CaS Aras cA Gag. Kes Ag Te
TP 81-4
Base Map Analysis of Coastal Changes
Using Aerial Photography

by

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Craig H. Everts and Deborah C. Wilson

DOCUMENT |
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TECHNICAL PAPER NO. 81-4
NOVEMBER 1981

eral

Approved for public release;
distribution unlimited.

U.S. ARMY, CORPS OF ENGINEERS

6B COASTAL ENGINEERING
ey RESEARCH CENTER
ne S(-4 Kingman Building

Fort Belvoir, Va. 22060

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TP 81-4

Base Map Analysis of Coastal Changes
Using Aerial Photography

WHO!
DOCUMENT |

COL ECTION
Sy ee

by
Craig H. Everts and Deborah C. Wilson

TECHNICAL PAPER NO. 81-4
NOVEMBER 1981

Approved for public release;
distribution unlimited.

U.S. ARMY, CORPS OF ENGINEERS
eA COASTAL ENGINEERING
phy RESEARCH CENTER

i 5/4 Kingman Building
Fort Belvoir, Va. 22060

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TP 81-4

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BASE MAP ANALYSIS OF COASTAL CHANGES Nechinueal Paper

AU THOR(s) 8. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER(s)

Craig H. Everts
Deborah C. Wilson

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SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

KEY WORDS (Continue on reverse side if necessary and identify by block number)

Aerial photography Coastal features
Base map analysis Shoreline changes

ABSTRACT (Continue on reverse side if necesaary and identify by block number)

Time-sequence aerial photos often constitute the only source of data to determine past
shoreline changes. This report presents a method for obtaining shoreline change data from
base maps constructed from time-sequence sets of aerial photos, with the image of the aerial
photos superimposed at the constant scale of each base map. Shoreline position and other
features of interest, such as vegetation line, location and orientation of breaking wave
crests near the coast, etc., are then traced on each base map. A comparison of each base
map from the different sets of aerial photos will provide shoreline change data through time.

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PREFACE

This report describes a technique to quantify changes in shoreline position
using time-sequence aerial photos. Aerial photos, which are usually available
more often than repetitive ground surveys, may be the only source of past shore-
line change data. The technique was developed during a sediment budget study
conducted for the U.S. Army Engineer District, Philadelphia.

The report was prepared by Dr. Craig H. Everts and Deborah C. Wilson, under
the general supervision of N.E. Parker, Chief, Engineering Development Division.
Dr. C. Galvin, W.A. Birkemeier, and D.E. Lichy reviewed earlier drafts of the
Manuscript.

Comments on this publication are invited.

Approved for publication in accordance with Public Law 166, 79th Congress,
approved 31 July 1945, as supplemented by Public Law 172, 88th Congress,
approved 7 November 1963.

Colonel, Corps of Engineers
Commander and Director

ILI

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IV

CONTENTS

CONVERSION FACTORS, U.S. CUSTOMARY TO METRIC (ST)

INTRODUCTION. .

BASE

MNO ANNVALYSIES TWACEINIOWI oo 6 660600060 6

Const ructlonworte ther Base Maps ele) eileen len
- Aerial Photo Analysis. . .
- Data Reduction .

REQUIREMENTS AND SELECTION OF COASTAL FEATURES
Sinoreilsime Rositel@m so 6 5 6 oo 650 060 0
SMOGE SERUCEUREAS 6 6 6 oo 6 40 0

Submarine Bars and Shoal Position.

- Wave Approach Angle.

Overwash Deposits. .....

EVALUATION OF TECHNIQUE

DISCUSSION.

LITERATURE CITED.

CONVERSION FACTORS, U.S. CUSTOMARY TO METRIC (SI) UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

U.S. customary units of measurement used in this report can be converted to
metric (SI) units as follows:

Multiply by To obtain
inches 254 millimeters 1h Te ee
2.54 centimeters
square inches 62452 square centimeters
cubic inches 16.39 cubic centimeters
feet 30.48 centimeters
0.3048 meters
square feet 0.0929 square meters
cubic feet 0.0283 cubic meters
yards 0.9144 meters
square yards 0.836 square meters
cubic yards 0.7646 cubic meters
miles 1.6093 kilometers
square miles 259.Q hectares
knots 1.852 kilometers per hour
acres 0.4047 hectares
foot-pounds 1.3558 newton meters
Seance LOO sz 1073 kilograms per square centimeter
ounces 28.35 grams
pounds 453.6 grams
0.4536 kilograms
ton, long 1.0160 metric tons
ton, short 0.9072 metric tons
degrees (angle) 0.01745 radians
Fahrenheit degrees 5/9 Celsius degrees or Kelvins!

