METHOD

\

OF

! Studying Natural Hiftory ;

1 KbcO'Y.. n R E I K G

f'- AN ORATION

Delivered to the Societas Nature Studio-
soruMj at Edinburgh, in the Year i yS2>

By RICHARD KENTISH,

M. D. F. A. S. Ed, Prefident of the Society, and Member
of feveral Literary Societies, See, See.

<— — — - . -

L O N D O N:

*

Printed for P. ELMSLEY, in the Strand; and
J. JOHNSON, in St. Pau l’s Ch URCH-YaRQ. '

M D C C L X X X V I t«

t

J>

4

64 Look thro* Nature^ up to Nature’s God^f

'

Pope/* •

TO THE RIGHT HONORABLE

Lord Vifcount Mandeville,

My Lord,

T FEEL myfelf happy in the permif-
-*■ lion of dedicating this little work
to your Lordfhip; and I flatter myfelf
that its object will not appear unworthy
that attention which Natural Hiftory
deferves, as a part of polite education.
The ftudy of Nature forms one of the
moil pleafing and inftrudlive amufe-
ments of youth;— —it is become the fa¬
vored topic of Princes, and the great

delight of fcientific men. - It has

opened to our view, in its varied pur-
fuits, a wide and extenfive field of ob¬
servation and improvement. - It has

aided the arts, and proved the balls of

fcience. - Its utility has recommended

it to all ranks of fociety ; and I Jiope

a 2 that

*

( iv )

that the obfervations which are here
prefented to your Lordfhip will ferve to
facilitate an acquifition, which will
prove a fource of rational entertain¬
ment, and important information,
throughout the various periods of that
elevated flation which your Lordfhip is
deftined to fulfil. And that you may
imitate the engaging example of your
illuftrious parents, and emulate their
noble virtues, is the earnefl wifh of

My LoxtI,

Your Lordfliip's moft obedient,

* i »

Humble Servant,

RICHARD KENTISH.

* . - . . - / t

. S v } , * -

Gower-Street , Bedford-Square ,

June 7, 1787.

PREFACE,

V

« *

P R E F A C F.

the prof 'ejfed intention of an Author
is mere utility , the acquirement of much
fame is precluded , and he ought to feel himfelf

f . ■

happy if he ef capes without cenfure . — Suck, in the

prefent injlancey is my own cafe . - I do not in

this performance ft and for fh as the Champion of
Dfcovery, or the Inventor of Theory , — An un¬
expected occurrence laid the foundation of this
Difcourfe , and a peculiarity of events has in¬
duced its publication . In the courfe of my ftudies
at the Univerjity of Edinburgh, I neceffarily
became engaged in the purfuits of Natural Hi-
[torys and I Joon perceived that a connected view

of the fcience , in our own language , uw want¬
ing. An occafion offered for my exertions ,

'i i

I ventured to arrange my ideas in a fummary
view of the fubjecl before a Society of Naturalifls
in the Univerjity .

/

%

It was the wiflo of fever al learned friends
that I floGuJd prefent my arrangement to the public |

but I rejected fuch felicitation, in hopes of per -

%

felling my views : — profejjional engagements ,
and an almoft total abftr allion from literary pur-
juits during an annihilation of a triennial rufti-
<e at ion, prevented me from fuch an undertaking .
At lengthy however, I was tempted to review my
theme, and I have only now to regret that it was
not longer delayed . The additions which a coun¬
try life afforded me to make were fo trivial , that

( vii )

my work may /till appear imperfect . But I am
not without hopes that it may , notwithstanding^
pojfefs fufficient merit for the purpofe to which it
is dejigned. — By prefent ing to the young Student
a fyftematic view of the moft approved methods,
of Jiudying the three kingdoms , or grand ar¬
rangements of Nature 5 with the heft authors on
each, my Work will be found to comprize a tota¬
lity which is not ( is far as I can learn ) to be met
with in our own language*— I truft , therefore ,
as a General Introduction , it may have its ufe ;
and 1 have reajons for its prefent publication
[till more urgent . Having engaged in a Courje
of LeCtures on Ghemiftry and the Materia Me-
die a, I am induced to prefent my pupils with this
view of the Method of Studying Natural
Hiftory. being fully convinced that no real pro-

v \

grefs

( viii )

grefs in either of thefe fciences can be made with¬
out fuch ftudy\ — It is on thefe arguments alone
that I venture 10 prefent my EJfay to the perufai
of the candid reader «

Gentlemen,

I

Gentlemen*

I Cannot enter on the eiercifc of that

office to which you have ’ elected me.

^ *

without thanking you for the honor
which fuch a choice has conferred
upon me. I now feel the want of
thofe talents which I have fo often
admired in others. Oratory is an
acquifition, which I now would with
to poffefs. But the art of fpeak-
ing is not to be acquired in a mo¬
ment. Nature has not been alike
bountiful in her gifts of fpeech. To
fpeak well in public allemblies is
an accorrfjvlifhment not dependant on
the natural Powers alone. Cuftom and
Habit give confidence to the fpcakcr,
and thoughts and words, like mecha¬
nical operations, are facilitated by ufe,
and improved by culture. Eloquence,
is not however the diftinguifhiiig mark
of a philofopher j to think accurately,

B to

( 2 )

to fpeak juftly and reafon rightly, arc
objects of his attention. The flowers
of rhetorick and the ornaments of
fpeech he ftudies not. Though he
admires them in others, he is apt to
difregard them as ufelefs and often
prejudicial to philofophy, To im¬
prove the heart and inflruct the head,
are objects of his attention. You,
Gentlemen, as a Society of Philofo-
phers, will therefore, I truft, excufe
the want of eloquence in your Prefi-
dent ; vou will hearken to what he
may fay with readinefs, and iiflen to
the matter, regardlefs of the manner.

To thank you for the honor I have
received is not fuflicient ; unprovided
therefore as I am with a rich “ ward¬
robe of words,” unadorned as my ar¬
gument may appear, I fhall attempt to
compenfate for this defect by calling
your attention for a few moments to
objects worthy of your confideration.
As an original Member of this Society,

you

( 3 )

you will pardon me, if I prefume to
lay before you the Hiftory of this now
refpedable Infdtution. Your Society ,
Gentlemen, dates its Origin from the
year 1782. A year diftinguifhed for
the number of ingenious and learned
men in this Univerfity. The Students
were indeed not fo numerous as at
prefent, but the names of men, who
that year adorned the Lift, and parti¬
cularly aflifted in the formation of this
Society, will long be remembered with
pleafure, and mentioned with refpeft.

A fet of Gentlemen from various
parts of the world, whofe parental
climes differed more than their Opi¬
nions, united for the purpofe of mutual
improvement in the different branches
of Natural Hiftory, Botany, and Mine¬
ralogy were their chief purfuits, and
to procure fpecimens of the different
Plants, and Minerals, their intention.
For this purpofe they met, and unani-
moufly went in queft of their refpedive

B 2 objeds.

( 4 )

objeCts. Having for fometime confo
nued to amufe themfelves in this man*?
ncr, fome circumftances occurred which
made them defirous of meeting for the
purpofe of imparting their difcoveries :
accordingly they met at each others
rooms, and each in his turn entertained
the reft with his fuccefs in collecting*
The moft curious fpecimens were pro¬
duced and the general opinions received.
We did not long continue this mode
of meeting before we attracted the
notice of the moft eminent Naturalifts

i \

in Edinburgh. The Profeffors of the
Univerfity, with that Liberality which
marks their character, offered every
affiftance to our enquiries. The Col¬
lege Mufeum was tendered to our ufe,
the Profeffor of Natural Hiftory enter¬
tained us with the choiceft fpecimens
of his cabinets, entered his name upon
our lift of ordinary members, and be¬
came a conftant attendant on our de¬
bates : How great the improvement

we

( 5 )

we now receive from inch attention,
you all know, After this Acquifitiom
to our number, our fame went abroad.
Gentlemen of the moil diftinguifhed
Talents affociated with us, our illuftri-
ous Profeffors of Ghemiftry and Botany
took their feats in this Society, its at¬
tendant members increafed, regulations
were found neceffary, and a Code of
Laws, fimple but efficient, were efta-
blifhed. Every Member in his turn
gave in papers for difcuffion, a
Calendarium Flora was kept, cbfervations
from different quarters were received,
we were no longer a Society of young;
uninformed Undents, Gentlemen of
the firft abilities and diftindtion honored
us with their remarks, and Nobility
itfelf added dignity to our lift of
members. Such is the Hiftory of our
firft Seffion. In the year 1783 our
meetings were faffiioned into a regular
Society, Officers were appointed, Pre-
fidents were elected, and our numbers
' ' increafed.

( 6 )

increafed. The prefent Seffion has
confirmed the Utility of fuch an In-
ftitution ; and I truft, Gentlemen,
your foundation is now too firm ever
to fall. When I reflect on the fmall
beginning and rapid improvement of
this Society, I cannot help congratu¬
lating its Members on the profpects
before them. The hiftories of few
focieties rife with fuch rapidity towards
perfection ; the flate you have now
attained, and the number of illuftrious
Characters that adorn your Lift of
Members augurs profperity. Your
Society, I prefume to hope, will flourifh,
and its name go abroad. At this feat of
fcience it will prove a fruitful feminary
of natural knowledge, and as its
Members difleminate they will fpread
its Fame. To attempt an eulogy on
the objeCls of your meetings will ap¬
pear Superfluous, I muft content my-
felf therefore with faying a few words
on the fttidy of Natural Hiftory. Such

of

( 7 )

of my hearers as are already advanced
far on the fcale of fcience, will I trull
pardon the liberty I take in addreffing
myfelf to the younger Members of this
Society. To them I would obferve that
Natural Hiftory now makes a part of
polite education, and the man who is
ignorant of it will frequently be de¬
prived of one of the greatefl fources of
felf-amufement.

It would be no difficult matter to
fiiew the utility, fublimity and im¬
portance of that fcience which vin¬
dicates the ways of God to man,’’
but I trull that none of my hearers
will Hand in need of arguments or
logical reafoning, to convince them
of the rank which the ftudy of nature
holds amongft the fciences. Every
branch of natural Hiftory is now be¬
come an important part of literature,
it is cultivated by the liigheft orders
of fociety, even Princes themfelves
have laboured in the extenfive field

which

Which it opens to their view, and thelf
re fe arches have been attended with
fuccefs. The encouragement given toi
this ftudy is of very ancient date.

Alexander the Great allowed Arifto-*
tie a confiderable fum, to enable him
to purfue this knowledge, and large
fums of mony have been expended in
our own and other countries of Europe,
in the formation of thofe collections
which do honour to the tafte of a re¬
fined people, and mark the munifi¬
cence of an enlightened age. The
attention of foreigners has been con-
ftantly attracted by thefe repofitories of
curiofities, and though the greater
part of travellers are admitted but to
gaze with wonder on the ftrange ap¬
pearances prefented to their view, yet
to a philofophical enquirer, the effect
is widely different. When he beholds
the productions of different climates,
and fees the varied form of nature ;
when he finds himfelf furrounded

with

. M 9 )

With the inhabitants of different ele-
litents, and divers countries; when he
traces the variety of fpecics, and infi¬
nitude of products j when he examines
the contrail in free and fhape of ani¬
mals, the wonderful economy of
Vegetables, and the properties of

the Mineral kingdom, he is led into

a thoufand fpeculations on the ap¬

pearances of life, the methods inade
ufe of to fuftain the living principle,
and the wonderful extent, and di-
verfity of organized and unorganized
matter* The arranged collection of
art is not however the fource front
which the greatefl knowledge is de¬
rived. The whole fyftem of nature is
to the Philofopher a grand Mu'feum,
and the properties of its contents the
fit fubjecl of his contemplation.

It is by fuch purfuits that the
human intellect affcrts its native dig¬
nity, and claims the afcendancy which
it pofTeffes, Every fubordinate fpecies

C of

\

( t* }

of the animal creation adls contented
in a lefler fphere, and performs the part
affigned it with inftindtive quietude,’
but man contemplates on the things
around him, furveys, examines, and
admires ; his capacity is adapted to
complex enquiries, he is not fatisfied
with the bare infpeftion of fa6fs, he
marks effects, and dares to afb the caufe,-
The aptitude of his mind is fuch, that
the moft complicated inveftigation is
within the eompafs of his intelligence,
and ideas the moft abftracft, are com-1
prehended with fimple facility. He
taftes the pleafures of an imagination
too fine for the grofs conception of
other animals, and pervades the fecret
paths of Nature.

