when
broken in circulating through the fmaller pafiages, lofe
their red colour, and become firft yellow, and then
white ; fo that, according to the phyfician of Leyden,
a red globule is an aflemblage of other fmaller white
globules, and owes its colour to its aggregation. There
is another Angular property belonging to the blood.
While hot and in motion, it continues fluid and red:

When.

The Blood.

* it>5

'When cooled and at reft, it becomes a folid mafs, which,
by degrees, feparates into two parts ; the one red and
fupernatant, its colour dark, and its coufiftency con-
crete, till fuch time as it fuffer an alteration ; — this
is called the clot of the blood : the other occupies the
bottom of the veffel, and is of a greenifh yellow colour,
and adhefive; — it is called the ferum or lymph. This
fpontaneous coagulation and reparation of the two parts
of the blood takes place in the laft moments of an ani-
mal’s life ; and produces thofe. concrete matters which
are found in the heart, and the larger veflels of deceafed
animals, and have been miftaken for polypi.

Blood, expofed to a gentle and continued heat, paffes
into the ftate of putrid fermentation. When diftilled on
a water-bath, it affords a phlegm of a faint fmell, which
is neither acid nor alkaline, but eafily putrefies, in con-
fequence of its containing an animal fubftance diffolved
through it. Expofed to a more intenfe heat, blood, as
has been difcovered by De Haen, gradually .coagulates
and becomes dry : it then lofes feven- eighths of its weight,
and becomes capable of effervefcence with acids. By
conducing the fire properly, it may be hardened into a
fort of corneous fubftance. Deficcated blood, expofed.
to the open air, attracts from it fome degree of moifture,
and, in the courfe of a few months, there is formed on
it afaline efllorefcence, which Rouelle has determined to
be carbonate of foda. When diftilled by naked fire, it
affords a faline phlegm, — that is, a phlegm holding in
folution an ammoniacal fair, fuperfaturatecl with ammo-
niac/ The nature of the empyreumatic acid contained
in this ammoniacal falc, which was fir ft obferved by
Wieuffens, and has given rife to fo many difputes among
phyfiologifts, has never yet been fufficiently examined.
After this phlegm, a light oil paffes, — then a ponderous,
coloured oil, and ammoniacal carbonate contaminated

L 3 wit;h

1 66

The Blood.

■with a thick oil. There remains in the retort a fpungy
coal, very difficult to be incinerated, which is found to
contain muriate of foda, carbonate of foda, oxide of
iron, and a matter apparently earthy, which feems to be
calcareous phofphate.

Blood combined with alkalis, without previous decom-
position, becomes more fluid by handing. Acids inflan*
taneoully coagulate it, and alter its colour. By filtra-
ting this fubftance, evaporating the liquor pafled through
the filter, drying it before a moderate fire, and lixivia*
ting the matter that has been dried, neutral falts are
obtained, confiding of foda with the acid that was mixed
with the blood. Alcohol coagulates blood.

Experiments made on blood in its original hate, do
not difcover the nature of the Substances of which it
confifts. But the fpontaneous decompofition of blood,
and the reparation of its two component parts, the clot
and the Serum, afford us an opportunity of acquiring
that knowledge by examining each of thefe matters by
itfelf. Till within thefe few years, the chemical ana-
lysis of the blood was confined to what has been related
in the foregoing pages ; but Meflrs Menghini, Rouelle
the younger, and Bucquet have examined this fluid in
a very dilferent manner. The two laft of thefe che-
mifts eipecially have conduced their experiments on this
matter in a way which Shews to what perfection the ana-
lyfis of animal matters may be carried, by proceeding on
their plan. The following account of the properties of
the Several fubftances which compofe the blood, is de-
rived from the difcoveries of thofe philofophers.

The ferum is very far from being pure water, but a
peculiar matter, highly worthy of examination, to which
we give the name of the albuminous fluid. It is of a

yellowifh white colour, Somewhat inclining to green ; its

tafte

The Blood.

167

tafte is faltilh, but nearly infipid ; its confiPiency unftuous
and adhefive. When expofed to the affion of fire, it
coagulates and becomes hard, long before it can be
heated to ebullition : it communicates a green tinge to
fyrup of violets. By diftillation on a water-bath, it af-
fords a phlegm of a mild, infipid tafte, which is neither
acid nor alkaline, but fpeedily putrefies. After lofing
this phlegm, it is dry, hard, and tranfparent like horn :
it is no longer foluble in water : by diftillation in a
retort, it affords an alkaline phlegm, a confiderable
quantity of ammoniacal carbonate, and a very foetid,
thick oil. All thefe products, in general, have a peculiar
foetid fmell. The coal of the ferum, when diftilled by
naked fire, almoft entirely fills the retort. It is fo dif-
ficult to incinerate, that it muft be kept burning for fe-
veral hours, and expofed to a great deal of frefli air
before it can be reduced to allies. The allies are of a
blackifh grey colour, and contain muriate and carbonate
of foda, with calcareous phofphate.

The ferum, if expofed for fame time to an hot tempe-
rature, in an open veffel, paffes readily into a ftate of
putrefaction, and then affords a confiderable quantity of
ammoniacal carbonate, with an oil, the fra ell of which
is infufferably naufeous. It putrefies fo fpeedily, that
Bucquet could not difeover whether it paffed into an
acid ftate before becoming alkaline. This liquor com-
bines with water in any proportion ; and then it lofes its
confiftency, its tafte, and its greenifh colour. To pro-
mote the combination, the mixture needs to be fliaken ;
becaufe the difference between the denfities of the two
fluids obflru&s their union. The ferum, when poured
into boiling water, coagulates almoft wholly and inftan-
taneoufly. A portion of that fluid forms, with the wa-
ter, a fort of opaque and milky white liquor ; which,

L 4 according

s68

The Blood.

according to Bucquet, poffeffes all the charatteriftic
properties of milk ; that is, is rarefied and caufed to
mdunt tip, like that fluid, by heat, and is coagulated
by the fame agents — by acids, and by alcohol.

Alkalis render the ferum more fluid by effe£Iing a fort
of folution of it. Acids alter it in a different manner, I
increafing its conliftency, and coagulating it. This mix-
ture, filtrated and evaporated after filtration, affords a
neutral fait formed of foda and the acid employed : And
this fact proves foda to exifl in the ferum in a naked
ltate, in full poffeffion of all its properties. The coa- I
gulum formed in this liquor by the addition of an acid, I
is very fpeedily diffolved in ammoniac, which is the ge-
nuine folvent of the albuminous part of the blood ; but
it does nor diflolve at all in pure water. Acids precipi-
tate this matter in union with ammoniac. The coagu-
]um, difliiled by naked fire, affords the fame products
as the ferum defic.cated ; and its carbonaceous refidue
contains a good deal of carbonate of foda; — a circum-
fiance which, in Bucquet’s opinion, fhews, that there
exifls a portion of that fajlt in a ltate of intimate com-
bination, in the ferum, which the acid employed to co-
agulate it does not faturate.

The ferum, infpiffated, affords azotic gas by the
a«hion of the nitric acid, with the help of a moderate
heat. On increafing the fire, there is a quantity of
pitrous gas difengaged from the mixture: the refidue
affords oxalic acid, and even a fmall quantity of malic
acid.

The ferum does not decompofe calcareous or alumi-
nous neutral falts ; but it acts with fufficient energy in
deeompofing metallic falts. It is liable to be coa-
gulated by alcohol : this coagulum differs confider-
gbly frpm that formed in the ferum by acids, chiefly

in

The Blood .

1 69

in its folubility in water, as Bucquet has difcovered.
This liquid appears, therefore, from thefe refearches,
to be an animal mucilage, confiding of water, acidifia-
I ble oily bafes, muriate and carbonate of foda, with cal-
careous phofphate : The rofe-coloured precipitate which
I have obtained by pouring a portion of a nitric folu-
tion of mercury into the ferum, appears to be owing to
the latter of thefe principles. Although this liquid has
fcarce any eolour, yet nitric acid, and, dill more, nitrate
of mercury, produces, when poured into it, a rofe or
light flefti-colour, which I have had occafion to obfervein
many other animal liquors. The mod fmgular property of
this mucilage, — a property highly worthy of engaging
the attention of phyficians, — is, its being liable to be-
come concrete by the a<dion of fire and acids. Scheele
thought this phenomenon owing to the comb in. :on of
heat.

The clot of the blood affords, by expofure to the
heat of a water-bath, an infipid water ; it becomes, at
the fame time, dry and brittle. It affords, in the re-
tort, an alkaline phlegm, a thick oil, of a foetid, empy-
reumatic fmell, and a good deal of ammoniacal carbo-
nate. The refidue which it leaves, is a fpongy coal,
of a fparkling metallic afpecl, difficult to incinerate, and
affording, when treated with fulphuric acid, fulphate of
of foda and fulphate of iron : there remains, after thefe
operations, a mixture of calcareous phofphate with car-
bonaceous matter. Expofed to an hot atmofphere, the
clot putrefies readily enough. When wadied with wa-
ter, that fluid feparates it into two very didinft matters ;
the one it diffolves deriving from it a red colour. The
folution, treated with different mendrua, exhibits all
the fame charafteridics with the ferum, but is found to
fontain much more iron. The metal is feparated by

incineration,,

1 70

The Blood .

incineration, and by waffling the incinerated coal, in
order to carry off the faline matters. The remaining
part of the lixivium, after the faline matters are carried
off, is in the ffate of oxide of iron, of a brown colour,
of conliderable beauty. It is ufually fubjefl to the at-
traction of the magnet. Blood is thought to owe its co-
lour to this metal. A very confiderable proportion of
iron has been extracted from this fluid by Meffrs Men-
ghini, Rouelle, and Bucquet.

The clot, after being waftied and cleared from all
the red ferum which it contains, is in the ffate of a
fibrous white matter j which it remains for us to exa-
mine.

The fibrous part of the blood is white and colourlefs,
after being well waffled : its tafte is infipid. It affords,
by diffillation on a water-bath, an infipid phlegm, with-
out fmell, and liable to putrefaction. Even the gentleft
heat hardens this fibrous matter in a Angular manner.
When expofed fuddenly to a ffrong fire, it fhrinks like
parchment. By diffillation in a retort, it affords an
ammoniacal phlegm, a ponderous oil, which is thick
and very fcetid, and a good deal of ammoniacal carbo-
nate, contaminated with a portion of oil. The refidual
coal is not very bulky, but compact, ponderous, and
eafier incinerated than that of the ferum. Its allies are
very white : it contains no faline matter, as it muff
have loft, by the waffling, whatever it contained of that
kind, — and no iron : it is a fort of refidue of an earthy
appearance, and feemingly calcareous phofphate.

The fibrous part of the blood putrefies very quickly
and with great facility. When expofed to an hot,
moift atmofphere, it fwells, and affords a good deal of
ammoniac. It is not foluble in water : when boiled in that
fluid, it becomes hard, and acquires a grey colour. Al-
kalis

The Blood.

I7t

kalis do not dillolve it ; but even the wcakeft acids
combine with it : The nitric acid difengages from it a
confiderable quantity of azotic gas, as we are told by M.
Berthollet ; and at length diffolves it with effervefcence
and the difengagement of nitrous gas. When it ceafes
to emit nitrous gas, the refidue is obferved to contain
oily and faline flakes fwimming in a yellowifli liquor :
This liquor affords, by evaporation, oxalic acid in cryftals ;
and, at the fame time, depofites no jnconfiderable quan-
tity of flakes, compofed of a peculiar oil and calcareous
phofphate. It appears that there are in the fibrous
part two oils ; one of which conflitutes, in combination
with oxigene, oxalic acid ; while the other forms, with
the fame principle, malic acid.

The fibrous matter diffolves alfo in the muriatic acid,
which converts it into a fort of green jelly. The acid
of vinegar dilfolves it with the help of heat: Water,
and efpecially alkalis, precipitate this fibrous matter from
acids. This animal matter is decompofed in thefe com-
binations ; and when feparated, by whatever means,
from acids, no longer exhibits the fame properties.
Neutral falts, and other mineral matters, are incapable
of acting upon it. It unites with the albuminous mat-
ter, efpecially with that which is coloured, to form clot.
This lafl fubflance, as well as the fibrous part, is totally
foluble in acids ; on account, no doubt, of the combina-
tion of that matter with the red feriun. From this it
appears, that the fibrous part differs greatly from the
albuminous matter. It is more of an animal nature than
that matter, being a fort of animal gluten, bearing no
finall refetnblance to that of farina, and poffefling the
remarkable property of becoming concrete by reft and
cooling. There is no doubt that this matter, which has
not been fufficiently attended to by phyfiologifls and pa-

thologifls.

The Blood.

E7I2

thologifts, affs an important part in the animal cecono-
my. I have a confiderable time fince obferved, that
it is depofited in the mufcles, and conftitutes the fibrous
bafe of thofe organs,' and that fubftance which is moil
eminently irritable. I have concluded this fubftance to
merit more attention than it has yet obtained, and have
confidered it as capable of occafioning, by its excefs or
deficiency, certain difeafes : And I have given my rea-
ions for entertaining fuch opinions, in a memoir which
is inferted among the Memoirs of the Royal Society of
Medicine for the year 1783, &e. It appears that the
peculiar acid which the blood affords by diftillation, and
which M. Chauffer has obtained from it by the action
of alcohol, exifts in the fibrous part of its fubftance.
For this reafon, I have propofed to call it the cruoric
acid, if it ihould ever be determined to be a peculiar
animal acid.

After all thefe ingenious difcoveries concerning the
nature of the blood, yet we are far from being fuffi-
ciently acquainted with all its chemical properties. We
are yet ignorant of the minute difference which fubfifts
between the ferum and the fibrous part. The blood
has not yet been examined in all its various ftates ; par-
ticularly in different difeafes, in which that fluid fuffers
confiderable alterations, fuch as violent inflammations,
the chlorofis, fcurvy, See. Phyficians diftinguifli thefe
alterations only by external appearances ; and it is
much to be wiftied that accurate analyfes fliould de-
termine their nature in fuch a manner as to afford a
better direction to the practitioner in the art of healing.

Rouelle has examined the blood of various quadru-
peds, the ox, the horfe, the calf, the fheep, the hog,
the afs, and the goat. He obtained from them the
fame produffs which the human blood affords, but in
different proportions,

CHAP,

The mm:

57J

C H A P. III.

Of the Milk 9

rg '’HE milk is a recrementitial humour, defigned by
JL nature for the nourilhment of the young of animals
in the firfl period of their exidepce. It is of a dead
white colour, a mild faccharine tade, and a fmell faintly ^
aromatic. The female of the human fpecies, female
quadrupeds, and cetaceous animals of the fame fpecies,
are the only animals that afford milk. No other animal
is furnifhed with organs for the fecretion of this hu-
mour. It was long thought, that the milk was imme-
diately feparated by glands in the breads, from the blood
conveyed into them by the numerous arteries which
meet there. But the principles of which milk is known
to confid, have not been hitherto proved to exid in the
blood ; and late difcoveries in anatomy have (hewn, that
the breads are ffurnifhed with a great many lymphatic
and abforbent veffels, difpofed in a greafy tiffue ; and
the liquor which thefe contain, is perhaps one of the
chief condituent principles of milk.

Milk

174

The Milk,

Milk is very different in different animals. In womaii
it is highly faccharine. Cow’s milk is mild, and its
principles are intimately united. The milk of the goat
and the afs poffeffes peculiar virtues, and is often gently
aflringent. The properties of milk are liable to vary,
as they commonly depend on the nature of the food with
which animals are nourilhed.

Cow’s milk, which we may take as an inftance, as it is fo
eafily procured, is a compound of three different fubftan-
ces ; ferum or whey, which is fluid and tranfparent, — •
butter and clieefe, which have more confiflency. Thefe
three parts are fo mixed and fufpended, as to form a fort
of animal emulfion.

Milk, diftilled by the heat of a water-bath, affords an
infipid, inodorous phlegm, fufceptible of putrefaction.
Expofed to an heat fomewhat flronger, it coagulates like
blood, as has been obferved by Bucquet. When flirred
and evaporated flowly, it forms a fort of faccharine ex-
tra#, known by the name of franch'ipane. This extra#,
diffolved in water, forms Hoffman’s whey. Diftilled by
naked fire, it affords acid, fluid oil, concrete oil, and
ammoniacal carbonate. Its refidual coal contains a little
potafli, muriate of potafh, and calcareous phofphate.

Milk, expofed to an hot temperature, is liable to pafs
into a ffate of fpiritous fermentation, in which it forms
a fort of wine ; but a confiderable quantity of it muft be
together, in order that this alteration may take place.
I he Tartars prepare a fpiritous liquor from mare’s
milk. The milk becomes quickly acid, and then coagu-
lates. The cheefe gathers into a mafs, leaving the whey
feparate.

Acids have inflantaneoufly the fame efteff on milk.
They coagulate it ; this coagulum is again diffolved by
alkalis, efpecially by ammoniac. Boerhaave afferts, that

milk

The Milk.

*75

milk boiled with oil of tartar becomes firfl yellow, and
takes afterwards a blood-red colour. He is even of opi-
nion, that it is by fome fuch combination milk is convert-
ed in the human body into the hate of real blood. Neu-
tral falts, fugar and gum likewife coagulate milk, with
the help of heat ; as has been obferved by Scheele.

To make whey, milk muff be warmed with an addi-
tion of rennet, in the proportion of twelve or fifteen
grains to the pint. This fubftance being a mixture of
milk foured in the ftomachs of calves, with the gaftric
juice, is a fermenting fubftance which coagulates the
cafeous part. After this coagulation is efte£ted, the
whey is drained from the curds. Gallium , the flowers
of thilTles, and artichokes a& on milk in the fame way
as rennet. The external membrane of the ftomachs of
calves and birds, when dried and reduced to powder,
produces the fame effe£t on milk : a fa£t which proves,
that the coagulation of this liquor is owing to the
dried gaftric juice contained hi the pores of that mem-
brane.

The ferum or whey prepared in this way, is turbid :
it may be clarified with white of eggs and tartar. When
the ferum or whey is wanted very pure, in order to be
examined, no acidulous tartarite of potafh fliould be in-
termixed with it.

Whey has a mild tafte. When prepared from new
milk, it contains a faccharine eflential fait ; but it foon
acquires a four tafte, in confequence of that fermenta-
tion which takes place in it. This emotion is produced
by “the alteration of a mucilaginous principle contained in
milk ; and it is the extrication of this acid from a latent
flate which feparates the whey from the other principles
of which milk confifts. It will therefore be proper to

examine

I

3 7* VheMUL

examine the nature of the acid which is formed ill fou?
milk, and conflitutes fermented whey.

It is well known, that milk left to itfelf at a tempera-;
trneof feventy or eighty degrees, buffers, in the fpace of
a few days, a fermentation which developes an acid, and
feparates the butter and cheefe. The acid which is
formed by this fermentation, and acquires, in the fpace
of twelve or fifteen days, all the ftrength of which it is
capable, has been examined by Scheele : We call it the
laflic acid. The following is the procefs by which
Scheele obtained this acid pure, after attempting inef-
fe&ually to feparate it from four milk by diflillation. This
operation having afforded him only a very fmall portion
of acid, he evaporated four whey to an eighth part,
after; filtering it, to feparate all the cafeous matter. The
animal earth he precipitated by lime-water. He diluted
it with three times its weight of water ; and feparated
the lime by oxalic acid. To afcertain whether any
oxalic acid remained in it, he affayed it with lime water ;
and then evaporated the liquor to the confiflency of
honey ; and precipitated the fugar of milk, and fome
other extraneous fubftances, by mixing with it alcohol,
which eafily diffolves the lactic acid. Laflly, he diftilled
this folution ; and after the alcohol wras thus volatilized,,
the lactic acid remained pure in the retort. Scheele
afcribes to this acid the following properties.

Evaporated even to a very thick confiflency, it affordsno
cryfials ; it attracts moiflure from the atmofphere. By
diflillation it affords an empyreumatic acid, refembling
the pyro-tartareous acid, a little oil, and a mixture
of carbonic acid gas, with carbonated hydrogenous
gas.

In union with the three alkalis, with barytes, or with
lime, the ladlic acid forms ddiquefcent falts. In combi-
nation

Milk.

177

nation with magnefia, it forms crydals-; but thefe, too,
attraft moidure from the atmofphere. Mod of thefe
falts of milk, or alkaline and earthy labiates, are foluble
ui alcohol. The acid of milk does not aft, in any way,
on cobalt, bifmuth, antimony, mercury, fdver, or gold,
even though aflided by a boiling heat. It diffolves zinc
and iron, producing from them hydrogenous gas : the
former of thefe falts, laftate of zinc, cryftallizes ; the
other, laftate of iron, forms a deliquefeent brown mafs.

The laftic acid oxidates and diffolves lead and copper.
The laftic folution of lead depofites a little fulphate of
lead ; from which it appears, that this animal acid con-
tains a fmall portion of fulphuric acid. Laflly, it decom-
pofes acetite of potafh: This lad property, with the red
here mentioned as belonging to it, (hew the laftic acid to
be different in its nature from vinegar. To thefe parti-
culars, Scheele adds, that real vinegar may be obtained
from milk, by mixing fix fpoonfuls of alc-ohol with three
pints of milk, and leaving the mixture to ferment in a
well-dopped veffel : the gas difengaged by the ferment-
ation of the mixture, mud be, from time to time, differed
to efcape : at the end of a month, the milk is found
changed into good vinegar : it may be then drained
through a cloth, and put up in bottles. The celebrated
owedifli chemid adds farther, that milk in a bottle, the
neck of which enters a veffel filled with the fame liquor,
undergoes, if expofed, in this condition, to an heat fome-
what fuperior to the ordinary heat of dimmer, a fe {Ment-
ation which occafions the difengagement of a large quan-
tity of elaffic fluid : This fluid difplaces the milk, fo as '
nearly to empty the bottle in the fpace of two days :

The acid produced by this fermentation, which takes
place without the contaft of air, feems to owe its oxigene,
the acidifying bafe of air, to the decompofition of water.

Vo l. III. M The

178

Milk.

The whey of fweet milk, feparated by rennet, with-
out fouring, holds in folution a certain quantity of a fa-
line fubflance, known by the name of fait or fugar of
milk. Although Kempfer afferts, that the Brachmans
have a procefs for preparing this fait, it appears, that
Fabricius Bartholet or Bartholdi, an Italian phyfician,
firft mentioned it to the world, in the year 1619. Et-
muller, Tefti, Werlofchnigg, Wallifnieri, Fickius, and
Cartheufer, have fucceftively written concerning it, and
defcribed procefl'es for its preparation. Meffrs Vulgamoz
and Lichtenftein have given very particular accounts of
the art of extracting this faline fubflance, which is pre-
pared in the great way in different places in Switzerland.
They there evaporate whey, obtained from milk, by
lkimming it, and coagulating it with rennet, till it be re-
duced to the confiftency of honey : This fubftance, put
into moulds, and dried before the fun, forms fugar of
milk in tablets : thefe are diffolved in water, clarified
with White of eggs, and evaporated to the confiftency of
a fyrup ; and then the liquor is cryffallized in the cold :
white cryftals are formed in it, in rhomboidal paralleli-
pipeds : the mother water depofites yellow and brown
cryflals, which are purified by fuceeffive folutions. —
M. Lichtenftein has examined and analyfed the differ-
ent fugars of milk that are fold in Switzerland at differ-
ent prices ; and has particularly diflinguifhed, 1. The
fweet fugar of milk , which is extracted from fweet puri-
fied whey : 2. The acefcent fugar of milk, obtained from
four whey : 3. Sugar of milk, rendered impure by a mix-
ture of fat particles , which, according to him, feparates
in the firft cryflallization : 4. Sugar of milk, mixed with
oil and common fait, which is laft cryffallized : 5. Sugar
of milk, mixed with fat particles, common fait , and fal
ammoniac ; it is glutinous and moift 5 treated with fixed
' alkali.

alkali, it affords ammoniac: 6. Laftly, Sugar of milk mix-
t; ed with all the above-mentioned fubftances, and likewife
with extradive arid cafeous matter ; this lafl fugar is of
the tonfiftency of honey j it is liable to turn rancid, and
is acrid and aifagreeable.

Pure fugar of milk taftes, in a faint degree, like fugar,
infipid, and fomewhat earthy. By repeated folutions,
there is always fo much of it loft. It diffolves in three
or four parts of hot water : It affords, by diftillation, the
fame products as fugar, according to Meffrs Rouelle,
Vulgamoz, and Scheele. The fii ft of thefe chemifts
obtained, by burning a pound of this fait, from 24 to
30 grains of allies; of which three fourths were muriate
of potalh, and the remaining fourth part carbonate of
potafk. On a burning coal, fugar of milk melts, fwells,
gives out a fmell of caramel, and burns like fugar.
Thefe properties afforded reafon for thinking, that this
fait would, like fugar, afford oxalic acid, if treated with
nitric a£id. Scheele’s experiments have confirmed this
conjecture : But he obferves, that a much more confider-
able proportion of fpirit of nitre is neceffary for this
purpofe, than to produce oxalic acid from common fugar;
and that 4 ounces of fugar of milk afford 5 drams of oxalic
acid : And he has farther difcovered, that the refidue of
fugar of milk that has been treated with nitric acid, when
diluted in water, and filtrated, in order to the evaporation
and cryftallization of the oxalic acid, leaves on the filter
a white powder, which he found to poffefs the charac-
teriftics of a peculiar acid different from the former. This
we denominate the faccho ladic acid. The following are
its properties, as obferved by Scheele :

I his acid is in the form of a white granulated powr-
der. Two drachms of this fait, in a ftate of confiderable
purity, on being expofed to heat in a glafs retort, melted,

M 2 fwelled.

I

I Bo Milk.

fwelled, and turned black. There was fublimated from
this, matter, a brown fait, the fmell of which was a com-
pound of the fmell of benzoin with that of amber, and
which weighed 35 grains. That fublimate was acid,
foluble in alcohol, but not fo eafily as in water, and
burned on the coals. In the receiver, there was found
a brown liquor, which pofTeffed none of the charatter-
iftics of an oily fubftance. In the retort, there remained

I I grains of coaly matter. Both carbonic acid, and
hydrogenous gas, were difengaged during the diflillation. *
The faccho-laclic acid is fcarce foluble in water ; for an
ounce of boiling water diffolves only fix grains of it, and
even of that quantity a fourth part is precipitated by
cooling. — M. de Morveau fays, that this acid effervefces
with an hot folution of carbonate of potafh. Saccho-
lafte of potalh, cryftallized by cooling, was diffolved in
eight times its weight of hot water, and cryftallized a-
new by the cooling of the liquor. Saccho-la£le of
foda is fufceptible of cryftallization, and only five parts
of water are requifite to diflblve it. This acid like-
wife combines with ammoniac ; but heat deprives the
neutral fait, thus formed, of its volatile bafe. • With
barytes, aluminous earth, magnefia, and lime, the faccho-
la&ic acid forms falts which are slmoft infolnble. It a<fts
with little energy on metals ; with their oxides it forms
neutral falts, which are fcarce foluble. It precipitates
nitrates of mercury, lead, and filver ; as alfo muriate of
lead.

When Schecle firft made this difcovery, he thought,
that the white powder depofited by the oxalic acid, ob-
tained from fugar of milk by the nitric acid, wTas nothing
but calcareous oxalate, the formation of which was ow-
ing to lime which might poffibiy be contained in this
animal fait; but he was foon undeceived, when, on pour-
ing a fmall portion of pure oxalic acid into a folution of

fugar

Milk.

i S r

Aigar of milk, he found the mixture to afford no preci-
pitate. Yet M. Hermftadt, who, in Creii’s Journal, has
given two memoirs on fugar of milk, in the ffcond of
which he enters into a particular examination of this
earthy acid, thinks, notwithftanding Scheele’s experi-
ments, that it muft be a compound of oxalic acid and
lime with a fat matter. But M. de Morveau, examin-
ing, with his ufual accuracy, the experiments of .this
chemift, and comparing them with thofe of Scheeie, has
fliewn, in the new DiEtionnaire Encyclopadique, that M.
Hermftadt has not accomplifhed his objeCi, and that even
the refults of his experiments rather confirm than contra-
dict the difcoveries of the Swedifli chemift. M. de Mor-
veau has himfelf made feveral ingenious experiments,
which concur to eftabiifh the fame fa£h — To thefe par-
ticulars we may add, that the oxalic and the faccho-la&ic
acids do not exift ready-formed in fugar of milk ; and
that this fait contains only the bafes which attraft: oxigene
or the acidifying principle from the nitric acid. We may
farther obferye, that new experiments may, one day, per-
haps, fhew the faccho- laCtic acid to be nothing but a mo-
dification of fome other vegetable acid ; for, every thing
tends to prove, that the principles of whey have belong-
ed originally to the vegetables with which the animals
that afford it are nourilhed.

Baron Haller reprefents fugar of milk as exifting in
the following proportions, in the milk of the following
animals : \

Four ounces of fheep’s milk, afford from 35 to 37
grains of fugar of milk :

The fame quantity of goat’s milk - from 47 to 49

of cow’s milk - from 53 to 54

of woman’s milk from 58 to 67

of mare’s milk - from 69 to 70

— __ — 0f afs’s milk from 80 to 82

M 3 Kpuelje

Mill.

182

Rouelle has obferved, that after the fugar of milk i$
extracted from the whey of cow’s milk, it cools into a
fort of jelly ; and accordingly believes it to contain ge-
latinous matter.

The cheefe, or cafeous part of milk, is formed into
a mafs, and feparated from the other parts of the liquid,
by the a&ion of fire, by the acid fermentation to which
piilk is liable, and by the intermixture of acids. This
matter, when well wafhed, is white and folid, like the
albumen of the blood. A gentle heat hardens it. By
diftillation on a water-bath, it affords an infipid phlegm,
fubject to putrefa&ion.

Dried cheefe affords, by diffillation in a retort, an al-
kaline phlegm, a ponderous oil, and a confiderable pro-
portion of ammoniacal carbonate. Its coaly refidue is
denfe, very difficult to incinerate, and incapable of af-
fording fixed alkali. When treated with nitric acid, it
is found to contain lime and phofphoric acid.

Cheefe putrefies in a hot temperature : It fwells, dif-
fufes a noifome fmelj, becomes half- fluid, and, in confe-
quence of the difengagement of a ftrong-fmelling and
highly mephitic gas, w’hich with difficulty efcapes from
this vifcid matter, is covered over with froth.

Cheefe is not foluble in cold water ; and hot water
hardens it. Scheele has obferved, that when it has been
precipitated by an acid, boiling water becomes capable
of diffolving a part of it.

The alkalis diffolve it : ammoniac efpecially, when a
few drops of it are poured into milk coagulated by an
acid, caufes the coagulnm in a fhort time to difappear.

Concentrated acids alfo diffolve cheefe. The nitric
acid difengages azotic gas from it. The vegetable acids
do not diffolve it in any fenfible degree. The folution
of cheefe in the mineral acids is precipitated by alkalis;

' • • of

Milk. 133

of which, however, roo great a quantity diffolves the
precipitate again.

The neutral falts, efpecially muriate of foda, retard
the putrefaction of this fubftance. Alcohol coagulates it.

From thefe particulars, it appears that che'efe is a fub-
ftance, like the albumen of the blood.

Butter is in part feparated from milk by reft, and col-
leffed on the furface. But being, in this ftate, mixed
with a good deal of ferum and cafeous matter, it is fepa-
rated from thefe matters by rapid agitation. This is the
art of making or churning butter. The ferum which
fwims over churned butter. Hill retains a portion of th,at
oily fubftance ; it is yellow, four, and fat, and is called
butter-milk. What is called cream, is a mixture of cheefe
and butter, ikimmed off milk. It is much, more difficult
to digeft than pure milk. A confiderable agitation will
reduce this fubftance into froth : in this ftate, it is called
iv hipped cream.

Pure butter is foft and concrete, of a golden yellow
colour, fometimes higher, fometimes lighter, and of an
agreeable fweet taile. By a gentle heat, it melts ; and
by cooling, becomes folid. When diftilled on a water-
bath, it affords an almoft infipid phlegm. In the retort,
it affords an acid, of -a very ftrong pungent fmell ; at
firft, a fluid oil ; and afterwards, a concrete coloured oil,
of the fame pungent fmell with the acid. When thefe
produffs are reffified, the oil is rendered as fluid and
volatile as effential oils. The refidual coal is but very
fcanty. The acid which butter affords by diftillation,
appears to be of the fame nature with that which is ex-
tracted from greafe ; of which we will hereafter fpeak,
under the name of the feb.acic acid. It may alfo be ex-
traffed in neutral falts, by the application of lime, potalh,
or foda.

JVl 4 Butter,

184

Milk.

Butter, in a hot temperature, eafily becomes acid and
rancid. Its acid is then difengaged from a latent date,
and is found to have a difagreeable tade. Water and
alcohol, by diffolving the acid, reduce the butter nearly
to its former (late. Fixed alkali diffolves butter, and
forms a real foap with it.

From this detail of particulars, it appears, that butter
is an oily fubdance, of the fame nature with concrete
vegetable fixed oils.

Frefh butter is fweet, cooling, and relaxing ; but it
eafily becomes four, and agrees but with few ftomachs.
Brown butter, the acid of which is developed, is one of
the mod umvholfome articles of food, and the mod diffi-
cult to diged, that can be made ufe of.

Milk is an aliment both agreeable and ufeful in a great
many cafes. It is even one of the mod valuable medi-
cines that can be prefcribed. In difeafes affe&ing the
Ikin or joints, fuch as the ring-worm, the gout, eW. it
fweetens the acrid humours. It even heals up fome ul-
cers that are not of a very malignant fort. It may be
impregnated with the aromatic parts of plants : it is then
.an excellent medicine for the phthifis pulmonaris. AH
domachs are not fit for digeding milk ; It is generally
troublefome to people who are liable to the heart-burn,
from too much acidity in the primary paffages : It fhould
be almod always adminidered with great caution. Milk
rendered medicinal, by feeding the animal which affords it
on certain fubdances for that purpofe, is often uled with
fuc«efs.

The milk of different animals poffeffes different virtues.
"Woman’s milk is fweet, and highly faccharine, and pro-
duces very happy effects in the cafe of a marafmus.
Afs’s milk is fuccefsfully ufed for the phthifis pulmonaris,
and the gout ; it commonly relaxes. Mare’s milk is

nearly

Milk.

*85

nearly of the fame nature with that of the afs. Goat’s
milk is ferous, and gently aftringent. Cow’s milk is
thicker, more fat, and more nourifhing : it is alfo not fo
eafily digefted ; and it is often necelfary to qualify it
with water, or fome aromatic infufion, and that efpeci-
ally when it is found either not to pafs eafily through
the body, or to occafion loofenefs.

Milk is likewife applied externally as an emollient. It
fpeedily eafes pains ; and contributes to ripen impofthumes,
and gatherings of humour, by accelerating their fuppu-
ration. It is applied hot, and in a bladder, to the fore
parts.

CHAP.

CHAP. IV.

' ■ • " *

Of Fat »

r |"1HE Fat is a concrete oily matter, contained in the
JL cellular tiffue of animals. It is either white or
yellowifh, and commonly infipid as to both tafte and fmell.
Its folidity, colour, tafte, &c. are different in different 1
animals ; nay, even in the fame animal, as it is older or i
younger. In the infant, it is white, infipid, and far from
folia ; in the adult perfon, firm and yellowifh \ in the
old man, of a deeper colour, very much diverfified in its
confiftency, and generally of a ftrqnger tafte.

The fat of man and quadrupeds is confident, and either
white or yellow : The fat of birds is finer, fweeter, more ]
unffuous, and generally lefs folid : In cetaceous animals, a
and fifties, the fat is almofl fluid, and generally difpofed
in certain refer voirs, fuch as the cavity of the cranium? n
and the vertebrae. It is found, too, in ferpents, infers,
and worms ; but in thefe animals, it is confined to the
yifcera in the lower part of the belly, where it is difpofed
in finall lumps: only a very fmall quantity of it is found
on the mufcles, and under the fkin,

it i

Fat.

i8y

It has been obferved, that the fat of frugivorous and
herbivorous animals is firm and folid, but that of carni-
vorous animals more or lefs fluid. It is, however, to be
remarked on this head, that the fat muff always be lefs
folid, and lefs concrete, in a warm living animal, than in
a dead carcafe, cold, and under diffeftion.

The fat of an animal is different in its nature in differ-
ent parts of the body. About the reins, and under the
fkin, it is folid : It is lefs fo between the mufcular fibres,
or near the moveable vifeera, fuch as the heart, the ffo-
mach, and the inteflines. It is more copious in winter
than in fummer. It feems to contribute to the mainte-
nance of heat in thofe regions in which it is placed, as is
proved by a great variety of faffs that have been colleffed
by phyfiolpgifts. It feems even to contribute to the
nourifhment of animals, as has been obferved of the bear,
the marmot, the dormoufe, and of all thofe animals in
general which are occafionally conftrained to a long ab-
ffinence; for, on fuch occafions, their greafe is, by de-
grees, melted and wafled away.

Before ufing greafe in the making up of medicines,
its chemical properties fliould be examined : it fhould be
cut into pieces, and the membranes and veffels running
through it feparated from it : it is next to be plentifully
v/afhed with water, and melted with a little water in a
new earthen veffel. When the water is evaporated, and
the boiling ceafes, it may then be poured into another
earthen veffel, and buffered to cool.

All the chemical properties of greafe have not yet
been examined. Nothing but the power of fire, of air,
and of fome re-agents, on this fubffance, is known : Yet
there is fcarce any animal matter with which we need
more to be well acquainted, in order that fome judgment
may be formed of the ufes to which it is applicable, of

which

Fat.

1S8

which there is nothing certain hitherto known ; as well
as of the alterations which it is liable to buffer in living
bodies.

The fat of any animal is liquified by expofure to a
gentle heat, and congealed by cooling. When expofed
to a ftrong heat, with concourfe of air, it diffufes a fmoke
of a poignant fmell, which occafions tears and coughing;
and it burns, when expofed to a heat fufficient to yolatize
it. It leaves but very little refidual coal. Greafe diftilled
on a water-bath, affords a vapid water, of a light animal
fmell, neither acid nor alkaline, but liable to .take, in a
fhort time, a putrid fmell, as alfo to depofite mucilaginous
filaments. This phenomenon, which takes place on all
water obtained from animal fubftances by diftillation on
a water-bath, proves that the water carries off with it
feme mucilaginous principle to which the alteration muff
be owing. Animal fat dihilled in a retort, affords a
phlegm which is at firfl aqueous, but becomes afterwards
ftrongly acid, — and oil that is partly liquid, partly con-
crete ; and there remains a very fmall quantity of refidual
coal, which it is not eafy to incinerate, and in which
M. Crell found a fmall portion of calcareous phofphate.
Thefe products have an acid finefl, lively and pungent,
and as ftrong as that of the fulphureous acid. The acid
is of a peculiar nature, and has been carefully examined
by Mr Crell; but as it is exceedingly difficult to obtain it
by diftillation, that chemift employed a much furer and more
expeditious procefs : wre will fpeak of it afterwards. The
concrete oil may be rectified by repeated diftillation, fo
as to become highly fluid, volatile, and penetrating, — in
a word, fo as to exhibit all the charatteriftics of a ge-
nuine, effential or volatile oil. Twenty-eight ounces of
human fat afforded Mr Crell twenty ounces, five drachms,
and forty grains of fluid oil, — three ounces, three drachms,

and

and thirty grains of febacic acid, — and three ounces, one
drachm, and forty grains of bright coal, nearly in the
fame flate with plumbago or carbure of iron, as was re-
marked by M. de Morveau. In this analyfis, there were
five drachms and ten grains loft : That lofs muft have
been owing to the water in vapour, and the elaftic fluids
, that were difengaged, as Mr Crell did not make ufe of
{ any pneumato-chemical apparatus.

Greafe is very fpeedily altered, when expofed to the
action of hot air : inftead of continuing fweet and in-
odorous, as when frefh; it becomes flrong and pungent
in its tafte, and abfolutely rancid. This alteration ap-
pears to be a real fermentation, by which the acid is de-
i! veloped, and placed in a free State. Although this acid,

I ,thus developed, feerns to be of the fame nature with
the febacic acid, I confider not the change as owing Solely
to the oily part of the greafe. The peculiar animal acid,
difcoverable by a farther analyfis, may come in for its
lhare in this alteration. The rancidity of greafe may be
correfted in two ways : water itfelf, as has been obferved
by Mr Poerner, is capable of carrying off all the acid
that it contains ; alcohol, according to M. de Machy,
has alfo the fame power. This proves, that the acid of
rancid greafe reduces it into a fort of Saponaceous flare,
in confequence of which it becomes Soluble in water and
alcohol. Either of thefe fluids may be therefore confi-
dently employed to refiore rancid greafe to its original
flare.

When greafe is waffled with a great quantity of diflil-
led water, the fluid diffolves a gelatinous matter, the ex-
iflence of which appears upon evaporation ; but the
greafe flill retains a certain portion of that matter inti-
mately combined with it, on which its fufeeptibility of
fermentation depends. Farther, the power of water over

this

)

this animal fub fiance lias not yet been accurately afeer-
tained.

Mr Crell, and the chemifls of Dijon, have afeertained
in what manner alkaline fubftances a.£t upon animal fat. 1
Pure alkalis have long been known to form a fort of foap
with fat. Mr Crell, by treating that foap with a folution
cf alum, or aluminous fulphate, feparated from it oil ;
and by evaporating the liquor, obtained febate of potafh.
This lad fait he diftilled with concentrated fulphuric acid,
which difengaged the febac.ic acid. To feparate from
that acid, the fulphuric acid combined with it, Mr Crell
advifes to ditlil it again on a fourth part of the febate of
potafli, which muft be referved for the purpofe. To
afeertain whether it be entirely purified from fulphuric
acid, it may be affayed with acetite of lead. If the pre-
cipitate now formed be totally foluble in vinegar, it con-
tains no fulphuric acid. The chemifls of the Academy
of Dijon employ a fimpler procefs for obtaining the fe-
bacic acid: they melt the tallow, and, as it melts, throw
into it quicklime: when this mixture becomes cool, they
boil it in a large quantity of water : they next filtrate
and evaporate the lixivium ; and, by this means, obtain
calcareous febate, which is brown and acrid. To purify
this fait, it is calcined in a crucible, diffolved, filtrated,
and mixed with a jufl proportion of water containing
carbonic acid, in order to feparate, by precipitation, the
fuperfluous lime : it is after this evaporated ; and affords,
by evaporation, a white fair, which is diftilled with ful-
phuric acid, to difengage the febacic acid.

This acid exifts in the butter of cacao, in the white
of the whale, and probably in all fixed vegetable oils.
The following are its chara&eriflic properties : It is li-
quid and white, and its fmeil very lively: it exhales white
fumes : it is decompofable by fire, on which it becomes

yellow,

Fat.

191

yellow, and affords carbonic acid : it converts blue colours
to an high red : it unites with water in any proportion :
with lime, it forms a cryflallizable fait ; with potalh and
foda, falts that cryftallize in needles, and remain fixed
in the fire : it appears to act with the fame powers as
the fyrupous acid on filiceous Hones, and on glafs. In
union with the nitric acid, it diffolves gold ; it afts upon
mercury and filver ; it precipitates nitrate and acetite of
lead ; it decompofes tartarite of potafh, by precipitating
the tartareous acidulum, or cream of tartar ; it alfo de-
compofes alkaline acetites. If ffrongly heated with ful-
phuric falts, the acid is feparated in a fulphureous Hate;
it precipitates nitrate of mercury and filver. A number
of thefe properties had induced Mr Crell to think, that
the febacic acid might poffibly be nothing elfe but a mo-
dification of the muriatic acid ; but M. de Morveau ob-
ferves, that, as it decompofes corrofive muriate of mer-
cury, that property alone is enough to diflinguifh it
from the muriatic acid.

Mineral acids, in a concentrated Hate, alter and burn
greafe. The fulphuric acid turns it brown ; the nitric
acid gives it a lemon-yellow colour.

Sulphur combines very eafily with fat, and forms with it
a combination that has not been yet fufficiently examined.

Greafe is capable of diffolving certain metals. It is
united with mercury in the preparation known by the
name of mercurial pomatum. To effeft this union, all
that is neceffary is, to triturate the metal with bear’s
greafe, or the fined part of the fat of any other animal,
for a confiderable time. By this operation, the mercury
is divided, attenuated, and united with the greafe fo in-
timately as to give it a Hate colour, and no longer ap-
pears, therefore, in a metallic form. This union, how-
ever, is partly nothing but an extreme divifion j or, at

leaft,

i9 2 Fat.

lead, only a part of die mercury is diffolved by the fe.
bade acid ; for a magnifier fhews the globules of the
mercury ftill exifling naked even in the bed-prepared
ointment.

The three metals the mod liable to alteration by fat,
are, lead, copper, and iron. The oxides of thefe metals,
too, combine with it very readily. This is what makes it
fo dangerous, to buffer meats that have been prepared
with fat to {hand for any time in copper diflies, or even in
earthen difhes glazed with lead-glafs. — In combinations
of animal fat with the oxides of metals, it is obferved,
that the oxides pafs 'eafily, with the help of heat, into
the metallic flare. This is owing to the combination of
the hydrogenous gas difengaged from the greafe, with
the oxigene of the oxides.

Almoft all vegetable matters may be combined with
fat. Extra&s and mucilages render it, in fome degree*
foluble in wafer, or at lead: contribute to its fufpenfion
in that fluid. It combines with oils in any proportion,
communicating to them a part of its own confiflency.

- Thefe are all the chemical properties which this fub-
ffance is known to poffefs. From confldering them, it
appears, that greafe is nearly of the fame nature with
butter, being a fixed oil concreted by a difcernible quan-
tity of acid, with oxigene.

•As to its ufes in the animal ceconomy; — befides main-
taining heat in the parts around which it is difpofed, and
giving an agreeable plumpnefs and ronndnefs to the form,
with a whitenefs to the fkin ; Macquer thinks it likewife
ferves to abforb the acids when too copious in the ani-
mal body, and regards it as the refervoir of thefe falts.
We are at lead: certain, that when too much acid is in-
troduced into an animal body, it diffolves and melts the

fat,

Fat.

by communicating to it, no cloubt, a faporiaceous
character, and rendering.it more foluble.

Excefs, and, hill more, alterations of the fat, occafiort
fatal diflempers in the animal oeconomy, the fymptom^
and effe&s of which are far from having been yet ex-
amined with fufficient accuracy. Lorry has fludied them
with particular attention ; and has (hewn, that there fub-
fifts a flriking analogy between this fubftance and the
bile.

Fat is ufed as a feafoning, and is npurifhing to people
who have flout flomachs. In medicine, it is applied ex-
ternally, as foftening and calming ; it enters into the
compofuion of ointments and plafters.

The marrow contained in the long bones, exhibits the
fame properties with the fat ; but it has not yet been
analyfed with fuch accuracy as might enable us to de-
fcribe its characleriflic properties.

Voi. IH. N

G H A ft

I94

The Bile and the Biliary Calculi.

C H A P. Y.

Of the Bile and the Biliary Calculi,

HWHE bile or gall is a fluid, of a green colour, more
I or lefs yellowifh, of a very bitter tafle, and of a
naufeous fmell, that is feparated from the blood in a
glandulous part of the vifeera, univerfally known by the
name of the liver. In mod animals, excepting infe&s
and worms, it is collefled in a membranous refervoir
befide the liver, called the gall bladder. The hu-
man bile has been but little examined hitherto, on ac-
count of its being fo difficult to procure a fufficient quan-
tity of it. It is on the cow’s that chemical experiments
have been made.

Its confiftcncy is nearly gelatinous or flimy : it runs
into threads, like a tolerably clear fyrup : when fhaken,
it froths like foap.

When didilled on a water-bath, it affords a phlegm
that is neither acid nor alkaline, but liable to pafs, in a
certain fpace of time, into a putrid date. I have often
obferved in this phlegm a Angular property : I have
found it to exhale a very difcernible fweet fmell, nearly

' the

Bile. 195

the fame with that of mufk or amber. This experiment
has been repeated a great many times in niy laboratory.
It fucceeds bed, in the didillation of bile that has been
kept for fome days, and is a little altered. When all the
I water that can be obtained from the bile on a water-bath
is feparated from it, it is then found to be in the date of
an extra#, more or lefs dry, and of a deep embrowned
; green colour. This extra# of bile attra#s moidure from
the atmofphere : It is very tenacious and pitchy ; it may
. be entirely diffolved in water. By diflillation in a retort,
it affords a yellowifh alkaline phlegm, an empyreumatic
! animal oil, a good deal of ammoniacal carbonate, an
eladic fluid mixed with carbonic acid, and hydrogenous
gas : After this operation, there remains a coal of a con-
fiderable bulk, which it is eafier to incinerate than any
that we have yet mentioned. — According to M. Cadet,
who, in the year 1767, prefented to the Academy a
mod valuable Memoir on the Analyfis of the Bile, this
coal contains carbonate of foda, an animal earth, and a
fmall portion of iron. It is to be obferved, that the di-
dillation of this fubdance mud be flowly condu#ed ; for
it fwells conflderablv. As to the fait, of which M. Cadet
takes notice, as exiding in the coal of the bile, and
thinks it to be of the fame nature with fugar of milk,
it is eafy to fee, that fuch a matter could not redd the
violent heat necefiary to reduce the bile into a carbona-
ceous date.

In a temperature of between 65° and 85° of heat,
the bile is fpeedily altered : Its fmell becomes more nau-
feous ; its colour is altered and dedroyed ; whitifh muci-
laginous flakes are precipitated from it ; it lofes its vif-
cidity, and foon after acquires a foetid pungent fmell :
When nearly putrefied, its fmell becomes fweet, like that
$f amber. My pupil, M. Vauquelin, has difeovered that

N 2 the

Li Id,

the bile, after being. heated on a water-bath, and thick-
ened a little, will remain unaltered feveral months, in
the fame way as vinegar after being boiled. He has
Jikewife difcover.ed, that altered bile, which exhales a
foetid fmell, and is of a brown colour, dirty, and turbid,
1'ofes its fmell when heated ; and that fome concrete al-
buminous flakes are then feparated from it.

The bile diffolves very well in water. Its colour then
changes to a yellow, which is darker or brighter accord*
ing as the quantity of the W'ater added is fmaller or
greater.

All the acids decompofe it in the fame way as foaps :
the combination formed is a coagulum. This mixture,,
filtrated and evaporated, affords a neutral fait, formed
of the acid that has been employed, and foda. This
beautiful experiment, for which we are indebted to M.
Cadet, proves* the exiftence of foda in the bile. The
matter that refts on the filter, in the-fe infiances, is thick,
vifeid, very bitter, and highly inflammable: its colour,
and confiftency are not always the fame, but vary with-
the nature of the acid employed, and the degree in whichj
it is concentrated. I have obferved, that the fulphuric
acid gives it a deep green colour,— the nitric acid, a little
concentrated, a bright yellow colour,— and the muriatic
acid, a very beautiful light green ; but tliefe colours
vary greatly with the hate of the bile, and that of the.
acids. This precipitate is a fubftance fimilar in its na-
ture to refms : On burning coals, it fwells, melts, and
takes fire : in alcohol, it is totally diffolved ; and water
precipitates it, like the refinous juices. The rttion
of acids on the bile fliews, therefore, that this fub-
flance is a true-foap, formed of an oil nearly of a refin-
ous nature, in union with foda. They prove alfo, that?
there exifis in this animal liquor, a certain quantity of

’ albuminous

albuminous matter. That matter is the caufe of the
coagulation of the bile by fire, by acids, by alcohol, and
by putrefaction.

Neutral falts, mixed with the bile, prevent it from
palling into a flate of putrefaction.

Solutions of metals are decompofed by the bile, which
they likewife decompofe. The fixed alkali of the bile
unites with the acid of the folution ; and the coloured
oil of the bile is precipitated in combination with the
metallic oxide.

The bile combines readily with oils, and takes them
up, as well as foap, from ft u its.

This fluid is entirely diflolved in alcohol ; which fepa-
rates from it the albuminous matter. The tinCture of
the bile is not decompofed by water ; which fliews this
fubflance to be a true animal foap, equally foluble in.
aqueous and fpiritous menftrua. dEther very eafily
diflolves it.

Vinegar decompofes the bile, as well as the mineral
acids. The liquor, filtrated and evaporated, affords ace-
tite of foda. in regular cryftals.

From thefe feveral fads it follows, that the bile is a
compound, confifting of a good deal of water, a peculiar
aroma, an albuminous mucilage, an oil of a refinous na-
ture, and carbonate of foda. M. Cadet relates, that he
found it to contain a fait, which he thinks to be of the
fame nature with fugar of milk ; and the exiftence of
that fait has been fince confirmed by M. Van Bochaute.
But it is probable, that this pretended faline fubflance
is rather analogous to the bright, cryftalline, foliated
fubflance wThich has been found by M. Poulletier in the
biliary calculi of the human body, and of which we are
juft going to fpeak.

N 3

The

Bile,.

?p3

The bile, confiderecTas it exifts in the animal cepono-
my, is a juice which Teems to promote digeftiop. Its
faponaceous nature enables it to make oily matters com-
bine with water. Its bitter tafle (hews that it flimulates
the inteftines, and promotes their a ft ion on aliments.
Roux, a celebrated phyfician and chemift of the Faculty
of Paris, whofe premature death has been no inconlider-
able lofs to both thefe fciences, thought that the princi-
pal ufe of the bile was to carry off from the body the
colouring part of the blood. It appears to be decompofed
in the duodenum by the acids which almolt always exift
or are developed in the organs of digeflion. It is cer-
tain, at leaf!, that it is greatly altered, efpecially in co-
lour, when it forms a part of the excrements. Good
phylicians, therefore, often draw very important induc-
tions from an infpeftion of thefe matters, concerning the
ftate of the bile in the inteftines through which it is con-
dufted, and of the liver by which it is feparated.

The extraft of the gall of the ox, and of feveral other
animals, is ufed as an excellent ftomachic. It fupplies
the deficiency, and quickens the inactivity of the bile : it
ftrengthens the tone of the ftomach, giving it, when
weakened, new vigour to perform its funftions. Rut it
muft be very cautioufly ufed ; for it is acrid and heating:
it ftiould always, therefore, be given in very fmali
dozes, efpecially to people whofe nerves are delicate
and eafily irritated. Some afcribe peculiar virtues to the
gall of fifties ; but the notion has not been confirmed by
experience, and is therefore to be ranked among the
too numerous clafs of thofe prejudices which difgrace
the materia medica.

F . . . ,

Of

Of the Biliary Calculi.

WHENEVER the bile of the human body is, by any
^aul'e, detained in the velicle, efpeciaUy "when it is de-
tained by fpafmodic contrafiions, as in cafes of melan-
choly, or hyfterics, long-continued grief, &c. it becomes
thick, and produces brown concretions, which are light,
inflammable, and of a very bitter taife, and gre called
biliary calculi. Thofe concretions are often very nume-
rous ; they diflend the bladder, and fometimes fill it up
entirely. They occafion violent hepatic colics, vomitings,
jaundice, 8cc. I diftinguifh them into three varieties :
Thofe which I include under the firft variety, are brown,
blackifh, irregular, tuberculous, and fecm to conflft of
lumps : Thole of the fecond variety, are harder, brown*
yellowifh, or greenifh, in concentric layers, and gene-
rally covered with a dry, uniform, grey cruft ; — their
form is commonly angular and polyhtedral : The third
variety confifls 01 white, ovoidal concretions, more or
lefs irregular in their form, covered with a whitifh cruft,
fcarce ever equally thick all over, in layers of a fpathofe
appearance, or in tranfparent, cryftalline plates, general-
ly radiated from the centre to the circumference.

The biliary calculi of the fecond variety have been ex-
amined by M. Poulletier de la Salle. He has obferved
them to be foluble in alcohol. On digefting fome of
them in ftrong fpirit of wine, he remarked the liquor,
at the end of a certain time, to be full of minute parti-
cles, brilliant and cryftalline, and with all the appear-
ances of a fait. The experiments which he made on
this fubftance led him to fufpedd that it might be an oily
fait, in fome of its proDerties rcTfemblinp- the acid fait

N 4 with

EC©

Biliary Calculi .

with which, under the name of flowers of benzoin, wc
are already acquainted ; but it would rather appear that
jits nature is hitherto unknown. That philofopher
could find this fait only in the biliary calculi of the hu-
man body, not in thofe of the ox. This very Angular
faft needs confifmation ; for M. Vauquelin and I have
found a Anall quantity of lumellated matter in the biliary
calculi of the ox.

M. Poulletier de la Salle’s difcovery has thrown light
pn fome faffs that were colle&ed by the Royal Society
of Medicine, concerning the ftones formed in the gall-
bladder. That Society received from their correlpon-
4ents, fome biliary calculi belonging to the third of the
■above-mentioned varieties, which had not then been de-
scribed. TheyNconfifted of unifies of tranfparent, cry-
jflalline plates, precifely of the fame form with the matter
difcovered by -M. Poulletier de la Salle. It even ap-
pears, that a large proportion of thefe cry Hals may be
formed of the bile of the human body : for the Medical
Society have, in their colle&ion of calculi, a gall-bladder
entirely full of this tranfparent faline concretion. I have
two others of the fame kind, which I received from my
colleagues, MeilVs le Preux and Halle. It is much to be
wi thed that the nature, of thefe newly difcovered calculi
were examined : refearches on this head cannot but be
cf hinh fervice to the fcience of medicine.

l O '

Soap, a mixture of aether and oil of turpentine. See .
have been propofed as fit folvents for thefe biliary calcu-
li. It is worthy of obferyation, that they are not found
in the gall-bladder of the ox, unlefs after dry feafons,
. and a fcarcity of frefli fodder, and djfappear again ip
Spring and Summer, when thofe animals are fupplied
with plenty of green, fucculent vegetables. Butchers
are well acquainted with this faft 3 they know, that

between

Biliary Calculi.

ZQl

between the , month of November and the month of
March thefe ftones are found in the animals, and from
March to November ceafe to be found. This is a fuf-
iicient proof of the power of the faponaceous juices of
plants to dilfolve the biliary calculi. Yet, it is not to be
thought that medicines, however aftive and volatile,
can be conveyed into the gall-bladder in fufficient quan-
tity to aft there with the fame energy in diffolving the
biliary calculi as in our experiments. In my opinion,
the ceffation of fpafm, and confequently the dilatation
of the biliary canal, is the true caufe of the good effefts
of the aethereal mixtures that have been propofed by M.
Durande, which I have elfewhere recommended to be
made up without oil of turpentine ; — with the more
confidence, becaufe it is evident that the oil is both very
heating, and produces no ufeful effeft but that of dimi-
nilhing the volatility of the tether ; and it has been al-
ready proved by fome obfervations, that yolks of
eggs, and, no doubt, many other fubftances, will ferve
the purpofe as well, without the fame unfavourable
.effefts.

CHAP.

£02 Sahva, Pancreatic Juice, and Gajlric Juice.

CHAP. VI.

Of the Saliva , the Pancreatic Juice, and the Gajlric

• *
juice.

ANATOMISTS and Phyflologifts have obferved
a great refemblance between the faliva and the
pancreatic juice. The falivary glands, and the pancreas,
are in faft precifely of the fame flrufture ; and the hu-
mours prepared by both thefe organs, appear to ferve
the fame purpofe. The human fp>ecies and quadrupeds
are the only animals that have faliva ; at leaft, fcarce any
other animals have yet been found to poflefs falivary glands.

Chemifts have not yet done any thing accurate on
either of thefe fluids. The only reafon that can be af-
figned for this, is its being fo very difficult to procure
even a very fmall quantity of either. We know only,
that the faliva is a very fluid juice, feparated by the
parotides and many other glands, which is conflantly
flowing into the mouth, but mofl copioufly during the
aft of maflieation. This humour appears to be of a fa-
ponaceous nature, and impregnated with air, which ren-
ders it frothy. When evaporated to drynefs, it leaves

b»t

Gajlric Juice . 203

but little refidue : And yet concretions of the faliva are
fometimes formed in the duffs by which it is conveyed
into the mouth. It appears to contain an ammoniacal
faJt ; for, lime and cauftic fixed alkalis difengage from it
a poignant urinous fmell. — Pringle, from experiments
which he made, concluded the faliva to be very feptic,
and that it promoted digefiion, by occafioning a com-
mencement of putridity in the mallicated aliments. Mr
Spallanzani, and feme other modern naturalifts, think,
again, that it poffeffes, in an eminent degree, the power
of retarding and flopping putrefaction.

The gaftric juice is feparated from the fmall glands
or extremities of the arteries that open into the interna!
tunic of the flomach. The oefophagus fupplies alfo a
fmall portion of it, efpecially in the inferior region : in
that region, many birds are obferved to have very large
glands that open into very difcernible excretory duCts..
M. Vicq d’ Azyr has carefully deferibed thofe which ap-
pear in the ftork, &c.

Some modern naturalifls have been at great pains in
examining the gaftric juice. Meffrs Spallanzani, Scopoli,
Monch,Brugnatelli, and Carminati,fome years ago, examin-
ed the properties of this liquor. They procured it from
the ftomachs of fheep and calves, by opening them after
the animals had faffed for fome time. They obtained it
from carnivorous and gallinaceous birds, by making them
fwallow metal tubes, perforated with holes, and filled with
very fine fponge. Air Spallanzani examined the gaftric juice
of his own flomach, by making himfelf vomit, and by fwal-
1 owing tubes of wood filled with different fubftances, that
he might judge of the effects of the gaftric juice upon
each of them. Experiments with tubes had been before
tried by M. de Reaumur. Laftly, M. Goffe of Geneva
lias had the courage to make himfelf vomit many times,
by a certain procefs of his own, which confifts in fwal-

1 owing

ttC'4 Gajlrlc 'Juice .

lowing air. — From all tliefe modern obfervations, tlie
gaflric juice appears to poflefs the following properties :
This juice is the principal agent in digeltion : It con-
verts the aliments into a fort of uniform foft pafte : It
acls on the flomach even after the death of the animal :
It ad's as a folvent ; but, what diftingiaifh.es it from all
other fojvents, is, that it acls indifferently on animal and
vegetable fuhftances, without {hewing any preference,
or any flronger affinity with the one than with the other.
Far from having a tendency to promote fermentation, it
is one of the mofl powerful antifeptics known. As to
its intimate nature, — it app'ears, from the experiments of
the above-mentioned philofophers, to be different in dif-
ferent claffes of animals. According to Mr Brugnatelli,
the gaflric juice of birds of prey and granivorous birds
Is very bitter, and confifls of a difengaged acid, refin,
animal matter, and common fait : That of ruminating
quadrupeds is very aqueous, turbid, and faltifh ; it con-
tains ammoniac, an animal extracf, and common fait.
M. de Morveau having digefled in water, fome parts of
the interior tunic of the ftomach of a calf, found them
to difplay an acid chara&er. Mr Spallanzani thinks this
chara&er to be owing to the aliments on which the ani-
mal feeds : he never found the gaflric juice of carnivo-
rous animals, acid ; that of granivorous animals, he
found always fo. M. Goffe experienced the fame thing
in himfelf, after living long on raw vegetables.. Mr
Brugnatelli thinks, that the white matter of the excre-
ments of carnivorous animals contains phofphoric acid $
but M. de Morveau obferves, that his experiments are
not conclufive. Mr Scopoli found in it ammoniacal mu-
riate; and fufpe&s, that the muriatic acid is produced
by the operation of the vital powers of animals : But he
jhas p.o decihv.e fad to fupport this opinion ; on the con-

trary.

GaftYie Juice. 2oy

trary, every fact concurs to evince that it proceeds from
the aliments. Meffrs Macquart and Vauquelin have
found the gaftric juice of the ox, the calf, and the fheep,
to poflefs invajiably an acid character ; but from the ac-
curate experiments which they have made, it appears to
derive this character from the phofphoric acid in a naked
hate. They have obferved, too, that thofe juices alter
and putrefy even very fpeedily. The gaftric juice of
carnivorous animals appears to poflefs antifeptic powers
in a more eminent degree.

From all thefe fafts taken together, it may be inferred,

1. That the gaftric juice is as yet but imperfe&ly known :

2. That it appears to be different in different clafles of
animals, and modified according to the diverfity of the
aliments on which they .live : 3. That we have yet no
proof of its being a peculiar acid, or that we fhould ac-
knowledge the exiftence of a gaftric acid : 4. That its
moft remarkable properties are, a very extraordinary
folvent power, which a£ls with fufficient energy even on
bony and metallic fubftances, and is even faid to be ca-
pable of attacking filiceous ftones, — with a fort of indif-
ference on what matter it a<fts, and the fame affinity with
all matters.

Its extraordinary antifeptic power, which it commu-
nicates to all bodies that are mixed with it, and which
even flops putrefaction in fubftances in which that pro-
cefs is already begun, has been more attended to than
any of its other properties. Meffrs Carminati, Jurine,
and Toggia, have applied the gaftric juice to wounds.
Mr Carminati has even adminiftered it internally ; and
they all agree with regard to its antifeptic powers. But
the experiments of Meffrs Macquart and Vauquelin, above
mentioned, which were made in my own laboratory,
prove, that the gaftric juice of ruminating animals pof-
fefles no fuch properties.

C FI A P,

206

Sweat.

CHAP. VII.

Of the Humours or Animal Matters that have not
yet been examined > fuch as Sweat, the Mucus of
the Nofe , the Cerumen , fears , the Gum of the
Eye , the Seminal Fluid , and the Excrements .

HERE are ftili many animal fluids and matters that

have not been examined : And therefore, rather
with a view to engage young phyficians in fuch new and
ufeful refearches, than to explain their nature, we fliall
fay fomething of the humour which tranfpires by the
pores, — the fweat, the mucus of the noftrils, the cerumen
of the ears, the tears, the gummy matter of the eyes, the
femiiial fluid, and the excrements.

Phyficians have difeovered a great refemblance be-
tween the humour which tranfpires by the pores, and
the urine. They know, that on many occafions, both
thefe excretions ferve the fame purpofe 5 and are there-
fore naturally led to confider the vaporous fluid which
tranfpires by the pores as of the fame nature with urine.
In the prattice of medicine, its qualities are obferved to

be

Sweat, Mucus of the Nofe, Cerumen , Tears , 6'r. 207

be fubjeft to variation : Its fmell is faint, aromatic, alka-
line, or four ; its confiftency, fometimes glutinous, thick,
tenacious ; and it leaves a refidue on the lkin : It gene-
rally communicates to linen-cloth, a yellow colour, of
various fhades. I have twice obferved it to communicate
to linen, and woollen fluffs, a fparkling blue colour.
M. Berthollet affirms, that fweat reddens blue paper ;
and obfcrves, that this phenomenon takes place chiefly
on parts affected with the gout. He takes it to contain
phofphoric acid. It has hitherto been found impoffible
to collect a (ufficient quantity of this excrementitial hu-
mour, for examining its properties carefully. A great
many experiments, therefore, remain to be made on this
matter, which only accidental and peculiar circumflances
can enable naturalifls to undertake and profecute.

The humour prepared by the membrane of Schneider,
which is thrown out of the nofe by fneezing, highly
merits the attention of phyficians. It is a fort of thick
mucilage, either white or coloured ; in certain affe£lions,
efpecially in catarrhs, more or lefs fluid or confiflent.
Nobody has yet examined it. »

The fame is the cafe with that fort of greenifh yellow,
or brown matter which gathers in the auditory canal,
becomes thick, and is, from its confiftency, known by
the name cerumen. It is very bitter : it feems to be of a
refmous nature : it is known to become fometimes fuffi-
ciently concrete to clofe up the auditory canal, and hin-
der found from entering it freely : it feems to be fome-
what of the fame nature with the inflammable matter of
the bile.

The fame is to be faid of the tears which are prepared
in a certain gland, fltuated near the external angle of
the focket of the eye, and are defigned by nature to main-
tain the moifture and fupplenefs of the exterior parts.

This

S'ivcal , Mucus of the Nofe, Cerumen, and Tears l"

This liquor is clear, limpid, and difcernibly faltifh ; if
fometimes runs very copioufly : In the ordinary date of
the human frame, it runs by degrees into the noftrik,
and feems to ferve the purpofe of moiflening the mucus.
Mod of the authors that have fpoken of this liquor of
tears, particularly Pierre Petit, a phyfician in Paris, who,
about the end. of the lad century, publifned a treatife on
tears, confider them as being nearly pure water. The
gum, or humour that adheres to the borders of the
eye-lids, and feems to be feparated by the glands of
Meibomius, is not better known than the tears.

The chemical nature of the feminal duid has not been
more particularly examined than that of thofe duids
above-mentioned. From the very few obfervations that
have been made upon- it, it appears to be nearly of the
fame nature with animal mucilages, to be liable to be-
come duid either by cold or heat, and to be reducible
by the aclion of dre, into a dry friable fubdance.

On this head, anatomical and microfcopical ooferva-
tions have gone much farther than chemical experi-
ments. From thefe it appears, that the feminal duid is
a fort of ocean, with fmall round bodies fwimming about
in it with great rapidity of motion. Thefe are, by
fome, conddered as living animals intended for the re-
production of the fpecies, and, by others,' as organic
particles which unite to produce a living animal. A late
obferver has likewife difeovered, with the microfcope,
crydals that are formed during the cooling and evapora-
tion of the feminal duid. It mud be confeded, however,
thefe due experiments have as yet contributed nothing to
the advancement of the feienoe, and have only given
ground for fome ingenious hypothefes.

The aliments which animals fmallow, contain a great
quantity ofmatter that cannot afford them nouridiment,and is
’ evacuated"

Excrements. 2 off

evacuated from the inteftines in a folid form. The ex-
crements are coloured by a portion of the bile, which
they carry off with them. The foetid odour which they
exhale, is owing to their having begun to putrefy in their
paffage through the inteftines. No chemift but Horn-
berg has examined thefe matters. He obferved the
phlegm obtained from the excrements; by diftillation off
a water-bath, to have a naufeous fmell : by waffling and
evaporation, he obtained from them a fait which melted
like nitre, and kindled voluntarily in clofe veffels. This?
matter, by diftillation in a retort, afforded the fame
products as other animal fubftances. From putrid ex-
crements he obtained an oil, deftitute of colour and
fmell, which did not gratify his expe&ations of feeing;
mercury converted by it into filver.

It is to be obferved, that the fecal matter examined
by Homberg, was that of men fed upon coarfe bread
and Champagne wine ; which had been required as a
condition neceffary to the fUccels of the alchemical expe-
riment he had been direifted to make. The food muff
doubtlefs peculiarize, in fome degree, the nature of thdr
excrements, as thefe are nothing but the refidue of the
food.

210

U rinc.

CHAP. VIII.

Of Urine .

URTNE is a tranfparent, excrementitial fluid, of a
lemon-yellow colour, of a peculiar fmell, of a fa-
line tafte, feparated from the blood by two glandulous
vifcera that are called the reins, and from thefe conveyed
into a refervoir univerfally known by the name of the
bladder, in which it remains for fome time : it is a fort
of lixivium impregnated with the acrid matters of the
animal humours, which, if too long retained in the
body, might obflruci and diforder the functions of the
fyftem.

Urine is a folution of a great number of falts, and two
extractive matters. It varies in quantity and in qualities*
according to circurnflances. That of the human fpecies,
which we propofe to examine more particularly, differs
from the urine of quadrupeds. Among other clafles of
animals the differences are fill greater. The fate of
the flomach, and particularly the fate of the humours,
produce an infinite diverfity of changes on this fluid ; to
afcertain and eftimate which, a long feries of experiments

would

I

J vould Be requifite, which have, as yet, only been pointed
out as neceffary. Here, therefore, we (hall fpeak only
1 of human urine as it is emitted in a date of health.

This fluid is, by good phyflcians, diftinguiftied into
J two forts. The one called crude urine, flows off foon after
i\ meals : it is clear, and almoft entirely without tafle or
fmell : it is far from containing fo many different princi-
ples as the other. It, again, is called urine of the blood,
or of concodion, and is not emitted till after digeftion :
it is feparated from the blood by the reins ; whereas the
other fpecies appears to filtrate, in part, from the do-
mach and the inteftines, diredly into the bladder, thro’
the cellular tiffue, or the abforbent veffels.

The date of the health, and more efpecially the dif-
pofition of the nerves, modify the urine in a Angular
manner. After hyderic or hypocondriac fits, it flows
copioufly; it is then inodorous, infipid, and colourlefs.
Difeafes of the bones and joints have confiderable in-
fluence on this animal lixivium. It often depofites a great
quantity of matter, apparently earthy, but which, as we
(hall hereafter fliew, conflds of lithic acid, and calcareous
phofphate. The fediment of the urine of thofe who
have the gout is of this fort. Phyflcians, particularly
Heriffant and Morand, have obferved, that when the bones
are altered or foftened, the urine depofites a good deal
of this matter. It even appears, that the urine of peo-
ple in a good date of health depofites a quantity of this
matter, which conditutes the bafis of bones ; which is
probably all of it that is formed in the body above what
is requifite for the nutrition and reparation of thofe
Organs.

Many of the articles of food communicate fome pecu-
liar properties to the urine. Turpentine and afparagus
give it, the former a fmell of violets, the latter a very

O 2 fcetid

2 I 2

U rine.

fcefid fmell. The urine of people of weak flomach-r
retains a fmell of their food : bread, garlic, onions,
foup, and all vegetables, communicate each its pe-
culiar fmell to the urine. From thefe particulars, it
appears,, that an obfervation of the phenomena which
urine exhibits, may be of confiderable ufe to the phyfi-
cian in the practice of his art. We mufl, however, be-
ware of imagining that, from fimple infpedion of the
tirine, it is poffible for the phyfician to judge of the dif-
eafe and fex of the fick perfon, and of the proper re-
medies ; as fome empirics pretend to do.

The urine of the human fpecies, confidered with re-
fped to its chemical properties, is a folution of a great
many different fubflances. Some of thefe are falts, fimi-
lar to thofe of minerals, and, as Macquer thinks, proceed
from the aliments, without alteration. Others of them
are matters of the fame nature with the extradive prin-
ciples of vegetables : And laflly, fome appear peculiar
to animals, and even to urine ; — at leaf!; have not been
found in any notable quantity among the produds of the
other kingdoms of nature, nor even in any other animal
fubflances but urine. After explaining the proceffes
employed to extrad thofe different matters from urine,
we fhall give the hiflory of fuch of them as are peculiar
t-o the fluid, and therefore have not before come under
cur notice.

Urine ufed to be confidered as an alkaline liquor, or
lixivium ; but M. Berthollet has remarked, that it al-
ways contains a greater quantity of phofphoric acid than
of any other fait, and reddens the tindnre of turnfole *.
This phyfician has obferved, that the urine of gouty

people

* Coldevillars had before afferted, in his Courfe of Surgery, that
urine conftantly reddened the tin&ure of turnfole.

Urine,

2 13

people always contains lefs acid fait than that of people
/ in a date of perfect health ; and that, during the fit of
the gout, their urine is (till lefs acid than at other times.
i| Hence he conje&ures, that in gouty people the phofpho-
j ric acid is not evacuated by the urine, as in people in
perfect health ; that it lofes its way, (if the expreffion
may be here ufed) and, being conveyed to the joints,
there occafions irritation and pain. This excefs of acid
in the urine appears to maintain in folution in it, a quan-
tity of calcareous phofphate.

Scheele thinks the acid of urine not to be altogether
phofphoric acid, but partly the fame with the acid of
the calculus in the human bladder, which we call the
lithic acid. This acid being fufceptible of concretion
and cryftallization, forms, according to that celebrated
chemift, the red cryflals that are depofited in urine,
as well as the brick-coloured precipitate obferved in the
urine of feverifli perfons. The tophaceous concretions
on the joints of gouty perfons, appear to be of the fame
nature with the calculus, that is, to confift chiefly of
lithic acid. x

Frefli urine, diftilled in the water-bath, affords a large
quantity of a phlegm which is neither acid nor alkaline,
but foon putrefies. As this phlegm contains nothing
peculiar, urine is commonly evaporated by naked fire.
In proportion as the water, which compofes more than
feven eighths of this animal humour, is evaporated, the
urine affumes a brown colour : there is feparated from it
a pulverulent matter of an earthy appearance, which
has been taken for calcareous fulphate, but is really a
mixture of calcareous phofphate with lithic acid. This
fait is of the fame nature with the bafis of bones, and
the matter of the calculus in the bladder. When the

O 2

urine

214

Urine.

urine has acquired the confiflency of clear fyrup, it k
then filtrated, and removed into a cool place. In the
courfe of a certain time, it depofites faline cryftals, con-
fiding of muriate of foda, with two peculiar faline fub-
ilances. Thefe laft falts are known by the name of
fufible falts, 'native falts of urine, alkaline phojphates, &c.:
their properties dial! be examined in the following chap-
ter. Several different quantities of thofe cryflals may
be obtained, by repeated evaporation and cryftallization.
In thefe fucceffive evaporations, a certain quantity of
muriate of foda and muriate of potafti is cryftallized.
When the urine ceafes to afford faline matter, it remains
in the date of a very thick brown duid, a fort of mother
water, holding in folution two peculiar extractive fub-
dances. By evaporating this fiuid to the confidency of
a foft • extract, and treating the refidue with alcohol,
Rouelle the younger difcovered, that one portion was
foluble in alcohol, but another differed no folution in it.
The fird of thefe matters he has called fafonaceous mat-
ter ; the fecond extradive matter.

The faponaceous fubdance is fomewhat faline, and
fufceptible of crydallization. It is difficult to make it
dry ; and, even when dry, it attracts moidure from the
atmofphere. In the retort, it affords a quantity of am-
moniacal carbonate equal to more than half its weight,
a little oil, and fome ammoniacal muriate : Its refidue
gives a green tinge to fyrup of violets.

The extractive fubdance, which is foluble in water,
though not in alcohol, dries as eafily in the water- bath
as the extracts of plants : it is brown, and not fo liable
to deliquiate as the former fait : it affords, by did illation,
all the ufual products of animal matters. Such, accord-
ing to Rouelle, are the charateridic and didintive pro-
perties of thefe two fubdances which form the extrat of

urine.

U tine.

215

urine. To thefe particulars we may add, that this ce-
lebrated chemifl obtained from an ounce to an ounce
and a half of extra# from a pint of urine of conco#ion ;
whereas, the fame quantity of crude urine afforded him
only one, two, or three grains.

If, inffead of feparating this extra# of urine into two
diftin# matters by alcohol, we diftil it altogether by
naked fire, — it affords a good deal of ammoniacal car-
bonate, an animal oil, and a little phofphorus. Its coal
contains a little muriate of foda, or common fait. This
analyfis of urine fhews, therefore, that the fluid confiffs
of a large proportion of water, both phofphoric acid and
lithic acid in a difengaged ffate, muriate of foda, calca-
reous phofphate, phofphate of foda, and ammoniacal
phofphate, and two peculiar extra#ive matters which
colour the fluid, With refpe# to the dark colour which-
it acquires in various difeafes, efpecially in all cafes in
which the bile is affe#ed, I have difeovered that it is
owing to the refin of the bile ; and that the extra# of this
urine, thus altered in colour, when diflolved by alcohol,
(that portion of it which is foluble in this menffruum)
is precipitated from it by water.

Urine, expofed to air, is altered the fooner, the hotter
the atmofphere. Sediments are firft formed in it Amply
by cooling : feveral faline matters are cryftallized at the
furface, and at the bottom of the liquor ; and among
thefe, generally, a reddifh fair, which appears to be of
the fame nature with the calculus in the bladder. No-
body has obferved the fpontaneous alterations of this-ex-
crementitial fluid with more attention than my colleague,
M. Halle. In the decompofition which urine fuffers
when left to itfelf, he has diftingui(hed feveral different
periods at which fediments or cryftals of a different na-
ture are found depofited ; as alfo the changes which the

O 4 fluid

V r'inc »

&16

-fluid undergoes, in eoafequen.ee of depofiting thofe fedir
Stnents and cryftals. We cannot enter here into a detail
jof tliei’e particulars, relative to the changes of the fluid,
and the matters which it depofites ; but the reader may
find them accurately deferibed in a valuable Memoir, in-
ferred among the Memoirs of the Royal Society of Me-
dicine for the year 1779. We ^all only mention here
the principal alterations which urine fuffers. Soon after
it becomes cool, its fmell alters, becomes more pungent,
and even ammoniacal ; its colouring part is .changed, and
feparated from the reft of the liquor : at length the al-
kaline fin ell goes off, and is fucceeded by another, not
io pungent, but more difagreeable and naufeous : at laft
the decompofii.ion is completely effected, llouelle, the
younger, has obferved, that crude ferous urine does not
putrefy fo fall: ; that its colour, when it is altered, is
greatly different from that of urine of concoction; and
that at laft it is covered over with mouldinefs, like the
juices of vegetables, and the folutions of animal jelly.
M. Halle has obferved fome urines to become highly
acid before palling, into a ftate of putrid decompofition.
Urine evaporated, after being faffered to putrefy for a
year or more, affords fusible fait, as well as frefli urine :
but it contains much more pholphoric acid in a naked
fate, and effervefees with ammoniacal carbonate : a part
pf its ammoniac has been yolatilized by the putrefaction,
When it is evaporated, the fait that is depofited on the
fides of the veffel is highly acid ; and to obtain a larger
quantity of it, Ptouelle, the younger, directs to add am-
moniacal carbonate, till the effervefcer.ee entirely ceafe,
and the acid be completely faturated.