1T>o obtain Celsius (C) temperature readings from Fahrenheit (F) readings,
use formula: C = (5/9) (F -32).
To obtain Kelvin (K) readings, use formula: K = (5/9) (F -32) + 273.15.

BASE MAP ANALYSIS OF COASTAL CHANGES
USING AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

by
Cratg H. Everts and Deborah C. Wilson

I. INTRODUCTION

Time-sequence aerial photography is frequently used in determining past
shoreline positions. Often, this photography is the only source of such infor-
Mation. Most methods of determining shoreline position changes from aerial
photography require that measurements be taken directly from the photos.
Stafford (1971), for example, presents an excellent description of such a method
used in beach erosion surveys. The method requires that the absolute distance
scale be established for each photo (or in some cases, each set of photos), a
time-consuming and often difficult task.

This report presents a technique in which such problems are minimized. A
master base map containing the exact location and outlines of various subaerial
reference points is constructed using the earliest and latest sets of aerial
photos available. Separate base maps for each in-between photo set are then
duplicated from the master. The image of the aerial photos is superimposed at
the map scale, and features of interest are traced on each base map. Distances
along specified lines drawn normal to shore on each map are then measured to
shoreline features. When a comparison between each base map is made, these dis-
tances provide shoreline change data through time.

II. BASE MAP ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE

Application of the base map analysis technique requires three main tasks:
(a) the construction of the base maps, using a transfer instrument to super-
impose the image of fixed features on the aerial photography to the maps;
(b) the superposition and recording of the desired shoreline and other features
from the aerial photography to the base maps; and (c) the reduction of data to
determine the required measurements.

1. Construction of the Base Maps.

a. Procedure. An accurate master base map, which is critical to the suc-—
cess of the analysis, is constructed in four steps. The first step is to select
a suitable map scale, slightly larger than the scale of the largest scale aerial
photo set, to ensure that all photo sets are traceable on the base map. Mosaics
of the earliest (in time) and the latest sets of the largest scale aerial photos
are prepared, and the master base map is drawn on a sheet of high-quality, di-
mensionally stable paper cut at the appropriate length and width to include the
largest scale mosaic.

The second step is to determine reference points, which are features common
to all photo sets, to establish the absolute location of the images of the
aerial photos on the base map. Reference points must be included on all photo
sets, and must be nonchanging through time; e.g., if a road corner is selected,
the road must not have been widened during the earliest to latest interval of
the photo sets. Cultural features such as road junctions make excellent ref-
erence points. The reference points must be point definable, flat lying, if

possible, and all at about the same elevation. A tower or smokestack is inap-
propriate because when it is not in the center of the photo it will appear
tilted (relief displacement error), making the exact location at ground level
difficult to determine. Finally, reference points should be chosen close to
the shore and in sufficient numbers so that at least three are present for each
aerial photo analyzed. The reference points are then drawn on the master base
map.

After the reference points are located on the master base map, a straight
line, approximately parallel to the shoreline, is drawn the length of the study
area. This line is then used in the third step of locating and numbering tran-
sects on the map. A series of lines, or transects, at right angles to the
shore-parallel line, are drawn from the line across the shoreline. The spacing
interval of the transects depends on the study requirements. For straight
coastlines with no structures, an interval of 1 kilometer should be sufficient
for most. coastal engineering needs (Everts and Czerniak, 1977). When structures
are present and near inlets, river mouths, or headlands, a transect spacing of
0.5 kilometer or less is probably warranted. In some cases, such as in a groin
field, one or more transects in each compartment may be required. Measurements
will be made from the intersection of the transects and the shore-parallel line
to the desired coastal feature, e.g., the shoreline, on each base map. Thus,
the measurements made along exactly the same line on each map eliminate errors
due to nonidentical measurement points.

When the master base map has been completed and checked, the final step of
preparing a base map from the master for each in-between photo set is accom-
plished. Copies are made and then checked for exactness of scale between each

copy.

b. Instrument Requirements. An important requirement for the construction
of the master base map, as well as for the photo analysis and data reduction,
is an instrument which allows the image of small-scale features on aerial photos
to be superimposed and viewed on a base map. The instrument should also have
the capability to rectify slightly oblique images (tilt) to a vertical equiva-
lent and to magnify or reduce imagery to the scale of the base map.