To every order of fociety the ftudy
of nature cannot fail of being intereft-*
ing; it is in a peculiar manner con¬
nected with the avocations of fome
men ; it is the pedeftal of philo-
fophy, and the foie foundation of all

her

( » )

\

her difcoveries. The practical pro-*
feffions of mankind are frequently
infeparable from the ftudy of nature.
The feience of Medicine is a ftriking
inftance of this kind ; the connection
is fo intimate, that we find the names of
phyficians conftantly enrolled amongft
the moil eminent naturalifts, The
fciences of Chemiftry, Botany, and
Anatomy, which form the moft material
branches of medical education, cannot
be attained without a partial knowledge
of Natural Hjftory ; and although a
minute acquaintance with the multi¬
plied objects of each department is te^
dioufiy laborious, yet a general one is
eafy, ufeful, and neceffary to the cha¬
racter of a polite fcholar. Without
pretending to a minute knowledge of
thefubjedt, orwifhing to arrogate more
information than you are ready to admits
l will venture to beg your indulgence
yvhillt I fay a few words to thofe who
niay be entering on this pleafing ftudy,

( 12 )

The whole diveruty of organized
and unorganized matter, which pre¬
sents itfelf to our view in the external
or internal parts of the Earth, has been
comprehended by the Namralifts under
three grand clahe s or divilions, which
have been called the Three Kingdoms
of Nature, viz. The Mineral, 2. Ve¬
getable, 3. and Animai.

By the aid of thefe general, and feme
fubordinate diftindions, which will
fall under our consideration, the ftudy
of Nature is facilitated, the various ap¬
pearances of bodies, which at firft fight
feem innumerable, are brought under
our review, and we are enabled to
characterize them by peculiar marks.
It is to this claflification that we are
indebted for that comprehensive know¬
ledge which we are able to attain, and
that acquaintance which we poffefs
with the animate and inanimate parts
of the Creation. The methods which
have been ufed for this purpofe, are the

prefent

prefent objects of our attention. By
detailing the principal fyftems which
have appeared, I fhall have an oppor¬
tunity of remarking on the excellencies
and defeats of each, and be enabled to
point out the proper guide for the con¬
duct of beginners.

Mineralogy is that branch of Natu¬
ral Hiftory, which falls firft under our
consideration. We fliall view it in its
moft extenlive fenfe, and by Minerals
denote, not only fuch fubftances as are
found in mines, as Metals, Semi-metals,
Sulphur and Salts, but likewife all
follils that do not belong either to
the Vegetable or Animal Kingdom.
This ftudy appears to be very ancient.
The Jews and Egyptians in the time of
Mofes were acquainted with precious
Hones, and even the moft rude and
barbarous nations have been found to
poftefs feme knowledge of the ores
of different metals. But it is only in
modern times, amongft civilized and

learned!

( i4 )

learned nations, that Mineralogy has
affixmed the form of a regular fcience.
It is a branch of learning, whofe cul¬
tivation and improvement requires both
fpeculation and practice. Many na¬
tions in Europe have found it an objedfc
of political attention. In Sweden and
Germany there are colleges in which
it is regularly taught ; it forms a
diftindfc and honorable profeffion, like
that of the divine, the phyfician, or
the barrifter, and its fuperior officers,
form a part of the adminiftration of
the Rate. ^ The Undents are fent to
foreign climates for the purpofe of col¬
lecting rare and curious fpecimens.
The Ruffians and Spaniards have lately
adopted this plan, and the French have
eredted a Mineralogical School at Paris,
to which a confiderable Ilipend is
annexed. Perfons are employed in
tracing fubterraneous maps of the

wholq

Kirwan’s Elem. of Min. p° 28.

( *5 )

■Whole kingdom of France, and Mine-
ralogical Voyages have been taken at
the public expence. In our own
country, which is allowed to be richer
than France in mineral productions,
the fcience of Mineralogy has received
no encouragement from the public,
and the ftudy has been chiefly confined
to a few Gentlemen of the Medical
profeliion. Even Chemiftry, which
we fhall attempt to fliew, is the parent
of Mineralogy, has been fcarce attended
to in England, whilft neighbouring
nations have purfued it with enthu-
fiaitic ardour ; it forms the favourite
occupation, and even the moll fafhion-
able objeCt of attention, not only of
the middling, but even of feme in the
higheft ranks of fociety. *

Before

* Among thefe fays Mr. KLrwan, we may reckon
in Ruffia, Prince Gallitzen : in Germany, Count
Sickcngen ; in Italy, the Counts de Sa! uces* de
Morozzo, and the Marquis de Gircni, G overnor of

.Leghorn ;

( i6 )

Before we detail the fyftems which
have been profefledly offered to the
public, we fhould premife, that it has
long been matter of controverfy among
the Naturalifts, “ Whether the cha¬
racters of minerals fhould be taken
from external appearances only, or
from their internal properties as difeo-
vered by chemical agents ? If it be
granted that every art and fcience
fhould be founded on permanent prim
ciples, there can be no doubt but the
latter opinion is founded in truth, and
that the internal properties of minerals

are

-- . — — * — .. . .. . i — . i . . . . . . . . . „ , ...

Leghorn; in Geneva, Mr. deSauflure; in France,
the Dukes de Chaulnes, Rochefoucault, and D’Ayen ;
the Counts de Lauraguais, la Garay, Milly, Treflan,
and de la Tour d’Auvergne; the Marquifles de Cour-
tenvaux, and de Courtivron ; the Barons d’Olbach and
de Servieres; Meilieurs Trudaine, Lavoifier, Montigny,
de Morveau ; and among the Ladies, Madame la Pre¬
fid ente d*Arconville. To this Lift we may add the
Earl Dondoflald in Scotland, and Mr. Kirwan himfelf
in England.

Kir wan’s Elem. Min. Pref. iii. npte*

( l7 )

are the only durable marks on which
we can depend, in our researches on
the unorganized, inanimate parts of
matter. The Study of Mineralogy
therefore, neceflarily requires the know¬
ledge of the general principles of
Chemiftry, for which purpofe I re¬
commend to your attention, the Dic¬
tionary of Chemiftry by M. Macquer,
tranflated by Mr. Keir, whofe notes are
a valuable addition. The Chemical
Effays of the Bifhop of Llandaff, are
valuable on account of their ap plica-

Cl*

tion to the arts ; whilft the Elements
of Chemiftry by M. Fourcroy, contain
all that is neceffary for a beginner
to Study as the rudiments of the
Science. The works of many eminent
chemical philofophers, as Bergman,
Scheele, Lavoifier, Morveau and others
who have written Singly, or publilhed
papers in the different Periodical Tranf-?
actions or Memoirs of learned Societies,
gs thofe of the Royal Society of Lon-

13 do u

( 18 )

don, Academic de Science of Paris,
Stockholm and Peterfburgh, &c. will
give him great information. But the
Didtionaire de Chymie, now publifh-
ing by M. Morveau, in the Encyclo¬
pedic, is j truly efteemed the firft chy-

'• «r - A

mical work that ever appeared.

When a tolerable knowledge of
Chemiftry is once acquired, the ftudy
of Mineralogy will be eafy ; for we
afiume it as an cftabliilied fadt, that
no real progrefs can be made in this
Science independant of fuch a founda¬
tion. The early Syftems were in this
repfeft defective. We fhall .take a
fhort view of them.

The earliefl fyftem of which I have
any account, was that of Magn.
Bergarter Bromel, publifhed in 1730.
He arranges all Mineral fubftances
under the following claffes. x. Teme.
2. Salia. 3. Sulphura. 4. Lapides.
1 Igne perliftentes. 5. 2 Calcinabiles.
6, 3 Igne Vitrefcentes. 7. Figurati.

8.

( l9 )

8. Petrifafla. 9. Calculi. 10. Semi-
Metalla. 11. Metalla.

There are many miftakes in this
work, and its fundamental error is
the want of Chemical knowledge in
the author.

In 1736, the celebrated Linnaeus,
Profeflor of Natural Hiltory at Upfal in
Sweden, publifhed a Syftem, in which
he comprehends all Minerals under
three claffes. 1. Petrae. 2. Minerae.

3. Follilia.

The work is defective in many par¬
ticulars, but from the minute attention
paid to fpecies, may be ufeful for fome
purpofes.

In 1747 J. G. Wallerius publifhed a
work which is in high efteem even at
this day by many Naturalifts. It is
certainly ufeful for the ftudy of fpecies,
but he has not availed himfelf of the
aid of Chemiftry. His divilions are,
1. Terrs. 2. Lapides. 3. Miners.

4. Concrete.

D 2 In

In 1748, J. L. YVolterfdorf fcnt into
the world a fyftem comprized under
the following claffes. 1. Terras 2. La-
pides. 3. Salia. 4. Bitumina. 5. Semi-
metalla. 6* Metalla. 7. Petrifafta. The
laft clafs is treated very fully, and as
the branch is curious, it may afford in-
ftruclion to thofe who particularly wifh
to purfue this part of Natural Hiftory.

In 1755, F. A. Cartheufer publifhed
a Syftem of Mineralogy with the fol¬
lowing divifions. 1. Terra. 2. Lapides.
3. Salia. 4. Inflammabilia. 5. Semi-
metalla 6. Metalla. 7. Heteromorpha.
Under the laft clafs he includes the
Petrifafta.

The Syftem of J. H. G. Juftus.
appeared in 1757, his divifions are,-
1. Metalla. 2. Semi-Metalla, 3. Phlo-
giftica. 4. Salia. 5. Petrificata. 6. Ter-
rena. The work is faid to treat coph
oufly of the gems,- but I have not been

able to meet with it.

*■ -• • - «

in

t

( 21 )

til 1758 an anonymous publication
appeared, of which Linnseus fays “ Vox
Swabii, manus Cronftedti.” He was

1

right in fuppofing the work to be Cron-
ftedt’s. Whatever aid Swab afforded
is unknown. The fyftem has been
uniformly attributed to Cronftedt, an*d
fince publifhed in his name. It is this
work which laid the foundation of the
prefent improved flate of Mineralogy.
But it is highly probable that the wri¬
tings of fome diftinguifhed philofophers^
as Mr. Margraaf of Berlin, and Mn
Pott, who about this time publifhed his
Lithogenefis, were in fome degree the
eaufe of the improvement which took
place. This fyftem was the firft which
introduced Ghemiftry as the bafts of
the fcience. His claffes, and genera
and fpecies, are drawn from the com-
pofttion and internal nature of mine¬
rals, but the varieties from external
appearance only. By this means the
advantages of both fyftem $ are com¬
bined. The

The clafles are i. Terrse. 2. Salia.
3. Phlogiftica. 4. Metalla. The work
has been in general efteem with the che¬
mical left, and the Undent will find it
of great nfe previous to his entering
upon a minute inveftigation of fpecies
in the fyftem delivered by Mr. Kirwan,
whofe refearches place him far above
the fcale of ordinary writers. A fyftem
of fix claffes was publiflied by Vogel,
and a copious work onEnglifli foflils by
Sir John Hill, but they do not appear
to be worthy much attention. We
ought however to remark, that not long
ago fame ftrenuous advocates have
written in defence of the opinions
which found the fcience on the exter¬
nal appearances of minerals only. Mr.
Werner has written in the German lan-
guage a Treatife on the external cha¬
racters of Foflils, which is in high
efteem. Mr. Rome de Lille has like-
wife publiflied a voluminous Treatife on
the external forms of Chryltals, under

which

( 23 3

which title he comprehends all thole
Foffils that are fufceptible of a regular
figure, which he imagines may be dif-
tinguilhed by the angles their plane:
make with each other, if there be no
heterogeneous matter contained in them. The
objections to this latter opinion are
very obvious. There are many minerals
which have no appearance of chry-
ftallizations. There are likewife chry-

J

ftallizations of no determinate figure, and
the very form of chryftals often depends
upon accident, Mr. Werner attempts
to clafs minerals by the joint confider-
ation of all their external properties;
but that this combination of character
is inadequate to the purpofe will be
apparent, by confidering the miftakes
which have hapoened. in fuch a clafi-
fification. So far from becoming ac¬
quainted with the nature of a mineral
by fuch a fuperficial examination, we
deceive ourfelves, and may commit
miftakes of ferious confequence. We

may

( H )

may rejedt foffils of high value, or
remain unacquainted with minerals
which contain the moft precious fub-
ftances. The ores of metals are often
only to be known by chemical tefts,
Mr. Werner has placed among the
Micas a green foliated fubftance ; *
which being fent to Mr. Bergman,
proved to be a compound of marine
fait of copper, and argillaceous earth.
So much fuperior is chemical experi¬
ment to bare enquiry, that this mis¬
take was detedted in fo fmall a quan¬
tity as a fxngle grain. Mr. Kirwan has
placed the excellency of chemiftry in
a ftriking point of view, by examining
the mutability of thofe external pro¬
perties which minerals poffefs. And
its it is impoflible to fet the matter in
a clearer light than he has done, we
fhall take the liberty of adding an
abftradt of his obfervations, which will

corroborate

Kirwan p. vii Prcf.

corroborate the opinion we have labored
to eftablifh. That colour is a very de¬
ceitful appearance, is manifeft to every
one who knows that white quartz,
white lead ore, and white calcareous
iron ore, have exactly the fame fnow
white colour; There are likewife
fome fpecies of the ores of iron, mam
ganefe, cobalt and copper, of the
fame iron-grey colour, whilft wol¬
fram and blende are of the fame
brown ifh black, &c : a change of tex¬
ture frequently produces a change of
Colour, thus a lump of cinnabar,
which is dark red , will become of a
beautiful Jlorid red , by limply reducing
it into powder,

T ranfparency and opacity are common,
to a great variety of very different

fubftances.