Quicklime and dry fixed alkalis inftanraneouCy decOm-
pofe the faline principles contained in urine. Nothing
^nore is neceffary, than to pour cauftic potafh or foda, or

Ip

U rine . at 1 7

to call quicklime into frelh urine, in order to make it
yield an infufferable putrid ammoniacal fmell. It is by
decompoflng the ammoniacal phofphate, that thefe fub-
ftances produce fuch a fmell. M. Berthollet has difco-
vered, that lime-water produces, in frelh urine, a preci-
pitate from which phofphorus may be obtained: This

phenomenon is occafioned by the union of the lime-water
with the excefs of pholphoric acid : And the precipitate
is formed, 1. Of the calcareous phofphate that naturally
exifts in urine, and w'as maintained in folution only in
confequence of there being an excefs of phofphoric acid;
2. Of new calcareous phofphate, formed by the union of
the lime that has been added with the acid that was
before in a hate of freedom. M. Berthollet having ob-
ferved, that cauhic ammoniac Iikewife precipitates cal-
careous phofphate from urine, by neutralizing the naked
phofphoric acid by which that fait was held in folution,
remarks, that the weight of this precipitate, compared
with that which is produced by lime-water, indicates the
.quantity of naked phofphoric acid contained in the urine;
for, in faft, the ammoniacal phofphate formed on this
occarion remains diffolved in the fluid, whereas the cal-
careous phofphate produced by lime-water is precipitated,
as infoluble, at the fame time with the calcareous phof-
phate naturally exifting in the urine.

The acids produce no elFe&s on frelh urine: but they
fpeedily deprive putrid urine of its fmell ; and they, in
the fame manner, deftroy the fmell of the lediments
which it depofites in that Hate.

Urine decompofes many folutions of metals. Lemery
has made known, under the name of the rofe-coloured pre-
update , a magma, of a rofe colour, that is formed by
pouring the nitric folution of mercury into urine. That
precipitate is formed partly by the muriatic acid, and

partly

2l8

U rim.

partly by the phofphoric acid contained in the fluid,
M. Brongniart has obferved, that fometiraes this prepar-
ation takes fire by fri£fion, and that it burns with rapi-
dity on burning coals, — phenomena which he afcribes to
its containing a (mall portion of phofphorus.

Such is the fhate of our prefent knowledge concerning
the chemical properties of urine. Much yet remains to
be done, before we can obtain all the information con-
cerning this matter that analyfis is capable of furnifhing.
The feveral fediments that have been obferved in urine,
and fo accurately diftinguifhed by M. Halle, fhould be
analyfed : The red or tranfparent faline concretions that
are formed in it, and have been taken by Scheele for
lithic acid, fhould alfo be analyfed ; and in like manner,
the copious fediment which urine affords after fits of the
gout, from perfons affli&ed with the flone, &c.

We (hall, however, in the following chapter, examine
the feveral faline produtts that urine affords, with the
properties of which phyficians ought to make themfelves
;vell acquainted.

Ammoniacal Phofphate.

219

't

CHAP. IX.

)

Of the Ammoniacal Phofphate , the Phofphate of Soda ,
and the Stone in the Bladder , or the Lithic Acid ,

E have feen, that urine contains -certain peculiar

halts. Thole are combinations of phofphoric

acid with ammoniac, foda, lime, and the acid bafe of the
Hone in the bladder. Continuing to ufe, for thefe fub-
fhinces, the methodical denominations already mentioned,
we (hall fucceffively examine the ammoniacal phofphate,
the phofphate of foda, and the lithic acid. As to the
calcareous phofphate, we fhall deferibe its properties
under the article Bones.

The fait obtained from evaporated urine by cooling
and reft, has been called in general fufible fait ; becaufe,
as we fhall immediately fee, it melts in the fire : it has
been alfo called cfential fait of urine, microcofmic fait. In
this primary ftate, it is a mixture of ammoniacal phofphate
and muriate, and of muriate of foda, contaminated with an
extra&ive matter. Several chemifts, particularly Margraf,
have been of opinion, that, to avoid the mixture of ma-
rine fait, the urine muft be fuffered to putrefy and the

marine

2 it) Ammoniacal Phofphate .

marine fait is, by the putrefa&ion of the urine, changed
into phofphate. That opinion has been fince proved to
be falfe : 120 pints of frelh urine afford, according to
Margraf, about four ounces of ammoniacal phofphate,
and two ounces of phofphate of foda.

It is not eafy to effe£l an entire feparation of thefe
fubflances of which the fufible fait confifls, that is ob-
tained by a firfl cryflallization, and was confidered by
Schockwitz, Le Mort, Boerhaave, Henckel and Schloffer,
as a fmgle fait. To accomplifh this feparation, it has been
recommended to diffolve the fait in hot water, evaporate,
and cry ftallize it. But Rouelle the younger, and the
Duke of Chaulnes, are the only chemifls that have men-
tioned a very great and uncommon difficulty with u7hich
this procefs is attended : Mod of the fait is carried off
by the heat of the folution and evaporation, and about
three fourths of it is loft. The Duke of Chaulnes has
given a procefs for purifying it with as little lofs as
poffible; which confifls in filtrating the folution, and leav-
ing it to cool in clofe-flopped veffels. By either of thefe
manipulations, there is obtained, firfl, a fait cryflallized
in rhomboidal tetrahasdral prifms, very much compreffed,
which is ammoniacal phofphate ; and, above thefe firfl
cryftals, another fait, in cubes, or rather oblong fquare
tables, very different from the former fait in fhape ;
this, again, is phofphate of foda. This lafl fait, as has
been remarked by Rouelle the younger, may alfo be
feparated, by taking off the efflorefcence that gathers on
the former fait, which is liable to no fuch alteration.

Of

Amtnoniaca 1 Phofphate.

22%

Of the Ammoniacal Phofphate .

THE ammoniacal phofphate, thus purified and fepa-
rated from the phofphate of foda, is in the form of
rhomboidal tetrahtedral prifms, much comprefled, and
generally truncated in their length, and at the angles :
in confequence of thefe circumftances, the prifms are,
in fome meafure, hexagonal. There are likewife often
enough found, according to M. Rome de Lille, from
whom I take my defcription of this fait, longitudinal feg-
ments of the prifms, of which fegments the fide that lies
on the capfule is the broadeft ; it is alfo rhomboidal, and
interfered by two diagonal lines, eroding at the middle.
The tetrahasdral and oftahmdral form aferibed to it, ap-
pears only while this fait yet retains muriate and phof-
phate of foda. The power of communicating the o£a-
hsedral form feems to belong peculiarly to the muriate of
foda ; for, when the former fait is diffolved in urine,
and the liquor expofed to the fun, regular oclahredral
cryflals are obtained in the courfe of a few days. The
tafte of ammoniacal phofphate is at fird freflh, and after-
wards urinous, bitter, and pungent : When heated with
the blow-pipe on a burning coal, it fwells, difi’ufes a
fmell of ammoniac, and melts into a deliquefeent vitreous
globule : When diflilled in a retort, the heat difengages
from it fome very pungent and caudic ammoniac : the
refidue is a very fixed and fufible tranfparent glafs, which
corrodes- the retort. Margraf fays, that it is foluble in
two or three parts of diflilled water, and exhibits the
properties of an acid. Rouelle affirms it to be deliquef-
eent, M, de Moryeau, again, thinks, that, with the help

of

222 Ammomacal Phofphais .

of a good fire, it may be reduced into an unalterable vi-
treous date. M. Proud has aifcovered, that this vitreous
relidue is a combination of phofphoric acid with a pecu-
liar matter which he does not feein to have known, and
which is 'nothing but phofphate of foda, as appears from
the refearches of feveral modern chemids. But it is to
be obferved, that this compound glafs is only obtained
when the ammoniacal phofphate diddled dill retains a
portion of phofphate of foda ; and that, in this cafe, the
glafs appears to be always opaque, or liable" to be very
eafily rendered opaque, whereas pure ammoniacal phof-
phate leaves a very tranfparfent glafs.

Ammoniacal phofphate is not liable to be altered bj
the action of air.

It appears to be very foluble in water, only five or fix
parts of cold water being requifite to maintain it in folu-
tion. Hot water, at the temperature of 170 degrees,
decompofes it, and even volatilizes a part of its acid.

Ammoniacal phofphate afts as a dux on filiceous earth,
aluminous earth, barytes, magnefia, and lime : But thefe
vitreous compounds are owing to the phofphoric acid ;
for the ammoniac is difengaged before the fufion takes
place.

Lime, and the two fixed alkalis, in a pure date, de-
compofe ammoniacal phofphate, and feparate the ammo-
niac. Lime-water, poured into a folution of this fait,
produces a white precipitate, which can be nothing but
calcareous phofphate. Alkaline and earthy carbonates
likewife decompofe it, and feparate the ammoniac in the
date of ammoniacal carbonate.

The effeds of the mineral and vegetable acids on am-
moniacal phofphate, have not as yet been examined with
fufficient care. It mud depend on the various ele&ive
attra&ions which e.xid between the phofphoric acid and

Annnoniacal Phofphate. 223

its alkaline bafe : We (hall treat of it when we come to
fpeak of that acid.

The fame is the cafe with refpeft to the alterations
which ammoniacal phofphate fuffers from metals, and
metallic oxides ; for thofe alterations depend entirely on
the phofphoric acid.

Ammoniacal phofphate, treated with coal in clofe vef-
fels, affords phofphorus. Bergman propofes the ufe of it
as a flux, in allays with the blow-pipe.

Of Phofphate of Soda.

WE have defcribed the manner in wrhich phofphate
of foda is obtained. It will be proper to give the dates
of the different difcoveries concerning it, before we pro-
ceed to examine its properties.

Hellot, in the year 1737, feems to have, been the
frit who mentioned it ; but he took it to be fulphate of
lime. Haupt, in the year 1740, gave a better account
of it, under the name of fal mirablle per latum. Mar-
graf defcribed it in the year 1745. Pott made mention
of it in the year 1757, but, like Hellot, took it for ful-
phate of lime. Rouelle, the younger, examined it in
the year 177 6, and gave it the name of fufible fait , with
a bafe of natrum. All of thefe chemifls perceived this
fait to be different from the laft, chiefly by observing,
that it did not afford phofphorus with coal. But llouelle
has diftinguifhed its properties better than any of the
reft. According to him, its cryftals are flat, irregular,
tetrahedral prifms, with one of the extremities dihsedral,

and

3 24 Phofphate of Soda.

and confiding of two rhomboids, the other adhering to'
the bafe. The four Tides of the folid are two alternate

i

irregular pentagons, and two oblong rhomboids, cut
Hope-wife.

JPhofphate of foda, expofed to heat in a crucible, melts,
and affords a white, opaque mafs. When heated in a
retort, it affords nothing but phlegm, without any acid
or alkaline character ; and the refidue is an opaque glafs,
or frit.

In the air, this fait efflorefces, and falls all down into
duff.

It diffolves readily in diftilled water, and cryffallizesby
evaporation : the folution turns the fyrup of violets
green.

Calcareous nitrate decompofes it : a precipitate of cal-
careous- phofphate is formed ; and the fupernatant liquor
affords nitrate of foda.

This fait is equally liable to be decompofed by the ni-
tric folution of mercury. It forms a white precipitate,
which, wrhen diftilled in a retort, affords a little reddifti
fublimate, and fome running mercury, and leaves in the
bottom of the retort, an opaque white mafs, adhering
to, and combined with the mercury. This mercurial
precipitate forms again phofphate of foda, when boiled
with a folution of carbonate of foda, and leaves the mer-
cury in the ftate of a brick -red powder. Such are the
fa£ts which the younger M. Rouelle difcovered concern-
ing this fait. M. Prouft, being engaged by that cele-
brated chemift, wrhofe pupil he was, in a new examina-
tion of this matter, made a great many experiments upon
it ; of which the following are the principal refults.
On lixiviating the refidue of phofphorus, formed from
fufible fait of thefirft cryftallization, from which he had
obtained no more phofphorus but what was equal to an

eighth*

Phofphate of Soda. 225

eighth part of the weight of the fait, the lixivium af-
forded, by evaporation in the open air, parallelogram-
xnatic cryftals, an inch in length, and in the proportion
of five or fix drachms to the ounce of the fufible fait
from which the phofphorus was formed. It is to be ob-
ferved, that this proportion would not be fo great, were
it not for the water that enters into the cryftals. This
fubftance melts in the fire into an opaque glafs : it com-
municates a green colour to flame : it efilorefees in the
air : it decompofes nitrates and muriates, by difengaging
the acids : it forms glafies with earthy matters, by fu-
fion : it faturates alkalis, like an acid. From thefe fatts
M. Prouft concluded this faline fubftance to be different
in nature from all that he was before acquainted with, — ■
to be combined with phofphoric acid, and ammoniac in
ammoniacal phofphate, — and to form, with foda, Rouelle’s
fufible fait with a bafe of nat rum. He obferved, that it
performed the functions of an acid, and compared it to
the boracic acid. On this idea, M. Prouft made new
experiments on the fufible fait with a bafe of natrum,
obtained by Rouelle’s procefs, above deferibed.

According to him, lime decompofes this fait ; having
a greater affinity than foda with the peculiar fubftance
which performs in it the' funftions of an acid. Lime-
water poured into a folution of this fait, produces a pre-
cipitate ; and the foda is left in folution, in a pure cauf-
tic ftate.

The mineral acids, and even diftilled vinegar, decom-
pofe it, in a way dire&ly contrary to this. Rouelle fup-
pofed, that the fulphuric and the nitric acids did not acr
on this fait, becaufe they produced upon it no vifible
change ; but M. Prouft, on mixing the fulphuric, the
nitric, the muriatic, and the acetous acids, with a folu-
tion of fufible fait with a bafe of natrum , obferved, that
Vol. III. P although

22 6

Phofphate of Soda.

although there was no precipitate formed in thefe mix-
tures, yet the liquors, when evaporated and cooled, af-
forded fulphate and nitrate, muriate and acetite of foda :
which proves, i. '1 hat the fait has been decompofed by
thefe acids : 2. That it contains foda, as had been before
ffiewn by the younger Rouelle. As to the feparate fub-
flance which was before in union with the foda, it is
plain that it remains in folution in the liquors, together
with the new neutral halts. M. Proud didinguidred it
very plainly in the mother -water, obtained after the
mixture of vinegar with the folution of the fufible fait,
and the crystallization of the acetite of foda. By pouring
on that mother- water, eight or ten times its bulk of alcohol,
the lad portions of the neutral acetous fait are diflolved,
and a magma is formed, which mud be wadred with a
new quantity of alcohol, and then diffiolved in diddled
water. This folution of the magma, when evaporated
in the open air, adbrds parallelogrammatic crydals, pre-
cifely like thofe which are obtained by wadiing the red-
due of phofphorus, formed from fufible fait of the fird
crydallization, from urine. It is therefore, according to
M. Proud, a peculiar fubdance, of the fame nature
with the boracic acid, which faturates the foda, in fufible
fait with a bafe of nairum. This difeovery feems to ex-
plain the reafon why this fait does not afford phofphorus.
To thefe particulars M. Proud added, that it was a new
fubdance, which exided always in true fufible fait, or
ammoniacal phofphate, and communicated to the phof-
phoric acid the property of melting into a glafs'; and
for this reafon, I gave it, in the iird edition of this
work, the name of the bafe of phofphoric glafs. But M.
Morveau has lince been convinced, on fudicient evi-
dence, that the pure phofphoric acid, obtained from
phofphorus by deliquefeence, and confequently contain-

227

Phofphate of Soda .

jn!r none of that fubftance, is fufible, by heat alone, into
a folid and permanent glafs. 1 his feries of experiments
which M. Prouft made with great care, and of which the
refults are particularly ftriking, induced Bergman to con-
fider this fubftance as a peculiar acid : He gives a hifto-
rv of it in the fecond edition of his Difiertation on Elec-
tive Attractions, under the name of acidum per la turn, de-
rived, no doubt, from the denomination given by M.
Haupt, in the year i 740, to fufible iait with a bafe of
natrum. i\l. de Morveau has introduced it, as a diftinCt
article, into his Chemical Dictionary, under the name of
the ouretic acid , from the Greek name of urine, which
affords it. Bur, fmee M. Prcuft’s experiments, Berg-
man’s Differtation, and the compilation of M. de Mor-
veau’s article, M. Klaproth has published, in M. Crell’s
Journal, an analyfis of fufble fait with a bafe of natrum ;
which annihilates this pretended peculiar acid, and ihews
it to be nothing but phofphoric acid in combination with
foda. Mr Klaproth difeovered this truth by fuch ano-
ther experiment as that of the younger Rouelle. On
precipitating the folution of fufble fait with a bafe of
natrum, by calcareous muriate or nitrate, the precipitate
which Rouelle had before mentioned as analogous to the
bafe of bones, actually affords phofphoric acid by means
of fulphuric acid. Mr Klaproth adds, that, on faturat-
ing phofphoric acid, obtained by the flow combuilion of
phofphcrus with foda, with a fmali excefs of the foda,
there is a fait formed, precifely of the fame nature with
Haupt’s fal per la turn, or Rouelle’s fufble fait with a bafe
of natrum; and that, in order to obtain the fubflance
deferibed by M. Proufl, nothing more is neceffary but to
deprive this neutral fait of its excefs of foda, by vinegar,
or to add to it a little phofphoric acid. After this, we
need not be furprifed to find Bergman representing the

V 2 affinities

2' 2$ Phofphate of Soda.

affinities of the acidum perlatum , as precifely the fame
with thofe of the phofphoric acid. This detail of parti-
culars has been given by M. de Morveau, in a fupple-
ment to the acids of the mineral kingdom ; and he grants,
that after this, the ouretlc acid, and ouretic falts, are no
more to be mentioned.

It is very extraordinary, that phofphate of foda is
not decompofable by coal, like arnmoniacal phofphate ;
— that coal cannot deprive the phofphoric acid, when in
union with foda, of its oxigene. This bafe, therefore,
renders this acid incapable of being decompofed by coal ;
although it does not aft in the fame way on the fulphu-
ric, and various other acids. This is a ftriking excep-
tion from the general law of the attraftive eleftions of
oxigene, of which no other inftance is yet known. It is
not lefs remarkable, that an excefs of phofphoric acid,
added to phofphate of foda, leaves to that compound,
which, according to Mr Klaproth, is the peculiar fub-
ftance of M. Prouft, the power of rendering fyrup of
violets green.

M. de Morveau adds to the hiftory of phofphate of
foda, that a folution of muriate of lead poured into a
folution of this fait, produces a precipitate of phofphate
of lead. This laft fait, by diftillation with coal, affords
phofphorus ; as M. de Laumont, infpeftor of the mines,
has difcovered with an ore from the mines of Huelgoet.
From this it appears, in what manner corneous lead, the
ufe of which, in the diftillation of phofphorus of urine,
has been propofed by Margraf, may augment the quan-
tity of the produft, as we fhall explain in the following
chapter.

Uthic Acid.

£2<?

■ IIIIF1W

I Of the Lithic Acid.

THE calculus or (tone that is formed in the human
bladder, has long engaged the attention of chemiifs and
phyficians. Paraceifus, who gave it the barbarous

I name of duelech , imagined it to confift of an animal re-
fin, and compared it to arthritic concretions. Van Hel-
mont thought it a concretion formed of the falts of
urine, and an earthy volatile fpirit ; and believed it to be
of a very different nature from arthritic chalk, the for-
mation of which was, in his opinion, owing to the thick-
ening and acidification of the fynovia. Boyle extra&ed
from it, oil, with a good deal of volatile fait. Boer-
haave admitted in it the exiflence of an earth in union
with volatile alkali. Hales extraffed from it 645 times
its own bulk of air ; and out of 230 grains, obtained no
more than 49 grains of refidue : He called it anivial tar-
tar. Many learned phyficians, and efpecially Whyte and
Deften,have confidered alkaline matters as the true folvent
of the urinary calculus. Several even propofed ..the
ufe of the foap-makers* lixivium for that purpofe. «jBut
none of thefe notions was founded on an exaft analyfis
of the calculus. Scheele and Bergman firff undertook
fuch an analyfis.

The former of thefe chemifls difcovered, that the ffone
in the bladder confifts moftly of a peculiar acid, to which
we give the name of the lithic acid. 70 grains of the
calculus in the bladder afforded him, by diflillation, 28
grains of this acid, in a dry and fublimated ffate, — fome
ammoniacal carbonate, — and 12 grains of coal, which he

P 3 found

2^0

Lit hie Acid.

found it very difficult to reduce to allies. 1000 grains
of boiling water diffolved 296 grains of the fame acid :
This lixivium reddened blue colours ; but the greatelt
part feparated in fmall cryftals by cooling.

Concentrated fulphuric acid difiolves the calculus, with
the help of heat ; and paffes, in confequence of effecting
this folution, into the (late of concentrated fulphureous
acid. The muriatic acid does not aft upon it ; the nitric
difiolves it entirely : nitrous gas and carbonic acid are
difengaged, while this laft folution is taking place. This
folution is red ; it contains a naked acid ; it communi-
cates a red tinfture to the fkin, and all organic tiffues :
"When tried with foluble barytic falts, it exhibits no mark
of its containing fulphuric acid, — nor of lime, when tried
with oxalic acid. Lime-water forms in it a precipitate,
which difiolves, without effervefeing, in acids. Cauftic
alkalis, according to Scheele, diffolve the calculus : thefe
folutions are precipitated by lime; 1000 grains of lime-
water diffolve 537 of any of thefe precipitates; and am-
moniac, in a large proportion, afts in the fame manner
on the calculus. That celebrated chemifi: afferts, that
the brick-coloured fedimenfin the urine of people in a
fever, is of the fame nature. Although Scheele found
no lime in the ftone of the bladder, yet Bergman obtained
fome from it, by precipitating the nitric folution with
fulphuric acid, and calcining the refidue of the fame fo-
lution. Bergman likewife difeovered in the calculus, a
white fpongy matter, infoluble in water, acids, or al-
kalis : The incinerated coal of this fubftance, of which
the quantity was fo fmall that he could not afeertain its
nature, is not even foluble in nitric acid.

From this analyfis by two fuch celebrated philofophers,
which has been again and again repeated by different
ehemifts, the ftone in the bladder appears to be of a dif-
ferent

Lithic Acid.

= 3'

ferent nature from the earth of bones. Yet Mr Ten-
nant, Fellow of the- Royal Society of London, has found
in the bladder, {tones which loll only two thirds by cal-
cination, and whofe refidue melted into an opaque glafs
by cooling. Thefe muft therefore have contained a
pretty confiderable quantity of calcareous phofphate.

As to the lithic acid, — the properties which it is known
to poflefs, are, i. That of being concrete and cryftalline:
2. That of being aim oft infoluble in water, but more fa-
llible in hot thau-in cold water: 3. That of being faluble
in nitric acid, from which it abforbs oxigene, and form-
ing, after this falution, a deliquefeent red mafs, which
communicates a colour to many bodies : 4. That of com-
bining with earths, and metallic oxides; and forming with
them peculiar neutral fairs, which we call ammoniacal
litbiate, litbiate of copper , calcareous litbiatc , lithiate of
potaf. litbiate of foda , &c. : 5. The property of prefer-
ring, in its attractions, alkalis to earths : 6. Laftly, That
of yielding thefe bafes to the weaker of the other acids,
even to the carbonic acid, which renders the calculus in-
folubie by alkaline carbonates ; this lafl property is pecu-
liar to this acid. But, as M. de Morveau has very well
obferved, much remains to be done before we can ob-
tain a fufficient knowledge of the lithic acid; and, I may
add, even before we can determine whether it be not a
modification of fame other acid ; which may be fufpecled
from what we know concerning the relations of the ve-
getable acids to one another, and the identity of the pre-
tended acidum perlatum and ouretic acid , with the phof-
phoric acid.

M. de Morveau thinks the concretions at the joints,
which phyficians have confidered as of the fame nature
with the calculus of the bladder, to be, in their nature,
very different from it. But his opinion is founded only

P 4 on

232

Lithie Acid.

I

on Tome experiments of Schenckius, Pinelli, and Whyte,
which were far from being performed with due accuracy
and attention : And the obfervations of Boerhaave, Fre-
deric Hoffman, Springsfield, Alfton, Leger, &c. concern-
ing the good effe&s of alkaline waters, foap, and lime-
water, in arthritic and calcplous cafes, have, with me,
greater weight in eftablifhing the analogy between thefe
two forts of concretions, than the others in deftroying it.
There is, however, no refufing to agree with M. de
Morveau, that experiments only can determine the que-
flion. This is a new proof of the beneficial influence of
chemical refearches on the fcience of medicine, and the
advantages which it may derive from them.

CHAP.

M • .

Kunckel1 s Phofphorus. 233

C H A P. X.

Of Kunckel' s Phofpborus ?

PHOSPHORUS is one of the mod combudible iub-
(lances known. As it was firft extracted from
urine, and as the matter which affords the mod of it
is ammoniacal phofphate, it feems therefore mod fuitable
to give the hidory of this inflammable fubdance in this
place.

The difcovery of phofphorus is owing, according tq
Leibnitz, to an alchemid of the name of Brandt, a citi-
zen of Hamburgh, who found it out in the year 1667.
Kunckel, to gain the knowledge of the procefs, affo-
ciated with a man of the name of Krafft: But Krafft not
communicating to him the fecret, Kunckel refolved to
fearch for it himfelf ; and after many experiments on
urine, from which he knew it to be obtained, he at lad
produced phofphorus, and was confidered as being truly
the difcoverer of it. Some alfo afcribe the honour of
this difcovery to Boyle, who, in the year 1680, a&ually
gave a fmall quantity of it into the hands of the Secre-
tary to the Royal Society of London, But Stahl afferts,

that

2 ?4 KunckeVs Phofphoriis.

that Krafi't had told him, that he communicated his pro-
cefs for making phofphorus to Boyle. Boyle communi-
cated his procefS to a German, whofe name was Godfreid
Hankwitz, who had an excellent laboratory at London,
and was the only man that prepared phofphorus, and
fold it, through all Europe. Although, between the
year 1680, and the beginning of the prefent century,
there were produced many receipts for making phof-
phorus, and, among others, Boyle’s, Krafft’s, Brandt’s,
Homberg’s, Teichmeyer’s, Frederic Hoffman’s, Niewen-
tyt’s, and Wedelius’s ; yet no chemift had hitherto pre-
pared it openly ; and the preparation was (till quite a
fecret, when, in the year 1737, a ftranger offered to com-
municate, at Paris, an infallible procefs for making phofpho-
rus. The Academy named four chemifls, MefTrs Hellot,
Dufay, Geoffroy, and Du Hamel, to try the procefs in the
laboratory in the King’s garden. The procefs fucceeded.
The minifter beftowed a reward on the ftranger ; and
Hellot gave an accurate account of the procefs, in a Me-
moir, inferted among the Memoirs of the Academy for
the year 1737. This procefs confifts in evaporating five
or fix hogflieads of urine, till it be reduced to a granu-
lated, hard, black, glittering matter, — calcining the refidue
in an iron pot, red-hot in the bottom, till fuch time as it
ceafe to frnoke, and take the fmell of peach-flowers, —
lixiviating this matter with, at leaf!, twice as much hot
water, — and drying it, after decanting off the water.
Three pounds of this matter muff be mixed with a pound
and an half of coarfe fand, or pounded ftone-ware, and
four or five ounces of powder of charcoal of beech.
This mixture is to be moiflened with half a pound of
water, and introduced into an Heffian retort. The mat-
ter is affayed, by making a portion of it red-hot in a
crucible : If it exhibit a violet flame, and diiTufe a fmell

KunckeVs Phofphorus. t

235

of garlic, it will afford phofphorus. The retort is placed
in d furnace made on purpole ; and a large balloon, about
one third of which mull be filled with water, adapted to
it. 'i he balloon mull be perforated with a lmall hole j
anyl Iiellot conlidered this as one of the manipulations
that are the moll neceffary for the fuccefs of the opera-
tion. Three or four days after the apparatus has been
fet up, a moderate fire is kindled under it, to dry the
furnace and the lutings: by degrees, the fire is augment-
ed, and it is kept for fifteen or twenty hours in this flate.
The phofphorus does not didil till fourteen hours after
the beginning of the operation, which lafts, in all, twenty-
four hours. There arifes, firft, a large quantity of am-
moniacal carbonate, a part of which is dilfolved by the
water in the bailoon. Volatile or aeriform phofphorus
pafles, firfi, in luminous vapours : the true phofphorus
then runs, like an oil, or melted wax. When it ceafes
to pafs, the apparatus mud be left to cool for two days.
The luting mud then be taken off ; and water added, to
loofen the phofphorus adhering to the fides of the re-
ceiver : It is next melted in boiling water ; for which
purpofe, it is cut into fmall pieces, which are introduced
into the necks of matrades, cut towards the middle of
the body into the form of a funnel, and immerfed in
boiling water. The phofphorus melts, is purified, and
rendered tranfparent by the feparation of a blackidi
matter which rifes above it. It is then put into cold
water, in which it congeals ; and it is now thrud out of

the matrades with a fmall dick. Such, in diort, is the

procefs defcribed by Hellot. The tedioufnefs of the
operation hindered it from being repeated by any che-
mids but Rouelle, the elder, who, in his courfes of che-
midry, went through it feveral times with fuccefs.

In

236 Kune hr s Phofphorus.

In the year 1743, Margraf publifhed, in the Memoirs
of the Academy of Berlin, a new method for making, at
once, a pretty large quantity of phofphorus, eafier than
had been done before him. In this procefs, the corneous
lead which remains from the diftillation of four pounds
of minium, and two pounds of ammoniacal muriate, is
mixed with ten pounds of extra# of urine, of the con-
fiftency of honey. A pound and an half of powder of
charcoal is next to be added to it. The mixture mud
be dried in an iron pot, till it be converted into a black
powder. This powder is to be dillilled in a retort, in
order to extra# from it, by a graduated fire, the ammo-
niacal carbonate, the foetid oil, and the ammoniacal mu-
riate which it contains. Care mud be taken, however,
to urge it with fire no farther than juft to make the re-
tort red-hot. The black friable refidue of this diftilla-
tion, is the matter from which the phofphorus is ex-
tracted. It is allayed, by calling a little of it on burning
coals. If it diffufe a fmell of garlic, and a blue phof-
phoric flame, it may then be confidered as well prepared.
A retort of Heflian or Picardy earth is filled three-fourths
full of it, and well luted. This veflel is then placed in
a reverberating furnace, with a dome, and an iron
chimney, fix or eight feet high. A middle-fized receiver,
perforated with a fmall hole, and half-full of 'water, is
fitted to the retort. The joinings mull be luted with fat
lute, and covered with fillets of cloth dipped in white
of eggs, and lime: A brick-wall muft be railed between
the furnace and the receiver ; and after this apparatus
has been fuffered to dry for a day or two, the diftillation
may be carried on by a properly graduated fire. This
operation lafts from fix to nine hours, according to the
quantity of the matter to be dillilled. I he phofphorus,
jhus obtained, is rectified by diddling it by a very mo-
derate

KunckeVs Phofphorus. 237

derate fire, in a glafs retort, with a receiver half-full of
water. Almoft all chemifts have repeated Margraf’s
procefs fuccefsfully : and it was the only one in ufe, till,
within thefe few years, another was difcovered, which
confiffs in feparating the phofphoric acid from bones ; as
we lhall mention when we come to fpeak of thofe folid
bodies.

It appears, that the only thing in which Margraf’s
procefs differs from Hellot’s, is in the addition of the mu-
riate of lead, and the divifion of the operation into two.
But, wdiat is of molt importance in the ingenious chemilt
of Berlin’s procefs, is, that it determines the nature of the
fubffance contained in urine, which ferves for the form-
ation of phofphorus. By diftilling a mixture o $ fufwle
fait with charcoal, he obtained excellent phofphorus ;
and he obferves, that the urine from which he had ex-
tracted that fait would yield no more of this combuftible
fubltance. That fubffance, therefore, which contributes
to the formation of phofphorus, muff be a conffituent
part of fufible fait ; and indeed phofphorus is eafily ob-
tained by diffilling two parts of glafs obtained from the
decompofition of fufible fait in a retort or crucible, with
one part of powrdered charcoal. This operation requires
much lefs time, and much lefs fire, than any that we have
yet defcribed ; for, according to M. Prouff, the phof-
phorus is ready to run in a quarter of an hour. This,
doubtlefs, is the beff procefs that can be ufed to obtain
phofphorus of urine. But there are fever'al obfervations
to be made on this head : 1. The vitreous refidue, re-
maining after the decompofition of ammoniacal muriate
by fire, not being pure phofphoric acid, but phofphoric
acid in combination with phofphate of foda, which is not
decompofable by coal, only a very little phofphorus can,
therefore, be obtained, by employing this refidue, — an

ounce

238 KunckePs Phofphorus.

ounce of it affording no more than a drachm, and often
lefs : 2. When fafible fait is prepared in any large quan-
tity by evaporation and cooling, it is found to be mixed
with a comiderable proportion of foda, which affords no
phofphorus. Thefe two obfervations may be, therefore,
confidered as explaining, why lb little of this combuftible
body is obtained by the diftillation of fufible fait with
coal. Perhaps, fufible fait in its original ftate, or the
mixture of ammoniacal phofphate with phofphate of foda,
if diftilled with coal and muriate of lead, would afford
more phofphorus ; for muriate of lead appears to be ca-
pable of decompofing phofphate of foda.

Phofphorus, by whatever of thefe proceffes obtained,
is hill the fame. When very pure, it is tranfparent,
and its confiheucy like that of wax. It cryhallizes by
cooling, into brilliant plates of a micaceous appearance.
In hot water, it melts a confiderable time before the
fluid be heated to ebullition. It is highly volatile, and
rifes in a thick fluid by a moderate heat. In contact
with air, it exhales a fmoke from every part of its fur-
face : this vapour diffufes a ftrong fmell of garlic, and
appears white in day-light, and in the dark very lumi-
nous. It is a flow inflammation of the phofphorus from
which it proceeds ; and when left for any time expofed
to the air, phofphorus is gradually confumed, and leaves
as a refidue a peculiar acid, the properties of which we
will afterwards examine. This flow combuflion never
takes place but when the phofphorus is in contact with
air : Nay, to render it very luminous, a heat from twelve
to fifteen degrees of Reaumur’s thermometer, or about
fixty-three degrees of Fahrenheit’s, is requifite ; al-
though the inflammation may take place under that tem-
perature. This inflammation is not accompanied with
heat, nor does it kindle any other combuftibie body.

But,

Handel's Phofphorus. 239

But, when phofphorus is expofed to a dry heat of 24
I degrees Reaumur, or 86° Fahrenheit, it kindles with
decrepitation : it burns rapidly with a very lively white
flame, mixed with yellow and green, and deflroys very
fpeedily any combuflible body that comes within its in-
fluence. The vapours which then exhale from it are
very copious, white, and very luminous in the dark.
This rapid combuflion takes place with a very ftrong
heat, and a very fparkling light, in a receiver full of
vital air.

In thefe two different forts of combuflion, phofphorus
leaves different refldues. The firfl affords a liquor
weighing more than twice as much as the phofphorus
employed on the occaflon, which we call the phofphorous
acid. The fecond gives a very deliquefcent and foluble,
white, concrete matter, which is the phofphoric acid.
This 1 aft was thought to refemble the acid and fluid re-
fldue of the firfl combuflion, or the flow inflammation :
But the two acids exhibit real differences in their combi-
nations, as was firfl obferved by Margraf, and has been
fhewn by M. Sage, in the Memoirs of the Academy
for the year 1777. We will fpeak more particu-
larly of thefe differences in the hiffory of the two
acids.

The combuflion of phofphorus was confidered by
Stahl as the difengagement of the pldogiflon which he
thought to be combined with muriatic aci'd* in that com-
buflible.

* Stall!, in federal of his works, has afferted, that phofphorus
may be compofed by combining muriatic acid with phlogifton.
Margraf engaged in a feries of experiments with a view to this -
in which lie treated various combinations of the muriatic acid with
combuftibie matters ; but could never fucceed. He has even fhewn,
in a fatisfa&ovy manner, that the acid formed by the burning of
this combuilible body, is very different from that of marine fait;
and all chemifts are now of the fame opinion.

$4^ Kune leP s Phofphorus .

> ,
buftible body. M. Lavoifier, in order to diltinguifH wh$
happens in this combuflion, kindled, with a burning,
glafs, a quantity of phofphorus in a belhglafs immerled
in mercury. He obferved, that no more than a given
quantity of this matter can be burnt in a certain bulk of
air ; that the quantity amounts to one grain of phofpho-
rus to fixteen or eighteen cubic inches of air ; that, after
this combuflion, the phofphorus is extinguifhed, and
the air rendered unfit to contribute to the combuflion
of a new quantity of phofphorus ; that the bulk of the
air is diminifhed, and the phofphorus converted into
white, fnowy flakes, which fix on the fides of the bell-
glafs : Thofe flakes arc equal to twice and one half more,
the weight of the phofphorus from which they are
formed ; and this increafe of the weight of the phofpho-
rus correfponds exacliy to the diminution of weight
which the air has fufFered, and is owing folely to the
abforption of phofphorus by the oxigene. In tael, the
white flakes are concrete phofphoric acid, produced by
the combination of phofphorus with the oxigene, or bale
of vital air, contained in the atmofpheric air which has
contributed to the combuflion of that inflammable fub-
flance. The theory of this fubftance is the fame with
that of fulphur ; and it is therefore unneceffary to make
any addition here to what was faid on that head, in the
mineral kingdom.

Phofphorus becomes liquid in hot water. Vital air,
palled through phofphorus thus liquefied in water,
burns it, and reduces it into the Hate of phofphoric
acid.

Phofphorus, though not foluble in this fluid, yet fut-
fers, by degrees, an alteration in it. It lofes its tranf-
parency, becomes yellow, and is covered over with an
efflorefcence, or coloured dull. The water becomes acid,

and

KunckePs Phofphorus <

and appears luminous when fhaken in the dark. The
phofphorus is then flowly decompofed.

Caurtic fixed alkalis difl'olve phofphorus, with the
help of a boiling heat. While this Combination takes
place, there is a foetid gas difengaged that was firft dif-
covered by M. Gingembre, and pofTefTes the lingular
property of kindling with an explofion, when brought:

■ into conta& with atmofpheric air, and more i'nftahtane-
oufly (till, when brought into contaCt with vital air»
This elaftic fluid conflfts of phofphorus diflfolvcd in hy-
drogenous gas; and the hydrogenous gas is produced by
the decompofition of the water. We call it phofphorated
hydrogenous gas.

Sulphuric acid, diftilled in a retort, with phofphorus^
burns almoll: entirely away, but without emitting any
flame. Concentrated nitric acid acts upon it with vio-
lence, and, if the phofphorus be hot, kindles it hidden-
ly. When this experiment is made in a retort, with ni-
tric acid not very highly concentrated, the phofphorus
burns {lowly, robs the nitric acid of its oxigene, and
forms phofphoric acid. This procefs ‘was deferibed by
M. Lavoifier in the year 1780.

The muriatic acid, even though oxigenated, does no
aCt in a fenfible degree on phofphorus.

Nitric fairs, with the help of a gentle heat, kindle k
with great rapidity.

Sulphur and phofphorus combine, according to Mar-
graf, by fufion arid diflillation. The refult is a folidf
compound, of a foetid fmell, w'hich burns with a yellov/
flame, and, in wTater, fwells, and communicates to it the
acidity and fmell of alkaline fulphures ; which properties’
fhe.w, that thefe two bodies reaft on each other in a pe-
culiar manner, as their union feems to occalion the de-
compofltion of water.

Vol. 111.

jPbafphofa#

Q.

242 KunckeVs Phofphorus.

Phofphorus does not combine fo well as fulphur, with
metals, though there be, in many particulars, a flrong
analogy between phofphorus and fulphur. Margraf
attempted to form thefe combinations by diflilling each
of the metallic fubftances with two parts of phofphorus.
None but arfenic, zinlc, and copper exhibited peculiar
phenomena. None of the other metals was at all al-
tered by the phofphorus, which was partly burnt or fub-
limated in the receiver, without fuffering any difcernible
change.

Phofphorus fublimated with arfenic, afforded that ce-
lebrated chemift, a matter of a beautiful red colour, not
unlike realgar.

Zinc, diddled twice in fucceffion with this combuftible
fubftance, afforded yellow flowers, punctuated and very
light. The fublimate, when expofed to the affion of
fire, under a red muffle, kindled, and melted into a
tranfparent glafs, like that of borax.

Copper, treated in the fame way with phofphorus,
loft its brilliancy, and became very compaff. Its weight
was increafed fixteen grains in the half drachm, and it
burnt -whep expofed to fiamh. M. Pelletier has obferv-
ed, that copper combines very well with phofphorus,
and that the refult of this combination is a fort of grey
ore, brilliant, granulated, very hard, and very difficult
to melt. To thefe compounds into which phofphorus
enters unaltered, we. give the name of phofphures of cop-
per, zinc, arfenic, iron, &c.

The Marquis de Bullion and M. Sage have defcribed
a remarkable alteration which phofphorus fuffers in me-
tallic folutions. The firft of thefe chemifts difcovered,
that finall pieces of phofphorus, introduced into folu-
tions of gold, fiber, copper, &c., were gradually cover-
ed with a cruft, or a fort cf bright metal cafe. Thefe

elegant

I

KunckeVs Fhofphorus . 243

biegant experiments {hew, that phofphorus has a greater
affinity with oxigene than fcveral of the metals, and is
I capable of reducing their oxides. Bergman has efta-
bliihed it as an unqueftionable fri<5h, that the arfenical
| acid is blackened and reduced into the hate of arfenic
I when heated with phofphorus ; which, at the fame time,
as it deprives the femi-metal of its oxigene, is converted
i, into phofphoric acid.

Phofphorus is foluble in all oils ; and renders them
luminous. Spielman has difeovered, that it dilfolves in
alcohol, and that the folution emits fparks, when poured
into water. In this operation, a part of the phofphorus
is precipitated in a white powder.

Phofphorus has not yet been ufed, either in medicine
or in the arts. MeiTrs Menzius, Morgenftern, Hart-
man, &c. fay, that they have found it to produce good
effetfs in malignant and bilious fevers, when the ftrength
has been exhaufted, and in the miliary fever. Some
authors have recommended it in the fcarlet fever, the pe-
ripneumony, rheumatic pains, epilepfy, &c. ; but, though,
in Germany, feveral differtations have appeared, on the
medicinal virtues of phofphorus taken internally, yet no-
thing can be affirmed as certain on this head, till fuch
time as experience Ihall pronounce concerning it in a
more decihve manner.

CHAP,

Phofphoric and P hofphorous Acids.

C H A P. XI.

Of the Phofphoric' and the P hofphorous Acids.

r | '1HE phofphoric acid has been fo called, becaufe It
JL was thought to exift ready-formed in phofphorus,
from which it is obtained by combuftion. But M. La-
voifier has proved this fait to be a combination of fulphur
with oxigene. — There are four different proceffes for
obtaining this acid. The firfl confifts in burning phof-
phorus haffiiy, under bell-glaffes, full of atmofpheric air,
and immerfed in mercury, by the heat of a burning glafs, or
by touching it with a red-hot iron. Care muft be taken,
to put a little water on the fides of the glaffes before
the procefs commence. This procefs, invented by M.
Lavoifier, affords, in a ffort time, a quantity of phof-
phoric acid, mixed with a fmall quantity of unburnt
phofphorus, that is, of acid in part phofphorous. Vital
air may be ufed in this aft of combuftion. In truth, the
inflammation is fo rapid and fo violent, as often to break
in pieces the glaffes with a noife. This procefs affords
phofphoric acid,

The

Thefphorit and Pbofpborous Acids. £45'

The fecond procefs, which we owe to MelTrs Woulfe
and Pelletier, is performed by pafllng a dream of vital
air through phofphorus melted under water.

In the third, given by M. Lavoifier, the phofphorus

is burnt by means of nitric acid, not very Arong.

Both thefe proceffes produce phofphoric acid.

The fourth procefs, a flow combuflicn, which has
been improperly called the formation of phofphoric acid
by deliquium, is very well defcribed by M. Sage. —
Sticks of phofphorus are placed on the fries of a glafs
funnel, the dalk of which enters a bottle ; and its bale
is covered with a capital, the extremity of which remains
open. A tube of glafs is put into the neck of the fun-
nel, to prevent the phofphorus from efcaping, and to
afford, at the fame time, a paffage, through which the
air, difplaced by the acid, may move off. Care muff be
taken to keep the flicks of phofphorus from touching
each other, and to prevent the temperature of the plac'e
in which the apparatus Hands from riling above fixty de-
grees; otherwife the phofphorus may probably deflagrate.
In more or lefs time, there is obtained by this procefs,
for every ounce of phofphorus, three ounces of acid,
which colle&s and flows, by degrees, into the water in
the bottle : it is phofphorous acid.

Thefe four proceffes afford acid of phofphorus, in two
different dates, according as the phofphorus is either not
decompofed, or entirely burnt and faturated with oxi-
gene. Thefe two acids, between them, exhibit pheeno-
mena, which may be compared to thofe of the fulphuric
and the fulphureous acids. — Such is the origin of the dif-
ferences between the refults obtained by Meflrs Sage and
Lavoifier, in the combinations of this acid, which are re-
lated in the Memoirs of the Academy for the year 1777.
As already mentioned, we didinguiflr the former, that

<1.3 m

246

Phofphoric Acid .

in which the phofphorus is faturated with oxigene, by
the name of th t phofphoric acid ; and the fecond, which
is not entirely faturated with oxigene, we call the phof
phorous acid.

Of the Phofphcric Acid.

PURE phofphoric acid, obtained without the addition
of water, and in vital air, is in the form of white flakes,
fnowy, light, aeliquefcent, and of a very ftrong acid tafte.
When expofed to the air, it fpeedily attracts moifture..
When brought into contact with a little water, it eafily
melts, and affords a white fluid, without fmell, of an oily
coufiflency, very ponderous, of a tafle ftrongly acid, and
capable of changing blue vegetable colours rapidly into
red. If expofed to the affion of fire in a retort, it affords
a pure phlegm : the acid then concentrates, and becomes
even more ponderous than the fulphuric acid : it affurr.es,
by degrees, confiftency and opacity ; it is then like a foft
extrafh Laflly, when urged with a violent heat, it melts
into a tranfparent glafs, which is hard, highly eleffric,
and inloluble, but exhibits none of the properties of an
acid. It appears, that this folid vitreous fiate of the
phofphoric acid, is owing to a more intimate combination
taking place between the acidifiable bafe and the cxi-
gene, and to the feparation of a part of the latter.
This idea, of a more intimate adherence taking place be-
tween the oxigene and the acidifiable bafe in phofphoric
glafs, which, as it is no longer acid, merits the name of
vitreous phofphoric oxide , is confirmed, when we obferve

how

247

Phofphoric Acid.

how difficult it is to obtain from it phofpborus, with the
help of coal, and how ftrong a heat mud aft op this
mixture, to produce the defired effeft.

Phofphoric acid obtained by ilow comb u ft ion, or
phofphorous acid, when heated in an open veffel, emits,
from time to time, a faint flame, which is* owing to its
dill retaining a refidue of phofphorus that has not been
all burnt, and the dame is accompanied with a fmell of
garlic. It then is concentrated, becomes dry, and at lad
melts like the former acid.

The concentrated phofphoric acid very fpeedily attrafts
moidure from the atmofphere. It combines with water,
with the help of heat: it combines with a great many
fubftances; and, in its combinations, exhibits fome pecu-
liar phenomena.

The liquid phofphoric acid does not appear to have
any power over filiceous earth, according to the experi-
ments of Bergman and M. de Morveau: But it has been
fhewn by Dr Priedley and Mr Ingenhoufze, to aft on
glafs. . /.

The blow-pipe makes it bubble with aluminous earth.
Phofphoric acid, when melted in Ileffian crucibles, has
been remarked, by M. de Morveau, to- communicate to
them a tranfparent vitreous covering.

It combines with barytes, and feems to prefer it to all
other bafes but lime, if the affinities of this acid have
been rightly marked by Bergman. The. properties of
barytic phofphate are dill unknown.

The phofphoric acid diffolves carbonate of magnelia,
with effervefcence. The fait which it forms with this
fubdance is fcarce foluble. A-concentrated folution of it
affords, by red, in the fpace of four and twenty hours,
fmall flat needle '-crydals^very flender, feveral lines in
length, and cut obliquely at the two ends: it often takes

the

$4$ Phofphoric Acid.

jdie form of a tranfparent jelly. Thefe cryflals of phof-
phate of magnefia, when expofed to a gentle heat, fall
into powder. According to M. Lavoifier, the fulphuric
acid decompofes this fait.

Phofphoric acid, poured into lime-water, precipitates
from it a' fcarce foluble fait, which does not effervefce
■with acids,— is decompofed by mineral acids, but proof
again ft the attacks of cauflic alkalis. This fait is of the
fame nature with the bafe of bones. — An excefs of phof-
phone acid renders calcareous phofphate foluble in water;
but magnefia, lime, caullic fixed alkalis, and even am-
moniac, by carrying off from it the excefs of acid, preci-
pitate the neutral fait. Calcareous phofphate is not de-
compofable by cauftic alkalis ; but carbonates of potafli
and foda decompofe it. The folid matter of bones con-
iifts of phofphate fuperfaturated with lime.

Phofphoric acid, faturated with potafli, forms a very
foluble fait, which, by evaporation and cooling, affords,
r hough not without difficulty, cry dais, in the form of te-
trahedral prifms, terminating in pyramids, which have
al(o four faces, correfponding to thofe of the prifms.
This phofphate of potafli diffolves much better in hot
jthaii in cold water it fwells on coals, but is fomewhat
obflinate againd melting ; and when melted, has no longer
a faline tafte. From the nitric folution of filver, it pro-
duces a white precipitate; and from the nitric folution of
mercury, a yefiowifli white precipitate. It is decompofed
by lime-water, which has a greater affinity than potafli,
with the phofphoric acid.

Soda, in union with the phofphoric acid, affords a fait,
pf an agreeable fade, much the fame with that of muriate
of foda. 4 .'Phofphate of foda does not eaflly crydallize,
and is often reduced, by evaporation, into a gummy mat-
ter, which runs into threads, like turpentine, and is de-

liauefcent.

Phofphoric Acid. 24^

Kquefcent. I have obferved, in this thick matter, needles
difpofed in radii, which indicate a beginning of crystalli-
zation : But a little more foda than what is requilite to
faturate the acid, added to this fait, inftantly effe&s a
change of its properties : its tafte now becomes urinous;
it turns fyrup of violets green, cryffailizes in large paral-
lelograms, and efflorefces in the air ; in a word, it ac-
quires all the properties of the fufible fait with a bafe of
narrum, which we call fuperfaturated phofphate of foda .
This fait does not afford phofphorus with coal; and nei-
ther phofphate of barytes, of lime, of potafli, nor of
foda, is liable to fuch a decompofition : Wherefore it
appears, that the phofphoric acid muff be in a naked
difengaged date, in order to be decompofed by coal.

The ammoniacal phofphate produced by the combin-
ation of phofphoric acid with ammoniac, is more foluble
in hot than in cold water, and affords, by cooling, cry-
ffals, which, according to M. Lavoifier, bear fome refem-
blance to thofeofalum. I have remarked, that when the
combination is truly neutral, it is very difficult to obtain it
in cryftals ; for it is almoff all evaporated even by a mo-
derate heat. But an excefs of ammoniac is favourable
►

to the cryflallization of this fait : A little phofphate of
foda produces the fame effeft ; and this is the ffate of
that extra&ed from urine. Barytes, lime, and alkalis,
decompofe ammoniacal phofphate : Fire ealily difengages
the ammoniac ; and accordingly, this fait affords phof-
phorus with coal.

The phofphoric acid decompofes alkaline fulphates,
nitrates, and muriates, by the dry way ; and, by its fixity,
difengages the acids : but, in the humid way, it yields its
bafes to thefe acids.

The phofphoric acid, in a fluid ffate, afts only on a
few metallic fqbffances, It diffolves zink, and iron, and

copper.

25'0

Phofphoric Acid.

v »

copper, readily enough. None of thefe folutions affords
cryffals by evaporation, except the folution of iron,
which, indeed, feems fufceptible of cryftallization. The
others form into foft du&ile maffes, like extrafts : when
urged with fire, they emit fparks, and appear to form
genuine phofphorus. Margraf, and the Academicians
of Dijon have examined the different phenomena exhi-
bited by this acid, in its aftion on metals and femi-
metals.

The phofphoric acid likewife precipitates fome folu-
tions of metals, fuch as the folutions of mercury and
filver by the nitric acid.

The nitric and acetous folutions of lead are, in like
manner, liable to be precipitated by phofphoric acid, and
by foluble phofphates. The precipitate produced by the
aecompofition of the latter, which is phofphate of lead,
affords phofphorus, when diddled with coal.

This acid re-a<ds upon oils, and improves their fmell.
To oils not naturally fweet-fmelling, it communicates a
fweet fmell, in fome degree as the real : fome of them it
thickens.

When diddled, in its dry date, with coal, it affords
phofphorus.

By heating it in a retort, with alcohol, the Academi-
cians of Dijon obtained a liquor highly acid, of a pun-
gent and difagreeable fmell, which burnt with a little
fmoke, and exhibited fome of the properties of tether.
The phofphoric acid became volatile in this experiment,
for the produft was acid. M. Lavoifier obferved heat
produced by this mixture. Mod chemids, however,
fonfider the phofphoric acid as infoluble in alcohol.
Margraf, Rouelle, Scheele, Meflrs Wenzel, Laffonne,
pornette, and the Duke deChaulnes, recommend the ufe
pf alcohol to purify the phofphoric acid, and feparate

Phofphoric Acid.

251

from it any extraneous matters which it may happen to
Contain.

Laftly, phofphoric acid, holding in folution phofphate
of foda, affords, by fufion, an hard glafs, inlipid, info-
luble, not deliquefcent, and opaque, refembling that
which fufible fait leaves when ufged with fire.

We may add farther, that the phofphoric acid, which
was formerly thought peculiar to urine, exilts in a great
many animal matters, as we have already feen,.and as
will farther appear in the fucceeding chapters. Margraf-
informed the world of his having found it in vegetables.
M. Berthollet has extracted it from fuch as afford ammo-
niac by diftillation : JVI. Haffenfratz, from a great many
plants growing in marlhes, and on peat-earth. It has
been found in various minerals, particularly in lead and
iron, with which it appears to be combined in confe-
quence of the decompofition of animal fubftancps. Laflly,
M. Proufl has found it in combination with lime, in a
(parry (lone, in Spain.

Of the Pbofphorous Acid.

IT has been related, that when phofphorus burns
ilowly, and is not completely faturated with oxigene,
there is an acid formed different from that whofe hiftory
we have juft finifhed, ai;d bearing to it the fame relation
which the fulphureous bears to the fulphuric, the nitrous
to the nitric, and the acetous to the acetic acid. This
difference between thefe two acids, in the proportion of
oxigene that enters into their compofition, occafions a wide
difference between their properties, in the lame manner

2 5 2 Thofphorous Acid.

as in the other fix which correfpond, two and two.
The phofphorous may be alfo confidered as phofphoric
acid, holding in folution a little phofphorus. This acid,
when rubbed, and, (till more, when heated, takes a foe-
tid and difagreeable fmell : part of it is then volatilized,
in a very acrid and pungent white vapour : it Is then
more volatile than phofphoric acid. But this acid never
rifes all in vapour, like the fulphureous acid ; it always
contains more or lefs phofphoric acid, which caufes it
to leave a vitreous refidue, or a melted phofphoric oxide,
when treated with a flrong fire. It may be prepared by
decompofing phofphoric acid ; and in the produffion of
phofphorus, there is always a certain quantity of it dif-
engaged. The diftin&ive properties of the phofpho-
rous acid have not been all, as yet, particularly examin-
ed ; but enough is known of them, to mark the differ-
ence that prevails between this and the phofphoric acid.
M. Sage, in the Memoirs of the Academy for the year
1777, has given an account of fome of the chara&eriftic
properties of the phofphorous acid. According to that
chemift, the fait formed by the union of the acid ob-
tained from phofphorus by deliquium , with potafli, or
phofphate of potafli, is not deliquefcent : Phofphate of
■foda is alfo cryftallizable, but not deliquefcent ; but am-
moniacal phofphate attra&s moiflure from the atmofphere.

CHAP.

Soft cr White Farts of Animals , & their Mufcles, 253

\

CHAP. XII.

Of the Soft and White Parts of Animals , and of

their Mufcles .

ALTHOUGH lefs progrefs has been made in the
. analyfis of the folid parts of animals, than in the
analyfis of animal fluids, yet we are beginning to know
fomething of the different matters of which they are
compofed. In the firft place, we know, that difference
of texture both indicates and occaflons a difference in
condiment principles. This affertion will be confirmed,
by a comparative examination of the foft and white parts,
with the mufcles and bones.

All the foft and white parts of animals, fuch as the
membranes, the tendons and aponeurofes, the cartilages,
the ligaments, and the ikin, contain, in general, a muci-
laginous fubffance, which diffolves readily in water, but
is infoluble in alcohol, and is known by the name of jelly.
To extract this jelly, nothing more is requifite than to
boil thefe parts of animals in water, and to evaporate the
decoftion, till it form, by cooling, into a folid tremulous
mafs. When evaporated by a more violent heat, it

affords

\

254 Soft & White Parts of Animals, & their Mufcles,

affords" a dry, brittle, tranfparent fubftance, that is known
by the name- of glue.

Glue is prepared from all the white parts of animals.
The fkin, the grift les, and the feet of cows, are ufed in
the preparation of a ftrong glue, in England, Flanders,
Holland, Sic. The fkin of the eel is the bafts of gilder’s
glue. A fpecies of glue, ufed by painters, &c. is pre-
pared of the parings of glove-leather and parchment.
In fftort, there is fcarce any animal, whole tendons,
griftles, nerves, and fkin — which is ftill better for the
purpofe, may not be ufed in the preparation of thefe
different forts of glue.

It is to be obferved on this head, that glues differ in
confiftency, colour, tafte, fmell, and folubility. Some
glues diffolve well enough in cold water : and others are
only foluble in boiling water. The bed glue is tranfpa-
rent, of a yellow colour, inclining to brown, without
fmell of tafte, and entirely foluble in water, in which it
forms a vifcid fluid, of an uniform appearance, and which,
\then it dries, remains equally tranfparent and tenacious
through all its parts.

Animal jelly differs from glue, properly fo called, only
in being lefs confident and vifcid. The former of thefe
fubftances is obtained chiefly from the white and foft
parts of young animals : it is alfo found in their flefh,
mufcles, fkin, and bones. Glue is only obtained from
the older animals, whofe fibres are ftronger and drier.
However, as thefe two matters exhibit the fame chemical
properties; in the examination of them, on which we are
entering, we fliall take, for our fpecimen, the jelly that
is obtained from the cartilages or membranes of the
calf.

This matter has, in its natural date, fcarce any fmell :
its tafte is infipid. When diftilled on a water- bath, it

affords

Soft & White Parts of Animals , & their Mufcles . 255'

j affords an infipid, inodorous phlegm, liable to putrefac-
n tion. As it lofes its water, it takes the confiffency of
11 glue, and, when thoroughly dry, is like horn. When
<j expofed to a pretty ffrong heat, and to air at the fame
ti time, it fwells, bubbles, and becomes liquid : it then be-
ij comes black, and exhales a copious fmoke, of a foetid
■ fmell : it does nor take fire, unlefs when expofed to a
cl violent heat ; and even then, not readily. By diffilla-
tion in a retort, it affords an alkaline phlegm, an empy-
reumatic oil, and a little ammoniacal carbonate. It leaves
a coal of confiderable bulk, which is not eafily incinerat-
ed, and contains muriate of foda and calcareous phof-
phate.

Jelly, expofed to an hot and humid atmofphere, firfl
becomes acid, and foon after putrefies.

Water diffolves it in any proportion. Acids diffolve it
eafily, and alkalis Hill eafier. The nitric acid difengages
azotic gas from it. Mofl of thefe properties are nearly
the fame with thofe of infipid vegetable mucilages; only,
infipid vegetable mucilages neither afford ammoniac by
fire, nor azotic gas by the nitric acid. But this animal
jelly may poffibly owe thefe properties to a portion of
albuminous matter, extracted by the water, at the fame
time with the gelatinous fubffance, efpecially when either
glue or jelly is prepared by a long and fcrong decoffion.

The mufcles of animals confifl of a parenchymatous
cellular fubffance, which contains various humours, partly
concrete, partly fluid. Thefe humours are compofed,
1. Of a red and white albuminous fluid : 2. Of a gelatin-
ous mucilage : 3. Of a fweet oil, of the fame nature
with fat: 4. Of a peculiar extractive fubffance: 5. Laffly,
Of a faline matter, the nature of which is not very well
known. As the analyfis of the flefh entire, which affords,
in the water-bath, a vapid water, and, in the retort, an

- •' , alkaline

2 $6 Soft & While Parts of Animals , & their Mufcles /

alkaline phlegm, empyreumatic oil, and ammoniacal car-
bonate, and leaves a coal that affords, by incineration, a
little fixed alkali, and fome muriate of foda or potalh, —
as this analyfis affords no fatisfa&ory information con-
cerning the nature of thefe different principles, recourfe
muff therefore be had to fome means for extra&ing thefe
fubffances unaltered, in order that we may be enabled to
examine their properties feparately.

To obtain and feparate thefe feveral fubffances, the
exiffence of which has been afeertained by M. Thouvenel,
various modes of operation may be adopted That phy-
fician fqueezed out, in a prefs, the fluids contained in
the mufcular fponge ; he coagulated the albuminous part
by the action of fire, and obtained the fait by evapora-
tion ; he diffolved and feparated the gelatinous mucilage,
the fait, and the extract, with water ; and by means of
alcohol, he took off the two latter of thefe principles un-
mixed with jelly. It is generally very difficult to fepa-
rate thefe different matters exactly ; becaufe they are all
foluble in water, and alcohol diffolves, at the fame time,
both the faponaceous extract, and a part of the fait.
The procefs which fucceeds belt, feems to be that which
confifts in, firff, waffling the fleffi in cold water, which
carries off the colouring matter, with a part of the fait ;
then digefting the refidue which remains after this waffl-
ing, in alcohol, which diffolves the extractive matter, and
a part of the fait ; and, laftly, boiling the fleffi in warer^
after treating it with thefe two proceffes. This fluid dif-
folves the gelatinous part by ebullition ; and likewife
carries oft fuch portions of the extract and the fait, as
have efcaped the action of the former folvents. A flow
evaporation of the firff water that was employed, in the
cold, coagulates the albuminous part, which may then
be feparated by filtration j and from this filtrated liquor,

the

Soft & White Parts of Animals, & their Mufcles, 257

If f

the faline matter may be obtained by another flow eva-
poration. By evaporating the alcohol in the fame way,

1 the coloured extractive matter is obtained : And laftly,
.1 deco&ion feparates the jelly and the fat oil, which then
j fwirn on the furface, and are fixed by cooling. After
the extraction of thefe feveral fubflances, nothing re-
mains but the fibrous tillue : it is white, infipid, and
: infoluble in water : as it burns, it fhrinks and contracts :■
it affords a good deal of ammoniac and very fcetid oil in
the retort, and a good deal of azotic gas by the acid of
nitre.' Laflly, it poflfefles all the properties of the fibrous
part of the blood. It appears, therefore, that the muf-
cular organ is the refervoir in which the vital functions
depofite the fibrous matter ; which becomes concrete by
reft, and appears to be the focus, or bafis of that property
of animals, which is denominated irritability by phyliolo-
gifts.

All that now remains to be done, in order that wo may
gain an accurate knowledge of the flefh of animals, is,
to examine the properties of each of the fubftances of
which it confifts.

The albuminous matter, jelly, and fat fubftance, are
already known to us. The firft is precifely of the fame
nature with the albuminous matter of the blood : we may
obferve, that it is this fubftance, which, being coagulated
by the heat of the water in which meat is boiled for
foup, produces the froth which is fo carefully Hummed
off. This froth is of a dirty, red-brown colour ; for the
original red colour of the albuminous matter is altered
by the boiling heat. Jelly, obtained from flefh, gene-
rally caufes foup prepared with the flefh of young ani-
mals, to form into a tremulous mafs *, for the flefh of
young animals contains much more of it than the flefh
of old animals : it is perfeCfly like that which compofes
Yol. III. R the

25 8 Soft d?* White Tarts of Animals, & their Mufcles.

the foft white parts of animals, the properties of which
have been explained in the preceding article. The fat
matter which forms the flat round drops that fwim on the
furface of foups or broths, and becomes folid by cooling,
exhibits all the chara&eriftic properties of greafe. We
have, therefore, nothing but the extractive matter, and
the fait that is obtained in analyfing the mufcles, to ex-
amine.

The fubftance which M. Thouvenel calls mucous ex-
tractive, is foluble in water, and in alcohol : it has a dif-
cernible tafte, whereas the jelly has none. When ftrongly
concentrated, its tafte becomes acrid and bitter : it has a
peculiar aromatic fmell, which is developed by fire. This
is the fubftance which colours foups, and gives them the
agreeable tafte and fmell by which they are diftinguiftied.
When they are too much evaporated, or when the pro-
portion of the meat to the water is large, foups have
then an high colour, and are more or lefs acrid in their
^afte. In fiiort, the aCIion of fire developes and improves
the tafte of this extractive matter, till it, at length, gives
it the tafte of fugar or caramel, as may be obferved of
the furface of the roa(ted meat, which is faid to be
crifped, When this extractive fubftance is evaporated to
a dry confiftency, and its properties (till farther examin-
ed, its tafte is obferved to be acrid, bitter, and faltilh :

when put on a burning coal in this ftate, it fwells, and
becomes liquid j exhaling, at the fame time, a pungent
acid fmell, like that of burnt fugar. If expofed to the
air, it attracts rnoifture from it, and a faline efilorefcence
is formed on its furface : in an hot atmofphere, it be-
comes four and putrid, if diluted in a certain quantity
of water : and laftly, it is foluble in alcohol. Thefe pro-
perties render this fubftance very nearly of the fame
■ • ' ' “ • • nature

Soft & White Parts of Animals, & their Mufcles. 25^

nature with the faponaceous extra&s, and the faceharine
matter of vegetables.

As to the fait which is cryftallized in the flow evapo-
ration of a decottion of flefli ; its nature is not yet per-
fectly known. M. Thouvenel obtained it in down, or in
iwperfeftly-fhaped cryftals. That chemift thinks this to
be a perfeCt neutral fait, confifting of potalh, and an acid
which in frugivorous quadrupeds has the charaCteriftics
of the phofphoric, and in carnivorous reptiles thole of
the muriatic acid. Although this fait may be confidered
as unknown till fuch time as a fufficient quantity of it
can be collected for a particular examination ; yet it is very
probably either phofphate of foda, or ammoniacal phof-
! phate ; and it may even be mixed with calcareous phofphate.
Thefe falts are proved to exift here, and even with the
fame excefs of acid as in urine, by the white precipitates
which lime and ammoniac form in foup, as well as by
the nitric folution of mercury producing from it a rofe-
coloured precipitate.

We may add farther, that the fubflance the mod
plentiful in mufcular flefli, and which peculiarly charac-
terifes it, is the fibrous part. This matter is depofited
from the blood, in which it exifts in a large proportion,
and aCls an important part in the funClions of the animal
ceconomy. Phyfiologifts have not been particular enough
in their accounts of its nature and properties, and of the
weight and quantity of the flefli qf the mufcles, in com-
parifon with that of the other organs. The properties
Which diflinguifli this animal matter, are, 1. Infoiubility
in water : 2. That of affording more azotic gas with the
nitric acid than any other fubflance : 3. That of affording
oxalic acid and malic acid, after the azotic gas : 4. That
of becoming eafily putrid when moiffened, and affording
1 good deal of ammoniacal carbonate by diffiljation.

, ft 2 Thefe

s6p Soft & White Tarts of Animals, & their Mufchs,

Thefe properties (hew, that it confifts of a fat or oily
fubftance, in combination with azote, of phofphate of
foda, and of calcareous phofphate, which are Separated
from it by the action of the nitric acid. I have cons-
idered the office of the fibrous matter in the animal oeco-
nomy, in a particular Memoir, inferted among the Me-
moirs of the Royal Society of Medicine.

gHA P.

noi v

Bones of Animals,

SSSEaa

CHAP. XIII.

• \ • i

|| • »;•»»• • ; *4

Of the Bones of Animals,

— .

...

^I^HE bones are the fupport of all the other parts. of
JL animals, — the bafis on which all the foft parts reft.
Thefe hard parts are not to be confidered as paffive in
the animal oeconomy : they are a&ually fecretory organs*
and feparate from the blood a peculiar faline matter, of
which their own fubftance is formed, and which is de-
figned to be accumulated in them as refervoirs.

The bones, confidered as they exiffc in ali animals*
from man to the infect and the worm, differ in texture*
in folidity, in pofition with refpeft to the mufcles, and
probably in the nature of their component principles.-
Chemical analyfis has not yet a-fc'ertained any thing con"
cerning this laft particular. But one cannot help think-
ing, that the bones of men and quadrupeds muff be of
a different nature from thofe of filhes and reptiles, and
ftill more different from the corneous Ikeleton of infeffs,
and from the calcareous covering of fhelbworms. The
particular light in which we are here to examine the
bones of animals, does not permit us to infill on thefe db-

K 3 jffinffions;)

2 6* Bones of Animals .

ftinftions ; and chemifts have not yet made any refearchesl
that can enable phyfiologifh to determine concerning
them.

The bones of men and quadrupeds, the only bones
that have yet been examined by chemifts, are not earthy
matters, as was once thought. They contain a certain
quantity of gelatinous matter difperfed through the fmall
cavities which intervene between the folid plates of
■tfhich their texture is compofed ; and thofe folid plates,
too, which, from their infolubility and Confiftency, were
taken for earthy matters, have been, within thefe few
years, difcovered to confift of a true neutral fait, the
component principles of which are phofphoric acid and
lime.

Bones, when expofed to fire, with concourfe of air,
kindle, in confequence of their containing a certain quan-
tity of medullary fat. When diftilled in a retort, they
afford an alkaline phlegm, a fcetid empyreumatic oil, and
a confiderable proportion of ammoniacal carbonate.
The coal which they leave is compaft, and fomewhat
difficult to incinerate. It leaves a white refidue, which,
when wafhed in cold water, affords a fmall quantity of
carbonate of foda. Hot water then feparates from it a
certain quantity of fulphate of lime. What remains after
thefe lixiviations, is not foluble in water : it is the calca-
reous phofphate which Dr Gahn of Stockholm difcover-
ed, in the year 1769, to exift in bones. Bones calcined
in the focus of a furnace, among coals, remain lu-
minous in the dark : when urged with a very violent
heat, they are half-vitrified, and thus reduced to a fort
of hard porcelain, very white, and femi-tranfparent.

The water in which bones grated down are boiled, is
charged with a fubffance which renders it vifeid, and is
at true gelatinous matter-

Alkaline

Bones of Animate.

263

Alkaline carbonates are capable of decompoling the
Calcareous phofphate which forms the bafis of bones.
This decompofuion is mentioned by the chemifts of the
A Academy of Dijon : they fay, that they effefted it on

i treating, by fufion, a mixture of powder of calcined

bones, and carbonate of potafh.

Acids aft upon bones, and decompofe the calcareous
phofphate contained in them. It was by this means that
Scheele, in the year 1771, prepared phofphorus from
bones. He diffolved the bones in nitric acid. The
acid feizing the lime contained in them, formed with it
calcareous nitrate, which remained in folution, while the

Iphofphoric acid was difengaged. Into this mixture he
poured fulphuric acid, which, by detaching the lime
from the calcareous -nitrate, formed fulphate of lime:

I this fulphate of lime being precipitated as infoluble, he fe-
parated it by filtrating the liquor. Laftly, he diftilled in a
retort the filtrated liquor, which was a mixture of nitric
acid and phofphoric acid ; and after evaporating it to
the confiftency of a fyrup, heated it with coal, in order
to obtain from it phofphorus. Meflrs Poulletier de
Salle and Macquer were the firft who repeated thefe
ingenious experiments at Paris. After that, the acade-
micians of Dijon, M. Rcuelle, M. Proud, and M. Nico-
las de Nancy, communicated their refearches and pre-
cedes, on the fame matters, to the public. Various
other chemifts have vied with thefe in examining the
different folid matters of animal bodies. Among others,
M. Berniard has obtained phofphoric acid from foil'll bones,
from whale-bones, from the bones of the elephant and
the porpoife, from thofe of the elk, from thofe of the
cow, from human bones, from the teeth of the feacow,
and from the grinders of the elephant ; and he has ob-
ferved, that all thefe bones afford the fame fubftances,

R 4 and

2& 4

Bones of Animals.

and contain phofphoric acid in various proportions.
The Marquis de Bullion has alfo obtained phofphoric
glafs from ivory, and from the bones of fifties.

The procefs moftly followed at prefent, in extrafling
phofphoric acid from bones, is that cf the chemifts of
Dijon, and M. Nicolas. The bones are burnt white,
reduced to powder, and pa fifed through a fieve : they are
then mixed, in a vefifel qf ftone-ware, with an equal quan-
tity of concentrated fulphuric acid, and as much water is
added as is fufticient to give the whole the confiftency of
clear foup : the mixture is now fuffered to reft for fome
hours, in the courfe of which it becomes thick ; it is
then poured on a filter of double cloth, and waflied:
with water till the fluid pafs through clear, and with-
out acquiring any tafte, or the property of precipitating
lime-water. It is then certain, that the refidue contains
no naked phofphoric acid : the water which has been
ufed in the waftiings is now evaporated; it depofites, by
degrees, a white matter, which is fulpliate of lime, and
rauft be feparated by the filter.

' This fait muft be carefully waflied, in order to carry
off all the phofphoric acid : thefe filtrations are to be re-
peated till the liquor ceafe to afford any fediment.
The evaporation muft be continued till it acquire the
confiftency of honey, or a foft extract. Its colour is
then brown, and its appearance greafy. It is next put
Into a crucible, and heated till it ceafe to exhale a ful-
pliureous and fomewhat aromatic frnell which at firft
arifes from it, — and till it ceafe to bubble. In this ftate,
the confiftency of this matter is half vitreous, and its
tafte acid : it attraffs moifture from the atmofphere. If
urged farther with heat, it melts into a tranfparent glafs,
'which is hard, infipid, and infoluble, and exhibits no
mark of acidity. To obtain phofphorus from it, there

h

Bones of Animals .

>}<

is no occafion for waiting till this refidue of the acid li-
quor, after evaporation, be brought into the hate of an
infoluble glafs. In that hate greater hrength of fire is
requillte j and even with that it yields phofphorus much
flower than when foft and deliquefcent. To reduce
this glafs into phofphorus, it mull firh be brayed to
powder ; then mixed with a quantity of dry charcoal,
equal to one third of its own weight ; next put into a
hone retort, with a balloon half full of water fitted to it,
which balloon muh be pierced with a fmall hole, or con-
'nefted by a fyphon with Woulfe’s apparatus. Fire is to
be gradually applied till the retort be firh reddened, and
then rendered white ; the phofphorus then runs in drops ;
and the operation lahs, altogether, from feven or eight,
to ten or twelve hours, according to the quantity of the
matter that is dihilled, and the degree of heat which
the furnace is able to bear. Six pounds of bones ul'ual-
ly afford twenty ounces, or fomewhat more, of a vitreous
refidue ; and that refidue affords about three ounces of
very fine phofphorus, and a few drachms of phofphorus
half decompofed. When the defign is to prepare phof-
phorus of the phofphoric acid of bones, the acid muff be
evaporated to the confiftency of an extraft, and diftilled
with coal. Phofphorus is much more readily obtained
by this procefs than by any other.

The cafe is the fame with the acid produft obtained
from bones by the afiion of the fulphuric acid, as with
the refidue of ammoniacal phofphate decompofed by fire.
That produtt is not pure phofphoric acid ; for it never
affords more than one fifth of its weight of phofphorus :
it feems to contain a certain quantity of phofphate of
foda. When this fait is mixed with calcareous phofphate
produced from a little fulphate of lime, it ufually
melts with that phofphate, and forms with it a very

hard

233 Bones of Animals,

I

hard opaque glafs, which refifts the action of all men-
hrua.

M. de Morveau has propdfed a method for obtaining
very pure ammoniacal phofphate from the phofphorid
acid of bones. In order to that, diffolve the bones,
after calcination, in Weak fulphuric acid ; afifay the fo-
lution with a folution of bones in the nitric acid, in or-
der to afcertain whether there hill remain in it any ful-
phuric acid in a naked hate : then precipitate, by cauhic
ammoniac, the calcareous phofphate which it contains, —
as has been done by M. Wiegleb,in his procefs : filtrate the
liquor ; and leave it to evaporate in the open air. You
thus obtain very beautiful cryhals of ammoniacal phof-
phate, mixed with a little phofphate of foda which fe-
parates by efflorefcence : the calcareous phofphate re-
maining on the filter may be likewife decompofed, in or-
der to form phofphorus from it.

CHAP.

Subjlances of ufe in Medicine and the Arts . 2 6j

CHAP. XIV.

) 1

t

Of various Suhjiances of Ufe in Medicine and the
Arts , which are obtained from Quadrupeds , the
Cetaceous Animals , Birds , Fifes,

WERE my defign to give a minute and accurate
hiftory of all the animal fubftances ufed in me-
dicine and the arts, I fhould have occafion to fay more
on this fingle head, than I have hitherto faid concerning
the whole animal kingdom ; efpecially when I fhould
come to mention the different animal matters that were
formerly introduced into medicine, by quackery or cre-
dulity, as famous fpecifics, and are now happily confider-
ed as entirely ufelefs. 1 intend only to mention the
principal of thofe fubftances, — fuch as chemical and
medical experience has determined to poffefs powerful
virtues, and fuch as are at prefent much ufed in the
arts.

Of the matters which quadrupeds afford, we (hall con-
ftder only caftoreum, mufk, and the hart’s-horn. The
'white of the whale, and ambergrife, are the only pro-
ducts

. • ■ ' • / ( t ,

268 Subflances of ufe in Medicine and the Arts,

du£ls of cetaceous animals which will be here treated of.
Of the produfls of birds, we (hall give an arialyfis of the
egg. Among oviparous quadrupeds and ferpents, the
tortoife, the frog, and the viper, will deferve to be fepa-
rately confidered. The only produft of fillies which we
(hall examine, is the ichthyocolla. Infefls will aiford
numerous fubje&s for examination : we fhall confider
cantliarides, ants, wood-lice, honey and wax, filk and the
filk-worm, gum lac, kermes, cochineal, and crabs Hones.
Laflly, we lhall clofe our examination of the produ&s of
the animal kingdom, with confidering the nature of the
coral and corallines, which belong to the clafs of worms
or polypi.

From this brief enumeration of the matters which we
mean here to confider, it will appear, that we mean to'
take no notice of a great many other animal matters
which were formerly ufed in medicine ; fuch as, among
others, ivory, the unicorn’s horn, the teeth of the hippo-
potamus, of the beaver, and of the boar, the bones of
the flag’s heart, the feet of the elk, bezoar, civet, and
the blood of the wild goat, among quadrupeds ; the
f wallow’s nefl, goofe greafe, peacock’s dung, and the
membrane of the flomach of poultry, among birds ; the
toad and the lcincus, among oviparous quadrupeds ; the
gall and Hones of the carp, the liver of the eel, the
Hones of the perch, and the jaws of the pike, among
fiflies ; the fcarabasus, the fpider’s web, the meloe or
profearabeeus, and the claws of the crab, among infers ;
laflly, fiielbworms, fnails, oyfier-fliells, nacres of pearls,
and bones of cuttle fifii, among the naked or covered
Worms. Of thefe fubHances, fome poffefs none but ima-
ginary virtues ; and the ufes of others are better fupplied
by the fubHances which we have feleHed for examina-
tion.

Si- of

Cajloreum*

'269.

§ I. Of Cajloreum.

nrHE name of Cajloreum is given to two bags fituated
in the inguinal region of the male or female
1 beaver, containing a ftrongly odorous matter, which,
when they are newly taken from the animal, is foft and
almoft fluid, but in the courfe of time becomes dry, and
acquires the confiftency of a refin. This matter has an
acrid, bitter, and naufeous tafte ; its fmell is ftrong,
aromatic, and even fcetid : it confifts of a coloured refin,
foluble by alcohol and aether ; a gelatinous, and partly
extraftive mucilage, which are taken up by water ; and
a fait, which cryflallizes when the aqueous folution is
evaporated, but of which the nature -is not yet known.
The refin of cafloreum, in which all its virtue confifts,
feems to be very nearly of the fame nature with that of
the bile. The whole of this animal produtt is included
in membranous cells which proceed from the interna!
tunic of the bag in which they are contained. Cafto-
reum has never been yet properly analyfed : we know
only that it affords a little volatile oil, and fome ammo-
niacal carbonate, by diftillation ; and that, by means of
tether, alcohol, and water, the feveral matters of which
it confifts may be feparated.