Scale variations, which are the largest sources of error in aerial photog-
raphy, occur when the aircraft either fails to hold a constant altitude during
a single flight or maintains different altitudes on successive flights. Thus,
an error results when a comparison is made between two photos of slightly dif-
ferent scale showing the same location. Tilt errors occur when the optical
axis of the camera is tilted from true vertical as the photo is taken, causing
a variation in scale... Relief displacement errors occur where the images of
objects above the mean surface elevation are projected outward from the center
of the photo and the images of those below the mean surface elevation are dis-
placed inward of their true location (Stafford, 1971, p. 29). When maximum
elevation differences are less than 6 meters, as they are along much of the
U.S. Atlantic coast, relief displacement errors are small. These errors can
be further reduced by using only the central part of the photo for measurement
purposes (possible when photos show at least 30 to 40 percent overlap, as indi-
cated in Stafford, 1971, p. 29) and by selecting flat- or low-lying objects as
reference points.

The Bausch and Lomb Zoom Transfer Scope meets the requirements for applica-
tion in the base map technique. Use of the scope nearly eliminates scale and

tilt errors, and greatly reduces relief displacement errors by proper reference
point selection. The scope is an optical train type viewing instrument which,
using the camera lucida principle, provides the superimposition of the image of
the photo on a horizontal plane (McGivern, Martin, and Benjamin, 1972). The
image of a photo, using a variable magnification system (optical zoom), a one-
direction magnification, and an image rotation system, is ratioed, deformed,
rotated, and transformed to establish the best fit with the planimetric base
map.

2. Aerial Photo Analysis.

This task involves the tracing of the desired beach, nearshore and wave
features on the base maps by carefully matching reference points on the photo
to those on the maps. Using the transfer instrument to match the variations
in scale and tilt, thus eliminating errors, the photo image and the base map
reference points appear superimposed. Selected coastal features are then
traced from their superimposed images on the base map. For measurement ac-
curacy, a hard lead, sharp pencil is used to trace shoreline features (e.g.,
solid line for water and shore structures, dashline for wetted bound, dash-
dot line for dune line). Colored pencils are used for the other features not
requiring as exact a location (e.g., solid red line for submarine bar and
shoal position, blue dashline for breaking wave crests, solid blue line for
nonbreaking wave crests). Care must be taken to work as much as possible from
the centers of each photo when tracing features on the maps. This reduces
errors due to tilt, and is the reason a large overlap area between photos is
important.

3. Data Reduction.

Measurements of shoreline features (waterline, wetted bound, and dune posi-
tion) are taken at the intersection of transects with the shore-parallel refer-
ence line on the base maps to the feature traced on the map. Any feature on the
base map can be measured, using the same procedure. Measurements may be taken
using an architect's scale with interpolations to 1/32 or 1/64 inch (0.012 or
0.006 centimeter) for an estimated accuracy of 0.003 to 0.0015 centimeter,
which is 2 to 1 meter on a scale of 1:10,000.

III. DATA REQUIREMENTS AND SELECTION OF COASTAL FEATURES

Accuracy in obtaining various data from aerial photos is based on the objec-
tive selection of beach and nearshore features with characteristics distin-—-
guishing these features from other coastal features.

1. Shoreline Position.

Changes to the shoreline position are determined by identifying shoreline
features such as the waterline position, the wetted bound position, and the dune
line position. Generally, the wetted bound is the best shoreline position
marker to use because it does not vary appreciably over a tidal cycle, and the
position is identifiable on most aerial photos. The following criteria should
be used to identify the shoreline position:

a. Waterline.

(1) Identification. The line indicating the exposed beach-water
intercept. A sharp gray (landward) to black (seaward) tonal change
and the presence of white foam often help to define this boundary.

(2) Potential Problems. The boundary position varies with
changes in wave conditions and with tidal elevation. For example,
the average beach slope in southern New Jersey is 0.03 and tidal
range is 1.2 meters; the horizontal position of the waterline
will vary 40 meters over a tidal cycle. The correction for tide
effect is made using tide data, beach slope, and the time period
the photos were obtained.

b. Wetted Bound.