Coherence and hardnefs are properties

equally ambiguous. When a body
is fo hard as to ftrike fire with ft eel,
k has been fuppofed to be pure flint

E or

( 26 )

or filiceous earth, and this has been
efteemed the moft certain infallible teft;
but it is now known that well baked
clay, and other fubftances, will exhibit
this appearance.

Texture , in all its varieties, is com¬
mon to fubftances widely different.
Thus the fibrous is found in afbeftos,
fhoerl, feme varieties of gypfum, py¬
rites, pumice, antimony, haematites*
malachite, cobalt, and arfenical ores ;
the icaly in mica, lead and iron ores
&c. &c.

The varieties of Jhape , even when
regular and determinate, are innu¬
merable. Mr. de Lille finds nine vari¬
eties in that of fluor, thirty-two in
the fhape of calcareous fpar, fourteen
in that of gypfum, flxteen in that of
quartz, befides its monftrous forms,
equally regular as the reft ; nineteen
in that of felt, fpar, &c. The fame
fpecific fubftance is not only fufceptible
of various fhapes, but various fub¬
ftances

( 27 )

fiances fpecifically different, aflame the
fame fliape. The native calx of arfe-
nic, blende, cinnabar and grey copper
ore, appear often in a tetrahsedal form ;
zeolyte, fluor, common fait, galsena,
in a cubic, &c.

The form of faline fubftances has
been thought moil permanent, but
Mr. Pott affures us, that microcofmic
fait affumes the figure of aim oft all
other falts, viz. nitre, vitriol, fal am¬
moniac, allum, Glauber’s fairs, &c.* *
Mr. Macquer difcovered that corrofive
fublimate chryftallized by cooling
forms needles, but by mere evapora¬
tion cubes or lozenges. f

Many other inftances might be given
of the infufficiency of figure or fhape
for the perfect delineation of perma¬
nent mineral characters.

E 2

V 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - —

* Vid. IV. Pott, 49.

% Mem. Par. 1755, p. 540.

Specific

( 28 )

Specific Gravity is allowed to be one
of the beft external tefis ; but it fre¬
quently varies, by reafon either of the
different texture of the fame fpecies of
mineral into whole interfaces water
cannot equally penetrate, or by reafon
of the greater proportion of fomc or
other of the conflituent parts, as is par¬
ticularly obfervable in zeolytes, fparry
or calcareous iron ore, and other fof-
fils. Alfo, various fubflances fpecifi-
cally different, poflefs very nearly the
fame fpecific gravity.*

It now remains that we give an Ac¬
count of the true method of fludying
Mineralogy, in doing which we are
lead to fpeak of fome excellent per¬
formances which have appeared in our
own time ; the Sciagraphia Regni
Minerahs of Sir Torbern Bergman,
Profeflbr of Chemiflry at Upfal, tended
very much to the improvement of

Mineralogy,

# Via. Kn wan’s Elerru of Min. Pref. viii. ix. x. xu

C 29 )

Mineralogy. It may be confidered as
3. mailer-piece of the kind. His claffes
are four. i. Sales. 2. Terra. 3. Bi~
tumina. 4. Metalla. Thcfe, he ob~
fe rves, are the moil natural diviiions.
“ Foffilia/5 fays he, “ generatim qua-
druplicis funt differentiae vel enini
falina, vel terrena, vel phlogiitica, vel
denique metallica indole gaudere repe-
jiuntur. Hinc quatuor enafcuntur
Claffes *”

He has introduced fome new terms
into the fcience which feem very ex-
preffive, and which have given rife to
a happy choice of names affixed to
fpecies. Thus among the Sales Neu-
trales, their nature is defigned by their
appellation.

What was commonly called vario¬
lated tartar, is named alkali vegetabiie
vitriolatum, which ihews at once the
component parts of the compound.

The

r— — — — - — • — - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

* Bergm. Sciagr. Regn, Min. p. 20

/

( 30 )

The Glauber’s fait is named alkali mi-
nerale vitriolatum. The ufe of fuch
names is obvious to a Chemift. We
immediately fee that in the firft exam¬
ple, the mineral is compofed of the
vegetable alkali united to the vitriolic
acid ; in the latter, it is the mineral
alkali combined with the fame acid.
Amongft the faline fubftances with an
earthy bafis, we like wife find the na¬
ture of the foflil exprefled by its name,
Epfom fait is named magneftavitriolata,
and alum, argilla vitriola. Amongft
thofe with a metallic bafis, the union
is equally clear : blue vitriol is named
cuprum vitriolatum ; white vitriol,
zincum vitriolatum, &c. We are at
firft fight rather furprifed to find the
diamond arranged amongft the bitu-
mina, or inflammable fubftances.
Mr. Bergman proceeds on a faft pub-
liflied by M. Lavoifier in the Mem, de
FAcad. de Paris, and which has fince
been fully eftabliflied. This precious

ftone^

( 31 )

ftone, which has by the common con-
fent of all mankind been held in ge¬
neral efteem, is now found to poflefs
properties peculiar to itfelf. When
expofed to the focus of a ftrong burn¬
ing lens, it is entirely evaporated under
the form of vapor.

The great genius of Newton never
fhone more confpicuous, than in the
minute obfervations which he made
on this lingular gem. In the fecond
book of Optics, part iii. prop. x. we
have a curious inveftigation of the
properties, which unCtuous and fill-
phureous bodies have in reflecting and
refraCting the rays of light, the words
of the propofltion are : “ If light be

fwifter in bodies than in vacuo, in
proportion of the fines which meaftire
the refraCtion of the bodies, the forces
of the bodies to refleCt and refraCt
light, are very nearly proportional to
the denflties of the fame bodies, ex¬
cepting that unCtuous and fulphu-

TCOUS

( 32 )

re'ous bodies refract more than others1
of the fame denfity.

In the proof of this propolition, we
are prefented with a table, which is-
worthy the attention of every chemi¬
cal philofopher, and as I do not know
that it has ever been noticed in the
works of Chemiftry, I flrall here take
the liberty of offering it to the infpec-
tion of the reader. In doing this, it
is but fair that I acknowledge my
obligations to an ingenious friend, the
Reverend Mr. Stephenfon, Fellow of Clare
Hall, who firft pointed out to me the
following pafiages.

TABLE

(

33 )

T

A

B

L

F

»

TheSquare

The den-

The re-

The proportion

ofB.R.to

fity and

fraCtive

refraAin0' Bo-

of the Signs of

which the

fpecific

flower of

dies.

Incidence

and

refraCting

Gravity of

the Body

Refraction

of

force of the

the Body.

in refpeCt

yellow Light.

Body is pro-

ofits den-

portion ate.

fity.

A Pfeudo Topazius,

being a natural pel¬
lucid brittle hairy
Stone, of a Yellow
Colour

23 to

14

1,699

4>27

3979

Air

5851 to

3S50

0,00052

0,00x25

4160

Glafs of Antimony

17 to

9

2,568

5,28

4864

A Selenitis

61 to

41

1,213

2,252

53S6

Gials Vulgar

31 to

20

1,4025

2,58

543°

Chryftal of the Rock

25 to

16

i)445

2,65

5450

Ifland Chryftal -

5 to

3

1,778

2,72

6536

Sal Gemmae

17 to

1 1

1,388

2,143

6477

Alume -

35 t0

24

1,1267

1,714

6570

Borax -

22 to

*5

1,1511

G7H

6716

Niter -

32 to

21

I)345

1,9

7079

Dantzick Vitriol

103 to

200

1,295

G715

7 5 5 1

Oil of Vitriol -

10 to

' 7

1,041

G7

6 1,24

Rain Water - *

529 to

396

°)7S45

1,

7845

Gumm Arabic

31 to

21

IA79

!)375

8574

Spirit ofWine well
rectified

ICO to

73

0,8765

o,S66

10121

Camphire

3 to

2

1,25

0,996

I253I

Oil Olive - - -

22 to

1 5

0,913

I2607

Lintfeed Oil

40 to

27

1,1948

0,932

I2819

Spirit of Turpentine.

25 to

17

1,1626

0,874

I 3222

Amber -

14 to

9

1,42

1,04

I3654

A Diamond -

IOO to

4i

4,949

3 ’4

I4556

<c The refraction of the air in this
table, is determined by that of the
atmofphere, obferved by aftronomers,
for if light pafs through many re¬
fracting fubftances or mediums, gra-

( 34 )

dually denfer and denfer, and termi¬
nated with parallel furfaces, the fum
of all the refractions will be equal to
the fmgle refraftion, which it would
have fullered in pallingimmediately out
of the firfl: medium into the lad. And
this holds true, though the number of
the ref rafting fubdances be increafed
to infinity, and the didances from one
another as much decreafed, fo that the
light may be refrafted into every
point of its pailage, and by continual

refractions, bent into a curve line.
And therefore the whole refraftion of
light, in palling through the atmof-
phere, from the highed and rareft
part thereof, down to the lowed and
clenfed part, mud be equal to the
refraftion, which it would fuffer in
palling at like obliquity out of a
vacuum, immediately into air of
equal denfity, with that in the lowed
part of the atmofphere.

Now

( 35 )

Now by this table, the refractions
of a Pfeudo Topaz, a Selenitrs, Rock
Chryftal, Ifland Chryftal, Vulgar Glafs,
(that is, land melted together) and
Glafs of Antimony, which are ter-
reftrial Honey aicalizate Concretes, and
air , which probably arijes from fitch buh fiances
by fermentation , though thefe be fub-
ftances very different from one another
in denfity, yet they have their refrac¬
tive powers almoft in the fame pro¬
portion to one another, as their den-

V

lities are, excepting, that the refraction
of that ftrange fubftance, Ifland Chryf¬
tal, is a little bigger than the ref

And particularly Air, which is 3,400
times rarer than the Pfeudo-Topaz,
and 4,200 times rarer than Glafs of
antimony, has, notwithftanding its ra¬
rity, the fame refractive power in
refpect of its denfity, which thole two
very denfe fubftanees have in refpect
of theirs, excepting fo far, as thefe
two differ from one another,

2 Again

( 36 )

Again, refraction of the Cam-
phire,Oi! Olive, Lintfeed Oil, Spirit
of Turpentine and Amber, which are
fat and ftiphur eons unBuous bodies , and a dia¬
mond, which probably is an unctuous fub fiance
coagulated , have their refractive powers,
in proportion to one another as their
denfities, without any confiderable va¬
riation. But the refractive powers of
thefe undtuous fubftances, is two or
three times greater in refpeCt of their
denfities, than the refractive powers
of the former fubftances in refpeCt
of theirs.”

For the remaining part of the ob-
fervations, which are well worthy the
attention of a Chemift, we muft refer
to the work itfelf, without which,
the whole of the table here given,
cannot be underftood

The work of Mr. Kirwan has no
rival. It pofleffes the fmgular advan¬
tage of combining the excellence of
preceding writers with many new dis¬
coveries*

{ 37 )

coveries. The author has availed
himfelf of the labors of others, and
labored much himfelf.

The Sciagraphia Mineralis of Mr.
Bergman has been of great ufe to him,
and Mr. Kirwan acknowledges that it
was, “ by the folidity of his judg¬
ment, the ingenuity and accuracy of
his methods, and the multiplicity of
his experiments, that Mineralogy was
brought to that degree of perfection
at which we at prefent behold it.
The writings of Margraaf of Berlin,
and the difeoveries of Brandt, Swab,
Gahn, and Scheele are all made
fubfervient to this fyftem. The dalles
of our author are the fame as thofe of
M. Bergman, i. Earths and Stones.
2, Salts. 3. Inflammable Subflances,
4. Metallic Subfiances, He takes the
character of his ClaiTes, Genera and
Species, from the nature of their in¬
ternal competition ; but the varieties
are deferibed from their external ap¬
pearance

( 38 )

pearance only. Thus among the
Earths

CALCAREOUS GENUS,

Species I.

Calcareous earth, uncombined with
any acid.

Species II.

Combined With the aerial acid.

Series I.

Tranfparent fpars.

Series II.

Opake.

In this inftance we fee the Genus is
firft mentioned according to its chemi¬
cal nature. The Species is likewife
chemically defcribed, together with
Inch a defcription of the external qua¬
lities as can be of fervice to allift the
Naturalift. Thus the firft fpecies is

laid,

( 39 )

faid to be “ a done of a grey colour*
moderately hard, or rather foft, found
near Bath ; it is mixed with calcareous
earth combined with fixed air ; and
hence it effervefces with acids, but at
the fame time it is foiuble in water,
to which it communicates the tafte of
lime ; and if this folution be mixed
with fulphur it diflblves it, and forms
a calcareous liver of fulphur, with the
afliftance of heat, whence it is plain
that part of the calcareous earth is
in an uncombined flated’ Here we
have a defeription of the appearance
as it molt commonly occurs, but a
certain knowledge of the matter can
only be gained by Chymical experi¬
ment. In the two fpecies again we
know, that they u all eftervefee with
acids ; none give fire with fleel ; and the
chryftallized decrepitate when heated. '
The mod remarkable varieties of ex¬
ternal appearances are comprehended
under the two feries of, x. Tranfpa*

rent.