It is ufed in medicine as an antifpafmodic, in hyfteric
and hypocondriac cafes, and in the convulfions occafioned
by thofe affe&ions. It often produces the happieft ef-
feffs very fpeedily ; but at other times it irritates, inftead
of foothing ; its effects being either favourable or unfa-
vourable, according to the particular charaffer of the ner-
vous fyftem of the patient. It ought therefore to be
adminiftered only in fmall dofes, when it is firft given.
It has been alfo preferibed with fuccefs for the epilepfy
» and

2 7 3 Mujk. Hartfhorn .

and tetanus. It is ufually given in doles of from a few
grains to half a drachm j it enters into the compofition
of boles ; it is generally, and almoft always with good
cifeCts mixed with opium, and all calming or narcotic ex-
tracts It is likewife ufed in a fpiritous and an aethereal
tinCture, of which, from a few drops to four-and-twenty
pr fix- and- thirty grains are given in certain drinks.

§11. OfMuJk.

musk> a fubflance of which the flrong and permanent
fmell is generally known, is contained in a bag
iituated near the umbilical region of a ruminating qua-
druped fo like the antelope, that it fcarce deferves to be
ranked under a different genus. This matter, in its che*
mical properties, refembles cafloreum. It is a refin, com-
bined with a certain quantity of mucilage, bitter extraCt,
and fait. Factitious mufk is often fold inftead of the
real. Its virtues are fuperior to thofe of cafloreum : it
is more aCtive ; and is therefore never employed but
in cafes of extreme urgency. It is given as a potent
antifpafmodic, in convulfive diforders, in the hydropho-
bia, &c. It is likewife confidered as a viqlept aphrodi-
fiac. It fhould be very cautioufly ufed ; for it often
excites, inftead of allaying nervous affections.

§ III. Of Hartjhorn .

JJJARTSHORN is one of thofe animal fubftances
which are the moft ufed in medicine. It is a bony
fubflance, and does not in any refpeCt differ from bones.
It contains a cpnfiderable quantity of foft jelly, very light

$nd

Hartjhorn. 271

j and nourilhing, which is extracted by boiling it, after it
has been fird reduced into fmall pieces, in eight or ten
rimes its own weight of water. By diftillation in a
: retort, it affords a reddilh ammoniacal phlegm called
•volatile fpirit of hartfloorn , an oil more or lefs empy-
j reumatic, and a great quantity of ammoniacal carbonate
1 contaminated with a little oil. There is difengaged
1 from it a very large proportion of elaflic fluid, confiding
of a mixture of carbonic acid gas, azotic gas, and hy-
drogenous gas with carbonaceous matter and even vo-
late oil diflolved in it. The oil, however, is gradually
precipitated by cooling; it then adheres to the fldes of
the glafs veflels containing the elaflic fluid* As the vo-
latile fait is coloured, it mud be digeded in a little alco-
hol, to free it of the oil by which it is contaminated.
The carbonaceous refidue, when incinerated, is found to
contain a little carbonate, of foda, lome fulphate of lime,
and a confiderable quantity of calcareous phofphate
mixed with phofphate of foda — which, as has been men-
tioned in the article of bones, is to be decompofed with
fulphuric acid.

The fpirit and fait of hartflhorn are ufed in medicine,
as good antifpafmodics. The former, faturated with
fuccinic acid, forms the fuccinated liquor of hartfliorn.

Oil of hartfhorn, when re&ified by a gentle heat,
becomes very white, Afongly odorous, highly volatile,
and almofl as inflammable as aether. It is known by the
name of animal fait of Dipped a German chemifl, who
was the fird that prepared it. It ufed formerly to be
rectified a great many times, in order to render it very
white and fluid. But it has flnce been obferved, that
two or three diflillations are fufflcient, provided care be
taken, 1. To introduce the oil that is to be re&ified, into
the retort, through a long funnel, in order that the neck

C72

Harljhorrt.

of the veffel may be very clean ; for, a fingle drop of
coloured oil would be enough to colour the whole quan-
tity under difiillation : and, 2. To take only the fird
portions, which are the whited, and the mod volatile.
For thefe obfervations, we are indebted to MeiTrs Model
and Baume. — Rouelle has likewife given a very good
procefs for obtaining this oil ; it confids in diddling it
with water. As none but the mod volatile part, which
is truly asthereal, and entirely contained even in the oil
of the fird didillation, can be volatilized by the heat of
boiling water, we are fure of obtaining, by this mode of
operation, nothing but the mod fubtle and penetrating
part. This oil has a lively fmell, and is amazingly light
and volatile : it exhibits all the properties of vegetable
volatile oils \ and feems to differ from them only in con-
taining fome ammoniac ; for, it turns fyrup of violets
green, as has been cbferved by M. Parmentier. This
oil is ufed, in drops, in cafes in which the nerves are
affe&ed, in the epilepfy, &c.

§ IV. Of the White of the Whale.

rjPHE white of the whale, improperly called fperma ceti,
is an oily matter, concrete, crydalline, femi-tranfpa-
rent, and of a peculiar fmell, which is taken from the
cavity of the cachalot, and is purified by liquefaffion,
and by the feparation of another oil, fluid, and not fuf-
ceptible of concretion, which is mixed with it. This

JL v

fubdance difplays very Angular chemical properties, in
which it nearly refembles both fixed and volatile oils.

The white of the whale, when heated in'contaff with
air, kindles, and burns in an uniform manner, without
diffufing any difagreeable fmell, Excellent candles are

therefore

White of the Whale.

1 73

( • • •
therefore made of.it, in thofe places where it is prepared,

at Bayonne, at St Jean-de Luz, &c. In England, there

are many manufactories of thefe candles : within thefe

few years, fome fuch have been efhiblifhed at Baris.

When dtftilled by naked fire, it does not, according
to M. Thouvenel, yield any acid phlegm, like fixed oils,
but paffes entire, and almofi unaltered, into the receiver,
as foon as it begins to boil; leaving on the retort a car-
bonaceous mark. On repeating the operation, it lofes
its folid form, and remains fluid, without becoming more
volatile.

The white of the whale, when expofed to hot air,
becomes yellow and rancid, but not fo eafily as other
fixed concrete oils. Water in which it has been boiled,
affords, by evaporation, nothing but a light mucofo-
unCluous refidue.

Cauflic alkali diffolves the wdiite of the whale, and
forms with it a foap which, by degrees, becomes folid,
and at length friable.

The nitric and the muriatic acids are incapable of
afting on this fubfiance. The concentrated fulphuric
acid diffolves it, and, at the fame time, alters its colour :
this folution is precipitated by water, like oil of cam-
phor.

The white of the whale combines with fulphur, like
fixed oils.

Fixed and volatile oils diffolve the white of the whale,
with the help of heat. Hot alcohol lik,ewife diffolves it,
but fuffers it to precipitate by cooling. JEther effeftS
this folution cold, or, at lealt, without the help of a
greater heat than the natural warmth of the hand.

Perhaps, the white of the whale may bear the fame
relation to fixed oils which camphor bears to volatile oils.
Vol. III. S' ’ It

274 White of the Whale*

It differs effentially from wax, which feems to bear the
fame relation to the former, as refin to the latter.

Formerly, this fubffance was very much ufed in me-
dicine ; a great variety of medicinal properties were
afcribed to it. It was ufed, efpecially, in cafes of catarrh,
erofions, ulcers of the lungs and reins, &c. At prefent,
it is employed as a calming medicine; and, even for that
purpofe, in very fmall dozes, and mixed with mucilages;
for it is allowed to be heavy upon the ftomach, and to
occafion difguff, naufea, and even vomiting.

1 have found, in animal matters, efpecially in the
parenchyma of the liver, after drying it in the air for
fome years, and in the mufcles of animals altered by pu-
trefaction, a matter poffeffing nearly the fame properties
with the white of the whale. This fubffance, therefore,
appears to me to be very copious among animal matters,
and to be an oil peculiar to this department of nature.

§ V. Of Amb erg rife*

^MBERGRISE is a concrete matter, of a foft tenacious-
~ confiftency like wax, of a grey colour, marked with
yellow or black fpots, and of a ftrong, fweet fmell, when
it is heated or rubbed. It exifts in irregular maffes,
which are fometimes round, and confift of layers of dif-
ferent forts, and either greater or fmaller, according as
the number united in the mafs is greater or lefs. There
have been pieces of it leen, which weighed more than
two hundred pounds. This fubffance appears evidently
to have once been in a liquid ffate, as various extrane-
ous matters are found incorporated with it ; fuch as the
neb of the cuttle fhh, bones of fifties, and other marine
bodies. Ambergrife is found floating on the waters of the

ocean

Amber grife. £j$

ocean near the Molucca Wes, Madagafcar, Sumatra, and
On the coafts of Coromandel, Brazil, Africa, China, and'
japan. Some American fifhermen informed Dr Schwe-
diaur, an Englilh phyfician, that they had often feen this
matter among the excrements of that fpecies of the whale
which Linnaeus calls phy Jeter macrocephalus , in his fto-
mach, and in a bag fituated near that region. Naturalifts
take notice of a good many varieties of ambergrife,/
Wallerius reckons the fix that follow :

Varieties :

1. Grey ambergrife, with yellow fpots.

2. Grey ambergrife, with black fpots.

Thefe two varieties are the molt valuable'/
and the moft in requeft.

3. White ambergrife, of only one colour.

4. Yellow ambergrife, of no more but one cofotMV

5. Brown ambergrife, of a fingle colour.

6. Black ambergrife of a fingle colour.

It is to be obferved, that thefe varieties are owing" fa*
a mixture of fome extraneous fub fiances.

There is a great disagreement among philosophers-'
concerning the origin of ambergrife. By moft of them,
it has been confidered as a bitumen, — a fort of petroleum,
filming from the rocks, and condenfed by the action of
the fun and the water of the fea. Others have imagined
it to be made up of the excrements of birds nourilhed on’
odoriferous herbs. Others, again, have afcribed its origin
to the foam of the fea, the excrements of the crocodile. See,
Pommet and Lemery thought it a mixture of wax and
• honey, hardened by the a<ftion of the fun, and altered
by the fea-water. M. Formey, who has adopted this-

& * o^inioSy

• 276 Ambergrife,

opinion, fupports it by an experiment which confifts in
digefting wax and honey. He afferts, that a product may
thus be formed, of an agreeable fmell, nearly the fame
with that of ambergrife. — Some Englilh authors have
confidered ambergrife as an animal juice, depofited in
bags fituated near the root of the genital organ in the
male whale; and others have imagined, that it is formed
in the bladder of that cetaceous animal : But the rtebs
of cuttle-fifhes found in this concrete juice, are fuffi-
cient to confute thefe opinions. Laftly, Dr Schwediaur,
after examining a great many fpecimens of ambergrife,
and receiving accounts concerning it from different navi-
gators, has concluded this fubftance to be formed in the
alimentary canal of the phyfeter macrocephalus , — the fpe-
cies which affords the fperma ccti , or white of the whale.
He confiders ambergrife as an excrement of this cetaceous
animal, mixed with fome parts of its food, — i. Becaufe
fifhermen find it in this whale: 2. Becaufe it is common
in the latitudes which they inhabit: 3. Becaufe beaks
of the cuttle-fifh with eight feet ,fepia oclopoda, on which
that animal lives, are always found in it : 4. Laflly, Be-
caufe lie diftinguifhed the black fpots mixed through
ambergrife to be the feet of this polypous animal. His
refe'arches have raifed this opinion of the Japanefe, and
of Kempfer, to an high degree of probability; for which
reafon, we now rank this matter among the produfts of
the animal kingdom.

Yet this fubflance, which has been analyfed by Geof-
froy, Neuman, Grim, and Brown, afforded thofe chemirts
the fame principles with bitumens; that is to fay, an acid
fpirit, a concrete acid fait, fome oil, and a carbonaceous
refidue. But Dr Schwediaur obferves, with great pro-
priety, that the calculi of the animals afford the acid,
and that the exigence of that fait is in favour of his opi-
nion, for fats contain a great deal of it.

Amber-

277

Ambergrife.

Ambergrife is ftomachic, cordial, antifpafmodic. It is
ufed in dofes of feveral grains, in certain drinks, or mix-
ed with other fubftances, in pills. The odorous princi-
ple of this medicine is often too aftive, too penetrating,
and liable to do harm. It is well known, that many per-
fons cannot bear the fmell of it without feeling their nerves
very difagreeably affe&ed : it firould therefore be admi-
jiiftered very cautioufly. It has been alfo confidered
«as a powerful aphrodifiac. Some phyficians, however,
think that ambergrife may be prefcribed in very co-
pious dofes, without producing any very powerful ef-
fects.

Ambergrife is chiefly ufed as an article of 'perfume,
for the toilet: it is ufually mixed with mufk, the fmell
of which it weakens fo as to render it much more a-
greeable. Yet every perfon is not fond even of this
mixture.

As ambergrife is very dear, it is counterfeited and mixed
with different fubftances. When genuine, it difplays
the following properties: It is fcaly, infipid, and fweet-
fmelling; it melts without rifmg in bubbles or froth,
when expofed, in a filver-fpoon, to the flame of a taper ;
it fwims on water, and does not flick to hot iron. Am-
bergrife which does not exhibit thefe properties, is to be
confidered as impure.

§ VI. Of the Eggs of Birds .

%

gIR.DS? eggs, particularly hen-eggs, confift, t. Of a bo-
ny fhell, which has been fhewn by M. Berniard, to
contain a jelly, and calcareous phofphate ; 2. Of a mem-
branous pellicle, immediately under the fhell, which
appears to be a tiflue of fibrous matter ; 3. Of white ;

S 3 4* Of

#7® Eggs of Birds.

4. Of yellow, inclofed and fufpended in the middle of
-the white. On this lad fnbflance the germ is fup-
ported.

The white .of the egg is precifely of the fame nature
with the ferum of the blood : it is vifcid and adhefive :
it communicates a green colour to fyrup of violets ; and
.contains carbonate of foda., in a naked lfate. By a gen-
tle heat, it is .coagulated into an opaque, white rnafs,
which exhales the foetid frnell of fulphurated or hepatic
hydrogenous gas. This white, when coagulated and
dried on a water-bath, affords an infipid phlegm, which
putrefies, and acquires the drynefs and reddifli tranfpa-
rency of horn. By didillation in a retort, it affords am-
jnoniacal carbonate, and empyreumatic oil : its coal con-
tains foda, and a little calcareous phofphate. M. De-
yeux likewife obtained a little fulphur from it, by fub-
limation.

The white of the egg, when expofed to the air in
thin layers, rather becomes dry than putrid, and forms
a fort of tranfparent varnifh. It diffolves in water in
any proportion. Acids coagulate it : This coagulum,
when diluted in water and filtered, affords, by evapora-
tion of the filtered liquor, a neutral fait, confiding of
the acid which was employed to effeft the evaporation,
with foda. Alcohol likewife coagulates the white of the
egg. Lime-water precipitates calcareous phofphate
from it ; and nitrate of mercury produces phofphate of
piercury, which takes a rofe-colour by delineation.

Th,e yeljow, or yolk of the egg, confids modly of al-
buminous matter, mixed, however, with a certain quan-
tity of fweet oil ) fo that this mixture diffolves in wa-
ter, arid forms a fort of animal emulfion called hen’s
'fnilk. When expofed to the attion of fire, it is reduced
ito a jjiajs, not fo folid as {.hat which the fame agent

forms

■Eggs of Birds*

2*79

forms from the white. When dried, it becomes foft, in
confequence of the difengagement of its oil, which ex-
fudes from its furface. By lubmitting it to the prefs, in
this hate, that oil is obtained, and is found to be fweet and
far, and of a fmeli and talle, in a flight degree, empy-
reumatic. The yolk of the egg diftillcd, after the ex-
traction of this oil, affords the fame products as other
animal matters. Acids and alcohol coagulate it. The
eggs of animals, as containing fweet oil, bear a great
refemblance to the feeds of many vegetables 5 for thefe
likewife contain a fweet oil, united in the fame manner
with a mucilage, and reduced to an emulfive flate.

Eggs are very much ufed as an article of food. Their
different parts are ufed in pharmacy and medicine. The
Ihell is calcined, and employed as an abforbent. It is
applied externally, to cure burnings, chaps, &c. The
yolk of the egg renders oils foluble in water, and thus
forms lohochs : it is triturated with refms, camphor, &c.
The white of the egg is of confiderabie ufe in pharmacy
and confeCtionary, to clarify the juices of plants, wheys,
fyrups, and other fluids. It is alfo laid on paintings,
which it preferves by forming a tranfparent yarnilh on
their furface.

§ VII. Of Ichthyocolla .

JCHTiilOCOLLA, or fifh-glue, is a fubflance partly
gelatinous, partly lymphatic, which is prepared by
rolling up the membranes that form the air-bladder of
the fturgeon, and fome other fifhes, and leaving them
to dry in the air, after twifting them into the form of a
fhort cord, — in which we receive them. This matter af-
fords a Yifcous jelly, when boiled in water. When left

S 4 to

28(5 Ichthyocolla.

to macerate in that fluid, it may be unfolded and ex-
tended into a fort of membrane. It is never brittle, like
glues properly fo called ; but its fibrous and elaflic tex-
ture renders it always fufceptible of being twifled.
There is alfo a fpecies of it prepared from a deco&ion of
the (kin, the flomach, and the inteftines of fifties *, but
this fpecies is not equally valuable in the arts. All the
produfls of other animal fubftances are obtained
from ichthyocolla. It may be employed in medi-
cine, as an emollient, in diforders affecting the throat,
the inteftines, &c. ; but feveral vegetable fubftances,
poffeffing the fame virtues, are commonly preferred. It
is ufed in the arts, to clarify liquors, wine, cof-
fee, &c. It attra&s and precipitates all extraneous mat-
ters, altering their tranfparency.

§ VIII. Of the Tortoife , the Frog , and the Viper .

^HE tortoife, the frog, the lizard, and the viper, are
very much ufed in medicine : decocfions orfoups, to
which peculiar virtues have been afcribed, are pre-
pared of them. In faff, animals whofe component parts,
in general, are ftrong-fmelling, and are found to con-
tain a good deal of faline matter, by affording a confi-
derable quantity of ammoniac, when diftilled by a gen-
tle heat after being triturated with potafh ; — it would
appear, that fuch animals mull poffefs more nume-
rous and more powerful virtues than others. Many
phylicians, however, doubt of the -fingplarity of their
virtues, and clafs them with other animals. Notwith-
{landing this opinion, turtle and frog foups are ftill ad~
rniniftered in difeafes attended with languor, in confump-
tions without apparent caufe, and in recovery from acute
• ' * ' difeafes,— =

a8i

Tortctfe, Frog, and Viper.

difeafes,— and are often attended with good effects. In
appears, that deco&ions of thefe animal fubdances art?
peculiarly nourifhing, light, and pleafarit, and perhaps,
at the fame time, polfeffed of a peculiar activity, as their
Ifrong frnell and uncommon tade feem to indicate.
Within thefe few years, the ufe of green lizards has
been recommended in diforders affecting the flcin, and
cancers; but we may venture to doubt of their vir-
tues.

Vipers are thought peculiarly a#iye. The ancients
talked much of their virtues in diforders affecting the
fkin, in diforders of the bread, and in chronical diftem-
pers in which the lymph is vitiated. One cannot help
thinking, that viper foups mud occafion depuration by
the fkin, by virtue of their powerful aroma. The powder
and volatile fait of thefe animals is far from podeffing
the fame virtues. To produce their full effects, thefe
animals fhould be adminiltered altogether as articles
cf-food in the abore difeafes.

M. Thouvenel obtained from thefe animals, by chemi-
cal analyfis, a jelly more or lefs light, either confident or
viicid, — an acrid extra#, bitter and deliquefeent, — 3

concrefciblp albuminous matter,— -an ammoniacal fait,

and an oily fubdance, of a peculiar tadc and fmell, and
iometimes foluble in alcohol, &c.

§ Ilf. Of Cantharldes .

THARIDES, a medicine fo valuable for its cor-
rofive and epifpadic powers, confid, according to
Ihouvenel, 1. Of a parenchyma, the nature of
Vhich he has not determined, and which compofes one
hah of the weight of the dried infe# : 2. Of three

drachms

282

Cantharides.

drachms to the ounce of a reddifh-yellow extractive matter,
exceedingly bitter, which affords acid by diftillation : 3. Of
twelve grains to the ounce of a yellow, wax-like matter,
to which the golden yellow colour of cantharides is ow-
ing : 4. Of fixty grains of a green, oily, wax-like fub-
ftance, of an acrid tafle, in which the fmell of cantha.
rides chiefly refides. This fubftance affords, by diftilla-
tion, a very pungent acid, and a concrete, wax-like
oil. Water diffolves the extraft, the yellow oil, and even
a little of the green oil ; but aether does not act on the
latter, and may therefore be fuccefsfuily employed to fe-
parate the others. The virtue of cantharides is owing
to this .green wax. To extraff this, together with the
extractive matter, and by fuch means form a tinfture
charged with the fubftance of thefe infeCts, a mixture
confuting of equal parts of alcohol and water, muft be
employed. When this mixed tincture is diftilled, the
alcohol retains a faint fmell of cantharides ; and the feve-
ral matters contained in it are feparated, as the evapora-
tion takes place.

§ X. Of Ants and the Formic Acid.

'"jpHE acid of ants has been obferved by Tragus, Bau-
hin, and feveral other botanifts, who perceived the
flower of chicory to become very red in an ant-hill.
Samuel Fifher, Etmuller, and Hoffman, fucceflively ex-
amined it. Margraf examined it with great care, and
found that ants contain a peculiar acid, a fixed oil, and
an extraft. Meffrs Ardwiffon and Oerhne have made
the moft complete feries of experiments on this acid.

This acid is obtained, efpecially from the great red
ant, formica rufa} either by diftillation in a retort, or by

, iixiviatioy

Ants and the Formic Acid.

283

•fixiviation with boiling water. This acid, when re&ified,
Ij and a little concentrated, has a pungent fmell : it is
burning : its tafle is pleafant, when diluted with a large
proportion of water ; it has therefore been propofed as a
feafoning, inllead of vinegar. It fpeedily reddens all
J blue vegetable colours : it is decompofed by fire, which
ft converts one part of its principles into carbonic acid ; and
I by the fulphuric and the nitric acids, which alfo extricate
c from it the fame acid. It detaches oxigene from the
t: oxigenated muriatic acid : it is ftronger than the fulphuric,
the boracic, the carbonic, the acetous, or the nitrous
acid. It forms a fort of tether with alcohol. The neu-
tral falts which it forms with alkaline bafes, have been
examined by Meffrs ArdwiiTon and Oerhne. Formiate
of potaLh has been prepared by M. Tbouvenel, by
fpreading cloths, previoufly dipped in potafh, over ant-
hills which had been opened up : the ants running upon
the cloths, depofited upon them as much of their acid,
and of the odocate principle which they exhale in great
abundance, as was fufficient to faturate the fixed alkali.
A lixivium formed from thofe cloths, afforded, by eva-
poration, a neutral fait in flattened parallelograms, or
prifmatic columns, and not deliquefcent.

Lime forms, with this acid, a cryftallizable and foluble
fait. In a word, modern chemifts confider the formic as
a peculiar acid. Its affinities have been arranged in the
following order, by Meffrs Ardwiffon and Oerhne : ba-
rytes, potafh, foda, lime, magnefia, ammoniac, zink, man-
ganefe, iron, lead, tin, cobalt, copper, nickel, bifmuth,
filver, aluminous earth.

Alcohol digefted over ants, extracts from them a little
volatile oil, which, with that fluid, forms Hoffman’s fpirit
of magnanimity. By firft boiling thefe infects in water,
pid then fquceying them, a fixed oil is obtained in the
, proportion

*$4 ' Ants and. the Formic Acid,

proportion of thirteen drachms to the pound. This oil
is of a greenifh yellow colour ; it congeals fooner than
oil of olives, and is much like wax. The water of the
deco&ion affords, by evaporation, a reddifh brown ex-
tra<ft, of a foetid fmell, acidulous and cafeous, of a bitter
tafte, naufeous and acid. This extradl is feparable into
two fubflances, by the fucceffive application of water
and alcohol. The parenchyma of ants feparated from
thefe fubflances, amounts to two or three drachms in
the pound.

§ XL Of Wood-Lice.

^OOD-LICE, millepedes , afelli , porcelli , onifci , &c.

exhibited to M. Thouvenel, when he analyfed them, ,
fome properties peculiar to themfelves. When diftilled
without addition, in a water-bath, they afforded an infipid
alkaline phlegm, which fornetimes produced an effer-
vefcer.ce with acids, and turned fyrup of violets green.
They loft, in this operation, five eighths of their weight.
"When treated, afterwards, with water and alcohol, they
afforded two drachms of foluble matter in the ounce;
and of thefe, more than two thirds was extractive matter,
and the reft an oily or waxdike fubftance. Thefe two
products are eafily feparable by tether, which diffolves :

the latter, without affedling the former. Thefe matters

differ from thofe of canrharides and ants, in affording
ipore ammoniacal carbonate, and no acid, when diftilled.
M. Thouvenel obferves, on this fubjeft, that, among
infers, wood-lice feem to bear the fame relation to can-
tharides and ants, as oviparous quadrupeds and ferpents
bear to viviparous or real quadrupeds,

Asl

. *8— j

Wood - Lice.

201'

As to the neutral falts contained in thefe infers, their
quantity is exceedingly fmall, and it is no eafy matter to
extraft them. M. Thouvenel afferts, that wood-lice and
earth-worms, lumbrici , always afforded him calcareous
[muriate, and muriate of potafh ; whereas, in ants and
cantharides, thefe two bafes, of which the lad always
appeared to be the mod copious, were always combined
with an acid poffefling the fame properties as the phof-
phoric acid. It is to be obferved, that this chemid has
not explained, in his differtation, the methods by wdiich
he extracted thefe falts, or the proceffes by which he af-
certained their nature.

Only cantharides and wood-lice are made ufe of, in
medicine. Wood-lice appear to aft only as gentle dimu-
lants and diuretics ; and, according to M. Thouvenefs
experiments, fliould be given in dill dronger dozes than
are -commonly prefcribed of them. The juice expreffed
from forty or fifty living wood-lice, given in a mild drink,
or mixed with the juice of fome aperient plants, may be
given, with happy effefts, in the jaundice, ferous dif-
orders, a fercfa collavie, and coagulations of the milk, &c«
Cantharides is one of the mod potent of all medicines.
M. Thouvenel himfelf had experience of the effefts of
the green waxen matter in which the virtues of thefe in-
fefts feem to refide : nine grains of it laid on the ilcin,
railed a blider, full of ferous matter, in the fame manner
as powder of cantharides. But what is mod particularly
worthy of notice of all the fafts refpefting the virtues
of this powerful remedy, is, that the fpiritous tinfture of
cantharides may be applied, with the Ivappied fuccefs, ex-
ternally, in dozes of from two drachms to two ounces
and an half, in rheumatic and fciatic pains, and in the
wandering gout. It heats the fkin, quickens circulation,
and occafions evacuation by fweat, urine, and dool, ac-
cording

Wood -Ike.

cording as it is applied on this or that part. Young
phyficians are to be cautioned againd adminidering this
medicine too rafhly, internally : It has been known to
occafion fludiings on the fkin, fweating of blood, pains
in the loins and bladder, dyfenteries, Sic.

§ XII. Of Honey and Wax-.

’’jpHE honey and wax prepared by bees, appear to be-
long to the vegetable kingdom ; for thefe infects
collect the one of thefe fubdances from the neftaria of
flowers, the other from the antherae of their (lamina.
But they are elaborated in a particular manner : and be-
fides, as they are the work of bees, their properties
come mod naturally to be examined in the hiflory of
thefe infers.

Honey is a matter perfe&ly like the faccharine juices
which we have examined as belonging to -vegetables.
Its colour is white or yellowidi $ its confiflency fome-
times fyrupous, often (oft and granulated, and its take
faccharine and aromatic. By alcohol, and even by wa-
ter, with a little trouble, a real fugar may be obtained
from honey. It affords, in the retort, an acid phlegm,'
and an oil ; and its refidual coal is fpongy and porous,
like that of the mucilages of plants. The nitric acid
converts honey, as well as fugar, into oxalic acid. It
difloives very eafiiy in water : it forms a fyrup, and
paifes, like fugar, in the date of fpiritous fermentation.
It is a very agreeable article of food, and a foftening,
and (lightly aperient medicine. Diifolved in water, and
mixed with vinegar, under the name of oxymel ; — it is
frequently combined with fome acrid plants, as in oxy-
xnel of fquillsj and of colchicus. It is the vehicle in

many

Honey and Wax,

2S7

many medicines which bear its name, fuch as honey of
refes, honey of water-lily, mercurial honey, See.

Wax is a concrete, oily juice, refembling folid fixed
oils, fuch as butter of cacao, and ftill more like vegetable
£. Although there can be no doubt that this fub-
iltance is collefted from the (lamina of (lowers, yet it is
no lefs certain, that it undergoes fome particular ela-
boration in the body of the animal ; for Reaumur found
it impoflible to form flexible wax of the powder of
flowers. The wax which compofes the honey-combs of
bees is yellow, and of an infipid tafte. The aftion of the
dew and the atmofphere whitens it, when expofed to it
in thin plates : the oxigenated muriatic acid whitens it
very fpeedily. It becomes foft by a gentle heat, melts,
and forms a tranfparent oily fluid : by cooling, it be-
comes folid and opaque. When heated in contact with
air, it kindles as foon as it becomes volatile : and this is
the effeft of the wick in candles. When diftilled in a
retort, it affords febacic acid, and an oil which is at
firft fluid, but afterwards fixes in the receiver, and takes
the confiftency of butter. The quantity of the coal re-
maining is very trifling, and it is very difficult to inci-
nerate. The butter of wax, after being feveral times
reftified, becomes fluid and volatile.

White wax is not liable to be altered by the air : it
acquires a colour in the courfe of a certain time. It
diffolves in oils, giving them confiftency. When melt-
ed with thefe fluids by a gentle heat, it forms the medi-
cines called cerates. Alcohol does not aft upon wax.
Acids blacken it : alkalis combine with it ; and thus re-
duce it to a faponaceous (late.

Wax is ufed in many of the arts ; and in pharmacy,
in the preparation of pomatum, ointments, and plaflers.

§ XIII. Of

m Silk-Worms , the Bombic Acid, and Silk.

§ XIII. Of Silk-Worms , the Bombic Acid , and Silk.

’T'HE filk-worm, efpecially in a chryfalis Hate, contains
an acid liquor in a cell near the anus. M. Chauf-
fer, of the academy of Dijon, obtained this acid both
by fqueezing the juice of the chryfalis through a cloth;
and precipitating the mucilage with alcohol, and by jn.
fufing the chryfalis in alcohol. When the acid is fepa-
rated by alcohol, it carries it with it through the filter ;
and there remains on the paper an orange-coloured fat
oil, a gummy matter, and a little gluten. To obtain
the bombic acid in a date of purity, the alcohol mud be
diddled : on that occafion the alcohol is volatilized, and
the acid only remains in the retort. This acid is very
pungent, and of an amber yellow colour : its nature and
combinations are unknown.

Many other infers likewife contain acid. It has been,
remarked by M. Bonnet,- that the large caterpillar of
the willow emits a liquor of confiderable acidity. I have
often obferved the bupredes and daphylini to communi-
cate a red colour to the blue paper with which boxes
containing them were lined. M. Chauffer has likewife ob-
tained an acid from the grafshopper, the red bug, and
the lampyris, or glittering worm.

Silk appears to be only a fort of dried gummy matter!
It differs from vegetable fubdances, i. In affording am-
moniac by didillation : 2. In affording azotic gas with
nitric acid : 3. In affording a peculiar oil, which is fe-
parated from it W'hen the nitric converts it into oxalic
acid, as has been diown by M. Berthollet. It feems to
be a compound, confiding of a vegetable mucilage, With
a peculiar animal oil, which renders it pliant, duftile,
and eladic,

§ XIV. Of

V

Re/tn Lett.

2 89

S XIV. Of Refm Lac .

r-pHE name of gzwz lac has been improperly given to
a dark- red refinous fubftance, depofited on the
branches of trees by a fpecies of ant peculiar to the Eaft
Indies. This fubftance appeared to Geoffroy to be a
fort of nidus in which thofe ants depofited their eggs.
In faff, ftick lac, when broken, appears full of fmall,
regular cavities, or cells, containing fmall oblong bodies,
which GeoiTroy con fide red as embryon arits. He thought
the colour of the lac owing to this animal matter. The
lac he confidered as a real wax ; yet, its drynefs, the aro-
matic fir.ell which it exhales when burning, and its folu-
fcility in alcohol, render it more like refin than wax.
According to the fame writer, it affords a fort of butter
by 'diftillation. — In commerce, ftick lac, grain lac, and
{hell lack, are diftinguilhed from each other. It is to be
obferved, that many other colouring fubftances, parti-
cularly red animal or vegetable fcecula, when prepared
in a particular manner for dyeing, are called lac. In
the Levant, lac refin is ufed in dyeing cloth and Ikins.
It is the bafis of fealing-wax. A tinfture is formed
from it with fpirit of cochlearia. It enters into troches
of amber, dentifrice powders and opiates, odorous pa<«
ftills, &c.

§ XV. Of Kerims.

jf^ERMES, or chermes, coccus infeclorius , was formerly
confidered, by naturalifts, as a tubercle or excrefcence
from plants. More accurate obfervation has fince Ibewn it
Vol. Ill, T to

Ker rncs.

290

to be the female of an infeft, which Geoffroy ranks
among the hemiptera. This female infe£t fixes on the
leaves of the holm-oak : after being fecundated, it ex-
tends itfelf, dies, and, in a fhort time, lofes the infeft
form. It has the appearance of a brown cap, inclofing a
great many eggs. This cap was formerly ufed in dye-
ing ; cochineal now fupplies its place. Kermes exhibits
the fame chemical properties with cochineal. It enters
into the confeftio alkermes, &c.

§ XVI. Of Cochineal.

^ O CHINE AL, like kermes, was long confidered as a
vegetable grain. Father Plumier was among the
firft who difeovered this to be a miftake. In fa<ft, this
fubftance is the female of a hemipterous infecl, which
differs from the kermes in retaining its form after fixing
on plants. The cochineal ufed in dyeing grows on the
opuntia, or Indian fig-tree. It is collected in great quan-
tities in South America. Geoffroy, who analyfed it,
found it to contain the fame principles with kermes, and
obtained ammoniac from it. The form of the infeCt may
be diftinguilhed, after macerating it in water. — Cochi-
neal is ufed in making carmine, and in dyeing. It af-
fords either a crimfon or a fcarlet colour, according as
it is ufed. Being an extractive colouring matter, it can-
not be applied to fubftances intended to be dyed, without
a corrofive. It fixes eafily on wool, and communicates
to it a fcarlet dye, by means of a folution of tin in mu-
riatic acid, which decompofes the colouring extraCI, and
contributes greatly to the brilliancy of the tinge.
Macquer firft taught to communicate this beautiful co-
lour to filk. That celebrated chemift difeovered a method

of

Cochineal and Crab *s Stones,

2J?I-

bf fixing the dye on this fubdance, by impregnating the
filk with the folution of tin, before immerfimg it into the
cochineal bath, indead of mixing the folution with the
bath, as is done in dyeing wool.

§ XVII. Cf Cray s Stones .

rJ'TIE dony concretion, improperly called crabys eyes ,
lapides cancrorum , are found in pairs, in the interior
and lower part of the domach of thofe crudaceous in-
fers. They are round, convex on one fide, concave on
the other, and difpofed between the two membranes of
the ventricle of the animal. As they are found only at
the time when the crab changes its fkin and domach,
and are gradually deftroyed as the new covering of the
infeft gains confidency, it has been thought, with great
appearance of probability, that they contribute to the
reproduction of the calcareous fubdance which forms the
bafe of the fhell of the animal.

Thefe dones have no tade : they contain a fmall
quantity of gelatinous matter. They are prepared for
ufe, by wadiing them feveral times, and levigating them
with a little water, to reduce them to a foft pade; which
is wrought into little balls, and then dried. As the
water with which thefe dones are wafhed takes up the
gelatinous matter, what remains is nothing but an earthy
fubdance. When prepared in this manner, they pro-
duce a lively effervefcence with all acids, and are pre-
cifely of the fame nature with chalk. Their only virtue
is that of abforbing acid matters in the primary paflages.
That opinion which ranks this fubdance among aperient,
diuretic, and cordial medicines, is equally ill-founded
With many other fanciful opinions which have been
entertained concerning the virtues of animal fubdances.

t 2 S xvni.

Coral and Coralline*

£92

v '

5 XVIII. Of Coral.

pRECISELY of the fame nature is coral, — a fort of
calcareous ramification, either white, rofe- coloured,
or red, which forms the bafts of the habitation of the
fea polypi. It is prepared in the fame manner as crab’s
Rones. Like thofe lapideous fubRances, it i3 of a cal-
careous nature. It enters into the confeftio alkermes,
pulvis gutteti, and amber troches. Numberlefs virtues
have been aferibed to it ; but unlefs combined with
acids, it poffeffes no virtues, fave thofe of a mere ab-
forbent. Like crab’s Rones, it is often ufed, in a neu-
tral Rate, with vinegar, or lemon-juice, as an aperient,
a diuretic, &c.

§ XIX. Of the true Coralline .

*pHE coralline, called fea-mofs , is, as has been faid, a
peculiar habitation of polypi. In the retort, it af-
fords the fame principles as animal matters : its tafle is
faltifli, bitter, and difagreeable. It is ufed as a vermi-
fuge, with good effefts. To children, it is given in a
powder, in dozes of four and twenty grains, — and to adults,
in dozes of two drachms or more : an anthelmintc fyrup
is prepared with it : it enters into worm-powders. This
common coralline muR not be confounded with that which
is. at prefent called coralline of Cofica, lemitho , or helminto -
cor tort: - this lafl is a vegetable fubRance, a fort of fungus-
■which forms a jelly with hot water.

CHAP,

Refult of Analyfis of Animal Subjlances, &c. 393

CHAP. XV.

- -

Qcneral Refult of the Analyfis of Animal Subfances ;

iComparifon of Animal SubHances with Vegetable
Matters .

— ~~

IN the fourteen preceding chapters, we have given the
hidory of the prefent hate of chemical knowledge
with refpeft to animal fubdances. Thofe who have cul-
tivated chemidry during the lad twenty years, will eafily
didinguilh what the fcience has gained in this branch in the
courfe of that period, and what amazing progrefs it has
here made. Although many experiments dill remain to
be performed, and many difeoveries to be made, in order
to complete the hiflory of animal matters j yet our pre-
fent knowledge of them is much more condderable than
what was formerly pofleffed: the proper road is, at lead,
difeovered ; and we need no longer be afraid of wander-
ing in a wrong direction. It now appears plainly how
much the phyfics of animal nature may be improved by
fhemidry, and what important ferviccs medicine may
pxped from it, when the two fciences proceed hand in

T 3 “ hand.

2c>4

General Refult of the

hand. If, after wliat is contained in the foregoing
chapters, this affertion can be thought to need any addi-
tional proofs, thefe will be found in the following fhort
recapitulation.

The matters which are called immediate principles of
organic fubftances ; that is to fay, fuch matters as are
feparated from organized bodies, dire&ly, and without
alteration ; bear a flrong analogy to thofc which are ex-
tracted from vegetables. We find in animals, as well as
in vegetables, extracts, a faccharine principle, infipid mu-
cilages, acid and alkaline falts, fixed and volatile oils,
refins, glutinous matter, an aromatic principle, and co-
louring fubtlapces. But notwithftanding this analogy,
which was long ago obferved, there are fome remarkable
differences between thefe immediate principles of the
two kingdoms, the examination of which is of fufficient
importance to engage the attention of philofophers.

1. The extra# and the faccharine matter, are not
near fo copious in animal as in vegetable matters.

2. The mucilages of animal are fomewhat different
from thofe of vegetable bodies : they are fofter, eafier
dried, and capable of attracting moiflure from the atmo-
fphere ; they form into a jelly by cooling ; their tafte is
Wronger, too, and they become four, and putrefy much
fooner.

3. The fixed oils of the animal kingdom are alfo dif-
ferent from thofe of vegetables. They are found in
certain cells, in much larger quantities : they are always
more or lefs concrete, and often fufceptible of defeca-
tion and cryfiallization.

4. Volatile oils apd refins are in general much lefs
copious among animals than among vegetables. It would
appear, that nature has carefully removed from the fea-
sible and irritable organs of animals, thofe acrid fub-

flances

1 » • • * ■

Analyfis of Animal Subfiances. 295

4 ftances which would have continually flimulated the
fibres : even in vegetables, they are difpofed near the
x exterior tunics.

5. Albuminous matter, liable to concretion by hear,
though to be found among the juices of vegetables, is
Jefs copious in them than in animals, all whole parts ge-
nerally contain a confiderable quantity of it.

6. The fubflance of the fibres of animals, though
iomewhat fimilar to the gluten of flower, is however
more tenacious and elaftic ; and belides, its proportion is
fo confiderable, that were there no other difference be-
tween animals and vegetables, this alone might well en-
gage the attention, and employ the induftry of phyflo-
logifts. All the mufcles or organs of motion are com-
pofed of it ; and as animals difplay motive powers which
are not obferved in vegetables, the parts in which thofe
motive powers refide, muff be effen dally different from
the motionlefs bodies of plants.

7. But animal differ (till more from vegetable matters,
in the nature of the faline fubflances which they con-
tain. Befldes the falts and radical principles of faline
bodies in animal matters, of the fame nature with thofe
which vegetables contain, fuch as lime, foda, the muria-
tic, oxalic, malic, benzoic, febacic, and phofphoric acids ;
they afford alfo the laftic, facchola&ic, lithic, formic, and
bombic acids, whofe nature is not known, but which do
not appear to exift in vegetables. In animals, too, the
principles from which ammoniac acid is formed, exift
in greater abundance than in vegetables' ; and this is
what moft eminently diflinguifh.es animal Trom vegetable
matters. The principles requisite to the formation of
ammoniac and the pruflic acid, azote, hydrogene, arid
carbone, are even fo copious in animal fubflances, that
thefe compounds are very often ready formed, efpecially

T 4 ia

2$ 6 General Refult of the

in animals a.fhort time after death. I have found
Pruffian blue in putrid animal matters. I have even
feen the blood of a fick perfon, which was very much
altered, alfume a bright blue colour, on expofure to the
air. But it muft be acknowledged, that vegetables like-
wife contain the principles of thepruffic acid, though not in
fo great abundance. As to ammoniac, its being formed
much eafier, and much more frequently in animal matters
than in vegetables, fhows that the former contain its
principles in much greater abundance than the latter :
And in fa£f, M. Berthollet has proved, that rhofe mat-
ters afford a .much greater quantity of azotic gas than
the others, with the nitric acid. I have alfo proved,
that after the azotic gas is extracted from animal fuh-
flances, they np longer afford ammoniac. It is therefore
to this principle they owe their property of affording,
either by a natural or an artificial analyfis, a great
quantity of this alkaline fait.

If we enquire, then, what are the more fimple primary
principles of which tbofe immediate principles are com-
pofed ; it will be found, that the only component prin-
ciples of animal matters, as well as of vegetable fub-
ftances, are, hydrogene, carbone, azote, and oxigene,
Thefe bodies, which, as they have not yet been decom-
pofed, may be faid to be in fome meafure elementary,
appear to conftitute, by various combinations with one
another, oils, acids, mucilages, th.e fibrous part, &c.
Thefe more immediate principles, again, differ from each
other only in the number and the proportions in which
the primary fubftances are combined in them. But, as
animal matters, though confiding in general of the fame
principles with vegetable fubdances, are however really
different in their properties ; the difference muft bq
owing to their containing the primary principles in dif-
b’1' li-> *■* - . ... ferent

Anaiyfu of Animal Sub/lances, &c. 297

ferent proportions. The fuperior proportion in whicty
animal matters contain the principle of azote, accounts:
for a nreat many of thofe differences : it explains why
animal fubfiances afford a great deal of ammoniac by the
aftion of fire ; why they putrefy fo foon ; why they are
neceifary to the produdiion of acid of nitre, &c. — The
only thing which pow remains to be enquired into, is,
What change vegetable matters undergo, when they paf$
into animal bodies ? For it is certain, that none but ve-
getable matters are proper for the nourilhment of ani-
mals, or convertible into animal fubftance. It is firff to
be obferved, that many of the immediate principles of
vegetables pafs unaltered into the bodies of animals, hill
retaining their peculiar nature, — or at leaff fuffer but very
little alteration; fuch, particularly, are various fahs, fix-
ed oils, &c. But the different forts of mucilage, the
gluten, and colouring fubfiances, manifeftly undergo a
change of nature : the gummy matter becomes gelati-
nous, and the gluten is converted into the fibrous part ;
the bafe of azotic gas, or azote, becomes fixed in thofe "
fubfiances, and combines with them in a large propor-
tion : and the fixation of this principle feems to convert
vegetable into animal matter. This change, and the
formation of the different animal fubfiances, fhould
chiefly engage the attention of phyfiologifts : this, in
fliort, is the great problem with regard to animal nature
which remains to be folved. Analyfis has already fup-
plied fome valuable fadls towards this folution ; but
many more are flill wanting : and it is only by accurate
chemical proceffes, that we can hope to obtain a fuffi-
fient number for the accomplishment of fo definable a
purpofe,

i 1 * - v

CHAP.

-9^ Putrefaction of Animal Subfiances ,

CHAP. XVI.

Of the Putrefaction of Animal Su fiances.

VEGETABLE matters, though liable to be decompof-
ed, and even entirely dehroyed by putrid fermenta-
tion, are, however, far from being fo liable to that inteftine
emotion as animal matters. The putrefaction of thefe
laft matters is much more rapid than that of the others,
and exhibits very different phenomena. All the fluids,
and all the foft parts of animals, are alike fubjeft to it ;
but many vegetable matters feem to be entirely fecure
from it, — or, at lead, it takes place on them very {lowly,
and with very great difficulty.

The putrefa&ion of animals, which one cannot help
confidering, with Boerhaave, as a real fermentation, is
one of the moft important phenomena in nature, and,
at the fame time, very difficult to underftand. All the
refearches of philofophers, from the days of Lord Bacon
of Verulam, who faw its importance, to the prefent
time, have explained only a few circumftances, and examin-
ed only the general phenomena of putrefying matters.

Beecher,

Putrefaction of Animal Subfiances .

299

Beecher, Hales, Stahl, Pringle, Macbride, Gaber, Bau-
m6, the re fp enable Author of the Effays on Putrefaction,
•j and the Authors of the Dhfertations on Antifeptics, which
obtained prizes from the Academy of Dijon in the year
9 1767, have obferved the phsenomena which attend the
/ putrid alteration of fubftances, and deferibed them with
1 fufficient care. But, from the account which we are
k about to give of what is known concerning this matter,
f it will appear, that a great number of future experi-
3 ments are neceffary, to make us acquainted with all
the particulars of what paffes in this operation of na-
ture.

/

Every fluid, or foft extra# of an animal body, when
expofed to the temperature of fixty-five degrees, or
fomewhat more, undergoes, with more or lefs rapidity,
the following alterations : Its colour becomes pale, its con-
fiftency is relaxed : If a folid part, fuch as flefli, it becomes
foft, and exfudes a ferous matter, the colour of which is
very foon altered ; its (organization is deftroyed ; its
fmell becomes infipid and difagreeable ; by degrees, this
altered fubftance decreafes in bulk, and its fmell becomes
ammoniacal. After this, if it be preferved in a clofe vef-
fel, the putrefaction appears to proceed more (lowly ;
none but an alkaline, pungent fmell is felt from it : — the
matter eflervefees with acids, and turns the fyrup of vio-
lets green. But, when air is admitted, the urinous ex-
halation goes off, and a peculiar, infufferable putrid fmell
rifes from it with a degree of impetuolity : this fmell
continues for a long time, penetrates every where, and
feems to affect the bodies of animals, like a fermenting
fubftance capable of altering their fluids. This fmell is
corrected, and in fome meafure confined, by the ammo-
niac. After the volatilization of the ammoniac, the pu-
trefaction proceeds with new energy : the putrefying

mafs

Tut ref act ion of Animal SubJ?ances„

piafs fuddenly fwells, and appears filled with bubbles of
an eladic fluid ; but Toon flirinks a-new : its colour is ah
rered, and the fibrous texture of the flefli is now fcarce
didinguhliable : it is changed into a foft matter, of the
confiden-cy of a poultice, and either brown or grdeniffi ;
its finell is inlipid and naufeous, but aCts with great
energy on animal bodies. This odorous principle by de-
grees lofes its flrength : the fluid part of the flefli be-
comes, in fome meafure, confident : its colour becomes
deeper ; and it is at lad reduced to a friable matter,
half-dry, yet fomewhat deliquefcent ; which, by friction
with the finger, breaks into a coarfe powder, like earth, i
This is the lad date that has been obferved of the pu- u
irefa&ion of animal fubdances ; they take a confiderable
time to reach ihis point, which is, however, fometimes
longer, fometimes fhorter. Eighteen months, nay two it
or even three years are fcarce fufEcient for the compleat
dedruction of the whole texture of an animal body ex-
pofed to the air ; and the length of time which pafles
before the entire dedruCtion of carcafes buried in the
ground, has not been yet afcertained. Not to fpeak of
bodies which become dry in certain foils, and remain
without differing farther alteration, — many faCts prove, 3
that dead bodies buried in moid earth, are not jfedroy?
ed even in the fpace of 30 years.

From thefe particulars, it follows, %• That the cir?
cumdances neceflary to excite and carry on the putre-
faction of animal fubdances, are, tfle contaCt of air, heat,
moidure, and red or inactivity mafles of animal mat-
ter, in order to putrefy, mud be fubje# to all thefe cir-
cumdances : 2. That ammoniac is one of the products of
putrefaction, and is formed during the fermentation ; as it did
pot before exid ready-formed in thofe fubdances: 3. That
the putrefaction, accomplilhed by an internal motion pe-
culiar

Tutrefaiiion of Animal Sulflandes.

culiar to organized bodies, may be compared to the ac-
tion of fire, as has been remarked by M. Goddard ; and
confidered as a fpontaneous decompofition, as thinks M.
Baume ; differing from that a&ion only in taking place
more flowly: 4, That in this natural operation, the
proximate principles of animals read on each other with
the help of water and heat, which firfi: excite the emo-
tion ; and accordingly, the newly-formed volatile matters
are, by degrees, difiipated, in the order of their volati-
lity, till nothing is left at the end of the putrefaftion,
. but an infipid, and feemingly earthy refidue : 5. That
; the putrid exhalation, the character of which is fo well
diftingu iflied by the olfa&ory nerves, and which a&3
| with fiich energy on the animal eeconomy, is to be confider-
! ed as one of the principal produ&s of putrefaction, fince
it is peculiar to this operation, and not obferved in any
other natural phenomenon ; and fince, befides, it ap-
pears capable of exciting a putrefactive emotion in all
other animal fubftances expofed to its a&ion. As to the
nature of this fugitive odorous fubftance ; it is particu-
larly on this point that our refearches have made but
fmall progrefs, and fliould be farther profecuted. What
we know of it, proves it to be extremely volatile, fubtle,
and penetrating in its nature ; and that pure air, water
in a large proportion, and acid gafes are capable of mo-
derating its effeCls. Although it mult not be confound-
ed with carbonic acid gas, a great deal of which is difenga-
ged from putrefying bodies, and to the difengagement
of which alone Macbride afcribed the caufe of this natu-
ral phenomenon ; and although it muft not be confidered as
refembling either the hydrogenous gas which is difengagecf
from putrefying bodies, or the luminous matter which fpar-
kles on the furface of putrid animal fibres, and renders them
phofphoric ; yet it cannot be denied, that there fubfift be*

tween

£02 Putrefaction of Animal Subfiances.

tween it and thofe fubftances fome pretty ftrong relations,-
. as it invariably accompanies them, is equally fubtle and
volatile, and a6ts with the fame energy on the organs of
animals.

W e may obferve, with M. de Boiffieu, that there arc
four different degrees in the putrid fermentation of ani-
mal fubftances.

The firft, which that philofopher calls tendency to pu-
trefaction, confifts in a flight alteration, which appears to
take place by the diffufion of a fort of mufty fmell, and
the foftening of the fubftances.

The fecond degree, that of putrefaction commencing, is
fometimes indicated by marks of acidity. Matters in this de-
gree of putrefaction, lofe a part of their weight, become
foft, and give out ferous matter, if in clofe veffels ; but,
if expofed to the open air, they rather become dry and
dark-coloured.

in the third degree, that in which putrefaction has
made fome progrefs , the putrefcent matters exhale an am-
moniacal fmell, mixed with a putrid and naufeous fmell :
they are then diffolved, and their colour more and more
altered ; and they at the fame time fuffer a lofs of weight,
and decreafe in bulk.

Laftly, the fourth degree, that in which putrefaction
appears compleated , is diftinguifhed by the ammoniac’s
being now entirely diftipated, and no trace of it remain-
ing : the foetid fmell is now fainter, and the weight and
bulk of the putrefied fubftances are confiderably dimi-
nifhed: a. gelatinous mucous matter is feparated from
them ; they become gradually dry, and are at laft redu-
duced to a friable, earthy matter.

Such are the general phenomena obfervable in the
putrefaction of animal fubftances ; but they are far from
taking place uniformly in all inftances of the putrefaction

of -

Putrefaction of Animal Subjlances, 30^

of animal fubftances. In the firft place, there is a wide
I diftin&ion between the manner in which parts of the
nl living bodies of animals putrefy, and that in which this
!B change takes place on dead carcafes. In the for-
m mer, the vital functions modify the phenomena of
M* this alteration in a particular manner : phyficians have
i j frequently occafion to obferve the differences between
3 thefe two ftates of animal bodies, in refpeft to putrefac-
, tion. Befides, every different humour, every different
I folid part in an animal body putrefies in a peculiar man-
ner. The mufcular, membranous or parenchymatous
texture of the organs, — the oily, mucilaginous or lym-
phatic nature of the humours, — their confiltency, — their
; 3 ftate with refpeff to that of the animal to which they
ii; belong, — all influence the emotion of putrefa&ion, and
B modify it in a thoufand different ways, which it would
perhaps be impoflible to difcriminate. Laflly, the ftate
of the air, its temperature, its elafticity, its weight, its
drynefs or moiflure, the particular local fituation of the
putrefying fubflance, and the very form of the veffel in
which it is contained, are all likewife to be taken into
account ; for all thefe circumftances contribute to diver-
fify the phenomena of this fpontaneous decompofition of
bodies. It muff therefore be acknowledged, that we are
not yet acquainted with more than the outlines of the
hiftory of the putrefaffion of animal fubftances; and that,
to fill thefe up, a long feries of refearches and experiments
is requifite.

Thofe phaenomena of putrefaction which have been
obferved, fhew that it is owing originally to water : moil
probably, that fluid is decompofed ; and its oxigene com-
bining with the azote of the animal fubftances, thereby
produces the nitric acid which they are fo frequently
found to contain ; and its hydrogene, again, may unite

with

Tut refaction of Animal Zub fiancee

v/ith another part of the azote, which is very copious in
thofe matters, to form the ammoniac that is difengaged.
The oily principle is feparated, and remains Jongefl un-
altered. The calcareous pho'fphate, and phofphate of
foda, in union with a portion of pure carbonaceous
matter, and perhaps a little fat matter, feem to compofe
the apparently earthy refidue of putrefied animal matters.

We have, as yet, defcri'bed only the phenomena
which take place on animal matters, when they are de-
cora pofed by putrefaction in the open air. As the phe-
nomena of that decdmpofition in different media, tend to
illuflrate the revolutions which take place on our globe;
let us confider, for a little, what happens to thofe mat-
ters, when they putrefy in water, or under ground'.

The changes which take place in water are not quite
the fame with thofe above deferibed. Animal bodies
immerfed in that fluid, firfl fwell : elaftic fluids are next
difengaged from them : the water diffolves a great part
of their principles, decompofes another part, and dif-
perfes thofe conffituent principles over large maffes of
water: accordingly, many people have expofed their
dead earcafes in rivers, and trailed to the waters for
their deflruflion.

Different phenomena take place when animal bodies
are buried under ground. Obfervations, moft of which
were accidentally made, have fliewn, that they are more
rapidly or more {lowly deftroyed, according to the nature
of the foil. Bodies are fometimes found to be totally de-
ftroyed in a little time; and fometimes they are found in
a good flate of prefervation, even after lying a long time
under ground. It may be eafily conceived, that where
the earth is very porous and light, and the animal mat-
ter difpofed near the furface, air, and efpecially water,
will then obtain eafy accefs, and contribute to its decom-

pofnion,

I

¥ nt refaction of Animal Subfiances. 305

pofition. In oppofite circumflances, the decompofition
muft naturally be much flower. Dry earth, for inflance,
abforbs water from bodies, renders them dry, and con-
verts them into mummies. A fandy foil, in which bodies
are expofed to the impreffion of a fcorching fun, pro-
duces a fitiiilar effect, giving them a degree of hardnefs
which renders them fecure againfl deflru&ion for ages.
Argillaceous earth, again, retains water, and therefore
favours the putrefaffion of bodies. In cafes in which it
takes place, either fooner or later, the fluids and folids
are at laft reduced almofl entirely into azotic gas, carbo-
nic acid gas, hydrogenous gas, and ammoniac gas. All
thefe elaflic fluids, as they filtrate through the earth, are
in part flopped in their progrefs, and rendered fixed;
and accordingly render the mould black, fat, and foetid.
Thefe produ&s of putrefaftion faturate the mould in
fome meafure, till they are at length carried off by the
diffolving affion of water and air, evaporation by heat,
and abforption by vegetables. Thus, nature, by a flow
decompofition, reduces animal bodies, after they are de-
prived of life, into more fimple fubllances, fitted to enter
into new combinations.

This decompofition confidered, as it takes place, all,
over the globe, at once, on the earth, in the air, and in
water, gives rife to fome important changes in nature,
which philofophers fhould obferve and afcertain. When
we obferve the wide extent of the fea, and the immenfe
number of animals by which it is inhabited, it appears,
that vafl quantities of animals perifli in it, which, by
their fpontaneous decompofition, mufl give rife to a num-
ber of phenomena that have been, as yet, but too little
examined. What becomes of all thofe remains of animal
bodies ? What fucceffive revolutions do they undergo ?
Sea-water is known to contain muriate and fulphate of
Yol. III. U foda,

3.0(5 'Putrefaction of Animal Subjlancei .

foda, lime, and magnefia: No doubt, muriatic acid, mag-
nella, lime, and foda, are continually forming in this la-
boratory ; nay, perhaps, the formation of many of thefe
Jubilances may be carried on by marine animals, during
their lives ; but others of them can be owing only to the
decompofition. of the fame animals after death. It can-
not be denied, that the flrata of calcareous matters,
which compofe, as it were, the fhell or cruft of our
globe over a very confiderable part of its furface, have
been originally produced from the remains of marine ani-
mals, more or lefs broken by the action of the waters ;
that thofe flrata have been primarily depofited at the
bottom of the fea ; and that bitumen, and earth-coal
which is depofited in very thin and extenlive flrata, both
of which fubftances occupy a part of the globe, have
been originally produced in this manner. In the feas,
therefore, there is a decompofition of water conflantly
carried on : innumerable agents are ever feparating its
principles, and fuffering alterations themfelves. Immenfe
mafTes of chalk, from time to time depofited on the bot-
tom, abforb and fix, that is, convert into folid fubftance
a part of the liquid with which that capacious refervoir
is conflantly filled.

From thefe reflexions on the decompofition of animal
fubftances, in the earth, the air, and the waters, with
all the affemblage of faXs which chemiftry fupplies con-
cerning it ; it follows, that the exterior flrata of the
globe are now different from what they originally were :
that it is increafing in folidity and extent by the fuccef-
five and uninterupted accumulation of calcareous matter
from the deftruXion of animal bodies : that the foil of
the earth which we inhabit is modern and faXitious :
that minerals are not be confidered as forming a part of
this foil : that it has been produced from a flow decom-

pofition

1/

Tutrefafl'ion of Animal Sub/lances. 307

pofition of animal and vegetable bodies : that water is
conftantly diminifliing in quantity, and afluming a new
form : that one part of decompofed water forms one of
the bafes of animal and vegetable bodies : that another
part enters, in a folid form, into the calcareous flrata
of the globe : that the atmofphere mu ft have been influ-
enced and- modified by all thofe changes : that vegetables1
are continually influencing the ftate of atmofpheric air j
and that the light of the fun afts an important part irr
the production of all thefe mutual alterations. Although
it may appear impoflible to determine the length of
time in which the decomposition of water, vegetation;
fermentation, putrefaction, the formation of faline mat-
ters, bitumens, and calcareous fubftances, and their modi-
fications, have been fuccefiively carried on ; yet the mo-
dern difcoveries with which chemiftry and natural philo-
fophy have been enriched, fliew, that thofe phenomenal
have taken place at different periods ; that they conti-
nue to modify the prefent ftate of our planet : And that;
if matter be , as great philofophers affert, only one fub-
ftance, as to its mafs and intimate nature ; yet its form'-
is continually varying by new combinations, and gradu-
ally experiencing great revolutions ; of which modern1
chemiftry, — and modern chemiftry alone, can afcertain the
caufe, and may, one day, determine the ultimate efreCtsv

\

C ON T P

CONTINUATION

Of the Animal Kingdom,

Of the Methodical Clarification and the Natural Hifto «

ry of Animals 0

S the inferior animals on our globe are fo numerous,

it would be impoffible for mankind to diftinguifh
them from one another, or gain any confiderable know-
ledge of their nature and habits, if they did not exhibit
remarkable differences, which render it eafy to eftablilh
didinftions among them. Naturalifts have always been
fenfible of the utility of thofe differences ; and by divi-
ding animals according to them, either into more or
fewer claffes, have happily formed what are called me-
thods, Though it be certain that no fuch claffifications
exift in nature, and all the individuals which fire has pro-
duced

I

Methodical Clarification of Animals . 3 ey

duccd form one continued, uninterrupted feries ; yet
they muft be allowed to aflifl the memory, and to form
truly ufeful guides in rhe fludy of natural hiftory. Me-
thods are therefore to be confidered as inflruments fuited
to our weaknefs, which may be happily made ufe of in
tracing the wide, held over which the (lores of nature
are ftrewed. The divifions which Ariftotle eftablifhed,
were very general and fimple ; but his ingenious reflec-
tions on the internal and external organs of animals,
formed the bails on which mod of the firft naturalifls
who attempted methodical divifions — fuch as Aldrovan-
dus, Johnflon, Charleton, Ray, &c. eftablifhed them.
Thofe naturalifls have been fucceeded by a number of
others, by whom their methods have been improved,
and much added to the knowledge which they had col-
Iefted. Among the latter, thofe whofe works are mod
W'orthy of being ftudied, and from which what follows
here on this fubjeft is borrowed, are Meflrs Klein, Ar-
thedi, Briflon, Daubeijton, Geoffrey, &c.

After man, the organization of whofe body, and the
intelligence with which he is endowed, entitle him to be
ranked at the head of all the animals inhabiting our
globe, in a feparate clafs, — all the other animals may be
arranged in eight clafles : — Quadrupeds, Cetaceous Ani-
mals, Birds, Oviparous Quadrupeds, Serpents, Fifties,
Infects, and Worms, with which may be aflociated Po-
lypi.

Thefe clafles might perhaps be rendered much more
numerous. But, with the divifions, the difficulties of the
fludy would be increafed : and this is to be carefully
avoided, in an artificial method ; as fuch a method mull
owe all its value to fimplicity and perfpicuity. M. Dau-
benton, who has laboured much on the claflifcation cf
animals, has arranged them in the fame manner ; and,

U 3 under

gio Methodical Clarification of Animals ,

finder each clafs, has confidered the (tru&ure of the
principal parts of the animals contained in it ; (hewing,
.that from man to the worm, animals become gradually
more imperfect in their organization. ( [See Table I. at
l he end of this volume.)

In the hiftory of animals, there are two principal ob-
rje&s of attention : 1. Their external forms, and the me-
thods founded on thofe forms : 2. Their internal organs,
and the functions for the performance of which they are
deflined. Thefe two djftinft obje&s we (hall confider
in two feparate Se&ions.

SEC-

.

I

Quadrupeds,

$U

TT — ■’ ... *■ --

SECTION I.

A Sketch of the different Methods of the Natural
Hifory of Animals.

ARTICLE FIRST.

Of Quadrupeds. Zoolog y.

QUADRUPEDS are animals with four feet, whofe
bodies are generally covered with hair. They
refpire by lungs, like the human fpecies : they have alfo
a heart, with two ventricles: they are viviparous. Their
ftrufture, more than that of any other animals, refcmbles
the ftru&ure of the human body. Some of them, fuch
as the ape, and a few others, have even been ranked by
Linnasus in the fame clafs with man. That naturalill
gives this clafs of animals the name of mammalia , — com-
prehending, alfo, cetaceous animals, becaufe tnefe, too,
have brealts, and fuckle their young.

U4

Although

3 1 2 Quadruped f.

Although this clafs of animals may feem to be nearly
of the fame order with man ; yet, between the two,
there are tome ftriking differences, which we may here
enumerate : — The horizontal difpofition of their bodies,
the form of the extremities, the grofTnefs of the body,
the flifihefs of the fkin — which is either covered with
hair, or with a hard and corneous cruft ; the prolonga-
tion of the back bone into a tail ; the flat, horizontal
form of the anterior part of the cranium, the length
and breadth of the ears, the extreme length and oblique
difpofition of the bones' of the nofe and the upper-jaw :
— thefe are all properties in which this clafs of ani-
mals differs from the human fpecies. The difpofition of
the human body, again, is elevated and perpendicular ;
the bone of the radius is moveable at the elbow, the
fingers are feparate, the thumb placed oppofite to the
other four, and the fkin fmooth and thin. — This differ-
ence of druflure mud evidently improve the fenfibility
of human beings, and render them much fuperior to the
mod perfeft of the other animals.

Ancient naturalids, at the head of whom are Aridotle
and Pliny, did not think of didinguidiing quadrupeds any
other way but by the regions which they inhabited :
Accordingly, fuch is the inaccuracy of their defcriptions,
and fuch the uncertainty of thofe chara&eridics which
they have pointed out, that we are often at a lofs to dif-
cover what animals they allude to. Naturalids, fenfible
of the inconveniences attending this method, have fince
adopted a very different mode, in their defcriptions of
the objefts of natural hidory. From the exterior form
of the mod confpicuous parts of animals, they have affum-
ed characferidics eafily difcernible, and fufficient to eda-
blifh certain didin&ions. We fhall here give an account

Quadrupeds* 3x3

jof only three artificial methods of arranging quadru-
peds : thofe of Meflfrs Linnmus, Klein, and Briffon.

The Method of Linnaeus.

LINNiEUS divides animals with teats, mammalia , in-
to feven orders. The firb comprehends thofe which he
calls primates, the charatteribics of which are incifory
teeth in both jaws; in the upper-jaw, always four teeth;
two teats on the bread ; and the arms feparated by a

I collar-bone. In this order there are four genera ; name-
ly, man homo, the ape fimia , the maki lemur or profimia ,
and the bat vefpertilio. It mud be acknowledged, that
this method does not very well agree with nature; for
there is fo wide a difference between man and the bat?
that it is almod blocking to clafs them together.

The animals of the fecond order are denominated
brata. Their charafleridics are, the want of incifive
teeth, feet with drong hooves, and downefs of motioq
in walking. This order contains fix genera ; the ele-
phant elephas, the fea-cow trichechus , the doth bradypus,
the ant-eater myrmecophaga, the philodotus manis , and
the tatou, or dafypus. There is a wide difference be-
tween the two former genera, and the latter four.

In the third order, which the Swedidi naturalid deno-
minates fern, wild beads, he includes all animals with
paps, whofe incifory teeth are of a conical form, and ge-
nerally in the number of fix to both jaws, — the canine
teeth very long, and the molares not battened, — thqir
feet armed with claws, — and who, in their habits of life,
^re rapacious and devour their prey. In this order,

there

Limans’ s Method .

there are ten genera ; the fea-cdlf phoca , the dog cants f
the cat fells, the ferret viverra , the weafel muflella , the.
bear urfus , the didelphis, the mole talpa , the moufe
forex , and the hedgehog erinaceus.

The fourth order, intituled glires , the dormoufe, is
diftinguifhed by the following chara&eriftics. The ani-
mals belonging to it have two incifory teeth on each jaw,
but no canine teeth. On their feet, they have claws
which fit them for leaping. They gnaw the bark and
roots of trees, &c. This order comprehends fix genera;
the porcupine hijlria , the hare lepus, the beaver caflor ,
the rat mus , the fquirrel feiurus, and the American bat,
named by Linnaeus nodilio.

Under his fifth order, pecora , this naturalift compre-
hends all thofe quadrupeds which have incifory teeth on
the under-jaw, but none on the upper, which have their
hooves divided, and which chew the cud. The camel
camelus , the animal which affords mufk mofehus , the
flag cervus, the goat copra , the fheep ovis, and the
cow bos, are the fix genera of .which this order con-
fiffs.

Under the denomination of belluce , the fixth order,
he comprehends quadrupeds with obtufe, incifory teeth,
and hooves on their feet. The four genera of which
this order confifts, namely, the horfe equus, the river-
horfe hippopotamus , the hogykr, and the unicorn rhino-
ceros, are fufficiently dihinguilhed from one another,
by the number of their teeth, and the form of the
feet.

Laftly, the feventh order, comprehending cetaceous
animals, cete , is diffinguifhed from the other orders by
the form of the feet of thefe animals, which refemble
the feet of fwimming animals. As, however, we agree
in opinion with feveral modern naturalifts, who think

that

Liniuzus's Method.

3*5

that cetaceous animals ®rould be ranked in a particular
clafs, we fhall fpeak of them after quadrupeds.

The method of Linnaeus appears to be in many in-
ftances defective ; — not only in bringing man and the
bat, See. improperly together, and in dividing with equal
impropriety animals fo neatly refembling each other as
the rat and the moufe, Sec. ; but its divifions are far from
being fufficiently numerous; nor will they help the flu-
dent to diflinguifli any particular quadruped : And this
is what mufl conflitute the great merit of a fyflem of
arrangement ; — this is indeed the only advantage that
can be gained by it.

Klei n’s Method.

KLEIN divides quadrupeds into two great orders;
the firfl, comprehending quadrupeds with hooves, pedes
ungulati five cheliferi ; the fecond fuc’n as have their feet
digitated, pedes digitati.

The firfl order is divided into five families, which are
diflinguifhed from each other according to the divifion
of their hooves. The firfl family, called monochela , (in
French folipede) fingle-hoofed, comprehends the genus of
the horfe. — The fecond, the individuals of which are
diflinguifhed by the name of dichela , confifts of thofe
quadrupeds whofe hooves are parted into two, or bilin-
ear bifulci. Some of thefe, fuch as the bull, the ram,
the buck, the flag, the giraffe, See. have horns. Others
again, fuch as the boar, the hog, the babyrouffa, are with-
out horns. — The third family contains the trichela , or ani-
mals

Klein* s Method .

p6

mals which have the hoof parted into three ; of which
ther'* are none but the rhinoceros . — In the fourth family,
whole peculiar chara&eriftic is, to have the hoof parted
into four, tetrachela , there is only the hippopotamus,
■ — The elephant, the only animal whole foot is parted
into five divifions, conllitutes the fifth family, penta -
chela .

The fecond order of quadrupeds, containing thofe
which are digitated, is likewife divided into five families.
The firft confiding of animals with two toes on the foot,
didaclyla , comprehends the camel, and the Doth of Cey-
lon.— The fecond family, animals with three toes on the
foot, tridadyla , confills of the doth and the ant-eater. —
In the third, Klein comprehends, under the name of
tetradadyla, animals with four toes, tatous or amadil-
loes, and the cavia, which feems to be a fort of rabbit.—
The fourth family, chara&erifed by having five toes,
pentadadyla , is more numerous than any of the former
families : it contains the rabbit, the fquirrel, the dor-
mo'ufe, the rat and the moufe, the didelphis, the mole,
the bat, the weafel, the porcupine, the dog, the wolf,
the fox, the coati , the cat, the tiger, the lion, the bear,
and the ape : — a very confiderable number of fpecies are
comprifed under thefe different genera. It is to be ob-
ferved, that in all thefe charafteri flics, taken from the
form of the feet, Klein, in diflinguilhing the families,
confiders only the fore-part of the foot. — Lallly,. the
fifth family of digitated animals conlills of animals whofe
feet are irregular in refpeft to the number and divifion
of their toes, anomalopoda ; fuch as the otter, the bea-
ver, the fea-cow, and the phocas or fea-caif.

The fame objection may be made to Klein, as to Lin-
noeus. The families are, indeed, fufiiciently diltinguilh-
ed from one another ; but the genera, efpecially thofe

of

Klein’s Method. $1?

of the fourth family of cogitated animals, cannot be well
difcriminated in his fydem.

Method o/’M. Brisson.

M. BRiSSON has avoided mod of the defers of
other fy Items, by combining together all the chara&e-
ridics which had been aflumed by preceding naturalifts :
—The number of the teeth, the want of teeth, the form
of the extremities, the Ihape of the tail, and the nature
of the appendices — fuch as horns, fcales, and prickles.
His fyltem cannot be denied to be the mod compleat,
and the bed contrived to help us to didinguidi any qua-
druped, and refer it to the genus to which it belongs.
His divifions are here exhibited in a table : it contains
the generic chara&eridics of animals ; and is very fimple
and eafy. — See Table II. at the end of this volume .

ARTICLE .11.

Of Cetaceous Animals.

^jETACEOLJS animals, are great animals inhabiting
the feas, which are enabled, by the drufture of
their lungs and blood -veflels, to live under water, — as

we

I

3 1 3 Cetaceous Animals.

we (hall explain more particularly in the hiftory of re-
fpiration. Being viviparous, they refemble quadrupeds
in the ftru&ure of their breafts, and of their internal or-
gans in general ; but the form of their extremities is dif-
ferent,— as thefe fpread into fins : And they have, be-
fiaes, two apertures in the upper part of the head,
through which they fpout water to a confiderable height.
Thefe holes are called by naturalifts fpiracula. M. Dau-
benton tranflates this word ( events ) vents. Thefe ani-
mals are far from being equally numerous with quadru-
peds. M. Briffon diftinguilh.es them, i. into Cetaceous
animals ' wanting teeth, fuch as the whale baUna ;
i. Cetaceous animals which have teeth only in the upper-
jaw, fuch as the cachalot, monodon vel inonoceros ; 3. Ce-
taceous animals with teeth only in the under-jaw, fuch’
as the narval or unicorn of the fea, phyfeter ; 4. Laftly,
Cetaceous animals having teeth in both jaws, fuch as the
dolphin, delphinus.

ARTICLE III.

Of Birds. Ornithology.

TMRDS are animals with two feet, which move through
the air by means of wings, are covered with feathers,
and have bills of a corneous fubllance. Many facts con-
cerning the forms of the bills, the ftrufture of the fea-
thers,-

Birds. 3f?

t

thers, the motions and the habits of chefs animals, are
highly worthy of attention. The mod important of- thofe
faSs will be given in an abridgement of phyfiology,
which is to follow in this volume. At prefent, we are
only concerned to give the external chara&eriftics by
which the animals are diftinguilhed, and fyftematically
arranged. The firft philofophers who treated of this
part of natural hiltory, eltablilhed no dilfin&ions among
birds, but fuch as depended on their inhabiting in diffe-
rent Situations. They dillinguilhed them into birds of
the woods, birds of the plains, birds of the thickets,
fea fowls, river-fowls, and birds frequenting lakes, &rc.
Others have diftinguilhed them by the fpecies of food
on which they live, — into birds of prey, granivorom
birds, See. See.

But the moderns who have formed fyftems of natural
hi dory, have taken a very different way of eftablilhing
chara&eriltic differences among them. Linnteus has
divided them, by the form of the bill, into fix orders,
in the fame manner as quadrupeds, with which he com-
pares them. But thofe divifions do not appear to be fuf-
ficiently numerous; efpecially as the number of' the fpe-
cies of birds is much more confiderable than that of qua-
drupeds. Buffon makes the quadrupeds which are
known, amount to two hundred different fpecies ; but
the fpecies of birds to fifteen hundred or two thou-

fand. We fhall here fpeak only of Klein’s and

M. Briffon’s fydematical arrangements of birds.

Klein divides birds into eight families, according to
the form of their feet. The firfl, under the name of
didaclylce , confills of fuch as have two toes on the foot :
— the only bird belonging to this divifion is the
ofirich. — The fecond confills of tridadyla , fuch as the
cafuary, the buftard, the lapwing, the plover, — The

third,

^2(5 birds*

third, the tetradaSlylee, have two toes before, and two
behind, fuch as the parrot, the woodpecker, the cuckoo, and
the king’s-fifher. — The fourth comprehends the tetra-
daclylcz which have three toes before, and one behind. .
This family is more iiumefous than any of the reft : it
comprehends both diurnal and nocturnal birds of prey,
ravens, magpies, ftarlings, thruflies and blackbirds, larks,
red-breafts, fwallows, tom- tits, woodcocks, bulfinches,
rails, crofsbills, gallinaceous fowls, herons, &c. — -The I
fifth family contains tetradadyla having their three
fore-toes conne&ed by a membrane, but the toe behind
feparate. Thefe birds are called palmipedes. This fa-
mily confifts of geefe, ducks, fea-mews, and divers.-— -
The fixth comprehends thofe tetradadtyhz which have
all the four toes connected by a membrane. They are
called in Latin planet. The pelican, the cormorant, the
fool, and the anhinga, are ranked by Klein in this fami-t
ly. — The feventh confifts of thofe who have only three i
toes, and thofe conne&ed by a membrane : they are de-
nominated tridadyU palmipedes. The guillemot, the
penguin, and the albatrofs, belong to this family. — Laft-
ly, the eighth confifts of tetradadylce having on their
toes fringed or fcolloped membranes. They" are called
alfo dactyloba. This laft family confifts of the colimba

and the coot. Klein’s method, though it defeends to

more particulars than that of Linnaeus, is ftill attended
with numerous difficulties as to the diftin<ftions of the i
genera; efpecially thofe of the fourth family. We there-
fore think M. Briffon’s preferable. The laft, indeed j
as the author has made ufe of the different chara&eriftics
in the fame manner as in his claffification of quadrupeds,
appears at firft fight to be very complicated ; but when
reduced to a table, as we have done with it, it exhibits,
at one glance, all the divifions of which it confifts ; and

any ;

321

I ' Birds.

t

Iatiy particular bird may be eafily diftinguilhed, by tra-
cincr thofe divifions. See Table III. at the end of this

■

—

ARTICLE IV.

Of Oviparous Quadrupeds.

J ^INNiEUS, in his fyllem, arranged together, oviparous
quadrupeds, ferpents, and cartilaginous Mies, under the
name of amphibia . But, M. Daubenton is of opinion,
that the word amphibia cannot be properly applied to
any clafs of animals : for it mull mean animals which live
either in air or in water, as long as they pleafe ; and
there is no clafs poffeffed of this property : Were the
denomination, again, to be applied to all terreftrial ani-
mals capable of living for any fpace of time, however
fliort, under water, — and all aquatic animals capable of
living in the air, — all animals would then be amphibious.
In the fame clafs, but in two diftinff orders, Linnaeus
ranks both oviparous quadrupeds, and ferpents ; and
thofe amphibious animals which pradlife fwimming, he
ranks among Mies.

In M. Daubenton’s fyftem, oviparous quadrupeds
compofe the fourth order of animals. Their organiza-
Yol. III. X tion

3-2 Oviparous Quadrupeds.

tion is by no means imperfetd : for they, like the quadru-
peds, cetaceous animals, and birds ranked before them,
have a head, nodrils, and ears fituated within the
bead. But, the following characterises didinguifh this
clafs from the three preceding orders: i. They have
only one ventricle in the heart ; 2. Their blood is almoll
cold ; 3. They refpire only after long intervals ; 4. They
are oviparous, and confequently without teats. — The
lad of thefe chara&eridics is common to them with the
four following orders of animals. Ladly, no other ani-
mals but they, have four feet, without hair.

M. Daubenton obferves, that the differences among
the various genera belonging to this order are fo confi-
derable, as to render it impodible to communicate any
general notions common to them all. Of this he treats
in the hidory of each particular genus, under the words,
tortoifes, lizards, toads, frogs, in the fecond volume of
the Natural Hidory of Animals, which forms a part of
the Encyclopedic Methodique.

The dadification and the chara&eridics which that
celebrated naturalid has given of the order of oviparous
quadrupeds, is one of the mod compleat and the bed exe-
cuted parrs of the natural hidory of animals : And I have,
therefore, formed into a table, all M. Daubenton’s divi-
lions, from claffes to fpecies, as the number of the fpe-
cies is not above 100. — (See Table IV .) Since the pub-
lication of M. Daubenton’s work, the Count de la Cepede
has publidred a very compleat and accurate work on ovipa-
rous quadrupeds, in which he exhibits a peculiar method
of arrangement. This method is laid down in the
fifth table, which is extracted from M. de la Cepede’s
work.