(1) Identification. This is the line forming the boundary be-
tween sand saturated at the time of high tide and drier sand land-
ward of that limit (Stafford, 1971). Dry sand is light gray on
aerial photos. Dolan, et al. (1980) found that the wetted bound
(high waterline) moved an average of only 1 to 2 meters over a
tidal cycle. :

(2) Potential Problems. The wetter bound position is dependent
upon changing wave conditions, tidal elevation, and water table
fluctuations which cause variations from an "average" location.
Sometimes a debris line obscures this boundary. In a test at Ludlam
Beach, New Jersey, the wetted bound was identifiable on 80 percent
of aerial photos analyzed (Everts, DeWall, and Czerniak, 1980).

c. Dune Line Position.

(1) Identification. Where the frontal dune is relatively con-
tinuous, the seaward edge of vegetation may be used.

(2) Potential Problem. If the coast is retreating, the loss of
dunes and vegetation may preclude using the dune line to determine
the shoreline retreat rate.

Shore Structures.

Shore-normal structures, such as groins and jetties, and shore-parallel

structures such as breakwaters, seawalls, revetments, and bulkheads, may be
traced on base maps using the different time-sequence sets of aerial photography.
This provides an approximation of when the structures were constructed, with the
accuracy of the approximation depending on the time interval between the aerial
photo sets. Plan view dimensions of the structures may also be measured. Prob-
ably the most important use of determining shore structures on the base maps

is in evaluating the effectiveness of the structures when the structure posi-
tion is coupled with shoreline change data.

10

3. Submarine Bars and Shoal Position.

Underwater bars are sometimes visible beneath the water surface, but most
often their position may be located by waves breaking over the bar. The
breaking waves in aerial photos appear as light areas of definite shape (long
continuous lines) in the dark gray water. Submarine bars are usually elongated
features, with their long axis paralleling the coast. An analysis of the time-
sequence photo sets will determine the location, orientation, and distance from
the waterline of these bars.

4, Wave Approach Angle.

Wave crests before and at breaking, when traced on the base maps, provide
the plan view geometry of the waves and the effects of structures and natural
features on the wave patterns. Although waves are discernible on most photos,
underexposed photos may cause some difficulties. Breaking waves are easily
recognized as lines of white water and foam in the normal dark gray water.
Unbroken wave crests appear as lighter line tones.

Wave approach angle data are not sufficient to determine the longshore
transport rate. A large number of aerial photo sets are required for the
extraction of net wave approach direction data. However, an aerial photo
analysis can, in some cases, provide the location of longshore transport nodal
points (reaches), using the following procedures: (a) by plotting the direc-
tion of wave approach (left or right of shore-normal) relative to shore at
closely spaced alongshore intervals (transects) on each base map, (b) by cal-
culating for each transect, using all the base maps, the number of time sets
when waves approach from left or right of shore-normal, and (c) by plotting
a ratio of left-to-right approaching waves on a master base map to determine
whether the preferred approach direction changes along the shore. The ap-
proach direction on many barrier islands changes near inlets, indicating a
possibility that the net direction of longshore sediment transport also
changes.

5. Overwash Deposits.

The base map procedure allows the tracing of any planform feature in an
exact scale from an aerial photo to a map. One example is overwash deposits
which are of particular interest in coastal engineering because these deposits
often represent large volumes of sand removed from the beach. An overwash
deposit is the material moved inland from the beach and deposited in a delta-
like form during storm events. The boundaries of the deposit are usually easy
to identify on aerial photos, and when the aerial extent of the overwash deposit
is planimetered, the volume of the deposit may be estimated by obtaining ground
measurement of the deposit thickness.

IV. EVALUATION OF TECHNIQUE

The value of any aerial photo analysis depends on the accuracy and reli-
ability of the procedure used; therefore, it is necessary to know the types and
Magnitudes of errors that have been incorporated in the results. Two categories
of error exist. One is the error inherent in selecting features in aerial photos
such that changes in the position of the features allow something else to be
quantified. An example is the use of changes in the wetted bound position to

establish a shoreline change rate. The second category of error is that inher-
ent in the technique used, e.g., tracing and measuring errors in the base maps.

Ground survey data and aerial photography for Ludlam Beach, New Jersey,
analyzed by Everts, DeWall, and Czerniak (1980), provided a means to evaluate
the effectiveness of the use of the waterline and wetted bound obtained from
aerial photos to establish shoreline change rates as measured on the ground.
In addition, their photo analysis evaluated the procedures used in the base
map technique, and the results are as follows:

(1) Over a long study period, the waterline and wetted bound
equally reflect average beach changes as determined by the MSL
shoreline survey results, where the field survey technique is the
most accurate.