( 4° )

rent, 2. Opake. In the fir ft feries
they are called Spars, and thefe are
mentioned to be found in various
forms, as rhombodial, hexangular,
triangular, polyangular. Their fpe-
cific gravity is likewife commonly
noticed, and Mr. Kirwan is particularly
minute in giving an exaft chymical
aiialyfis of the mineral, wherever it
can be done.

The fcience of Chymiflry is indeed
eminently confpicuous in this particu¬
lar analyfis, and has been carried to
great extent : not only the common
minerals, but even the precious ftones
have been analyfized by the indefati¬
gable Mr. Bergman. We fliall here
fubjoin an abridged view of one of the
tables given by Mr. Kirwan, with
fome amendments from the fecond
vol. of Bergm. Opufc, Chen.

TABLE

. - o

( 41 )

*

TABLE III,

v ' . . .

Of the proportion of ingredients in
Eartlis and Stones,

Calcareous Genus. .

100 Parts.

Calcar.

Argil 1.

Silex,

Magn.

Water

Iron.

Calcareous Spar

53

—

>? -

—

1 1

a

Gy plum

32

—

—

—

38

b

Fluor . -
1 _ _

, 57

—

—

— —

—

c

.

a. And 34 Fixed Air. b; and 30 Vitriolic Acid, c, 43 Acid
and Water»

Siliceous Genus.

1 00 Parts. \

Silex.

Argiil.

Calcar.

Magn,

iron

Chryftal - -

93

6

1

\

- —

Flint - . ■=

80

18

2

— -

—

Jafper - -

75

20

--

— —

5

R uby

39

40

mild 9

— —

10

Hyacinth

25

40

D? 20

> /

l3

Topaz =

39

46

D? 8

—

6

Emerald

24

6©

8

6

Sapphire

35

58

5

—

2

Garnet

48

30

1 2

—

10

/

What has been faid will give a
tolerable idea of the prefent improved
Hate of Mineralogy, and it muft ap-

G pear

( 42 )

\

pear fufficlently obvious, that there
can be no comparifon in the methods
to be adopted for its attainment. A
fuperficial dabler in the ftudy of Na¬
ture, may amufe himfelf by collecting
and arranging multitudes of Minerals,
which may in reality be mere vari¬
eties of a few Species, whilft the more
enquiring Naturalift will labour to

s ,

attain real knowledge, and with to
pollefs thofe facts which lead him to
an exaCt diferimination of the objects
of his purfuit. . •

When a tolerable knowledge of
Mineralogy is acquired, the philofo-
phic Naturalift will receive great amufe-
ment from a variety of geological ob-
fervations on the antiquity and origin
of Mountains, their height, and the
means of determining it by means of
the Barometer; * — their internal ftruc-
ture ; — the nature of Volcanos and

their productions, &c.

~fl huH* h hi

Thofe

( 43 )

Thofe who wifh to make themfelves
more particularly acquainted with the
Theories ithat have been publilhed re-
fpecling the formation and ftructure
of the World, will find great informa¬
tion and amufement from the “ Let-
tres Phyfiques et Morales,” par M. de
Luc, where the Theories of Burnett,
Whifton, Woodward, Leibnitz, Scheu-
chzer, l’Abbe Pluche, Le Catt, Telli-
amed, Lazzaro Moro and Buffon are
detailed. Mr. Forfter’s Obfervations,
the Amamitates Academics of Linnaus,
and feveral other Works, will likewife
be found exceedingly ufeful on this
and other branches of Natural Hiftory.
We fhall here ceafe our account of
the method ’to be preferred in Undying
the inanimate parts of Matter, and
proceed to treat of organized bodies,
as they appear under the forms of
Vegetable, or Animal Life.

Q z

part n.

i

( 44 )

. 4

„ \ ,

PART 1L

i ; f i

*

The Fegetable Kingdom .

T N ftudying the appearances of mat-’
ter under the organifed form of ve¬
getables, many curious obfervations
prefent themlelves to the eye of a phi-
lofopher. Their ftrufture, habit, pro¬
pagation, and feveral other phyfiologi-
cal queftions, equally interefting and
important, occur to the naturalift ;
whilft their number, diverfity, and
other peculiar circumftances, attradl
his attention. It is not our bulinefs in

i V r„ * . ' j

this place to indulge the ^peculations
of enquiry, or defcant on the beauties
of this field of nature. We mult con¬
tent ourfelves with fuch obfervations

1 ’ 4

as may yield initruction to the unin¬
formed,

* ( 45 )

%

formed, and teach them how to tread
the fplendid path of flowers. From
the earlieft period of time fome atten¬
tion feems to have been paid to the
vegetable kingdom. The food of the
rude inhabitants of every country is
commonly derived from plants. The
moil barbarous nations are found to
poffefs fome knowledge of the ufe of
vegetables. ~ It is therefore to be pre¬
sumed, that, long before hiflory con¬
veys intelligence, the ftudy of man¬
kind was particularly turned towards
this part of the beauties of nature,.
We learn from Holy Writ, that Solo¬
mon was far advanced in the fcience
of Botany. He is faid to have written
on the fubject ; but neither his wri¬
tings, nor thofe of Anaxagoras, nor
Pythagoras, have been handed down
to us. Theophraftus, the difciple of
Ariftotle, in the third century before
the Chriftian sera, publifhed a work,
entitled, u The Hiflory of Plants,’5

which.

f 46 ) •

which, I believe, is the earlieft legend
that this fubjecSt boafts of. In it he
treats of the origin, propagation, ana¬
tomy, and conftruclion of vegetables,
of vegetable life, and of vegetation.
It was near four hundred years after
this publication, that Diofcorides dif-
tinguifhed himfelf as an eminent bota-
nift. Pliny, in the amplitude of his
natural purfuits, glanced at the vege¬
table creation; but he does not appear
to have entered deeply into the fubjedf,
and many ages elapfed before this
branch of knowledge affirmed the re¬
gular form of a fcience. At length
the time arrived when the neceffity of
fyftem became apparent. A ferious
attention convinced the botanifts that
the kinds and fpecies, even of locality,
were too numerous for the memory to
retain without arrangement. The me¬
thods which were chofen are very dif¬
ferent ; and the young ftudent will be
j furprized to find, that even at the pre?

lent

( 47 )

fent day, philofophers are unacquainted
with a fyftem wholly unexceptionable.
The method of arranging plants alpha¬
betically was much followed, efpeci-
ally in local catalogues. Pauli, in his
Quadripartitum Botanicum, publifhed
in 1639, has difpofed them according
to the time of flowering. Befler, in the
Hortus Eyftettenfis, 1640; and Dille-
nius, in the Catalogus Giflfenfis, 1719,
have followed this method. Others
have arranged them according to the
different places of their growth , as the au¬
thors of the Hiftoria Lugdunenfis, in
1587 ; and fome according to their vir¬
tues in medicine. Others who ob-
ferved that many vegetables agreed
with each other in certain particulars,
have endeavoured to take thefe peculi¬
arities as the leading character of their
fyftems. Thus the harmony or pro¬
portion in the form and difpofition of
their roots, leaves, flowers, or fruit ;
the particular mode of growing, flow¬

ering,

/

( 48 }

ering, or foliation ; has given rife td
elaffes agreeable to fuch diftinCtions*
Hence the clivifion of trees into pomi-
ferse, nucifera, bacciferae, pruniferse,
glandiferse, &c. : of herbs into bulbo-
fe, filiquofe, umbelliferse, verticillatse*
papilionacse, Stc. Thefe are clafles or
orders which Nature herfelf has infti-
tuted, and it is the grand defideratum
of botany to reduce, and. conneCt all
vegetables according to fuch a natural
method . In this point, however, the
moil fanguiile endeavors of the natu-
ralifts have hitherto proved ineffectual.
John and Gafpar Bauchine, in the laft
century, purfued this plan. Gerard
and Parkin fon followed their example*
but as they eftabliflied no precife defi¬
nitions to their c!aifes, and were not
accurate in the minuter parts of their
fyftem, their claflification proved ex¬
ceedingly imperfeCt.

Conrade Gefner, a diftinguifhed na-
turalifl, who died in 1565, fee ms to

have

/ .

( 49 j

I

I Ilave been the firft who pointed out the
| method of claliing plants from the
! flower, or fruit ; but he did not purfue
die idea fo as to fafhion it into a fv-

J

! item. Carfalpinus, phyfician to Pope
Clement VIII. was the firft author who
arranged vegetables in a true fyftema-
1 tic manner. In his Libri de Plantis ,
j publilhed in 1583, he endeavors to efta-
: blifh the character principally from the
* fruit , but a great length of time elapfed
: before his plan was wrought into a fy-r
f Item. Morrifon and Ray publilhed
their feparate fyftems nearly together,

: in which their characters are princi-
: pally taken from the fruit. Several
1 authors of eminence have attempted to
1 perfect their labors, as Knaut in Get*-
many, Paul Herman and Boerhaave ill
Holland, and Dillenius, profeffor at
Oxford. The flower was firft taken
as the foundation of the claffical cha~
rafter by Rivihi, at Leipfic, in 1690.
The regularity and irregularity, as

( 5° )

well as the number of the petals , have
been made the principal diftinCtion.
Tournefort, in 1694, carried this me¬
thod to very great perfection. He
forms the character of his clafles from
the figure of the flower, and eftablilh.es
his orders or fubdivifions on the diffe¬
rent fituation of the fruit, whether
above or below the empalement or re¬
ceptacle. Ruppius, in 1718, likewife
took the flower as the foundation of
his method. Several attempts have
been made to arrange vegetables ac¬
cording to what are called natural
clafles ; the foundations of which com¬
prehend a variety of characters arifing
from a combination and agreement in
the habit of plants, and their harmony in
the eflential parts of fructifica¬
tion, as we have before noticed.
Van Royen, late profeffbr at Leyden, is
author of the moll elegant fyftem hi¬
therto publiflied on this plan. It is exhia
bited in the Prodromus Flora Leydenen-

fis,

( )

Us, 1740, and together with that of Ca> -
falpinus, Tonrnefort, and Ray, com-
prifes the whole of the Syftematiiis
with which my late worthy friend and
preceptor, Dr. Hope, thought it necef-
fary for his ftudents to be acquainted,
previous to their entering upon the
Linnsean fyftem.*

Haller has given a method refem-
bling that of Van Royen, which is
brought to great perfection in his Enu-
meratio Stirpium Helvetia, 1742. Hor-
tus Gottingenlis, 1753, and Hiftoria
Stirpium Helvetia, 3 tom. fob 1768.
Gmelin, in the Flora Sibirica, 1747,
followed nearly the fame plan ; and
L. Gerard, in his Flora Gallo-Provin-
cialis, Paris, 1761, preferves very near¬
ly the natural generical characters of
Linnteus, taking the orders of a natu-.

* Vide Dr. Hope’s ufeful little work, en titled3 Genera
Flantarum in tJfus Academicos. Edinb . 1780.

H a

t ii

ral

5“

rat method, conftructed by B. Juffieu, for4
liis dalles.

.f

Among the fyftematic writers, Lin-
nseus has enumerated no lefs than
twenty-eight ; but as it would be te¬
dious to pur fuc this part of our fubjeft
any farther, we fliall proceed to detail
that fyftem which is now the mofc
pniverfaliy received and admired. -

Charles Von Linne, or (as he was
commonly called) Linnaois, was the
fon of a Swedilh Divine, and born at
Roefhult, in the province of Smaland,
in Sweden. There is fomething bota¬
nic in the very name of Linnseus ; for
the anceftors of this family are faid tp
have taken the finiames of Linnseus,
Lindelius, and Tiliander, from a large
lime-tree, or linden-tree, yet Hand¬
ing on the farm where this natu-
raliil was born. Such an origin
of firnames is not uncommon in
Sweden. After ftruggling with the
difficulties of adverfe fortune, this

great

( 53 }

great man arrived at honor and inde¬
pendence. He was made ProfefTor of
Phyixc and Botany in the Univerfity of
Upfal, Phyfician to his Sovereign, and
Knight of the Order of the Polar Star*
In 1757, he was ennobled, and on the
yefignation of his office had his penfion
doubled, and a liberal donation of
landed property fettled on him and his
family. He died January 1 1, 1778,
aged feventy years and eight months.
It is, however, foreign to our purpofe
to purfue the biography of any natu-
ralift. The diftinguiffied eminence of
Linnams can alone excufe the prefent
digreffion. '' We fliall therefore return

tp

* Qn the death of Linnaeus a general mourning took place
at Upfal, and his funeral proceffion was attended by the
whole Univerfity, as well profelfors as fludents ; and the pail
fupported by fixteen Doflors of Phyfic, all of whom had been .
his pupils. The King of Sweden paid the highed honors to
his memory, He ordered a medal to be ilruck, of which one
fide exhibits Linnseus bull and name, and the other Cybele,

in

( 54 )

to give a flee tel) of the botanic fyftem
of this great man.