J

A R T I-

Serpents,

323

ARTICLE V.

Of Serpents.

gERPENTS form the fifth order in M. Daubenton’s
divifion of animals. Thefe are fufficiently diftin-
guifhed, by having their bodies covered with fcales, and
being without feet or fins. They have a head, noflrils,
ears within the head, only one ventricle in the heart,
and their blood is almoft cold ; they refpire only after
long intervals, and produce eggs, like oviparous quadru-
peds. Serpents have neither neck nor fhoulders. The
fcales with which they are covered, are of three forts :
They are either rhomboidal, and riling over each other
like tiles, — to which form and difpofition, Linnaeus gives
the name of fquamma ; or elfe of an oblong fquare form,
and difpofed one befide another, — and thefe Linnceus
calls fcuta or plates ; — when very fmall, and hill of this
form, they are denominated fcutella or fmall plates : Or,
Mly, they form rings, round the body of the ferpent, —
as in the amphifbaena.

Though ferpents be without feet, yet they often move
nimbly enough, by fixing the fore part of the body, raif-
ing the middle, and then bringing forward the hinder
part j when they reft on the tail, and fpring to a diftance

X 2 to

324 Serpents.

to attack their prey. They change their fkin once or
twice a year.

Some ferpents are venomous. Of 1 3 1 fpecies of
which Linnaeus takes notice, 23 are by that naturalid
reckoned dangerous. All of thefe animals whofe bite is
dangerous, have, on each fide of the upper-jaw, a tooth
confiderably larger than their other teeth ; at the root
of which is a cell filled with a peculiar fluid, which they
pour into the wound through a pipe in the tooth.

It cannot now be confidered as a matter of doubt, af-
ter the teflimony of fo many refpeCtable authorities-,
that there are fpecies of ferpents of a very extraordinary
fize. M. Adanfon, from a number of very accurate
fa£ts, fixes the fize of the larged ferpents, at forty or
fifty feet in length, and a foot and an half in thick-
nefs.

Of all natural ids, M. Laurenti has entered the mod
minutely into the elaflification of ferpents. He diftri-
butes them into 17 genera. But M. Daubenton rejects
the fyftem of that naturaliff, becaufe it is fo exceedingly
difficult to recognize the didinCtive characters; adopting,
in preference to it, that of Linnaeus. — The fixth table,
at the end of this volume, contains the divifions and cha-
raCteridics of ferpents, from genera, to no fewer than
one hundred and twenty-feven fpecies which have been
enumerated by M. Daubenton.

A R T I-

ARTICLE VL

Of Fijbes. Ichthyology.
are a very different fort of animals from thofe

which we have hitherto been confidering : the ftruc-

will be fhewn in our abftraft of phyfiology. They dif-
fer from other animals, in having, inftead of feet, fins
which enable them to move in water, — and in refpiring
water inflead of air. It is much more difficult to gain a
a knowledge of fifties, than of other animals ; and
accordingly, the natural hiftory of fifties is very im-
perfect.

In order to underhand the methodical divifion of thefe
animals, which we are about to propofe from Artedi,
Linnaeus, and M. Gouan, it will be neceffary for the
reader to take a hafty view of the anatomy of the exte-
rior parts of their bodies. The bodies of fifties may be
divided into three parts : the head, the trunk of the bo,-
dy, and the fins.

The heads of thefe animals are of various forms :
— Either horizontally or laterally flattened, or round ;
either naked or fcaly ; fmooth, or overfpread with afpe-
rities, tubercles, &c. — The lips bayc been obferved to

ture of their internal organs is altogether peculiar, as

be

326

Fijbes -

be either flefliy or bony, with appendices or barbels,
foft, and very eafily moveable : the teeth are fixed, ei-
ther to the j<tws, the palate, the tongue, or the gullet :
their eyes are two in number, motionlefs, and without
eyelids : the channels of their nofirils are double on both
fides : they have an opening at the gills or bronchiae ;
they are provided with bones, either round, triangular,
or fquare, to (hut this opening : the bronchial membrane
is placed under thefe, and fupported by feveral other
bones, in the form of a bow, the number of which va-
ries from two to ten. This membrane folds back on the
bones above it ; and it is an object of importance to exa-
mine the varieties of its ftru&ure, — as the charatteriftics
of genera are often taken from the number or form of
the radii.

The form of the trunk varies, as well as that of the
head. It is either round, or globular, or oblong, or flat, or
angular. In it are to be obferved the lateral lines, which
feern to divide each fide of the body into two parts : — -
The thorax, fituated immediately below the gills, at the
upper extremity of the trunk, and filled with the heart
and the pulmonary veffels : — the belly, the fides of which
extend from the head to the tail, and which contains the
ftomach, the liver, the air-bladder, and the genital organs :
-—the orifice of the anus, common to the inteftines, the blad-
der, and the organs of generation : — and laftly, the tail,
which terminates the trunk, and of which the form and
fize are various.

The fins, pinnae natatoriae, confifl of membranes, fup-
ported on (mail radii, of which, fome are hard and bony,
and terminate in a thorny point, — which has procured
to the fifhes to which it belongs, the name of acanthop-
terygii from Artedi ; others are flexible, foft, obtufe,
and leetnmgly cartilaginous, — and chara&erife the fifhes

tw ►

to

327

Fijhes*

to which they belong, as malacopterygii . The fins are

diftinguilhed into five forts, according to their iitua-
tions ; dorfal, pe&oral, abdominal, on the anus, and on
the tail.

The dorfal fin maintains the filli in equilibrium.
It is diverfified by fituation, figure, number, propor-
tion, See.

The fins of the thorax are fituated at the opening of
the gills : they are two in number : they ferve the pur-
pofe of arms, and fometimes even of wings : they differ
in fituation, extent, figure, & c.

The fins of the belly are more particularly worthy of
notice ; for, from their fituation has the celebrated Lin-
naeus taken his diilin&ive chara&eriflics in claffmg fillies.
Thefe fins are fituated on the lower part of the body,
immediately above the anus, and always lower and near-
er each other than the pefforal fins. They are fome-
times wanting ; and as Linnaeus compares them to feet,
he calls fuch fillies as want thefe fins apodes. Molt
fillies, however, are poffeffed of them ; but they are not
always inferred at the fame place. When they are fi-
tuated either before or immediately under the opening
of the gills and the pe&oral fins, both they and the
filhes to which they belong, are called jugular. When
fixed to the thorax, and behind the opening of the gills,
they are called thoracic : And, in Linnaeus’s fyllem,
filhes of this ftruflure are diferiminated by the fame
name. Lallly, when placed under the belly, and nearer
the anas than the peftoral fins, they are called abdomi-
nal ; and, in like manner as before, communicate their
name to the order of filhes which have them in this fitu-
ation.

The fin of the anus is an odd one : it occupies, either
in whole or in part, the region between the anus and

X 4 the

Fijbes.

328

the tail. It is liable to varieties of form, number, and
iize. Yet, none but the golden-fifli of China, are known
to have two of thefe fins.

'I he tail fin is difpofed vertically at the extremity of
the body, and terminates the tail. The fifh ufes it as a
rudder, moving it, fo as to change the direflion in which
it fwims, at pleafure. It is likewife fubjeff to fome va-
rieties in its form, its adherence or connexions, its ex-
tent, & c.

After this account of the anatomy of the exterior
parts of fillies, we may pafs to the fyflematic divifions in
which naruralifis have arranged them. Before Artedi,
no naturalift had attempted a fyftematic arrangement of
fillies ; although claffifications of the other animals had
been already formed. This philofopher was the fir ft
who offered to the world, a fyftem of ichthyology form-
ed on the nature of the fins, as hard or foft, pointed or
obtufe, and on the form of the gills. Tie afterwards
engaged in a defign to extend the divifions by charafte-
riftics taken from other parts ; but was prevented by a
premature death, from accomplilhing his defign. Lin-
nceus contrived to form a fyftem of ichthyology, on the
variations of the pofitiou of the fins of the belly : And
M. Gouan, a celebrated profeffor of Montpellier, has
very happily combined the two fyftems of Artedi. and
Linnaeus- This naturalift divides fifties firft into thole
whole gills are perfefl, — that is to fay, confift of
an operculum, and a bronchial membrane regular-
ly organized j and thofe whofe gills are imperfecft,
— that is, who want either the operculum, or the bron-
chial membrane, or both. The firft mentioned, are
thofe diftinguiftied by the form of their fins. — In faff,
thefe parts confift either of hard, pointed bones, or of
fort, and feemingly cartilaginous radii. Thefe di func-
tions

329

Fijhefi *

tions eftablilh three different claffes of fifhes : i. The
acanthopterygii ; 2. The malacopterygii ; and, 3. The
bronchioftegi. In each of thefe claffes, the belly-fins
being either wanting, or placed on the neck, on the
thorax, or on the belly ; M. Gouan therefore divides
each clafs into four orders : abodes, jugular, thoracic, and
abdominal.

The diftin&ive chara&ers of the genera, under thefe
divifions, are taken from the form of the body, the head,
the mouth, the bronchial membrane, and more efpecially
the radii which fupport that membrane.-- — -See Ta-
ble VII.

ARTICLE VII,

Of Infelis. Entomology.

JNSECTS are difiinguiflied by the form of their body,
which feems to be divided into rings ; and by two move-
able horns on the fore part of the head, called antenna,
Infeffs form one of the mod numerous claffes of animals,
on account, no doubt, of their diminutive fize ; for it
has been obferved, that the fmaller animals are, fo much
the more numerous are they. The hiftcry of thefe ani-
mals is one of the mod agreeable and amufing branches
of natural hiftory ; perhaps, too, not the lead ufeful ;

for.

33° ,

Infefis,

for, in profecuting it, many difcoveries may be made,
beneficial both to medicine and the arts.

Infers, in their manners, form, habitations, &c. difplay,
in miniature, almod the whole ceconomy and chara&eridics
of other animals. Some infers walk like quadrupeds ; others
fly like birds ; fome fwim, and live in water, like fifties;
and, laftly, fome leap, or trail along, like certain rep.
tiles. This analogy might be even traced much farther,
by examining, particularly, the ftru&ure of their extre-
mities, mouth, and interior organs, &c.

Infe&s, confidered as to external appearance, con-
fid of three parts : an head, a corfelet or bread;, and a
belly.

The form, fize, and pofition of the head, are various.
It is fometimes very large in proportion to the bulk of
the infeft, and fometimes very fmall : it is either round,
or fquare, or oblong ; either fmooth, or overfpread with
fmall holes, or tuberculated, or covered with hair in
certain places. On it are obferved, i . The antennce,
placed near the eyes, and confiding of feveral different,
articulated, moveable pieces, like a thread, terminating
either in a point, or in a mafs : the form of the antennae
is to be always carefully obferved ; for it affords by its
varieties, generic charafteridics : 2. The eyes, which are
of two forts, either with facets, or in a fort of net-work,
fmooth and fmall : thefe organs are fometimes very large,
and fometimes fmall ; their number varies ; fome infefts
have only one eye, and are didinguiftied as monocular;
others, fuch as the fpider, have two, five, or even
eight: 3. The mouth, which confifts either of fhorr,
corneous jaws, placed laterally, and moveable towards
the fides; or of a probofcis, either longer or ftiorter,
dilated or fpiral, & c. ; or of a fimple gap or orifice, Sec.
This part is often armed with fmall moveable appendi-
ces.

33*

Infefls. *

l

J ceS) denominated antennulce or barbels, and either two
S j or four in number.

The corfelet is the breaft of the infeft, placed be-
,| tween the head and the belly. It is fometimes round,
d fometimes triangular, cylindrical, broad, narrow, &c. It
I is to be confidered as a fort of cube confiding of fix
A Tides ; and its form is fometimes regularly cubic. The
.• front, or anterior extremity, is hollowed for the recep^
tion of the head. In flies, for inflance, the jun&ure of
the head to the body, at this part, is fometimes formed
t merely by a thread. The under extremity, again, is
commonly round, and articulated with the fir ft ring of
the belly ; fometimes it is joined to that part by a thread,

I The upper facet is fometimes flat and fmooth, fometimes
round, prominent, bearing appendices, tuberculated, and
terminating in a jutting border : This forms what is call-
ed the bordered corfelet, thorax marginatus. — The
wings are fuftened to the pofterior part of this facet. It
is well known, that moft infers are provided with wings j
but that their wings differ amazingly from each other.
It may be of confequence, briefly to confider thefe diver-
fities of the ftru&ure of the wings of infers j as natu-
ralifts have eftablilhed on them the leading divifions
of their claflifications of thefe animals.

The wings of infers are either two or four in number.
Infers having two tranfparent wings, fuch as the fly, the
gnat, &c., have always, towards the part where the
wing joins the body, and under it, a fmall filament ter-
minating in a round button, called the balance ; and
covered with a concave, membranous appendage, called
the bowl. In many infefts, thefe two wings are very
ilrong, twilled and plaited under hard, corneous, move-
able lheaths, called elytra. — Thefe (heaths are of various
forms : fome of them cover the whole belly ; others are

cut

cut tranfverfely, and cover only a part of the belly :
fome of them are hard ; others foft : molt of them have,
near the place of their juncture, a fmall triangular piece
foldered to the corfelet, which is called fcutellum ; others
Want this fmall piece. Laftly, a number of infects with
fheaths, have the elytra foldered fo as to form feemingly
but one piece, and motionlefs.

The wings are often four in number ; they are then
either membranous and tranfparent, as in the dragon-
fly, the wafp, &c. or apparently fprinkled with a co-
loured duft, which, when viewed through the micro-
fcope, proves to be fcales riling one over another, on the
\ving, as tiles on the roof of a houfe, imbricatim.

The lower part of the corfelet is irregular in its form:
it conflfts of feveral pieces glued one over another, and
bears a part of the legs. — The number of the legs va-
ries : Many infecls have fix legs ; and others, fuch as
the fpider, have eight legs : fome, again, have ten,
like crabs ; and laftly, there are fome which have a ftill
greater number. Wood-lice are obferved to have fix-
teen ; and fome fpecies of the fcolopendra have
from feventy to one hundred and twenty on each
fide. According to M. Geoftiroy, the legs of thofe in-
fers which have only fix or eight, are fixed to the cor-
lelet ; but fuch as poflefs a greater number, have a
part of them inferred in the rings of the belly.

The leg of an infeft confifts always of three parts: —
the thigh — the part next the bod}'-, the leg, and the
tarfus. Befides thefe, there is often an intermediate
piece between the body and the thigh. The tarlus con-
fifts of feveral pieces or rings articulated one with ano-
ther : the number of thefe rings varies from two to five.
There are even fome infecls which have the tarfus lar-
ger in the fore, than in the hinder legs ; which efla-

blilheg

333

blifhes an analogy between the ftrufture of thefe fmall
animals and that of many quadrupeds, which have more
toes on the fore than on the hinder feet. M. Geoffroy,
as we fhall afterwards fee, has aflumed a part of this
chara&er for the bafis of his fyllematic divifion of infers.
The tarfus is terminated by two, four, or fix fmall claws,
and has generally, on the under fide, feveral fmall brufhes,
or fpongy clues, which enable the infeft to adhere even
to the mofl polifhed bodies, fuch as ice, 8zc.

On each fide of the corfelet, there are obferved, one
or two oblong, oval apertures, called ftigmata, by which
the infeft refpires.

The third part of the body of an infeft, is the belly.
It generally confifls of corneous rings, or half-rings, in-
cafing one another. Sometimes, no fuch rings are ob-
ferved, but the belly appears to confifl all of one piece.
Female infects have ufually larger bellies than the male.
At the extremity of the belly, are the parts of genera-
tion : On the fides, each ring but the two loweft is per-
forated with a fligma. At the lower part of the belly,
too, many infefts bear their flings ; of which, fome are
fharp-pointed, others ferrated, and others of an auger
form. — They ufe them as weapons of defence, and as
inflruments for forming cells in which they may depofite
their eggs.

The mofl fingular phenomenon which infers exhibit,
— which, more than any thing elfe, di ft ingui flies them
from mofl other animals, — is, their pafling through dif-
ferent hates by a fort of metamorphofis, before they be-
come perfect infers. Some infers, — almofl all thofe
belonging to the clafs of aptera , fuffer no fuch changes;
but by far the greater number of thefe animals are fub-
jecf to them. The infedl is not of the fame form with
its parent, when it iffues from the egg ; it is then a

worm,

334

Inf efts.

worm, either with or without legs ; and, in this flate,
thefe animals exhibit great diverfities in the head and
the rings. In this fird (late, the infeed receives the
name of larva : under this made, it eats, grows bigger,
moves, and changes its fkin feveral times. When it at-
tains its full fize, it changes its fkin for the lad time ;
and is now no longer a worm or larva, but in a totally
different form ; in which it is known by the names, nym-
pha, ebry falls, aurelia.

M. GeofFroy diftinguifhes nympha into four different
fpecies. — The fird bears no refemblance to an animal. — -
Only a few rings are obferved on its under part ; and
above, only fome very imperfeed marks of antennas, legs,
and wings. — The fkin of this fpecies of nymphas is hard
and cartilaginous ; and only fome of its rings are move-
able. — Such are the nymphas of butterflies, &c.

The fecond fpecies of chryfalis exhibits the parts of
the perfeed animal, wrapped in a very thin foft fkin. — =
Like that of the former fpecies, it is immoveable. In-
fects with cafes, infers with four naked wings, and in-
fers with two, pafs through this (late.

The third fpecies difplays the parts, fairly unfolded,
very cor.fpicuous, and moveable.— Such are the chryfa-
lides of gnats, and infers which, in the firfl dates, pafs
their life under water.

Ladly, the fourth fpecies confids of thofe which, in
the form of the body, their legs, and antennas, refera-
ble the perfect infeed. Thefe nymphas walk and eat :
the only difference between them and perfect infeeds,
is, that they want wings, and are incapable of genera-
tion.— The nymphas of the dragon-fly, the bug, the
grafhopper, and the cricket are of this fort.

Infeeds, like other animals, were not didinguifhed by
ancient naturaiids otherwife than by the fituations in which

they

Inf efts.

535

I they inhabited. Before Linnaeus, no philofopher had
attempted a fyrtematic arrangement of them, in which
they might be diftinguifhed by certain chara&ers. — The
firft clarification of infers was formed by that naturalift.
After him, M. Geoffroy attempted a more accurate claf-
fification of them. — His divifion of infers into fe&ions
and genera, is a mafler-piece of precifion and perfpicui-
ty : It is this naturalift’s fyftem which we have adopted.
M. Fabricius has fince attempted a divifion of infers, by
the form of the jaws.

M. Geoffroy divides infefls into fix fe&ions, accord-
ing to the number, the ftrutture, or the want of the
wings. The firft fedtion contains coleoptera , or thofe in-
fects which have their wings covered with cafes. Their
mouth is formed by two lateral and corneous jaws, and
is the fecond general characteriftic of this fe&ion. The

I May-bug difplays thefe two charatteriftics.

The fecond fe&ion, the hemiptera , whofe upper
wings are either fomewhat thick and coloured, or half
hard and opaque ; but in this fe&ion, the wings do not
afford fo certain and confpicuous a charafteriftic as the
mouth. The mouth is a long, acute trunk, which ter-
minates, below, between the legs. To this fedlion be-
long the wood-bug, and the balm-cricket.

The third fedlion confifts of telrapterous infetts with
mealy wings , whofe four wings are coloured by a fcaly
duft, which have a trunk, fometimes longer, fometimes
fhorter, frequently fpiral ; as, for infiance, the butter-
fly. Linnaeus calls thefe infers lepitoptera.

The fourth fedlion confifis of tetr apterous infefts having
naked wings. Their four wings are membranous : they
have hard jaws. — Such is the wafp. Linnaeus has di-
vided thefe infers into two orders : The nevroptera,
which have no fling on the anus, and have their wings

divided

divided by nerves ; arid the hymenoptera , which have
no ding at the anus, and have membranous wings, but'
no very difcernible nerves in them.

The fifth feflion confifis of dipterous infects, or infe&s
with two wings. Their mouth is generally of a trunk
form ; and, at the root of the wing, they have final!
buttons, ferving as balances, and bowls covering them.

Laftly, in the fixth and laft feclion, are ranked the
aptera, infers deflitute of wings, fuch as the fpider, the
loufe, &c.

Befides thefe primary divifions, M. Geoffroy has efta-

blifhed fome others, to affift the collector of infers.

(See Table VIII.)

Although feveral celebrated naturalifts have, fince M.
Geoffroy, turned their attention on the hiftory of in-
fers ; and although M. Fabricius has publifhed a new
fyftem of the clafiification of infers, in which the cha-
racleriftics are taken from the organs with which they
receive their food ; yet I have preferred M. Geoffrey’s
fyftem, which, as it contains fewer genera and fpecies,
is far from being fo complicated and perplexing as that
of M. Fabricius.

ARTICLE 'VIIL

Of Worms. Helminthology.

•^torms are foft animals, very different in form from
infers, with which they have been, by many na-
turalifts, confounded, and far from being fo perfe&Iy

organized.

Worms.

337

organized. They have, properly fpeaking, no mouth ;

the conformation of their members does not refemble

that of infers, nor are they liable to pafs through dif-
ferent Hates. Few of them are known to have organs
for generation : Mod of them have no head, regularly
formed ; and they are all diftinguifhed by the want of
feet and fcales.

The clafs of worms is the moft numerous, and the
Jeafl known of all the clalfes of animals. — There are few
organized bodies, either dead or living, in which worms are
not found. Moft naturaliHs have arranged worms and
polypi under one clafs. They might perhaps be better
feparated ; as they are widely different in refpett to their
interior ftru&ure and habits. Mod worms have a
heart and blood-veffels ; but no fuch organs have been
obferved in polypi.

The worms on which our attention is at prefent en-
gaged, are to be carefully dillinguifhed from the larvae
of infers, which have likewife received the name of
worms on account of their form. Their head has a
jaw; their legs are more or lefs numerous, but gene-
rally about fix ; and thefe parts afford chara&eriftics by
which they may be diftinguifhed.

Worms are very much difpofed to motion : moft of
them are fond of moifture, and feek after it. In fome,
the form of the head is not very perfect ; and they a!re
moftly hermaphrodites. — Such as have heads, have upon
them two moveable horns, which they can draw inwards,
and which are called tentacula. It appears, that almoft
all worms, when mutilated, reproduce the parts which
they lofe. — This fhews their organization to be very
fimple ; and in this particular, they refemble polypi.

This clafs of animals may be divided into four feftions :
— The firfl containing naked worms, the organization of
Yol. III. Y which

Worms.

33s

which is befl known, and which, in this property, near-
ly referable other animals. — In the fecond fe&ion, we
may arrange worms with a teftaceous covering, — fhell-
worms. The organization of thefe is not fo well known
as that of the former clafs ; but M. Adanfon’s refearch-
es have fhewn their ftrufture to be nearly the fame with
the ftru&ure of naked worms. — The third fe&ion may
comprehend worms having a cruflaceous covering. Of
thefe, the organization is lefs known than that of either
of the two preceding fe&ions ; nothing but their exter-
nal form, and the ftru£ture of their mouth having been
yet examined.— -The polypi belong to the fourth fe&ion.
— Many naturalifls have already employed themfelves on
the fyftematic divifions of'thefe different feftions. In the
divifion in the eighth table, we have followed Lifter,
Linnaeus, Klein, Ellis, Pallas, D’ArgenviJle. (See Ta-

ble VUL)

9

339

♦

Funftions of Animals .

SECTION II.

Of the Fun £t Ions of Animals, from Man to floe

Polypus.

THE chara&eri flics of living, organic bodies are, as we
have already obferved feveral times, the different func-
tions which they perform with their organs. Thefe we
have confidered in vegetables ; and, the order which we
have obferved, requires us to confider them alfo in ani-
mals.

The department of medicine to which it belongs to
examine the functions of animals, is Phyfiology. This
valuable fcience fliould not be confined to man ; it ihould
be extended to all animals : And in this light are we go-
ing to take a hafiy view of it at prefent.

S4» Functions of Animals.

The functions of animals may be reduced to the fol-
lowing :

1. Circulation.

2. Secretion.

3. Refpiration*

4. Digeftion.

5. Nutrition.

6. Generation. 1 *

7. Irritability.

8. Senfibility.

Thefe different functions belong to man, quadrupeds,
cetaceous animals, birds, oviparous quadrupeds, ferpents,
fifties, infe&s. Worms and polypi are not capable of
them all ; and the other claffes difplay them in different
degrees.

ARTICLE FIRST.

Of Circulation.

CIRCULATION is one of the firft fun£tions of ani-
mals : it is the function by which life is maintained :
. when it ceafes, the animal immediately dies : the or-
gans employed in it are the heart, the arteries, and the
veins.

The

' Circulation. ’ 3 q i

The heart is a conical mufcle, with two cavities in its
! bottom, which are called ventricles. Immediately under
s it are two bags, called auricles. Out of the left ventri-
; cle, there proceeds a large artery, which is called the
v aorta , and diftributes the blood through the whole bo-
| dy. Another artery, equally large, likewife proceeds
jrj from the right ventricle : this is called th z -pulmonary
artery , becaufe it fpreads, in ramifications, through the
lungs. The right auricle receives the blood as it re-
turns from its circulation through the whole body, by
the two vena cava. This fluid pafles from the right
auricle into the right ventricle. From the right ventri-
cle, it iflues into the lungs, through the pulmonary ar-
tery. Through the pulmonary veins, it proceeds into
the left auricle : it pafles thence into the left ventricle ;
and from the left ventricle, by the aorta, through the
whole body.

This motion, which proceeds in this manner in the
human body, forms two forts of circulation ; — circula-
tion through the whole body, and the circulation in the
lungs. The latter was known before the former. The
general circulation was difcovered by Harvey, an Englilk
phyfician.

In quadrupeds, cetaceous animals, and birds, this func-
tion is carried on precifely in the fame way as in man.
In fiflies, the heart has only one ventricle ; and, in them,
the lungs, or gills, do not receive the blood through a
particular cavity in the heart. In reptiles, this function
is performed in the fame way as in fiflies. In infedls
and worms, the heart confifts of a feries of knots, which
contract, one after another : their vefl'els are very fmall,
and their blood cold and colourlefs. Polypi have nei-
ther a heart nor blood-veflels : In them, this function is

Y 3 carried

342

Circulation.

earned on in a more imperfett manner than even in ve-
getables.

ARTICLE II.

Of Secretion.

gECRETION is a fun&ion by which there are fepara-
ted from the blood, in different organs, juices de-
figned for particular purpofes, fuch as the bile in the
liver, &c. This function is one of the mod: general
among animals : it takes place through all the claffes ;
but we cannot deferibe it as it is performed in them all,
without running into too tedious a detail of particulars.
We (hall only obferve, therefore, that, in all animals in
which a real circulation is carried on, fecretion is regu-
lated by the dime laws as in the human fpecies ; and ap-
pears to take place even in mod of thofe animals which
have no heart. Befides that analogy which muff necef-
ffarily fubfiff between man and fuch animals as ate pof-
feffed of the fame organs, in refpecl to the funttion of
which we are now fpeaking ; almoff every different clafs
of animals has peculiar fecretions which are not obferv-
able in the human fpecies : — fuch are the fecretions of
mufk and civet, among quadrupeds ; of the white of the
whale, and ambergrife, among cetaceous animals ; of

the

Secretion 343

> the oily juice with which birds drefs their feathers ; of
the virulent humour of the viper ; of the glutinous fluid
of the fcales of fillies; of the acid and acrid juices of
the buprefles, flaphylini, ants, and wafps, among in-
fers; of the vifcid mucilage of fnails ; of the colouring
juices of purple ; and of many others, which come to be
taken notice of under the natural hiflory of the different
fpecies of animals.

ARTICLE' III.

Of Refpiration.

RESPIRATION, confidered as it takes place in all ani-
mals in general, is a funflion which brings the
blood into contact with the fluid in which they live.
For this purpofe, man and quadrupeds are poflefled of
an organ called the lungs. — It is a cohesion of hollow
veficles, which are nothing more but ramifications of a
membranous and cartilaginous du£l, called the tracheal
artery , — and of the blood-vefiels, which, with their rami-
fications, form a great many areolte on the furface of the
pulmonary veficles.* Thefe veficles and veflels are fup-
ported by a loofe and fpongy cellular texture, which
forms the parenchyma of the lungs. The air, when

Y 4 inhaled,

344

Rtfpi ration.

inhaled, diftends thefe veficles. The oxigene of the
atmofphere combines with the carbone difengaged from
the blood, and thus forms carbonic acid, which, toge-
ther with azotic gas, is exhaled. The matter of heat, fepa-
rated from the vital air of the atmofphere, combines
with the blood, and reftores to it the properties which it
has loll by circulation through the body.

In cetaceous animals, this funttion is peformed in the
fame manner : Only, as in thefe animals there is a di-
re& communication between the two auricles, they are
capable of remaining for fome time without refpira-
tion.

In birds, refpiration is performed much in the fame
way as in the above mentioned animals j but its influ-
ence extends much more through the body. Anatomifls
have difcovered, in the belly of birds, fpongy veflcular
organs, which communicate with their lungs ; and the
lungs again extend to the bones of the wings, — which
are hollow, but contain no marrow, — by a du£t which
rifes from the upper part of the bread, and opens into
the upper and inflated part of the os humerus. This
noble difcovery, which was made by M. Campen, {hews,
that the air pafles from the lungs of birds into the bones
of their wings. And this fluid being rarefied by the
heat of the body, renders them very light, and contri-
butes greatly to their flying.

Fillies have, inftead of lungs, gills or bronchim.
Thefe organs confift of membranous fringes, difpofed on
an arcuated bone, and full of blood-veffels. Water en-
ters by the mouth, pafles among the fringes, feparating
them from one another, preflfes upon, and agitates
the blood, and pafles out by two lateral apertures
behind the head, on which are two moveable ofleous
valves, called opercula , fupported by the bronchial

membrane*

345

Refyiration .

membrane. Duverney imagined that the gills feparated
the air contained in the water. M. Vicq d’Azir, who
has employed himfelf a good deal on the anatomy of
fillies, is of opinion, that, in their gills, water acts the
fame part which air does in the lungs of other animals.
One thing certain is, that, as thefe animals do not re-
fpire air, or produce from it carbonic acid, their blood
is not of the fame degree of heat which that elaltic fluid
communicates to the blood of animals which refpire
it.

Infers are deftitute of lungs. They have two du£b,
or tracheae, extending along the back, with which, on
each fide, a number of other fmaller dufts communicate ;
and thefe terminate, one on the outer fide of each ring,
by fmall orifices, called fligmata. The fligmata rather
appear to be defigned for the expiration of a particular
elaflic fluid ; for infers do not die immediately in vacuo j
but when the fligmata are clofed up, they are thrown
into convulfions, and die in a few feconds. The organi-
zation of worms is (till more imperfeft. Polypi are not
known to refpire at all: in t^iis funttion, therefore, they
are more imperfett than vegetables, in which trachem
have been found.

ARTI-

34<>

ARTICLE IV.

Of Digejtion.

is the reparation of the nutritious mat-

ter contained in food, — and its abforption by certain
vedels, called chyliary. It takes place in a du# running
between the mouth and the anus, which, in the human
body, is dilated towards the upper part of the abdomen.
The part dilated, is called the ftomacb , or ventricle.
The alimentary canal then becomes narrower, and is
wound into what are called the inteflin.es. This long
tube, confiding of mufcles and membranes, is intended
to detain the aliments till all the nutritious matter be ex-
tracted from them. There are alfo other glandulous or-
gans fituated round the domach, the purpofe of which
is to prepare fluids for dimulating the domach and in-
tellines, and to extra# the nutritious part of the ali-
ments. Thefe organs are the liver, the fpleen, and the
pancreas. The bile and the pancreatic juice run into
the former intedine called the duodenum , and mix with
the aliments : Before that mixture takes place, the
aliments are didolved in the domach by the gadric

juice.

The

Digejlion .• 34”?

The primary tnteftines, through their whole length,
are filled with the orifices of vefifels, the bulinefs of
which is to carry off the chyle. Thofe veffels convey
it into the lumbar, and the thoracic duff ; and the chy-
liary fluid is thus difcharged into the left fubclaviar vein;
where it mixes with the blood. — Such are the me-
chanifm and the phaenomena of digeflion in the human
body.

Quadrupeds differ widely from one another, in the
form of their teeth, ftomach, and inteftines. Some of
thefe animals, as, for inftance, the philodotus and the
ant-eater, are without teeth, and eat nothing but foft
aliments. Others, fuch as the tatou and the floth, have
only the molares. Some, fuch as the elephant and the
fea-cow, have both the molares and the canine teeth.
Laftly, moft quadrupeds have three forts of teeth — mo-
lares, canine, and incifory. What is moft ftrikingly re-
markable in the diverfified ftruffure of the teeth, as has
been remarked by Ariftotle, Galen, &c. is, that there
exifts, invariably, a relation between the number and
pofition of the teeth, and the form of the ftomach.
All quadrupeds having incifory teeth in the two jaws, —
the horle, the ape, the fquirrel, the dog, the cat, &c.,
have only a membranous ventricle, like that of the hu-
man fpecies. Anatomifts call thefe animals monogajlric.
In them, the funffion of digeftion is performed in the
fame way as in the human body. — Quadrupeds having
incifory teeth only in the under jaw, are polygaflric and
ruminating, — fuch are the camel, the Camelopardalis,
the buck, the ram, the cow, the flag, and the kid.
Thefe quadrupeds are generally bifulcar and horned ;
they have, all of them, four ftomachs. The firft is call-
ed, in the cow, the paunch : it is the largeft, and is di-
vided into other four bags. It, together with the le-

cond.

348

Digejlion .

cond, which opens into the paunch by a large orifice,
receives the aliments. — In thefe organs, herbaceous ali-
ments are dilated, and air rarefied : thefe flimulate the
nerves, and thus produce an anti-perifhaltic motion,
which throws them back into the cefophagus and the
month, where they undergo a new comminution by the
dentes molares ; and being reduced into a fort of foft
pafte, they are again fwallowed, and, together with the
drink of the animal, conveyed into the third ftomach,
the omafus , through a femi-canal extending between the
osfophagus and that ventricle. Laftly, from the omafus
they are conveyed into that ventricle, which, in calves,
is called the rennet-bag, and there thoroughly di-
gefted. — The inteflines of ruminating animals are alfo
much larger than thofe of monogaflric quadrupeds. The
mechanifm with which cetaceous animals are provided
for this function, is exadtly like that of monogaflric qua-
drupeds.

Birds differ from one another in the ftru&ure of the
ftomach : in fome, it is membranous, — in others, muf-
cular. Thofe pofTeffed of the former chara&eriftic,
which may be called hytnenogajlric, are carnivorous :
All birds of prey belong to this fpecies. Their ftomach
contains a very powerful juice, capable even of reducing
bones to a foft fubftance, according to Reaumur’s expe-
riments : their bile is likewife very acrid. — The fecond,
which merit the name of myogajlric , live only upon
grain : their ftomach confifts of a quadrigaftric mufcle,
covered with a hard, thick membrane, fuitable for
trituration. Thefe birds have likewife a double cte-
cum.

Fifties have a membranous ftomach, of an oblong
form, with a good many appendices : their inteflines are
generally fliort. They haye a liver, but no pancreas.

. — Reptiles

♦

Digejlion.

349

Reptiles difplay the fame internal ftru&ure : their

ftomach is capable of an amazing diftenfion. Serpents
have been often feen to fwallow whole animals, much
larger than themfelves.

Infers have a ftomach and inteflines, regularly orga-
nized. Swammerdam and Perrault affirm, that a parti-
cular fort of cricket has four ftomachs ; — that is, one
large ftomach divided into four bags, as appears when
the animal is differed. — The ftomach of worms is very
irregularly formed : they have alfo fmall inteftines.—
The polypus feems to be nothing but ftomach ; for it
digefts very faft. The fame orifice ferves it both for
mouth and anus.

ARTICLE V,

Of Nutrition .

^"UTRITION is the confequencc of digeftion and
circulation. As the folids are always fuffering a
lofs by the motions which they carry on, they need to
be repaired ; and this reparation they receive from the
fun&ion of nutrition.— In the firft period of the life of
the animal, they grow larger ; and the animal increafes
m fize. The cellular tiffue is ufually confidered as the
organ of this funftion, and the lymph as the humour

from

35® Nutrition.

from which the folids derive that reparation which they
need. It appears, however, that each organ is nou-
rifhed with a matter peculiar to itfelf, which it feparates
either from the blood or from the lymph, or from fome
other fluid. The mufcles, for inflance, are nouriflied
by a fibrous matter which they feparate from the blood:
the bones extrari: from it a calcareous phofphoric fait,
and a lymphatic matter ; the pure lymph dries into
plates in the cellular texture : concrefcible oil, depoflted
in thefe, produces the fat. Every different part of the
body is nouriflied in a way peculiar to itfelf : the nutri-
tion of each of thefe parts is truly an ari: of fecretion.
This fun&ion is carried on in quadrupeds and cetaceous
animals, precifely in the fame way as in man : In birds,
flill in the fame way ; in fiflies much flower, — and they
therefore live very long. In general, the flower the
nutrition and growth, the longer is the life of the ani-
mal.

There is nothing peculiar in the manner in which this
fun&ion is carried on in infers. They grow only in the
form of larvas ; but not when chryfalides or perferi: in-
fers, Swammerdam and Malphigy have {hewn, that
the larva contains the perfeft infeft, fully formed, under
a number of fkins ; — the caterpillar inclofes the butter-
fly, with its feet and wings folded.

In worms and polypi, nutrition is carried on in the
cellular tifliie ; and in vegetables, likewife, by means of
the cellular and vehicular tiflues,

A R T I-

♦

Generation.

35i

ARTICLE VI.

Of Generation.

QENERATION, confidered through the whole ani-
mal kingdom, is performed in many various ways.
In mod genera there is a didin&ion of fexes, and copu-
lation is requifite for the produftion of the fpecies ; —
fuch, for indance, is the law with refpeft to man, qua-
drupeds, and cetaceous animals.

The females of quadrupeds have a matrix parted into
two cavities, uterus bicornis, and a greater number of
teats than the female of the human fpecies : they are not
fubjeft to the mendrual flux : mod of them produce fe-
veral young at one time, and the period of their gefta-
tion is commonly fhorter. Several of them have a parti-
cular membrane, for receiving the urine of the foetus :
it is called allantoides.

The manner of generation, in birds, is very different.
The males have a very fmall genital organ, not perfora-
ted, and often double. In the females, the vulva is
ufually fltuated behind the anus : they have ovaria, but
no matrix, and a duff through which the egg is convey-
ed from the ovaria into the gut : this du<d is called the
oviduclus. Phyflologifts who have examined the phe-
nomena

252

Generation.

noraena of incubation, have obferved fome unexpe&ed
facts with refpeft to the egg, both fecundated, and not
fecundated. Malphigy and Haller have made the moil
important of thefe difcoveries. Haller found the pullet
fairly formed in eggs not fecundated.

Copulation does not take place among fifties. The
female depofites her eggs on fand* -and . the male pafling
over them, impregnates them with his feminal liquor,
which is no doubt necefiary for their fecundation. Af-
ter a certain period, thefe eggs burft, and emit the
young fifties.

The males of various fpecies of oviparous quadrupeds
have a double or forked organ for generation. Of fer-
pents, the viper is the only viviparous fpecies.

Infefts alone difplay all the varieties with refpect to
this fundlion that are obfervable among other animals :
fome fpecies exhibit the diftinttion of fexes among indi-
viduals,— this, indeed, is the cafe with the greatefl
number : in other fpecies, reproduction takes place ei-
ther with or without copulation, — as in the vine-fretter :
an infeft of this fpecies, inclofed by itfelf in a glafs, pro-
duces a great number of young. M. Bonnet has fully
eftablillied the truth of this fatt, by a feries of experiments
profecuted with the utmoft: care. The genital organ of
male infe&s is concealed in the belly. When the extremity
of that part of the infect’ s body is gently prefled, the
organ appears. It is ufually accommodated with two
fmall arms for holding the female. The fituation of
this organ is very much varied : it is fometimes on the
upper part of the belly, near the breaft, — as in the fe-
male of the dragon-fly, libellula ; at other times, it is
fituated at the extremity of the antenna, — as in the male
fpider. Infers multiply prodigioufly, and are almoft: all
oviparous, excepting the wood-loufe.

Worms

Generation.

353

Worms are androgynous: every individual pofTeffes
the chara&eriftics of both fexes ; and copulation i®
double, — as may be obferved of the earth worm and
the fnail.

M. Adanfon adds, that bivalvular fhell worms a tti
deftitute of organs of generation, and reproduce the
fpecies without copulation. Thefe worms are viviparous
— Univalvular fhell worms are oviparous : the young*
whether they iflue from an egg, or immediately from the
belly of the mother, have the fhell ready-formed from
their birth.

Polypi are the mofl fmgular animals with refpeCi to
generation. They produce by fliooting off flips. — When
a polypus attains its full growth, it fhoots out, as it
were, a fraall branch, which is feparated from it, and
fixes on any contiguous body ; where it continues to
grow till it have nearly gained its full fiz-e* Polypi, in
fhort, are produced from one another, much in the
fame way as branches fpread from the trunks of
trees.

We know only the more apparent phenomena of ge«
neration.—AU the fyftems which have been formed to
explain that myfterious operation of nature, are attended
with infuperable difficulties. Accounts of them may be
found in Haller’s Phyfiology, Maupeftuis’s Venus Ploy-
h ue , and Buffon’s Natural Hiftory. — M. Bonnet, in hi®
Reflections on organized Bodies, has faid more on thi®
fubjeCt than almoft any other perfon.— - Buffon’s fyftem
is ingenious, and deferves to be read.

Yol, IIL

z

A & T lr

554

Irritability.

ARTICLE VII.

Of Irritability.

is' a property of certain organs, called'

mufcles, by virtue of which they contratt, when a&ed
upon by the coritaft of any fiimulus. — M. Haller has
given a very good account of the do&rine of irritability^
— The mufcles of man, quadrupeds, cetaceous animals,
and birds, refemble each other. They are all equally
red, and confift of fibres united in bundles of different
forms, covered with filver-coloured membranes called
aponeurofes , and terminating in flat or round cords called
tendons.

The mufcles of fillies are white, and much more irri-
table than fuch as are red. — The mufcles of oviparous
quadrupeds and ferpents are flill more irritable ; and in
thefe animals the irritability remains long after the death
of the animal. This lafi property appears to be com-
mon to all cold-blooded animals ; but thofe whofe blood
is hot, feem to lofe the irritability of their mufcles as it
becomes cold.

The mufcles of infers are within the bones, which
are hollow and of a corneous nature. This ftrufture is
very difcernible in the thigh-bone of the great green
grafhopper, and alfo in the crab.

The mufcles of worms are very pale and irritable :
they are even very ftrong, — efpecially in thofe worms
which have a ponderous (hell to move.

Polypi

Irritability. 35J>

Polypi are very irritable : they contra# into a round
„ point ; they move their arms with amazing agility, and
fold them very readily. Their ftruCture, however, does
not appear to be mufcular.

It is their irritability which renders animals capable
of moving from one place to another, and performing
fuch motions as are necelTary, that they may remove
hurtful things to a diftance, and procure what they
need. The hiftory of thefe motions is therefore refer-
able to the hiftory of this function. Standing and walk-
ing, leaping, flying, the pace of reptiles, and fwimming*
are a combination of actions which depend on the muf-
cular contractions of animals. Were we to enter into n
minute detail of them, it would be neceflary to confider,
in the human fpecies, with fefpeCt to (landing,-— the
mufcles which ferve to extend the thigh ; with refpeCt to
leaping, — the extremities, the form of the body, the
length and acutenefs of the countenance, and the lateral
compreflion of the thorax, in quadrupeds ; with refpedf
to flying, — the ftruCture of the feathers, the bread-
bone, the peCtoral mufcles, the bill, the tail, and the in-
terior texture of the bones, in birds. It would be no lefs
neceflary to confider the mufcular rings, and the fcales
or tubercles which reptiles haveinftead of feet; in fifties,
the form of the body, the ftruCture of the fins, the
ftruCture of the air-bladder, and its communication with
the ftomach ; in infeCfs, the ftruCture, the number, and
the pofition of the legs, the appendices of the tarfi, the
form, the pofition, and the nature of the wings, and of
thofe organs which nature has given them to balance
themfelves in the air, &c. But it is enough for us at
prefent to have pointed out the importance of fuch re-
fearches, and that they are highly worthy of the atten-
tion of the phyfiologift.

Z 2

Laftly,

35^ Irritability .

Laftly, there is another confideration which does not
appear to me to have been hitherto properly attended
to. — Mufcles may be confidered as organs of fecretion,
intended by nature for the feparation of the fibrous and
irritable matter of which we have elfewhere fpoken.
The diforders to which this fort of fecretion is liable,
fhould be carefully obferved by phyficians. We have
already had occafion to treat of this in our account of
the blood.

ARTICLE VIII.

i

Of Senjibility.

gENSIBILlTY is a function, by means of which ani-
mals are fufceptible of pleafure and pain, according
to the refpe&ive natures of bodies in contaft with their
organs. Senfations depend on the brain, on the marrow, on
the fpine, and the numerous nerves which are diffufed from
thefe parts, all over the body : without thefe organs, there
could be no fenfibility. In order the better to explain
the nature of this funftion, we may divide into three
regions thofe organs which appear to form only one
whole } which phyfiologifts have called the fenfible man.
Thefe three are, the brain, the hinder part of the brain,
and the fpinal marrow, — the nerves diffufed from thefe
parts over the body, — and the fenfitive expanfion, or di-
lated extremity of the nerves. This extremity or expan-
fion exhibits a great diverfity of forms in the different
organs : it is fometimes membranous and reticular, — as
in the ftomach and the inteftines ; fometimes foft and
pulpy, — as at the bottom of the eye, and within the la-
byrinth of the ear. Under the fkin, on the tongue, on

the

Senjibllity.

357

the top of the glans, &c., it takes a different form ; and
in other places, — as on the nafal membrane of Schneider,
it is fpread out in long filaments, foft and fiat.

The brain of the human fpecies is larger, and better
organized than that of any other animal : it is the feat
of thought. In quadrupeds, it is much fmaller ; but
their nerves are more fenfible ; and their fenfes, parti-
cularly the fenfe of fuelling, more acute, — the organ
of this fenfe being very much dilated, and, as it were,
multiplied, by the number of the ethmoidal plates. The
Ikin being thick, and covered with hair, is, on that ac-
count, not poffeffed of great fenfibility. The tafte of
thefe animals is very delicate.

The brain of cetaceous animals is exceedingly fmall,
in comparifon with the fize of the body : it is encom-
paffed by a thick, oily fluid : their fenfes are obtufe.

The brain of birds is not of the fame ftru&ure, nor
has it the fame folds, convexities, and concavities with
that of the human fpecies and quadrupeds. The beau-
tiful ftrutture of the eyes of thofe animals ; their thick
and cartilaginous fclerotica ; the membrana niclitans, or
interior eye-lid, moved by particular mufcles ; the bulk
of the cryftalline and vitreous fubftances ; the bag of
black matter, at the extremity of the optic nerve ; the
brilliant cruft which coats the choroides — all thefe to-
gether, difplay a very complicated organization, and
Ihew, that nature has taken extraordinary pains to ren-
der the powers of vifion of thefe animals keen and pier-
cing ; and thus enable them to diftinguifh their prey at
a diftance, and avoid the dangers to which they are expofed
by the rapidity of their motion in flying t in a word, to favour
the agility and attivity of motion, which feem to be the
peculiar prerogatives of thefe animals. Their hearing
i$ not fo perfett as their fight. They do not appear very

Z 3 capable

35*

Senfibility.

capable of diflinguilliing either the tafle or the fmell of
aliments. The fituation of the noftrils, and the hard
membrane which covers the bill, account for thefe phe-
nomena.

Reptiles have but very little fenfibility. Their brain
is very fmall : there are no knots on their nerves : their
fenfes, in general, appear to poffefs but very little afti-
vity. Vet Melfrs Klein, Geoffroy, and Vicq d’Azyr,
have obferved the internal ftructure of both the eye and
ear of thefe animals to be extremely beautiful and regu-
lar.

The brain, in fillies, is very fmall ; and the cranium
is filled with a mafs of oily matter. Their fenfes, efpe-
cially thofe of fight and hearing, are very acute. The
conformation of the organ of hearing, in fillies, is very
regular,— as has been obferved by Melfrs Klein, Geof-
froy, Camper, and Vicq d’Azyr,— f-Thofe naturalills who
took fillies to be deaf, were miftaken.

Inledts have no brain ; but they have fpinal marrow,
of a cylindrical form, and full of knots, which runs
through the whole length of the body. Nervous fila-
ments fpread out from that marrow, and accompany the
.diftribution of the tracheae.- — Of the organs of fenfation,
none but the eyes are known in infects. Swammerdam
defcribes an optic nerve, under the cornea of the eyes
of infects that are reticulated, which is there difiributed
into filaments equal in number to the membranes of the
reticulum. We know not whether they have ail organ
of hearing.

The organs of fenfation which have been obferved in
worms, are fcarcely more numerous. Swammerdam
found in the lnail, a brain with two lobes and move-
able,— eyes, fometimes at the bafe, fometimes on the
top pf |he tentacula,— rand an optic nerve, capable of

pontraftipB

359

contra&ion as well as thefe horns. M. Adanfon tells us,
that the eyes are fometimes wanting in worms, or at
leaft covered with opaque Ikin.

As to polypi ; they have no organs of fenfation, and
yet they feem to have a fort of predile&ion for light.

Man, therefore, poffeifes the fun&ion of lenfibility in
a much more eminent degree than any other animal.
This is what peculiarly diftinguiihes him, and entitles
him to be ranked at the head of the animal creation.
—The legiflator, the philofopher, and the phyfician
ftiould be intimately acquainted with every particular re-
lative to this function .

SUPPLEMENT

TO THE

MINERAL KINGDOM,

Of the Nature of Mineral Waters , and the Methods
of analyfng them. .

AFTER having copfidered all the bodies belonging to
the mineral kingdom, and examined their phyftcal
properties, it feems proper to introduce, in this place,
the hifhory of mineral waters ; for, as thefe fluids gene-
rally hold, in folution, terrene, faline, and metallic mat-
ters, either together or feparately, it would have been
jmpoflible to make the reader underhand their nature
and compofltion, without making him previoufly acquaint-
ed with the nature of the principles by which they are
- mineralized. Another advantage ariflng from our intro-
ducing, in this place, the account of mineral waters, is,
that it may here fe rye as a fort of recapitulation of what
has been faid of minerals in general ; as their principles
pm ft be taken notice of? in confidering the manner of

analyfing thpna?

Definition and Hiflory of Mineral Waters. 36*

§ I. Definition and Hiflory of Mineral Waters.

tyATERS holding minerals in folution, are called
mineral waters. But as all water, in a natural
flate, is impregnated, either more or lefs, with fome mi-
neral fubltances, the name, mineral waters , fhould be
confined to iuch waters as are fufficiently impregnated
with mineral matters to produce fome fenfible eftedls on
the animal oeconomy, and either to cure or prevent fome
of the difeafes to which the human body is liable*.
On this account, thefe waters might be, with much more
. propriety, called medicinal waters , — were not the name
• by which they are commonly known too firmly eftabliflaed
| by long ufe.

The firft knowledge which mankind acquired of mi-
neral waters, was, like the other branches of human
knowledge, obtained by accident. Their having acci-
dentally produced beneficial effects on the health of peo-
ple who made ufe of them, was, no doubt, the firft caufe
which occafioned them to be diftinguilhed from common
waters. The philofophers who turned their attention
upon them, confidered only their fenfible qualities, —
colour, gravity or lightnefs, tafte and fmell. Pliny took
notice of a great many different forts of water, diffinguifh-
ed either by confpicuous phyfical properties, or by the
ufeful effe&s which they were capable of producing,

But

' * It is to be obferved, that though waters contain no mineral
principles which can be difcovered by analyfis, they may yet pro-
duce fenfible effe&s on the animal ceconomy. For this purpofe,
they need only to be very light and aftive, and of an hotter tem-
perature than common water. Such are the waters of Plombieres
and Luxeuil, which differ only in temperature from common water.

362 Definition and Hijlory of Mineral Wafers'.

But it was only in the feventeenth century that people
began to think of examining the principles diffolved in
thcfe waters, by fubjefting them to chemical proceffes.
Among the firft who attended to this objeff, was Boyle,
who, in the account of his ingenious experiments on co-
lours, published at Oxford in the year 1663, mentions
various re-agents, which, when poured into water, fhew,
by the alterations which their colours fuffer, what fub-
flances are diffolved in the water. — The Academy of
Sciences, ever fince their inftitution, have been highly
fenfible of the importance of the analyfis of waters ; and
in the year 1667, Duclos engaged in an examination of
the different mineral waters in France. Among the
earlier Memoirs of that Society, are the experiments of
this chemift on thofe waters. Towards the end of the
feventeenth century, Boyle engaged, in a more particular
manner, in examining mineral waters ; and in the year
1635, he publifhed a work on the fubjeff. Boulduc, in
the year 1729, publifhed an account of a procefs for
analyfing mineral waters, greatly preferable to any of
thofe which were commonly in ufe before that period :
He direffed to evaporate the water under examination ;
and, during the progrefs of the evaporation, to feparate,
by a filter, the fubftances depofited.

Various celebrated chemifts have fince been fuccefsful
in refearches into the nature of mineral waters. None
of them has failed to make important difeoveries con-
cerning the different principles contained in thofe fluids.
Thus Boulduc difeovered in them, natrum, the nature of
which he afeertained, — Le Roy of Montpellier, calcare-
ous muriate, — Margrafimagnefian muriate, — Dr Prieftley,
carbonic acid, — Meffrs Monnet and Bergman, fulphur-
ated hydrogenous, or hepatic, gas. The two laffc of thefe
chemifts, befides enriching this department of chemical

knowledge

Definition and Hifiory of Mineral Waters. 363

knowledge with new difcoveries, have publilhed complete
treatifes on the proceffes for the analyfis of mineral waters,
and have introduced into it, more accuracy and precifion,
by which it is greatly improved. There are, belides,
many analyfes of particular mineral waters, which have
been made by very ingenious chemifts, and throw much
light on this part of experimental knowledge, which is,
with good reafon, confidered as the mod difficult branch
of chemiftry. Our limits do not here permit us to enter
into a detail of all the information concerning mineral
waters to be found in the different works on the fubje&:
But we (hall take care to mention, occafionally, the au-
thors from whom we derive the information which we
communicate.

§ II. Of the Principles contained in Mineral Waters.

r.. is only within thefe few years, that all the principles
liable to be diffolved in mineral waters have been cer-
tainly known. The reafon of this may be naturally un-
derffood to be, that we have only of late acquired the
chemical knowledge neceffary to enable us to determine
the nature of tliofe matters, and that their exiftence
could not be afcertained till the means proper for that
purpofe were adopted. Another reafon which has re-
tarded the progrefs of fcience in this department, is,
that mineral matters arc never found diffolved in waters
but in very fmall quantities, and a number of them al-
ways mixed together ; and thefe circumftances conceal
from obfervation the properties by which they are re-
fpeftively diftinguilhed. Notwithftanding thefe and other
unfavourable circumftances, the numerous refearches of
the chemifts above mentioned, and of others to be here-
after

Principles contained in Mineral Waterto

after taken notice of, have {hewn, that feveral mineral
fubftances are very generally found in water ; that fome
others are but feldom found naturally diflolved in that
fluid ; and, laftly, that various mineral fubftances are
never diflolved in it at all. Let us, however, review the
different claffes of thefe fubftances, in the fame order in
which we have already traced their hifhory .

Siliceous earth is fometimes fufpended in waters ; and
being then very much attenuated, it is not liable to be
precipitated ; but the proportion in which it is found is
always exceedingly fmall.

Aluminous earth is likewife met with in waters. The
extraordinary finenefs of that earth, which caufes it to be
diffufed all through water, makes it alfo deftroy the tran-
fparency of the fluid. Argillaceous waters are therefore
foul and wbitilh,- and of a pearl or opaline colour : they
likewife feel greafy, and have received the name of Ja-
ponic c ecus.

Barytes, magnefia, and lime, are never pure in water,
but always combined with acids.

Neither are the fixed alkalis ever found in water, in
a ftate of purity, but often in neutral falts.

The fame is the cafe with ammoniac and mofl of the
acids. Yet carbonic acid is often found in waters, in a.
flate of freedom, and peflefled of all its properties : It
even characterizes a particular clafs of mineral waters,
known by the name of gazeous, fpiritous, or acidulated
•waters.

There are none of the perfect neutral falts often found
in folution in mineral waters, except fulphate of foda or
Glauber -fait, muriate of foda, muriate of potafti, and
carbonate of foda.

Sulphate of lime, calcareous ' muriate, chalk, fulphate
of magnefia or Epfom-falt, muriate of magnefia, and car-
bonate

Principles contained in Mineral Waters. 365

Ibonate of magnefia, are more commonly met with in
water than any of the other terrene falts. As to nitrate
of lime and nitrate of magnefia, which fome chemifts tell
i us they have found in mineral waters j thefe falts are
fcarce ever found but in fait waters, not in mineral waters
properly fo called.

Aluminous neutral falts, as W’ell as thofe which have
a bafe of barytes, are almoft never found in folution in
waters. Alum or aluminous fulphate appears to exift in
fome umters. f

Pure hydrogenous gas has not been hitherto found in
mineral waters.

Neither has pure fulphur been found in thefe fluids :
fometimes, though bat feldom, they contain a fmall
quantity of it in the ftate of fulphure of foda. But it is
moft frequently fulphurated hydrogenous gas which mi-
neralizes fulphureous mineral w'aters.

Laflly, Iron is more commonly found in mineral waters
than any other of the metals : It is found in them in two
different ftates, — either combined with carbonic acid, or
in union with fulphuric acid. Some chemifls have been
of opinion, that it may alfo exifl in waters in a pure me-
tallic ftate, without any intermediate acid. But as this
metal is fcarce ever found in nature, unlefs in the ftate
of oxide, and in combination with carbonic or fulphuric
acid, — this opinion could never have been adopted, if
its authors had not been ignorant of the exiftence of the
former of thefe two acids, and at a lofs to conceive how
iron could be diffolved in water, without the help of the

fulphuric

f We fpeak not, here, of the opinion of Givre, and other
chemifts, who thought alum to be one of the principles the moft
prevalent in mineral waters ; but of the accurate analyfes by which
M. Mitouart difeovered the exiftence of alum in the waters of
Dominique de Vais, — aud M. Opoix, in the waters of Provins.

3 66 Principles contained in Mineral Waters,

fulphuric acid. Bergman afferts, that both it and man-*
ganefe are found in fome waters in union with muriatk
acid.

Arfenic, fulphate of copper, and fulphate of zinc,
which are found in many waters, communicate to them
noxious qualities ; and the only reafon for being at pains
to dete<fl any of thefe falts in water, is, in order that the
water may be carefully abflained from.

Several authors have admitted the exigence of bitumen
in mineral waters ; but Tcarce any chemifl now agrees to
this. It was the bitter tafle of thefe waters which made
them be fufpe&ed to contain this oleaginous body. But
bitumen is now known not to have any fuch tafle ; and
the waters are known to derive it from calcareous mu-
riate.

It is eafy to imagine, that as water runs through the
interior parts of the globe, efpecialJy in mountains, it
mufl naturally be impregnated with the different fub-
flances here enumerated. The different flrata of earth
through which waters run, and the extent of thofe flrata,
likewife ferve to account for their being more or lefs im-
pregnated with mineral principles, and for the diverfity
of the principles found at different times in the fame wa-
ters,— efpecially if to thefe confiderations we add, that
the various alterations to which our globe is liable, par-
ticularly at the furface, and in its more elevated parts,
mufl often caufe thofe fluids to change the direction of
their courfe.

§ III. Different Claffes of Mineral Waters.

JfPvOM what has been here faid concerning the differ-
ent matters ufually contained in mineral waters, the
Header may perceive, that the claffes of mineral waters

may

I

Different Claffes of Mineral Waters. 367

may be equal in number to the terrene, faline, and me-
tallic matters liable to be diffolved in the fluid ; and of
confequence very numerous. But it is to be obferved,
that no one of the fubftances which we have enumerated
is ever found in waters alone, and unaccompanied with
any of the others ; and that waters often contain mine-
rals, to the number of three, four, five, or even more.
This is one difficulty unfavourable to a fyftematic divifion
of mineral waters, according to the principles which they
contain. Yet, by confidering principally the matter which
exifts in the greatefl abundance in any mineral water,
and whofe properties are the mod eminent, we may form
diftin&ions which, though not exceedingly accurate, will
yet ferve to indicate the nature of any of thefe fluids,
and enable us to judge of its virtues. In this way have
mineral waters been diflinguiffied by the different che-
mifls who have engaged in experiments upon them.
M. Monnet divides them into three claffes, — alkaline,
fulphureous, and ferruginous. From late difcoveries,
it appears neceffary to enlarge the number of the claffes.
M. Duchanoy, who has publifhed a valuable w7ork upon
mineral waters, diffinguifhes them into ten claffes,—
gazeous, alkaline, earthy, ferruginous, hot without any
mineral, gazeous bath-waters, faponaceous, fulphureous,
bituminous, and faline waters. That author may indeed
be blamed for having extended the claffes of mineral wa-
ters to too great a number, as we are unacquainted with
either pure gazeous, or pure bituminous waters ; yet his
divifion is undeniably the mod complete,, and conveys the
moft juft ideas of the nature of the various mineral wa-
ters ; nor could he have adopted any other more fuitable
to his fubjeft.

To explain briefly the order in which mineral waters
may be arranged according to their principles, and com-
plete

363

Acidulated Waters.

plete what we have already faid on this fubjett, we (hall
here propofe another divifion of thofe waters, lefs ex-
tenfive, but more regularly fyftematic than M.Duchanoy’s:
in which it is to be obferved, that we do not include
bath-waters which are merely hot without an addition
of any mineral, as the bell chemifts confider thefe as no-
thing elfe but hot water: neither do we choofe to include
bituminous waters, as there are none, really fuch, known
to exift in nature.

To us it appears, that all waters may be arranged in
four claffes, — acidulated waters, fait waters, fulphureous
waters, and ferruginous waters.

Class I. Acidulated Waters.

GAZEOUS Waters, which may be, with much more
propriety, called acidulated, are waters in which carbonic
acid predominates. They are known by the poignancy
of their taile, and the facility with which they boil, and
give out bubbles, even by (baking. They redden tin£fure
of turnfole, and precipitate lime-water and alkaline ful-
phures. We know of no waters containing this acid, in
a pure, infulated (late; and waters of this clafs may there-
fore be fubdivided into feveral orders, according to the'
other principles contained in them, or the feveral modi-
fications which they difplay. They all appear to contain:
either more or lefs of alkali and calcareous earth ; but
their different degrees of temperature enable us to di-
vide them very naturally into two orders. The firft of
thefe orders may comprehend cold acidulated and alkaline
waters, fuch as thofe of Seitz, Saint Myon, Bard, Langeac,
Chateldon, Vais, &c. Under the fecond, we may arrange
hot or bath acidulated and alkaline waters, — fuch as
thofe of Mont d’Or, Vichy, Chatelguyon, & c.

w

Clajs

Saline or Salt Water ft

Class II. Saline or Salt Waters,

WE give the name of faline or fait waters to waters’
holding in folution a quantity of neutral falts, fufRcient-
ly confiderable to aft in a very difcernible manner, mod
commonly purgative, on the animal oeconomy. It is eafy
to difcover the theory and the nature of thefe waters :
they are precifely like the folutions of falts which we
prepare in the laboratory 5 only, they al'molt always
contain two or three different forts of falts. Sulphate of
foda is very feldom found in them : the faline principles
by which they are generally mineralized are, fulphate
of magnefia or Epfom fait, marine fait or muriate of fo-
da, calcareous muriate, and magnefian muriate, either
feparately or together. The waters of Sedlitz, Seydf-
chutz, and Egra, contain Epfom fait, which is ufually
mixed with muriate of magnefia. The waters of Bala-
fuc contain muriate of foda, chalk, and calcareous and
magnefian muriate : thofe of Bourbonrie, contain muri-
ate of foda, fulphate of lime, and chalk : thofe of Ls
Mothe are dill more compound than any of the preced-
ing, and hold in folution, muriate of foda, fulphate of
lime, chalk, fulphate of magnefia, muriate of magnefia,
and an extraflive matter. On this head, it is to be ob-
ferved, that falts with a bafe of magnefia, are much more
common in water than was thought till very lately ; and
that, in analyfes, they are feldom accurately recognized
or diftingu ifhed from calcareous muriate.

Class III. Sulphureous Waters .

THE name bf fulphureous waters has been given to
mineral waters appearing to poffefs fome of the proper-
Yol. III. A a ties

3t o Sulphureous Water 4.

ties of fulphur,— fuch as its fmel!, and its power of coj
louring diver. Chemids were long Grangers to the true
mineralizer of thefe waters. Mod of them took it to be
ftllphur ; hut they could never prove the prefence of
fulphur, — ac lead, they could never detect more than a
few particles of it. Thofe who examined fome of thefe
waters, admitted in them the exigence either of fulphu-
reous fpirit, or of an alkaline fulphure. MelTrs Venel
and Monnet were the fil'd who objected to this opinion ;
M. Monnet, efpecially, came very near the truth, by re-
prefenting fulphureous waters as (imply impregnated with
the vapour of liver of fulphur. The younger Rouelle
lays likewife, that factitious fulphureous water may be
produced, by (baking common water, in contaCt with air
difengaged by an. acid from an alkaline fulphure. Berg-
man has greatly improved this doCtrine, by examining the
properties of fulphurated hydrogenous gas, of which we
fpoke under the article fulphur. He has proved it to be
this gas which mineralizes fulphureous waters, which he
has therefore called, after it, hepatic waters ; and he gives
directions how to didinguidi the prefence of fulphur. —
Motwithdanding thefe difeoveries, M. Duchanoy fpeak-
ing of fulphureous waters, allows them to contain ful-
phure, fometimes alkaline, fometimes calcareous, and
fometimes aluminous; and in this he follows the opinion
, of le Roy of Montpellier, who, as we related under the
hidory of fulphur , propofed to form factitious fulphure-
ous waters from fulphure with a bafe of magnefia. It
appears, that there are actually waters which contain a
little fulphure, and others again mineralized limply by hy-
drogenous gas. In this cafe, fulphureous waters mud
be didinguiflhed into two orders : — fulphureous waters,
Containing naturally a little alkaline or calcareous ful-
phure J and fulphureous waters, which are only impreg-
nated

| Ferruginous Wafers. 371

If *

nated with hydrogenous gas. The waters of Bareges
and Cauterers, and the Bonnes waters, appear to belong
to the former of thefe claffes ; while, again, thole of
Saint-Amant, Aix-la-Chapelle, and Montmorency, belong
to the fecond. Moll of thefe are hot-bath waters : The
water of Enghien-les-Paris, or Montmorency, is cold.

Class IV. Ferruginous Waters. ,

AS iron is the moft plentiful, and the mod liable to
alteration of all metals, it is by no means furprifmg that
water ffiould be eafily impregnated with it. According-
ly, ferruginous waters are the mod copious, and the moil
common mineral waters. Modern chemiftry has thrown
much light on this clafs of waters. They were former-
ly thought to be all fulphuric. M. Monnet affirms, that
fcarce any of them contain fulphate of iron ; and he is
of opinion, that the metal is diffolved in them without
the intervention of any acid.

It is now known, that iron, not in the flate of fulphate
of iron, is diffolved by means of carbonic acid ; and thus
forms the fait which we have denominated carbonate of
iron. Meffrs Lane, Rouelle, Bergman, and various othei^
chemifts, have ellabliffied this truth beyond a doubt.— -
The different proportions of Carbonic acid, and the ffate
of iron in waters which owe their virtues to this metal,
induce us to diftinguifli this fourth clafs into three orders.

The firfl comprehends acidulated martial waters, irl
which the iron is held in folution by carbonic acid, and
the acid exifts in lo large a proportion, ds to render them
poignant, and fomewhat four to the tafle. The waters
of Buffang, Spa, Pyrmont, Pougues, and La Dominique
de Vais are of this order.

A a 2 Thi

372 Ferruginous Wafers.

The fecond order contains ftmple martial waters, ha7«
ing the iron diffolved by carbonic acid, without any ex-
cels of the acid. Thofe of Forges, Aumale, Conde, and
mod other ferruginous waters belong to this order. — -
This diftin&ion among ferruginous waters was made by
M. Duchauoy.

But we may add a third order, after M. Monnet. — «
This order comprehends waters containing fulphate of
iron. Such waters are extremely rare ; but there are
fome fuch. M. Monnet ranks the waters of Paffy in this
order. M. Qpoix admits the exiftence of fulphate of
iron, even in a very confiderable proportion, in the wa-
ters of Provins. M. Fottrcy, indeed, denies its exiftence
in them, and imagines the iron in thofe waters to be dif-
folved by carbonic acid : But We cannot yet decide in
this cafe ; for the refults of the two chemifts are di-
rectly oppolite to each other, and a new examination of
the waters is therefore requiftte. We may add, that iron
is never found alone in waters : it is always mixed with
chalk, fulphate of lime, different muriatic falts, &c. But
as the metal is the principal bafts of the properties of
fuch waters, they are, therefore, according to the prin-
ciples which we have laid down, to be called ferruginous
zvaters

As to faponaceous waters, which are admitted by M.
Duchanoy, before we can allow their exiftence, we mud:
wait till chemical and medical experiments determine the
caufe of their faponaceous properties, which that phy-

fician

* In this claffical enumeration of waters, we avoid fpeaking or
fuch as contain arfenic and copper; they being confidered as poi-
fonous. We likewife pafs over in filence waters containing ammo-
niacal falts and extra&ive fubftances, produced by the putrcfa&ion
of organic matters, over which the water has been ftagnatcd-
Waters of thefe kinds are not medicinal.

ferruginous Waters. 373

ticiau thinks owing to clay, and the effe&s which thofe
properties enable them to produce on the animal oscono-
my, as medicines.

From thefe particulars it appears, that all mineral or
' medicinal waters are comprehended in nine orders.

Cold acidulated waters.

Hot or bath acidulated waters.

Sulphuric fait waters.

Muriatic fait waters.

Simple fulphureous waters.

Sulphurated gazeous waters.

Simple ferruginous waters.

Ferruginous and acidulated waters.

Sulphuric ferruginous waters.

§ IV. Examination of Mineral Wafers , as diflinguifbed 1y
Phyfical Properties.

^FTER mentioning what different matters are found
in waters, and exhibiting a flight lketch of the
manner in which they may be divided into claffes and
orders, according to their principles ; we mult next
give an account of the proceffes for analysing them, and
difhinguifhing, with all poffible accuracy, what fubftan-
ces they contain. This analyfis has been thought the
mod difficult part of chemiftry ; and with good reafon ;
as it requires both a familiar knowledge of all chemical
phenomena, and fkill in conducing chemical operations.
In order to afcertain, with accuracy, the nature of water,
we mull, j. obferve the fituation of the fpring from
which it proceeds, and defcribe faithfully the neighbour-
ing grounds, and ftrata of minerals ; and, in order to
difcover the nature of thofe ftrata, it will be neceffary

A a 3 to

3?4 Phyfcal Properties of Mineral Waters.

to dig trenches, and examine, by a narrow infpe<ftion,
with what fubflances the water is liable to be impregna-
ted. 2. The phyfical properties of the water, its tafle,
fmell, colour, tranfparency, weight, and temperature,
are next to be examined. Two thermometers, graduat-
ed fo as to rife and fall as nearly together as poflible,
with an araeometer, are requifite for this purpofe.
Thefe preliminary experiments lhould alfo be made in
different feafons, at different hours of the day, and
when the atmofphere is in different hates. Long con-
tinued drynefs, or copious rains, have a powerful influ-
ence on waters. Thefe firft obfervarions generally fhew
to what particular clafs the water under examination is
to be referred, and, of confequence, regulate the re-
maining part of the analyfis. 3. Sediments in the bot-
tom of bafons containing water, fubftances fwimming on
its furface, and fublimated matters exhaled from it, are
too important obje&s of obfervation to be neglefted. After
this preliminary examination, we may proceed to analy-
fis properly fo called, which is performed in three ways,
— by reagents, by diflillation, and by evaporation.

§ Y. Examination of Mineral Waters by Reagents.

are mixed with waters, in order to difeover, by
the phenomena which they produce, the nature of the
matters which thofe waters hold in folution.

The mod exaff chemifts* have always confidered the
ufe of reagents as a very uncertain means of difeover-
ing the principles of mineral waters. Their reafons for
thinking fo, are, that the action of reagents never indi-
cates, in an exaft manner, the nature of the matters held
m folution by thofe waters j and the caufes of die chan-

ts name of reagents is given to fubflances which

Examination of Mineral Waters by Reagents . 3 7 »;

90s produced in mineral waters by the mixture of re-
agents, are frequently unknown : in truth, the falinc
matters employed for this purpofe, are capable of pro-
ducing many changes, concerning the nature of which it
is very hard to fay any thing decifive. Mod of thofe,
therefore, who have engaged in refearches of this nature,
have put but little trull in reagents : They have-

thought evaporation a much furer way of dilcovering
the nature and the quantity of the principles of mineral
waters. And in the bell works on the analysis of thefe
fluids it is laid down as a principle, that reagents are to
be ul'ed only as auxiliaries, which, at the utmoll, only
atford grounds for plaufible conjeidures concerning the
principles by which the waters are mineralized. On
this account, only a certain number of reagents are now
admitted ; and the lid of thofe employed by the earlier
chemids is greatly reduced.

But it cannot at prefent be doubted, that, how-
ever gentle the heat neceflary for the evaporation.'
of waters, yet it mull produce fenlible alterations on their
principles, and change their nature fo far. as to make
their refldue, when examined by chemical procefles, afford
compounds different from thofe which were diffolved in
the water. The lofs of the gazeous matters, which arc
often among the mod active principles of mineral wa-
ters, occafions a Angular change of their nature ; <• id,
befides cauflng feveral bodies to be precipitated which
owe their folubility to the prefence of thofe volatile fub-
Aances, produces a reaction among the other fixed mat-
ters which alters their properties. The phenomena of
the double decompoiitions effected by hear, on com-
pounds which differ no alteration in cold water, cannot
be properly edimated, without a long feries of experi
saents •, and our ideas concerning them, are therefor ■

A 4 4 ^

37 6 Examination of Mineral Waters by Reagents.

as yet but very imperfect. Without entering into a te-
dious detail of particulars, it is enough, that the truth ot
this fatl is allowed by all chemifls, to convince us that it
.cannot be referred foiely to evaporation. But is there
any means of determining the nature of the fubflances
diffolved in waters, without having recourfe to the ac-
tion of heat ? Does the more accurate knowledge of
chemical phenomena, which we have derived from the
numerous experiments of modern chemifls, afford any
procefs by which the errors into which we are liable to
be led by the refulrs of evaporation, may be corrected ?
The particulars which I am about to mention, which
are ext rafted from a Memoir read by me before the
Royal Society of Medicine, will fhew that very pure
reagents, employed in a certain way, may be render-
ed much more ferviceable in the analyfis of mineral wa-
ters than has been hitherto thought.

Among the numerous reagents, the ufe of which has
been propofed in the analyfis of mineral waters, thofe
from which moft advantage may be derived, are, tinc-
ture of turnfcle, fyrup of violets, lime-water, pure or
cauflic porafh, cauftic ammoniac, concentrated fulphuric
acid, nitrous acid, prufli.ate of lime, gallic alcohol, or
fpiritaus tincture of nut-galls ; nitric folutions of mercu-
ry and filyer 5 paper coloured by the aqueous tinfture of
feryimbouc, which is rendered blue by alkalis ; the
aqueous tincture of terra merit a , to which the fame falts
.communicate a red-brown colour ; oxalic acid, for detefting
the prefence of even the fmalleft poffible quantity of
lime ; and barytic muriate, for afcertaining the prefence
jof even the moft trifling quantities of fulphuric acid.

The effefts and the ufe of thefe principal reagents
have been explained by all chemifls ; but the particular
flats in which they are to be ufed has not been fuffi-

ciently

Examination of Mineral Waters by Reagents. 377

ciently attended to. Before employing them, we fliould
carefully make ourfelves acquainted with their nature,
that we may not incur miftakes refpefting their effe&s.
Bergman has enlarged, at great length, on the effe&s
which they are capable of producing. That celebrated
chemift tells us, that paper coloured by tin&ure of turn-
folc, takes ftill a deeper colour when expofed to the ac-
tion of alkalis, but Suffers no alteration of colour from
carbonic acid. As it is principally with a view to ascer-
tain the prefence of this acid, that this colouring matter
is ufed, he advifes to employ its timfture only in water,
and to dilute it to fuch a degree as to make it take a
blue colour. He abfolutely rejetfts the ufe of fyrup of
violets, becaufe it is liable to ferment, and is Scarce ever
to be obtained genuine in Sweden. M . de Morveau adds,
in a note, that it is eafy to diftinguifn fyrup coloured by
turnfole, by means of corrofive Sublimate, which commu-
nicates to it a red colour, but gives to fyrup of violets a
green colour.

Lime-water is one of the mod ufeful reagents in the
analyfis of mineral waters, although few chemifts have
made exprefs mention of it in their works. This fluid
decompofes metallic falts, efpecially Sulphate of iron, the
metallic oxide of which it precipitates. It Separates a-
luminous earth or magnefia, from the Sulphuric, or the
muriatic acids, with which thole flibftances are often
combined in waters. It alfo indicates, by precipitation,
the prefence of carbonic acid. M. Gioanetti, a phyli-
cian of Turin, has ingenioufly contrived to afcertain,
by lime-water, the proportion of carbonic acid contained
in the waters of St Vincent. That chemift, after observ-
ing that the bulk of this acid, from which people have
been in ufe to judge of its quality, varies with the tem-
perature of the atmofphere, mixed nine parts of lime-

water

378 Examination of Mineral Waters by Reagents.

Water with two of the water of St Vincent’s. He
weighed carefully the calcareous earth formed by the
tranfition of the carbonic acid from the mineral water
into the lime ; and found, by Jacquin’s fcale, which
Chews thirteen ounces of this acid to be contained in
thirty two ounces of chalk, — that the water of St Vin-
cent’s contains fomewhat more than fifteen grains. But
as lime-water is capable of detaching carbonic from fixed al-
kali, as well as of feizing that which is in adifengaged Hate ;
M. Gioanetti, in order to afcertain exactly the quantity of
the. latter, performed the fame operation with water
deprived of its difengaged acid by ebullition. This pro-
cefs may therefore be employed to determine, in an
eafy and accurate manner, the weight of the difengag-
ed carbonic acid contained in any gazeous mineral wa-
ter.

One of the chief reafons which have induced chemifts
to pay little regard to the phenomena produced by re-
agents in the analyfis of mineral waters, is, that they
jfhew the exigence of various fubftances in thofe
waters; and it is then very difficult to difcern exactly
what effect they produce. This obfervation chiefly re-
gards potafh confidered as a reagent ; for this alkali de- .
compofes all falts formed by the union of acids with alu-
minous earth, magnefia, lime, and metallic matters.
When alkali precipitates a mineral water, it cannot be de-
termined, merely by infpe&ing the precipitate, what is the
particular nature of the earthy fait decompofed in the
experiment. Its effe&s are flill more uncertain, when
potafh faturated with carbonic acid is employed, as is
commonly done ; for the acid combined with the alkali,
then increafes the confufion. For this reafou, l recom-
mend the ufe of very pure cauftic potalh ; which has,
befides, another advantage over effervefeent alkali, as it

indicates

'Examination of Mineral Waters by Reagents. 379

indicates the prefence of chalk, which may be diflolved
in gazeous water by means of an excefs of carbonic acid.
As it feizes the acid, the chalk becomes infoluble in the
water, and is precipitated. I made myfelf certain of
this fa<ft, by pouring foap-makers’ lixivium, recently
prepared, into factious gazeous water holding chalk in
folution. The chalk was by degrees precipitated, as the
cauftic fixed alkali feized the carbonic acid by which it
had been held in folution. On evaporating this water
to drynefs, after filtration, I obtained carbonate of foda,
which effervefced in a very difcernible manner with
acids. Cauftic fixed alkali will alfo produce a precipi-
tate in mineral waters, even when they contain no earthy
faits. If they contain only an alkaline neutral fait,
lefs foluble in its nature than the cauftic alkali, the latter
will then precipitate it as it unites with the water, near-
ly in the fame way as alcohol does. M. Gioanetti ob-
ferved this phcenomenon in the waters of St Vincent : it
is, befides, eafy to exhibit it, by pouring cauftic alkali
into a folution of fulphate of potafli or muriate of foda :
either of thefe faits is foon precipitated.