(2) The wetted bound showed less longshore variability in posi-
tion than the waterline (variability being measured by the mean
standard deviation). The difference between the amount of variability
shown by the wetted bound and survey MSL shoreline was not statis-—
tically significant.

(3) No significant error due to reproduction using a Xerox 1860
Printer was found in an evaluation of the base maps. The mean
difference was 0.34 percent (i.e., 0.34 centimeter in 100 centimeters
on the map). Therefore, beach features from the aerial photo sets ;
were traced on nearly identical base maps, and measurements were
made at nearly the same points on each base map.

(4) A possible cause of error in an analysis of beach features on
aerial photos is the inabiilty to consistently select the position of
the feature at the exact location. The least selection difficulty
occurred in establishing the waterline position. The most difficult
to select was the location of the longshore bar. The mean error in
selecting the position of the beach features was 0.01 centimeter
(absolute). No real difference was found in the measurements made
in "complicated" areas and those made in "simple" areas (sharp,
shore-parallel, straight-line features).

(5) Measurement error, i.e., repeatability errors in measuring
distances on the base maps, varied from 0 to 0.0015 centimeter
(absolute). The average error was 0.00023 centimeter.

V. DISCUSSION

The base map technique allows a visual comparison of features along the en-
tire study shoreline, i.e., beyond the bounds of the individual photos, as well
as a means to quantitatively measure changes in the features through time. This
freedom also allows lesser known relationships to be studied. For example, bars
and breaking waves show a natural alongshore continuity and, by analyzing the
base maps, it is possible to measure how the position of such features change
as a function of time and location. The base map analysis of the crest orien-
tation of incoming waves will provide information about wave refraction, a task
which might be difficult to do by analyzing the photos directly.

l2

Scale changes are accounted for by relating everything to the common scale
of the base map, reducing the inherent error involved in measuring distances
on two photos. Because important features are transferred to a base map, meas-—
urements of features such as shoreline position can be made where required along
shore-normal lines, spaced as dictated by study needs and not by the reference
points on the aerial photos. This flexibility is useful in calculating shore-
line changes for an entire barrier island.

Although the base map analysis technique involves steps not required in
the direct photo-measurement method, the technique may be worth the extra effort
in certain applications, e.g., sediment budget studies, projects that require
information on possible regions of longshore transport reversal, studies that
require the time-sequence construction and the plan view dimensions of coastal
structures, and possible requirements for information on the location and per-
sistence of longshore bars and inlet shoals.

LITERATURE CITED

DOLAN, R., et al., "The Reliability of Shoreline Change Measurements from
Aerial Photographs," Shore and Beach, Vol. 48, No. 4, Oct. 1980, pp. 22-29.

EVERTS, C.H., ‘Sediment Budget, Great Egg Harbor Inlet to Townsends Inlet, New
Jersey,'' Unpublished report for the Philadelphia District, U.S. Army, Corps
of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Fort Belvoir, Va., 1975.

EVERTS, C.H., and CZERNIAK, M.T., ''Spatial and Temporal Changes in New Jersey
Beaches," Proceedings of the Fifth Sympostum of Coastal Sediments '77,
American Society of Civil Engineers, 1977, pp. 444-459 (also Reprint 78-9,
U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Fort
Belvoir, Va., NTIS AO51 578).

EVERTS, C.H., DeWALL, A.E., and CZERNIAK, M.T., "Beach and Inlet Changes at
Ludlam Beach, New Jersey,'' MR 80-3, U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal
Engineering Research Center, Fort Belvoir, Va., May 1980.

McGIVERN, R., MARTIN, D.B., and BENJAMIN, J.E., "Planimetric Map Revision with
the Bausch and Lomb Zoom Transfer Scope,'' presented at the Annual Convention
of the American Congress on:Surveying and Mapping and the American Society
of Photogrammetry, Washington, D.C., Mar. 1972.

STAFFORD, D.B., "An Aerial Photographic Technique for Beach Erosion Surveys in
North Carolina,'' TM—36, U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering
Research Center, Washington, D.C., Oct. 19/71.

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£29 y-1g °ou dargcn* €0ZOL
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