Linnseus

in a dejecled attitude, holding in her left hand a key, and
furrounded with animals and growing plants, with this le¬
gend — Deam lu&us angit amiffi , — and beneath — Pod Gbitum
Upfaliae, die x Jan. MDCCLXXVII, Rege jubente— ' The
King likewife was prefent at the meeting of the Royal Aca¬
demy of Sciences at Stockholm, when Linnmus’s commemo¬
ration was held ; and in his Speech from the Throne to the
AiTembly of States, he paid a tribute to this great man’s me¬
mory, by lamenting the lofs of Sweden, in his death. The
benevolent and didinguilhed Profefior of Botany at Edinburgh,
at the opening of his Le&ures in 1778, pronounced an eulo-
gtum in honor of Linnaeus, and perpetuated, by an elegant
compliment, the fame of this naturalift, together with his
own name. He laid the foundation (lone of a monument in
the Botanic Garden, confiding of a vafe fupported on a pede-
dal, with this infeription,

Linn so
pofuit
Jd Hope.

This very worthy man, whofe death is fincerely lamented
by all who knew him, has left behind him another indancc of
his peculiar attention to merit, in whatever rank of fociety he

found

/

( 55 )

Linnaeus very early attempted a na¬
tural method of arrangement ; but he
foon found that too many links are
wanting in the chain to render it the
readied; guide to botanical fcience. He
only reduced the genera into orders,
but did not venture to form the clafli-
cal part of a fyftem on that plan. He
made an attempt to fix the calyx , or cup
of the flower in plants, as a fource of
arrangement, in which he feems to
have followed Profeflbr Magnol, of

Mont-

found it* In a fhady and retired part of the fame garden is
jaifed a monument to the memory of a faithful fervant, w ho
difcharged the duties of his office as a Gardener with fidelity
■and credit* The man, who, in the mid ft of various occupa¬
tions which fcience and medical pra&ice occafion, could give
attention to the perpetuity of merit, will not, it is hoped, Liraielf
foon fink into oblivion* A feledl publication of fuch manu¬
scripts as the ProfefTor has left behind, could not fail of being a
valuable acquifition to the botanic world. The progrefs
which he had made in a natural method will prove to him
* Moaumenram cere perennius.’*

( 56 )

Montpelier, who published in 1 720.*
But he foon rejected all thefe methods,
and was the firft who conftituted the
ftamina and piftils, as the balls of an
artificial method of arranging plants.
He was led to this by confidering the
great importance of thefe parts in ve¬
getation. He maintained, that they
alone are eflential to fructification,
iince all other parts, except the anthera
and ftigma, are wanting in fome flow¬
ers. The prefent philofopliy of botany
regards the former as the male, and
the latter as the female organs of ge¬
neration in plants. From this diftinc-
tion of the fexes of vegetables, the ar¬
rangement of Linnteus is known by
the name of the Sexual Syftem. It
confifts of twenty-four clafles, and their
characters are eftablifhed upon the
number, flotation, or arrangement of
the ftamina, or male organs. The or¬
ders

* Vide Pulteney’s View of Linnseus’s Writings, P»

( 57 )

ders dr fubdivifionsx>f thefe clafles are,
as far as poffible, drawn from a film-

i

lar number, fituation, or arrangement
of the piftils, or female organs. In
the firft twenty clafles are contained
fuch flowers as have the ftamina and
piftils both within the fame cup or pe¬
tals, or Handing on the fame recepta¬
cle where thefe are wanting. The au¬
thor calls them hermaprodite : as ac¬
cording to his doctrine there are both
male and female parts in the fame
flower.

The firft ten clafles proceed in an
uninterrupted feries, from Monandria
to Decandria ; the plants of each hav¬
ing as many ftamina as the title ex¬
prefires ; thus, i. Monandria, Stamen
unicum in flore hermaphrodito. 2.
Diandria, Stamina duo in flore herma¬
phrodito. 3. Triandria, Stamina tria
in flore hermaphrodito, &c.

The eleventh clafs is Dodecandria,
Stamina duodecim in flore hermapro-

I dito.

( 58 )

dlto. For it is very remarkable, that

*

no plants yet difcovered have exactly
eleven ftamina.

The twelfth, Icofandria, containing
fucli plants as have about twenty fta-
inina, or more, arifing from the calyx ,
or corolla , and not from the receptacle.

The thirteenth, Polyandria, may
have the fame number of ftamina as
the former, but they arife from the
receptacle , and are commonly very nu¬
merous.

The fourteenth clafs, Didynamia,
comprehends Inch plants as have four
ftamina, two long, and two fhort.
This includes vegetables of a very par¬
ticular defeription, the effential cha¬
racter of which does not confift in the
number, but fize and peculiar form of
the ftamina, two of which are uni¬
formly Ihorter than the other. The
corolla is irregularly Ihaped, and there
is only one piltih

The

( 59 )

The fifteenth, Tetradynamia, in¬
cludes plants with fix ftamina, four of
which are longer than the other

two.

The fixteenth, Monadelphia. In
this the ftamina are not diftindt at the
bafe, but united into one body.

The feventeenth, Diadelphia, in
which the ftamina are united at the
bafe into two bodies. "

The eighteenth, Polyadelphia. In
this the ftamina are united at the bafe
into feveral bodies.

The nineteenth^ Syngenefia, in which
the antherse unite together fo as to
form a tube or cylinder, through
which the piftil commonly afcends.

The twentieth, Gynandria, in which
the ftamina proceed from the piftil,
and not the receptacle.

The twenty-firft, Monoecia ; fuch as
have feparate male and female flowers,
Qrx the fame plant.

3 a

The

( 6° )

The twenty- fecond, Dioecia fuch as
have feparate male and female flowers
on feparate plants.

The twenty-third, Polygamia. In
this clafs, befides the hermaphrodite
flowers, there are others, either male
or female, in the fame plant.

The twenty-fourth, Cryptogamia,
In which are contained thofe plants,
the mode and organs of whofe fru£tifi-
cation are not yet fufficiently afeertain-
ed. They have been called imperfect
plants, and it may juftly be faid of
them, u Parvitate oculos noftros fub~
terfugiuntf’* *

The

r I - I n T - - - - - - - .,.n. ™ .!■■■ . .

* It was rather from conje&ure than proofs, that Linnaeus
in&ituted the clafs of Cryptogamia. He reafoned from ana-
logy., and lace writers have given proof of the truth of his
fuppoiition. Some time ago Micheli aderted, that he had ob*
ferved the real ftainma and piililla in Modes; but his obfer-
vations were negfedled, and fcarcely credited, ’till the accu¬
rate Dr. Hedwig, of Le;pfic, publilhed his hidory of Modes in
1782, in which he has demonftrated the parts of fru&idcation

■'■r l' '

of feveral Modes, and illuftrated the dru^ure and ceconomy

( 6i )

The orders of the fyftem are for the
moft part taken from the number of
the piftils, or female parts. Thus in
the firft thirteen elaffes, in which the
clafficai character depends uninterrupt¬
edly on the number of ftamina, the
orders depend likewife on the number
of piftils; but when lunation or dif¬
ferent arrangement takes place, they are
moft commonly founded on other di~
ftinctions. Thus the Didynamia has the

two

of thefe minute plants in a very complete manner. He proves
that the capfula of Dillenius, (the anthera of Linnaeus) which
both thofe authors confidered as producing the impregnated
pollen, is in fad the fruit, and the powder which it contains
the ieed ; and that the male flowers are what Linnaeus and
others took for the female,. This was fufpeded by the cele-
bsated Schreber, and the opinion is now adopted by all fcien-
tific botaniils. Dr. Hedwig has profecuted his enquiries in othe
orders of the Cryptogamia ; and in a prize diflertadon, pub-
lifhed at Peteifburgh which has not yet reached this king¬
dom, he has iiluilrated the fructification of the Filices, Algae,
:Mufci, and Fungi, m thirty-feven plates. For an Abilrad of
hU Difcoveries, vide Smith’s Tranflation of Linnaeus’s Difler-
ation on the Sexes of Plants, p, 59, 00, 61, 62.

i

;

( 62 )

i

two orders of Gymnofpermia and An-

giofpermia : the former having four

naked feeds, and the latter having the

feeds inclofed in a feed vefiel. In the

«

Tetradynamia, the two orders of Sili—
culofa and Siliquofa are taken from the
lize and fhape of the pod or {hale ; in
the former of which it is fhort, and in
the latter long. In the clafles of Mo-
nadelphia, Diadelphia, and Polyadel-

*

phia, the orders are formed from the
number of the {lamina. In the
Syngenefia clafs there are two general
fubdivifions or orders, Polygamia and
Monogamia ; the firft of which is di¬
vided into five lefier divifions, as Poly¬
gamia, iEqualis, Superflua, Fruftranea,
Necefiaria, Segregata. The differences
here arife from the different ftrufture
or fex of the Flofcuies, conftituting the
whole flower.

In the Gynandria, the orders are ta¬
ken from the number of the {lamina,

as,

( <>3 )

as in the fixteenth, feventeenth, and
eighteenth clafies.

In the Monoecia and Dioecia clafies,
the chara<5lers of the orders are drawn
from the characters of the foregoing
parts of the fyftem as far as to the Mo¬
noecia clafs itfelf ; the fir ft order of
which contains Monandrous, and thelaft
order of the Diocoeia Gy nandrous plants .

T he orders of the Polygamia contain
the Monoecious, Dioecious, or Trioeci-
ous plants. The orders of the Crypto-
gamia clafs are Filices, Mufci, Algse,
and Fungi.

It will be unnecefifary to purfue this
fyftem any farther. From what has
been faid, a general idea may be form¬
ed of its principle ; and as it is now
almoft univerfally received, we may
venture to recommend it to the ferious
attention of thofe who wifh to make
any progrefs in the fcience of Botany.
The great difficulty of this ftudy con-
fills in acquiring the various terms

which

( «4 )

which ferve for the defcription of the
different parts of plants. It is there¬
fore neceffary that the young ftudent be
furniflied with fome guide on this fub-
jeet. The moft ufeful works with

which I am acquainted are Lee’s Bota-

»

ny, and the Elements of Botany, by
Mr. Rofe, an ingenious Apothecary,
who has given a tranllation of Lin-
nsus’s principal Obfervations in fup-
port of the Sexual Syftem, From
thefe books alone, confiderable
progrefs may be made in Bo¬
tany ; but it is from the writings of
Linnseus only that we can derive a full
and complete knowledge of the vege¬
table creation. His Genera and Spe¬
cies Plantarum, together with the Sup¬
plement publifhed by Young Linnaeus,
are indifpenfably neceffary to the Bota-
nift. * The Philofophia Botanica is a

work

\-r

'* Thefe works are lately tranflated into Englilh by a So¬
ciety at Litchfield ; but the performance (however laudable
the attempt} falls fhoi t of the original, and ferves to convince

us.

( 6 5 J

Work of great utility, and together
with a little Effay, eiltitled, “ A Dif-
fertation on the Sexes of Plants, trans¬
lated from the Latin of Linnseus by my
worthy friend Mr. Smith, one of the
original members of this Society, forms
a very happy illuftration of the doc¬
trine on which our author founds his
fyftem. The Botanic Letters of Rouf-
feau, lately tranflated, with additions,
by Profeffor Martin, of Cambridge,
will afford amufement and inftruftion
to the young Botanift, whilft the plates
which have been publifhed by a va¬
riety of authors, and executed by many
eminent artifts, will have the happy
effect of conveying entertainment and
improvement. The firfl botanic plates
of which I have received any account
are thofe of Ge fner, which, though on

ns, that no real progrefs can be made in Botany, or, perhaps
any of the fcienccs, without a tolerable knowledge of the
Latin Tongue*

K wood,

( 66 )

Wood, were very ufefui in their day, as
well as thofe of Rudbeck, Ferrarius, Do^
dartius, and Rlisedius. The firft copper¬
plates of plants were publifhed by Co-
lumna, which, together with thofe of
Rivinus, Dillenius, Sir Hans Sloane, and
Sir John Hill, form very ufefui addi¬
tions to the Botanic library. The lat-

*

ter has confined Inis delineations to the
Englifh plants ; but his work is far
furpafifed by the very elegant and fplen-
did plates of Mr. Curtis, an apothecary
in London, whofe performance is an
honor to the age which produced it.
The learned Prefident of the Royal So¬
ciety, Sir Jofeph Banks, who is juftly
efteemed and diftinguifhed as the moft
eminent naturaliil in this or any other
country, is completing a fet of plates,
which for utility and elegance furpafs
every thing of the kind. They pre-
fent to the Botanift well-fin ifhed re-
prefentations of fuch plants as lie may
never have an opportunity of behold-

mo*

( 67 < )

ing, The elegant engravings in Mr.
Forlter’s Obfervations, a work which
we have already recommended, ought
likewife to be mentioned as worthy
the attention of thofe naturaliils who
are defirous of being acquainted with
the curious productions of the vege¬
table world in the South Seas.