Cauftic ammoniac is, in general, lefs liable to occafion
miftakes, when mixed with mineral waters ; for it de-
compofes only faits having a bafe of aluminous earth or
magnefia, but does not precipitate calcareous faits. But
there are two important obfervations to be made on this
head. The firft is, that the ammoniac muft be very cau-
ftic, not containing a fingle particle of carbonic acid ; if
not in this pure ftate, it decompofes faits with a bafe of
lime, by double affinity. The fecond is, that this mixture muft
not be left expoled to the air, when we defire to know in what
manner it acls fome hours after its formation ; for, as has
been very properly obferved by M. Gioanetti, this fait, in

Ihort time, attra&s carbonic acid from the atmofphere,

and

3‘8o Examination of Mineral Waters by Reagents

and thus becomes capable of decompofing calcareous
falts. To remove every doubt concerning fo important
a matter, I made three decifive experiments. — After dif-
folving in diftilled water, a few grains of fulphate of
lime, prepared from tranfparent calcareous fpar, with
very pure fulphuric acid, (a precaution indifpenfibly re-
quifite, — as Spanifh white, or chalk, contains both mag-
nefia and river water), I feparated the folution into two
parts. Into the firft, I poured a few drops of ammo-
niac very recently prepared and very cauftic. I put
this mixture into a clofe-ftopped phial. After eight-and-
forty hours, it was clear and tranfparent, without any
fediment : No decompofition had, therefore, taken place.
The fecond portion was treated in the fame way, with
ammoniac, but put into a veffel admitting air. At the
end of a few hours, there was formed on the upper part
of it, a cloud, which became, by degrees, thicker, and
was at laft precipitated. The precipitate afforded a live-
ly effervefcence with fulphuric acid, and thereby formed
fulphate of iime. The carbonic acid contained in this
precipitate muff have been fupplied by the ammoniac,
by which it had been attracted from the atmofphere.
This combination of carbonic acid and ammoniac forms
ammoniacal carbonate, capable of decompofing calcareous
falts by a double affinity, — as has been fhewn by Dr
Black, M. Jacquin, and feveral other chemiffs, — and as
any perfon may fee, on pouring a folution of ammonia-
cal carbonate into a folution of fulphate of lime, which
cauffic ammoniac does not render turbid. Laftly, to
make myfelf ftill more certain of the phcenomena of
this fecond experiment, I took the firft portion of the
water united with the ammoniac ; which, having beenpre-
ferved in a clofe veffel, had loft nothing of its tranfpa-
rency. I turned the mouth of the phial containing it

upon

Examination of Mineral Waters by Reagents. 381

upon a funnel belonging to a very fmall pneumato-che-
mical apparatus, and patted into this mixture, by means
of a fyphon, the carbonic acid gas difengaged from the
efFervefcent fixed alkali by the fulphuric acid. As this
acid patted in bubbles through the mixture, it became
turbid, in the (ame way as lime-water on the fame occatton.
On tiltrating it, chalk was found on the filter ; and the fil-
trated ammoniacal fulphate, by evaporation. The,gazeous
water, or liquid carbonic acid, produced the fame de-
compofition in another mixture of fulphate of lime and
cauftic ammoniac. This decifive experiment fully proves,
that it is only by double affinity, and by the addition of
carbonic acid, that ammoniac decompofes fulphate of
lime. From this it appears, that when we need to
preferve a mixture of mineral water with ammoniac,
for a few hours, (which is at times neceflary, as there are
fome earthy falts which it decompofes but very flowly),
this experiment mutt: be performed in a perfectly clofe
veflel, led accefs of air occatton a deceitful refult. This
precaution is, in general, highly neceflary in the ufe of
all reagents : Bergman and M. Gioanetti have alfo given
directions for performing it. 1 fhall here add an obfer-
vation concerning the ufe of ammoniac. As it is nor
eafy to obtain ammoniac abfolutely cauttic, and as it is
indifpenflbly neceflary to have it fuch in analyfing mine-
ral waters ; a fimple procefs may be ufed, of which I
have often found the advantage* Pour a little ammoni-
ac into a retort, having its extremity immerfed in the
mineral water: heat the retort gently • the ammoniac
gas will then be difengaged, and will pafs, in an highly
cauttic Hate, into the water. If it produce a precipitate,
the mineral water mutt certainly contain either alumi-
nous or magnefian falts, or fulphate of iron : the colour
«f the precipitate will fhow the particular nature of the

fait.

$32 Examination of Mineral Waters by Reagents.

fait. This precipitate moll frequently cbnfifts of the
chalk which was diflolved in the water, by means of
carbonic acid. The ammoniac abforbs that acid, and
the chalk is then depofited. It is hard to fay, from the
properties of the earthy precipitate, formed in mineral
water by caultic ammoniac, to which of the two bafes it
is to be referred, and whether the neutral fait decom-
• pofed be magnefian or aluminous. But the manner in
which it is formed, will indicate its chara&er. On dif-

I

folving fix grains of fulphate of magnefia in four ounces
of diftilled water, and fix grains of alum in the fame
quantity of this fluid, and caufing a little ammoniac gas
to pafs into each of thefe foludons ; the former became
inftantaneoufly turbid ; but twenty minutes elapfed be-
fore the alum began to be precipitated. Care had been ta-
ken to have the phial which contained this mixture very
clofely flopped. The fame phenomena took place with
nitrate and muriate of magnefia, and aluminous earth,
diflolved in an equal quantity of diftilled water, and
treated with the fame precautions. The rapidity or
flownefs with which a mineral water is precipitated by
the addition of ammoniac gas, is therefore a criterion
by which we may diftinguilh the nature of the terrene
fait which that alkali decompofes. In general, falts
with a bafe of magnefia are much more common
in water, than falts with a bafe of aluminous earth.

I muft not forget to mention a fa<ft related by Berg-
man : Ammoniac will form, with fulphate of mag-
nefia, a compound in which a portion of that neutral
fait, not decompofed, is combined with a portion of
ammoniacal fulphate. Perhaps this undecompofed por-
tion of the fulphate of magnefia forms, with the ammo-
niacal fulphate, a mixed neutral fait, refembling ammo-
niaco-mercurial muriate, or akmhroth fait. Ammct

niacy -

Examination of Mineral Waters by Reagents. 383

niac, therefore, precipitates only a part of magnefia,
and cannot indicate the exaft quantity of Epfom-falt to
which it ferves for a bafe. I would therefore prefer
lime-water for afcertaining the nature and the quantity
of falts with a bafe of magnefia contained in mineral
waters. It polfeffes likewife the property of precipitat-
ing falts with a bafe of aluminous earth, much more
fpeedily, and in much greater abundance than ammo-
niac gas *.

Concentrated fulphuric acid produces a dull white pre-
cipitate in water, containing barytes : but as this earth is
but very feldom found in mineral waters, 1 pafs to the
other effe&s of this reagent. When it produces bub-
bles in any mineral water, it indicates the prefence ei-
ther of chalk, carbonate of foda, or pure carbonic acid.
The prefence of each of thefe fubftances, is diftinguifhed
by fome peculiar phenomena. When we heat water,
containing chalk, after pouring into it fulphuric acid,
there are fpeedily formed a pellicle, and a fediment of
fulphate of lime ; which does not happen on the fame
occafion to waters fimply alkaline. It would, at firfl,
appear, that fulphate of lime muff be preciptated affoon
as fulphuric acid is poured into water containing chalk :
but this very feldom happens without the help of heat ;
as thefe waters generally contain an excels of carbonic
acid, which promotes the folution of fulphate of lime ;

and

* The Reader will perceive, that I am repeating feveral
fafts which have been previoufly mentioned in the courfe of the
work. I have made no fcruple of doing fo, in order to render this
little treatife on the analyfis of mineral waters the more intelligi-
ble and compleat ; and in order to exhibit together, all thofc prin-
ciples and fafts concerning the procefies for analyfing them, which
it appears fo abfolutely necefiary for him to poflels who engages
in experiments of this nature.

3^4 Examination of Mineral Waters by Reagents.

and they mufl be deprived of that acid before the fall'
can be feparated. Convincing evidence of this fa£t may
be obtained by pouring a few drops of concentrated
fulphuric acid into a certain quantity; of lime-water,
precipitated and afterwards clarified by carbonic acid.
If the lime-water contain a good deal of regenerated
calcareous earth, a precipitate of fulphate of lime will be
formed, either in a few minutes, or more flowly, and
in proportion as the free carbonic acid is feparated. If
a precipitate be not formed fimply by reft, which hap-
pens when the water contains but little fulphate of lime,
and a confiderable exeefs of carbonic acid, expofure to a
gentle heat will produce in the liquor a pellicle and a
precipitate of calcareous fulphate.

The red nitrous acid is recommended by. Bergman for
precipitating fulphur from hepatized waters. To prove
the certainty of the fad, all that is necefiary, is, to pour
a few drops of this ruddy fuming acid into diflilled wa-
ter, into which gas difengaged by acids from caullic al-
kaline fulphure has been previoufiy introduced, through
apneumato-chemical apparatus. This artificial hepatized
Water, which differs from natural fulphureous waters in be-
ing more highly charged with mineralizing matter, and
confequently liable to be more eafily decompofed, affords a
precipitate with nitrous acid, in the fpace of a few mo-
ments. This precipitate is of a yellowifh white colour :
when colle&ed on- a filter and dried, it burns with the
flame and fmell peculiar to fulphur, of which it pofieffes
all the charafleriflic properties. It appears that nitrous
acid alters fulphurated hydrogenous gas, as well as all
other inflammable matters, in confequence of its con-
taining fuch a quantity of oxigene, in that particular
ftate in which it exifls in it. Scheele has recommended
the oxigenated muriatic add for precipitating fulphur from

thefe

Examination of Mineral Waters by Reagents. 385

tliefe fame waters. Only a very little of ft muftbeufed;
for any extraordinary quantity burns the fulphur, and
reduces it to fulphuric acid, as I have obfer.ved of the
water of Enghien. The fulphureous acid precipitates-
fulphur from mineral waters with great facility.

No reagent is more imperfectly known, in refpeCt to
the manner in which it afts, than the alkaline lixivium
of blood, called phlogifiicated alkali. Chemifts have
long ago obferved, that this liquor contains Pruffian:
blue ready formed. It was thought that this blue
might be feparated from it by an acid ; and it has been
propofed, in this (late, as a fubflance capable of detect-
ing iron in mineral wTaters. Can th'e colouring part of
Pruffian blue be contained in the lixivium of the blood,,-
as was Bucquet’s opinion, and as has been fince afferted
by M. Baunach ? However that may be, that lixivium
ought not to be employed. Macquer, in confequence of
his difcovery concerning the decompofition of Pruffian
blue by alkalis, has propofed the ufe of potafh faturated
with the colouring matter of this blue, for the purpofei
of afcertaining the exigence of iron in mineral waters.
However, as this liquor hill contains a little Pruffian blue
that may be feparated by an acid as Macquer has directed/
M. Baume advifes to nddto this Pruffian alkali, two or three
ouncesof dffiilled vinegar to the pound, and to digefl it by a
moderate heat till the whole of the Pruffian blue be preci-
pitated. Pure fixed alkali muff then be poured in, to faturate-
the acid of vinegar. Notwith'flanding the ingenuity of this--
procefs,T have had occafion to obferve, that this Pruffian
alkali purified by vinegar, fometimes depofites blue,
at the end of a long time, — efpecially -if evaporated.
M. Gioanetti made the fame obfervation, when he eva-
porated to drynefs a quantity of Pruffian alkali purified
according to M. Baume’s directions. He has propofed
two different proceffes for rendering this liquor more
. Yol. Ill, B b

pu.re3-

3'8'6 Examination of Mineral Waters by Reagents.

pure, and freeing it of every particle of iron. In the
one, he direfts to fuperfaturate Pruffian alkali with dif-
tilled vinegar, evaporate it to drynefs by a gentle heat,
diffolve the mafs remaining in the diflilled water, and
filtrate the folution. All the Pruffian bine remains
on the filter, and the liquor contains no more of it.
The other procefs confifis in neutralizing this alkali
with a folution of alum, filtrating the liquor, and feparat-
ing the fulphate of potafli by evaporation. Thefe two
liquors afford not an atom of Pruffian blue with pure
afcids, nor yet by evaporation to drynefs. Lime-water,
faturated with the colouring matter of Pruffian blue, of
which 1 have fpoken under the article iron , does not
require all thefe operations. When poured on a folu-
tiori of fulphate of iron, it infiantaneoufly forms a pure
Pruffian blue* without any mixture of green. Acids
precipitate from it nothing but a few particles of blue.
It therefore contains no iron ; and is preferable to
Pruffian alkalis for the purpofe of allaying mineral wa-
fers. The caufe of this phenomenon muff doubtlefs be,
t-hat lime diffolved in water does not aft near fo power-
fully on iron as alkalis. This pruffiate of lime appears
to me very proper for detefting iron in ferruginous waters,
whether gazeous or fulphuric. In faft, as the carbonic
o-as which holds iron in folution in waters is of an acid

O ^

nature, it decompofes Pruffian lixivia by double affinity,
pi ft as well as fulphate of iron does. I tried pruffiate of
lime on the waters of Spa and Paffy : I infiantaneoufly
obtained, in that of Spa, a difcernible blue, and in that
of Paffy, a very copious blue. Here, therefore, is a
liquor which may be very eafily prepared, and con-
tains no Pruffian blue ; and is therefore very proper for
the putpofe of indicating the prefence of even the fmall-
eit quantity of iron in waters. It is a fort of neutral
fait, formed by the combination of the Pruffic acid, or the

t colouring

Examination of Mineral Waters by Reagents. 387

colouring parr of Pruffian blue with lime. I have obferv-
ed, in the hiftory of iron, that M. Scheele has deduced the
fame inference concerning the utility of this liquor, from
an account of a trial of it which I published in the year
1 780.

Nut-gall, and all four, aftringent vegetable fubftances*
oak-bark, the fruit of the cyprefs-tree, the hulks of
nuts, &c., precipitate folutions of iron, and communicate
to that metal different colours, according to its quanti-
ty, its particular Hate, and the Hate of the water in
which it is diffolved. There are a vail variety of lhades
of this colour, from a pale rofe-colour, to the deepell black.
It is acknowledged, that water’s deriving a purple colour
from a mixture of tin&ure of nut-gall, is no proof that
iron exiffs in it in a metallic Hate ; for fulphate and car-
bonate of iron likewife rake a purple colour by the infu-
fion of nut-gall. It is rather the quantity of the iron, the
degree of its adherence to the water, and the ftage to
which the decompofition of the folutioni is advanced, to
which the diverfities of colour, obfervable in thefe pre-
cipitations, are to be afcribed ; as has been very well ob-
ferved by M. Duchanoy, in his Effays on the Art of
forming Factitious Mineral Waters. We have formerly
mentioned, that the aftringent principle is in fome mea-
fure a peculiar acid, as it combines with alkalis, gives
a red tinge to blue vegetable colours, deeompofes alka-
line fulphures, and combines with metallic oxides. To
afcertain the prefence of iron in a mineral water, pow-
der of nut-gall, a cold infufion of the fame fubftance,
and a tinCture formed from it with alcohol are employed.
The tinCture is preferred to the other two preparations;
being much lefs liable to alteration than the folution in
water, which foon becomes mouldy. What is more fin-
gular, the produCts of diftilled nut-gall likewife colour
ferruginous folutions. The folution of it in acids, in ab

B b 2 kalis,

388 Examination of Mineral Waters by Rcagentr*

kalis, in oils, or in tether, exhibits the fame phenome-
non. The (late of die iron which this matter precipi-
tates from acids is very little known : it is a fort of neu-
tral fait, which, though very black, is not fubjeft to the
attraCHon of the magnet. It diflolves {lowly, and
without any perceptible effervefcence, in acids. The
aCiion of lire deprives it of tlvefe properties, and ren-
ders it fubjecl to attraction. Nut-gall is fo powerful a
reagent, that one drop of its tinCture will, in thefpace
of five minutes, colour water containing fulphate of iron,
only in the proportion of one twenty- fourth part of a
grain to nearly three pints.

The twro lad reagents which we (hall propofe to be
ufed in examining waters, are the folutions of filver and
mercury in the nitric acid. Thefe folutions have been
ufed to deteCt the fulphuric and the muriatic acid in- mi-
neral waters. But fevaral ether fubdances will alfo pre-
cipitate them,, which contain not a particle of either of
thofe acids. The white, ponderous {trim which the fo-
lution of filver produces in water containing muriate of
foda, only in the proportion of half a grain to the pint,
demondrate, in a very fun pie and unequivocal manner,
the prefence of the acid of that fait: But they do not,
in the fame manner, dereCt the fulphuric acid ; for, by
Bergman’s calculation, at lead thirty grains of fulphate
of foda to the pint, are necefl’ary to its producing a fend-
ble effeCl. Add to this, that fixed alkali, chalk, and magne-
fia, precipitate the nitric folution of filver in a much more
didinCt manner. The precipitation of a mineral water
by this folution cannot therefore ferve to determine,
in a precife manner, to what faline or earthy fubdance
its mineralization is owing.

The folution of mercury by the nitric acid, is dill
more liable to occafion midakes. It not only indicates
the prefence of the fulphuric and the muriatic acids m

watexs.

Examination of Mineral Waters by Reagents. 3 8^

waters, but is alfo precipitated, in a yellowifh powder, by al-
kaline and earthy carbonates ; a property which might
occafion miftakes with refpeft to the fulphuric acid. It is
commonly thought, that the very copious white precipitate
• which it produces in water, mud be owing to the pre-
fence of a muriatic fait $ but mucilages and extractive
fubftances difplay the fame phenomenon, — as is at pre-
fent well known to all chemifls. Befides thefe errors
and uncertainties to which we are liable in applying the
nitric folution of mercury to this purpofe, in confequence
of its producing the fame precipitate with various fubftan-
ces, the date of the folution itfelf is likely to occafion others;
of which we need to be aware, in order to avoid fome
blunders of no fmall confequence, which we may other-
wife commit in analyfing waters. Bergman has taken
notice of a part of the lingular diverfities obfervable in
this folution, in confequence of its being prepared hot
or cold, — efpecially with refpeft to the colour of the pre-
cipitates which it affords by different intermedia : But he
has not faid a word concerning the property which this
folution poffeffes, of being liable to precipitation by
diflilled water, when highly faturated with the mercurial
oxide ; although IVL. Monnet had announced this faft
in his Treatife on the Solution of Metals. As this is
a matter of great importance in regard to the analyfis of
waters, I therefore engaged in a more particular exami-
nation of it, with a view to afcertain and eftablifh, at
leaft fomething concerning it ; and 1 fncceeded, as lam
about to relate, by a very fimple procefs. I made a great
many folutions of mercury in very pure nitric acid, with
different proportions of the two fubftances, hot and cold ;
and ufing acids of various degrees of flrength. The
following were the refults of my experiments.

Eb 3

1. Solu-

39° Examination of Mineral Waters by Reagents »

t . Solutions prepared cold, are, with more or lefs rapidi-
ty, charged with a quantity of mercury, which is greater or
imaller, according as the nitric acid is more or lefs con-
centrated. But, whatever quantity of mercury a concen-
trated acid may have difl'olved cold, this folution is never
precipitated by water. I difl'olved, in cold, two drachms
and a half of mercury, in two drachms of red, and high-
ly fuming nitrous acid : the whole weighed, in a bottle
containing an ounce of diftilled water, one ounce, four
drachms, and five grains. The combination took place
with amazing rapidity : More than one fourth of the acid
was loft in very thick nitrous gas, and in aqueous va-
pours exhaled by the heat of the mixture. This folu-
tion was of a dark-green colour, and very tranfparenr.
I poured fome drops of it into half an ounce of diftilled
water: there were immediately formed fome whitifli
Arise, which were dilfolved by fhaking, and did not
yield a precipitate. This, however, was the mod con-
centrated folution that I could prepare in a cold tempe-
rature : it difplayed the mod confiderable motion and efier-
vefcence, and yielded the largeft quantity of ruddy vapours.
As it had depofited cryfials, I added two drachms of di-
flilled water, which difl'olved the whole, without exhibiting
any appearance of a precipitation. Such, therefore, as
are prepared in a cold temperature, with common nitric
acid, and half their weight of mercury, can be in no
danger of being precipitated by water, and may be con-
fidently employed in the analyfis of mineral waters.

2. However weak the nitric acid, when expofed over
mercury to a confiderable heat, it diflolves more of the me-
tal than the fame acid cold w ill difiolve, even in the ftrong-
efi ftate. The folution is of a light-yellow colour, and
fat and thick : by refi, it precipitates a yellowifh, fhapelefs
raafs, which, with boiling water, may be changed into

yellow

Examination of Mineral Waters by Reagents. 391

yellow oxide, or beautiful turbith. This folution, when
poured into diftilled water, forms a very copious preci-
pitate, of a yellow colour refembling turbith. A lolu-
tion prepared in a cold temperature, will exhibit the
fame refult, if expofed to a heat fo intenfe as to make k
exhale a good deal of nitrous gas. Tliefe heated folia-
tions fhould not be employed in the analysis of mineral
waters ; for they are decompofed by diftilled water.

3. The only difference between thefe two forts of fo-
liations appears to be, that there is a much larger quan-
tity of mercurial oxide in that which is precipitated by
water, than in that which is not decompofable in this
fluid. 1 proved this truth by a comparative evaporation
of equal quantities of the two folutions, in medical phials,
in order to reduce them to red precipitate. I obtained,
from the folution which is liable to precipitation by wa-
ter, one-fourth more than from the other. The fpeci-
fic gravities likewife afford a criterion by which the re-
fpeftive proportions of the oxide of mercury in thefe
different liquors may be eflimated. I compared the
weights of equ?d quantities of three different folutions of
mercury. One of them, which yielded no precipitate
m diftilled water, and had been formed by the firft of
the above-mentioned operations, weighed one ounce, one
drachm, and fixty-feven grains, in a bottle containing an
ounce of diftilled water. The fecond, which had been
prepared by a very gentle heat, communicated a light,
opaline colour to diftilled water, without producing any
very difcernible precipitate : it weighed, in the fame
bottle, one ounce, fix drachms, and twenty-four grains.
Laftly, the third of thefe mercurial folutions, which
was pretty hot, and precipitated a true turbith mineral,
of a dirty-yellow colour in diftilled water, weighed one
cunce, feven drachms, and twenty-five grains. 1 had

B b 4 " fljjj

§ y 2 Examination of Mineral Waters by Reagents.

Aill one decifive experiment to make, which might either
.confirm or refute my opinion. If the folution which af-
forded a precipitate in diftilled water, owed that proper-
ty to its containing an excefs of mercurial oxide ; in that
cafe, the addition of more acid might be expefted to
render it incapable of yielding a precipitate ; and this
aftually happened. On pouring aquafortis into a folution
which was decompofable by water, it was immediately
rendered incapable of yielding a precipitate to that fluid,
and reduced into the fame ftate with that which is pre-
pared (lowly, without the application of any greater
heat than the temperature of the atmofphere. M. Mon-
net has already recommended this procefs, to preferve
cryftals of mercurial nitrate from being reduced to oxide
by the contafl of the air. By a contrary procefs, and
by evaporating a portion of the acid of a good folution
not fufceptible of precipitation by water, it may be re-
duced to a folution containing a much larger proportion
pf mercurial oxide, and confequently fufceptible of de-
compofition by water. It may be refiored to its former
hate, by adding a quantity of acid equal to what it has
loft.

Thefe confiderations appeared to me of importance,
in order to render the effe£ls of reagents on water, fome-
what lefs uncertain. But, whatever the accuracy with
which we proceed in thefe refearchCs, however exten-
five our knowledge of the degrees of purity, and the
different flares of the fubflances which are combined
with mineral waters, in order to difcover their princi-
ples; if it muff be acknowledged, that each of thofe
reagents indicates the prefence of two or three different
matters ; we muff be always at a Iofs to afeertain the
particular nature of the refults which they at any time
prcdqce. Lime, for inflance, feizes carbonic acid : it

precipitates

Examination of Mineral Waters by Reagents. 3 9 3

precipitates both hilts that have alumina or magnefia
for their bafe, and metallic fairs : Ammoniac produces the
fame effeft : fixed alkali precipitates both thefe and cal-
careous falts : calcareous prufiiate, pruffiate of potato,
and gallic alcohol, precipitate fulphate and carbonate of
iron: the nitric folutions of filver and mercury decom-
pofe all fulphuric and muriatic falts, however different,
or however mingled together in the fame water ; — they
are alfo decompofed themfelves, by alkalis, chalk, and
magnefia. Amid thefe complicated phenomena, how is
it poffible to difcern the peculiar nature of any alteration
produced in water by any of thofe reagents, or to didin-
guito, from their operation, whether the water be fim-
ple or compound ?

Thefe quedions, though very perplexing at a time
when chemidry was not confcious of all her drength,
may now, however, be difcuffed, even with hopes of
refolving them in a fatisfa&ory manner.— In the drd
place, I obferve, that the nature of reagents is much
better known than it was a few years ago, and their re-
action on the principles of waters much more accurately
determined ; and, from thefe circumdances, there is
good reafon to think, that they may now be ufed with
much more advantage than has been hitherto imagined.
Yet, among the many toilful chemids who have em-
ployed their labours in the analyfis of waters, none but
M. Baume, Bergman, and Gioanetti, have had any
idea of the advantages which may be derived from
a more liberal ufe of thofe fubdances. Chemids
have long been in ufe to examine mineral waters
by reagents in very fmall quantities, and common-
ly in glaffes : the phenomena of the precipitation pro-
duced in this cafe are carefully ofcferved, but the expe-
riment is carried no farther. M. Baume, in his Chemif-

try,

394 Examination of Mineral Waters by Reagents,

try, advifes to faturate a certain quantity of mineral water
which you wifli to examine, with fixed alkali and acids, to
colleft the precipitates, and examine their nature. Berg-
man thinks, that from the weight of the precipitates ob-
tained from fuch mixtures, the quantity of the mineral-
izing principles contained in the waters may be eftimat-
ed. Other chemifts, too, have tried this method ; but al-
ways withfome particular views: Nobody has ever thought
of making a regular and compleat analyfis of mineral
waters by this procefs. To- accomplifli it, in my opi-
nion, feveral pounds of mineral water fhould be mixed
with each reagent, till the reagent ceafe to produce a
precipitate from the water. It may be left for the fpace
of twenty-four hours in a clofe-fiopped veffel, todepofite
the precipitate ; — then filtrate the mixture, and, after
weighing and drying it on a hove, examine the precipi-
tate which remains on the filter by the ufual methods.
Thus you may difcover, with certainty, the nature of
the fubftance on which the reagent has afted, and deter-
'mine the caufe of the decompofition which it has pro-
duced. Order may be obferved in thefe operations, by
dBrft mixing the waters with thofe fubftances which are
leafl: capable of altering them, and proceeding to the ap-
plication of fuch fubflances as may produce on them a
greater variety of changes, and thofe moll difficult to e-
flimate. 1 ufually proceed in the following manner in
this fort of analyfis. After examining the tafle, colour,
weight, and all the other phyfical properties of a mine-
ral water, I pour four pounds of lime-water on an equal
quantity of the fluid which I am examining : if no preci-
pitate is formed in the fpace of twenty four hours, 1 am
fare that the water contains neither free carbonic acid,
alkaline carbonate, neutral falts with a bafe of alumi-
nous earth or magnefia, nor metallic fairs. But when

a precipitate

Examination of Mineral Waters by Reagents. 395

K a precipitate is either inftantaneoufly or gradually form-
( ed, I filtrate the mixture, and examine the chemical pro-

I per ties of the fediment. When the fediment has no
tafte, is infoluble in water, elfiervefces with acids, and
forms with the fulphuric acid an infipid fait, almofl
infoluble in water ; I conclude, that it is chalk, and
that the lime-water has taken up no principle but car-
bonic acid from the mineral water. Again, when the
precipitate is but fcanty, is not readily depofited, pro-
duces no efferVefcence, and affords with fulphuric acid
a ftyptic, or bitter, and very foluble fait, it mu ft then
confill of magnefia or aluminous earth, or poflibly of
both. I need not here enlarge upon the means for dif-
tinguifhing between thefe two fubftances ; they mull be
already well known. I lhall only add, that fuch a vari-
ety of thofe means may be ufed, as to leave no doubt
with refpeft to the nature of the fubftance precipi-
tated.

After this procefs of examination with lime-water, I
pour on the fame mineral water one or two drachms of
very cauflic ammoniac, or introduce into it ammoniac
gas, difengaged from that liquid fait by heat. When
the water is faturated, I leave the mixture to reft in a
clofe velfel for four and twenty hours : If I then find a
precipitate formed, as it can be owing only to either fer-
ruginous falts, or to falts with a bafe of magnefia or
alumina, I examine its nature by the different operations
mentioned above, under the account of the trial by lime.
But as ammoniac gas does not aft in fo uniform a manner
as lime-water, which effefts the fame decompofitions, it is
proper to obferve, that this gas is to be employed only
as an auxiliary, from which fuch accurate refults are not
to be expefted as from the operation of the preceding
feagent.

Aftep

39 & Examination of Mineral Waters by Reagents,

After the falts with a bafe of aluminous earth or mag-
nefia, have been difcovered with lime-water or ammoniac
gas ; potafh or foda will deteCf thofe having a bafe of
lime, fuch as calcareous fulphate, and calcareous muriate.
With this view, I precipitate a few pounds of the water
which I examine, with either of thefe fixed alkalis in
liquor, till fuch time as the water ceafe to be turbid.
As the alkali decompofes falts having a bafe of alumi-
nous earth, as well as thofe which owe their formation
to lime ; — if the precipitate refemble that which I ob-
tained by the application of lime-water, in form, colour,
and quantity, 1 prefume that the water contains no cal-
careous fait ; and this conjecture is ufually confirmed by
a chemical anaiyfis. But when the mixture becomes
much more turbid than that which was formed with
lime-water, and when the fediment is more ponderous
and copious, and fooner depofited ; 1 then infer, that it
contains lime with a mixture of magnefia, or alumina.
I afcertain this, by treating the fediment by the differ-
ent operations for the purpofe, already defcribed. It
may be naturally cenceived, that the iron precipitated
by reagents, at the fame time with the falino-terrene
fubflances, mufl be diftiiiguifhable by its colour and tafte,
and that the quantity of the metal feparated by thefe
procefifes, mufl be too fmall to haye any influence on
the refults.

1 need not here explain what fubflances the fulphuric
acid, the nitrous acid, nut-gall, and calcareous and alka-
line prufliates, are capable of precipitating, when ufed
as reagents. What I have faid above on the general
effects of thefe matters, may be confidered as fufficient.
I fhall only add, that when mixed in a large pro-
portion with mineral waters, they produce precipitates,
from an examination of which wTe may afcertain the na-
ture

Examination of Mineral Waters by Reagents . 397

ture and the proportions of their principles ; a procefs
which has been performed by Meflrs Bergman and

4

Gioanetti.

A confideration of the produ&s which nitric folutions
of filver or mercury produce in mineral waters, will de-
tain us longer. Thefe are the bell reagents for exa-
mining large quantities of water, when we wifli to afcer-
tain the nature of the acids which waters may contain.
Mineral waters may be confidered as completely analyf-
ed, when the acids which they contain are known : for
the acids are generally combined with fome of the bafes
liable to be detected by the preceding reagents. The
colour, form, and quantity of the precipitates formed by
folutions of mercury and filver, have hitherto been re-
garded by chemifts as indicating fufficiently the nature of
the acids to which their formation is owing. A thick*
weighty fediment, inftantaneoufly formed, indicates the
prefence of the muriatic acid. If fcanty, white, and
cryftallized, with nitrate of filver, — yellowifh and fliape-
lefs with nitrate of mercury, and in both inftances but
flowly depofited, it is then to be afcribed to fulphuric
acid. However, as thefe two acids are often found to-
gether in the fame water, and as alkali and lime likewife
decompofe thefe folutions, the refults are rather uncer-
tain, unlefs we attend at the fame time to the phyfical
properties of the precipitates. They mud, therefore,
be examined in a more particular manner. To this end,,
mix the folutions of filver and mercury with five or fix
pounds of the water which you wilh to analyfe ; at the
end of twenty-four hours, filtrate the mixtures, dry the
fediments, and then treat them with the ufual procefles. '
On heating in a retort the precipitate produced by the
nitric folution of mercury, the portion of that metal
which combines with muriatic acid, volatilizes into mild

mercury

3p3 ’Examination of Mineral Waters by Reagents .

mercury; and that which is combined with fulphuric acid,
remains at the bottom of the veifel, and is of a reddifh
colour. Thefe two falts may be likewife diftinguilhed
from each other, on this occafion, by the phenomena
which they exhibit on burning coals. Sulphate of mer-
cury exhales fulphureous acid, and takes a red colour ;
mercurial muriate remains white, and is volatilized with-
out diffufing any fmell of fulphur. Thefe phenomena
likewife ferve to enable us to diftinguifli fuch precipitates
as may be formed by alkaline fubltances contained in
waters ; for alkaline fubltances never give out a ful-
phureous fmell, nor are they volatile without decompo-
firion.

The precipitates produced by the combination of mi-
neral waters with the nitric folution of filver, may be
examined with the fame facility. Sulphate of filver is
more foluble than muriate of filver ; and thefe two falts
are therefore feparable by diftilled water. Muriate of
filver may be diftinguifhed by its fixity and fufibilityj
and dill more readily by its being lefs decompofable than
fulphate of the fame metal. Sulphate of filver, when
put upon coals, exhales a fulphureous fmell, and leaves
an oxide of filver, which may be melted without any
addition. I am not to fpeak here of all the chemical
procefles which might be adopted to diflinguifli between,
and to feparate thefe two falts of filver. It is enough,
that fome of them are here defcribed.

§ VI. Examination of Mineral Waters by Dif illation.

J^ISTILLATION is ufed in the analyfis of mineral
waters, to diftinguifh the gazeous fubftances which
they may happen to contain. Thofe fubfiances are ei-
ther air, more or lefs pure, or carbonic acid, or fulphur-

ated

Examination of Mineral Waters by Dijlillation. 599

ated hydrogenous gas. To diftinguifh the nature and
the quantity of the gazeous fubftances contained in any
mineral water, — take a few pounds of the water, and put
them into a retort of fuch a fize that they may fill it
' only one half or two thirds full. To this veflel adapt
a curve tube entering, by its other end, into a glafs fill-
ed with mercury. When the apparatus is thus difpof-
ed, heat the retort till the water fairly boil, or till
elaftic fluid ceafe to pafs into the glafs containing the
mercury. When the operation is ended, abftradt from
the bulk of the gas obtained, the air that was contain-
ed in the empty part of the retort. The reft is the aeri-
form fluid that was contained in the mineral water, the
nature of which may be foon known, by trying it writh
a lighted lamp, or tinfture of turnfole, or lime-water.
If it take fire, and emit a foetid fmell, it is fulphurated
hydrogenous gas : If it extinguifh a taper, redden turn-
fole, and precipitate lime-w^ater, it muft be carboniq a-
cid : Laftly, if it maintain combuftion without exhibit-
ing flame, if it be inodorous, and if it alter neither
turnfole nor lime-water, it is then atmofpheric air. The
atmofpheric air thus obtained from mineral waters may
happen to be purer than the common air of the atmofphere.
We can then judge of its purity from the manner in
which it contributes to combuftion, or by mixing it
with nitrous or hydrogenous gas in Meflrs Fontana and
Volta’s eudiometers. The procefs employed to obtain gaze-
ous matters from mineral waters, is entirely the invention
of modern chemiftry. Formerly, they for this purpofe
ufed a wet bladder, which was fitted to the mouth of a
bottle full of mineral water. The fluid was then
fltnken ; and from the manner in which the bladder
was fwelled, an idea was formed of the quantity of gas
contained in the water. We know, at prefent, that

this

400 Examination of Mineral Waters by Dijlillation*

this operation is not to be depended upon ; for watei*
never gives out all its gas without ebullition ; and the
Tides of a wet bladder alter the elaltic fluid which is ob-
tained, and dedroy its nature. It is not neceflary to take
notice, that the phenomena which take place in the wa-
ter, when gas is feparated, fhould be carefully obferved
and that when the tade, the lightnefs, and the fparkling
of the water, fhew it to contain a large proportion of
gas, the quantity of it fubmitted to diflillation fhould then
be proportionably fmaller.

Such is the operation recommended by modern che-
mifts for the extrafling of elaflic fluids from waters. I
{hall obferve, 1 . That with refpefl to acidulous waters,
this procefs cannot be depended upon, without a very
accurate calculation of the weight of the air, and the de-
gree of preflure to which the elaflic fluid is expofed in
the glaffes ; — and that, as it is very difficult to eflimate
thefe with fufficient accuracy, the abforption of this acid
by lime-wrater, as has been propofed by M. Gioanetti,
appears preferable. 2. Though it be recommended by
Bergman for the extrafling of fulphurated hydrogenous
gas from fulphureous waters, it will not anfwer this end j
for boiling heat decompofes this gas ; and it is likewife
decompofed' by mercury, which paffes into the date of
sethiops, as foon as it comes into contafl with this eladic
fluid. On this account, in my analyfis of the waters of
Enghien, near Montmorency, I have propofed the ufe
of litharge for the abforption of this gas in a cold date,
and for purifying fulphureous waters from all the fulphur
which they contain.

Examination of Mineral Waters by Evaporation. 403

§ VII. Examination of Mineral Waters by Evaporation *

EVAPORATION is generally confidered as the moll
certain mode of obtaining all the principles con-
tained in mineral waters. We have above obferved,
what we may here repeat, from the experiments of
Meffrs Venel and Cornette, that long boiling may hap-
pen to decompofe faline matters diflolved in waters j for
which reafon, we have rather recommended the ufe of
reagents. Evaporation, however, affords fo much addi-
tional information, when employed together with the
analyfis by reagents, that it will be proper to give a
particular account of the bed method for conducing it.

As the purpofe of this operation is, to obtain the fix--
ed principles of mineral water, it is evident, that in or-
der to didinguifh the nature and proportion of thofe
principles, a certain quantity of the water mud be fub-
mitted to the operation 3 and accordingly, the weaker1
the proportion in which thofe principles exid in the wa-
ter, fo much the more of that fluid fhould be ufed„
Twenty pounds of the water may be fufficient, when it
contains a good deal of faline matter. But when only a
very fmall proportion of fuch matter appears to be dif-
folved in it, a much larger quantity mud be evaporated 3
at times, even no lefs than fome hundred pounds. The
nature and diape of the vedels in which mineral waters
are expofed to evaporation, are not matters of indiffer-
ence. Thofe made of any metal, except filver, are liable
to be altered by water : glafs veffels, again, of a certain
dze, are very likely to crack or fplit : veffels of very
compad and well varnilhed earth, are the mod fuitable
for this purpofe, although, when the varnilhing ’cracks,
they are liable to abforb the faline matters. Vedels of

Vol. HI, C c porcelain.

46 i Examination of Mineral Waters hy Evaporation.

porcelain, without a coating, would, no doubt, be the
iholl anfwerable ; but thefe attain are too dear. Che-
mills have propofed different methods of evaporating mi-
neral waters. Some advife to diitil them to drynefs in
dole veffels, that no extraneous fubftances from the at-
niofphere may mix with the reftdue ; but this ope-
ration is too tedious. Others recommend evapora-
tion by a moderate heat, not fufficient to make them
boil ; as a boiling heat rs believed to alrer their fix-
ed principles, and to deprive them always of a certain
part of thofe principles. This is the opinion of Vend
and Bergman. M. Monnet, on the contrary, would
have us to boil the water ; as its motion, when boiled,
prevents extraneous matters to infinuate themfelves from
the atmofphere. Bergman, to avoid this inconvenience,
directs us to cover the evaporatory veffel with a lid hav-
ing a hole in the middle, through which the vapours
may make their efcape. This laft method greatly re-
tards the evaporation, as it diminifhes the furface of
the fluid in fo confiderable a degree. It mufl be em-
ployed, at ffrfl, till the vapours become flrong enough fo
remove the doff. But the chief difference among che-
mifts, in refpect to the mode of conducting this opera-
tion, is, that fome follow Boulduc in feparating the fub-
ftances which are depofited as the evaporation goes on,
in order to obtain each of the principles of the water
in a pure, infulated late ; whereas others would have
the evaporation carried on to drynefs, before any fuch
feparation be attempted. I agree with Bergman, in
thinking this laft method the molt expeditious and the
moft certain : for whatever be the precautions adopted
in following the former method, in feparating the differ-
ent matters as they are depofited or cryftallized, they
tire never obtained pure, bur always need to be examin-
ed by .a farther analyfis'. Befides, this method is tie-

Examination of Mineral Waters by Evaporation. 403

ver exa£t on account of the lofs occafioned by fo many
fil trations: laftly, it is very difficult and perplexing, and
renders the evaporation exceedingly tedious. Mineral
waters fliould be evaporated to drynefs in glafs capfules,
on a water- bath : it would be (till better to ufe glafs re-
torts on a fand-bath.

During the courfe of this evaporation, different phe-
nomena are obferved. When the water is acidulous, it
appears full of bubbles* as foon as the heat begins to
make an impreffion upon it: while the carbonic acid is
difengaged, a pellicle and a fediment are formed, con-
fiding of chalk and carbonate of iron : after the forma-
tion of thefe pellicles, there is a cryftallization of ful-
phate of lime: laftly, muriates of potafh and foda are
cryftailized in cubes on the furface ; and, to obtain the
d.eliquefcent falts, the evaporation mult be continued to
drynefs.

Let the refidue then be weighed, and put into a
fmall phial, with three or four times its weight of alco-
hol. Shake the whole, and after letting it reft for a
few hours, filtrate it; preferve the liquor apart, and dry,
by a gentle heat, or in the air, that portion of the refidue
on which the fpiritous fluid has not a<fted. When fuf-
ficiently dry, it is to bemarefuliy weighed ; and the lofs
which it has differed (hews what quantity of calcareous
or magnefian muriate it contained, as thefe falts are ve-
ry foluble in alcohol. We will fpeak afterwards of the
method of afeertaining the exiftence of thefe two falts in
this fpiritous fluid.

The refidue, when properly dried, is next to be dilut-
ed with eight times its weight of cold di (hilled “water ;
and this mixture, after being left to fettle for feveral
hours, muft be filtrated. The refidue is again dried,
and then boiled half an hour in four or five hundred

C c 2 times

404 Examination of Mineral Waters by Evaporation „

1

times its weight of cold di hilled water. It is next to be
again filtrated ; and after this laft operation, there re-
mains only what the cold water and the boiled water
have been inefficient to diffolve. The cold water
Would take up the neutral falts* fueh as fulphate of fo-
da or magnefia, muriate of foda or potafh, and fixed al-
kalis, efpecially foda combined with carbonic acid. Boiling
water in a large proportion, dififolves only fulphate of
lime. There are therefore four fubflances to be examin-
ed after thefe different operations on the matter obtained
by evaporation : 1. The refidue which rs infoluble in al-
cohol, and in water in different temperatures : 2. Salts
diffolved in alcohol : 3. The falls which have been taken
up by the cold water : 4. Laflly, Thofe which have been
taken up by the boiling water. We now proceed to
the experiments for diltinguiffikig thefe different fub-
flances.

1 . The refidue which has withflood the a£lion of al-
cohol, and of cold and hot water, may confifl: of carbonate
of magnefia and iron, of alumina, and of quartz. The
two Iaft of thefe fubflances are very rarely to be found
in waters, but the three firft are very common. A
lighter or deeper brown or yellow colour, indicates
the prefence of iron. When the colour of the refidue
is a light grey, it contains no iron. When it contains
any of that metal, Bergman advifes to moiften it, and
expofe it to the air till it rufl. Vinegar then no longer
ads upon it. To explain the methods for feparating
thefe different matters, let us fuppofe an infoluble refi-
due, confiding of all the five fubflances which we have
allowed that it may contain. We muff begin with
moiftening and expofing it to the rays of the fun. When
the iron is fufficiently rufted, the refidue may be digeff-
ed in diftilled vinegar. This add diffolves the lime and

magnefia.

Examination of Mineral Waters by Evaporation. 405

magnefia. By evaporating the mixture, we obtain calca-
reous acetite, which is diftinguifhed from acetite of mag-
nefia by not attracting moilture from the atmofphere.
Thefe two falts may be feparated by deliquefcence, or
rather by pouring fome fulphuric acid into the folution
containing them. The fulphuric acid forms fulphate of
lime, which is precipitated : if there were any magne-
fian acetite, the fulphate of magnefia, formed by the
fulphuric acid, would remain diffolved in the liquor, and
might be obtained by an evaporation judicioufly con-
duced. To afcertain the quantity of the magnefian and
calcareous earths contained in this refidue, precipitate the
fulphates of lime and magnefia formed by the fulphuric
acid poured into the acetous folution with carbonate of
potafh, and weigh the precipitates. When the chalk and
magnefia of the refidue are feparated, only iron, alu-
mines and quartz remain. The iron and alumines are
detached by means of pure muriatic acid, which difiolves
both thefe falts. The iron is precipitated by pruf-
fiate of lime, and the alumines by carbonate of potafh :
the two fubftances are then weighed to determine the
quantities. The matter which remains after the fepara-
tion of the alumines and the iron, is ufually quartzofe.
Its quantity is afcertained by weighing it ; and its na-
ture, by melting it with carbonate of foda, by means of
the blow-pipe. Thefe are the mod accurate procefies
which have been recommended by Bergman, for the
examination of the infoluble refidue of mineral waters.

2. The alcohol which was ufed in wafhing the dry
refidue of the waters, is next taken and evaporated to
drynefs. Bergman dire&s to treat it with fulphuric acid
diluted in water, in the fame manner as the acetous fo-
lution above taken notice of. But it is to be obferved,
that by this procefs only the bafe of thofe falts is difco-

C c 3 vered.

40 <5 Examination of Mineral Waters by Evaporation.

vered. To determine the nature of the acid, which is
ufually united with magnefia or lime, and fometime3
with both in this refidue, we mud pour upon the dry
refidue a few drops of drongly concentrated fulphuric
acid, which produces an effervefcence, and difengages
muriatic acid gas, that makes itfelf known by its fmell
and white vapour, when the fait under examination
owes its formation to that acid. Its exigence may like-
wife be afcertained, by diffolving the whole refidue in
water, and mixing with it a few drops of the nitric fo-
lurion of filver. With refpeft to the bafe, which, as we
have already mentioned, confifls either of lime or of mag-
nefia, or of both ; the quantity and the nature of its prin-
ciples may be alfo determined by fulphuric acid, by the
fame procefs which has been explained above in fpeak-
ing of the application of the acetous acid.

3. The lixivium of the former refidue of the mineral
water, prepared with eight times its weight of cold
diddled water, contains alkaline neutral falts, — fuch as
fulphate of foda, muriates or marine falts, carbonate of
potafh or foda, and fulphate of magnefia. Sometimes,
too, there is a fmall quantity of fulphate of iron. Thefe
falts never exid altogether in mineral waters. Sulphate
of foda and carbonate of potadi, are but very feldom
found in mineral waters ; but marine fait is often found
in them, in union with carbonate of foda. Sulphate of
magnefia likewife exifts pretty often in fuch waters ;
and they are even fometimes found to contain it in a
pretty confiderable quantity. When this fird wa firing
of the refidue of a mineral water contains only one neu-
tral fait ; that fait may be very eafily obtained by cry-
dallization, and its nature may be known by its form
and tade, and by the -manner in which it is affected by
fire and reagents. But this cafe is very rare ; and it
* - ' ' happens

Examination of Mineral Waters by Evaporation. 407

happens much more frequently, that a number of fairs
are united together in this lixivium : We mud then en-
deavour to fepnrate them by How evaporation. Even
this method does not always fully fucceed, with what-
ever care this fird lixivium may be evaporated : each of
the falts obtained at different times by evaporation, muff
be examined anew. It is mod commonly carbonate of
foda which is depofited in a confuted manner among the
muriatic falts. Thcfe may be feparated by a procefs
deferibed by M. Giaonetti : It confids in waffling this
mixed fait with diddled vinegar ; — that acid difiblves the
carbonate of foda ; Dry the mixture, and wafn it anew
with alcohol ; — the alcohol takes up the acetite of foda,
without afiing upon the marine fait : Evaporate the fpi-
ritous foiution to drynefs, and calcine the refidue; — the
vinegar is decompofed and burnt. Nothing remains
after this but foda, the exaft quantity of which is
known.

4. The lixivium of the fird refidue of mineral water,
prepared with four or five times its weight of boiling
water, contains nothing but fulphate of lime. Accord-
ingly, pure caudic ammoniac produces no change upon
it ; but caudic potadi forms in it a copious precipitate.
By evaporating the lixivium to drynefs, the quantity of

terrene laic which it contains is exa&ly known.

/

§ VIII. Of Factitious Mineral Waters ,

''JTIE proceffes which have been deferibed for the ex*
animation of the refidues obtained by the evapora*
tion of mineral waters, are diffident for difeovering, with
tjae Utraod accuracy, whatever different fubdances may
be diffolved in thcfe fluids. Yet we mud dill advance a
ffep farther, in order to confirm the refults of our ana-

C c ^ lyffs 5

,408 Factitious Mineral Waters .

lyfis : We mud imitate nature by a fynthetic prccels,
and dilfolve in pure water the feveral fubdances obtained
by analyfis, from the mineral water which we have been
examining, If the factious mineral water thus formed,
have the fame tafte and weight, and exhibit the fame
phenomena with reagents as the natural mineral water
which was analyfed, — no fuller proof can be required
of the accuracy of the analyfis. Such artificial combi-
nations happily fupply, at all times, in all places, and at
a final! expence, medicines equally ufeful for the cure of
difeafes with natural mineral waters, whofe properties
are liable- to be altered by conveyance from one place to
another, and by many other circumftances.

The mod celebrated chemids are of opinion, that na-
tural mineral waters may be imitated by art. Macquer
obferves, that fince the difcovery of the carbonic acid,
and fm.ce its power of rendering a great many fubdances
foluble in water has been taken notice of, it is become
much eafier to prepare fa&itious mineral waters. Berg-
man has given directions for the preparation of factious
Spa, Seitz, Pyrmont, &c. waters. In Sweden, he informs
us, fuch waters are ufed with great fuccefs ; and he
himfelf had experience of their good effefts. M. Du-
chanoy has published a 'work, in which he gives a feries
of precedes for the artificial preparation of all the mine-
ral waters ufed in medicine. We have therefore good
reafon to hope, that chemidry may render the art of
medicine fome important fervices, by fupplying fuch va-
luable medicines, and by weakening and increafing their
energy at pleasure,

A PI?*

A

DISCOURSE

o «

Modern Chemistry in General, and on
its First Principles.

IN tracing the hi (lory of chemiftry for thefe laft twen-
ty years, we find, that, in confequence of the difco-
very of the different elaftic fluids, and their properties,
Stahl’s theory has loft much of its credit : Chemifts
have been for feme time in doubt, whether to reject or
adhere to it, and have formed various theories, — the
number of which is fcarce inferior to that of thofe who
are ferioufly engaged in the purfuits of this fcience. A
good many chemifts, however, efpecially in the north,
have not yet adopted any new theory, but continue to
conneft the theory of Phlogifton with the newly difeover-
ed fa&s. But thofe who are mafters of the fcience in
all its extent, muft readily perceive, that the manner in
which that connexion is formed, is far from being natural
or fatisfattory ; and that it confifts of forced analogies,
the inconfiftency of which is fufficiently ftriking.

The do&rine adopted by feveral French chemifts, at
the head of whom we muft rank M. Lavoifier, who con-
trived and laid the foundations of this fyftem, is not fub-
jett to the fame difficulties. Its fimplicity, its fyftematic

progrefs.

4 10 Difcourfe on Modern Chemijfry.

progrefs, its perfpicuity, and the eafe with which it is
applicable to all the phenomena of chemiflry, render it
much fuperior to any of thofe which hill divide fuch of
the philofophers of Europe as have not adopted it. This
doffrine has been particularly explained through the
whole of this work : But perhaps a fhort view of it may
dill be of ufe to the ftudent ; and I have therefore en-
deavoured to exhibit, in the following Difcourfe, a
bri^f account of the principles on which it is founded ;
which may render it more (hiking, and more eafily in-
telligible, and which will accordingly be a fort of ab-
flrah of all the leading phenomena, to which the others
may be referred as to fo many general heads.

In all chemical experiments, one of the two following
phenomena is obferved : i. Heat is either difengaged or
fixed: 2. An elaflic fluid is either formed or abforbed.
After thefe two general fafts are eflabliflied as invariably
certain, it may be naturally conceived, that the properties
and a£Hon of heat, with the formation and fixation of
elaflic fluids, are the foundation of the theory of che-
miflry. Thefe, therefore, are the twq great objefts
xvhich mud here engage our attention.

Of Heat, and of the Formation and Fixation of Elaflic

Fluids.

^LTHOUGH the weight, both of fenflble heat, and
of combined or latent heat, which wre have denomi-
nated caloric , is at prefent unknown, and cannot there-
fore afford any proof of its material or individual exiff-
ence, yet the whole phenomena of chemiflry concur to
prove, that it exifls as a feparate body or fubflance, pof-
feffes certain unvarying properties or chara&eriflics, and

Difcourfe on Modern Chemi/hy. 41 1

is uniformly fubjeft to certain laws of affinity. Befides
its power to produce, by its action on our organs, that
fenfation which we denominate heat , philofophers have
obferved it to poffefs certain diftin&ive properties which
can belong to no other fubftance, fuch as rarefaftion, or
the feparation which heat produces of the component
particles of all natural bodies ; which, by increafing
their bulk, diminilhes their reciprocal attraction, and,
without enlarging the mafs, diminilhes, in the fame pro-
portion, their fpecific gravity, and ftrengthens the affini-
ties between the component particles of different bodies.
The greater the quantity of caloric accumulated in any
body, the more is that fubftance compreffed and con-
denfed ; fo much the more is its affinity for that body
increafed ; and in the fame proportion, too, are the pro-
perties of the body changed. Fufion or liquefadlion, vo-
latilization or fublimarion, the pafiage of liquids into the
form of vapours or elaftic fluids, — are effefts conftantly
produced by the penetration of heat into thofe bodies,
or rather by its combination with them. Ice, or water
in a folid (late, becomes fluid by abforbing a certain
quantity of caloric : A larger proportion of the fame
principle renders it invifible and aeriform. There can
be no doubt, that water in a liquid ftate is a compound
of ice with a certain quantity of caloric, and that water
in gas or vapour, is equally a compound, of which
the principles are the fame, but which contains caloric
in a larger proportion. Such is the theory of the for-
mation of elaftic fluids in general : They are all com-
pounds, confiding of a bafe more or lefs folid, and mat-
ter of heat or caloric. As this laft principle is fubjeeft
to laws of attra&ion peculiar to itfelf ; when it efcapes
from one body, it combines with fome other : — or ra-

412 Difcourfe on Modern Chemiflry .

ther, bodies with which caloric is combined, when they
have a ftronger attraction for other bodies exhibited to
them than for this principle, difmifs it, in order to com-
bine with thofe other bodies.

There is not a fingle inftance in which thefe phmno-
na of the difengagement or fixation of caloric, and the
difengagement or fixation of elaftic fluids are not obferv-
ed, either feparately or together. From this fimple the-
ory, which is in reality nothing but a flatement of facts,
it appears that all elaftic fluids ought to be diftin guifhed
by two names ; one denoting their aeriform combination
with caloric, — of which fort are the generic words, air ,
or gas , the firft to be ufed when thofe fubftances are
proper for maintaining combuflion and refpiration, the
fecond when they do not contribute to thefe purpofes;
the other, a fpecific name, denoting the particular bafe
of the gas or elaftic fluid. It will accordingly be ex-
pected, that, in a recapitulation of all the faCts of che-
iniftry, we fliould give an account of the elaftic fluids
which are either produced and difengaged, or fixed and
abforbed in the various phenomena belonging to this
fcience.

All the elaftic fluids whofe properties are worthy of
notice, may be arranged in four claffes.

Class I.

Elaftic Fluids capable of maintaining Combuflion, and the
Refpiration of Animals .

Species i. Vital air.

2. Atmofpheric air.

Class

Difcourfe on Modern Chemifiry .

413

Class II.

Elafiic Fluids unfit for maintaining Combuflion and Re*
fpiration , and neither J' aline nor foluble in Water .

Species 3. Azotic gas.

4. Nitrous gas.

Class III.

Elafiic Fluids unfit for maintaining Combuflion and Re *
fpiration , of a faline Nature , foluble in

water.

Species 5.

6.

7-

8.

9-

10.

Carbonic acid gas.
Sulphureous acid gas.

Fluoric acid gas.

Muriatic acid gas.

Oxigenated muriatic acid gas.
Ammoniac gas.

Class IV.

Elafiic Fluids neither proper for maintaining Combuflion ,
nor Refpiration, but inflammable.

Species 1 1.
12.

I3*
1 4*
*5-

1 6.

\

Hydrogenous gas.

Sulphurated hydrogenous gas.
Phofphorated hydrogenous gas.
Hydrogenous gas mixed with azote.
Hydrogenous gas mixed with carbonic
acid.

Carbonaceous hydrogenous gas.

Of

Difcourfe on Modern Chcmijlry,

4*4

Of the Nature and leading Properties of thefe different
Species of Elaftic Fluids.

I. JfITAL AIR, called by its difcoverer. Dr Prieftley,
dephlogiflicated air, and by fome other Engliih
philofophers, empyreal air, and principium for bile, is at
prefent extracted from many different matters. Precipi-
tate per fe, or oxide of mercury, prepared by nitric acid,
precipitates of the feveral mercurial neutral falts formed
by alkalis, red oxide of lead fprinkled with a little nitric
acid, alkaline and terrene nitrates, nitrate of filver, native
oxide of manganefe either by itfelf or fprinkled with ful-
phuric acid, oxigenated muriatic acid, mercurial acetite,
arfeniate of zink, all give out either more or lefs of it
when expofed to the a<ftion of light and heat. Its difen-
gagement is evidently effeffed by the uniform aftion of
thefe two principles. It is not contained ready formed
in thefe bodies : they contain only its folid bafe, which
is melted by caloric and light, and thus reduced into an
elaftic-fluid ftate ; and as it efcapes, the oxides by degrees
affume the metallic Hate. It is alfo obtained from the
leaves of plants or trees expofed in water charged with
carbonic acid to the action of the rays of the fun.

Vital air is often mixed with a little azotic gas ; only,
that obtained from oxide of mercury, from oxide of man-
ganefe, or from the leaves of plants, is without it.

Vital air is rather heavier than atmofpheric air ; it is
the only elaftic fluid which maintains combuftion. Pure
vital air is four times as powerful for this effe<ft as atmof-
pheric air ; that is to fay, a body requiring four cubic
feet of atmofpheric air to eflett its combuftion, may be
burnt with one cubic foot of vital air. Combuftion is
accompanied with a good deal of light and heat : thefe

two

V

Difcourfe on Modem Chemrftry. 415

\ nvo phenomena are occafioned by the rapid reparation
' of the fire, which forfakes the bafe of this air in propor-
| tion as that bafe fixes in the burning body. In fome
[ inffances of combuftion effe&ed by this air, only heat,
i but no light, is difengaged. This happens when the
i difengagement is accomplifhed flowly and by degrees.
It contributes alio in an eminent manner to refpiration.
But as there is fo much heat difengaged from it, it would
I appear, that the refpiration of pure vital air wrou!d be
injurious to animals: the blood would be too much
ratified by it, and its circulation rendered too rapid.

The bafe of vital air, by combination with carbone, ful-
phur, phofphorus, azote, arlenic, &c. forms the carbonic,
i fulphuric, phofphoric, nitric, arfenic, &rc. acids. It is
: from its poffelling this property, that we have denomi-
nated this bafe oxigene, or the acidifying principle. It
is to be obferved, 1. That thefe combinations do not al-
ways take place when thofe combuftible bodies are im-
merfed in vital air ; and that different degrees of tem-
perature, above the ordinary temperature of the atmo-
fphere, are generally requiiite to produce them, at lead
with fufficient rapidity. 2. That this bafe or oxigene
enters into thefe compounds in different proportions ;
and that, according as any. bafe is more or lefs completely
faturated, the compound differs in its nature from other
compounds not faturated precifely in the fame degree.
3. That its affinity for thefe different matters is not uni-
formly the fame : accordingly, phofphorus robs the arfenic
acid of its oxigene; the phofphoric acid, again, yields its
oxigene to coal, See. 4. That when it paffes out of one
of thofe bodies in which it has been fixed in a date very
different from that of elaffic fluidity, into any other body,
a fort of combuflion actually takes place ; which is in-
deed very flow^and therefore unaccompanied with either

heat

4^ Diftourfe on Modern Chemijlry.

heat or light ; as oxigene, in the date in which it exiffe
in fuch bodies, is combined with but very little of thofe
principles.

Oxigene combined with hydrogene, forms water ; with
metals, it forms metallic oxides. Coal decompofes water
and metallic oxides ; having a greater affinity with oxi-
gene, than either hydrogene or metals.

Vital air difcolours vegetable and animal fubftances :
"When abforbed by fixed oils, it thickens them, and re-
duces them into a (late refembling that of wax. With
the muriatic and the acetous acids, it forms oxigenated
muriatic acid or radical vinegar.

The heat of the fun, when afting with any confider-
able energy, difengages oxigene into the ftate of vital
air from many of its combinations ; fuch as the oxides of
mercury, filver, gold, nitric acid, oxigenated muriatic
acid, See.

II. Atmofpheric or common air is a compound of vital
air with azotic gas. One hundred parts of atmofpheric
air, contain nearly 72 parts of azotic gas and 28 parts of
vital air. This explains the reafon why only a fourth
part of any quantity of atmofpheric air is confumed before
it becomes unfit for maintaining combuftion ; and why
the phenomenon of combuftion takes place more {lowly*
and is accompanied with lefs heat and light in atmo>
fpheric, than in pure vital air. But v/e mufl obferve,
that there is not perhaps a fingle inflance of combuftion,
in which the 28 parts of vital air contained in the com-
mon air of the atmofphere, are entirely abforbed and
fixed in the combuftible body ; and that accordingly, the
aeriform refidue of atmofpheric air remaining after it has
contributed to combuftion, is fcarce ever pure azotic gas,
not even when the burnt body remains in a fixed and

Xolid

Difiourfe on Modern Chemiflry , 417

folid ftate, without mixing with the elaftic fluid. The
gas mud therefore be 11 ill more impure, when the body
is burnt under a bell-glafs filled with atmofphcric air,
and affords a refidue in a permanent aeriform ftate ; as
charcoal, and all organic matters containing it, do.

There are a number of bodies which alter atmofpheric
air, by abforbing the vital air which it contains. But:
we know of none that renew and purify it, except the
leaves of vegetables ; which, when expofed to the rays
of the fun, effeft a deebmpofition of carbonic acid and
water, in confequence of which, they afford a fupply of
vital air to the atmofphere*

III. Azotic gas, which exifls in the atmofphere in a
large proportion, is thus named, becaufe it very foon
proves fatal to animals, and extinguilhes combuflion ;
and accordingly, appears to be in its nature direflly op-
pofite to vital air. Dr Prieflley called this elaftic fluid
phlogijiicated air ; imagining that it derived its noxious
properties from phlogifton, difengaged out of burning
bodies, or odorate matters ; — in a word, from all thofe
operations of nature and art, which he has called phlo -
gijlicating procejfes. — It has fince been proved, that this
fluid exifls ready formed in the atmofphere, and is only
feparated by the abforption of vital air. Modern philo-
fophers have made more important difeoveries concern-
ing this, than concerning any other elaftic fluid. — There
are feveral ways of obtaining pure azotic gas. That
which is moft generally in ufe, is the expofing of a quan-
tity of liquid fulphure of potafh to a given quantity of
atmofpheric air under bell-glaffes: the vital air is by de-
grees abforbed ; and when it is entirely abforbed, the
azotic gas remains pure. We owe this procefs to Scheele.
M. Berthollet has difeovered, that it may alfo be obtain-
Vol. III. Dd " ed,

4'i 8 Difcourfe on Modern Chemiflrj.

ed, by treating mufcular flefh, or the fibrous part of the
blood, after having waflied it well with nitric acid, in
an apparatus fuitable for collecting and preferving gafest
but thefe animal matters, when ufed for this purpofe,
itiuft be perfectly frelh : if altered, they afford, together
with the azotic gas, a mixture of carbonic acid. I my-
felf have difcovered, that the air-bladder of the carp,
which Dr Prieftley had before obferved to contain noxious
air, is full of this fluid, which may be obtained Amply
by burfling them under bell-glaffes filled with water.

Azotic gas is lighter than atmofpheric air. It inftant-
ly extinguiflies burning tapers; and aCts, with great ra-
pidity and energy, in deflroying the life of animals im-
merfed into it. When mixed with vital air, in the pro-
portion of 72 to 28, it affords factitious atmofpheric air:
in a larger proportion, it forms an air noxious to animals.
Neither water, nor earths, nor acids, are known to aCl
upon this gas : It appears, however, that it is liable to
be abforbed by the nitric acid, which it renders ruddy.
Mr Cavendifh has difcovered, that three parts of azotic
gas, mixed in glaffes with feven parts of vital air, and
expofed to the aftion of the eleCtric fpark, are by de-
grees condenfed, fo as to form nitric acid: Hence the
theory of the formation of this acid in the atmofphere.
M. Berthollet has found, that ammoniac is decompofed
by hot nitric acid, by oxigenated muriatic acid, and by
the detonation of fulminating gold. He has difcovered,
that ammoniac confifls of five parts of azote, and one of
hydrogene. He has farther difcovered, that animal
matters contain a great deal of azote, — that the ammo-
niac obtained from them by the aCtion of fire and putre-
faction, is formed by the union of that azote with hydro-
gene,— and that plants, which afford this fame fait by.
diffiilation, afford it in confequence of their containing

azote.

Difcourfe on Modern Chemijlry .

azote, and therefore well deferve the name of animal
plants, which has been given them by fome chemifts.
I have fince fatisfied myfelf by experiment, i. That of
all animal matters, the fibrous part affords the moft
azotic gas by nitric acid; 2. That after putrefaction, ic
contains no more azote, but becomes capable to afford a-
confiderable quantity of ammoniac.

Thefe remarkable qualities of azotic ga-s, are particu-
larly worthy the attention of the phyfician. They con-
tribute to explain the difference between animal and ve-
getable matters, the formation of ammoniac putrefac-
tion, and the production of the nitric acid from putrid-
animal matters.

As this elaflic fluid has been by fome people con-
founded with carbonic acid, it is to be remembered, that
azotic gas has no fenfible rafte, — is much lighter than
that aeriform acid, — and neither reddens timflure of
turnfole, nor precipitates lime water.

IV. Nitric gas was in fome meafure known to Hales f
but Dr Prieftley is properly the difcoverer of it. This
elaflic fluid is difengaged from nitric acid by the aft ion
of a great number of combuflible bodies, efpeciaily metals,-
oils, mucilages, and alcohol. It extinguifh.es lights; it
deftroys animals ; it is neither acid nor alkaline; it is not
liable to be altered by pure water. By combination with
vital air, it affords nitric acid ; being itfeif nothing but nitric
acid, deprived of a part of its oxigene, and confequently a-
compound of azote and oxigene, — -only, containing more
azote and lefs oxigene than the nitric acid. Hence ther
varieties of this gas, according as azote and vital air are
mixed in it in different proportions; and hence the up.-'
certainty of its effe&s on the eudiometer. From this we
nnderftand, why, in feveral inflances, — efpeciaily when,-

430 Difcourfe on Modern Chemiflry .

in order to obtain nitrous gas, we ufe a body very greedy
of oxigene, and requiring a conliderable quantity of oxi-
gene to faturate it, — the nitrous gas obtained, contains
naked azotic gas ; and even, fometiraes, nothing is obtain-
ed but azotic gas. Laftly, It is in confequence of nitric
gas poflefling this property, that fulphure of potafh is
enabled to aft upon it with fuch energy. A folution of
fulphure of potafh, when put into a glafs filled with ni-
trous gas, immediately ablorbs a part of the gas : In a
fhort time, the gas is no longer reddened by the contaft
of air, and becomes fit for maintaining combuftion, even
better than atmofpheric air. It is aftually converted in-
to air, fomewhat purer than the air of the atmofphere, or
containing a larger proportion of vital air than atmofphe-
ric air ufually contains : But if more nitrous gas be add-
ed, and the aftion of the fulphure ftill continued, the
whole of the vital air is foon abforbed, and what remains
is nothing but azotic gas. We may farther obferve, that
nitrous gas communicates to phlegm a green colour, be-
fore extinguishing it ; and that, in many inllances, its co-
lour is owing to compounds, of which azote forms a part.

Thefe leading properties of nitrous gas, particularly
the rapidity of its combination with vital air, fhew, that
it bears an analogy to combuflible bodies; and it has
been obferved by Macquer, that the artificial formation
of nitrous acid by the mixture of thefe two gafes, is a
fpecies of combuftion ; but as it is not accompanied with
phlegm, I have not ventured to rank nitrous gas among
the inflammable gafes,

V. Carbonic acid gas was known before any of the o-
ther elaftic fluids. Dr Black difeovered its exiftence in
chalk and alkalis ; and at the fame time Chewed, that it
rendered thofe matters effervefeent, mild, and fufceptible

of

Difcourfe on Modern Cbemijlry . 43 1

of cryftallization ; and that, when deprived of it, alkaline
matters become acrid and cauftic, and are no longer liable
to effervefce, &c. This gas exifts in the atmofphere, of
which it compofes nearly one two-hundredth part ; in
acidulous waters, and in feme fubterraneous cavities, fuch
as the Grotto del Cano, &c. It is nearly twice as heavy
as atmofpheric air ; its fmell is pungent, and its tafte
acrid ; it extinguifhes burning bodies, — kills animals, —
reddens tinfture of turnfole, — precipitates lime-water, — •
renders chalk foluble in water, — forms, with all alkaline
matters, carbonates, a fort of cry flallizable neutral fait,
in which the properties of the alkali are hill difcernible,
on account of the wTeaknefs of the acid. This acid gas,
which afts an important part in the phacnomena of nature
and art, is a compound of carbone and oxigene; of carbone,
in the proportion of twenty-eight hundredth parts, — and
oxigene, in the proportion of feventy-two hundredth
parts. As carbone, of all known bodies, appears to have
the Itrongeft affinity for oxigene, the carbonic acid is a-
mong thofe compounds, of which the decompolition is
the irioft difficult, and one of the produfts the mofl fre-
quently obtained in chemical anaiyfes. It is formed in
all inftances in which bodies containing oxigene are heat-
ed with coal ; as in the redu&ion of metallic oxides by
oils, — in coal itfelf, &c. — by the decompofition of organic
matters containing coal and water, &c.

VI. Sulphureous acid gas is obtained, either by the
flow combuition of fulphure, or by a bit raft mg from ful-
phuric acid a part of its oxigene; and is a compound of
fulphure with oxigene, containing the latter principle in
a more fcanty proportion than fulphuric acid. This gas
has a fulphureous fmell, acrid and pungent, and a very
four tafte ; it extinguifhes burning bodies, and kills ani-

D d 3 rnal? ;

4-2 2 fDifcourfe on Modern Chemiftry,

raals : Intenfe cold condenfes It into a liquid date : It
reddens and difcolours mod vegetable blue colours : it
combines with water and with ice, and melts the latter of
jthefe fubdances by means of the heat which it gives out
as it becomes fixed : it abforbs, by degrees, oxigene from
the atmofphere ; and, in ccnfequence of that, pafles into
the date of fulphuric acid.

VII. Fluoric acid gas is difengaged from native fiuate
of lime, or vitreous fpar , by fulphuric acid. Its fmell and
rade are very drong : it dififolves filiceous earth, and holds
it fufpended in an aeriform invilible date. The contad
of water, by fixing it, feparates a portion of that earth :
Alkalis feparate it entirely. The nature of this acid gas
is unknown; and if it be like mod other mineral acids,
a compound,' confiding of a fimple acidifiable bafe with
oxigene, its acidifiable radical principle mud have a very
drong affinity with oxigene; for even coal is not able tq
decompofe this gas, by detaching that principle.

VIII. Muriatic acid gas is nothing but muriatic acid,
purified from water, and melted by caloric into an eladic
fluid. Its fmell, which is lively and fufiocating, — its
tade, which is very drong, — its folubility in cold water,
which readily abforbs it, and feparates the heat by which
it was maintained in a date of eladic fluidity, — the pecu-
liar neutral falts which it forms with terrene and alkaline
bafes, — and the white vapour which is obferved when-
ever it comes into contad with water diflolved in the at-
mofphere,— are its didinguifiiing charaderidics. Its in-
timate nature, or component principles, are unknown; its
acidifiable bafe has undoubtedly a very drong affinity with
.oxigene, as thefe principles have never yet been leparat-
jech Nay, we are about to fee, that this acid abdrads

pxigene

Dfcourje on Modern Chemijlry. 42^

oxigene from various other bodies, when they are fatu-
rated with it.

IX. Oxigenated muriatic acid gas is difengaged with
great facility during the reciprocal action of native ox-
ide of manganefe and muriatic acid. This peculiar gas
is known to be produced by the tranfition of oxigene
from the manganefe into the muriatic acid. This gas
always retains a colouring part, of a grecnilh yellow :
Its fmell is flrong and pungent : It is not acid : It weak-
ens and reddens the flame of a taper, but does not extin-
guifh it : It is very quickly fatal to animals: It difeo-
lours fluffs, tin&ure of turn foie, and flowers, rendering
them all white: It likewife difcolours and whitens yellow
wax, &c. : It decompofes ammoniac, which may now be
ufed as a prefervative againfl its noxious effefls : the
azotic gas of the ammoniac is feparated, while the oxi-
gene of the muriatic gas combines with its hydrogene to
form water : It condenfes fixed oils : It oxidates metals ;
and even mercury and gold are fubjedl to its influence :
It is foluble in water, and communicates to that fluid all
its properties : The contact of light by degrees decom-
pofes it, and reduces it into the (late of pure muriatic a-
cid. — The formation of oxigenated muriatic acid, and
oxigenated muriatic acid gas, is one of the mcfl remark-
able difeoveries of modern chemiflry. This difeovery
fhews, that the relations of muriatic acid to combuflible
bodies are direftly contrary to thofe of the other acids.
All the other acids appear to be decompofable by mofl of
the metals, which have in general a ftronger affinity
with oxigene than the combuflible bafes of thofe acids
have. The muriatic acid, on the contrary, is not de-
compofed by any metal : none of them detaches its oxi-
gene ; and in confequence of this, it fcarce a£ts on any

D d 4 ®f

424 Difcourfe on Modern Chcmijiry.

of the metals. Its bafe, which is hill unknown, is not
only intimately connefted with the acidifying principle,
but even detaches that principle from feveral other me-,
tallic oxides, as well as from oxide of manganefe ; when
faturated, it is no longer acid ; as excels of oxigene de-
ft roys its acidity. The cafe is dire&ly contrary with
many other combuftible bodies. Its excefs of oxigene
enables it to a<ft upon metals, on which, in its ordinary
ftate, it produces no change ; fuch, particularly, are an-
timony, filver, and gold. While thefe metals rob it of
this excefs of oxigene, they are by degrees burned, and
diiTolved in the muriatic acid, which returns itfelf into
its original ftate. Thefe oxidations and folutions of me-
tals, by the oxigenated muriatic acid, are accomplilhed
without effervefcence, in the fame manner as a fait is dif-
folved in water ; for the metal takes up the fuperabun-
dant oxigene of the liquid acid quietly, and with much
more eafe than if it were obliged to difengage it from a
combuftible bafe, Oxigenated muriatic acid likewife
diftolves metallic oxides, and thereby forms oxigenated
muriates, very different in their nature from fimple mu-
riates. The moll ftriking and moft remarkable of thefe
differences appears in the combinations of the acid, in
its different Hates, with oxide of mercury. With oxi-
genated muriatic acid, oxide of mercury forms corrojive
Jublimate. With fimple muriatic acid, the fame oxide
forms mild mercury. The differences between thefe two
fairs are therefore owing to the differences between the
two ftates of the acid in refpedl to the proportions of the
oxigene.

X. Ammoniac gas, difcovered by Dr Prieftley, is dif-
engaged by heat from liquid ammoniac, and, with ftill
ftiore rapidity, from a mixture of ammoniacal muriate, or:
' ’ ‘ ’ common

x « t . . *1

Difcourfe on Modern Chcmijlry. 425

common fal ammoniac, with quicklime. This elaftic
fluid, when colle&ed in glaffes over mercury, is found to
be a little heavier than atmofpheric air. The degree of
cold or prelfure at which it lofes its aeriform fluidity, is
flill undetermined. It combines with water, giving out,
while the combination takes place, a good deal of heat :
it melts ice : it renders fyrup of violets, as well as blue
and red flowers, green : it combines rapidly with car-
bonic, fulphureous, and muriatic acid gafes ; thefe com-
binations produce a good deal of heat : as this heat is
difengaged' from the two elaftic fluids, thefe become folid
while the combinations are forming.

Ammoniac gas is fpeedily decompofed by the contaft
of oxigenated muriatic acid gas : the decompofition is
accompanied by heat : a quantity of water, charged with
muriatic acid, is formed, and there is a refidue of azotic
gas. This experiment, as well as feveral others which
have been already mentioned, proves ammoniac to confift
of hydrogene and azote. The decompofition of ammo-
niacal copper, and of fulminating gold and filver , which
afford, by the a&ion of fire, water, reduced metal, and
azotic gas, is another proof that ammoniac confifts of
thefe principles ; for, the hydrogene of this alkali having
a ftror.ger affinity for oxigene than either gold or filver,
detaches it from the oxides of thefe metals, and, leaving
its azote to be difengaged into a gazeous ftate, forms
water with the oxigene which it has acquired in this
manner. The phenomena of this decompofition of am-
moniac by oxides, are very much diverfffied — from that
which oxide of copper effects flowly, and with the affift-
ance of a ftrong heat, — to the amazing rapidity with
which ammoniacal oxide of filver is reduced, when it de-
tonates by the momentary contaft of heat. The diver-

flty

42^ Difcourfe on Modern Chemiflry ,

firy of thefe phenomena is owing to the various affinities
of oxigene with the different metals.

Oxides of zinc and iron, which, in their metallic
date, decompofe water, have not the fame power over
ammoniac ; for thefe metals have a greater affinity with
oxigene, than oxigene has with hydrogene.

XI. Pure hydrogenous gas , univerfally known by the
name of inflammable air , is the lighted: of all aeriform
fluids : When very pure, it is thirteen or fourteen times
lighter than atmofpberic air. It extinguifhes burning
bodies : it kills animals : it is kindled by the contaft of
the eleftric fpark, or of any flaming combuftible body :
it burns with a bright flame. Fifteen parts of this gas
abforb, in burning, eighty-five of vital air ; and by that
combuftion, an hundred parts of very pure water are
formed — if the elaflic fluids be pure. The water is
therefore a compound of thefe two bodies, deprived of
mofl of the heat which is neceffary to maintain them in
the date of elaflic fluidity. All fubdances having a
dronger affinity with any one of thefe two principles,
than that by which their union is maintained, decompofe
this fluid. Thus," iron, zinc, coal, and oils, decom-
pofe water, and feparate hydrogene from it into a ga-
zeous date ; as they have a dronger affinity with the
bafe of vital air or oxigene than it has with hydrogene.
From this it is clear, that hydrogenous gas cannot be ex-
pe&ed to decompofe carbonic acid, or the oxides of zinc
and iron : On the contrary, fulphur, and fuch metals as
do not decompofe water, give up the oxigene which
they contain, in the date of fulphuric acid, and of me-
tallic oxides, to hydrogenous gas ; which reduces the
former into the date of pure fulphur, and the latter in-
to the date of metals. This decompofition of water by

iron

Dijcourfe on Modern Chemijlry . 427

I jr0T1 ana zinc, is the caufe from which proceeds the hy-
drogenous gas produced during the folution of thefe two
metals by the fulphuric, the muriatic, the carbonic, or
ri the acetous acid.

The leaves of vegetables, on the contrary, appear to
poflefs the property of abforbing the hydrogene of wa-
ter, and difengaging its oxigene into the (late of pure air.
Light contributes greatly to this decompofition ; and
without the contaft of light it is never effected. It ap-
pears to ferve for the purpofe of melting oxigene, and thus
forming it into vital air ; and, while the oxigene is dif-
engaged, the hydrogene becomes fixed in the vegetable,
and ferves, no doubt, for the production of oil. We
know not yet exaCily, with what fubfiances, and in what
proportion, hydrogene mud combine to form oil. Hy-
drogene, or the bafe of hydrogenous gas, forms ammo-
niac, by combination with azote, or the bafc of azotic
gas. M Bertholiet, by analyfing that fait, has {hewn
this to be its compofition : But we have not yet been
able to form ammoniac by the immediate combination of
thefe two principles.