In fuch an extenfive field as that cf
Botany, it often happens that the ge¬
nius or particular views of one man in¬
cline him to cultivate with peculiar
ardor a particular part. In fuch cafe
it may be of ufe to know, that feveral
authors have diltinguiftied themfelves
in refpeCtive departments. Thus Mo-
rifon and Artedi excel in their accounts
of the Umbelliferous plants, Ray,
Montius, Scheuchzer, and Michelius,
are the efteemed writers on the Gra-
mina ; Dillenius on the Modes ; and
hoth the latter likewife on the Fungi,

The anatomy and phyfiology of
plants have been accurately treated hy

K 2 Mai-

( 68 )

Malpighi, Grew, Hales, Gefner, Feld¬
man, and Ludwigius. The virtues of
plants have" been copioufly treated by
many writers on the Materia Medica.
No fubject, indeed, has been more dif-
cuffed, and worfe treated. T he wildeft
conjectures have been affirmed as faefts,
and qualities the moft imaginary have
been attributed to vegetables, and their
various parts. It has been the bufinefs
of medicine in the prefent age to con-
fign to oblivion many plants formerly
fuppofed to have fpecific powers. To
thofe who may occafionally define to
turn their attention to this matter, I
would recommend Dr. Alfton’s Lectures
on the Materia Medica, publifhed by
Dr. Hope, which, with Lewis’s Difpen-
fatory, form a fyftem of vegetable medi¬
cine, fufficiently accurate for the pur-
pofes of common enquiry. The work
of Geoffroy was formerly in great re¬
pute, and does ftill deferve attention,
for the chemical analyfis which he

gives

( 69 )

gives (however imperfect) of feveral
plants. In the fy items of Materia
Medica by Murray, and Bergius, Pro-
feffor at Stockholm, we have arrange¬
ments according to the Linnaean me¬
thod, highly ufeful to medical men.
And the Materia Medica of Dr. Cullen
is perhaps the mo ft philofophical
view that was ever given of this
fubjeCh The Amoenitates Academi¬
cs, which confift of a Collection of
Thefes in 7 volumes, in 8vo. published
under the infpeCtion of Linmeus, con¬
tain many valuable observations on
every branch of Natural Hiftory. Dr.
Lewis’s Commerc. Technic, or Philofo¬
phical View of the Arts, is a work
which deferves to be mentioned in this
place, as highly ufeful to the Natura-
lift and Philofopher. The plants of
particular countries have iikewife
their particular hiftorians. Thofe of
Lapland have been explored by
Linnaeus ; of Pruflia, by Lsefilius ;

of

{ 7° )

of Paris, by Vaillant ; England, by
Hay, Sir John Hill, Hudfon, Curtis,
&c. and of Scotland, by Lightfoot.*
We fhall here clofe our account of
the method of ftudying the vegetable
kingdom ; and we truft, that what has
been faid will be fufficient to excite the
attention of the young ftudent, as well
as to afford him fome inftruction.

We have endeavoured to give the
outlines of this branch of ftudy : for
as general information muft neceffarily
be premifed before particular know¬
ledge can be attained, we truft, that
it will appear no fmall progrefs to have
acquired, at one view, fome acquaint¬
ance with the various authors of an
enlarged and comprehenlive fubject.

* Vide Linn. Phil, Botan*

PART

#

k

PART

III

The Animal Kingdom.

WHEN we take a view of the num¬
ber of animals which exift in
every part of our earth, we fhall be
ready to acknowledge, that it imift be
matter of real difficulty to attain a to¬
lerable acquaintance with them. The
appearances of nature are not immu¬
table. Many of her external forms
are fugitive, and it is only by ferious
attention, and minute inveftigation,
that we can fix upon points which ihe
has characterized indelible.

When fuch cliaraCteriftic marks are
once difcovered, we may proceed to fy-
ftem, and attempt the claffification even
of infinitude. Multiplicity will no longer
eonfiitute difficulty. It is-' by method

( 72 )

that we facilitate fhidy, and in mat¬
ters of natural fcience, we are at li¬
berty to borrow artificial aid. I fhall
therefore mention fome of the princi¬
pal methods which have been offered
to the public, and conclude with an
enumeration of the principal authors
in each branch of the fcience.

Ariftotle was probably the firfl who¬
ever thought of arrangement in this
fubject. He eftablifhed only general
and fiiii pie divifions ; but his excellent
reflections on the external and internal
organs of animals, laid a foundation
upon which the claffifications of the
firfl methodical naturalifls, as Gefner,
Aldrovandus, Johnflon, Gharleton,
Ray, &c. have been founded.* A
great number of other naturalifls,

whom

* to 1693, Mr. Ray publifned his Synopfis Method. Anil
Kialium, Quadruped ium, & Serpentini Generis. His two ge~
neral divificns are into Quadrup. ungulata, or hoofed ; and
Quadrup^unguilata, clawed or digitated.

( 73 )

whom we fliall have oecafion to men¬
tion hereafter, have enriched Natural
Hiftory by their observations : but it
was left to the fagacity and penetra¬
tion of Linnseus to fix upon a method
of characterizing all living bodies .
His fyftem is undoubtedly liable to
many exceptions ; but it is eafier to
find fault than to amend. In the
year 1735, Linnaeus firft publifhed the
fyftem, of which we fliall attempt
fome account. After taking a philo¬
sophical view of the Subject in gene¬
ral, he proceeds, in Vol. I. of the Sy-
ftema Naturae, to the eftabliflinlcnt of
the claflical characters, from the dif¬
ferent internal ftructure of animals.
By this natural divifton all the animal
kingdom naturally divides itfelf into
fix elates, as follow :

Animals with the heart furnifhed
with

Two ventricles arid Viviparous. Mammalia,

auricles :

Blood warm and red Oviparous. Birds.

One

\

)

One ventricle and i Refpiration 1
auricle : I voluntary, j

Amphibia.

Blood cold and red. Breathing by gills. Fifhes,

One ventricle without! * „ , j r jx

. , f Antennated. Infects,

auricle : - (

Sanies, cold and co- f ^ i , ,xr
, \ r 1 Tentaculated. Worms,

lourlels. J

To this account of the internal

flrudture the author adds all the dif-

* ■ •

ferences arifing from the lungs or
other organs of refpiration, from the
maxilla;, jaws or mandibles, organs of
generation or fenfation ; the tegu¬
ments, or outward covering, and the
fulcra, or legs, wings, dec. At the
head of each clafs is given a concife
defeription of the claffical character,
including an explanation of the terms
belonging to the clafs. We have like-
wife a general enumeration of the heft
authors on each ; a part of the work
exceedingly ufeful to lludents, and
from which we lhall occafionally bor¬
row, in our view of the method of
Undying this part of the creation.

CLASS;

( 75 )

CLASS I. Mammalia,

Comprehends all thofe animals which
we call quadrupeds, (except the lizard
genus, or reptiles pedati, as they are
called) and likewife the cetaceous or¬
der, or whales, cachalots, and por-
pefles, Several authors have dillented
from this arrangement of whales with
quadrupeds, and the author had fepa-
rated them in the firft edition of his
Syltema Naturse ; but upon reflection
he thought himfelf juftified in fuch a
claffification, The ftriking particulars
in which they differ from fifhes, as
the flructure of the heart, having
lungs for refpiration, moveable eye¬
lids, being viviparous, and furnifhed
with teats, all incline him to refer
them to this clafs. The Angle circuin-
ftance of living in the fame element is
therefore overlooked.

h z The

( 76 )

The mammalia are divided into fe-
ven orders, which are principally taken
from the difference in the number,
fituation, and form of the three kinds
of teeth with which animals are
endued, viz. the prlmcres or incifores ,
called the fore-teeth or cutting-teeth ;
the laniarii or caninu dog teeth, ca¬
nine, or lacerating teeth ; and the
moiaresy grinders, or double teeth.
Our author likewife takes into conlx-

r

deration the feet, as will appear from
the following view of the orders.

I. Digitated.

Fore teeth, four. Canine

lingle.

Primates.

X.

Fore teeth, none

Bruta.

n

«

Fore teeth, 6, 2, 10 conical.

Canine iiiigle

Feme.

3*

Fore teeth, two. Canine

none

Glires.

4-

II. Hoofed.

No fore teeth above

Pecora.

S’

Fore teeth above and below

Belluse.

6.

III. De

( 77 )

III. Deflitute of Hoofs or Claws.
Teeth, various in the diffe¬
rent genera - Cete. 7.

We fhall here detail the characters
as they Hand at the head of each
order.

I. Primates. Animals furnifhed
with fore teeth, or cutting teeth : four
above ; parallel. Two peCtoral teats.

II. Bruta. No fore teeth.

III. Perse. Six fharp fore teeth in
the upper jaw. One canine tooth on
each fide.*

IV. Glires. Two fore teeth in
each jaw, clofe together; but remote
from the grinders. No canine teeth,

V. Pecora. No fore teeth in the
upper jaw; fix or eight in the lower
jaw very remote from the grinders.
Hoofed feet; inguinal teats,

VI. Bel-

* There are exceptions to this order, fome of the genera
have above |ix teeth. The Didelphis has 17, the Sorex 19,
and the Erinaceous 20*

VI. Bellua. Fore teeth truncated.
Hoofed feet.

VII. Cete. Breathing apertures on
the head. Pectoral fins. Tail placed
horizontally. No daws.

Many objections have been made to
this fyftem of claffification. It is faid
to be arbitrary and unnatural. Ani¬
mals are clafled together whofe figure
and habits are diftinctly different. It
is therefore alledged that the method
is imperfect; and the faff may be ad¬
mitted without any detraction of its
real merits. For although the pride
and affirmed confequence of man may
be offended when he beholds himfelf
ranked with the brute creation, and
finds that even the internal ftruflure
of fuch a hideous manlier as the bat
refembles the real formation of his
frame ; yet on minute enquiry he will
have caufe to admire the fimplicity
and magnitude of that fyftem which
flxews him his real ft adorn and makes

to & '• »

him

( 79 )

him acquainted with the wondrous
extent of his own empire. Linnaeus
has placed man at the head of the Pri¬
mates, and given him the Grecian
dictate, “ Know thyfelf,’’ as his mot¬
to. By a concife and elegant com¬
ment he endeavors to fhew, that how¬
ever near his alliance to the mere ani¬
mal, yet by the culture of his facul¬
ties, it is in his power to prove him-
felf an intelligent and moral being.

The nature of our plan will not al¬
low us to enter into a detail of the
genera or fpecies ; we 111 all therefore
continue our view of the fyftem, by an
examination of the orders of the re¬
maining claffes.

CLASS II. AVes, Birds,

Linnteus has divided thefe into fit
orders, the diftinction of which are
chiefly taken from the beak; but it

has

( 8o }

has been neceflary in fome genera to
take in the tongue, nares, or noftrils,
and likewife the feet, and other
parts.

I. Accipitres, Rapacious. Birds

having the upper mandible of the
beak furnifhed on each fide with an
angular procefs. \

II. Picae. Pies. Birds having the
beak rather compreffed oil the fides,
and convex on the upper part.

HI. Anferes, Web-footed. Thefe
have a beak fomewhat obtufe, and co¬
vered with a thin fkin ; at the bafe
Underneath gibbous, and wide at the
end ; the faux, or edges of the bafe,
denticulated ; the feet palmated, or
webbed, and formed for fwimming.

IV. Grallse. Waders. Thefe have
the beak fubcylindrical, and fomewhat
obtufe •> the tongue entire, and flelhy ;
the thighs naked for fome fpace above
the knees.

Va Gab

{ Si )

V. Gallinse. Gailinaeious, Birds
having the upper mandible convex, or
arched, and receiving the edges of the
lower noftrils, half covered by means
of a convex membrane, rather cartila¬
ginous ; the rectrices, or tail feathers,
more than twelve ; the feet cloven,
but the toes connected by a mem¬
brane as far as the firft joint.

VI. Pafleres. Paflerine. Thefe
have a conical acuminated beak; the
noftrils ovated, open, and naked.

CLASS III. Amphibia,

All the animals of this clafs have
not the power of living either in air or
water ; but they have the lingular
property of fufpending the function of
refpiration, and can perform it in a
more arbitrary manner than other
animals.

M

This

( 81 )

This chft is divided into four
orders :

I. Reptiles pedati. Reptiles, Amphi¬
bious animals, which breathe through
the mouth by lungs only ; they are
furnifhed with four feet.