We have never yet been able to feparate the matter
of heat combined in hydrogenous gas, to which that
gas owes its elaftic fluidity, without fixing the hydro-
gene in fome other compound ; and therefore, we are
ft ill unacquainted with hydrogene in a folitary infulated
date. T he degree of prefiure or cold neceflary to effeCi:
this feparation, mud be fuch as we have not yet learned
to apply : Every thing, indeed, concurs to {hew, that
either the one or the other mud be in an extreme de-
gree.

d he fudden difengagement, and the rapid inflamma-
tion of hydrogenous gas, produce all the fulminations
#nd detonations which are obferved in chemidry. The

indantaneous

4 1 ^ Difcourfc on Modern Chemiflry.

indantaneous recompolition of water is almod invariably
the confequence of thefe detonations.

Hydrogenous gas performs an important part in the
phcenomena of nature. A great quantity of it is pro-
duced and difengaged in mines: Ic there reduces and co-
lours various metallic oxides : it rifes in the atmofphere,
is carried about by the winds, and kindled by the
eledlric fpark : accordingly, it acts the part of thunder ;
and immediately upon its detonation, a quantity of wa-
ter is formed, which dreams down upon the earth.

The inflammation of this gas by the ele&ric fpark, is
one of the mod remarkable phenomena in nature, and
one of thofe of which the origin is lead known. We
are equally at a Iofs to explain, how the electric fpark
comes to be capable of fixing a mixture of vital air and
azotic gas into nitric acid.

XII. Sulphurated hydrogenous gas, or hepatic gas ,
has been very well didinguifhed from other hepatic gafes
by Bergman. It is obtained from folid alkaline fulphures,
or livers of fulphur , by decompofmg them with acids in
a pneumato-chemical apparatus. This aeriform fluid has
a very foetid fmell : it kills animals : it renders fyrup of
violets green : vital air precipitates fulphur from it : it is
kindled by the electric fpark, and by the contaft of burn-
ing bodies : it burns with a reddifli blue flame ; and, as it
burns, depofites fulphur on the fides of the veflels con-
taining it : the ruddy nitrous acid, the fulphureous acid,
and the oxigenated muriatic acid decompofe it, dedroy
its eladic fluidity, and feparate the fulphur. It combines
with water, and the folurion is decompofed by the ac-
tion of air : fulphurated hydrogenous gas colours and re-
duces oxides of lead, bifmuth, &c. ; it precipitates folu-
tipns. of metals. Some metals, particularly mercury and

filver?

Difcourfe on Modern Chemiflry . 429

filver, feparate the fulphur; accordingly, when patted
through glaffes containing mercury, a great part of it is

decompofed.

All thefe phenomena agree in {hewing, that this gas
: contains fulphur in a very attenuated hate. M. Gen-
gembre, by an analyfis, has difcovered it to confid of
hydrogenous gas and fulphur: to the folution or fuipen-
fion of fulphur, it owes its diftinguifliing charadheriftics.
The fulphur, however much attenuated, does not burn
at the fame time with the hydrogenous gas, but is in
part depofited during the combuftion of the gas : The
caufe of this phenomenon is, that hydrogenous gas does
not need combuflion of fo high a temperature as fulphur.

It is fulphurated hydrogenous gas which mineralifes
fulphureous waters. On this account, the common acids
never precipitate fulphur from thofe waters; but the
nitrous acid, the fulphureous acid, and the oxigenated
muriatic acid, in which the oxigene is not very intimate-
ly combined with the acidifiable bafe, feparate the ful-
phur by abforbing the hydrogene. If too much of any
of thefe acids be employed, efpecially of the oxigenated
muriatic acid, the fulphur of this gas will be burned, and
converted into fulphuric acid; and then no precipitate
will appear.

Our acquaintance with fulphurated hydrogenous gas
enables us to explain feveral things concerning fulphur,
which we were before unable to account for: 1. We
know now, why folid iulphures, recently prepared, are
without fmell ; and what occafions their becoming fo
ftrongly rcetid, when moiftened : 2. It appears that

water, though not decompofable by fulphur alone, is
eafily decompofed by the joint action of fulphur and al-
kaline matters: 3. We underfland fully, how alkaline
fulphures come to be decompofed by the air, and by fe-
veral

4 3 5 Difcoitrfe on Modern Chemiftrf*

veral metallic oxides, efpecially by the oxides of metals
which do not decompofe water : 4. The theory of ful-
phureous mineral waters is now eafy to explain ; as well
as the hiffory of their decompofuion by air and metallic
oxides ; and the difficulties which were formerly found
in all attempts to deteft the fulpbur by fimple acids,
while it was not fufpe<ffed to exift in thofe waters in any
other ftate but fulphure or hepar.

XIII. Phofphorated hydrogenous gas was difcovered by
M. Gengembre, who called it, at the firff, phofphoric gas.
He obtained it, by boiling a lixivium of cauflic potafll
with half its weight of phofphorus, and receiving the
elaftic fluid that was difengaged, into glafles containing
mercury. It kindles by the mere canta<ff of air, pro-
ducing, as it takes fire, a faint explofion. The folid'
phofphoric acid which it affords, forms, when burning,,
a fort of corona in the air, when not agitated ; and, to-
wards its extremity, the diameter of the flame does not
diminilh, but is enlarged. When mixed with vital air
under glafles, it burns with the greateff rapidity, and
produces fuch heat and dilatation that the glafles burff
if they be not very thick, or if the proportions of the
mixture be too large. M. Gengembre has fhown, that
this new gas is a folution of phofphorus and hydrogenous
gas. It bears a conflderable refemblance to fulphurated
hydrogenous gas ; and differs from it in nothing but the
nature of the combuffible body fufpended in the hydro-
genous gas. As phofphorus is much more combuffible
than fulphur, phofphoric hydrogenous gas kindles in the
air : the phofphorus is firff kindled, and communicates
the inflammation to the hydrogenous gas, which is heated
by its combuftion. In fulphurated hydrogenous gas, on
the contrary, the hydrogenous gas is kindled only by the

contaft"

Llfcourfe on Modern Chemijtrf,

contaa of Tome burning body ; and the fulphur not
being fufficiendy heated, is feparated unburnt.

XIV. Hydrogenous gas , mixed with azotic gas, forme
that elaftic fluid which M. Volta has denominated in-
flammable air of marfbes. It is produced by the putre-
j fa&ion of fome vegetable matters, and of all animal fub-
I ftances. It is difengaged from waters in marfhes, ponds*
i houfes of office, and all places where there are animal
matters putrefying in water. It either accompanies, pre-
cedes, or follows, the formation of ammoniac which
takes place in putrefa&ion. 1 take it to be a Ample
mixture, of which the component parts are not united'
by combination ; for, were they actually combined, the
refult would be ammoniac : but it differs from ammo-
niac, i. In the elaftic flare of the two fluids of which ic
conflfls ; 2. In the proportions of thofe elaflic fluids,
which vary in this mixed acid, but in ammoniac are al-
ways the fame. We are indebted for our prefent accu-
rate knowledge of this gas to M. Berthollet. In the
years 1778 and 1779, I examined the inflammable gas
of marffies, and difcovered it to contain carbonic acid :
but in feveral of thofe gafes, found in different parts of
the neighbourhood of Paris, I found a mixture, the na-
ture of which I did not properly diflinguifh ; although I
aflerted, as may be feen in the 164th page of the col-
lection of my Memoirs in 8vo, that it is fometimes ac-
companied, or even has its place fupplied, by phlogijli -
rated gas , which, as I have elfewhere {hewn, is the fame
with what we at prefent call azotic gas. Thefe were
merely vague affertions at the time when I inferred them
in my Memoirs : but M. Berthollet has flnce communi-
cated to them a degree of certainty and, preciflon which

induces.

43 2 Difcourfe on Modern Chemiftry.

induces me to diflinguifh this gas by the peculiar names
above given to it.

Hydrogenous gas, mixed with azotic gas, burns with
a blue flame. It detonizes, but not eafily, with vital air.
When caufed to detonize, in M. Volta’s eudiometer, it
is found to produce fome drops of water, and a refidue
more or lefs pure.

XV. I diflinguifh, by the title of hydrogenous gas
mixed with carbouic acid, that gas which is obtained by
diflillation from many vegetable matters, particularly
from tartar, and all tarrareous falts ; from acetous falts ;
from hard wood ; from charcoal burning with the help
of water ; from mineral coal, &c.

It does not burn very readily ; but it is not abfolutely
incombuflible, even though three fourths of its bulk be
carbonic acid. This acid is feparated from it, and the
hydrogenous gas purified by lime-water and cauflic al-
kalis. It is a Ample mixture, without combination. Hy-
drogenous gas is not capable of decompofing carbonic
acid ; for coal decompofes water, having a Aronger affi-
nity than hydrogene with its oxigene.

XVI. Laflly, It is now known that coal, though very
much fixed in clofeveffels, and in our common fires, is liable
to be reduced to vapour, and diffolved into elaflic fluids,
in a very high temperature. Hydrogenous gas atts with
more energy than any other fubftance in diflolving
carbone, and maintaining it in fufpenfion ; it frequently
therefore carries it with it, as it affumes an elaflic fluid
form. It is this mixed gas that is difengaged, when call
iron and fleel are diffolved in fulphureous acid diluted in
water. In confequence of the former having abforbed
carbonaceous matter in the tops of the furnaces, and the

latter

Dlfcourfe on Modern Chemifiry . 43^

latter in its cementation, it even appears that coal may
ie diretfly diilolved in hydrogenous gas, by directing the
rays of the fun from the focus of a mirror, through the
middle of a glafs filled with this gas, upon coal placed on
mercury in the bottom of the glafs. This fluid burns
with a blue flame; and gives out, during its combuftion,
final 1 white or reddifh fparks. The exigence of coal in
folution in this gas, appears from its gravity, and from its
combuflion in vital air, which produces carbonic acid.
It likewife appears, that xoal communicates to hydroge-
nous gas its well-known foetid fmell, or at leafl it renders
that fmell flronger. Laftly, coal modifies the efrefts of
this gas, and changes the refults of its combinations.
Thus, a mixed gas, formed by the folution of coal iii
azotic gas, feems to be the colouring matter of Pruflian
blue. But we are not yet acquainted with all the com-
pounds into which coal enters : and the fame is to be
laid of the various mixtures of all the gafes with one
another, which certainly take place in a great many in-
stances, but of which chemifiry has not yet eftiffiatfed the
effects.

Of the Application of the Fads which hade been coU
leded , concerning the Nature and Properties of Elaftic
Fluids , to the great Chemical Phenomena produced by
Nature and Art'.

JT is now acknowledged as an unqueftionable faff, that
there is perhaps not a Angle phenomenon in che-
Jniflry in which fome elaftic fluid is not either difengaged
cr fixed ; nay, fometimes both the difenga'geUient and
fixation of elaftic fluids take place on the fame occafron t
and the difcoveries of the moderns have proved, that the
manner in which fuch phenomena were formerly ac-
Vol. Ilf. £ counted

434 Difcourfe on Modern Chemijlry .

counted for, neither explained the caufes, nor gave a
juft view of the effeXs. The perfpicuity which thefe
difeoveries have introduced into this part of the fcience,
is a fufficienc proof of their importance.

On comparing the numerous faXs which conftitute the
prefect fyftem of chemical knowledge, it appears that
they may be reduced to a few general claffes, containing
them all under diftinX heads. Such an arrangement is
the more neceflary, as it (hows the connexions and mu-
tual relations of thofe faXs ; and muft form, of confe-
quence, the elements of the fcience of chemiftry. But
this, laft objeX cannot be attained, till all the general
phenomena be explained : and as we are ftill unable to
account for a number of thefe, as I am about to {how,
this method of laying down the elements of chemiftry is
to be confidered in no other light than as a propofal, the
importance and utility of which render it worthy the
attention of philofophers.

It is with a view to contribute in part to the carrying
of this projeX into execution, or at leaft to fliow that it
is not impoffible, that I have attempted to reduce all the
faXs, and the whole theory of chemiftry, under fourteen
leading phenomena, comprehending the various changes
which natural bodies are liable to fuffer from the aXion
of the chemical affinities. In order to proceed regularly
from Ample to compound, in explaining thefe pheno-
mena, I arrange them in the following order :

1. The produXion or difengagement of heat, audits
abforption, with the effeXs of both.

2. The influence of air on combuftion.

3. The effeXs produced by light on bodies.

4. The decompofition and the recompofltion of water,

5. The produXion and the decompofition of earths.

The formation and the decompofition of alkalis.

• 7- The

Difourfe on Modern Cheniiflry . 43J*

7. The formation and the decompofition of acids.

8. The combination of acids with earths and alkalis.

0. The oxidation and the reduction of metals.

10. The folution of metals by acids.

11. The formation of the immediate principles of ve-
getables by vegetation.

12. The feveral forts of fermentation.

13. The formation of animal matters by the life or
animals.

14. The decompofition and putrefaction of animal
matters.

Let Us briefly confider each of thefe phenomena, and
explain their elfential relation to the properties of elaflic
fluids. ‘

1. The production of heat is owing either to the force
of preflure, which difengages it in bodies in which it
is contained, — or to combination, which difengages it in
like manner. It is to be obferved, that this phenomenon
takes place more efpecially when an elaflic fluid is fixed
in any body; becaufe, as we have already feen, the aeri-
form flate of any fubflance fuppofes the prefence of a
good deal of combined heat. It is alfo to be obferved^
that as every different body contains a different quantity
of heat, or, in other words, different bodies have differ-
ent capacities of heat, — therefore preflure or combination*
mufl produce, from different bodies, very different quan-
tities of this fubflance. For which reafori, this pheno-
menon, which accompanies a great part of the operations
of cherriiflry, fliould be obferved and eflimated with the
titmofl care, in experiments in which accuracy is intend-
ed. Similar to this, is the manner in which the appa-
rent deflruffion or abforption of heat takes place, which
is likewife very often obferved in chemical proccffes.
It always depends on the increafe of the bulk of bodies,

£ e 2 -

43^ Vifcourfc on Modern Chemijtryir

and on their then acquiring a greater capacity for the re*
ception of the matter of heat. Both of thefe phenome-
na, therefore, may be edimated mechanically, or merely
by obferving how the particles of bodies are cora-
preffed together, or removed from each other. But
in order to form a more juft idea of it, we mud add to
this mechanical caufe, the confideration of the particular
chemical attraction or affinity between heat and the body
on which We are obferving its operation.

If. Combudion is one of the mod important phaeno-
mena in nature. We may didinguidi two didinCl claf-
fes of combudions,— thofe which take place in the air,
and thofe which take place apparently without the con-
ta£l of vital air, but on fubdances containing its bafe.

Combudions edeCled by the contaCl of air, are, as has
been already faid, combinations of the combudible body
with the bafe of vital air or oxigene. In proportion as
thefe combinations take place, the matter of light and ca-
loric are feparated from the oxigene, and appear in the fen-
fible form of heat and light. There are fome combudible
bodies which difengage thefe duids dowly from vital air,
and adord only heat when they burn : others, again,
difengage thefe principles rapidly, and caufe them to ap-
pear in the form of fparkling light, and glowing heat.
By communicating more or lefs ofcillation to this light,
they give it different (hades of colouring; if, with Euler,
we confider different coloured rays of light as being all
the fame matter, only affuated by different ofcillations,
fimilar to the vibrations of found. In certain com-
budions effected by air, the combudible bodies have
fo great an affinity to the bafe of the eladic duid,
that they attraCl it with the utmod facility ; others
require, in order to their combination with oxigene, a
temperature fometimes exceedingly high, which appears

to

Difcourfe on Modern Chemijlry.

to promote the attractive influence of the combuftible
body on that bafe. This theory accounts for the in-
y' creafe of the weight of a burnt body ; the change of

\ its ftate ; the impurity of atmofpheric air after combuf-

tion, — for the proportion of azotic gas then becomes
much larger, — and the diverfity of the phenomena,
fuch as flame, heat, and YarefaClion, which accompany
j _ every fpecies of combuflion which is effe&ed in the ar-
mofphere.

The fecond clafs of combuflions is generally effeCted
in clofe veflels. It conflfls in general in the tranfition
of oxigene, either more or lefs folid, out of a body al-
ready burnt, into an unburnt body. It depends upon
the different elective attractions of this principle for dif-
ferent combuflible bafes. To this clafs belong, the oxi-
dation of metals by acids, — the reduction of metallic ox-
ides by coal, — the combuflion of fulphur, phofphorus,
coal, and carbure of iron by nitric acid, — the combuf-
tion of hydrogene, the principle of ammoniac, by the
oxigenated muriatic acid, &c. &c. In all thefe inftances,
oxigene paffes out of one body into another ; and as it
was not melted by heat and light, thefe combuflions ge-
nerally take place without flame. We may obferve, that
in thefe inftances of combuflion, which may be called
tacit, the property of combuftibility is not loft, but only
transferred from the body which abforbs the oxigene to
that which lofes it. We may likewife add, that as oxi-
gene is more or lefs folid, that is, more or lefs deftitute
of heat and light in the compounds into which it enters,
bodies which detach it may fepmetimes abforb it in a
more pure and folid ftate than it was contained in thofe
in which it before exifted: and the difengagement of
heat, and even of light, mull then take place. Such is
the origin of thefe two phaenemona in detonations by

E e 3 nitre.,

A 3 8 Difccitrfe on Modern Chcmijlry.

nitre, — in the apparent aCtion of nitric acid on fulphur,
coal, phofphorus, the generality of metals, oils, and al-
pohoL

III. The ejfefls of light on bodies , have not been hi-
therto efti mated any other way than by their confe-
quences ; their caufe has never yet been properly ex-
plained. It has been long known to aft upon vegeta-
bles, to communicate to them colour, and to develope
their combullible principles. Scheele obferved, that the
rays of the fun coloured nitric acid, muriate of ftlver,
mercurial precipitates, &c. It is at prefent well known,
that all thefe effects are attended with the difengagemeDt
of a more or lefs confiderable quantity pf vital air : light,
therefore, aCts at the fame time with heat upon thefe
bodies,' ■— -feparates their oxigene, melts it, and caufes it
to pafs into the flate of elaflic fluidity. It is in this
manner that it contributes to the decompofition of car-
bonic acid by the leayes of yegetables. That decompo-
sition is, in truth, owing to a double attraction ; i. The
attraction of light and heat for oxigene, which they
tend to difengage into vital air, &c. ; 2. That with
which vegetable matters ad: upon carbone, the radical
principle of this acid. By the fame mechanifm, light
promotes the decompofition of water by the fame organs
of vegetables, and contributes to the formation of their
oleaginous principle. By attending with more care
than has been hitherto done, to the aCtion of light upon
many natural bodies, fome important difcovenes may bq
made, as I pointed put in the year 1780.

IV. The formation and the decompofition of water '3
depend entirely on the affinities of oxigene, which is one
of its principles. Zinc, iron, oils, and coal, are already

Jtnown

439

I

Dlfcourfe on Modern Chemiflry.

known to poflefs the property of feparating the princi-
ples of water, by abforbing its oxigene, and difengaging
its other principle, hydrogene, in the form of hydroge-
nous or inflammable gas. The extreme levity of this
gas, accounts for the high temperature requifite to efied
this decompofltion fuddenly. It appears, that the bafe
of this gas, hydrogene, which is commonly either liquid
or folid, in the two dates in which water is commonly
found on the furface of the globe, has a very great ca-
pacity for containing the matter of heat. It even ap-
pears, that this bafe, though combined with oxigene
and water, dill poflfefles this property of abforbing a
great deal of heat ; and that it is this property which
renders aqueous vapour lighter than air ; in confequence
of which, the mercury finks in the barometer, when the
atmofphere is filled with that vapour. This noble dif-
coTery of the nature and the decompofltion of water,
throws much light on the theories of metallic folutions,
— of the oxidation of various metals by moiflure, — of
the formation of the immediate principles of vegetables,
— of fpiritous fermentation, and of putretadion : And
we already fee, that almod all chemical theories are re-
ferable to, and depend upon the affinities of oxigene.
It throws alfo great light on the phenomena of the at,
mofphere, — the formation of meteors, — the laws which
nature obferves fa the fucccffive clfanges of organic
matters, &c.

V. There are dill feveral important dfiderata with
refped to the formation of bodies, which the labours of
chemids have not explained. One of thefe is the forma-
tion of earths. Naturalids have given their opinions
concerning the formation of earths : feveral of them
have confidered the converfion of filex into clay, as a
fad diffidently proved ; but that notion is nothing hut

E e 4 ' a#

44® Difcourfe on Modern Chemiffry.

un ingenious hypothefis, not fupported by fa&s. Che.
mills have not been able to change either filiceous earth,
into alumina, or alumina into filiceous earth. Nature,
perhaps, operates this converfion ; but as we are unac-
quainted with the means which (he employs, we fhould
not venture to guefs, when not countenanced by direft
experiments. To confider barytes, magnefia, and lime,
as compounds confilling of filiceous and aluminous earths
united with fome other bodies, is to advance hypothefes
which deferve but very little credit. No chemift has
hitherto diretted his enquiries to this fcope : the necef-
fary data are even wanting.

VI. Nearly fimilar is the Hate of our knowledge with
refpeft to the formation of fixed alkalis. The modern
ideas of the principles of chemiflry, lead us to fufpefi azote
as a principle of thefe falts — We may perhaps even ven-
ture to confider this body, the exiften.ee of which in
ammoniac has been fully proved by M. Berthollet, as
a principle common to fixed alkalis and alkaline earths
in general, — in a word, as the alkaligenous principle.
For inftance, there can be no doubt, that the fixed al-
kalis are partly decompofed in many of the operations of
Chemiftry : in the diftillation of old foaps, and tartareous
and acetous neutral falts, they are plainly changed into
ammoniac. — This tranfmutation feems to (hew, that fixed
alkalis contain azote, which, by attaching itfelf to the
hydrogene of the oil, forms ammoniac. — But thefe fafls
have not yet been carefully examined, with refpeft to
the quantities of the fixed alkalis which appear to be de-
(compofed, and that of the ammonia, c which is obtained, — ■
nor, what is of no lefs importance, with refpeft to the
jrefidue produced from the fixed alkalis ; and we cannot
jpope to eftablifh our theory upon this faft, till its cir-

cumftances

Dtfcourfe on Modern Cbcmijlry. 44 i

cumfhnces be more exa&ly known. But though thefe
were known, we fitould dill have to enquire into the nature
i of the other principle or principles of fixed alkalis, and
n in what manner the radical principle of potafli differs from
that of foda, &c.

VII. The formation and the decompofttion of acids , is
one of the moil valuable and bed known parts of mo-
dern chemidry. We know that they confid all of a
bafe or radical principle, more or lefs combudible in
combination with oxigene : that the oxigene being the
fame in them all, is the principle of their acidity ; and
that the differences among them are owing to the fub-
dances combined with the oxigene ; which differ in each
different acid. — We know the bafes of the fulphuric, the
nitric, the carbonic, the arfenic, and the phofphoric
acids ; we know them to be fulphur, azote, coal, arfenic,
and phofphorus. But the acidifiable bafes of the mu-
riatic, the fluoric, and the boracic acids in the mineral
kingdom, remain dill to be difcovered ; as well as the
proportions in which hydrogene and carbone, which
feem to form the bafes of all the vegetable acids, are
united in them.

The decompofttion of the acids whofe nature is known,
is not hard to explain. We know that it mud happen,
whenever a combudible body, having a dronger affinity
with oxigene than oxigene has with the acidifiable bafe,
is applied to any acid: And fuch is the theory of ful-
phureous and nitrous acid gafes by the decompofttion of
the fulphuric and nitric acids, See,

VIII. The combination of acids with earths and alka-
lis, forms the hidory of neutral falts, and of the mutual
affinities or eleffive attractions of thefe different matters.

It

442 Difcourfe on Modern Cbemijlry.

It comprehends the examination of the phenomena which
take place when they unite, — the tafte which they ac-
quire, — their form, folution, cryflallization, alterations
by fire and air, and mutual decompofitions. It has been
treated of at great length in this work.

IX. The oxidation and reduction of metals is alfo re-
ferable to the hiftory of air and oxigene. We know,
that what has been called the calcination of metals, is
a combuftion, — that it confifts in the union and fixation
of the bafe of vital air or oxigene in the metal cal-
cined ; — that metallic calces are compounds of metals
and oxigene, which we call oxides ; — that moft oxides
are reduced only by giving out their oxigene to fome o-
ther body having a Itronger affinity with it ; — that coal,
by abforbing oxigene from metallic oxides in this man-
ner, forms with it the carbonic acid, which is difengag-
ed in fuch abundance during their reduction ; — and that
there are fome metallic oxides, from which oxigene is
feparated in the Hate of vital air, by means of heat and
light, — a fa£t which proves, that this oxigene is combin-
ed with different metals, with very different degrees of
adhefive force. But two very important particulars in
the hiftory of the oxidation of metals, which have been
afcertained by modern experiments, and which throw
great light on all the phenomena of metallic matters,
are, i. That every different metal abforbs, in order to
its faturation, a different quantity of oxigene : 2. That
each metal may exift in different dates of oxidation, — or,
combined with different proportions of oxigene, — from
that which merely begins the oxidation of a metal to
that by which it is completely accomplifhed, — for in-
dance, from fifteen to forty, or more parts of oxigene,
jo tjae hundred weight of iron.

■

Difcourfe on Modern Chemiftry * 44 j

The attentive examination of this fecond fa<ft, leads
k us to diftinguilh, in every metallic oxide, feveral difFer-
r ent ftates in refped to the quantity of oxigene which
f it contains. Thus, mercury fuffers an incipient oxida-
tion, and is changed into a black powder in a number
. of circumftances, which have 'been hitherto confidered
as effe&ing only an extreme attenuation of the metal :
Thus, iron, in the hate of martial ethiops, is the firft:
oxide of that metal, in refpeci of the fmall quantity of
oxigene which it contains, and cold water ealily reduces
the metal into this hate : Laftly, copper, beginning to
be oxidated, or combined with the fmall eft poftible
quantity of oxigene, is brown and reddifli ; whereas an
oxide of this metal, fully faturated with oxigene, is of a
bright green.

This diftin&ion of metallic oxides, according to their
different ftates of oxidation, or according as they contain
different quantities of oxigene, and poflefs different pro-
perties, in confequence of their having been more or
lefs burnt, enables us to explain a great many pheno-
mena, of which chemifts were formerly able to give no
fatisfaclory account.

X. The folution of metals in different acids, the pro-
perties of thefe folutions, and of the falts which they
afford, agree very well with the modern theory, and arc
much better explained by it than they formerly were.
No folution of a metal in an acid can take place, without
the metal’s being firft oxidated.

Metals are oxidated by the fulphuric acid, — either by
the acid itfelf, or by the water in which it is diluted.
In the firft. of thefe cafes, the acid is decompofed, and a
quantity of fulphureous acid gas difengaged ; in the ie-
cond, the water is decompofed, and hydrogenous gas dit-

engaged.

l

, Difcourfc on Modern Chemiflry.

engaged. Some metals decompofe only the fulplmric
acid, without a&ing upon the water ; fuch as mercury,
lead, &c. ; and to burn thefe metals, the acid mud be con-
centrated. Metals which a£t with more energy in de-
compofing water than in decompofing fulphuric acid,
fuch as zinc and iron, are not fo readily oxidated unlefs
the acid be diluted, as it is from the water they mud de-
rive the necefiary oxigene. What proves the certainty
of this lad fa<d, is, that the fulphuric acid remains undi-
miniflied, none of it being decompofed. From thefe
circumdances it is clear, that much more fulphuric acid
mud be necelfary for the fclution of a metal which de-
compofes the acid, than for the folution of a metal
which decompofes the water combined with it. In the
former cafe, two different fums of the acid are requifite,
one to oxidate the metal, and another to diffolve the
metallic oxide : if only the fird fum were mixed with
the metal, it would only be oxidated, and the fecond fum
of acid would dill be neceffary to diffolve the oxide :
in the laboratories, there is frequently occafion to make
fuch an addition. Accurate obfervation has diown, that
metallic oxides ought to be always in the fame degree of
oxidation or combination with oxigene, in order that
they may be diffolved in the fulphuric acid ; and that when
they are fully faturated with the acid, they no longer
combine with it. Before this period, they are not foluble
in it ; beyond it, they are precipitated, — an event which
happens when a fulphuric folution is expofed to too
drong a heat, or left for a longer or diorter time ex-
pofed to the air. In the fird of thefe operations, the
heat promotes the affion of the metallic oxide upon the
acid ; and it of confequence takes up more oxigene than
it contained or needed in order to remain fufpended in
jthe acid $ in the fecond indance, it abforbs that prin-
ciple

1

Difcourfe on Modern Chtmijlrf.

| ciple from the atmofphere, till, acquiring more than is
neceflary to its fufpenfion, the oxide is precipitated.
Such is the theory of fulphuric mother waters. Solu-
tions of metals by this acid afford cryftals only ‘in the
former cafe. All tliefe fafts agree in fhewing, that the
metals aft firfl>upon their folvents ; and that the fulphu-
ric acid does not aft upon them till they be oxidated to a
certain degree.

Nitric acid is likewife decompofed by mod metals.
They are oxidated or calcined to a certain degree by ab-
forbing its oxigene, with which they have a greater affi-
nity than azote. But they not taking up all the oxigene
of the nitric acid, — not, at lead, unlefs too much of the
metal be employed, and the mixture be too much heated, —
the azote is feparated in combination with a portion of
oxigene; and this particular combination conftitutes ni-
trous gas. The nitric acid is more liable to decompofi-
tion than any other acid ; its two component principles
not being very intimately united. For this reafon, it has
always been confidered as the chief folvent ; and it is
owing to the fame circumftance, that water is feldom de-
compofed during the mutual action of metals and the ni-
tric acid, and that a large quantity of water puts a flop
to this re-aftion. Accordingly, folutions of metals in the
nitric acid afford only one fort of elaftic fluid, nitrous
gas, which is fometimes mixed with a little azotic gas,
efpecially if the metals employed have a very ffrong affi-
nity with oxigene, and abforb a great deal of it.

Metals which are foluble in the nitric acid combine,
and remain in combination with it, only when containing
a certain quantity of oxigene not equal to their fatura-
ration. Many metallic oxides, therefore, fuch as thofe
of bifmuth, antimony, mercury, tin, and iron, are very
cafily feparated from nitric acid, folely by reff, by heat,

or

44^ Dtfcourfe on Modern Chemijlry,

or by expofure to the air. As they continue to abforb
oxigene from the acid in which they are diffolved, or
from the furrounding atmofphere, the quantity of nitric
acid mud; alfo be very large ; that it may be fufficient,
firfl:, to oxidate the metal, — fecondly, to diffolve the ox-
ide. If you employ only what is rcquifite for the former
purpofe, you obtain only a dry oxide ; as in the indances
of bifmuth, zinc, tin, and antimony.

The muriatic acid does not aft upon any metal with-
out the affidance of water. Wherefore, as there are
but few metals which aft upon water, there are but few
direftly foluble -in muriatic acid ; and nothing but hy-
drogenous gas is ever difengaged, in the cafe of dilution,
by this acid. Every thing concurs to ffiow, that the
principles of this acid adhere more obdinately together
than thofe of any other acid ; and from this I am much
Inclined to think, that the unknown bafe of the muriatic
acid,- whatever it be, is the body wffiich has the greated
poflible affinity with oxigene. None of the combudible
bodies which detach that principle from the other fub-
dances that contain it, takes it from this acid : but when
metallic oxides are once formed, it diffolves them very rea-
dily; it even detaches them from feveral other acids ; and
it diffiolves them even when fully faturated with oxigene,
which the other acids are not capable to do. The two
lad of thefe properties, which are very remarkable, cer-
tainly depend on the tendency which the muriatic acid
has to abforb an excefs of oxigene ; a tendency fo fully
proved by the formation of the oxigenated muriatic
icid, See.

The aftion of the other acids on metals is not yet dif-
fidently known, to enable us to explain it fo accurately.
We ffiall only remark, that metals cannot decompofe the
carbonic acid j for coal, the radical principle of chat a-

eidj

Dlfcourfe on Modern Chem'ijlry. 447

acid, has a ftronger affinity with oxigene than oxigene has
with metals ; as is proved by the decompofition of me-
tallic oxides by the carbonaceous principle.

Laftly, The precipitation of metallic oxides from a-
cids, by other metallic fubftances, depends entirely on
the diverfity of the affinities of oxigene with thefe fub-
flances. When copper precipitates oxide of filver, and
iron oxide of copper, in filver and copper ; the reafon
of thefe phenomena is, that copper has a ftronger affini-
ty with oxigene than filver, and iron than copper.

XI. We are only beginning to underftand the forma-
tion of the immediate principles of vegetables. It was
long ago obferved, that plants grew very well in pure
water ; and that all their conllituent principles were
formed with water and atmofpheric air : From thefe two
fources they derive all their nourifhment : From thefe,
their extraft, mucilage, oil, coal, acids, colouring parts,
& c., are produced. Since the difcovery of the different
gafes, it has been obferved, that they grow very rapid-
ly in air altered and mixed with carbonic acid, as well
as in hydrogenous gas. We have already taken no-
tice, that leaves decompofe water and carbonic acid.
From the former, they abforb hydrogene ; and from the
fecond, carbone ; difengaging, from both, vital air.
They appear, likewife, to abforb azote. Thefe well-
known phenomena explain the formation of coal and of
oil : for there can be no doubt, that the latter of thefe
principles confifls of fixed hydrogene, if the expreffio*
may be ufed, as it affords a good deal of water during
its combultion. But we are (till ignorant of the man-
ner in which the colouring principle, the aroma, the fix-
ed alkali, and the glutinous part, are formed ; and whence
the varieties of the oils, & c. ; only we may venture to

foretel.

44® Dijcourfe on Modern Chemijlry i

foretel, that new experiments on vegetation, in prcfecu-
tion of thefe new views, will hereafter explain the nature
and the compofition of all thefe different immediate prin-
ciples.

We are now beginning to underftand the formation
of vegetable acids, during vegetation, and even by that aft.

In the hiflory of acids, we have already taken notice,
that they appear to be all formed of fimilar bafes : that,
by a laft analyfis, we obtain equally from them all, car-
bone, hydrogene, and oxigene ; and that they feem to *
differ only in the proportions of the principles, and itf
the preflure or denfity of the fubflances. The more we
extend our experiments upon acids, the more probable
will this opinion appear.

Scheele and M. Crell have found an analogy to exiff
among feveral of them, Scheele, who at firfl thought
the oxalic acid and the acid of fugar to be different from
each other, was at length convinced, as we have men-
tioned' elfewhere, that there is no difference between
thefe acids, but that they are precifely the fame ; — i. By
extracting the portion of potafli which conceals the pro-
perties of the oxalic acid in common fait of forrel, and,
by that means, reducing it to pure oxalic acid ; 2. By
changing acid of fugar into fait of forrel, by the addition'
of a little potafli.

If to this mofl important faft in the analyfis of vege-
tables, we add the valuable experiments of M. Crell,
who has extracted tartareous acid from alcohol, and has
changed tartareous acid into vinegar, and into oxalic
acid, and oxalic acid, again, into acetous acid, — we fhall
fee, that the oxalic, the tartareous, and the acetous a-
cids, greatly refemble each other : that they are formed'
from one bafe, and differ only in the proportions of the
oxigene which they contain. It appears that the tartar

reouS' 11

44 9

D'lfcourfe on Modern ChemiJIry.

reous acid contains lead of this principle : that the
oxalic acid contains a good deal more of it ; and that the
acetous acid contains dill more than either of the other
two. 1 cannot help thinking, that if four vegetable a-
cids, which were at fird thought to be effentially differ-
ent from each other, have been already found to confid
of the fame bafe, combined with different proportions of
oxigene ; future experiments may in like manner difco-
ver the fame analogy to fubfid among others, particular-
ly between the citric and the malic acids, which are fo
often found together in vegetable juices.

XII. Spiritous fermentation, — the fimultaneous forma-
tion of the carbonic acid and alcohol, — the neceffity of
water and a faccharine principle to begin that fermen-
tation,— all together afford us reafon to think, that it is
produced by the decompofition of water. The oxigene
of the water combining with the coal, forms carbonic acid,
which is difengaged ; and the alcohol is formed by the fix-
ation of the hydrogene in the oily bafe, which, with different
quantities of oxigene, forms the tartareous, the oxalic, and
the acetous acids. This theory explains fully the reafon
why alcohol affords fo much water in combudion, — why it
is changed by mineral acids into oxalic acid, acetous acid,
&c. It is true, we do not yet well underdand how it
paffes into the date of cether ; only it is probable, that in
fuch operations, the alcohol lofes a portion of its oxi-
gene, which goes to the formation of water.

t \

XIII. Chemids are beginning to conje&ure, how far
the fcience can conduft them in their enquiries into the
formation of animal matters. Digedion feems to be fim-
ply an extraftion or folution by the gaftric jiTice. The fix-
ation of azotic gas is one of the principal fun&ions of or-

Yol. III. F f ganization.

45°

t)ifcourfe on Modern Chennjlr ;

j *

ganization. From the experiments of Scheele, and, fliil
more, from thofe of M. Berthollet, it appears to occalion
the principal difference between animal matters and ve-
getable fubftances. It contributes to the formation of
the ammoniac which thefe fubftances afford in fuch a-
bundance by diftillaticn, &c. We know not yet in
what manner azotic gas is fixed in animals, whether by
the ftomach or by the Ikin, &c. The differences a-
raong the animal fluids defigned for the nourilhment of
the different organs, and the peculiar nature of the gela-
tinous humour, of the albuminous liquor, and of the fi-
brous parr, which is melted and diffolved in certain
fluids, are now fufficiently afeertained. We know that
the former is the lead; animalifed, — that the fecond is
more fo, — and that the third i3 the Jaft fubflance pro-
duced by the adlion of the vital fundiions upon the fluids :
We know, alfo, that this lafi humour is reunited Amply
by red into a tiffue of folid fibres ; and that the albu-
minous part is thickened, and rendered concrete by
heat ; whereas the gelatinous fubflance is fooner de-
compofed, but alfo more readily reproduced. Peculiar
acids have been found in the excrementitious humours,
but we know nothing of their formation : we are par-
ticularly ignorant of the manner in which the phofphoric
a^cid, which abounds fo generally through this kingdom,,
is formed.

The nature of the folids of animals has engaged the
attention of modern chemifis. The diftindtive nature
of the fibrous texture of the mufcles, — of the membra-
nous plates, — of the hard laminm of the bones, &c., is
now known. Medicine expedis, from the difeoveries of
chemiflry, a fflution #of the problems which fliil fubfifl
concerning the formation of the feveral matters which
conflitute thefe parts j efpecially of the phofphoric acid,

the

Difcourfe on Modern ChemiJIry. ^53

the albuminous juice, the fibrous matter, calcareous
phofphate, and the peculiar oils which are found in this
kingdom of nature. The formation of ammoniac, which
was g Defied at by Bergman and Scheele, and has been
fince fully explained by M. Berthollet, afibrds us reafon
for thinking, that all thefe problems may be fuccefiively
folved. In all probability, we want only a few princi-
pal faCts, to enable us to reach feveral important refults:
The hope of this mud encourage thofe phyficians who
know the importance of chemiftry.

XIV. Ever fince the days of Chancellor Bacon, the
hiftory of putrefaction has been acknowledged as an im-
portant objeCt in medical enquiries. Several eminent:
naturalifis have Iludied it with fome fuccefs : But the
caufe of this decompofition, and the manner in which it
is effected, have not been yet discovered. The late dis-
coveries throw fome light on this important point. Wa-
ter, which promotes and excites putrefaction, is under-
flood to be decompofed in that inteftine emotion. We
underhand how ammoniac is formed in fuch abundance,
— by the fixation of azotic gas and hydrogenous gas.
The flow decompofition of greafe, its prefervation and
condensation, which in fome indances proceeds to Soli-
dity and hardnefs in confequence of the fixation of vital
air from water, are now accounted for : In like manner have
been explained, the volatilization and reduction of dead ani-
mal fubdances expofed to the air, into eladic fluids ; in a word,
the complete feparation of all thofe principles, and their dif-
perfion in the atmofphere, which conveys them into new
combinations ; with that whole feries of compositions,
and tranfitions of Subdances out of one kingdom into ano-
ther,— So happily exprcfled by Beecher under the philoso-
phical emblem, cir cuius eterni motns , which he ufes to Sig-
nify the indefatigable activity of nature.

F f 3

IXPLA*

EXPLANATION

OF THE

TABLE OF THE NOMENCLATURE.

WE {hall begin with obferving, that it was not
our intention to exhibit, in this Table, the
whole of the chemical nomenclature : Our defign was
only to arrange together, under feveral clafles of com-
pounds, fuch a number of feleft examples as might en-
able any perfon, with a little ftudy, to apply the princi-
ples of our fyftetn of nomenclature to all the compounds
With which chemifls are at prefent acquainted, as well
as to thofe which may be hereafter difcovered. For
this purpofe, we have divided the table into fix perpen-
dicular columns, with the general titles at their heads,
exprefling the date of the bodies whofe names they
contain. Each of thefe columns confifls of 55divifions,
— that being the number of the undecompofed fubftan-
ces with which we are acquainted, and which fucceed in
order in the firft column. The correfpondent horizontal
divifions of the other five columns, comprehend the
principal combinations of thofe Ample fubflances, and
muff of confequence be equally numerous.

We fliall trace each of thefe columns through its prin-
cipal divifions.

Column

'Explanation of the Table of the Nomenclature. 453

Column I.

The title of the firft column is, Substances that
have not yet been decomposed. The reafon
why we confider thefe bodies as fimple, is, that we have
not yet been able to analyfe them. All the accurate
experiments which have been performed daring thefe
Jail ten years, concur to fhew, that thefe bodies can
neither be feparated into more fimple fubftances, nor
reproduced by artificial combinations. Thefe fubftances
are, as we have already mentioned, 55 in number.
They, with their correfponding compounds are number-
ed with Arabic numerals, running down both the right
and the left fides of the table.

The 55 fimple fubftances of the firft column are divid-
ed into five clafles, according to the differences of their
nature. The firft of thefe clafles confifts of four bodies,
which appear to come nearly under the charafter that
has been afligned to the elements, and aft the mod im-
portant part in combinations. Thefe are, 1. Light \ 2.
Caloric , which has hitherto been named matter of heat :
3. Oxigene , or that part of vital air which becomes fixed
in burning bodies, increafes their weight, and changes
their nature, and of which the mod eminent property
being to conftitute acids, has induced us to give it a
name alluding to that remarkable charafteriftic : 4. Hy-
drogene, or the bafe of the elaftic fluid which is called
Inflammable Gas, and which, as it is one of the princi-
ples of water, exifts in ice in a folid ftate. Thefe firft
four principal bodies are connefted by a brace.

The fecond clafs of the undecompofed fubftances in
the firft column, confifts of 26 different bodies, — all of
which are liable to become acid, by combining with

T f 3 oxigene $

454 Explanation of the Table of the Nomenclature.

oxigene ; and in confequence of their poffefling this
chara&erifiic in common, we diftinguifh them by the
name of acidifable bafes. There are only four of thefe
2 6 bodies that can be obtained in a fimple uncombined
ftate. Thefe four are, azote , — the radical principle of
the nitric acid *, or the folid bafe of atmofpheric me-
phitis, well known at prefent to chemifts, in the fifth
divifion ; pure coal , carbonic , or the radical principle of
the carbonic acid, in the fixth divifion ; fulphur, or the
radical principle of the fulphuric acid, in the feventh
divifion ; and phofphore , or the radical principle of the
phofphoric acid, in the eighth divifion. The other 22
are only known as they exilt in combination with oxigene,
and in the Rate, of acids. But in order to extend and
fimplify the Science, we have fuppofed them feparated
from oxigene, and exifting in that pure hate to which
it is probable they may one. day or other be reduced
by art. They are all, therefore, inferted in the firft
column, as exifting in this fuppofed fimple ftate, and oif-
tinguilhed as the radical principles of the acids into which
they enter.

The third clafs of the undecompofed fubftances of the
firft column, confifts of metallic matters, in number 17,
extending from the 31ft to the 47th divifion, inclufive.
They all retain the names by which they have been hi-
therto known. The three firft are liable to pafs into an
acid ftate, — agreeing, in this charadteriftic, with the pre-
ceding acidifiable bafes.

In the fourth clafs, are the earths which have not
yet been decompofed,— filiceous earth , aluminous earthy

baroteSy

* It is alfo to be obferve'd, that azote is never obtained in a
feparate inflated ftate, but always in a gazeous ftate, and in
combination with caloric.

Explanation of the Table of the Nomenclature. 455

!h aretes, lime, and magncfia, in fo many fucceflive divi-
fions. None of thefe five earths has yet been decom-
q pofed ; and they are therefore to be confidered, in the

I prefent ftate of our knowledge, as fo many fiinpie bodies.

Laftly, the fifth clafs of undecompofed fubftances,
confifts of the three alkalis, — pota/b, foda, and ammoniac.

I The laft of thefe fubftances has been decompofed by
Meflrs Bergman and Sehoele ; and M. Berthollet has
determined, in a precife manner, the nature and the
quantity of its principles: But we were unwilling to fe-
parate it from the fixed alkalis, the component princi-
ples of which we hope alfo to difeover in a fhort time :
It would be improper to break through the order, and
overlook the mutual relations of thole fubftances, which
in many refpe&s a<ft, in chemical experiments, as unde-
compofable matters.

The firft column, all the divifions of which we have
now explained, is, like each of the others, divided longi-
tudinally into two ; the left fide exhibits the old names
of the fubftances in Italic characters.

Column II.

The fecond column is intituled, The same Sub-
stances REDUCED INTO THE STATE OF GAS, BY
the addition of Caloric. It exhibits the per-
manent aeriform ftates into which a number of the fim-
ple fubftances in the firft column are liable to pafs. In
this column, there are only four elaftic fluids, the names
of which, like all the words in the other columns, are
derived from the names of the undecompofable matters,
and are rendered fufficiently intelligible, by the addition
of the word gas to the correfpondent words in the firft

F f 4 column :

45 6 Explanation of the Table of the Nomenclature .

column : — Oxigenous gas , hydrogenous gas , azotic gas ,
and ammoniacal gas .

Column III.

The title of the third column informs the reader,
that it coniifts of The same Substances which ap-
pear in the firft column, combined with Oxigene.
This is one of the fulleft columns in the Table; for, al-
molt all the bodies in the firft column are capable of
combination with oxigene. The names in it are all
compounded of two words, expreflive of the two mat-
ters of which the fubftarices to which they belong con-
lift. The firft of thefe words, is the generic term of
the acid, which indicates the faline character that it de-
rives from oxigene: The l'econd peculiarifes each acid,
and refers to its peculiar radical principle. The 5th di-
vifion of this third column exhibits the combination of
azote , or nitric radical , with oxigene. From that com-
bination arife three compounds, produced by a diverfity
in the proportions of the principles : The azote is either
united with the leaft poffible quantity of oxigene, and
it then forms the bafe of nitrous gas ; — or faturated
with it, and then it conftitutes nitric acid ; — or un-
ited with lefs than in nitric acid, yet with more than
in nitrous gas, and then it forms nitrous acid. We
exprefs the three different ftates of this combination
fimply by varying the termination of the fame word.
In the fame manner, the termination of the fulphuric
acid is varied in the 7th divifion ; that of the phofphoric
acid , in the 8th divifion ; and that of the acetic acid , ii>
the 13th. Thefe acids exift in two ftates of combina-
tion with oxigene, according to the quantities which
theii: acisiifiable bafes contain. When the bafes are

completely

Explanation of the Table of the Nomenclature . 457

sompletejy faturated, the acids produced are, the fulphu-
ri(, the acetic, and the phofphoric : When the bafes are
not faturated, and do not contain oxigene in a due pro-
portion, we call the acids that are then formed, the ful-
{ phureous, the acetous, and the phofphorous. We have
followed the fame general rule in the denomination of
all the other acids. When an acid is known only in one
{late, and, in that hate, the bafe is fully faturated with
oxigene, fuch as the carbonic or the boracic acid, its
name then terminates in ic : when it is known in two
hates, it is dillinguifhed, in the hronger hate, by the
termination ic ; in the weaker, or that in which there is
an excefs of the acidifiable bafe, its name terminates in
ous. Accordingly, in thofe acids which are known only
; in one hate, and yet have their names terminating in
ous, it may be underhood that there is an excefs of the
acidifiable bafe : fuch are, the tartareous acid, in the 14th
divifion; the pyro- tartareous, in the 15th; the pyro-
ligneous, in the 2 ih ; and the pyro-mucous, in the 2 2d.
The muriatic acid, in the 9th divifion, is in a hate
different from any of the others. Befides its combina-
tion, in w'hich it is faturated with oxigene, it is alfo ca-
pable of receiving an excefs of oxigene, which commu-
nicates to it fome remarkable properties. To dihinguilh
it as it exihs in this lah hate, we call it the oxiienated

o

muriatic acid ; and the epithet oxigenated, may be in
like manner applied to any of the other acids that {hall
be found exihing in the fame hate. The lower divifions
of this third column, from the 31ft to the 47th inclufive ,
exhibit the nomenclature of another fyhem of bodies.
The word oxide is there found at the beginning of the
compound denomination. The reafon which induced us
to fubhitute this name to that of metallic calces, has been
explained in our memoir on this nomenclature. It does

not

45.8 Explanation of the Table of the ’Nomenclature .

not exprefs a faline quality, as the word acid does, and yet
denotes a combination of oxigene : and it may be applied
to all bodies that are fufceptible of a combination with
oxigene without palling into a flate of acidity ; and this,
whether their not becoming acid be owing to the fcanty
proportion of the oxigene, or to the nature of their
bafes. Thus, for inftance, the phofphoric acid, vitrified,
or deprived of a part of its oxigene, by the action of a
flrong heat, becomes a fort of phofphoric oxide. Nitrous
gas, too, which is not more acid than phofphoric glafs, is
properly a nitrous oxide ; and hydrogene, in combination
with oxigene, forms not an acid, but water, which, in
tills light, may be confidered as an oxide of hydrogene.

Of the 17 metallic oxides, between the 31ft and the
loth divifion, there are 3 which are only in intermediate
flares between the metallic and the acid. It is for want
of oxigene that the oxides of arfenic, molybdena, and
tunghen, in the 3 1 ft , the 3 2d, and the 33d di vifions, are
not yet become acid. A greater quantity of the acidifying
principle conflitutes them the arfenic , the mclybdic, and
the tunjlic acids. Epithets taken from colour ferve to
diflinguifh the different oxides of the fame metal, as may
be obferved of the oxides of antimony, lead, and mercury.

Column IV.

The 4th column, intituled, The same substances
in a gazeous oxigenated state, contains fimple
fubftances combined both with oxigene and with a fuffi-
cient quantity of caloric to reduce them to permanent
gafes, under the ufual preffure and temperature of the
atmofphere. There are only fix fubftances known to
exift in that flate, — nitrous gas, nitrous acid gas, car-
bonic acid gas, fulphureous gas, muriatic and oxigenated

muriatic

Explanation of the Table of the Nomenclature. 45?.

muriatic acidi gas ,and fluoric acid gas No other oxigen-
ated fubffance having been reduced into a gazeous hate
, by caloric, we have therefore introduced into this column
< fome peculiar combinations of metallic oxides, or oxigen-
j ated metals, with different bafes : It is accordingly di-
vided in the middle ; and the lower part intituled.
Metallic oxides with different bases.—
From the 31ft to the 45th divifion inclufive , are the com-
binations of metallic oxides with fulphur and alkalis.
The former are called fulpburated oxides of arfenic, lead.
See. ; the latter, alkaline metallic oxides. When any of
thefe compounds varies in, the proportions, and confe-
quently in its properties, we diftinguifh it in the fame
manner as the limple oxides, by epithets taken from co-
lour : thus we fay, grey , red, orange , &c. fulpburated
| oxides of antimony.

Column V.

The 5th column, confiding of the fimple sub-
stances in the iff column oxigenated and neu-
tralised by the addition of bases, or, neutral
falts in general, exhibits many more names than any of
the preceding columns : and we have therefore found it
neceffary to give, in this column, a greater number of
examples, in order to fhow the fuperiority of this fyftetn
of nomenclature over the ancient names ; moff of which,
though expreffing ffmilar combinations, were in nowife
analogical.

Any perfon may fee, by looking flightly over this co-
lumn, that the names contained in it, and expreffing fimi-
lar combinations, have all one termination. It is eafy to
fee, that this muff greatly facilitate the ftudy of the
feience, and contribute greatly to the perfpicuity of

works

Explanation of the Table of the Nomenclature ,

Works in chemiflry in which this mode of denomination
fhall be adopted. The bodies belonging to this column
are compounds of three Jubilances, — acidifiable bafes, the
acidifying principle, or oxigene, and terrene, metallic, or-
alkaline bafes. But we ufe only two words to exprefs
their nature ; for, the firft of thefe being derived from
the name of the oxigenous or acid combination, ferves
to denote that part of the body ; the other refers folely
to the bafe with which the acid is faturated. The
names of all thefe compounds terminate in ate, when
they contain acids completely faturated with oxigene :
but when the acids are not completely faturated with
that, principle, the name of the neutral fait then termi-
nates in ite. We have given more inftances of neutral
£dts formed from thofe acids which are bed known and
mod ufed, than of the falts formed with the acids which
are lefs common

The

* The neutral falts are now exceedingly numerous. There are
20 acids known, which, as each of them may be faturated by 4 foluble
earths, 3 alkalis, and 14 metallic oxides which are not acidi-
fiable (for it appears, that the. acidifiable oxides, fuch as thofe of
srfenic, molybdena, and tungften, do not neutralife the mineral
acids), form 609 fpecies of compound falts. Add to this, that
,5 of thefe acids, the nitric, the fulphuric, the muriatic, the acetic,
and the phofphoric, combine with neutralifable bales in both of
their different ftates ; and that a number of acids, fuch as the ful-
phureous, the tartareous, the oxalic, and the arfenic, admit of fa-
turation with different quantities of the bafe, in confequence of
which they form what are called acidulci, of which there are al-
ready 8 different fpecies very well known *. With this addition,
the number of the neutral falts will amount to 722 fpecies, the
rames of which may be methodically formed, from the 46 or 48
examples given in this table,

* Such arc, acidulous fulpbate of potafi, or vitriolated tartar with an excefs of
the acid ; tartaritcs, or acidulous oxalates of potajb, foda, and ammoniac., or creams
of tartar, and falts of forrel, artificially prepared with the pure tartareous and
oxalic acids combined with a fmall quantity of the alkaline bafes; and the
aiidu’.ous arfeniate of potaf), or arfenical neutral fait of Macquer.

Explanation of the Table of the Nomenclature. 4 5i

The names of 18 genera of neutral falts in this table

I terminate in ate. This termination of their name {hews,
that the acid to which they owe their formation is known
only in the {fate of the complete faturation of the acidi-
fiable bafe with oxigene : and accordingly, the names of
all the acids to which thefe neutral falts belong, termi-
nate in ic , by the rules of our nomenclature, as appears
in the 3d column.

The 14th, 15th, 2 1 ft, and 2 2d divifions, exhibit
names of neutral falts, terminating in ite. The termi-
nation of thefe falts is meant to indicate, that in the
acids from which they are formed, there is an excefs of
the acidifiable bafe.

There are other divifions in this column, exhibiting
both the terminations ate and ite : thus, in the 5th
column, nitrate and nitrite ; in the 7th, fulphate, and
fulphite ; in the 8th, phofphate and phofphite ; in the
13th, acetate and acetite. Thefe terminations fliew,
that the falts to which they belong owe their formation
to acids exifting in two different ftates. Nitrates , for
inftance, are formed by the nitric acid, in which the a-
cidifiable bafe is fully faturated with oxigene ; and nitrites
again are formed by the nitrons acid, in which the
bafe is not completely faturated with the acidifying
principle.

In fome others of thefe divifions, there are neutral
falts different from any of the above. Thus, in the
9th divilion, we have oxigenated muriate of potafh , the
combination of the oxigenated muriatic acid of potafh,
a fait very different from fimple muriate of potafh, and
which M. Berthollet has difcovered to poffeffs the pro-
perty of detonizing on burning coals. In other divifions
in this fame column, we have expreffed fatine combina-
tions in which the acids predominate, by adding to the

fyftematic

4<J2 Explanation of the Table of the Nomenclature .

fydematic name of thefe falts, the epithet acidulous ;
Thus, the 14th divifion contains acidulous tartaritc of
potafh ; and the 1 6th, acidulous oxalate of potafh. Lad-
ly, by the expreffion fuperfaturated , we didinguiffi thofc
neutral falts in which the bafe. predominates, as may be
feen in the 8th divifion, in which is, fuperfaturated
phofphate of foda ; and in the 10th, in which we have
borax, or fuperfaturated borate of foda.

By redefting on the drift etymological method which
we have obferved in affixing thefe denominations to
neutral falts ; and confidering, that, in the old nomen-
clature, there appears fcarce any analogy between the
names of falts of a fimilar nature ; the Reader will
perceive the reafon of the changes which appear in this
column, which are more numerous than thefe which
any of the others exhibits ; though there is aftually no-
thing new in it, but the variation of two terminations
of names which were before in ufe.

Column VI,

The fixth and lad column of this table, which com-
prehends fimpie fubdances combined in their natural
date, and neither oxigenated nor acidified, — as. the title
ffiews, is one of the diorted, and contains but few com-
pounds. The lower divifions, from the 3 id to the 38th,
contain compounds confiding of diderent metals, which
we differ to retain the names of alloys and amalgams , by
which they have been hitherto known. Above the 3 id
divifion, there are only three which exhibit a new no-
menclature, founded on the fame principles with the
foregoing. The fixth contains carbure of iron ; — a de-
nomination by which we have didinguidied the na-
tural combination of coal and iron, called plumbago

The

Explanation of the Tabic of the Nomenclature. 4 Cx,

The 7th divifion exhibits metallic fulphures, or natural
combinations of fulphur with alkalis, — and fulphurated
hydrogenous gas, or the folution of fulphur with hydroge-
nous gas. Laftly, in the 8th divifion, we exprefs, by
the generic name of metallic phofphures, natural com-
pounds of phofphorus with metals : Thus, to the name
fy derite , we fubftitute the exorelfion phofphure of iron,
which plainly fignifies the combination of phofphorus
with iron : and thefe three words, carbure , fulphur e , and
phofphure , differing only in the termination from names
which are very well known, convey an accurate idea of
firailar combinations, and diftinguifh them from all other
compounds.

Under thefe fix columns, we have placed a nomen-
clature of the principal compound bodies that are found
in vegetables. In this part of the table, we have mere-
ly felefted from among the old names, thofe whofe fim-
plicity and plainnefs render them fuitable to our pur-
pofes.

Such is the method which we have followed in form-
ing the fyftem of names exhibited in this table. Thofe
who make themfelves maffers of this table, which may
very eafily be done, will readily perceive, that we have
formed but very few new words, excepting fuch as were
indifpenfably neceffary to denominate fubftances before
unknown, fuch as the newly-difcovered acids. By tra-
cing the order of the fubftances in the firft column,
from which all the reft are derived, any perfon will fee,
that we ufe no new words but oxigene , hydrogene, and
azote. As to the words caloric , carbone, filice, ammoniac,
both thefe and all their derivations are formed by a very
flight change from names before well known and much
ufed. It is plain, therefore, that our new nomenclature
differs from the old, in nothing but new terminations ;

and

4^4 Explanation of the Table of the Nomenclature.

and that, if thefe changes render the ftudy eafier, and
the language of the fcience more intelligible, — above all,
if they enable us to exprefs ourfelves with unequivocal pre-
cifion, — as the trial of this nomenclature that has been
made in the years 1777 and 1778, in the courfe of Lec-
tures on Chemiftry delivered ip the King’s Garden and
the Lyceum, affords us reafon to hope ; — the reformation
which we wifh to introduce on fo Ample a method, can-
not but be highly favourable to the progrefs of Chemiftry.

( 4*5 )

advert isemen t

TWO TABLES OF SYNONYMOUS NAMES,

— ■mnosan—’

■I

• s'

f | ^0 our general table of the fyflematic Nomencla-
i ture, exhibiting the whole of our fyflem, we
have thought proper to add a lilt of fynonymes, con-
taining all the words neceffary in denominating chemical
preparations. This lift of fynonymes is given in the
form of two vocabularies. In the firft of thefe, are
the old names, difpofed in alphabetical order ; and, op-
pofite to them, the correfpondent, new, or newly adopt-
ed names. This vocabulary not only fhews the names
\Vhich we have given to the different chemical compounds,
but perfons not very well acquainted with the prepara-
tions in general, the old names of which do not at all
explain their nature, will find, in the new fynonymous
words, a fort of definition of the fubflances to which
they are affixed, fufficiently plain and diftinct, to enable
them to underhand their natures.

In the fecond vocabulary, the order of the new ant]
the old names is directly contrary to that of the firft ;
and we hope it will be found no lefs ufeful.

In it, the new names appear in alphabetical order;
and, oppofite to them, are exhibited the correfponding
old names. In this, our object was, to give a complete
life of fynonymous terms, in order that fludents might
not, in this fcience, be under the fame difficulties as in
Vol. 111. G g fpnje

4'o® Advert ifemenL

fome others, particularly in Mineralogy and Botany, in
which the vafl variety of different names given to the
fame thing, has produced a degree of confufion and ob-
fcurity, which the labours of fome of the molt indefati-
gable of men have not been fufficient to remove.

In this- new vocabulary, we fhew that the fame fub-
ftance has frequently received eight, ten, or twelve dif-
ferent names ; that moft of thefe names bear no rela-
tion to the things to which they are affixed ; — which
indeed could not but happen in a fcience in which the
firlf writers fought to conceal every thing under a veil
of myftery ; and in the hiftory of which we cannot
trace the feveral periods at which thofe who have culti-
vated it, have attained an accurate knowledge of differ-
ent compounds. But, to avoid tedioufnefs and obfcuri-
ty, we have taken care not to exhibit here, the names
anciently given to different fubftances by the alchemifts,
which, as they were founded on abfurd or chimerical
ideas, have happily been forgotten fince chemiftry has
begun to make equal progrefs with Natural Philo-
fophy.

Each of thefe tables of fynonymes, therefore, has its
ufe. The firft may be ufed as a dictionary in reading
books on chemiftry, that have been publiffied before
this period, as it gives the new name correfponding to
every old name which can occur in fuch works. In this,
as well as in the following, we have given only the
names of Ampler compound bodies, and of chemical pre-
parations. The names of the operations we have not
given, as we have made no change upon them. The
fecond lift of fynonymes contains more words than the
firft ; for, in it, there are a good many compounds, the
knowledge of which we owe to late experiments, and
which, till within thefe few years, had no names. It
may therefore be confidered as being in fome degree an

inventory ;

Advertifement. 467

inventory of the chemical knowledge which we at pre-
fen t poffefs.

In both thefe lifts, there are fome fynonymous tvords
among the new names. We retain them, becaufe fome
of thdm are very generally ufed, and becaufe fome choice
of expreflions with different terminations is neceffary
to give variety to difeourfe, and to prevent a difgufting
monotony. Thus, for inftance, the word expreftive of
the bale of neutral falts, may be either a fubftantive or
an adje&ive, at the pleafure of the writer. In books on
chemiftry, there may be fome words found that do not
appear in our vocabularies ; but the nature of the com-
pounds to which thefe have been applied, is not yet well
known ; and thofe who confider to what ftrift laws we
have here fubjecled ourfelves, will readily be fenfible,
that it would have been impoflible for us to give names
to combinations but imperfeftly known.

We have added fome definitions to feveral general or
particular names, either when we have been doubtful of
the nature of the compounds to which they belong, or
in fpeaking of bodies but lately difeovered. The fecond
table, which exhibits the new names in alphabetical or-
der, with the correfponding old names, gives at the
fame time a Latin tranflation of the new names : Inmak-
ing out this tranflation, we have ftill adhered to the
fame rules. Uniformity of termination, and the laws of
derivation, are the two principles by which we have
been uniformly directed. Our Nomenclature would have
been imperfeft, if we had neglefted to offer to philofo-
phers of all nations an uniform mode of exprefling them-
felves, which might make them generally underftood.
As the fcience improves, fuch new names as fliall be-
come neceffary may be added upon the fame plan.

<>•

E R R A-

ERRATA.

v o

P. 9. L. 1 4.

49. 12. from the top.

59. 8. from the top.

107. 12. from the bottom.

244. 12. from the bottom.

306. 11. from the bottom.

314. 1. of the note.

319. 6. from the bottom.

353. 1 1. from the top.

448. 6.8C9. from the bottom.

For called, read able.

For fulphureuus, read fulphuric.
For defer t , read detach.

For calonic, read caloric.

For fulphur , read fu/phure.
For acid, read caujlic.

For acids, read alkalis.

Dele the.

For folid, read elajlic fluid.
For foda, read potajh.

VOL. II.

r

781. 6. from the bottom. For bitumen, read bitumens.

639. 9. from the top. For aciduLe, read acidula.

639. II. For acidula, read acidulum,

VOL. III.

15. 7* from the bottom. For Sicilly, read Sicily.

\

^ /

For alumines, wherever it occurs, read alumina.

COMP A-

i r— ■ 1.:-^- ■— :r '■ srsrrrr^^rss

, l

COMPARATIVE VIEW
b f

ANCIENT and MODERN NAMES

O F

CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES,

IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER.

1

Old Names. Ne& or Adopted Names*

• I

A

Acetated Ammoniac.

Acetated lime.

Acetated clay.

Acetated copper.

Acetated magnefta.

Acetated lead.

Acetated foda.

Acetated potajh.

Acetated zinc.

Acetated iron.

Acetated mercury.

VOL. III.

f Acetitej ammoniacal.

X Acetite of ammoniac.

{A'cetite, calcareous.

Acetite of lime.

J Acetite, aluminous.
^Acetite of aluminous earth.'

Acetite of copper.

/ Acetite, magnefian.

Acetite of magnefia.

Acetite of lead.

Acetite of foda.

Acetite of potato.

Acetite of zinc.

Acetite of iron.
f Acetite of mercury.:
^Acetite, mercurial.

A

Ancient and Modern Names

2

Old Names.

Acid , acetous.

Acid, aerial .

Acid, arfenical.

Acid of benzoin.

Acid of borax.

Acid, carbonaceous .

Acid of citrons.

Acidy cretaceous .

Acid of ants.

Acid of apples.

Acidy benzonic.

Acid of fait »

Acid of fnlphur .

of amber..

Acid of fugar.

Acid of tallow.

Acid of vinegar.

Acid of Wolfram, according to
Mefrs D’’Klhuyar. ■

Acidy fluoric.

Acid , formicinc,

Acidy galaElic.

Acid, gallic.

Acid, lignic.

Acid , lithiaflc. -
Acid, maluflan.

Acid, , marine.

Acid , dephlogiflicated marine .
Acid, mephitic.

Acid, molybdic.

Acid , white nitrous.

Add, nitrous , without gas.
Acid , dephlogiflicated nitrous.
Acid , phlogtfticated nitrous.
Acid, oxaline.

Acidum perlatum.

Acid, dephlogiflicated phofphoru

A New Names.-

Acid, acetous.

Acid, carbonic.

Acid, arfenic.

Acid, benzoic-
Acid,, boracic.

Acid, carbonic..

Acid, citric. .

Acid, carbonic..

Acid, formic.

Acid, malic.

Acid, benzoic.

Acid, muriatic.

Acid, fulphuric-
Acid, fuceinic.

Acid, oxalic.

Acid, febacic.

Acid, acetous.

j- Acid, tunllic.

Acid, fluoric.

Acid, formic.

Acid, la£fic.

Acid, gallic.

Acid, pyro-ligneo'JS.

Acid, lithic.

Acid, malic.

Acid, muriatic.

Acid, oxigenated muriatic.
Acid, carbonic. *

Acid, molybdic.

Acid, nitric.

Acid, nitric.

Acid, nitric.

Acid, nitrous.

Acid, oxalic.

Superfaturatedphofphateoffoda-
Acid, phofphoric.

of Chemical Subflanies «’ g

Old Names. A New Names.

Acid, phlogifiicated phofphoric.

Acid, phofphorous.

Acid, faccharine.

Acid, oxalic.

Acid, facchalaclic.

Acid, faccho-laCtia.

Acid, filaceous.

Acid, febacic.

Acid, fe dative.

Acid, boracic.

Acid, fparry.

Acid, fluoric.

Acid, fulpkureous.

Acid, fulphureous.

Acid, fyrupous.

Acid, pyro-mucous.

Acid, tartareous.

Acid, tartareous.

Acid, tung/lic.

Acid, tunfti'c.

Acid , vitriolic.

Acid, fulphuric.

Acid, phlogiJUcated vitriolic .

Acid, fulphureous.

Acidum pingue.

Imaginary principle of Meyer,’

Affinities.

Chemical affinities or attraction's.

Aggregation.

Aggregation.

Aggregates.

Aggregates.

Air, vitriolic acid.

Sulphureous acid gas.

Air, alkaline.

Ammoniacal gas.

Air, dephlogijlicated, .

Oxigenous gas, or vital aiih’

Air, atmofpheric.

Atmofpheric air.

Air of fire, Scbeele’s „

Oxigenous gas.

Air, factitious.

Carbonic acid gas.

Air , fixed.

Carbonic acid gas.

Air, impure.

Azotic gas.

Air , inflammable.

Hydrogenous gas.

Air of fulphur, Jl inking.'

Sulphurated hydrogenous gas?

Air, putrid.

> .* /*

Air of Hales, folid. '

Carbonic acid gas.;

Air, vitiated.

Azotic gas.

Air, vital.

Oxigenous gas.

rUniverfal folveht, the exiltenee

Alkahefi.' J

r of which was fuppofed by the

1

w Alchemifts.

Alkahefi of Refpour ,

Potafh mixed with oxide of 211SS.'

Alkahefi of Van Helmont .

Carbonate of potafli.

Alkalis , in general.

Alkalis. .

Alkali of tartar, fixed, not eaufiic.

Carbonate of potato

J A?

Aiicient and Modern Jfifafnei

A

Old Names. A

Alkalis , caufiic.

Alkalis , ejfiervefcent.

Alkali of tartar, fixed, caufiic.
Alkali , vegetable fixed.

Alkali , caufiic marine.

Alkali , marine , not caufiic .

Alkali , aerated mineral. ,

Alkali , caufiic mineral.

Alkali , ejfiervefcent mineral.

/

Alkali , phlogifiicated.

Alkali , Prnjfian.

Alkali, aerated vegetable .

Alkali, caufiic vegetable.

Alkali , caufiic volatile.

Alkali , concrete volatile.

Alkali , ejfiervefcent volatile.

Alkali , fluor volatile.

Alkali^ urinous.

Alloy of Metals .■

Alum.

Alum , marine.

1

Alum , nitrous.

Amalgam of fiver.

Amalgam of bifmuth.

Amalgam of copper.

Amalgam of tin.

Amalgam of geld.

Amalgam of lead.

Amalgam of zinc.

Amber , yellow-. ,

Ammoniac , arfcnical.

Ammoniac , ' cretaceous .

Neiv N/UrfeS*

«

Alkalis.

Alkaline carbonates.

Potafh.

Carbonate of potafh.

Soda.

Carbonate of foda.

Carbonate of foda.

Soda. *

Carbonate of foda.
f Ferruginous prufliate of potafh,
not faturated.

Ferruginous prufliate of potafh.
Carbonate of potafh.

Potafh.

Ammoniac.

Ammoniacal carbonate.
Ammoniacal carbonate.
Ammoniac.

Ammoniac.

Alloy.

Sulphate of alumines.
Aluminous fulphate.

Muriate of alumines.

Aluminous muriate.

Nitrate of alumines.

Aluminous nitrate.

Amalgam of filver.

Amalgam of bifmuth.

Amalgam of copper.'

Amalgam of tin.

Amalgam of gold.

Amalgam of lead.

Amalgam of zinc.

Amber.

{Ammoniacal arfeniate.

Arfeniate of ammoniac,
f Ammoniacal carbonate.
(.Carbonate of ammoniac.'

5

of Chemical Subflanccs.

Old Names.

A . N.eit Names.

Ammoniac t nitrous.

Ammoniac , phofphoric.
Ammoniac , J parry .

Ammoniac , tartareous.

Ammoniac , vitriolic.

Antimony , ore of.

Antimony , crude.

Antimony , diaphoretic.

Aqua Jlygia.

Aquila alba.

Arcanum duplicatum.

Arfenic , regains of. •

Arfenicy white calx of.

Arfenic , rfj.

Arfeniate of pot a [h.

Attractions , eletiive.

Azure of cobalt , or e/* _/o«r
fres.

{Ammoniacal nitrate.

Nitrate of ammoniac,
f Ammoniacal phofphate.
iPhofphate of ammoniac,
f Ammoniacal fiuate.
f Fluate of ammoniac.

{Ammoniacal tartarite.

Tartarite of ammoniac,
f Ammoniacal fulphate.
"^Sulphate of ammoniac.

Native fulphure of antimony.
Sulphure of antimony.

White oxide of antimony by nitre,
f Nitro- muriatic acid by ammo-
niacal nruriate.

fMild fublimated mercurial mu-
\ riate.

Sulphate of potafh.

Arfenic.

Oxide of arfenic.

Red fulphurated oxide of arfenie.
Arfeniate of potafh.

Eleftive attra&ions.
f Vitreous oxide of cobalt with
\ filiceous earfh.

Barotes.

Barotes, ejfervefcent.

Bafe of vital air.

Bafe of marine fait.

Balfams of Bucquet.

See the new Nomenclature.

Balfam of fulphur.

Benzoin.

Benzenes.

B

Barytes.

Carbonate of barytes.
Oxygene.

Soda.

Balfams.

Sulphure of volatile oil.
Benzoin.

J3enzoates,

3 A 3

§ fAnchnt and Modern Names

Old Names.

B New Names.

Butler of antimony.

Butter of arfenic.

Butter oj bifmuth .

Butter of tin.

Baurne’s folid butter of tin .
Butter of zinc.

Bezoar mineral .

Bifmuth.

Bitumens.

Ble?ide, or falfe galena.
Blue , Berlin.

Blue , PruJJian.

Borax , ammoniacal .

> ■ { \ { i

Borax , argillaceous „

Borate , crude.

Borax , calcareous .

Borax of antimony.

Borax of cobalt .

Borax oj copper.

Borax of zinc.

Borax , magnefian.

i # 1

Borax j martial.

Borax , mercurial .

Borax, ponderous or barctic.

Borax , •vegetable .

•* " } • ' v

Brafs. bronze .

i- •' ■ •

Sublimated muriate of antimony.
Sublimated muriate of arfenic. ‘
Sublimated muriate of bifmuth.
Sublimated muriate of tin.
Concrete muriate of tin.
Sublimated muriate of zinc.
Oxide of antimony.

Bifmuth.

Bitumens.

Sulphure of zinc.

Prufliate of iron.

Pruffiate of iron.

Ammoniacal borate,
f Aluminous borate.

[Borate of alumines.
f Borax of foda, or borate fuper~
X faturated with foda.

J Calcareous borate.

[ Borate of lime.

Borate of antimony.

Borate of cobalt.

Borate of copper.

Borate of zinc,
f Magnefian borate.

[Borate of magnefia.

Borate of iron.

Borate of mercury.
f Barytic borate.

[Borate of barytes.

Borate of potafh.

rloy of copper and tin, braf$
or bronze. f

Camelecn , mineral.

Camphor .

G i>-t . ‘ «

C

Oxide of manganefe and potafii.
Camphor.

of Chemical Subfiances.

'i

Old Names.

C Nur Nam is.

CatnphoriteSy [/alts.)
Caujitcum.

Cerufe.

Cerufe of antimony.

Coal y pure.

Calx of antimony , vitrified.
Calces , metallic.

Cinnabar.

Citrates , ( falts )

Cobalt , or cobolt.

Colcothar.

CopperaSy white.

CopperaSy green.

Copperas , blue.

Chalky ammoniacaL
Chalky barotic.

Chalk of lead.

Chalk of foda.

Chalk of zinc.

Chalky magtieftan.

Chalky martial.

Chalky or calcareous /par.

Clay.

Clay , pure.

Clay } cretaceous.

Clay, fparry.

Cream of lime.

Cream or cryfals of tartar.

Cryflal mineral.

Cryfals of foda.

Camphorates.

Imaginary principle of Meyer,
f White oxide of lead by acetous
^ acid, mixed with chalk.

("White oxide of antimony by
f precipitation.

Carbone.

Vitreous oxide of antimony.
Metallic oxides.

Red fulphurated oxide of mercury.
Citrates.

Cobalt.

Red oxide of ironbyfulphuric acid.
Sulphate of zinc.

Sulphate of iron.

Sulphate of copper.

Ammoniacal carbonate.

Barytic carbonate.

Carbonate of lead.

Carbonate of foda.

Carbonate of zinc.
fMagnefian carbonate,
f Carbonate of magnefia.
Carbonate of iron.

{Calcareous carbonate.

Carbonate of lime.
fArgilla, mixture of alumines;

\ and Cilices.

Alumines.

f Aluminous carbonate,
f Carbonate of alumines.
f Aluminous fluate.
fFluate of alumines.

Calcareous carbonate.

Acidulous tartarite of potafli.
f Nitrite of potafh, mixed with
\ fulphate of potafh.

Cryftallized nitrate of Giver*

3 A 4

Ancient and Modern Names

l

Old Names.

Cryjlals of the ipoon.
Cryfals of Venus.

Crocus metallorum.

Copper.

Copper, yellow.

Diamond.

New Names.

Cryftallized carbonate of foda.
Cryftallized acetite of copper,
f Semi -vitreous fulphurate oxide
( of antimony.

Copper.

( Alloy of copper and zinc, or
\ latten.

D

Diamond.

E

Emetic.

Antimonial tartarite of potafh^

Empyreal air.

Oxigenous gas.

Effences.

Volatile oils.

Ether , acetous.

Acetic aether.

Ether, marine.

Muriatic tether.

Ether, nitrous.

Nitric tether.

Ether, vitriolic.

Sulphuric tether.

Ethiops, martial .

Black oxide of iron.

Ethiops, mineral.

(Black fulphurated oxide of mer-
cury.

Ethiops per fe.

Blackifh mercurial oxide.

Extraft.

Extractive principle.

F

Feculum of plants.

i

Feculum.

Flowers, ammomacal of copper. (Sublimated ammoniacal muriate

of copper.

Flowers, martial ammomacal. (Sublimated ammoniacal muriate
• / L ol iron.

Flowers, fiver of regains of
antimony.

}

Sublimated

oxide of antimony.

of Chemical Subfiances.

Old Names.

F JV£/r Names.

Flowers of arfenic.
Flowers of benzoin.
Flowers of bifmuth.
Flowers of tin.
Flowers , metallic.
Flowers of fulphur.
Flowers of zinc.
Fluids , aeriform •
Fluids , elafic.

Fluor, ammortiacal.

Fluor , argillaceous.

Fluor of potafj.
Fluor of foda.

Fluor, magnefian ,

Fluor, heavy.
Formiates , ( [alts.)

Sublimated oxide of arfenic.
Sublimated benzoic acid.
Sublimated oxide of bifmuth.
Sublimated oxide of tin.
Sublimated metallic oxides.
Sublimated fulphur.
Sublimated oxide of zinc,
Gafes.

Gafes.

{Ammoniacal fluate.

Fluate of ammoniac,
f Aluminous fluate.

Fluate of alumines.

Fluate of potafh.

Fluate of foda.

(Magnefian fluate.

Fluate of magnefia,
fBarytic fluate.

\ Fluate of barytes,

Formiates.

Galacles, ( falts. )

Gas, acetous acid.

Gas, cretaceous acid.

Gas, marine acid.

Gas, aerated muriatic acid.
Gas, nitrous acid.

Gas, /parry acid.

Gas, fulphurecus acid.

Gas, alkaline.

Gas, hepatic.

Gas, infammable.

Gas, carbonaceous infammable.

Gas, infammable , of marfes.

La&ates.

Acetous acid gas.

Carbonic acid gas.

Muriatic acid gas.

Oxigenated muriatic acid gas,
Nitrous acid gas.

Fluoric acid gas.

Sulphureous acid gas.
Ammoniacal gas.

Sulphurated hydrogenous gas.
Hydrogenous gas.

Carbonated hydrogenous gas.
Hydrogenous gas of marfhes,
(a mixture of carbonated hy-
drogenous gas with azotic gas,.)

10

Ancient and Modern Names

Old Names.

G New Names,

Gas, mephitic.

Gas, phlogijlicated.

Carbonic acid gas.
Azotic gas.

.Gas, nitrons. Nitrous gas.

Gas,phofphoric,ofM.Gengembre . Phofphorated -hydrogenous gas.
Gas , PruJJian. Pruffic acid gas.

Gazeous waters .

(Waters impregnated with car*
bonic acid.

Gilla vitrioli.
Gluten of wheat.
Gold.

Gold, fulminating „

Sulphate of zinc.

Gluten, or glutinous principle.
Gold.

Ammoniacal oxide of gold.

Hepars.
Heat, latent.

H

Sulphures,

Caloric,

Inh, fyrnpathetic , by cobalt .
Iron, or mars.

Iron , aerated.

Iron of water .

Jupiter.

I

Muriate of cobalt.
Iron.

Carbonate of iron.
Phofphate of iron.
Tin,

l

Kermes, mineral.

K

fRed fulphurated oxide of anti-
mony.

Latten.

Lapis cauficus.
Limefone.

Lixivium offoapmakers.
Lignites , (J alts .)

L

Alloy of copper and zinc, or latten.
Concrete potafh or foda.
Carbonate of lime.

Solution of foda.

Pyro-lignites.

of Chemical Subflances.

Old Names. L New Names,

n

Lilium of Paracelfus .

Liquor of flints.

Liquor , Boy Ns fuming.

Liquor , fuming , of Libavius,

Litharge.

Alcohol of potalh.

Siliceous potalh in liquor*
f Ammoniacal fulphure.

\ Sulphure of ammoniac.

Fuming muriate of tin.
f Semi-vitreous oxide of lead, or
\ litharge.

£,W faturatei viti tie a- 1 pruffiate of pota(]u
louring part oj rruflian blue. J r

Light. Light.

Luna. Silver.

Luna , corneous. Muriate of filver.

Liver of antimony. Sulphurated oxide of antimony*

Liver of arfenic. Arfenical oxide of potafh.

Liver , volatile alkaline of fid - f Ammoniacal fulphure.

phur. ^Sulphure of ammoniac.

Liver, antimoniated, of fulphur. Antimoniated alkaline fulphure*

, . r r 1 fBarytic fulphure.

Lwer, baroLc, of fulphur. |Sul'hure Jf barytcs.

T . , r r f Calcareous fulphure.

L,ver, calcareous, of fulphur. j Sulphure of lime.

, . r r r i i f Sulphure of magnefia.

Lroer, magnef.au, of fulphur. jMagnefian fulphSure.

Livers of fulphur.

Livers of fulphur , earthy.
Lead , or faturn.

Lead, corneous .

Lead, fpathofe.

Alkaline fulphures.
Earthy fulphures.
Lead.

Muriate of lead.
Carbonate of lead.

Magiflery of bifmuth .
Magiflery of fulphur.
Magiflery of lead.
Magnefia, white.

M

Oxide of bifmuth by nitric acid*
Precipitated fulphur.
Precipitated oxide of lead.
Carbonate of magnefia.

Magnefia of Bergman , aerated. Carbonate of magnefia.
Mognefla, cauflic. Magnefia.

f*

Ancient and Modern Names

Old Names.

Magnefia, cretaceous.
Magnefia, ejfervefcent.
Magnefia , jluorated.
Magnefia , black.
M.gne/ta, /parry.
Malufites , {/alts.)
MaJJicot.

Matter of heat.

Matter of fire.

M

Nzir Names,

Carbonate of magnefia.
Carbonate of magnefia.
Fluate of magnefia.

Black oxide of manganefe.
Fluate of magnefia.

Malites of potafh, foda, &c.
Yellow oxide of lead.

Caloric.

This word has been u fed to ftgnify
light, caloric, and phiogifton.
Materia perlata of Kerkrin- C White oxide of antimony by
gius.

Mephite , ammoniacal.

Mephite , barotic.

Mephite , calcareous ,

Milk of lime.

Mephite of magnefia .

Mephite of lead.
Mephite of zinc.
Mephite, martial.

1 precipitation.

C Ammoniacal carbonate.

2 Carbonate of ammoniac.
C Barytic carbonate.

2 Carbonate of barytes.

C Calcareous carbonate.

2. Carbonate of lime.

Lime diluted in water.

C Magnefian carbonate.

2 Carbonate of magnefia.
Carbonate of lead.
Carbonate of zinc.
Carbonate of iron,

Matter, colouring, of P ruffian blue. Pruffic acid.

Mercury.

Mercury of metals.

Mercury, mild.

Mercury , white precipitated.

Minium.

M fetes, atmofpheric.
Molybdes, ( falts .)

Molybdc, ammoniacal.

Molybde , barotic.

Molybde of potafh.

Mercury.

Imaginary principle of Beecher.
Mild mercurial muriate.

C Mercurial muriate by precipita-
\ tion.

Red oxide of lead, or minium.
Azotic gas. .

Molybdates.

C Ammoniacal molybdate.

2 Molybdate of ammoniac,
f Barytic molybdate.

2 Molybdate of barytes.
Molybdate of potafh.

\

t»f Chemical Suhflances,

Old Names.

M

New Names,

Molybde of foda.

Molybdena.

Mucilage.

Muriates, ( [alts.)

Muriate of antimony.

Muriate oj fiver.

Muriate of bifmuth.

Muriate of cobalt.

Muriate of copper.

Muriate of tin.

Muriate of iron.

Muriate of manganefe.

Muriate of lead.

Muriate of zinc.

Muriate or regaline fait of platina.
Muriate or regaline fait of gold.
Muriate , cor rofve mercurial.

Molybdate of foda.
Molybdena.

Mucilage.

Muriates.

Muriate of antimony.
Muriate of filver.

Muriate of bifmuth.

Muriate of cobalt.

Muriate of copper.

Muriate of tin.

Muriate of iron.

Muriate of manganefe.
Muriate of lead.

Muriate of zinc.
Nitro-muriate of platina.
Muriate of gold.

Corrofive mercurial muriate.

N

Nat rum, or natron.

Carbonate of foda.

Nitre.

Nitrate of potafh, or nitre.

Nitre, ammoniacal.

Ammoniacal nitrate.

Nitre, argillaceous .

Nitrate of alumines.

Nitre, calcareous.

f Calcareous nitrate.
"^Nitrate of lime.

Nitre, cubic.

Nitrate of foda.

Nitre of filver.

Nitrate of filver.

Nitre of arfetiic.

Nitrate of arfenic.

Nitre of bifmuth.

Nitrate of bifmuth.

Nitre of cobalt.

Nitrate of cobalt.

Nitre of copper.

Nitrate of copper.

Nitre of tin.

Nitrate of tin.

Nitre of iron.

Nitrate of iron.

Nitre of magnefa.

fMagnefian nitrate.
{^Nitrate of magnefia.

14

Ancient and Modern Names

Old Names.

N New Name;.

Nitre of manganefi.

Nitrate of manganefe/

Nitre of nickel.

Nitrate of nickel.

Nitre of lead.

Nitrate of lead.

Nitre of terra ponderofa.

fBarytic nitrate.

\ Nitrate of barytes.

Nitre of zinc.

Nitrate of zinc.

Nitre , fixed, by itfelf.

Carbonate of potafh.

Nitre , lunar.

Nitrate of filver.

Nitre , mercurial.

Nitrate of mercury.

Nitre , prifmatic.

Nitrate of potafh.

Nitre , quadrangular.

Nitrate of foda.

Nitre , rhomboidal.

Nitrate of foda.

Nitre , faturnine.

Nitrate of lead.

-

o

Ochre.

Yellow iron ochre.

Oils , animal.
Oil of lime.

Volatile animal oils.

Calcareous muriate,
f Potafh, mixed with carbonate'

Oil of tartar per deliquiim.

< of potafh, in a deliquefcent
(. ftate.

Oil, philofopherys.

Empyreumatic fixed oils.

Oil of vitriol.

Sulphuric acid.

Oil of %uine, fweet.

Ethereal oil.

Oils , empyreumatic.

Empyreumatic oils.

Oils, ethereal.

Volatile oils.

Oils, fat.

Fixed oils.

Oils, effential.

Volatile oils.

Oils by exprejfion.

Fixed oils.

Ore of antimony.

Native fulphure of antimony.

Ore of iron, from maifhes.

flron ore, holding in folution
1 phofphate of iron.

Orpiment.

f Yellow fulphurated oxide of
1. arfenic.

Oxygene.

Oxygene.-

ff Chemical Subjlances.

Old Names.

Nejv Namss.

Phlogjloti,

Philosophic wool.

Phofphate , ammoniacal.
Phofphatey barotic.
Phofphate y calcareous.

Phofphate of magnefia.

Phofphate of potaflo.
Phofphate of facta.
Phofphorus of Baudouin.
Phofphorus of Kunckel.
Phofphorus of Homberg.
Ponderous Jlone.

Platina.

Plajler.

Plumbago.-

Pompholyx.

Potafhes of commerce.
Putty of tin.

Powder of Algaroth.

Imaginary principle of Stahl.
Sublimated oxide of zinc.

/ Ammoniacal phofphate.
(Phofphate of ammoniac.

/ Barytic phofphate.

"f Phofphate of barytes.

/ Calcareous phofphate.

( Phofphate of lime.
j Magnefian phofphate.
(Phofphate of magnefia.
Phofphate of potafh.

Phofphate of foda.

Dry calcareous nitrate.
Phofphorus.

Dry calcareous muriate.
Calcareous tunftate.

Platina.

/ Calcareous fulphate, or calcined
X plafter.

Carbure of iron.

Sublimated oxide of zinc.
Impure carbonate of potalh.
Grey oxide of tin.

^ Carbonate of magnefia.

/ Oxide of antimony by muriatic
\ acid.

Powder of Count Palma.

Powder of Sentinelly.

Precipitate r white , by muriatic /Mercurial muriate by pTecipi-
acid. / tation.

Precipitate of gold by tin , or f Oxide of gold precipitated by

( tin.

/Yellow oxide of mercury by
/ fulphuric acid.

Red oxide of mercury by fire.

{Red oxide of mercury by nitric
acid.

purple of Caffius.
Precipitate y yellow r
Precipitate per fe.
Precipitate , red-

l6

Ancient and Modern Names

Old Names.

New Names,

Principle , acidifying.
Principle , ajlringent.
Principle , carbonaceous.
Principle , inflammable.

(See phlogiflon.)
Principle , mercurial.
Principium forbile of M.

PruJJite, calcareous .

PruJJite of potajhi
Prujflte of foda.

Pyrites of copper.
Pyrites , martial.

Pyrophorus of Hombcrg.

Oxygene.
Gallic acid.
Carbone.

Imaginary principle of Beecher;
Ludbock. Oxygene.

f Calcareous pruffiate.

\ Pruffiate of lime.

Pruffiate of potaffi.

Pruffiate of foda.

Sulphure of copper.

Sulphure of iron,
f Carbonated fulphure of alumines;
(_Pyrophorus of Homberg.

R

Realgar , or real gal.

Regaltes, (J, alts formed with
aqua regia.)

Regia , aqua.

Regulus.

Regulus of antimony.

Regulus of arfenic .

Regulus of cobalt.

Regulus of manganefe.
Regulus of molybdena.

Regulus of fyderite.

Rejins.

Rufl of copper.

Rufl of iron.

Rubine of antimony.

I.

Red nitrated mercury.

Red fulphurated oxide of arfenic*

-j^Nitro-muriates.

Nitro-muriatic acid.
cA word ufed to denote the pure
■< metallic, in oppofltion to ores,
and oxides.

Antimony.

Arfenic.

Cobalt.

Manganefe.

Molybdena.

Phol'phure of iron.

Refins.

Green oxide of copper.
Carbonate of iron.

Sulphurated oxide of antimony*

{Red oxide of mercury by nitric

acid.

of Chemical Subfiances

t?

Old Names.

Nor Names.

Saffron of mars.

Saffron , aperient , of mars.
Saffron , afiringent, of mars.

Saffron of metals.

Saltpetre.

Saturn.

Soaps , acid.

Soaps, alkaline.

Oxide of iron.

Carbonate of iron.

Brown oxide of iron,
f Semi-vitreous fulphurated oxida
X of antimony.

Nitrate of potafh, or nitre.
Lead.

Acid foaps.

Alkaline foaps.

Soaps, earthy, or oleo-terrene f £ 1 foans

combinations of M. Berthollet. | 7 apS*

Soaps, metallic , or elco-metallic / Metall:c foaDS
combinations oj M. Berthollet. |Metamc loaPs-
Soap of Starkey. Saponula of potafh.

Sebates, (/alts.)

Salt, ammoniacal acetous.

Salt, calcareous acetous.

Salt, acetous of clay.

Salt, acetous of zinc.

Salt, magnefan acetous.

Salt, acetous martial.

Salt , acetous mineral.

Sal admirabile per latum.

Sal Alembroth.

Sal ammoniac.

Salt, cretaceous ammoniacal.
Sal ammoniac, fixed.

Sul ammoniacal, nitrous.
Vol. III.

Sebates.

f Ammoniacal acetite.

"^Acetite of ammoniac*
f Calcareous acetite.

"^Acetite of lime,
f Aluminous acetite.

\ Acetite of alumines.

Acetite of zinc,
f Magnefian acetite.

Acetite of magnefia,

Acetite of iron.

Acetite of foda.

Superfaturated phofphate of feda,
Am'moniaco-mercurial muriate*

{Ammoniacal muriate.

Muriate of ammoniac.
Ammoniacal carbonate,
f Calcareous muriate.

^Muriate of lime.

{Ammoniacal nitrate.

Nitrate of ammoniac,

3 B

Ancient and Modern Names

A

Old Names. S Net? 1jamksj

Sal ammoniacal , ( a fecret of
Glauber's.)

Salt , bitter cathartic.

Salty ammoniacal fedative.

Salty ammoniacal fparry.

Salt, ammoniacal vitriolic.
Salt, common.

Salt, Englijh.

Salt of colcothar.

Salt, kitchen.

Salt , Glauber’s.

Salt of Jupiter.

Salt of milk.

Salt of wifdorn.

Salt of Epfom.

Sal de Duobus.

Salt of Scheidfchutz.

Salt of Sedlitz.

Salt of Segner.

Salt of Seignette.

Salt of amber, obtained by cry-
fallization.

Salt of fiorrel.

Salt, febrifuge, of Sylvius.
Salt, fixed, of tartar.

Salt, fufible, of urine.

Sal gem.

Salt, marine.

Salt, argillaceous marine.

Salt , barotic marine .

f Ammoniacal iulphate.
(.Sulphate of ammoniac.

{Magnefian fulphate.

Sulphate of magnefia.
f Ammoniacal borate.

(Borate of ammoniac,
f Ammoniacal fluate.

(Fluate of ammoniac.

{Ammoniacal fulphate.

Sulphate of ammoniac.

Muriate of foda.

{Ammoniacal carbonate.
Carbonate of ammoniac.

(Sulphate of iron, [its particular
fate not well known.)
Muriate of foda.

Sulphate of foda.

Muriatfe of tin.

Sugar of milk.

Ammoniaco-mercurial muriate,
f Magnefian fulphate.

(Sulphate of magnefia.

Sulphate of potafh.

Sulphate of magnefia.

Sulphate of magnefia.

Sebate of potafh.

Tartarite of foda.

j- Cryftallized fuccinic acid.

Acidulous oxalate of potafh.
Muriate of potafh.

Carbonate of potafh notfaturated.
Phofphate of foda and ammoniac.
Foffil muriate of foda.

Muriate of foda.

{Aluminous muriate.

Muriate of alumines.
f Barytic muriate.

(Muriate of barytes.

if Chemical Sub fiances.

'9

Old Names.

Od//, calcareous marine .

Salt, marine , of iron.
Salt, marine, of zinc.

Salt, magnejian marine.

Salt, native, of urine.

3 New Names.

f Calcareous muriate.

1 Muriate of lime.

Muriate of iron.

Muriate of zinc.
fMagnefian muriate.

Muriate of magnefia.

Phofphate of foda and ammoniac.

Salt, neutral arfenical, of Macqucr. Acidulous arfeniate of potafh.

Salt or fugar of faturn.

Salt, polychrefl, of Glafer.
Salt, polychref , of Rochelle.
Salt, regaline , of gold.

Salt , fedative.

Salt', fedative mercurial.
■Salt, fublimated fedative.
Salt, f antic-nitrous.

Salt, fulphureous, of Stahl.
Salt , vegetable.

Salt, volatile , of England.
Salt, volatile, of amber.
Selenite.

Smalt.

Soda , caufiic. \

Soda, cretaceous.

Soda , fpathofe.

Sulphur.

Acetite of lead.

Sulphate of potafh.

Tartarite of foda.

Muriate of gold.

Boracic acid.

Borate of mercury.

Sublimated boracic acid.

Nitrate of tin.

Sulphate of potafh.

J Tartarite of potafh.
Ammoniacal carbonate.
Sublimated fuccinic acid.
Sulphate of lime,
f Oxide of cobalt vitrified with
\ filices, or finalt.

Soda.

Carbonate of foda.

.Fluate of foda.

Sulphur.

Sulphur, gilded, of antimony. (Sulphurated, orange, oxide of
r 5 6 3 J J t antimony.

Spar, ammoniacal.

Spar, calcareous.

Spar, Jluor.

Spar, ponderous.

Spiritus fylvefris.

Snow of antimony.

Spirit, acid, of wood.

Ammoniacal fluate.

Carbonate of lime.

Calcareous fluate.

Sulphate of barytes.

Carbonic acid.

f White fublimated oxide of sn-
X timony.

Pyro-ligneous acid.

3B 2

20

Ancient and Modern Names

Olo Names.

Spirit , volatile alia line.

Spirit , ardent , or J pirit of wine,
Spirit of Mender erus.

Spirit of nitre.

Spirit, fuming, of nitre.

Spirit, dulcified, of nitre.

Spirit of fait.

Spirit offal ammoniac.

Spirit of wine.

Spirit of vitriol.

Spirit of Venus.

Spiritus rector.

Spirits , acid.

Spirit, volatile, offal ammoniac .
Sublimate, corrofive.

Sublimate, mild.

Lemon, or citron juice.
Semi-metals.

Succinum.

Stone, infernal.

Sugar.

Sugar candy.

Sugar of faturn.

Sugar or fait of milk.

Syderite.

Stearch.

Syderotete of M. de Morveau.
Steel.

Stone in the bladder.

■ Tartar .

’Tartar, amrnoniacal.
Tartar, antimoniated .
Tartar , calcareous.

S New Names.

G ns ammoniac, or amrnoniacal gas.
Alcohol.

Amrnoniacal acetite.

'Nitric acid diluted in water.
Nitrous acid.

Nitric alcohol.

Muriatic acid.

Ammoniac.

Alcohol.

Sulphuric acid diluted in water.
Acetic acid.

Aroma.

Acids diluted in water.
Ammoniac diluted in water.
Corrofive muriate ox mercury.
Mild muriate of mercury.

Citric acid.

Semi-metals.

Amber/ "

Melted nitrate of filver.

Sugar.

Cryftallized fugar.

Acetite of lead.

Sugar of milk.

Phofphate of iron.

Stearch.

Phofphure of iron.

Steel.

Lithic acid.

•

T

Acidulous tartarite of potafli.
Amrnoniacal tartarite.
Antimoniated tartarite of potafli.
Tartarite of lime.

2l

cf Chemical Subjlances.

Old Names.

‘ Tartar , chalybeate.

Tartar , cretaceous.

Tartar , crude.

Tartar, cupreous.

Tartar of magnefia.

Tartar of potafh •

Tartar of foda.

Tartar , emetic.

Tartar , foluble martial.

Tartar , mephitie.

Tartar , mercurial.

Tartar, faturnine.

Tartar, fpathofe.

Tartar, foluble.

Tartar, fibiated.

Tartar, tartarifed.

Tartar, tartarifed, containing
antimony.

Tartar, vitriolated.

Tartar, acrid tincture of.
Tinctures, fpiritous.

Terra animalis.

Terrene bafe of alum.

Terrene bafe of ponderous fpar.
Terra calcaria.

Terra alumina. *

Terra foliata, cryjlallizable.
Terra foliata tartari.

Terra foliata mercurialis.

Terra foliata mineralis.

Terra magnefana.

Terra muriatica of M. Kirvan.
Terra ponderofa .

Terra ponderofa, aerated.

Terra filicea.

T Nf.iv N/imrs.

Ferruginous- tartarite of potafh.
Carbonate of potafh.

Tartar.

Tartarite of copper.

Tartarite of magnefia1.

Tartarite of potafli.

Tartarite of foda.

Antimoniated tartarite of potafh.
Ferruginous tartarite of potafh.
Carbonate of potafli.

Mercurial tartarite,

Tartarite of lead.

Fluate of potafh.

Tartarite of potafli,
Antimoniated tartarite of potafli.
Tartarite of potafh.
fTartarite of potafh, with an ad-
\ dition of antimony.

Sulphate of potafli.

Alcohol of potafh.

Refinous alcohol,
f Calcareous phofphate,
(^Phofphate of lime.

Alumina.

Barytes.

Lime, or calcareous earth.
Alumina.

Acetite of foda.

Acetite of potafli.

Acetite of mercury.

Acetite of foda.

Carbonate of magnefia.
Magnefia.

Barytes.

Carbonate of barytes.

Silices, or filiceous earth.

3^3

22

Ancient and Modern Names

Old Names.

T Nfjv Names.

'Tungstic falts.

Tunflates.

Tungstic fait , ammoniacal .

Ammoniacal tunftate.

Tungstic fait of potajh.

Tunftate of potafh.

Turbith , mineral.

f Yellow mercurial oxide by ful-
£ phuric acid.

Turbith , nitrous .

f Yellow mercurial oxide by ni-
X trous acid.

Tin.

Tin.

Tin, corneous.

Muriate of tin.

V

Verdigris.

Green oxide of copper.

Verdigris of commerce.

f Acetite of copper, with an ex-
\ ccfs of oxide of copper.

Venus.

Verdet (Fr.), or verdigris .
Verdigris, dijlilled.

Vitrum antimonii.

Copper.

Acetite of copper.

Cryftallized acetite of copper,
f Vitreous fulphurated oxide of

\ antimony.

Vivum argentum.

Mercury.

Vinegar , diftilledr

Acetous acid.

Vinegar of faturn.

Acetite of lead.

Vinegar, radical.

Acetic acid.

Vitriol, ammoniacal.

Ammoniacal fulphate.

Vitriol, ‘white.

Sulphate of zinc.

Vitriol, blue.

Sulphate of copper.

Vitriol , calcareous.

Sulphate of lime.

Vitriol of antimony .

Sulphate of antimony.

Vitriol of ftlver.

Sulphate of fdver.

Vitriol of clay.

Sulphate of alumines.

Vitriol of bifmuth.

Sulphate of bifmuth.

Vitriol of lime .

Calcareous fulphate.

Vitriol of Cyprus.

Sulphate of copper.

Vitriol of cobalt.

Sulphate of cobalt.

Vitriol of copper.

Sulphate of copper.

cf Chemical Suhflances.

= 3

Old Names.

Vitriol of luna.
Vitriol of manganefe.
Vitriol of mercury.
Vitriol of nickel.
Vitriol of platina.
Vitriol of lead.

Vitriol of pctafj.
Vitriol of foda.

Vitriol of tin.

Vitriol of zinc.

Vitriol , magnefian.
Vitriol , martial.
Vitriol , green.

New Names.

Sulphate of
Sulphate of
Sulphate of
Sulphate of
Sulphate of
Sulphate of
Sulphate of
Sulphate of
Sulphate of
Sulphate of
Sulphate of
Sulphate of
Sulphate of

W

filver.

mangariefe.

mercury.

nickel.

platina.

lead.

potafh.

foda.

tin.

zinc.

maenefcu

o

iron.

iron.

Water.

Water , aerated.

Watery lime.

Water , P ruffian-lime.

Watery difilled.

Watery frong, or aqua fortis.

Waters , gazeous.

Waters , mother.

Water, mercurial.

Watery royal, or aqua regia.

Waters, acidulous.

Waters, hepatic.

Water.

Carbonic acid.

Lime-water.

Prufliate of lime.

Diftilled water.

Nitric acid of commerce.

x *

/ Waters impregnated with car-
bonic acid.

Saline deliquefcent refidue.
f Nitrate of mercury in a flate
\ of folution.

Nitro-muriatic acid.
f Acidulous waters, or waters im-
\ pregnated with carbonic acid.
/Sulphureous or fulphurated wa-
X ters.

Wolfram of Mejfrs d' Elhuyar. Tungften.

Zinc.

Zajfre.

Zinc.

f Grey oxide of cobalt, with fili-
\ ceous earth, or zajfre.

3 B 4 DIC-

DICTIONARY

I 0 R THE

NEW CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE.

New Names.

A C ETA T E S.

Acetns , tis. f. m.

Acetate, aluminous.

of alumines.

Acetns aluminofus.

Acetate, ammoniacal.

of ammoniac. *

Acetas ammoniacalis .

Old Names.

A .

1

Thefe are falts formed by the
combination of the acetic acid
(or radical vinegar) Moth differ-
ent bafes. The following names-,
with which there are none fyno-
nymous in the ancient Nomen-
Lclature, belong to this genus.

* For the future, we (hull not repeat thefe two modes of exprefling the bale
of a neutral fait together, but ule them indifferently. Thefe inflances already"
given, are enough to Ihow, that either the fubftantive or the adjedlive may b*
ufcd', at pltafure

This obfervation extends dfo to the Latin Nomenclature,

Dictionary for the New Chemical Nomenclature.

Nut? Names. A Old Names*

i. Acetate of antimony.

Acetas fibii.

Acetate of filver.

Acetas argenti.

Acetate of arfenic.

Acetas arfenici.

Acetate of barytes.

Acetas barytis, or baryta.

Acetate of bifmuth.

Acetas bifmuthi.

• *

Acetate of lime.

Acetas calcis.

Acetate of cobalt.

Acetas cobalti.

Acetate of copper.

Acetas cupri.

Acetate of tin.

Acetas Jtanni.

Acetate of iron.

Acetas ferri.

Acetate of magnefi2.

Acetas mcgnefia.

Acetate of manganefe.

Acetas magnejii.

Acetate of mercury.

Acetas hyclrargyri.

Acetate of molybdena.

Acetas molybdeni.

Acetate of nickel.

Acetas niccoli.

Acetate of gold.

Acetas auri.

Acetate of platina.

Acetas platini.

Acetate of lead.

Acetas plumtfi.

Dictionary for the

New Names.

Acetate of potafh.
Acetas potajpe.

Acetate of foda.
Acetas foda.

Acetate of tungflen,
Acetas tunjleni.

Acetate of zinc.
Acetas zinci.

Acetite.

Acetis , it is. f. m.

Acetite, aluminous.
Acetis aluminofus.

Acetite, ammoniacal.
Acetis ammoniacalis.

Acetite of antimony,
Acetis Jiibii.

Acetite of filver.
Acetis argenti.

Acetite of arfenic,
Acetis arfenicalis.

Acetite of barytes.
Acetis baryticus.

Acetite of bifmuth,
Acetis bifnuthi.

Acetite of lime,

Acetis calcareus.

Acetite of cobalt.
Acetis cobalti.

Acetite of copper.
Acetis cupri.

Acetite of tin.

Acetis Jlanni.

Acetite of iron.

Acetis ferri.

A Old Names.

{Salts formed by the union or
the acetous acid, or diftilled vi-
negar, with different bafes.

f Acetited clay.

Acetous fait of clay.

{Ammoniacal acetite.

Ammoniacal acetous fait .

Spirit of Mendcrerus.

f Fuming arfenico-aceious liquor of
X M. Cadet.

f Acetited lime .

\ Calcareous acetous fait.

r Acetited copper.

J Verdigris.

] Difilied verdigris of commerce.
5- Cryfals of Venus.

Acetited iron.
Martial acetous fait.

New Chemical Nomenclature.

Nsrr Names- A

27

Old Names.

Acetite of magnefia.

Acetis magneji ee.

Acetite of mercury.

Acetis hydrargyri.

Acetite of molybdena.

Acetis molybdeni .

Acetite of nickel.

Acetis niccoli.

Acetite of gold.

Acetis auri.

Acetite of platina.

Acetis platini.

Acetite of lead.

Acetis plumbi.

Acetite of potafh.

Acetis potaffc, vel potaffeus.

Acetite of foda.

Acetis fod<S) vel fodaceus.

Acetite of tungften.

Acetis tunfteni.

y M ague ft an acetous fait.

I Acetite d magnefia.

f Acetited mercury.

Terra foliata mercurialis.

' 1

f Acetited lead.

■s Vinegar of fciturn.

{_ Salt or fugar of faturn ,
y Acetited potafh.
f Terra foliata tariari.

' Acetited foda.

J Mineral acetous fait.

Ter ra foliata mineralis.

- Cryfallizable terra foliata .

Acetite of zinc.
Acetis zinci.

Acid, acetous.
Acidum aceiofum.

Acid, acetic.
Acidum aceticiim.

• i

Acid, arfenic.
Acidum arfenicum.

y Acetited zinc.

\ Acetous fait of zinc.

{. Acetous acid.
Difilled vinegar.

y Radical vinegar.

\ Spirit of Venus.

^ Arfenic al acid.

Acid, benzoic.

Acidum benzoicum.

Acid, fublimated benzoic.
Acidum benzoicum fublimatum.
Acid, bombic.

Acidum bqmbicum.

Benzonic acid.

Acid of benzoin.

Salt of benzoin.

{. Flowers of benzoin.
Volatile fait of benzoin.

{Acid of the ft Ik worm .
Bombycine acid .

■z?)

Dictionary for the

Nejv Names.

Acid, boracic.
Aciditm borackum .

Acid, carbonic.
Acidum carbonic urn.

Acid, citric.

Acidum citricum .

Acid, fluoric.

Acidum fluoricum.

Acid, formic.

Acidum for micum.

Acid, gallic. J o x

Acidum gallic, f evLgallaceum . \ Ga!lic acid.

Acid, laftic.

Acidum laclicum.

A Old Names.

(

r Volatile narcotic fait of vitriol.
J Sedative fait.

J Acid of borax.
t Boracine acid.

Gas fylvefre.

Spirit us fylvefris.

Fixed air.

Aerial acid.

Atmofpheric acid.

Mephitic acid.

Cretaceous acid.

.Carbonaceous acid.

f Lemon juice.

Citronian acid.

{. Fluoric acid.

Spathcfe acid.

f Acid of ants.

\Formicine acid,
f Ajlringent principle.

Acid, lithic.

Acidum lithicum.

Acid, malic.

Acidum malicum.

Acid, molybdic.

Acidum molybdicum .

Acid, muriatic.

Acidum muriaticum.

Acid, oxigenated muriatic.
Acidum muriaticum oxigenatum

Acid, nitrous.

Acidum nitrofum.

C Sour whey.

\ Galactic acid.

f Acid of the jlone in the bladder.
“s Bezoardic acid.

\_Lithiaftc acid.

f Acid of apples.

\Mahfian acid.

{Acid of molybdena.

Molybdic acid.

Acid of Wolfram.

r Acid of marine fait.

-j Fuming fpirit of fait.

(_ Marine acid.

f Dephlogificated marine acid.
Aerated marine acid.

%

r Ruddy nitrous acid.

J Phlogificated nitrous acid.

{ Fuming nitrous acid.

»- Fuming fpirit of nitre.

New Chemical Nomenclature .

-9

Ne.fr Names . A Cko Names.

Acid, nitric.

Acidum nitricum.

^cid, nitro-muriatic.

Acidum nitro-muriaticum.

Acid, oxalic.

Acidum oxalieum.

Acid, phofphorous.

Acidum phofphorofum.

Acid, phofphoric.

Acidum phofphoricum .

Acid, pruffic.

Acidum prujficum.

Acid, pyro-ligneous.
Acidum pyro-lignofitm.

Acid, pyro-mucous.
Acidum pyro-mucefum.

Acid, pyro-tartarous.
Acidum pyro-tartarofum .

Acid, faccho-la£Hc.

Acidum facchc-laclicum.

Acid, febacic.

Acidum febacicum.

Acid, fuccinic.

Acidum fuccinicum.

Acid, fulphureous.

Acidum fulphurofum.

Acid, fulphuric.
Acidum fulphuricum.

Acid, tartareous.
Acidum tartarefum.

C White nitrous acid.

-< Nitric acid without gas.

(_ DcphlogiJIicated nitrous acid.

f Aqua regia.

Regaline acid.

f Acid of forrel.

J Oxaline acid.

I Saccharine acid.

I- Acid of fugar.

^ Volatile phofphoric acid.

C Phofphoric acid.

\ Acid of urine.

Colouring matter of Prufftan blue.
J- Empyreumatic acid fpirit of wood,

I

f Spirit of honey, fugar, &c.
\Syrupous acid.

J* Spirit of tartar.

{Acid of fugar of milk.

Saccho-laBic acid.

f Sebaceous acid.

\ Acid of tallow.

f Acid of amber.

(_ Volatile fait of amber.

f Sulphureous acid.

J V flatile fulphureous acid.
j Phlogijlicated vitriolic acid.

L Spirit of fulphur.

Acid of fulphur.

Vitriolic acid.

Oil of vitriol.

Spirit of vitriol.

{Tartareous acid.

Acid of tartar.

3°

Dictionary for the

New Names.

A Old Name

Acid, tunflic.

Acidum twfiicum.

Affinity.

Ajfinitas.

Aggregation.

Aggregatio.

Aggregate5-

Aggregate

Atmofpheric air.

Aer atmofphericus .

Alkalis.

Alkalia.

Alcohol.

Alcohol , indecl.

Alcohol of potafh.
Alcohol pot office.

Alcohol, nitric.

Alcohol nitricum.

Alcohols, refinous.
Alcohol refinofa.

Alloy.

Connubium metallicum.

Alumina.

Alumina.

Amalgam.

Ammoniac.

Ammoniaca.

Antimony.

Antimonium, fibium.

Aroma.

Aroma.

Arfeniates.

Arfenias , tis. f m.

f Tungstic acid.
s Arid of tungsten,
i Acid of Wolfram.

| Affinity.

Aggregation „

} Aggregates.

^ Atmofpheric air.

Alkalis in general.

(Spirit of wine.

Ardent fpirit.

/ Lilium of Paracel/us.

[Acrid tincture of tartar.

Dulcified fpirit of nitre.
j- Spiritous tinctures.

j- Alloy of metals.

C Earth of alums
-s Safe of alum.

L Pure clay.

Amalgam.

C Caujlic ’volatile alkali.
d Fluor volatile alkali.

L Volatile fpirit of fal ammoniac.

j- Regains of antimony.

f Spiritus redlor.

(. Odor ate principle..

J- Arfenical falts ,

New Chemical Nomenclature. gr'

•tfsir Names. A Old Names.

Acidulous arfeniate of potafli. 1 Masquer' s arfenical neutral fait.

Arfenias acidulus potajja. J

Arfeniate of alumina. v #

Arfenias alumina.

Arfeniate of ammoniac. 1

Arfenias ammoniac#, feu >- Arfenical ammoniac,

arnmoniacalis . J

Arfeniate of filver.

Arfenias argenti.

Arfeniate of baryta.

Arfenias baryta.

Arfeniate of bifmuth.

Arfenias bfmuthi.

Arfeniate of lime.

Arfenias calcis.

Arfeniate of cobalt.

Arfenias cobalti.

Arfeniate of copper.

Arfenias cupri.

Arfeniate of tin.

Arfenias Jlantii.

Arfeniate of iron.

Arjenias ferri.

Arfeniate of magnefia.

Arfenias magnefia.

Arfeniate of manganefe.

Arjenias magnefii.

Arfeniate of mercury.

Arjenias hydrargyri.

Arfeniate of molybdena.

Arfenias molybdeni.

Arfeniate of nickel.

Arfenias niccoli.

Arfeniate of "old.

AT- ® .

A rj etnas nun.

Arfeniate of platina.

Arfenias platini.

i

♦

I

32

Dictionary for the

Nirr Names.

A Old Names*

Arfeniate of lead.
Arfenias plumbi.

Arfeniate of potafh.
Arfenias potaffx.

Arfeniate of foda.
Arfenias foda.

Arfeniate of tungften.
Arfenias tutijleni.

Arfeniate of zinc.
Arfenias zinci.

Azote,

Barytes, or baryta.
Baryta.

Balfams.

Balfama.

Benzoin.

Benyoe.

Bafe of atmofpheric mephitife ,

B

r Terra ponder of a.

■< Earth of ponderous fpar ,
b Barotes .

J- Balfams of Bucquet. #

}

Benzoin.
Benzone .

Benzoate.

Benzoas , j?zV. yi

Benzoate of alumina.
Benzoas aluminofus.

Benzoate of ammoniac.
Benzoas ammoniacalis.

Benzoate of antimony.
Benzoas fibii.

<

A fait formed by the unioif
of the benzoic acid with differ-
ent bafes.

Salts of this kind have no
names in the old Nomencla-
ture.

* Refills combined with a concrete acid fait*

New Chemical Nomenclature*

si

N£TT NAMES*

B Old Names.-

Benzoate of filver.

Benzoas argenti.

Benzoate of arfcnic.

Benzoas arfenicalisK

Benzoate of barytes.

Benzoas baryticus.

Benzoate of bifmuth.

Benzoas bifmuthi.

Benzoate of lime.

Benzoas calcareus.

Benzoate of cobalt.

Benzoas cobalti.

Benzoate of copper.

Benzoas cupri.

Benzoate of tin.

Benzoas Jlanni.

Benzoate of iron.

Benzoas ferri.

Benzoate of magnefia.

Benzoas magnefue.

Benzoate of manganefe^

Benzoas magnefti.

Benzoate of mercury.

Benzoas hydrargyri.

Benzoate of molybdena,-
Benzoas molybdeni.

Benzoate of nickel.

Benzoas nicccli.

Benzoate of gold.

Benzoas auri.

Benzoate of platina.

Benzoas platini.

Benzoate of lead.

Benzoas plumbi.

Benzoate of potafh.

Benzoas potajj'ee,

Vol. III. 2 G

i

34

Dictionary for

the

Nejt Names. B

Old Names*

Benzoate of foda.
Benzoas fod<z.

Benzoate of tungflen.
Benzoas tunjleni.

Benzoate of zinc.
Benzoas zinci.

Bifmuth.

Bifmuthum.

Bitumens.

Biturnina .

Bombiate.

Bombias, tis. f. m.

Bombiate of alumina.
Bombias aluminofus.

Bombiate of ammoniac.
Bombias ammoniacalis .

Bombiate of antimony.
Bombias Jiibii.

Bombiate of filver.
Bombias argenti.

Bombiate of arfenic.
Bombias arfenicalis.

Bombiate of barytes.
Bombias baryticus.

Bombiate of bifmuth.
Bombias bifmuthi.

Bombiate of lime.
Bombias calcareus.

Bombiate of cobalt-
Bombias cobalti.

Bombiate of copper.
Bombias cnpri. *

Bombiate of tin.

Bombias Jlanni.

Bifmuth.

Bitumens.

Salts formed by the union of
the bombic acid with different
bafes.

This genus of falts had no
-name in the old Nomenclature-

Nezv Chemical Nomenclature.

Bombiate of iron.
Bombias ferri.

Bombiate of magnefia.
Bombias magnefia.

Bombiate of manganefe.
Bombias magnefti.

Bombiate of mercury.
Bombias hydrargyri.

Bombiate of molybdena.
Bombias molybdetii .

Bombiate of nickel.
Bombias niccoli.

Bombiate of gold.
Bombias auri.

Bombiate of platina.
Bombias platitii.

Bombiate of lead.
Bombias plumbi.

Bombiate of potafh.
Bombias potajfa.

Bombiate of foda.
Bombias foda.

Bombiate of tungflen.-
Bombias tunfeni.

Bombiate of zinc.
Bombias z inci.

Nii>r Namij.

B

Old Names.

Borate.

Boras , tis. f m.

Borate, aluminous.
Boras aluminofus.

Borax,

\

[■ Argillaceous hot ax

Borate, ammoniacal.
Boras ammoniacalis .

Borate of antimony.
Boras fiibii.

Borate of filver.
Boras argents.

Difllonary for the

3 «

N*fr Names.

B Old Name's.

Borate of arfenic.

Boras arfenici.

Borate of barytes, or baryta. j Ponderous or barotic bora*.
Boras baryta. J

Borate of bifmuth.

Boras bifmuth ':.

Borate of lime.

Boras calcis.

Borate of cobalt.
Boras cobalti.

Borate of copper.
Boras cupri.

Borate of tin.

Boras Jlauni.

Borate' of iron.

Boras Jerri.

Borate of magnefia,
Borns magr.ejta.

Borate of manganefe.
Boras magnefi.

Borate of mercury.
Boras mercurii.

Borate of molybdena.
Boras molybdeni.

Borate of nickel.
Boras niccoli.

^ Borax of cobalt.
j- Borax of copper .

Borax of iron.
J- Magnefu

Ian borax.

f Mercurial borax.

\ Mercurial fedative fait.

Borate of gold.
Boras auri.

Borate of platina.
Boras platin': .

Borate of lead.
Boras plitmbi.

Borate of potafh.
Boras potaffa.

Borate of foda.
Boras foda.

V egctable borax.

f Common borax faturated with
(. racic acid.

New Chemical Nomenclature.

37

Neiv Names.

Borate of tungffen.

Boras tunjieni.

Borate of zinc.

Boras zinci.

Borate of foda, or borate
fuperfaturated with foda.

B Old Names.

\

}

Borax of zinc.

r Crude borax .

J Tinckal.
j Chryfocolla •

«- Borax of commerce

)

:

Caloric.

Caloricum.

Camphor.

Camphora.

Camphorate.

Camphoras , its. f. m.

Camphorate of alumina.
Camphoras aluminofus.

Camphorate of ammoniac.
Camphoras ammoniacalis.

Camphorate of antimony.
Camphoras Jlibii.

Camphorate of filver.
Camphoras argenti.

Camphorate of arfenic.
Camphoras arfenicalis.

Camphorate of barytes.
Camphoras baryticus.

r Latent heat.

•< Fixed heat.

Principle of heat.

Camphor.

' A fait farmed by the combin-
ation of camphoric acid with
different bafes.

Thefe falts were not known
formerly ; and accordingly they
have no names in the old No-
menclature.

3 c 3

/

4

I

38

Dictionary for the

Nsrr Names. C

Camphorate of bifmuth-
Gamphoras bifmuthi.

Camphorate of iime.

Gamphoras calcareus.

Camphorate of cobalt.

Camphor as cob alt i.

Camphorate of copper.
Gamphoras cupri.

Camphorate of tin.

Gamphoras Jianni.

Camphorate of iron.

Gamphoras ferri .

Camphorate of magnefia.
Gamphoras magnefia.

Camphorate of manganefe.
Gamphoras magnefii.

Camphorate of mercury.
Gamphoras mercurii.

Camphorate of molybdena.
Gamphoras molybdeni.

Camphorate of nickel.
Camphoras niccoli.

Camphorate of gold.

Camphoras auri.

Camphorate of platina.
Camphoras platini.

Camphorate of lead.

Camphoras plumbi.

Camphorate of potafh.
Camphoras potaffa.

Camphorate of foda.

Camphoras foda.

Camphorate of tungften.
Camphoras tunjieni.

Camphorate of zinc.

Camphoras z incu

0l& Names.

New Chemical Nomenclature.

39

Old Names.

C Nsir Names.

Carbone.

Carbonicum.

Carbonate.

Carbonas, tis, f m.

Carbonate of alumina.
Carbonas aluminofus.

Carbonate, ammoniacal.
Carbonas ammoniacce.

Carbonate of antimony.
Carbonas antimonii.

Carbonate of filver.
Carbonas argenti.

Carbonate of arfenic.
Carbonas arfenici.

Carbonate of barytes.
Carbonas baryticus.

Carbonate of bifmuth.
Carbonas bifmutki.

Calcareous carbonate.
Carbonas calcareus.

Carbonate of cobalt.
Carbonas cobalti.

Carbonate of copper.
Carbonas cupri.

Carbonate of tin.
Carbonas Jlanni.

J- Pure coal.

r A fait formed by the union
< of carbonic acid with different
^bafes.

J- Cretaceous clay.

r Ammoniacal chalk.

I Cretaceous ammoniacal fait.

<| Concrete volatile alkali.
j Ammoniacal mephite.
fEnglijh fal volatile.

f Bnrotic or ponderous chalk.

t Aerated ponderous earth.
Ejfervefcent barotes.
Barotic mephite.

<5

'Chalk.

Limejlone.

Calcareous mephite.

Aerated calcareous earth.
Ejfervefcent calcareous earth.
Calcareous fpar.

Cream of lime.

3 C 4

Dictionary for the

Neiv Names. C

Old Names,

Carbonate of iron.
Carbonas ferri .

Carbonate of magnefia.
Carbonas magnifies.

Carbonate of manganefe.
Carbonas magnefii.

Carbonate of mercury.
Carbonas hydrargyri.

Carbonate of molybdena.
Carbonas molybdeni.

Carbonate of nickel.
Carbonas nicco/i.

f~ Aperient faffron of mars .
j Rtf of iron,
f Aerated iron.
j Martial chalk.

C Martial mephite.

Magnefian earth.

White Magnefia.

Aerated magnefia of Bergman.
Cretaceous magnefia.

Magnefian chalk.

Fffervejcent magnefia.

Mephite of magnefia.

Kir-wan’s muriatic earth.

Po-wder <f Count Palma, and of
Sen tin ell i.

Carbonate of gold.
Carbonas auri.

Carbonate of platina.
Carbonas platini.

Carbonate of lead.
Carbonas plumbi.

Carbonate of potafh.
Carbonas potajfce ,

C Chalk of lead.

J Spathofe lead.

(. Mephite of lead..

Fixed fait of tartar.

Vegetable fixed alkali.
Aerated vegetable fixed alkali .
Cretaceous tartar.

Mephitic tartar.

Mephite of potafh.

Nitre fixed by itfelf.

Mikahefi of Van Helmont ,

Neiv Chemical Nomenclature,

Nett Names. C

4*

Old Names.

Carbonate of foda.
Carbonas fodee.

Carbonate of tungften.
Carbonas tunjleni.

Carbonate of zinc.
Carbonas zinci.

Carbure of iron.

<

'Nat rum or Nat ton.

Bafe of marine J'alt.

Marine or mineral alkali .
Cryfuls of foda.

Cretaceous foda.

Aerated foda.

Effervefceni foda.

Ahp kite oj foda.

Aerated mineral fixed alkali.
Bjfervefcent mineral fixed alkali.
- Chalk of foda.

{

Chalk of zinc.
Aerated zinc.
Mephite of zinc.

Plumbago.

Calcareous earth or lime,
luted in water.

Calcareous earth or lime.

Citrate.

Citras y its, f. m.

Citrate of alumina.
Citras alumimfus.

Milk of lime.

f Calcareous earth.
f fih tick lime.

f A fait formed by the combin-
I ation of the acid of citrons with
<( different bafes.
j This fait had no name in the
l^old nomenclature.

Citrate of ammoniac.
Citras ammoniacalis.

Citrate of antimony.
Citras fiibii.

Citrate of filver.
Citras argenti.

Citrate of arfenic.
Citras arfenicalis .

Citrate of barytes.
Citras barytiais.

/

42 Dictionary for

New Names. C

Citrate of bifmuth.

Citras bifmuthi.

Citrate of lime. '

Citras calcareus.

Citrate of cobalt.

Citras cobalti.

Citrate of copper.

Citras cupri.

Citrate of tin.

Citras Jianni.

Citrate of iron.

Citras ferri.

Citrate of magnefia.

Citras magnfue.

Citrate of manganefe.

Citras magnefii.

Citrate of mercury.

Citras mercurii.

Citrate of molybdena.

Citras molybdetii.

Citrate of nickel.

Citras niccoli.

Citrate of gold.

Citras auri.

Citrate of platina.

Citras platini.

Citrate of lead.

Citras plumbi.

Citrate of potafh.

Citras potajpe.

Citrate of foda.

Citras foda.

Citrate of tungllen.

Citras tunjieni.

Citrate of zinc.

Citras zinci.

the

Old Names.

New Chemical Nomenclature .

43

New Names.

C

Old Names.

Clay, a mixture of aluminous
and filiceous earths, argilla.

Cobalt.

Copper.

Cuprum.

{

{

{

Clay.

Potter's earth.
Argillaceous earth.

Regulus of Cobalt.
Cobalt , or cobolt.

Copper.

Venus.

D

Diamond.

Ether, acetic.

Ether aceticum.

Ether, muriatic.
Ether muriaticum.

Ether, nitric.

Ether nitricum.

Ether fulphuric.
Ether fulphuricum.

Extra&ive principle.
Ext radium.

Fecula.

Fecula.

Fluate.

Fluas , tis. f. m.

Fluate of alumina.
Fluas alumina.

Diamond .

E

}

1

}

1

}

Acetous ether.
Marine ether.
Nitrous ether.
Vitriolic ether.
Extradl.

F

Fecula of plants.

r A fait formed by the combin-
-< ation of the fluoric acid with dif-
ferent bafes.

Dictionary for the

4i

Keif Names .

Fluate, ammoniacal.
Fluas ammoniac alls.

Fluate of antimony.
Fluas fltibii.

Fluate of filver.

Fluas argenti.

Fluate of arfenic.
Fluas arfenicalis .

Fluate of barytes.
Fluas b ary tee.

Fluate of bifmuth.
Fluas bifmuthi .

Fluate of lime.

Fluas calc are us.

i

V

Fluate of cobalt.
Fluas cobalti.

Fluate of copper.
Fluas cupri.

Fluate of tin.

Fluas Jlanni.

Fluate of iron.

Fluas ferri.

Fluate of magnefia.
Fluas magnefta.

Fluate of manganefe.
Fluas magnefn.

Fluate of mercury.
Fluas mercurii ..

Fluate of molybdena.
Fluas molybdeni.

Fluate of nickel.
Fluas niccoli.

F Old Nam E S*

r- Ammoniacal J parry fait.

Sparry ammoniac.
j Ammoniacal f par.

„ Ammoniacal fluor.

{Ponderous fluor.
Parotic f.uor.

ar.

| Vitreous fpar.
• Cubic fpar.

{

Fluorated magnefia.
Sparry magnefia.
Magnefan fluor .

V

\v

New Chemical Nomenclature.

45

$

New Names.

Old Names.

F

Fluate of gold.
Fluas auri.

Fluate of platina.
Fluas platini.

Fluate of lead.
Fluas plumb:.

Fluate of potafli.
Fluas potajjle.

Fluate of foda.
Fluas foda.

Fluate of tungften.
Fluas tunjleni.

Fluate of zinc.
Fluas zinci.

Formiate.

Formias, tis, f in.

i >

Formiate of alumina.
Formias aluminojus.

Formiate of ammoniac.
Formias ammoniacalis .

Formiate of antimony.
Formias Jiibii.

Formiate of filver.

■ Formias argenti.

Formiate of arfenic.
Formias arfenicalis.

Formiate of barytes.
Formias baryticus.

Formiate of bifmuth.
Formias bifmuthi.

Formiate of lime.
Formias calcareus.

{Far tare ous jluor.

Sparry tartar.

f Fluor of foda.

\ Sparry foda. *

Salt formed by the combina-
tion of the formic acid with dif-
ferent bafes.

This genus of fait has no
.name in the old nomenclature.

4^ i Dictionary for lh(

New Names. Old Names,

F

Formiate of cobalt.

Formias cobalti.

Formiate of copper.

Formias cupri.

Formiate of tin.

Formias Jlanni.

Formiate of iron.

Formias ferri.

Formiate of magnefia.

Formias magnefia.

Formiate of manganefe.

Formias magnefii.

Formiate of mercury.

Formias mercurii.

Formiate of molybdena.

Formias molybdeni.

Formiate of nickel.

Formias niccoli.

Formiate of gold.

Formias auri.

Formiate of platina.

Formias plaimi.

Formiate of lead.

Formias plumbi.

Formiate of potafli.

Formias potajfa.

Formiate of foda.

Formias foda.

Formiate of tungften.

Formias tunfeni.

Formiate of zinc.

Formias zinci .

New Chemical Nomenclature.

Nnr Navis.

Old Names.

Gas.

Gas.

Gas, acetous acid.

Gas acidum acetofum.

Gas, carbonic acid.

Gas acidum carbonicum.

Gas, fluoric acid.

Gas acidum Jluorlcum.

Gas, muriatic acid.

Gas acidum muriaticum.

Gas, oxigenated muriatic acid.
Gas acidum muriaticum oxi-
genatum.

Gas, nitrous acid.

Gas acidum nitrofum.

Gas, prufTic acid.

Gas acidum prujjicum.

Gas, fulphureous acid.

Gas acidum fulphureum.

Gas, ammoniacal.

Gas ammoniacale.

f Gas.

•j Elaflic jiuids.

L Aeriform Jiuids.

}

Acetous acid gas.

f Fixed air.

| Solid air of Hales.

<J Cretaceous acid gas.

| Mephitic gas.

Aerial acid.

C Sparry acid gas.

\ Fluoric acid gas.

f Marine air.

-s Marine acid gas.

C Muriatic acid gas.

( Aerated muriatic acid gas.
Dephlogiflicated marine acid.

j

}

}

Nitrous acid gas.
P ruffian gar.

Gas, azotic.
Gas azoticum.

Gas, hydrogenous.
Gas hydrogenium.

f Sulphureous acid gas.

\ Vitriolic acid air.

{Alkaline gas.

Alkaline air.

V olatile alkaline gas.

f Vitiated air.

I Impure air.

<( Phlogiflicated air.

| Phlogiflicated gas.
[jAtmofpheric mephitis.

f Inflammable gas.

■s Inflammable air.

(. Phlogiflon of Mr Kir wan.

Dictionary for the

4S

New Names. G Old Name s*

Gas, carbonated hydrogenous. ")
Gas hydrogenium carbonatum.)

Gas, hydrogenous, of marfhes. f
Gas hydrogenium paludum. \

Gas, phofphorized hydrogen--]
ous.

Gas hydrogenium phofphoriflatum

.1

Carbonaceous inflammable gas.-

Mephitized inflammable gas.
Inflammable gas of marfhes,

Phcjphoric gas ✓

Gas,fulphuratedhydrogenous.
Gas hydrogenium fulphuratum. j

Gas, nitrous.

Gas nitrofum.

}

Hepatic gas.
Nitrous gas.

Gas, oxigenous.
Gas oxigenium.

Gluten, or the
principle.
Gluten .

Gold.

Auritm.

f Vital air.

■< Pure air.

(_ Dephlogifticated air.

glutinous "I Gluten of flour of wheat,
J V egeto-animal matter.

t

j Gold.

Iron.

Ferrum.

I

j- Iron.

La&ate.

LaH as, tis. f. m.

I,

" Salts formed by the union
of the acid of four whey, or the
laflic acid, with different bafcs.

Thefe falts were not known
before Scheele ; and their pro-
perties being as yet but little
examined, they have hitherto
-.received no name.

1

New Chemical Nomenclature.

49

Nett Names.

Old Names.

Ladtate of alumina.
Ladas aluminofus .

Laftate of ammoniac.
Ladas ammoniac alis.

Laftate of antimony.
Ladas Jlibii.

Ladtate of filver.

Ladas argenti.

Ladtate of arfenic.
Ladas arfenicalis.

Ladtate of barytes-
Ladas b ary tic us.

Ladtate of bifmutli.
Ladas bifmuthi.

Ladtate of lime.

Ladas calcareus.

Lactate of cobalt.
Ladas cobalt i.

La£tate of copper.
Ladas cupri.

Lactate of tin.

Ladas Jlanni.

Lactate of iron.

Ladas Jerri.

La&ate of magnefijy.
Ladas magnefnt.

La£tate of manganefe.
Ladas magnefii.

La&at^'of mercury.
Ladas hydrargyri.

Ladtate of molybdena.
Ladas molybdeni.

Ladtate of nickel.
Ladas n'tcceli.

Ladtate of gold.

Ladas auri.

VOL. in.

S »

5©

Dictionary for the

■

New Name L

Lnftate of platina.-
Ladas platini.

Ladlate of lead.
Ladas pi u.mbi.

LaOate of potafb.
Ladas potaffce.

Laftate of foda.
Ladas foda!.

La&ate of tungften.
Ladas tunfleni.

Lattate of zinc.
Ladas zincs.

Lead.

Plumbum .

Light.

Lithiate.

Lithias , tis. f. m.

Lithiate of alumina.
Lithias aluminofus.

Lithiate of ammoniac.
Lithias ammoniacalis.

Lithiate of antimony.
Lithias Jlilii.

Lithiate of filver.
Lithias argenti.

Lithiate of arfenic.
Lithias arfenicalis.

Lithiate of barytes.
Lithias baryticus.

Lithiate of bifmuth.
Lithias bifmuthi .

Lithiate of lime.
Lithias calcareus.

Old NasTeS.

f Lead.

\ Saturn.

Light.

Salts formed by the union of
the lithic acid, or {lone in the
bladder, with different bafes.

Thefe fa Its are not compre-
hended in the ancient Nomen-
clature, being unknown before
JSchieele.

. la . ttrn . — . iofc..- -V-* *. - jyfrr i 1

New Chemical Nomenclature.

3*

Nktv Namss. L

Old Names.

Lithiate of cobalt.
Lit hi as cobalti.

Lithiate of copper.
Lithias ciipri.

Lithiate of tin.
Lithias Jlanni.

Lithiate of iron.
Lithias ferri.

J Lithiate of magnefia,
Lithias magnejix.

Lithiate of mercury.
Lithias hydrargyri.

Lithiate of molybdenav
Lithias molybdeni.

Lithiate of nickel.
Lithias niccsli.

Lithiate of gold.

Lithias auri.

Lithiate of platina.
Lithias platini.

Lithiate of lead.

Lithias plumbi.

Lithiate of potaih.
Lithias patajftc.

Lithiate of foda.

Lithias foda.

Lithiate of tungftem
Lithias tursjlersi.

Lithiate of zinc.

Lithias zinci.

Malate.

Malas, tir. f. m.

This genus of fait has not
yet obtained a name in the ©14
^Nomenclatures

" Salt formed by the union of
the malic acid, or acid of ap-
ples, with different bafes.

3 D 2

Nr.rv Names.

Diftionary for the

M

Old Names,

Malate of alumina.

Matas aluminofus.

Malate of ammoniac.

Matas ammoniacalis.

Malate of antimony.

Matas Jlibit.

Malate of filver.

Matas argents. '

Malate of arfenic.

Matas arfenicalis.

Malate of barytes.

Matas baryticus.

Malate of bifmuth.

Matas bifmuthi.

Malate of lime.

Matas calcaneus.

Malate of cobalt.

Matas cobalti.

Malate of copper.

Matas cupri.

Malate of tin.

Matas Jlanni. .

Malate of iron.

Matas ferri.

Malate of magnefia.

Matas magnefice.

Malate of manganefe.

Matas rnagnejii.

Malate of mercury. i

Matas hydrargyri.

Malate of molybdena.

Matas molybdent.

Malate of nickel.

Matas niccoli.

Malate of gold.

1 Matas auri.

Malate of platina.

Matas platini.

New Chemical Nomenclature.

53

New Ns mis. M Old Names.

t ■

Malate of lead.

Matas plumb i.

Malate of potafli.
Matas potajfa.

Malate of foda.

Matas fodx.

Malate of tungften.
Matas tunfessi.

Malate of zinc.

Matas zinci.

Manganefe.

Magnefium.

Mercury.

Hydrargyrum.

Molybdate.

Molybdas , tis, f. m.

'i

}

Reg at us of manganefe .

f Mercury,
fhiickfilver .

f Salt formed by the union of

Jthe molybdic acid with different
bafes. -

This genus of falts had no
oiame in the old Nomenclature.

Molybdate of alumina,

Molybdas aluminofus.

Molybdate of ammoniac,
Molybdas ammojsiacalis.
Molybdate of antimony.

Molybdas fibii.

Molybdate of filver.

Molybdas argents.

Molybdate of arfenic.

Molybdas arfenicalis .

Molybdate of barytes,

Molybdas baryticus.

Molybdate of bifmuth,

Molybdas bifmuthi.

Molybdate of lime.

Molybdas calcaneus.

Molybdate of cobalt.

Molybdas cobalts.

Molybdate of copper.

Molybdas cuprs.

3d 3

54

Did ionary for the

Near Name s. M Old Name^.

Molybdate of tin.

Molybdas Jlantsi.

Molybdate of iron.
Molybdas ferri.

Molybdate of magnefia.
Molybdas magneftce.

Molybdate of manganefe.
Molybdas magnefii.

Molybdate of mercury.
Molybdas hydrargyri.

Molybdate of nickel.
Molybdas niccoli.

Molybdate of gpld.
Molybdas auri.

Molybdate of platina.

Molybdas platini.

Molybdate of lead.

Molybdas plumbs.

Molybdate of potafti.
Molybdas potajfse.

Molybdate of foda.
Mojybdas fodee.

Molybdate of tungften.
Molybdas tunjleni.

Molybdate of zinc.
Molybdas zlnct.

Molybdena.

Mucus.

Muriate.

Murias , its . f m.

Muriate of alumina.
Murias aluminofus .

Muriate of ammoniac.
Murias ammoniacalis .

Muriate of antimony.
Murias Jlibii .

I

\

Regains of rr.jlj bdeua.

Mucilage.

(Salt formed by the union of the
muriatic acid with different bafes.
f Marine alum.

\ Argillaceous marine fait .
f Sal ammoniac.

\ Salmiac.

s Muriate of antimony.

New Chemical Nomenclature.

55

NztV Njmes.

M

Old Names.

Muriate of lime.
Murias calcareus.

Muriate, fuming, of antimony. 1 RMa. ofanli,„

Murias J/tbu Jumans. J

Muriate of filver. ( Corneous fiver.

Murias ar genii. Corneous tuna,

Muriate of arfenic.

Murias arfenicalis.

Muriate, fublimated, of arfenic. 1 „ of arfenic.

Murias arfenicalis fublimatus. J * J

Muriate of barytes. ) Barotic marine jaUf

Murias baryticus. J J

Muriate of bifmuth. ) ■ , r>-r ,i

i * r Muriate of bihnuib.

Murias bijmuthi. J

Muriate, fublimated, of bif-"}

muth. > Butter of bifmuth.

Murias bifmuihi fublimatus. J

r Mother water of marine fait.

-j Calcareous marine fait.

[Fixed fal ammoniac.

Muriate of cobalt. j Ink 0ffympathy.

Murias cobalti. j J J

Munate of copper. } Afur.'nre o/-

Murias cupn. J air

Muriate, fublimated ammo-')

niacal, of copper. Cupreous ammoniacal fowers.

Murias cupn ammonia- j 1

calis fublimatus. J

Muriate of tin.

Murias fantii.

Muriate, concrete, of tin
Murias fantii concretus.

Muriate, fuming, of tin.

fliurias fanni J'umans.

Muriate, fublimated, of tin. 1 D .. - .

Murias fanni fublimatus. J U e* °f Lin‘

Muriate of iron. "1 Muriate of iron.

Murias ferri. j Marine fait of iron .

3 D 4

Salt of Jupiter.

f Solid butter of tin of M. Bautne.
Corneous tin.

J- Fuming liquor of Libavius.

$6 Di ft ionary for the

Nsir Names. M Old Names.

Muriate, fublimated ammo-~)

niZf}’ ’r°n‘ . . Martial ammoniacal flowers.

JVLurias Jem ammonia- |

calls fublimatus.

Muriate of magnefia.
Murias magnefuz.

Muriate of manganefe.
Murias magnefli.

J

") Marine fait with a bafe of mag-
J nefia.

^ Muriate of manganefe.

Muriate, corrofive, of mercury.") n r r ...

. r 1 \ Corrohve ublimate.

JVLurias hydrargyri corrojivus. J J J

Muriate, fweet, of mercury. ) c . r ,

,/r ’ ■ j !■ J Y oweet ublimate.

JVLurias hydrargyri dulcis. J J

Muriate, fweet fublimated,")

of mercury. • f Aquila alba .

Murvcis hydrargyri fublimatus . J

Muriate of mercury and am-~]

moniac. 1 c ; i i

JVLurias hydrargyri et am - j
moniacalis. J

Muriate of mercury by pre-| &/( o/- -

,(Jn' . . . t White precipitated muriate.

JVLurias hydrargyri pracipitatus- J r r ■

Muriate of molybdena.

Murias molybdeni.

Muriate of nickel.

Murias niccoli.

Muriate of gold.
Murias auri.

Muriate of platina.
Murias platini.

Muriate of lead.
Murias plu'mbi.

Muriate of potalh.
Murias potaffee.

Muriate of foda.
Murias foda.

$ Muriate of gold.
Regaline fait of gold.

f Muriate of platina.
\Regaline fait of platina.

f Corneous lead.

\ Muriate of lead.

j- Febrifuge fait of Sylvius.

J Marine fait.

Nezv Chemical Nomenclature.

57

New Names.

M Old Names.

Muriate, foflil, of foda.
Murias foda fofftlis.

Muriate of tungften.
Murias tunfeni.

}

Sal gem.

Muriate of zinc.

Murias zinci.

Muriate, fublimared, of zinc.
Murias zinci fublimatus.

C Marine fait of zinc.
Muriate of zinc.

^ Butter of zinc.

Muriates, oxigenated.

i

1

f New combinations of the
! oxigenated muriatic acid with
j potafh and foda, difcovered by
t-M. Berthollet.

Muriate, oxigenated, of potafli.
Murias oxigenatus pot off a.

Muriate, oxigenated, of foda.
Murias oxigenatus fodce.

N

Nitrate.

Niiras, tis. f. m.

Nitrate of alumina.

Nit r as aluminofus.

Nitrate of ammoniac.
Nitras ammoniacalis ,

Nitrate of antimony.
Nitras Jlibii.

Nitrate of fiver.

Nitras argenti.

Nitrate, melted, of filver.
Nitras argenti fufus.

Nitrate of arfenic.

Nitras arfenicalis.

{Salts formed by the combin-
ation of the nitric acid with
different bafes.

f Nitrous alum.

\Argillaceous nitre.

f Ammoniacal nitrous fait.
\Ammoniacal nitre.

{

Lunar nitre.

Nitre of filver.
Cryjlals of the moom

5 8 Dictionary for the

\

Nzir Names . N Old Names.

f Nitre of ponderous earth.
\ Bar otic nitre.

Nitre of bifmuth.

f Calcareous nitre.

X Mother "water of nitre.

}

}

Nitre of cobalt.
Nitre of copper.

Nitrate of barytes.

Nit r as b ary tints.

Nitrate of bifmuth.

Nitras bifmuthi.

Nitrate of lime.

Nitras calcareus.

Nitrate of cobalt.

Nitras cobalti.

Nitrate of copper.

Nitras cupri.

Nitrate of tin.

Nitras fanni.

Nitrate of iron.

Nitras ferri.

Nitrate of magnefia.

Nitras magnefuz.

Nitrate of manganefe.

Nitras magnefii.

Nitrate of mercury.

Nitres hydrargyri.

Nitrate of mercury in a ftate'j

of folution. > Mercurial water.

Nitras hydrargyri folutus.j

Nitrate of molybdena.

Nitras molybdeni.

Nitrate of nickel.

Nitras niccoli.

Nitrate of gold.

Nitras auri. ,

Nitrate of platina.

Nitras platini.

Nitrate of lead.

Nitras plumbi.

Nitrate of potafh, or nitre. f Nitre.

Nitras potajfkj vel niirutn. \Saltpetre.

f Nitre of tin.
\Stanno-nitrous fait.

{Nitre of iron.
Martial nitre.

{Nitre of magnefia.
Magnefian nitre.

Nitre of manganefe.

f Mercurial nitre.

\ Nitre of mercury.

Nitre of nickel.

f Nitre of lead.
\Saturnine nitre.

New Chemical Nomenclature .

5?

Nesr Names.

Nitrate of foda.
Nitras foche.

Nitrate of tungften.
Nitras tunjleni.

Nitrate of zinc.
Nitras zinci.

Nitrite.

Nitris , tis.f m.

Nitrite of alumina.
Nitris alinninofus.

Nitrite of ammoniac.
Nitris arssnsoniacalis.

Nitrite of antimony.
Nitris Jiibii.

Nitrite of filver.
Nitris argent's.

Nitrite of arfenic.
Nitris arfenicalis.

Nitrite of barytes.
Nitris baryticus.

Nitrite of bifmuth.
Nitris bifmuthi.

\

Nitrite of lime.

Nitris calcar e us.

Nitrite of cobalt.
Nitris cobalts.

Nitrite of copper,
Nitris cupri.

Nitrite of tin.

Nitris Jlanni.

N

Oi.d Names.

f Cubic nitre .

\ Rbotnboidal nitre .

^j- Nitre of zinc.

' Salt formed by the combina-
tion. of the nitrous * acid with
different bafes.

<! This genus of falts had no
name in the old Nomenclature,
being unknown before the late
v_difcoveries.

i

* That is, with Jjpirit of nitre containing lefs oxigenc than nitric acid, which,
forms nitrates.

6o

Dictionary for the

Nest Names. N Old Names.

Nitrite of iron. r
Nitris ferri.

Nitrite of magnefia.

Nitris magnefue.

Nitrite of manganefe.

Nitris mdgnefii.

Nitrite of mercury.

Nitris bydrargyri.

Nitrite of molybdena.

' Nitris molybdeni.

Nitrite of nickel.

Nitris niccoli.

Nitrite of gold.

Nitris auri.

Nitrite of platina.

Nitris platini.

Nitrite of lead.

Nitris plumb i.

Nitrite of potafh.

Nitris potajftz.

Nitrite of foda.

, Nitris foda:.

Nitrite of tungften.

Nitris tunjleni .

Nitrite of zinc.

Nitris zinci.

o

Oils, empyreumatic.
Olea empyreumatic a.

\

Oils, fixed.

Olea fixa.

Oils, volatile.

Olea volatilia.

Empyrem

eumatic oils.

{Fat oils.

Sweet oils.

Oils obtained by exprejfion .

f EJfential oils.

\ Ejfences.

New Chemical Nomenclature.

New Names.

Oxalate.

Ox alas , tis. f. m.

6t

N

Old Names.

Salt formed by the combin-
atian of the oxalic acid with
\ different bafes.
j Scarce any of the falts of this
genus had a name in the old
(^Nomenclature.

Oxalate, acidulous, of ammoniac.
Oxalas acidulus ammoniacalis.

Oxalate, acidulous, of potalh. ) „ r r 1 r

„ ’ ... * £ Y Salt of for r el of commerce.

Oxalas acidulus potafja. J J J J

Oxalate, acidulous, of foda.

Oxalas acidulus foda .

Oxalate of alumina.

Oxalas aluminofus.

Oxalate of ammoniac.

Oxalas ammoniacalis.

Oxalate of antimony.

Oxalas flibii.

Oxalate of filver.

Oxalas argenti.

Oxalate of arfenic.

Oxalas arfenicalis.

Oxalate of barytes.

Oxalas baryticus.

Oxalate of bifmuth.

Oxalas bifmuthi.

Oxalate of lime.

Oxalas c a lea reus.

Oxalate of cobalt.

Oxalas cobalti.

Oxalate of copper.
Oxalas cupri.

Oxalate of tin.

Oxalas Jlanni.

Oxalate of iron.
Oxalas ferri.

Oxalate of magnefia.
Qxalas magnefue.

Dictionary for the

Nsrr NjMZi.

O Otu Names’.

Oxalate of manganefe.
Ox alas magnefsi.

Oxalate of mercury.
Oxalas hyclrargyri.

Oxalate of molybdena.
Oxalas molybdeni.

Oxalate of nickel.
Oxalas niccoli .

Oxalate of gold.

Oxalas auri.

Oxalate of platina.
Oxalas platins.

Oxalate of lead.

Oxalas plumbs .

Oxalate of potafh.
Oxalas potajfer.

Oxalate of foda.

Oxalas foda.

Oxalate of tungften.
Oxalas tunjleni.

Oxalate of zinc.'

Oxalas zinc's.

Oxide, arfenical, of potafh.
Oxidum arfenicale pot a fa.

Oxide, white, of arfenic.
Oxidum arfenici album.

Oxide of antimony, by the mu-
riatic AND NITRIC ACIDS.
Oxidism Jlibii acidis misria-
tico et nitrico confection.

Oxide of antimony, white, by
nitre.

Oxidum Jlibii album nitro
confedlum.

Oxide, white fublimated, of an-
timony.

Oxidum Jlibii album fublima-
tum .

Lives’ of arfenic v

f White arfenic.
\Lime of arfenic.

* Mineral bezoar.

} Diaphoretic antimony.
Cerufe of antimony.
Materia perlata of Kerb-

Snow of antimony.

> Flowers of antimony.
Silver flowers of regulus
timotsy.

ingius.

of ana

New Chemical Nomenclature.

Nr ir A Tamss. O Old Names.

Oxide of antimony, by the mu-1
riatic acid. I

' J

Oxidutn fibii acido muriatico f ^>0WL^e> °f -Algaroth.

confeBum.

i

Oxide, fulphurated, of anti-"]

mony. ?■ Liver of antimony.

Oxidutn fibii fulphuratum. J

Oxide, fulphurated femi-vitre-"]

ous, of antimony. I p /r r . 1

Oxidum f ibii fulphuratum j affron °f me n s-
femi-vitreum. J

Oxide, orange - coloured ful--|

phurated, of antimony. | , r ul r

r ,) j nL ■•rut j > Glided luiphur of anttmonv.

Oxidum Jtibu Julphuratum j J 1 J J

uurantiacum. J

Oxide, red fulphurated, of an-'
timony.

Oxidutn fibii fulphuratum
rubrum.

Oxide, vitreous fulphurated, of
antimony.

Oxidum fibii fulphuratum
vitreum.

Oxide, brown vitreous fulphur-'
ated, of antimony.

Oxidum fibii fulphuratum
vitreum fufcum.

Oxide, white fublimated, of ar-'
fenic.

Oxidum arfenici album fubli-
matum.

Oxide, yellow fulphurated, of
arfenic.

Oxidum arfenici fulphuratum
luteum.

Oxide, red fulphurated, of ar-‘
fenic.

Oxidum arfenici fulphuratum
rubrum.

Kermes mineral.

Glafs of antimony.

Rubint of antimony.

Flowers of arfenic ,

Orpiment.

Red arfenic.

Realgar , or realgal.

/

i

m

64

Dictionary for the

Nsrr Names.

O

Old Names.

Oxide, white, of bifmuth, by-

the nitric acid.

Oxidum bifmuthi album acido
nitrico confeBum.

Magiflery of bifmuth.
* White paint.

Oxidum bifmuthi fublimatum. J Flowers of bifmuthi

Oxide, grey, of cobalt with fi-'
lex,- or zafFre.

Oxidum cobalti cinerHim cum
ftlice.

Oxide, vitreous, of cobalt.

Oxidum cobalti vitreum.

Zaff,

■re.

Oxide, green, of copper.
Oxidum cupri viride.

Oxide, grey, of tin.

Oxidum fanni cinereitm.

Oxide, fublimated, of tin.
Oxidum fanni fublimatum.

Oxides of iron.

Oxida ferri.

Oxide, brown, of iron.

Oxidum ferri fufcum.

Oxide, yellow, of iron.

Oxidum ferri luteum.

Oxide, black, of iron.

Oxidum ferri nigrum.

Oxide, red, of iron.

Oxidum ferri rubrum.

Oxide, white, of manganefe.
Oxidum magnefi album.

Oxide, black, of manganefe.
Oxidmn magnefi nigrum.

Oxide, yellow, of mercury, by
the nitric acid.

Oxidum hydrargyri luteum
Qcido nitrico confeBum.

{Azure.

Smalt.

f Verdigrfe.

\ Ruf of copper.

J- Putty of tin.

^ Flowers of tin.

Saffrons of Mars.

^ Afringent faffron of Mars.
Ochre.

J- Martial Ethiops.

J- Colcothar.

J- White calx of manganefe.

{Black magnefa.

Glafs-maker s foap.

Stone of Perigueux.

Nitrous turbith.

t

New Chemical Nomenclature.

New Names.

O Old Names

Mineral turbith.
Yellow precipitates,

Oxide, yellow, of mercury by
the fulphuric acid.

Oxidum hydrargyri luteurn
acido fulphurico cotfeclum.-

Oxide, blackifh, of mercury. ] . r

n j la • • ; >- Ethtops per fe.

< Jxidum hydrargyri nigrum. J r r

Oxide, red, of mercury by the")

nitric acid. I v , . .

r, j L j • i r Eed precipitate.

Uxidum hydrargyri rubrum J r

acido nitrico conjeBum. J

Oxide, red, of mercury by fire.')

Oxidum hydrargyri rubrumper k Precipitate per fe.
ignern. J

Oxide, black fulphiirated, of-

Mineral ethiops.-

mercury.

Oxidum hydrargyri fulphu-
ratum nigrum.

Oxide, red fulphurated, of mer

CUJ7* . . ■ ri 7 Cinnabar.

Oxidum hydrargyri Julpbu-

ratum rubrum.

Oxide, an.moni.cal, of gold. 1 Fu,mi„ating gM.
Oxidum auri ammoniacale. J °

Oxide of gold by tin. ") Precipitate of gold by

Oxidum auri per Jlannum. J Purple of CaJJius.

Oxides of lead. 1 T ■ r i a

Oxida plurnbi. J J

Oxide, white, of lead by the a-^)

cetous acid. Whit, of lead,

Oxidum plurnbi album per a-
cidum acetofum. f

Oxide, femi-v:treous, of lead,")

or litharge. I Litharge.

Oxidum plurnbi femi-vitreum.j

Ox.de yellow oflead, _ \ MaJfcaU '

Uxidum plurnbi luteurn. J ^

Oxide, fed, of lead, or minium. } Miniums

Oxidum plurnbi rubrum.
Vol. III.

3 B

56

Difhonary for the

New Names. O

Old Names.

Oxide, fublimated, of zinc.
Oxidum zi/ici fublhnatum.

Oxides, metallic.

Oxida metallica.

Oxides, metallic fublimated.
Oxida metallica fublimata.

Oxygene.

Oxygeniunu,

f Philofophic wool.

J Philofophic cotton.

| Flowers of zinc.

L Pomp holy x.

Metallic calces.

^ Metallic fiowers.

r Oxygene.
j Bafe of vital air.

Acidifying principle.
j Empyreal air.
\JPrincipium forbile.

i

Phofphatc.

Phofphas, tis. f. tit.

Phofpbate of alumina.
Phofphas aluminofus .

Phofphate of ammoniac.
Phofphas ammoniacalis.

Phofphate of antimony.
Phofphas fibii.

Phofphate of fdver.
Phofphas argenti.

Phofphate of arfenic.
Phofphas arfenicalis.

Phofphate of barytes.
Phofphas baryticus,

Phofphate of bifmuth.
Phofphas bfmuthi.

Phofphate, calcareous, or
lime.

Phofphas calcareus.

P

f Salt formed by the union of
-I the phofphoric acid with dif-
{.ferent bafes.

Phofphoric ammoniac.
Ammoniacal phofphate.

\

■

Earth of bones.
Calcareous phofphate.
Animal earth.

New Chemical Nomenclature.

Neif Names.

Old Names.

Phofphate of cobalt.

P hofp has cobalt /.

Phofphate of copper.

Phofphas cupri.

Phofphate of tin.

Phofpkas Jlanni.

Phofphate of iron.

Phofphas ferri.

Phofphate of magnefia.

Phofphas magnefia.

Phofphate of manganefe.
Phofphas magtiefti.

Phofphate of mercury.

Phofphas hydrargyri.

Phofphate of molybdena.
Phofphas molybdetii.

Phofphate of nickel.

Phofphas tiiccoli.

Phofphate of gold.

Phofphas auri.

Phofphate of platina;

Phofphas platini.

Phofphate of lead.

Phofphas plumbi.

Phofphate of potafh.

Phofphas potaffa. .

Phofphate of foda.'

Phofphas foda.

Phofphate of foda and ammo-
niac.

Phofphas foda et ammonia-
calls.

Phbfphate, fuperfaturated, of
foda.

P hofphus fuperfaturatus fod>

' Syderite.

Iron of water.

Ore of iron from marfoes.

Phofphate of magnefia.

^ Rofe precipitate of l emery.

Native fait of urine .
Fufble falts oj urine.

on

Sal admirabile perlatum.

68

Dictionary for the

New Names.

P Old Names.

Phofphate of tung-ften.

Phofphas tunjieni .
Phofphate of zinc.
Phofphas zitici.

/

Phofphite. 1

Pbofphis, ids. f. m.

■ Salt formed by the union of
the phofphorous acid with dif-
ferent bafes.

Phofphite of alumina.
Pkofpbis aluminofus.

Phofphite of ammoniac.
Pbofphis ammoniac alls.

Phofphite of antimony.
Pbofphis ftibii.

Phofphite of Giver.
Pbofphis argenti.

Phofphite of arfenic.
Pbofphis arfenicalis.

Phofphite of barytes.
Pbofphis baryticus.

Phofphite of bifmuth.
Pbofphis bifnutbi.

Phofphite of lime.
Pbofphis calcareus.

Phofphite of cobalt.
Pbofphis cobalti.

Phofphite of copper.
Pbofphis cupri.

Phofphite of tin.

Pbofphis Jlanni.

Phofphite of iron.
Pbofphis ferri.

Phofphite of magnefia.
Pbofphis magnefus.

Phofphite of manganefe-
Pbofphis magnefii.

1 -

Phofphite of mercury.
Pbofphis hydrargyri.

New Chemical Nomenclature.

69

Ns.iv Names.

{ Phofphite of molybdena.
Phofphis tnolybdeni.

II Phofphite of nickel.
Phofphis niccoli.

Phofphite of gold.
Phofphis auri.

Phofphite of platina.
Phofphis plat ini.

Phofphite of lead.

Phofphis plumbi.

Phofphite of potafh.
Phofphis potajfa.

Phofphite of foda.
Phofphis foda.

Phofphite of tungften.
Phofphis tunjleni.

Phofphite of zinc.
Phofphis zinci.

Phofphorus.

Phofphorum.

Phofphure.

Phofphoretnm.

Phofphure of copper,
Phofphoretum cupri.

Phofphure of iron.
Phofphoretum Jerri.

Pyro-lignite.

Pyro-lignis , tis. f m.

Pyro-lignite of alumina.
Pyro-lignis aluminofus.

Pyro-lignite of ammoniac,
Pyro-lignis ammoniaealis.

P Old Nam fs.

J- Phofphorus cf Kunclcl.

C Combination of non-oxigenated
\ phofphorus with different bales.

f Syderum cf Bergman.

-s Syderotete of At. de Alorveau.

(. Regains of fy derite.

f Salt formed by the union of
I the pyro-ligneous acid with dif-
ferent bafes.

Thefe falts had no name in
Lthe old Nomenclature.

3E 3

70

Diflionary for the

New Names. P

Pyro-lignite of antimony.
Pyro-lignis JUb'ti.

Pyro-lignite of filver.

Pyro-lignis argenti.

Pyro-lignite of arfenic.
Pyro-lignis arfenicalis.

Pyro-lignite of barytes.
Pyro-lignis b ary tic us.

Pyro-lignite of bifmuth.
Pyro-lignis bifmuthi.

Pyro-lignite of lime.

Pyro-lignis calcaneus.

pyro-lignite of cobalt.
Pyro-lignis cobalti.

Pyro-lignite of copper.
Pyro-lignis cupri.

Pyro-lignite of tin.

Pyro-lignis Jlannt

Pyro-lignite of iron.

Pyro-lignis ferri.

Pyro-lignite of magnefia^
Pyro-lignis magnejia.

Pyro-lignite of manganefe.
Pyro-lignis magnefii.

Pyro-lignite of mercury.
Pyro-lignis hydrargyri.

Pyro-lignite of molybdena.
Pyro-lignis molybdeni.

Pyro-lignite of nickel.

Pyro.-lignis niccoli.

Pyro-lignite of gold.

Pyro-lignis auri.

Pyro-lignite of platina.
Pyro-lignis platini .

Pyro-lignite of lead.

Pyro-lignis plumbi.

Pyro-lignite of potafh.
Pyro-lignis potajfa.

Old Names.

%

New Chemical Nomenclature.

7 1

Nov Names. P

Old Names.

‘Pyro-lignite of foda.
Pyro-lignis fodct.

Pyro-lignite of tungften.
Pyro-lignis tunjieni.

Pyro-lignite of zinc.
Pyro-lignis zinci.

Pyro-mucites.

Pyro-mucis , tis, f. m.

Pyro-mucite of alumina.
Pyro-mucis aluminofas.

Pyro-mucite of ammoniac.
Pyro-mucis ammoniacalis.

Pyro-mucite of antimony.
Pyro-mucis Jlibii.

Pyro-mucite of filver.
Pyro-mucis argent's.

Pyro-mucite of arfenic.
Pyro-mucis arfenicalis.

Pyro-mucite of barytes.
Pyro-mucis baryticus.

Pyro-mucite of bifmuth.
Pyro mucis bifmutbi.

Pyro-mucite of lime.
Pyro-mucis calcareus .

Pyro-mucite of cobalt.
Pyro-mucis cobalts.

Pyro-mucite of copper. /
Pyro-mucis cupri.

Pyro-mucite of tin.
Pyro-mucis Jlanni.

Pyro-mucite of iron.
Pyro-mucis ferri .

i

f Salts formed by the union

Jof the pyro-mucous acid with
different bafes.

This fpecies of falts has not
yet obtained a name in the old
^Nomenclature.

3 E 4

Didionary for the

1 2

Nerr Names. P Old Names.

Pyro-mucite of magnelia.
Pyro-mucis magnejia.

Pyro-mucite of manganefe,
Pyro-mucis magnefii.

Pyro-mucite of mercury.
Pyro-mucis hydrargyri .

Pyro-mucite of molybdena.
Pyro-mucis Anolybdcni.

Pyro-mucite of nickel.
Pyro-mucis niccoli.

Pyro-mucite of gold.
Pyro-mucis auri.

Pyro-mucite of platina.
Pyro-mucis platini.

Pyro-mucite of lead.
Pyro-mucis plumbi.

Pyro-mucite of potafh.
Pyro-mucis potaJJ'a.

Pyro-mucite of foda.
Pyro-mucis foda.

Pyro-mucite of tungften,
Pyro-mucis tutifteni.

Pyro-mucite of zinc.
Pyro-mucis zincL

Pyro-tartarites.

Pyro-trataris , tis.f. in.

Pyro-tartarite of alumina,
Pyro-tartaris aluminofis .

Pyro-tartarite of ammoniac.
Pyro-tartaris ammoniacalis .

Pyro-tartarite of antimony.

* Pyro-tartaris Jiibii.

Pyro-tartarite of filvev.
Pyro-tartaris argcnti.

Pyro-tartarite of arfenic.
Pyj-o.- tartaric arfenicalis %

4

{

Salts formed by the urpon
of the ' pyro-tartareous acid
with different bafes.

New Chemical Nomenclature.

Nsir Names. P

Pyro-tartarite of barytes.

Pyro-tartaris baryticus.

Pyro-tartarite of bifmuth.
Pyro-tartaris bifmuthi.

Pyro-tartarite of lime.
Pyro-tartaris calc arcus.

Pyro-tartarite of cobalt.
Pyro-tartaris cobalti.

Pyro-tartarite of copper,
Pyro-tartaris cupri.

Pyro-tartarite of tin.

Pyro-tartaris Jlanni.

Pyro-tartarite of iron.
Pyro-tartaris ferri.

Pyro-tartarite of magnefia,

Pyro-tartaris viagnejia.

Pyro-tartarite of manganefe.
Pyro-tartaris magnefii.

Pyro-tartarite of mercury.
Pyro-tartaris bydrargyri.

Pyro-tartarite of molybdena,
Pyro-tartaris molybdeni.

Pyro-tartarite of nickel.

Pyro tartaris niccoli .

Pyro-tartarite of gold.
Pyro-tartaris auri.

Pyro-tartarite of platina.
Pyro-tartaris platini.

Pyro-tartarite of lead.
Pyro-tartaris plumbi.

Pyro-tartarite of potafh.
Pyro-tartaris potajfie.

Pyro-tartarite of foda.
Pyro-tartaris foda:.

Pyro-tartarite of tungften,
Pyro-tartaris tunfieni.

Pyro-tartarite of zinc.
Pyro-tartaris zincs ,

Old Names

V

74 Dictionary for the

New Names .

P Old Names.

Platina.

Platinum.

r Juan blanca.
Platina.

\_Platina del pinto. ,

Potafh. "]

PotaJJa, a. J

■ Vegetable caujic fixed alkali.

Potafh, melted. ]

PotaJJa JuJa. J

• Lapis caufiicus.

Potafh, filiceous fluid. '

PotaJJa ftlicea fiuida.

■ Liquor ofifiints.

Prufhate.

P rift as, tis. f. m.

" Salts formed by the union of
the Prufhc acid, or colouring
matter of Pruflian blue, with
different bafes.

This genus of falts had no
jiame in the old Nomenclature,

Prufhate of alumina.
PruJJias aluminofus.

Prufhate of ammoniac.

PruJJias ammoniac alls t

Prufhate of antimony.
PruJJias fiibii.

Prufhate of hlver.
PruJJias ar genii.

Prufhate of arfenic.
PruJJias arjenicalis .

Prufhate of barytes.
PruJJias baryticus.

Prufhate of bifmuth.
PruJJias bijmuthi.

\

Prufhate of lime.
PruJJias calcareus.

Prufhate of cobalt.
PruJJias cobalti.

Prufhate of copper.
PruJJias cupri.

Prufhate of tin.
PruJJias fanni.

f Calcareous prujjate.
\PruJJian lime-water.

.

New Chemical Nomenclature .

75

New Names.

Old Nams,s.

'Prufliate of iron.

Prujfas Jerri.

Prufliate of magnefia.

Prujfias magnefia.

Prufliate of manganefe,

Prujfias magnefti.

Prufliate of mercury.

Prujfias hydrargyri.

Prufliate of molybdena,

Prujfias molybdeni.

Prufliate of nickel.

Prujfias tiiccoli.

Prufliate of gold.

Prujfias auri.

Prufliate of platina.

Prujfias platini.

Prufliate of lead.

Prujfias plumbi.

Prufliate of potafli.

Prujfias pctajfe.

Prufliate, ferruginous faturated,
of potafh.

Prujfias potajfa JerrugincJus
Jaturatus.

Prufliate, ferruginous, not fa-
turated, of potafh.

Prujfias potajfa Jerruginofus
non Jaturatus.

Prufliate of foda.

Prujfias foda.

Pyrophorus of Homberg.
Pyrophorum Hombergii.

{Prujftan blue.
Berlin blue.

') Liquor faturated with the co«
J louring part of Prujftan blue .

Prujftan alkali .

Phlogijicated alkali.

I

Pyrophorus of Homberg.

R

Refins.

Refna.

Ref ns.

t

Dictionary for the

76

New Names.

Old Names.

S

Saccho-late.

Saccholas, /is. f. m.

Saccho-late of alumina.
Saccholas aluminofus.

Saccho-late of ammoniac,
Saccholas ammoniacalis .

Saccho-late of antimony,
Saccholas Jiihii.

Saccho-late of filver.
Saccholas argenti.

Saccho-late of arfenic.
Saccholas arfenicalis.

Saccho-late of barytes.
Saccholas baryticus.

Saccho-late of bifmuth.
Saccholas biftnuthi.

Saccho-late of lime.
Saccholas calcaretis.

Saccho-late of cobalt.
Saccholas cob a It i.

Saccho-late of copper,
Saccholas cupri.

Saccho-late of tin.
Saccholas Jlanni.

Saccho-late of iron.
Saccholas ferri.

Saccho-late of magnefia.
Saccolas magnefia:.

Saccho-late of manganefe.
Saccholas magnefii.

Saccho-late of mercury.
Saccholas hydrargyri.

" Salts formed by the union of
the faccho-la£Hc acid with dif-

Tferent bafes.

This fpecies of falts has no
name in the old Nomenclature,

New Chemical Nomenclature.

77

Nt.tr Names.

Saccho-late of molybdena.
Saccholas molybdent.

Saccho-late of nickel.
Saccholas niccoli.

Saccho-late of gold.
Saccholas auri.

Saccho-late of platina.
Saccholas platini.

Saccho-late of lead.
Saccholas plumb 's.

Saccho-late of' potalh.
Saccholas potaffee.

Saccho-late of foda.
Saccholas fodee.

Saccho-late of tungften.

I Saccholas tunftetii.

Saccho-late of zinc.
Saccholas zinci.

Saponulae.

Saponuli.

Saponuke, acid.

Saponuli acidi.

Saponula of alumina.

Saponulus aluminofus.
Saponula, ammoniacal.
Saponulus ammoniacalis.

Saponula of barytes.
Saponulus baryta.

Saponula of lime.

Saponulus calcarcus.

Saponula of potafli.
Saponulus potaffa.

Saponulse of foda.

Saponuli fodee.

Saponulse, metallic.
Saponuli metallici.

S Old Names.

f Combinations of volatile or ef-
(_fential oils with different bafes.

f Combinations of volatile or ef-
(_fential oils with different acids.

f Soap compofed of volatile oil,
^combined with the bafe of alum.

{Soap compofed of volatile oil,
combined with ammoniac.

{Soap compofed of volatile oil,
combined with barytes.

{Soap compofed of volatile oil,
combined with lime.

{

{

!

Soap compofed of volatile oil,
combined with potafli, or foap
of Starkey.

Soaps compofed of volatile oils,
combined with fixed mineral al-
kali, or foda.

Soaps compofed of volatile oils,
united to metallic fubftances.

Dictionary for the

Ar

s

S Old Names.

f Salts formed by the union of
j the acid of greafe, or the febacic
<J acid, with different bafes.
j Thefe falts have no name in
Lthe ancient Nomenclature.

Sebate of barytes.

Sebas baryticus.

Sebate of bifmuth.

Sebas bifmuthi.

Sebate of lime.

Sebas calcareus .

Sebate of cobalt.

Sebas cobalti.

Sebate of copper.

Sebas cupri.

Sebate of tin.

Sebas Jianni.

Sebate of iron.

Sebas ferri. *

Sebate of magnefia.

Sebas magnefsx.

Sebate of manganefc.

Sebas magnefi.

Sebate of mercury.

Sebas hydrargyr't.

Sebate of molybdena.

Sebas molybdeni .

New Names.

Sebate.

Sebas, tis. f. m.

Sebate of alumina.
Sebas aluminofus.

Sebate of ammoniac.
Sebas ammoniacalis.

Sebate of antimony.
Sebas Jlibii.

Sebate of filver.

Sebas argents.

Sebate of arfenic.
Sebas arfenicalis.

New Chemical Nomenclature.

Neat Names. S Old Names.

Sebate of nickel.
Sebas niccoli.

Sebate of gold.
Sebas auri.

Sebate of platina.
Sebas platini.

Sebate of lead.
Sebas plumbs.

Sebate of potafh.
Sebas potajpe.

Sebate of foda.
Sebas fodee.

Sebate of tungften.
Sebas tutsjleni.

Sebate of zinc.
Sebas zincs.

Semi-metals.

Silices, or filiceous earth.
Silica , terra Jslicea.

Silver.

Argentum.

Soaps.

Sapones.

Soaps, acid.

Sapones acidi.

Soap of alumina.

Sapo aluminofus.

Soap, ammoniacal.

Sapo atnmoniacalis.

Soap of barytes.

Sapo barytictss.

Soap of lime.

Sapo calcareus.

Soap of magnefia.

Sapo magnefia.

Semi-metals.

{fhiartzofe earth.

Siliceous earth.

Verifiable earth.

{Diana.

Luna.

Silver.

{Combinations of fat or fixed
oils with different bafes.

f Combinations of fat or fixed
oils with different acids.

(Soap compofed of fixed oil,
combined with alumina.

f Soap compofed of fixed oil,
(^combined with volatile alkali.

f Soap compofed of fixed oil,
^combined with barytes.

{Soap compofed of fixed oil,
combined with lime.

{Soap compofed of fixed oil,
combined with magnefia.

So

Dictionary for the

New Names.

S Old Names.

Soap of potafh.
Sapo potaffe.

Soap of foda.

Sapo foda.

Soaps, metallic.
Sapones metallic i.

Soda.

Soda.

f Soap compofed of fixed oil, com-
(^bined with fixed vegetable alkali.

f Soap compofed of fixedoil,com-
"^bined with fixed mineral alkali.

f Combinations of fat or fixed
\oils with metallic l'ubftances.

C Caujlic foda.

< Marine alkali.

{^Mineral alkali.

Starch.

Atnylum.

Starch.

Steel.

Chalybs.

^ Steel.

Succinate.

Succinas , tis. f. m.

Succinate of alumina.
Succinas aluminofus.

Succinate of ammoniac.
Succinas ammoniac alis .

r Salts formed by the combin-
-< ation of the fuccinic acid, with
(.different bafes.

Succinate of antimony.
Succinas Jlibii.

Succinate of arfenic.
Succinas arfenicalis.

Succinate of barytes.
Succinas baryticus.

Succinate of bifmuth.
Succinas bifmutbi.

Succinate of lime.
Succinas calcareus.

Succinate of cobalt.
Succinas cobalti.

Succinate of copper.
Succinas cupri.

Succinate of tin.
Succinas Jlanni.

Succinate of iron,
Succinas ferri .

New Chemical Nomenclature.

81

Ns.sv Namis.

Succinate of magnefia.

Succinas magnefue.

Succinate of manganefe.
' Succinas magnefsi.

Succinate of mercury.

Succinas hydrargyri.

Succinate of molybdena.

Succinas molybdeni.

Succinate of nickel.

Succinas niccoli.

Succinate of gold.

Succinas auri.

Succinate of platina.

Succinas piatifK,

Succinate of lead.
Succinas plumbi .

Succinate of potafh.

Succinas potajfcc.

Succinate of foda.

Succinas fodce.

Succinate of tungften.

Succinas tunjieni.

Succinate of zinc.

Succinas zinci.

Succinum, or amber.

Succinum.

Sugar.

Saccharum.

Sugar, cryftallifed.

Saccharum cryfallifatum.

Sugar of milk.

Saccharum laCiis.

VOL. III.

S Old Names.

r Karabeum.

< Yellow amber.
Amber.

Sugar.

Sugar candy.

f Sugar of milk,
of milk.

3 ?

Dictionary for the

Nfrr irJUih

S Old Names.

Sulphates.

Sulphas , tis.f. in.

Sulphate of alumina.
Sulphas alutnimfus .

Sulphate, ammoniaeal.
Sulphas ammoniacaliSi

Sulphate of antimony.
Sulphas fibii.

Sulphate of filver.
Sulphas argenti.

Sulphate cf arfenic.
Sulphas arfenicalis.

Sulphate of barytes.
Sulphas baryticus.

Sulphate of bifmuth.
Sulphas bifmuthi.

Sulphate of lime.
Sulphas calcareus .

Sulphate of cobalt.
Sulphas cobalt i.

Sulphate of copper.
Sulphas cupri.

Sulphate of tin.

Sulphas Jlanni.

Sulphate of iron.
Sulphas ferri.

{Salts formed by the com-
bination of the fulphuric acid
with different bafes.

T Alum.

X Argillaceous vitriol.

f Ammoniaeal vitriolic fait.

\ Ammoniaeal fait ( a fecret of
1 Glauber’s).

V Ammoniaeal vitriol.

Vitriol of antimony.

f Vitriol of filver.

\ Vitriol of Luna.

}

Vitriol of arfenic.

C Ponderous fpar.

\Barotic vitriol.

^j- Vitriol of bifmuth.

} Vitriol of lime.

Calcareous vitriol.

Selenite.

Gypfum.

J- Vitriol of cobalt.

r Vitriol of Cyprus.

J Blue vitriol. '

1 Vitriol of copper , or of Venus.
L Blue copperas.

^ Vitriol of tin.

* Martial vitriol.

Green vitriol.

Vitriol of iron.

Green copperas.

New Chemical Nomenclature.

Nur Namzs.

Sulphate of magnefia.
Sulphas magnefia.

Sulphate of manganefe.
Sulphas magnefti.

Sulphate of mercury.
Sulphas bydrargyri.

Sulphate of molybdena.
Sulphas molybdeni.

Sulphate of nickel.
Sulphas niccoli.

Sulphate of gold.
Sulphas auri.

Sulphate of platina.
Sulphas platini.

Sulphate of lead.

Sulphas plumbi.

Sulphate of potalh.
Sulphas potajfa.

Sulphate of foda.
Sulphas foda .

Sulphate of tungften-
Sulphas tunfeni.

Sulphate of zinc.
Sulphas zinci.

Sulphite.

Sulphisy tis.

83

Old Names.

'Magnefan vitriol.
Bitter cathartic fait.
Epfom [alt.

Salt (de canal).

Salt of Seydfchutz.
fait of Sedlitz.

Vitriol of manganefe
Vitriol of mercury „

J Vitriol of lead.

C Vitriol of potafi.

I Sal de duobus.

Vitriolated tartar.
j Arcanum duplicatum.
\_Sal polychref of Glafen

' ) Glauber s fait.
j Vitriol of foda.

J Vitriol of zinc.

White vitriol.
j Goflard’s vitriol.

White copperas.

f Salt formed by the com-
4 bination of the fulphureous
(_acid with different- bafes-

84

Dictionary for the

I

Nsrr Names. S

Sulphite of alumina.
Sul phis alurninofus.

Sulphite of ammoniac.
Sulphis ammoniacalis.

Sulphite of antimony.
Sulphis JUbii.

Sulphite of filver.
Sulphis argent i.

Sulphite of arfenic.
Sulphis arfenicdlis.

Sulphite of barytes.
Sulphis b ary tic us.

Sulphite of bifmuth.
Sulphis bijmuthi.

Sulphite of lime.
Sulphis calcareus.

Sulphite of cobalt.
Sulphis cobalt's.

Sulphite of copper.
Sulphis cupri.

Sulphite of tin.

Sulphis Jlantii.

Sulphite of iron.

Sulphis ferri.

Sulphite of magnelia.
Sulphis magnefce.

Sulphite of manganefe.
Sulphis magncfii.

Sulphite of mercury.
Sulphis hydrargyri.

Sulphite of molybdena.
Sulphis molybdeni.

Sulphite of nickel.
Sulphis niccoli.

Old Names.

New Chemical Nomenclature .

85

Sulphureous fait of Stahl.

Sulphur.

Nest Names. S Old Names.

Sulphite of gold.

Snip his auri.

Sulphite of platina. v
Sulphis platini.

Sulphite of lead.

Sulphis plumbi.

Sulphite of potafli.

Sulphis pot a fa.

Sulphite of foda.

Sulphis foda:.

Sulphite of tungften.

Sulphis tunfeni.

Sulphite of zinc.

Sulphis zinci.

Sulphur.

Sulphur.

Sulphur, fublimated.

Sulphur fublimatum.

Sulphures, alkaline.

Sulphureta alkalitia.

Sulphure of alumina.

Sulphuretum alumina.

Sulphure, ammoniacal.

Sulphuretum ammoniacale ,

Sulphure of antimony.

Sulphuretum Jlibii.

Sulphure, native, of antimony. 7 r

Sulphuretum Jlibii nativum. 1 Or, of anUmonp.

Sulphure of filver.

Sulphuretum argenii.

Sulphure of barytes.

Sulphuretum baryta.

Sulphure of bifmuth.

Sulphuretum bifmuthi.

bur.

Flowers of fulph

") /Ilk aline liver of fulphur.
J Alkaline hepars.

f Fuming liquor of Boyle.

\ Volatile alkaline liver of fulphur.

Antimony .

■}

Blanckmal.

Barotic liver of fulphur.

3 F 3

B6

Dictionary for the

New Names.

S Old Names.

Sulphure, calcareous.
Sulphur etum calcareutn.

Sulphure of cobalt.
Sulphuretum cobalti.

Sulphure of copper.
Sulphuretum cupri.

Sulphure of tin.
Sulphuretum Jlanni.

Sulphure of iron.
Sulphuretum ferri.

Sulphure of fixed oil.
Sulphuretum olei fixi,

Sulphure of volatile oil.
Sulphuretum olei volatilis.

Sulphure of magnefia.
Sulphuretum magnefia .

Sulphure of manganefe.
Sulphuretum magnefi ,

Sulphure of mercury.
Sulphuretum hydrargyri.

Sulphures, metallic.
Sulphur.eta metallica.

Sulphure of molybdena.
Sulphuretum molybdeni.

Sulphure of nickel.
Sulphuretum niccoli.

Sulphure of gold.
Sulphuretum auri.

Sulphure of platina.
Sulphuretum platini.

Sulphure of lead.
Sulphuretum plumb i.

Sulphure of potafh.
Sulphuretum polnffa.

Calcareous liver of fulphur.

J- Pyrites of

copper .

Martial pyrites.

Balfam of fulphur.
Magneftan liver of fulphur .
Li ver of magneftan fulphur..

} Combinations of fulphur •with
metals.

1

Liver of fulphur
vegetable alkali.

with a baft oj

New Chemical Nomenclature.

87

Nmr Names.

Old Names.

Sulphure, antimoniated, of

potafli. I Antimoniated liver of fuiphur.

Sulphuretum potajfee fibiatum . J

Sulphure of foda. 1 Liver of filphur with a bafe of

Sulphuretum foda. J fixed mineral alkali.

Sulphure, antimoniated, of 1

foda.

Sulphuretum foda fibiatum. J

Sulphure of tungften.
Sulphuretum tunfeni.

Sulphure of zinc.

Sulphuretum zinci.

Sulphures, earthy.

Sulphureta terrea.

> Antimoniated liver of fuiphur.

J- Blende , or fdtfe galena.

} Earthy livers of fuiphur.
Earthy hepa'rs.

T

Tartar.

‘ Tartarus .

Tartarite.

Tartaris, tis, f m.

}

Crude tartar.

{Salt formed by the combin-
ation of the tartareous acid with
different bafes.

Tartarite, acidulous, of potafli. C^frtnr'

Tartans acidulus potato. i Cfe^fif tartar.

1 M t. Cryfals of tartar.

Tartarite of alumina.
Tartaris aluminofus .

Tartarite of ammoniac.
Tartaris ammoniacalis.

Tartarite of antimony.
Tartans fiibii.

1 Atnmoniacal tartar.

J Tartareous ammoniacal fait.

3 F 4

88

Dictionary for the

Nett Names,

T Old Names.

Tartarite of filver.
Tartaris argenti.

Tartarite of arfenic.
Tartaris arfenicalis.

Tartarite of barytes.
Tartaris baryticus.

Tartarite of bifmuth.
Tartaris bifmuthi .

Tartarite of lime.
Tartaris calcareus.

Tartarite of cobalt.

, Tartaris cob alt i.

Tartarite of copper.
Tartaris cupri.

Tartarite of tin.

Tartaris Jlanni,

Tartarite of iron.
Tartaris ferri.

Tartarite of magnefia.
Tartaris magnefia .

Tartarite of manganefe,
Tartaris magnefii,

Tartarite of mercury.
Tartaris hydrargyri .

Tartarite of molybdena.
Tartaris molybdeni.

Tartarite of nickel.
Tartaris niccoli.

Tartarite of gold.
Tartaris auri.

Tartarite of platina,
Tartaris platini .

Calcareous Tartar.

New Chemical Nomenclature.

89

JYsir jVamss .

Old Names.

Tartarite of lead.

T artaris plumbi.

Tartarite of potafh.
Tartaris potajfce.

J. Saturnine tartar.

r Soluble tartar.

J ' Tartarized tartar.
j Tartar of potnjh.
[.Vegetable fait.

rStibiated tartar.

1. I Tartar emetic.

Tartarite, antimoniated,ofpotafh.

Tartaris potaffa Jlibiatus. j Antimoniated tartar .

(_ Emetic.

Tartarite, ferruginous, of potafh. f Chalybeated tartar.

Tartaris potajfe ferrugineus. \ Soluble martial tartar.

Tartarite of potafh, compofed') n- . • , , , . . .

of antimony. I T«rt°™d “r>

Tartaris potajfa Jlibiatus.

s

antimony.

Tartarite of foda.
Tartaris foda.

Tartarite of tungflen,
Tartaris tunfeni .

Tartarite of zinc.
Tartaris zinci.

Tin.

Stannum.

Tunflate.

TunfaSy tis. f m.

Tunflate of alumina.
Tunjlas aluminofus.

Tunflate of ammoniac.
Tunjlas ammoniacalis.

Tunflate of antimony.
Tunjlas Jlibii.

J Tartar of foda.

Polychrejl fait of Rochelle.
(_ Salt of Seignette.

f Tin.

1 Jupiter.

f Salt formed by the combin-
j ation of the tunflic acid with
different bafes.

j This genus of fait has no
fjiame in the old Nomenclature.

90

Dictionary for the

Nett Names.

T

Old Names.

Tunftate of filver.

T unjlas argenti.

Tunftate of arfenic.
Tunjias arfenicalis.

Tunftate of barytes.
Tunjias baryticus.

Tunftate of bifmuth.
Tunjias bijmuthi .

Tunftate of lime.
Tunjias calc are us.

Tunftate of cobalt.
Tunjias cobalti.

Tunftate of copper,
Tunjias cupri.

Tunftate of tin.
Tunjias Jianni.

Tunftate of iron.
Tunjias Jerri.

Tunftate of magnefia.

Tunftate of manganefe,
Tunjias magneji.

Tunftate of mercury.
Tunjias hydrargyri.

Tunftate of molybdena.
Tunjas ??iolybdeni.

Tunftate of nickel.
Tunjas niccoli.

Tunftate of gold.
Tuajas auri.

Tunftate of platina.
Tunjas plat ini.

Tunftate of lead.

Tanjas plumbi.

New Chemical Nomenclature,

9*

New Names.

%

Tunftate of potafh.
Tunflas potajfa.

Tunftate of foda.
Tanjias foda.

Tunftate of tungften.
Tunflas tunfleni.

Tunftate of zinc.
Tunflas zincs.

Water.

Water, lime.

Water, diftilled.

Waters impregnated with
carbonic acid.

Waters, fulphurated.

Zinc.

v

F I

T Old Names.

W

Water.

Lime-water.

Diflilled water.

f Acidulous waters ,
\Gazeous waters.

Hepatic waters ,

z

N I S.

»

I N

D E X.

A

Acids, •

— a£tion of, a chara£teriftic of (tones,

concrete fulphuric,

Acid, acetic, -

benzoic, -

bombic, -

boracic, -

found on Lakes in Tufcany,

carbonic, -

citric, -

cretaceous, -

fluoric, -

formic, -

fuming muriatic,

gallic, -

lactic, -

lithic, -

malic, -

marine, ,

mephitic, -

molybdic, -

muriatic, -

■ nitric, -

Vol.

Pag.

I.

34*-

I.

197.

I.

387-

III.

*37*

II.

633*

III.

288.

I.

388.

I.

388.

I.

342-

II.

621.

h

342.

I.

359*

III.

282.

I.

352-

II.

626 .

III.

177.

III.

229.

II.

631.

I.

452.

I.

342.

II.

200.

I.

352-

T.

364.

I

94

Index.

Vol.

Pa a.

Acid, nitro-muriatic, -

I.

367*

nitrous, -

I.

365-

of arfenic, -

II.

186.

oxalic, r - -

II.

659.

oxigenated muriatic.

I.

357-

phofphoric, -

III.

245.

phofphorous, - -

III.

151.

pyro-ligneous, - ~

III.

7-

pyro-mucous, - -

III.

3-

pyro-tartareous, -

III.

2.

fulphuric, -

I.

378.

tunftic, -

II.

207.

■Acidulumj tartareous,

II.

639/

Aetiolation, -

I.

87.

Writes, - - -

II.

400.

Affinities, chemical,

I.

35-

• Geoffroy’s table of,

I.

66.

Affinity or attradlion of aggregation.

I.

37-

reciprocal, -

I.

68.

Aggregate bodies, different kinds of,

I.

38.

Air, fixed, -

I.

342.

Boyle’s difcoveries concerning,

I.

32-

Hales’ difcoveries concerning,

I.

32-

Albert the Great, an Alchemifi,

I.

2 5'

Alchemy, hiftory of.

I.

2 5-

Alcohol, -

IH.

3’

Algaroth, powder of.

II.

3 3

Alkalis, -

1

328.

Alteration by fire, a charadleriftic of ftones,

I.

195.

Alum, - -

II.

25*

Aluminous earth, its properties.

I.

I79'

Amber, - - -

II.

572.

volatile fait of,

II.

577-

Ambergrife, -

III.

274,'

Ammoniac, -

I.

33fr-

M. Berthollet’s experiments concern-

ing the compofition of,

I.

338-

r

INDEX.

95

Vol. Pag

Analyfis, what. - - - I.

Animal fubftances, chemical analyfis of, - III.

putrefaction of, - III.

Animals, - II.

bones of, III.

cetaceous, - - III.

functions of, - - III.

mufcles of, - - III.

Antimony, - II.

butter of, - - II.

cinnabar of, - - II.

fulphure of, » - II.

Antomology, - - III.

Ants, - III.

Aqua regia, I.

Arcanum duphcatum, I.

Arnold of Villeneuve, I.

Arfenic, butter of, - - II.

and its acid, - - II.

Afphaltus, - - - - II.

Atmofpheric air, general hiftory of - I.

its principles, and the propor-
tions in which they are mixed, - I.

Attraction or affinity of compofition, - I.

Avicenna, applied chemiftry to medicine. - I.

3

*55

298

357

261

3*7

339

253

250

334

335

251

329

282

366

397

25

333

186

581

*33

354

42

24

B

Bacon, Roger, - - I. 25.

Barnet, James, his phjlofophy of chemiftry, - I. 30.
Barytes, - - - I. 317.

Bayen, M. his examination of the calces of mer-
cury, - - - - . I- 33-

Beccher’s opinion concerning the principles of

bodies, - - - - I. 77-

96

INDEX.

Vol.

Pag.

Beecher’s phyftca fubterranea,

I.

3°'

■ J.Ernefk Stahl’s com-

mentary on, -

I.

31*

Benzoin, - - -

III.

45-

Bile, -

III.

194.

Biliary calculi, -

III.

199.

Bifmuth, -

II.

224.

Bitumens, -

II.

566.

Black, Dr, his difeovery of the carbonic acid, -

L

3S1*

Blende, -

II.

281.

Blood, - - -

III.

163.

Boerhaave, a cultivator of chemiftry.

I.

34-

Bohnius, - - - -

■ I.

3°*

Borate, aluminous,

II.

40.

— ammoniacal.

I.

474-

• barytic, - - -

II.

51*

calcareous, - - -

I.

497-

magnefian.

II.

J3*

mercurial, - -

II.

342-

of potafh,

I.

448.

Borax of foda, - - -

I.

440.

Boyle’s hell,

II.

3X3*

Brafs, -

II.

496.

C

1

Calamine, -

II.

2S2.

Calcareous fubftances, natural hiftory of,

I.

5°7-

Calcination, -

I.

125.

Caloric, what.

I.

97'

Camphorate principle.

III.

33-

Carbonate, aluminous,

II.

40.

— ammoniacal,

I.

347-

barytic,

- II.

52-

magnefian.

II.

14.

of lime, or chalk

. I.

5°3-

INDEX.

97

Carbonate of potath, -

of foda, -

Carbure of iron, -

Caftoreum, -

Cementation, *

Charcoal, - -

Chemiftry, definition of,

— hiftory of

Macquer’s labours beneficial to

utility of to the arts and fciences, -

to natural hiftory,

to medicine.

Cinnabar, -
Circulation, -

Clay,

Cobalt, - - - -

Cochineal, - -

Colour confidered as a chara£teriftic of (tones,
Combuftible bodies, -

Combuftion, Lavoifier’s difcoveries concerning,

— theory of

Compounds, J. Erneft Stahl’s theory of the pro-
perties of, -

Concentration, -

Copper, -

vitriol of - - -

Copperas, white, -

Coral, -

Coraline, - - -

Crab’s (tones, ...

Cryftallization, account of,

Cupellation, -

• «

D

Deco£tion, -

Deliquefcence, account of
Vol. III. 3 G

Vol.

Pa q.

I.

4S°-

I.

457*

II.

463.

III.

269.

I.

126.

III.

89.

I.

1.

I.

20.

I.

3*-

1.

7-

1.

10.

I.

1 1.

II.

3°7*

III.

34°-

I.

273-

II.

215.

III.

290.

I.

194.

II.

99.

I.

33-

I.

I45*

I.

53-

I.

130.

II.

474-

II.

483.

II.

291."

III.

292.

III.

292.

III.

291.

II.

66.

III.

291.

I.

I3I •

II.

78.

<✓

INDEX.

Detonation, -

of nitre,

Diamond, - - - -

Diana’s tree, -

Digeflion, - - I. 130. 1

Diftiliation, -

examination of mineral waters, by

Docimafea, or the art of allaying ores.

VOL.

Pag.

I.

127.

I.

412.

II.

ic6.

11.

Sx4*

11 r*

346-

1.

128.

hi.

398-

11.

165.

E

Earth,

ponderous.

ment of.

calcareous,
chemical analyfis of,
compofed of lhells,

Efflorefcence,

account of

Eggs of birds,

Elc&ive attractions,

double,

Elaftic fluids, formation and fixation of,
Ens martis,

Epfom fait of Lorraine,

Ether, -

muriatic,

Ethiops, martial, -

mineral,

Evaporation,

examination of mineral waters by, III.

I.

x74-

I.

e-

269.

I.

267.

of I.

323-

I.

S11’

I.

296.

- I.

508.

- I.

283.

I.

405.

II.

79-

III.

277.

II.

8?-

I.

63'

III.

410.

II.

457-

I.

43 x*

• IN.

1 19.

III.

128.

II.

416.

II.

344-

I.

127.

III.

401.

99

/

I N D E X.

F

Vol.

Pag.

Falfe analyfis, what. - i-

i.

4*

Fat, - - - 1 -

hi.

1 8(5.

Fermentation, -

nr.

IOI.

: acetous, -

hi.

134*

Ferrum fpeculare, -

ir.

404.

Fire, -

1.

80.

Flowers, in chemiftry, -

1.

0

•

Fluate, aluminous, -

11.

40.

ammoniacal. -

1.

475-

barvtic, -

11.

71-

calcareous, -

.1.

497-

magnefian,'

ir.

14.

of potalh, -

1.

448.

— of foda, -

1.

45°*

Form, confidered as a charadteriftic of Hones,

1.

188.

Fracture, confidered as a charadteriftic of ftones,

1.

192.

Frog, *

m.

28a.

Fufion, -

1.

account of.

11.

l6-

G

Galena, - - II.

— antimoniated, - - If.

Gas, azotic, - - - ' I.

— — hydrogenous, - - - II.

mephitic, - - - 1.

: — — nitrous, - - - - I.

Gem fai, - - - I.

Generation, - - - * III.

Gold, - - - -II.

Gold and filver, M. Sage’s work on the art of
allaying, II.

3 G 2

377*
380.
149.
x 16.

34 2 •

37°*

428.

3?1*

524.

545*

\

16©

INDEX.

H

Vol. Pag.

Hardnefs, confidered as a chara&eriftic of Hones, I.

190.

Hartfhorn,

' r III.

270.

Heat, - -

I.

89.

chemical effects of,

I.

III.

Helminthology, -

III.

336-

Hematites,

II.

400.

Honey, -

III.

386.

I

Ichthyology, -

III.

325-

Ichthyocolla, -

III.

279.

Incombuftibility, a charadteriftic of falts,

I.

3°9'

Infufion, -

I.

13°.

Inftrument for meafuring the heat difengaged

from bodies, - -

I.

94.

Intermediates, affinity of.

I.

<58

»-«

0
3

V*

1
t
1
s
1

II.

397'

“ — - call, -

II.

407.

Irritability, - - - -

III.

354'

Ifaacs of Holland, - -

I.

26.

x •

J

Tet, -

J t * -

II.

584.

Juice, pancreatic, - -

III.

202,

gaflric, - -

III.

202-

Juices and extracts, -

II.

6 io-

. refinous inflammable.

Ill

44,

E

Hermes, -

III.

289.

r mineral, preparation t>f,

II.

268,

INDEX.

to*

L

Vo L.

Landriani, M. his experiments on the produ£tion

Pag.

of carbonic acid,

I.

351*

Lead, -

II.

374-

corneous.

II.

389*

Libavius’s fuming liquor.

II.

368.

Light, ...

I.

83-

Lime, _

I.

270.

Linnaeus, method of,

- III.

3*3-

Litharge,

II.

382.

Lithologic method of M. Daubenton,

I.

201.

Lixiviation, ; - -

I.

131-

Loadftone, -

II.

401.

Lully, Raymond,

r - I.

25*

M

Magnefia, -

I. 272. &

320,

Manganefe, -

II.

247.

Marble, T

I.

SJ2-

Mars, . -

II.

397-

Maflicot, -

II.

384-

Mercury, -

II.

3OIt

tin&ure of, -

II.

342-

Metallic fubftances in general,

II.

15 6.

— — chemical properties of,

r II.

I71*

methodical divifion of,

II.

184.

natural hiftory of,

- II.

161.

phyfical properties of,

- II.

157-

Metallurgy, - -

II.

168.

Milk,

III.

173-

Mineralogy, what.

I.

185.

Mineral waters, definition and hiftory of,

- III.

361-

different claffes of,

III.

366.

fa£litious,

III.

407*

- — — — principles contained in,

- III.

3^3?

)

io2 INDEX.

VOL.

Pa 6.

Minium,

II.

391'

Modern chemiftry, difcourfe

on its firfb principles, III.

4°y*

Molybdena,

1.

1

20C*.

Muriate, aluminous,

II.

39-

ammoniacal,

I.

466.

— barytic.

II.

5°*

calcareous.

I.

492.

of copper,

II.

491.

magnefian.

r - II.

10.

of potafh.

I.

425-

of foda,

I.

428.

Mult,

III.

273-

N

Nickel,

-

II.

232.

Nitrate, aluminous,

-

II.

39-

ammoniacal,

-

I.

464.

barytic,

-

II.

49.

■ calcareous,

-

I.

488.

cubic,

-

I.

422.

magnefian,

-

- II.

7-

*- of foda,

-

I.

422.

of zinc,

-

II.

292.

Nitre or nitrate of potafh,

_

I.

408.

or nitrite of potafh.

-

I.

411.

quadrangular,

„

I.

422.

rhomboidalj

-

I.

422.

Nutrition,

-

III.

349-

0

/

Oils, fixed,

— L

in.

19.

volatile,

m •» <m

III.

29.

Ornithology,

-

III.

318.

p

Paracelfus, -

m ' -

I.

27.

Peroleum, ~ z

-

II.

592-

INDEX.

103

Vol.

Pag,

Phlogifton, «-

I.

103.

Phofphate, ainmoniacal, -

III.

221.

of i'oda, - - -

III.

223.

Phofphorus, -

III.

233*

Pitcoal, -

II.

586.

Plants, analyfis of, by naked fire,

III.

82.

Platina, -

II.

547-

Plumbago, -

II.

463*

Potalli, - - - - -

I.

329-

Precipitates, the different forts of,

I.

59-

— per ft) - - -

II.

3*3-

purple, of Cafiius, -

II.

53<>-

white, -

II.

328.

Prieftley, Dr, his dii'covery concerning the aCtion

of the eleCtric fpark on ammoniac gas,

I.

337-

difcoveries concerning air,

I.

32-

procefs for making acidulated water.

- I.

345-

Principles of bodies,

I.

73-

Pruffian blue, - . - -

II.

427-

native, - - *»

II.

405.

Pyrites, martial, •) -

II.

402,

Quadrupeds, Briflbn’s method of

III.

3*7

Klein’s method of

III.

3X5-

■ — oviparous - -

III.

321.

R

RarefaCtion, -

I.

98.

Re-agents, examination of mineral waters by -

III.

374-

Rectification, - - -

I.

129.

Reduction, -

I.

125.

Refin, lac, - -

III.

289.

Refins, - - < -

III.

47-

- gum,

III.

5 2-

Refpiration, -

III.

343-

Roalting, T - -

I.

125.

i°4 I N D E X.

Vol.

Fao.

Roficrucians,

I.

28-

Rouelles, advocates for Stahl’s theory

I.

31*

S

Saccharine matter.

III.

12.

Saffron, aperient, of Mars,

II.

414.

aflringent, of Mars,

-

II.

414.

Sal de Duobus, -

-

I.

397-

Saliva, -

III.

202.

Saline matters, general nature and compofition of

I.

3llj

divifion and arrangement of

-

I.

3X3-

Saline fubflanees in general, - -

I.

3°o.

Salino-terrene fubflanees,

-

I.

3*5-

Salt, common or culinary, - -

-

I.

428.-

febrifuge, of Selvius,

I.

425.

polychrefl, -

-

I.

397*

regenerated marine.

-

I.

425.

— fedative, -

-

I.

388.

• fpirit of - -

I.

352,

fublimated fedative.

-

I.

389-

Salts, aqueous fufion of

I.

404.

igneous fufion of r

-

I.

404.

mineral, comparifon of

II.

54.

neutral, -

-

I.

393-

perfedl neutral.

L

3°4-

397*

fecondary, -

--

I.

393-

* flanno-nitrous, - - -

II.

359*

Saturn, -

-

II.

374-

Secretion, -

III.

342-

Sel de Gabelle, -

-

I.

429.

Senfibility, -

-

III.

356*

Serpents, -

III.

323-

Siliceous earth, its properties,

I.

l19-

considered as a genus in Bergman’s

chemical analyfis of earths and Hones,

-

I.

277.

Silk, -

III.

288.

Silk-worms, -

III.

288.

Silver, -

-

II.

501.

t

INDEX .

Fol.

Pag*

Soda, “

I.

333-

Solubility, a chara&criftic of falts.

I.

308.

Solution of falts, account of

II.

81.

Spar, fluor, -

I.

497*

— ponderous, - -

II.

43*

Spiritus rector, -

III.

38.

Stratification, •

I.

126.

Sublimate, corrofive, -

rr.

328.

fweet, -

11.

338-

Sublimation, -

1.

127.

Sulphate, aluminous, -

11.

25*

ammoniacal, -

1.

461.

barytic, -

n.

43*

of copper, -

11.

488.

of lime, -

1.

480.

of magnefia, -

11.

2.

of potalh,

1.

397-

of foda,

1.

403*

Sulphite of potalh,

1.

402.

of foda, -

1.

408.

Sulphur, -

ir.

125.

fuccinated balfam of

11.

579*

Sulphure of lead -

11.

392*

Syderite, -

11.

409.

T

Tartar ftibiated, -

II.

<549.

vitriolated,

I.

397*

Tafte, confidered as a chara&eriftic of falts,

1.

3°3*

Tendency to combination, confidered as a charac-

teriftic property of falts,

1.

302.

Tin, -

11.

349-

of Banca and Malacca,

11.

354*

Englilh, - - . -

11.

354*

Tortoife, '

hi.

280.

Tungllen, -

11.

207.

True analyfis, what. - -

1.

3-

Vol. III. > 3 H

INDEX.

Vo L.

Pag.

Urine, - - _

- III.

210.

V

Valentinus, Bafilius,

I.

2 6.

Vegetable colouring matters.

. m.

75-

Vegetables, effential falts of.

ii.

617.

fixed falts and earths of.

T III.

96.

— natural philofophy of,

II.

602.

pure fascula of.

HI.

61,

putrid fermentation of.

- III.

151,

Viper, -

- III.

280.

Vitrification, -

I.

125.

Vitriol, fuming oil of,

-I.

386.

Volcanic products,

I.

233>

W

W ater, - -

• , I.

151.

— acidulated, * - I.

344. & III.

368.

aerated, - -

- I.

344-

chemical properties of.

- I.

162,

ferruginous,

III.

371*

mercurial.

II.

32 3-

phyfical properties of, -

I.

132.

faline or fait

- HI.

369*

Wax

III.

286.

Wheat, farina of,

- III.

67.

glutinous part of,

III.

69.

— fttarch of - -

III.

72.

White of the whale.

III.

272.

Wood-lice, - -

III.

284.

Z

Zinc, -

II.

279.

: vitreous ore, or fpar of.

II.

281.

Zoology, -

III.

311,

FINIS.

NAMES NlWLt !*»*** ANCIENT NAME*-

— ’ — tr~

EXHIBITING THE C H E M

Trops'lcd by Meflieurs De MORVEAU, LAVOISIER* BER

THF. SA!in SUBSTANCES REDUCED
0 T Mi STATE OF GAS BY THE

addition of caloric.

NVtN* ANCIENT NAMES.

J^.tsnt le.lt, »r n

of beat

Tie bs/< 'f J

H,d,nE™c. Spiff.

w, »** &*/m£z

principle of th^ ni- J.r'

Oxigenou«j

3i'«

lion li OX :
gazeouslls .1
Hydrogcr.o

Azotic gas.

if tli|

Carbone, tr the radi-
cal principle of the
carbonic acid. I
Sulphur, cr the i ndical
principle of rhe ful-
jhuric acid.

ft hue mephitis.

Phofphore,

dicalprihcipleci ihc
phofj horic acid

ra- — —

ICAL NO MEN

THOLLET, and De FOURCROY,

C L A T

May 1787.

U R E

i N B It Defi/'lezi/liedlrd or e3it.1l
light con- air.

' reduc-

Pblogif dated air, 01
mcjfteric mepbili.

.Radical principle
the fluoric acid
Radical principle -oi
the fuccinic acidfj
Radical

llic ai

of —
--
of —

Radical principle
the tartarcousa

adical princip
the pyr-Urtar< n
acid.

Radical principle

ical pm
le oxalic

acidi

Radical principle
the galli

Radical principle
ilic citric .-cid.
Radical princip!

the malic acid.
Radical princip'

1 he benzoic acif
Radical principlcol lie
ly.o-lignVousat
Radical principle
the pyro-mucotii a-

cid.

Radical principle
the camphoric i
Radical principle
the lad! ic acid..
Radicalprincipleuf hi
facclio-laclic acii
Radical principle
the formic acid.
Radical principle
the Pruflic acid.

of ■

of ■

of

the lilhic acid.
Radical princip)
the bombic aci

Molybdena.

TungQen.

Mangrmfc.

Rrgului of mangantfe.
Regqtue <f cobalt.

Silver.

Plains.

.Gold.

‘Siliceous earth. «

Aluminous earth.

1 Barytes

IS incfia.

•Putalb.

UsifiabU earth, quartz,
faj, or earth if aim.

.1 le.rnu, earth.

rHt bU fuel alkali of
tart r.'lfc.

Ill's rat alia1;, e
alt. -II, nation,

or caujlie volatile

II

of -hi:

X.w ,Y.m

- ’ 1
M<ienu« J

1

jhniitous matter,
I' gluten.

s^lntuane*.

1

Mu.dge.

b~*sm.tUr.

Gallic acid.

Citric acid.

Malic acid.

Benzoic acid.
Pyro-ligneous acid.
Tyro-mucous acid.

Camphoric acid.
LatSlic acid.
Saccho-ladlic acid.
Formic acid.
Prullic acid.

Sebacic acid.
Lithicacid.
Bombic acid.

Oxide of arfcnic.

Oxide of molybdena.
Molybdic acid.

Oxide of lungflen.
Tutlftic acid

Shi“ ?»a' »'

Ox de of nickel.

.) oxide of
Vitreous t cobalt.

AJIringenl pi :nci{>le.

Lemon juie,
a4. till of affh 1 .
Flowers ofh n
Spirit of wet I.

Spirit of Let y, fuga,

y IciJ of raili.

Acid effugat
Acid of ante.

Colauringmal trefPruf-
ftan Hue.

A tid of grejj r.

Stone in tie
Acid of the ft,

cfarferu

Calx of mcly .

Yelhrjj calx tunjfhn.
Manganfe.

III.

THE SAME SUBSTANCES COMBINED
WITH OX1GENE.

,Vl

THE SAME SUBSTANCES IN AN _ox'-

GENaTED gazeous si ai e.

NAMES NEWLY INVEN

ANCIENT

ItAMEf.

NAMES NEWLY INVEN- ANC,ENT NAMES.
TED OR ADOPTED.

-

1

Water.

Water.

-

The bafe of nitrous gas.

With an tx.-efs of azote.

Nitrous acid
Carbonic acid.

The bafe of ni
White nitrous

Burning nitron
Fixed air, or

rout gas.
acid.

acid.

sjitrous gas. —

Nitrous acid gas.

Carbonic acid gas. Fixed air, meplitu air.

Sulphuric acid.

Vitriolic atid.

With lefs exigent.
Sulphureous acid.

Sulpbuncus c

id.

Sulphureous acid gas. Sulphureous acid gas.

Phofphoric acid.

Pbofpboric

J.

- ~

With <1 fir.aller proper-

Phofpliorou* acid.
Muriatic acid.

With an extefs of oxi-

Fuming or vc,
lvfarine acid.

Ipefbof-

Muriatic acid gas. Marine acid gas.

Oxigcnated muriatic
Boracic acid.

Depllegijlicet

add.

Sedative fall.

d marine

Oxigena'cd muriatic DepbtogificatiJ marine
acid gas. acid gat.

Fluoric acid.

Acid of ffar.

Fluoric acid gas. Spalbtfc gas.

Succinic acid.

Volatile fall f amber.

- - -

Acetous acid.

Diflilled vintg)ir.

With mere exigent.
Acetic jacirl.
TarUreous acid.

Radical vine

-

Pyro-tirtareous acid.

Ewpyreumat

t [pint of

THESE OXIGENATED SUBSTANCES
NEUTRALISED BY THE ADDI-
TION OF BASES.

NAMES NEWLY iNvcte. ANCI£:1T NAMES.
ED OR ADOPTtD.

Nitrate of potafli-
of foda, &

Nitrite of potafli.

THE SAME PRIMARY SUBSTANCES
COMBINED WITH OTHER SUBSTAN-
CES, BUT NOT ACIDIFIED.

r of lime.

,H‘ ) of potafli
e £ of iron,
fof potafi.

of fuda.

| of lime.

CLali.

dec. Effervefcent alkalies.
Rufi of iron, tfc.
Vitriolated tartar.
Glauber fall.

Selenite.

| of bar) 1“
(_of iron, '
Sulphite of potafli,

White ~) Magiflsry efiif wlb, or

/oxide of writ, pail' j

Yel'ow fbirmuih. Y.Ho, y » "'4
Vitreous ) Glaf, of bifmutb

by the nitrous Pinpbcretic antimony.

by the muria- Powder of / llgarctli ,
e _ tic aciil

1‘ . fubhmated. Slower.

IS Alum

Ponderous fper
6cc. Vitriol of 'iron,
&C. Stall',, fulpbu,

rieipbcric fall will 0
b.f, of no, rum.

Eat lb of bene,.

Haupt's ftl per latum.

Phofphate of foda.

Calcareous phofph
Superfaturated phi f-
pha-c of foda.

Phofphitcof potafli
Muriate of potafh
Muriate of 10
Caicarcouj muriatt
AmmoniacM ntun
Oxigenated muriatt of
foda, &c.

Borate fnperfarurtf cd Common borax.
with foda, or borate.

Boratcof foda, SiC.Jcda
fjturate.l with tie el id.

fluate of lime, &c
Succinate of fuda,
of potafh

Aceti

'of copper

Acetate of foda, &< ,

Acidulous tartarittfO
potafli.

Tartarite of potaflijX
Tartaritc of I'oda 4ec
Pyro-tartarite of lime
Pyro tartaritc of idon.

-See.

Acidulous oxalatej of Salt of Sorrel.
potafli.

Oxalate of lime.

of foda, S&.

Gallarc of foda. —

of magnefii,
of iron,

Citrate of potafli.

Febrifuge fait of Sylvius
Marine fait.

Se.z. Calcareous marine fait.
Sal ammoniac.

Fluor ffar.

Terra foliata tartar i.
Mineral terra foliata.
Calcareous acetous fait.
Spirit of Mender eras.
Sntcharumf. turns.

Verdigris.

Cream of tartar.

Vegetable fait.

Salt of Seignette.

NC1ENT NAMES.

Carbure of iron.

of iron . FaSitieus iron pyrile,

Sulphure > of antimony. Antimony.

3 of lead. Galena

Sulph.hydrogenousgas Hepatic gas.

Sulphure of potalh. ? A,lallnt ffulpbur.

Sulphure of foda. $

Alkaline fulphures with Metallic liver, of ful-
meta's fufpendetl ill pbur.
them.

Alkaline fulphure with liver of fulpbur with
csrlibuacrou- matters carbonaceous matters

fufpended in it. fufpended in it.

Phofphorifed hydro- Pbofpboric gas.
geuous gar.

Phofphure of iron. Sydcrite.

Terra foliata with le-

ft p<

of lead, &evt
Malate of lime, dt^. — —

Aluminous heuzoxfe., — —

Benzoate "f iron. &c.

I’yro-lignite of lime. — —

P > ro- ligm te of zinc, &c.

Pyro muciteof rragnefia. —

Ammoniacal, &c.pyro-

Camphorate of foda, — —

&c.

La&ate of lime, dec. — —

Saccho-ladlate of iron, — —

dee.

Ammon ideal, dec. for- Spirit of magnanimity.

Prulhate of potafh, &c. PJIogiflicated allali, or
Prufftan alkali.

Prufliate of iron , &c. Prufftan blue.

Sebaic of lime, 3cS — —

Lirhiate of foda, !jtc. — —

Bnmbiatc of ii

l, dec. -

OXIDES WITH VARIOUS BASES*.
Yellow ^

Arfenical oxidrof potafli
Sulphure of molybdena

Orpiment.
Realgar. .

Liver of arfcnic.
Molybdena.

A'-feniatc of poi
Arfeniate of co
Molylidate.
Calcareous tunl

Precipitates of cobalt a-

guin diffUved by at-

Bifmutb precipitated by
Ever off.hbur.

Sulphurated G'rd C"U if antimony .
oxide of Rcrsnes mineral.

IC. Masquer's arfenical nr.
trat fait.

Swedifo lungflen.

'cd jr-o-he-. xvh eli e

Alloy of arfenic and Arfenicated tin.

Alloy, dec. ■ — —

Alloy, &c. — —

Alloy of manganefe — —

Alloy of liiclclc, dec. — —

Alloy, dec. — —

Alloy, dee. —

Alloy, dec. —

Alloy, dec. —

Alloy, dec. —

Alloy, dec. —

Alloy or amalgam of, —
Sic.

Alloy, dec. —

Alluyofplatina degold. —

Des0M|KA"10»s newly ap, ropriated to leveral SublVances, which are more componnd m their Nature, yet enter into new C~ without bong tlecompofeU.'

3 4 I 5' “ 12 71 ” 1; 1 6

Effentiol oil. Spirita rcSor.

9

- IO

**'

12

Extra drive rrA'ter.

Ex fra ft 0- fin whir h the
rcGtu us J c -"-ct vc
mitt,, / 1 ‘r 5 ' ''

(. dumniatc-

Rcfinous- T in which thr
:sr adivcS refi pre-
matter 3 dominate-.

feculum.

ExtruSive asm.

§

Ferula,,

'le-hol ctr r

rofp.tafl,.
of puaia-

hul { • f fcam-
| of myrrh,

L

c l alcohol
Muriatic j

>" if

tr

%

Alkaline^

Fatthy / , .

Aci! f'-
M tallicj
Sa, nnuli of turpen-
tine. dec.

-

Table II.

Without teeth

QUADRUPEDS,

With teeth.

Quadrupeds, divided according to the Syjlem of B r

i s s o n.

Orders.

With grinders only —

Grinder and canine teeth only —

Incifive teeth in the lower jaw only — <

I.

II.

III.

IV.

V.

Incifive teeth in
both jaws.

Ungulated feet

Ungulated feet,
and two incifive
teeth in each
jaw.

Four incifive teeth
in each jaw.

Four incifive teeth
in the upper,
fix in the lower

fVI.

VII.

VIII.

IX.

X.

XI.

XII.

eth "I
and i-
jaw. J

Six incifive teeth in
the upper, and four XV.
in the lower jaw. J

Six incifive teeth in
each jaw.

Six incifive teeth
the upper, ande
in the lower jaw
Ten incifive teeth in')
the upper, and
in the lower ‘

;eth in')
d eight y
jaw. J
:eeth in~j
id eight W

jaw. J

SECTIONS.

XIV.

t - -

f Hairy /kin — _

\ Scaly

f Hairy /kin — _

\ Bony covering or flictl

J Two long tulles and a trunk

genera.

— Ant-eater

— - Manis .

— Sloth
— Armadillo

— EJfeph nt

f Ruminant, with
-j cloven feet ; eight
(_ incifive teeth.

[Two long tuflcs, no trunk

Ruminant, ungulated ; fix incifive teeth —

f Turned f Fore legs longer than hinder legs
Simple J upwards. The legs of equal lengths —

horns, j Turned back — —

L Turned Tideways — — —

Branched horns — —

No horns — — - ___

The hoof entire
The hoof cloven —

Three ungulated toes on each foot

Four ungulated toes before, three

Four ungulated toes on each foot

'Spines on the body

behind, /Two incifive teeth in each jaw -
(_ ien incifive teeth in each jaw

Without canine teeth <

Without fpines. <

With canine teeth

► XIII. —

Camel ipardalis
Goat
Sheep
Ox .

Stag
Muilt
Horfe
Hog

Rhino

River jHog .
Tapir I . .
River Horle
Porcupine
Beavet . .

Hare . .

Coney) . .

Squirrel
Dormpufe .
Rat

"Tail flat and fcaly — —

Short tail ( T°"g -

^ Snort ears — —

Lo"g tail{^nd - _ - _

Naked tail — —

"Without fpines on the body — Shrew

With fpines — — — Hedge Hog

"Separate toes — — Monkuy

Toes joined by a membrane fo as to form wings

J" Separate toes — — Maucqi

(.The fore toe joined fo as to form wings — - Bat

XVI.

XVII.

Four toes on the fore, and five on the hinder feet
Five toes on the fore, and four on the hinder feet —
The toes feparate fro ml Five toes on each f Fir ft toe remote from the other

eaph other. ) foot, ^Firft toe near the other —

Feet which reft on the heel in walking —

Hooked claws which may be drawn back and concealed
_The toe$ joined together by a membrane — — —

XVIII

— Seal

Fly asm
— Dog

— Weezql

Badge
— Bear

_ — Cat

— Otter

Mole

Oppflim

Moufe

. Mynvecopkaga.

Pholidot'us.

. Tardigradut.
Cataphralrus.

. Eiephas .

0 dob eft us.

. Camclus.

Girajfa.

. Hircus.

/dries.

. Bos.

Cervus.

. Tragutus.

Equus.

. Sus.

Rhinoceros.

. Hydrochcerus.

Tapir us.

. Hippopotamus.

Hy/irix.

. Cajior.

Lepus.

. Cunictdus.

Sciunts.

. G/is.

Mus.

. Mufaraneus •
Erinaceus .

. Sincia.

„ Pteropus.

. Projimia.
VefpertiUp «

Phoca.

Hyana.

Canis.

MuJU'la.

Metes.

Urftis.

Felis.

Lutra.

To /pa.

Philander.

Table III.

The

Ornithologsc

Syjlcm of Be

T S S 0 N.

9 R D E R S.

sections.

Either

CLOVES-FOOTED ;

that is, they have
the toes naked,
and apart from
each other :

If

The legs fea-
thered as low
as the calca- i
neum, or bonel
which fullains
the toes.

Four toes all
feparate from
each other,
quite to their
bafe.

BIRDS/

ARE \

r

The lower
part of the
legs without
feathers.

Three toes before, and one behind. — —

1 he beak ftrait; the upper man- ~
dible thickened, and (omc-
wliat curved at the point ;
the nollrils half-covered with
a thick foft membrane. It
confifts of one genus only.

genera.

It confifts of fix genera.

1. The head ornamented with appendices,

2. No appendices on the bead,

jjj F The beak Ihort arid crooked.
J (. It couGfts of five genera.

'IV. f The beak long and conical.
(. It confifts of fix genera.

{The beak ftrait ; the upper
mandible grooved on each J
fide towards the point. It |
confifts of four genera.

f The beak ftrait, and the man- 1
v j dibles not grooved. It con- j
P fifts of two genera. '

VII. f The beak (lender, and rather ]
I bent. Itconfiftsoftwogenera. J

{The beak very (mail, flattened''
horizontally at its bafe, and
bent at the point ; the open-
ing of the mouth appears
larger than the head. It
conGfts of two genera.

{The beak conical, and gra-
dually diminifhing to the
point. It confifts of eight "
genera.

y f The beak awl-fhaped. It con-
'll fifts of three genera.

f The beak wedge-fliaped. It
p confifts of one genus only.

XII f The ^’T°rm* I1 confifts
P of three genera.

Two toes before, and two behind. — — XIII. Confiding of nine genera. —

The mid le toe united with the exterior for the fpace of three pirn*”)
lange , and with the interior for the fpace of one phalanx ; four L
three before, one behind. J

XIV.

■ feven genera. — <

Wings too fmall for flight, —

— — — XV.

. four genera. — <

Wings
enough foi

>rj,ght.

Three toes only, all before. — — —

■ four gener3. — <

i Three toes before, and one behind. —

XVII.

• eighteen genera.

The membranes of the feet divided. Four toes ; three before and one behind, which 1
arc divided, and have membranous cdge8. I

The membranes partly divided; the toes Joined together near their bafe; the lees placed 1
behind near the amis. b v L

Th«il,g. Placed ftiw0”’ b? ’ > »° 1

behind near theJ J

1 Three toes before, connefled by a membrane : one 1
P. feparate toe behind. J.

Without a pofterior toe.

WEB-FOOTED ;

I that is, they havc<
I the toes furnilhed
I with membranes.

The membranes
entire.

The legs placed
n the middle of
the body, and-5
fliorter than it,

The three ante-
rior toes con-
nefted by a*
membrane.

A fourth toe
behind, ft-
parate from
the others.

("Indented beak.

Beak not indented.

The four toes connefted by a membrane. _
The legs longer than the body. _ __

XVIII.

XIX.

XX.

XXI.

XXII.

XXIII.

XXIV.

XXV.

XXVI.

■ three genera.

- one genus. -

- three genera.

- three genera.

- one genus.

- fix genera.

- three genera.

- five genera.

- three genera.

• - (

- - {
:in.

1. The bafe of the beak covered with a naked (kin,

2. The bafe of the beak covered with feathers turned ")

forwards. - - J

1. The feathers on the bife of the beak turned for-

ward, and covering the noftrils.

2. The feathers at the bafe of the beak turned back-

ward ; the noftrils uncovered. - ■”

1. The beak convex above. — —

2. The beak flattened horizontally towards the bafe,

and nearly triangular. - - -

igeon - -

Colamia.

Turkey - -

Gallo Pavo.

iuck and Hen

• Galltn.

guinea Hen -

Meleagris.

irrous

- Lagoput.

cartridge - -

Pcrdix.

jheafant

- Phafianus.

Hawk - - -

Accipiter.

Eagle - -

• Aquila.

fulture - -

Vultur.

M - - •

(Ajio.

P Strix.

Chough

Coracia.

Crow - -

- Corvus.

Magpie -

Pica.

Roller - -

- Galgulus.

Driolc - - -

iRcrut.

iird of Paradife Manucodiata.

■ The two mandibles ftiait.

. The two mandibles c
, The noftrils uncovered.
, The noftrils covered
of the beak.

o fling each other.

Butcher Bird

Lanius.

Thrufli - -

Turd us.

Chatterer

- Colinga.

rly-catchcr -

Mufcicapa.

3eef eater -

- Buphagus.

Starling - -

Slur nus.

doopoe - -

- Upupa.

Proroerops

Provierops.

Doat-fucker

- Caprimulgut.

Swallow -

Hirundo.

Tanager

- Tangara.

Soldlinch —

Carduelis.

jparroiv -

- Pa ffer.

Crofbcnlc -

Coccothraujiei

Bunting - -

- Jitnberiza.

Coly - -

Colitis.

Bullfinch

- Pyrrhtda.

- {

Crofsbill - -
Lark - ■
Beccafico -

ay the feathers at the bafe ")

f ut-moufe -

— — * Nuthatch -

. The beak curved. — — — f Crecpi

, The beak flattened horizontally, and a little en- -!

larged at the point; the feet very (hort. - [ Humming Bird

The tongue very long and vermiform, but not f Wryneck

longer than the brill I Woorl-pcckcr

, The beak very long, Iquadrangular, and pointed. - |acamar -

, The beak fomewhai curved, convex at its upper f Barbet - -

part, and flattened laterally. - - - Cuckow -

{Curucui -
Ani'

Parrot - -

. The beak long, and ap thick as the head, indent-

ed like a faw ; tile point of each mandible l Toucan *
turned downwards! - - - - J

. The beak (hort, and flattened laterally near the f . - _ . .

point. - - I - - - I Manakin -

. The beak conical, and indented like a faw; the"
end of each mandib e bent downwards.

The beak ftrait, and of a moderate length. — ,

b l lody

harp. — — - Bee-eater - -

orrned like a feyth. — - Hornbill

: belling ; the beak ftrait,
orizontally, and curved at ^ Oftrich

loxia. •

- Alauda.

- Ficedula.

- Purus.

Sill a.
Certhia.

f Poly tutus.

{ Mellifuga.
TorquiUa.

- Picus.
Ga/bula.

- Bucco.

Cue ulus.

- Trogr.n.

Crotophagus.

- PJiltacus.

Rupicola.
Manactit.
Motmot --- Momohu.

The beak curved and
The beak thick, and
Two toes before, non
fomewhat flattened
the point; the upper part of the head bald & fealy.
Three toes before, nope behind.

f King’s-fifher -

l r ■

■t.-j

at l (

y-j

Cafuary

Three toes before, onjj behind; the beak long and ^ ^

- Bulhrd

{Long-Legs •
Oyller-catclu
Plover

f Lapwing -
P Jacana

The beak a little turned up, and fomewhat- flat- 1

tened horizontally. - - - - ) Turndone -

"live, and flattened laterally. - Pratincole
uncccncd laterally. - - Hail - -

{Sandpiper

Woodcb

i iic ocas curved in an arc downwards.

The beak llrait, flattened horizontally, arid d
at its extremity like a fpatula.

Ilrong ; both mandibles hooked at the point.

. The beak conical and curve I. — —

. The beak ftrait, and thickcft at the point. -
. The beak ftrait, and thickcft near the point. -

3. The beak convex abriv

4. The beak ftrait, and

5. The beak ftrait and (lender.

6.

7-

roodcbck
■ jjfurlew

Ifpida.

■ Todus.
Apiajlcr.

■ Hydrocorax.

Struthib.

■ Rhea.
Cajitarius.

■ Raphus.

Otis.

■ Himantopus.
Oflrakga.

■ Ptuvialis.
VancHus. <

- Jacana.
Arenaria. 1

- tVarrrJa. _
Ra/lus.

- Tringa.
Liniofa.

- Scold pax. |

N tun cuius. \

8. The beak long and thick.

9. The beak (hort and thick, the upper mandible
the form of a fpoon. .

IC. The beak (hort and ftrait, conical at the point ;

the head adorned with a crown of feathers.

1 1. The beak conical and curved.

The beak conical, flattened at the (ides, and the T"
fore part of the head without feathers. - f

1 of tilt tots fimple, the be,), gr„-, ■

. The membrai
and acute.

, The membranes of the toes jagged.

, The beak ftrait and acute. — _

, The beak flattened at the fidcs, with tranfvcrfe
ftrix. - -

, The beak ftrait, the extremity of the upper mai
dij'le bent.

. The beak ftrait and acute. —

-}

1. The beak bent near it* point.

- [

{jpoonbill

- Platea.

Jijtork - - -

Ciconia.

Heron - -

- Ardea.

Wmbre - -

Scopus.

Boat-bill

- Ccchlearius.

Grown B i rd -

Balectrica.

Cariaraa - ' -

-o Cariama.

Screamer - -

Anlima.

ffiallinule

Porphyrio.

Water Hen -

GoUinula.

Phalarope -

Phalaroptis.

(Coot -

Fulica.

(Grebe - -

Coly ml us.

(Guillemot - -

Uria .

Pullin - '

Fratercula.

Auk * - -v

Alca.

Pinguin - -

Spbenifcus.

Catarrades.

Diver - -

JUergur.

Albatrofs - -

Albatrus.

hcarwater -

Puffinus.

, The beak flattened at the (ides.

. The beak rather cylindrical ; the extremity of the

upper mandible bent. - - r

The beak convex on >ts upper part, and flat be- -
neatli. -

)uck

, The beak acute. — — -J . ?”'•%- j

- - L- T°P,C Bird -

, ,tft . p looby - -

The beak hooked at tne point. — J Cormorant -

U Mican

. The beak indented, curved in the middle, and") j.

ihe inferior mandiblglargcft. - _ j ilammgo -

fAvofct -
P Courier - -

’etrel - - -
\ riSkic Bird -
lull - - -

Razorbill - -

lerganfer -
r fcoofe - - -

. The beak not indcntedJ _

Procellaria.%

- Stercorarius.
Larut.

RygchopfiHa.

- Merganfcr.

.Anhinga.

■ Lepturus.

Sida.

Ph.ilacrocorax.

Onocrocalut.

■ Phxnicopterus.

Avoatta.

■ Corrira.

%

Table IV.

OVIPAROUS

QUADRUPEDS.

The jDlvifiou of Oviparous Quadrupeds, by Daubenton.

CLASS I. The bo,
Tofl

tys0EreJ "1Ch a n^1'- } Courlftil.g Of IS fpecie.

Genus I. Lizards 1
which have the body

fomewhat tubercu- ? Confifting of 8 fpecies.
lated, and the tail I
flat. J

Genus II. Lizards i .

which have the tail ? Confifting of 12 fpecies.
verticillated. J

CLASS II. Thebofly

naked, with a tail.

Genus III. Lizards 1
which have the tail

round, fcaly, and ? Confifting of 5 fpecies.
fhorter than the |
body. J

Genus IV. Lizards
which have the tail I

round, fcaly, and f Confifting of 1 7 fpecies.
longer than the bo- I
dy. j

Genus V. Lizards'!
which have four | j ...

toes on the fore- j> Confifting of 5 fpecies.
feet, and the body |

fmooth. J

Genus VI. -Winged ? xhe Dragon.
Lizards. 3

r Genus I. Toads

the body round, I Ctjnfift;ng 0f ,4 fpeeics.

CLASS III. The body
naked, without a tail.

and tuberculated, [
the legs fhort.

Genus II. Frogs 1 I

.vhich have the > CdnCfting of 1 1 fpecies.

J

body long:

Genus III. Frogs
, which have the
toes terminating
in a broad flat fur- .
face. J

nfifting of 9 fpecies-

Table V. A Syftematic Table of Oviparous Quadrupeds, by M. de la Cepede;

class i.

Oviparous Quadrupeds, <
having a tail.

Genus I. Tortoises.

The body covered with a flicll.

Genus II. Lizards;

I. The toes are very unequal, "I

and a flu me, towards the .

extremities, the form of confifts °f 6 lPecies-

fins. J

II. The toes very Ihort, and 1 Ti rn c ,

, ' > It confifts of 1 8 fpecies.

nearly equal. J

I. The tail flat, and five toes 1 _ me r

, f . J- It confifts of 1 1 fpecies.

on the fore-fCct. J 1

II. The tail round, five toes")

on each foot, and feales I

riling on the back in ?I« confilts of s fpecies.
the form of a creft. J

III. The tail round, five toes

on the fore -feet, and

fcaly ftripes running a- p*1 confifts of 7 fpecies.
crofs the belly.

IV. The tail round, and five

toes on the fore- feet,
but no fcaly ftripes un- Confifts of 21 fpecies;
der the belly.

Thcbodynot coveredwith afhell.

V.

The under part of the toes"]
covered with feales, rif- 1
ing one over another,
like flates on the roof of
a houfe.

>It confifts of 3 fpecies.

VI.

Three toes oh both the ’
fore and the hinder feet. .

It confifts of 2 fpecies.

VII.

Membranes, of the form '
of wings.

It confifts of 1 fpecies.

VIII.

Three or four toes on the'

-

fore-feet, and four or
five toes on the hinder-
feet.

>It confifts of 6 fpecies.

Genus I. Frogs.

The head and body oblong, and I It confifts of 1 2 fpecies,

either the one or the other f |

CLASS II-

Oviparous Quadrupeds, <
without a tail.

angular.

Genus II.

The body oblong, and balls of ( — 1 — — — — — —
vifeid matter under the toes. J

Genus III.

The body bloated and round.

. }

It confifts of 7 fpecies.
It confifts of 14 fpecies.

TWO -TOOTED REPTILES.

— a

'.'wo fore-feet. It confifts of 1 fpecies.

i'wo hinder-feet It confifts of 1 fpecies.

\

*

'

.! ' tf

\

Table VI. The Divifon of Serpents , by Daubenton.

SERPENTS.

Genus I. Rattle - fnakes ; ot fuch as have a Rattle ^

at the extremity of the tail. > It confifts of four fpecies.

Grotalus, Limuei. J

Genus II. Serpents which have large feales (Scuta) beO

ncath the body and tail ; without a Rattle. > It confifts of ten fpecies.

Boa, Linn. 3

Genus III. Serpents which have large feales (Scuta) be-'}

ncath the body, and fmall feales (Squamx)f T r„ r . . ,

beneath the tail. 7 Q confifts of ninety-fix fpecies. ,

Coluber, Linn. J

Genus IV. Serpents which have fmall feales beneath
the body and tail.

Anguis, Linn.

It confifts of thirteen fpecies.

Genus V. Serpents which have the body divided into
annuli or rings.

Amphilbxna, Linn.

It confifts of two fpecies.

Genus VI. Serpents which have the fkin naked fmooth.7 rn- r „

Cecilia, Linn. 1 Itconfiftsoftwofpcc.es.

Table VII. ‘The Ichthyologic Syjlem of Gouan.

Table VIII.

! The Entomologic Method of Geoff rot.

S E

C T

O N S.

A R

T I C L E S.

GENERA.

II. . . .

Hemypt

half

era, or infe£ls whofe
nembranaceous. . . .

upper \

zings are half cruftaceous,

” Cicada.
Cime.yt.
Nal/coris.
Notonecla.
Corixa.
Hepa.
PMla.
Aphis.
Chernies.

_ Coccus.

III. . . .

Infctts

vitli four farinaceous

wings, .

' Papilie.
Sphinx.
Pterophorus.
Phahtna.
Jiineea.

SECTIONS.

articles.

R S.

GENERA.

Sect. I.
Coleoptera, or
Infe£ls with cruf-<
taceous fhells i
ver their wings.

, Either the II
covers the
and their f

1 is hard, and
hole abdomen ;
: have

Either five articulations to all the feet, fuch as the-

II Or, four articulations to all the feet, fuch as the

. Or the (hell is hard, and covers f H.
only part of the abdomen III.
and their feet have ^ •

- The Ihell is foft, and their
feet have

Platycerus.
Ptilinus.
Scarabeeus.
Copris.
Attelabus.
Dermefes.
Byrrhus.
Anthrenus.
Cifela.

Pellis.

Cucujttt.
Elater.

B up ref is.
Bruch us.
Lampyris.
Cicindela.
Onialyfus.
Hydrophylus.
Dyticus .

_ Gyrinus.
Melolontha .
Prionus.
Cerambix.
Leptura.
Stcnocorus.
Lupertts.
Cryptocephalus.
Crioceris.
Attica.
Galeruca •
Chryfomela.
Milabris.
Rhinotnaccr .
Curculio.
Bofrichus.
Glerus.
Anthribus.
Scolytus.
Crfda.

-.Anafpis.
Coccine/la .
Tritoma.
Diaperis.
Pyrochroa.
Cantharis.
Tenebrio.

Mor della.
Notoxus.
l Cerocoma.

. Either five articulations to all the feet, Staphylinus.

. Or four articulations to all the feet, Necydalis.

. Or three articulations to all the feet, Forfcula.

. Or five articulations to the two firfl pair of feet, 1 . » .
and four to the latter, ... - J e oe'

. Either five articulations to the two firfl pair of feet, 1

and four only to the latter, J a a-

. Or two articulations to all the feet, Trips.

. Or three articulations to all the f^et, ^Aerydium

Or four articulations to all the feet, ......... Locuf a.

Or five articulations to all the feet, Mantes .

, Infe&s with four naked
membranaceous wings.

. Three articulations to the feet
. Four articulations to the feet .

III. . . Five articulations to the feet .

f LibcUula.

' l Per/a.

. . Ruphidia.

' Ephemera.
Phryganea.
Heme/abius.
Formicaleo.
Panorpa.
Crabro.
Urocerus.

. .J Tenthredo.
Cynips.
Diplotepis.
Eulophus.
Ichneumon.
Vefpa.

Apis.
Formica.

. Or, three articulations to all the feet, fuch as .

. Or, five articulations in the two jfirft pair of feet,
and four only in the hinder pair, fuch as . . . .

V Infefls .with two wings.

: i

Oefrus.

Tabanus.

Aflus.

Stratiomys.

Mufca.

Stomoxys.

V olucetla.
Nemo/elus.

Scntopjr.

Hyppobofca.

Tipu/a.

Bibio.

Cu/ex.

VI Infe£ls without wings,

Pediculus.

Podura.

Ftrbicina.

Pu/ex.

Ghelifer.

Arams.

Pbalangium.

Aranea.

Monoculus.

Binoculns.

Cancer.

Oni/cus..

Afctlus.

Scolopendra.

lulus.

Table IX.

A methodical Dlvl/toii of Wont

WORMS

Se&ion I.

Naked Worms.

Order I. With uuivalvc Ihells.

Se£lion II.
Covered Worms.

Order II. With bivalve Ihells.

GENUS.

f i . Gordius.

{2. Lumbricus.
3. Afcarides.

4. Sanguifuga.
5. Liniax.

6. fflsenia.

f 1. Patella.

2. Haliotis.

3. Tubulus.

4. Nautilus.

5. Cochlea.

6. Ncrites.

7. Trochus.

8. Cilindrus.

9. Voluta.

10. Slrombis.
n. Buccinum.

12. Murex.

13. Purpura.

14. Porcellana.

15. Globus.

f 1. Oftrea.

2. Chama.

3. Concha cordis.

4. Peften.

. 5. Mytulus.

I 6. Solen.

Order III. With

1

Seftion III.

Cruftaceous Worms. — !

f 1. Pholas.

polyvalvc Ihells. i 2‘ Balanus.

3. Concha Anatifera.
I 4. Chiton.

f 1. Afterias.
— i 2. Echinus.

Seftion IV.
Polypi.

Order I. Naked polypi. S x* Hy**

Order II. Polypi,
or lig

Order IIR Polypi
cells.

Order TV. Polypi
fpong

^ 2. Urtica Marina.

in corneous C 1. Lithophyton.
leous cells. £ 2. Corallina.

n cretaceous r 1. Corallium.

r 1. Coralliun
£ 2. Madrepo

in toft and f 't Fd“?'
cells.

2. Spongia.

I 3. Alcyonium.

r, •

t, / ■<

■

I

I

>

f

, \

(

I I

I ’

*

/ ./'

/

/

i

\

I

■ ■ -