II. Serpentes apodes. Serpents. Am¬
phibious animals, breathing through
the mouth by means of lungs only.
They are deftitujte of feet, fins, and
ears.* *

III. Meantes. Gliders. Thefe anft
jnals breathe by means of gills and

lungs,

' — - - - - - - 1

* Perhaps this lad afferuon is not fully proved.— Fifties
wjjre formerly fuppofed to be deftitute of the organs of hear-
ing; but feveral years ago Placentini found fome bones in
the head of a pike which had the appearance of thofe organs.
Klein improved upon this hint in his Hiftory of Fi(h, &c.

v

Vide Phil. Tranf. vol. ix. p 1 14. The learned Profefibr
Camper defcribed the organs very fully in the Memoir, de
Mathem. & Phy. Roy. Acad. Sc. Paris. Since uhich time
Mr. John Hunter and Dr. Monro have demonftrated them in

„ j . . .*

a great variety of fpecies. The probability, therefore, feems
to be, that ferpents may have thf organs of hearing, though

hitherto undiscovered.

\ •» •> » % \ <

( 83 )

lungs, and are furnifhed with arms
and claws,

IV. Nantes pinnati. Breathing
fifhes. Thefe refpire arbitrarily by
means of gills and lungs. The rays
of the fins are cartilaginous.

X

\ . '

CLASS IV. Pi sces. Fishes.

In the firft edition of the Syftema
Naturte, Linnscus followed the method
of his friend Artedi, whofe Icthyo-
logy was publilhed in 1738, in Hol¬
land. This method was eftablifhed
on the flrudlure or fituation of the tails
in the cetaceous order, and on the dif¬
ference in the gills, and rays of the
fins in the other orders, whether carti¬
laginous or bony; but (as we have al¬
ready feen) the cetaceous order is now
placed among the Mammalia, and the
Nantes Pinnati referred to the Amphi¬
bia. In the two laft editions our au-

M 2 thor

( 84 )

thor forms four orders of the bony
fifhes, (which refpire by means of gills
only) and thefe he has taken from the
fituation or abfence of the ventral fins*
He compares thefe to the feet of other
animals, and their fituation is denoted
with reference to the pectoral fins.
The orders are,

I. Apodes. Fifhes deflitute of ven¬
tral fins.

*

II. Jugulares. Thofe which have

„ , ' j

the ventral fins placed before the pec¬
toral.

III. Thoracici. Fifhes having the

i * i . h

ventral fins placed underneath the pec¬
toral fins.

IV. Abdominales. Thefe have the
ventral fins placed behind the pe<5toral,

on the abdomen. Some authors, as

*

Artedi and Gronovius have attempted
to diftinguilh the fpecies by the num-
her of the rays in the fins ; but the va¬
riation is too great to eftablifh a fuffi-
cient character. The fpecific charac¬
ters

( 85 )

ters are therefore, at prefent, taken
from a variety of particulars, as the
number of rays in the fins, the form
of the tail, the cirrhi, or beard at the
mouth, the length of the jaw, and
the fpots and lines on the body, &c.

CLASS V. Insecta, Insects.

n * *

! JL. . 1 »

A great number of authors appeared
before Linnseus on this fubjeft ;
but he was confeiTedly the firft who
determined the genera of infe£ts, and
affigned them their proper characters.
He has arranged them under feven
orders :

I. Coleoptera. Infects having the
wings covered with two cruftaceous
cafes, divided by a longitudinal fu¬
ture.

II. Hemiptera. Half-winged in¬
fers, which have the ftiells or cafes
femi-cruftaceous, not divided by a

ftraight

( 86 )

ftraight future, but incumbent on each
other in the margin. The beak is
curved inwards.

III. Lepidoptera. Thefe have four
wings, imbricated, or cloathed with
fine fcales, or feathers ; tongue fpiral,
and coiled up ; body hairy.

IV. Neuroptera. Infedts with four
naked tranfparent, or reticulated
wings; the tail in moll kinds without
a fling.

V. Hymenoptera. Thefe have
four membranaceous wings, except
feme few fpecies, which are deftitute
of wings. The females have the tail
armed with a fling.

VI. Diptera. Infedts with two
wings, having alfo a balance or club
behind each wing.

VII. Aptera. Infedts without wings
in either fex.

In ftudying this, as in every other
part of Zoology, it is neceflary to ac¬
quire a certain number of terms,
« ' without

{ 87 J

without which no real proficiency can
be made in the fcience. The ge¬
nera of this clafs are characterized
from certain parts of the animals,
fome of which have technical names,
as the antenna*, or feelers; elytra, or
outward cafes ; roftra, or mouth, &c.
The head, thorax, tail, and other parts,
are likewife occafionally ufed to afiift
in forming the character The fpe-
cies of each of the orders are
very numerous.

CLASS VI. Vermes.

We are now arrived at the laft clafs
in the Syftem of Nature, which we are
to confider as divided by our author
into five orders. Linnaeus has follow¬
ed the method of Peyfonel, Juffieu,
and others, by introducing the coral
and corallines into the animal king-
dona, under the names ofLithopyta and

Zoo-

( 88 )

Zoophyta. We fhall likewife find the
ftudy of a very fplendid part of Natu¬
ral Hiftory prefenting itfelf to our
view, in the examination of the orders
of this clafs. Conchology, or the ftudy
of fhells, has long attracted the atten¬
tion of Naturalifts ; and difputes have
arifen refpecting the proper method of
ftudying the fubject. The fhells them-
felves, as mere coverings, or parts of
living animals, cannot certainly de¬
mand our primary attention in a fy-
ftem of Zoology. The animals as one
whole fall under our confiderationy
and accordingly Linnaeus has made
Conchology a branch of Zoology, and
not of Mineralogy.

The characters of the orders of this
clafs are very various.

I. Inteftina. Animals fimplc, na¬
ked, deftitute of limbs.

II. Mollufca. Animals fimple, na¬
ked, not included In a fhell, but fur-
niflied with limbs.

HI. Te-

( «9 )

III. Teftacea. Thefe arc generally
of the foregoing order, but included in
a fhell.

This order comprehends the whole
tribe of fhells, confiftine; of thirty-fix
genera, and above eight hundred fpe-
cies, difpofed according to a new me¬
thod. The three firft genera are called
Multivalves; the next fourteen Bival¬
ves ; and the remainder Univalves.

* * a

IV. Lithophyta. Thefe animals- are
composite. They are affixed to, and
fabricate a fixed calcareous bafe, known

by the name of corah

* »■ ■ -■

V. Zoophyta. Thefe are likcwife
called compolite animals, and faid to
referable a flower, and to fpring from
a vegetating Hem.

Observations are yet wanting to as¬
certain the two laft orders with preci-
fion. It is confdffedly a matter of
the great eft difficulty to draw the line
of Separation between the three king¬
doms, The gradations of organized

N bodies

( 9° )

bodies are fuch as obftruct preeife defi¬
nition. Animals may exift whofe
* !

principle of life refides in a ftructure
of parts refembling the organization of
vegetable sf as is laid to happen in the
order Zoophyta ; and it is not impof-
fible to conceive that the real living
parts of an animal may prefent them-
felves to our view in a form refem¬
bling that of a vegetable ; but it is
hardly poffible to imagine, nay, it is
difibnant to reafon, to affirm, that the
principle of life can cxift in unorga¬
nized matter.

The Polype is evidently an animal
bearing no refemblance to a plant;,
and probably future attention and ex¬
perience to this order may inform usy
that all the animals hitherto known
under the name of Zoophytes, are
properly referable to fome other clafs
or order. The whole order confiftsy
according to Linnseus, of fourteen ge¬
nera, of which nine are fixed, and the

reft

i .

I

( 91 )

I \

reft locomotive; amongft the former
are reckoned the His, or Red Coral*
Sea Fan, Alcyonium, Sponge, Coral¬
lines, &c. Among the latter the Po¬
lype, Sea Pens, Tsenia, Furia, and the
Microfcopical Animalcula. This view
of the genera will be fufficient to fliew
the great defeCt of the order itfelf.
For the greater part of the micro¬
fcopical animaicula, or Animalcules
des Infulions, as they are called,
have been lliewn, by the Abbe
Spallanzani, and others, to be
diftincl animals, not always of the
clafs of Vermes. Some, indeed,
have a very lingular appearance ; but
I believe none of them are Zoophytes.
In the fame manner objections may be
made to the order of Lithophyta.
Thefe animals have been fuppofed to
conneCt the animal and mineral king¬
doms ; and it mull be confeffed, that
they appear the lalt link in the chain
of organized matter : but it appears to

N 2 pie,

I

( 92 )

me, that Naturalifts have taken a fu-
perficial view of the matter of fact,
and defcribed as Lithophyte-s, fub-
ftajnees which are in reality nothing
more than the nefts of real animals.

The genera of this order are four ;
the Tubiporae, or red tubular coral ;
Madrepores, or brain fton.es ; ,Mille-
pores, and Cellepores. In each of
thefe kinds we obferve certain pores
or cells, apparently the receptacles or
habitations of diftinft animals. The
affemblage which we view is not
therefore to be coniidered as an ani¬
mal, but rather as the fabrication of
many animals, in the fame manner as
a fiieli is the work of a fingle animal.
The coral, in my opinion, properly
fpeaking, is no more a Lithophyte
than any of the fpecies in the order
Teftacea. It muft, however, be con-
feffed, that this fubjedt is at prefer! t
involved in great obfeurity.

But

( m )

But to return : tire gencrical dir
ftindtions of the clafs of Vermes are ta¬
ken from a variety of particulars which
deferve our attention. In the Inteftina
the genera are characterized almoll
folely from the diverfity of the body
of the animal. In the Mollufca, from
the body and feelers, called Te ma¬
cula, and from other parts.

In the Teftacea, the included ani¬
mal, the general differences among
the fhells themfelves, and principally
the cardo , or hinge in the bivalves,
together with the aperture in the
univalves, furnifh the general clia-
y after.

In the Lithophyta the inhabitant ani¬
mal is confidered with the form of the
coral itfelf : a proof of Linnaeus’s opinion
of the real nature of thefe animals. He
confiders the whole as the fabrications
of different animals, and not as one
whole animal itfelf. Have fubfequent
jxaturalifts entertained the fame ideas?

r . - •- ■ ... f »■

In

( 94 )

In the Zoopliyta again the animal
and the different forms of its fabrica¬
tions lay a foundation for the generic
notes.

The authors in Zoology are nume¬
rous and valuable. Gefner, Aldro-
vandus, and Johnfton, are reckoned
amongft the early writers on the Mam¬
malia; and we have already mem
tioned our own countryman, Mr. Ray,
as the predeceflbr of Linnaeus, Many
objections (we likewife obferved) have
been made to the general fyftem of
the latter : we fhall, therefore, in
this place take a view of the au¬
thors who have diflinguifhed them-
felves in the various departments of
this combined fubject. In 1731, Mr.
Klein publiflied his Quadrup. Difpo-
litio Brevifque Hift. Nat. — In his firft
order he has improved upon Ray’s
method; but in the fecond, the idea
of a natural method feems to have

forfaken

( 95 )

f or fake n him ; as he has combined
animals which Nature feems to have
referred to diftinft clafles : the camel
is placed with the doth, the mole with
the bat, and the glutton with apes.
In 1756, M Briffon propofed a me¬
thod of claflmg quadrupeds according
to the number or defeat of their
teeth, beginning with the toothlefs, as
the ant-eater, and ending with thofe
that have the moft, as the opof-
fum.

On the fubjedt of quadrupeds, we
mull not omit to mention the Count
de Buffon, whofe writings in various
branches of Natural Hiftory and Phi-
lofophy deferve the attention of the
naturaliff It is not, however, with a
view to eftablifh the utility of fyilem
that we mention this author ; he has
attempted to reject all fyftem, par¬
ticularly in the ftudy of quadrupeds,
whofe numbers are fo few as to give
fome countenance to his opinion ;

but

'

( 96 )

but although we are unable to fub-
fcribe to his fentiments in this, and
many other particulars, yet the ele¬
gance of his didtion, and boldnefs of
his thoughts, give fuch an air of no¬
velty and genius to his • works, as is
rarely to be met with in fubjedts of
Natural Hiftory, and muft always re¬
commend them to the perufal of the
curious. His defcription of animals
is generally beautifully juft, and truly
philofophic. In fome inftances we'
have the appearance of prejudice,
but it is the prejudice of ■ a philofo-
pher.

Mr. Pennant, the Englifli Linnaeus-,
has given a fyftem of quadrupeds*
which is held in high eftecm, and by
many preferred to that of Linnaeus.
He follows Ray’s method of hoofed
or digitated ; and, like M. Klein,
makes feparate genera of the . rhino¬
ceros, hippotamus, tapiir, and mufk.
The apes are placed according to Ray,

and

( 97 )

and followed by the maucaucos. In
the arrangement of carnivorous ani~
mills he follows Linnaeus, omitting
the feal, mole, fhrew, and hedgehog.
The three lafl are joined to the herbi¬
vorous or frugivorous of Mr. Ray.
The fourth lection of digitated qua¬
drupeds comprehends thofe which are
entirely deftitute of cutting teeth, as
the doth and armadillo. The fifth
feftion comprizes thofe which have no
teeth, as the manis and ant-eater.
Our author has likewife added the di-
vifions of pinnated and winged qua¬
drupeds. Under the firft are compre¬
hended the walrus, feals, and the ma-
nati. Thefe, he obferves, appear the
links between the quadrupeds and ce¬
taceous animals. The bats are the
winged quadrupeds, and feem to
connect the clafs of birds.

The clafs of aves has attracted the
attention of many diftinguifhed natu-
ralifts. In 1755, Gefner, and 155 7,

C 98 )

Bellonius, publiflied upon this £ub«
Linnaeus ftiles them C4 Fatres

46 Artis."’

In 15995 Aldrovandus, and 16485
Margraave, made additions to the fci-
ence. In 1676, Mr. Willughby, an
Englifliman, publiflied his Ornitho¬
logy ; which continues to hold a place
in every naturalifl’s library. He was
fucceeded by Mr. Ray* in 1713; and
in 1726, the ftudy of this clafs was
enriched with tolerable plates by Mar-
figlius. But thefe were excelled by
Frifchius, in 1734. In 1731, Albinus
and Catefby employed themfelves on
this fubjedt. And in 1745, Mr. Ed¬
wards publiflied his Ornithology s
embelliflied- with very elegant plates.
In 17465 Linnaeus firft gave the out¬
lines of his claffification of the aves,
in the Fauna Suecica;- and in 1758,
it was publiflied in the Syflema Na¬
turae. In 1760, appeared the work
of M, - Brifion, which is held in high

1

( 99 )

eftimation by feme of the continental
writers. Since which time we have
the valuable work of Mr, Pennant,
which defervedly makes a part of
every Englifh. naturalifl’s library.
The Comte de Buffon has alfo
publifhed a fplendid Ornithology,
but the plates are inferior to thole of
Edwards.

The authors on the Amphibia are
very few : Seba, Catefby, Gronovius,
and Garden, comprize the lift. The
laft order of this clafs has been referred
to the Pifces, and treated upon by the
writers under that divifion.

The authors of the fourth clafs are
more numerous than the preceding.

The ilrft that we iliall mention is Bel-

» *

lonius, whole work appeared in 1 552.
In 1554, Rondeletius and Silvianus
both publilhed upon this fubject ; and
in 1558, the indefatigable Gefner was
employed in this branch of Natural
Hiftory. In 1605, Aldrovandus, in

O 2 5685,

( ICO )

1685, Mr, Willughby, and in 1710*
Mr. Ray, made additions to Icthyology
by the publication of their refpedtive
obfervations. In 1760, Seba publifhed
his work. He was fucceeded bv Ar-
tedi, the friend of Linnasus, who is
univerfally allowed to have treated the
fubject In a mafterly, fcientific man¬
ner. He was fucceeded by Gronovius,
Haffelquift, Catefby, and Garden. To
this lift we muft add M. Brouffonet,
Profeffor of Natural Hiftory at Mont¬
pelier, and honorary member of this
Society, who has publifhed one de¬
cade of Ichthyologia, in which he
has defcribed ten rare and curious
fifties, now in the collection of Sir Jo-
feph Banks, Bart. He offers a new
method of diftinguifhing the fpecies
according to the proportional length of
parts, measuring from certain fixed
points, as from the apex of the fupe-
rior maxilla to the tail fin, ventral
fin, dorfal or peftoral fin, &c. This

diftindlion

( *01 )

*

diftindtion is founded upon the idea
that the increment of all the fixed

points in the growing animal is equal,
or proportionate.

The authors on infefts are very nu¬
merous. Linnseus was the firft who

undertook to determine the genera of

infects, and aflign them their proper
characters. Swammerdam informs us5
that no lefs than four hundred writers
preceded him on this fubject ; and we
find, that the ftudy of butterflies was
at one time fo fafhionable, that the
Lady Merian actually failed from Hol¬
land to Jamaica in purfuit of this
fplendid tribe of infects. Moil of the
authors have invented fyftems for
themfelves, and there is now pub! idl¬
ing in France a work, entitled, Papil-
Ions de FEurope, in which we have
fome very good plates finely coloured,
and a fort of new arrangement.
Poda, Sultze, Geoffroy, Scopoli, and
Gronovius, are the chief fy Hematic

writers.

( 102 )

writers. Sir John Hill divides them
into three clafles : i. Apteria, having
no wings. 2. Pteraria, including all
winged infects. 3. Gymnarthridia,
including all infedts which have foft
and naked bodies, furnifhed with
limbs. Mr. Ray has two principal di-
vifions ; and Dr. Hook has prefented
us with a Micrography in Folio.
Fr. Redi, a phyfician at Florence,
has publifhed feveral figures, with
fome new and curious experiments of
his own. Malpighi and Bartholine
have fome fine obfervations, and we
have likewife feveral xntcrefting expe¬
riments on infects in the Fhiiofophical
Tranfadtions of London, Paris, and
Leipfic. Hoeffnagel, painter to the
Emperor Rudolphus, has given plates
of above four hundred fpecies. Mr.
A Join has likewife given a new hiftory
of the Englifh infedts, with very
beautiful figures. We have alfo a
work on Englifh moths and butter-
' flies }

( 103 )

\

flies, by Mr. Wilks, Lend. 1747, 17-60* *
But tlie Memoires pour fervir a l’Hi-
ftoire des Infedtes, par M. de Reau¬
mur, a Paris, 1734, 1742,- is efteemed
the beft and moil philofophical account
of the fubjedt which ever appeared.
Bonnet de Geers, Schaeffers* Jungius,
and Scopoli, with a whole troop of
Germans, have been employed as aux¬
iliaries in this purfuit ; but to the
young Undent we recommend a little
Work by Mr. Curtis, as the moll life-
ful introduction.

The writers on the clafs of vermes
are only numerous on the order of
Teftacea. We have no authors of note
on the Inteftina. On the Mollufca
Bohadfchius is- the principal * and on
the Teftacea we find Bonannns in
1684;* and Lifter, in 16&5, publilhed

his

>-

* His work is entitled Recreatio Mentis & Oculi in Ob-
fervatione Animalium Eeflacearum a P, Phil. Bonnatio S„ J,

Ram, 1684,

( I04 }

his Synopfls Methodica Conchyliorum,
Libr. III. Append. 2. Lond.— Ibid.
1692, Fol.

In 1702, and 1705, Rumphius pub¬
lished on this fubjeet. After whom
appeared the following works :

Car. Nic. Langii Methodus Nova
& Facilis Teftacea Marina in fuas
Gaffes, Genera, & Species diftribuendi.
Lucern. 1722.

jac. Theod. Klein Seiagraphia Tubu-
lorum Marinorum Mufei Klemiani.
Ged, 1731- — 4.

Tan Planci Arminienfis de Conchis
minus Nods Liber. Venet. 1739. Ro«
mae, 1760 — 4.

Nic. Gualteri Index Teftarum Con-
chyliorum Mufei fui. Flor. 1742, Fol.

L’Hiftoire Naturelle eclaircie dans
vine de fes Parties Principales de la
Lithologie, & la Conchy liologie, par
M***, a Paris, 1742.

The plates of Argenville, which ap¬
peared in 1758, with thofe of Regen-

fufius,

( I05 )’

fufius, executed at the expellee of
the King of Denmark, are fplcndid il-
luftrations of Conchology. A copy of
the latter is now in the Univerfity Li¬
brary, Cambridge.

Golumna, Barrelierus* Plancus, Klein,
Ginannus, and Adanfon, have likewife
written on this fubjeCt ; but to a be¬
ginner Da Cofta’s Introduction to Con-
chology is the mod lifeful, and, with
Lifter and Argenville, will give as
much information as moft men wifh
to acquire on this very beautiful and
plealing topic.

On the Lithophytes we have “ Al.
Fred. Marfigli Hiftoire de la Mer, a
Amfterdam, 1725, Fol. Obfervations
fur la Formation du Corail, & des a li¬
tres Productions appellees Plantes Pier-
reufes, par M. de Reaumur, 1727.
And a work by Donatus.

On the Zoophyta we have cC Exa-
men de quelques Productions Marines,
qui ont ete puifes au Nombre de

P Plantes.

( io6 }

Plantes, & qui font l’Ouvrage d’une
Sorte d’Infeftes de Mer, par M. Bern,
de Juflieu, 1742,

Eflays on the Natural Hiftory of Po¬
lypes, by Henry Baker. Lond. 1743-8.

Memoires pour fervir a l’Hiftoire
d’une Efpece de Polypes d’Eau douce,
par M. Trembley. Leyd. 1744.

Lettres d’Eugene a Clarence au Su-
jet des Animaux appellees Polypes. A
Strafb. 1745—8.

Car. Linnsei Diff. Corallia Balthica,

Refp. Henry Fougt. Upf. 1745. - -

Amsn. Acad. p. 177.

Ejufd. Diff. Toenia Refp. Godof. Du¬
bois. Upf. 1748. — Amsen Acad. p. 53.
Della Storia Naturale Marina dell

(jdriatico Saggio del S. D. Vitaliano

%

yonati. Venez. 1750.

An Effay towars a Natural Hiftory of
the Corallines, by John Ellis. Lond.
1755.

Jobi Bafteri Opufcula Subfeciva Qb~

fervationes Mifcellaneas de Animalcu¬
les,

i°7 )

lis, & Plantis Quibufdum Marines Eo-
rumque Ovariis & Seminibus Conti -
nentia. Tom. I. L. i, 3. Tom. II.
L. i. 3. Haerlem, I. 759. 1765.

Henr. Aug. Wrifberg Obfervationum
de Animalculorum infuforiorum Ge-
neli 8c indole Satura. Goetting. 1 7 65 -

Lettre de M. Derome de Lille a Mi
Bertrand fur. les Polypes d’Eau douce,
1766.

Pet. Sim, Pallas Elenchus Zoophyto¬
rum. Hag. com. 1768.

Aquatilium 8c Terreftrium aliquot
Animalium Obfervationes, Fabio Co-
lumna Audlore. Rom. j6o6.

Ul. Aldrovandi de Animalibus ex-
fanguibus, mollibus, Sc cruftaceis, L,
Bonon. i6©6, Fol.

Jo. Jonftoni Hift. Natnralis de ex-
fanguibus Aquaticis, Lib. Ill, Francof,
1650, Fol.

Having gone through the plan pro-
pofed, it will be unneceffary for me to
detain you any longer ; I fhall there-

P z fore

( io8 j

fore conclude with obferving, that in
the ftudy of Zoology the fubjedt of
Comparative Anatomy deferves parti¬
cular attention ; and as it is intimately
connected with general Phyfiology, it
becomes the more immediate objedt of
medical men. The little work of Dr.
Monro, as an elementary fyftem, is
the beft with which I am acquainted.
It is, however, to be regretted, that
we have no tranflations of feveral ufe-
ful works in the German language.
There is one author in particular
which I would recommend to the fludy
of thofe who are able to perufe it : It
is the work of Profellbr J. C. P#
Erxleben, publiflied at Gottingen in
1768, and contains the moil fcientific
view of the three kingdoms of Nature
with which I am acquainted. It is
matter of no fmall regret to me that I
did not meet with it fooner. But I
am ready to acknowledge my obliga¬
tions for the information which I have

borrowed

( i©9 )

borrowed from, it in feme parts of tills

• e

work ; and I am lorry that my igno¬
rance of the German language did not
enable me to iludy feme other works*
to which I have had accefs in the
library of the learned Prefident of the
Royal Society, rvhofe liberality and
ardor in the purfuits of fcience do
honor to the nation.

The hints which I have given will,
I trail, be fufficient to recommend and
facilitate this pieafmg fcience to all

. i \ , : . ') # : ■ ■

ranks of men whom it may concern ;
and there are few indeed whom it
does not affedl. Any farther eulogy
or inilrudlion to the young Undent
miifl appear nnneceffary on the pre-
fent occaiion ; I fhall therefore con¬
clude with one more phyfiological
plagiarifm :

** Here then vve reft: i( The Univerfal Caufe
A&s to one end, but ads by various laws.”
la all the madnefs of fuperfluous health,

Th£ trim of pride, the impudence of wealth.

Let

(no ) ,

Let this great truth be prefent night and day.

But moll be prefent if we preach or pray.

Look round our world, behold the chain of love
Combining all below, and all above ;

See plaliic Nature working to this end.

The lingle atoms’ each to other tend,

Attradl, attracted to, the next in place.

Form'd and impelFd its neighbour to embrace*

See matter next, with various life endu’d,

Prefs to one centre Hill, the General Good.

See dying vegetables life fuliain ;

See life difTolving vegetate again.

All forms that perilh other forms fupply,

_

By turns we catch the vital breath and dies
Like bubbles on the fea of matter born.

They rife, they break, and to that fea return.

Nothing is foreign ; parts relate to whole ;

One all-extending, all-preferving foul
Conne&s each being, greatell with the leallj
Made beall in aid of man, and man of beall.

The chain holds on, and where it ends unknown.

Pope's Ess ay on Man, Ep. III. Begin.

FINIS,: